Sir John Fisher's Naval Revolution 1570034923, 9781570034923

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Sir Sir John John Fisher’s Fisher’s Naval Naval Revolution Revolution

Nicholas Nicholas A. A. Lambert Lambert

All PY; Press Carolina Press South Carolina of South University of University - oo , oum Ia: ou aroma ress, , ps...... Downloaded on behalf of Digital Theological Lrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrr

© © 1999 1999 University University of of South South Carolina Carolina Published Published in in Columbia, Columbia, South South Carolina, Carolina, by by the the University University of of South South Carolina Carolina Press Press Manufactured Manufactured in in the the United United States States of of America America

First First paperback paperback printing printing 2002 2002 16151413121110090807 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07

65432 6543 2

The The Library Library of of Congress Congress has has cataloged cataloged the the cloth cloth edition edition as as follows: follows:

Lambert, Lambert, Nicholas Nicholas A., A., 1967— 1967Sir John sir John Fisher’s Fisher’s naval naval revolution revolution // Nicholas Nicholas A. A. Lambert. Lambert. p. cm. p. cm. — — (Studies (Studies in in maritime maritime history) history) Includes Includes bibliographical bibliographical references references and and index. index. ISBN 1-57003-277-7 (hardcover : alk. ISBN 1-57003-277-7 (hardcover : alk. paper paper 1. 2. 1. Fisher, Fisher, John John Arbuthnot Arbuthnot Fisher, Fisher, Baron, Baron, 1841-1920. 1841-1920. 2. Great Great Britain—History, Naval—20th century. 3. Britain—History, Naval—20th century. 3. Great Great Britain—History. Britain—History, Naval—19th 4. Naval—19th century. century. 4. Great Great Britain. Britain. Royal Royal Navy—History. Navy—History. I. ll. I. Title. Title. Il. Series. Series. DA89.1.F5 1999 DA89.1.F5 L36 L386 1999 359'.0092—dc21 359'.0092—dc21

[Bl [B]

ISBN ISBN ISBN ISBN

99-6012 99-6012

10: 10: 13: 13:

1-57003-492-3 1-57003-492-3 978—1-57003-492-3 978-1-57003-492-3

Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

Downloaded on behalf of Digital Theological Library, Claremont, CA

© © 1999 1999 University University of of South South Carolina Carolina Published Published in in Columbia, Columbia, South South Carolina, Carolina, by by the the University University of of South South Carolina Carolina Press Press Manufactured Manufactured in in the the United United States States of of America America

First First paperback paperback printing printing 2002 2002 16151413121110090807 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07

65432 6543 2

The The Library Library of of Congress Congress has has cataloged cataloged the the cloth cloth edition edition as as follows: follows:

Lambert, Lambert, Nicholas Nicholas A., A., 1967— 1967Sir John sir John Fisher’s Fisher’s naval naval revolution revolution // Nicholas Nicholas A. A. Lambert. Lambert. p. cm. p. cm. — — (Studies (Studies in in maritime maritime history) history) Includes Includes bibliographical bibliographical references references and and index. index. ISBN 1-57003-277-7 (hardcover : alk. ISBN 1-57003-277-7 (hardcover : alk. paper paper 1. 2. 1. Fisher, Fisher, John John Arbuthnot Arbuthnot Fisher, Fisher, Baron, Baron, 1841-1920. 1841-1920. 2. Great Great Britain—History, Naval—20th century. 3. Britain—History, Naval—20th century. 3. Great Great Britain—History. Britain—History, Naval—19th 4. Naval—19th century. century. 4. Great Great Britain. Britain. Royal Royal Navy—History. Navy—History. I. ll. I. Title. Title. Il. Series. Series. DA89.1.F5 1999 DA89.1.F5 L36 L386 1999 359'.0092—dc21 359'.0092—dc21

[Bl [B]

ISBN ISBN ISBN ISBN

99-6012 99-6012

10: 10: 13: 13:

1-57003-492-3 1-57003-492-3 978—1-57003-492-3 978-1-57003-492-3

Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

Downloaded on behalf of Digital Theological Library, Claremont, CA

To To Jenny, Jenny, my my wife wife ——-Wh0 . . . —Who Bid Bid Highest Highest...

Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

Downloaded on behalf of Digital Theological Library, Claremont, CA

Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

Downloaded on behalf of Digital Theological Library, Claremont, CA

Contents Contents lHusUans Iilustrations Maps Maps Acknowledgments Acknowledgments Abbreviations Abbreviations

=

humodUCUon Introduction Part Part 1I Chapter Chapter 1. 1. Chapter Chapter 2. 2.

3. Chapter 3. Chapter

ix ix xi xv

1 The The Price Price of of Naval Naval Supremacy Supremacy Complexity Complexity and and Duplicity: Duplicity: 1898-1904 Submarine, 1898-1904 the Submarine, and the Admiralty and The Admiralty The 1899—1904 Fisher, 1899-1904 Jack Fisher, Radical Jack Radical

15 15

38 38 73 13

Part Part [I Il Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter

4. 4. 5. 5. 6. 6.

1904—1905 Reforms, 1904-1905 Necessary Reforms, Necessary 1905—1908 Supremacy, 1905-1908 Naval British Defending Defending British Naval Supremacy, Illusions and and Realities: Realities: I}iusions 1905—1909 Planning, 1905-1909 Strategic Planning, Naval Strategic Naval

97 97 127 127

165 165

Part Hl III Part Chapter Chapter 7. 7.

8. Chapter 8. Chapter 9. Chapter 9. Chapter

Aberrations: Aberrations: 1910-1912 Battle, 1910-1912 of Battle, Fleet of Grand Fleet The Grand The 1911—1913 Administration, 1911-1913 Churchill Administration, The Churchill The 1913—1914 Revolution, 1913-1914 The Revolution, The

305 305 306 306 307 307 309 309 311 311 312 312 313 313 397 397 407 407

Appendix 11 Appendix Appendix 22 Appendix Appendix 33 Appendix Appendix 44 Appendix Appendix 55 Appendix Appendix 66 Appendix Notes Notes Bibliography Selected Bibliography Selected Index Index

Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.neU2027W.31569.

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199 199 235 235 274 274

vil

Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Illustratio lIlustrations ns following following page page 126 126

Five Five years years of of British British submarine submarine development development Holland Holland and and the the warrior warrior The The fleet fleet submarine submarine experiment experiment Admiral Admiral Sir Sir George George Callaghan Callaghan Admiral Admiral of of the the Fleet Fleet Sir Sir Arthur Arthur Knyvett-Wilson Knyvett-Wilson VC VC Fueling Fueling at at an an advanced advanced base base Winston Winston Churchill Churchill Gadgets Gadgets HMS HMS Dreadnought Dreadnought under under construction construction HMS HMS Dreadnought Dreadnought fitting fitting out out Smoke smoke could could be be a a problem problem for for HMS HMS InfleXible Inflexible at at Speed Speed Admiral Admiral of of the the Fleet Fleet Sir Sir John John Fisher Fisher

Maps Maps following following illustrations illustrations Bases World World Bases British Home Home Waters Waters British Mediterreanean Mediterreanean Bases Bases

Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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ix

Illustratio lIlustrations ns following following page page 126 126

Five Five years years of of British British submarine submarine development development Holland Holland and and the the warrior warrior The The fleet fleet submarine submarine experiment experiment Admiral Admiral Sir Sir George George Callaghan Callaghan Admiral Admiral of of the the Fleet Fleet Sir Sir Arthur Arthur Knyvett-Wilson Knyvett-Wilson VC VC Fueling Fueling at at an an advanced advanced base base Winston Winston Churchill Churchill Gadgets Gadgets HMS HMS Dreadnought Dreadnought under under construction construction HMS HMS Dreadnought Dreadnought fitting fitting out out Smoke smoke could could be be a a problem problem for for HMS HMS InfleXible Inflexible at at Speed Speed Admiral Admiral of of the the Fleet Fleet Sir Sir John John Fisher Fisher

Maps Maps following following illustrations illustrations Bases World World Bases British Home Home Waters Waters British Mediterreanean Mediterreanean Bases Bases

Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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ix

Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Acknowledgments Acknowledgments Over Over the the years years II have have received received help help and and encouragement encouragement from from a a great great many many people. people. Among Among my my most most valued valued supporters supporters II am am privileged privileged to to count count the the late late John John Dottridge Dottridge and and the the late late “Gus” “Gus” Britton. Britton. Both Both saw saw aa great great deal deal of active service with of active service with the the Royal Royal Navy—the Navy—the former former held held the the rank rank of of lieulieutenant tenant (RNVR) (RNVR) and and the the latter latter that that of of ordinary ordinary Signalman. signalman. Both Both did did their their best best to to provide provide me me with with a a sense sense of of perspective perspective toward toward the the documents documents I| have have read. read. And And both both were were friends. friends. I| also also owe owe aa debt debt of of thanks thanks to to my my grandfather, grandfather, the the late late Lt.-Commander Lt.-Commander Douglas Douglas Lambert Lambert DSC*, DSC*, who who served served in in submarines submarines from from 1937 1937 to to 1950. 1950. His His name name opened opened many many doors doors for me for me and and served served as as aa letter letter of of introduction introduction to to former former submarine submarine offiofficers, cers, old old comrades, comrades, and and their their families. families. II am am particularly particularly grateful grateful to to Professor Professor George George Baer, Baer, David David Brown, Brown, Professor Professor James James Campbell, Campbell, Jock Jock Gardner, Gardner, Professor Professor Paul Paul Halpern, Halpern, Brian Brian Head, Head, Professor Professor Sir Sir Michael Michael Howard Howard MC, MC, Professor Professor Paul Paul Kennedy, Kennedy, Jan Jan Morris, Morris, the the late late Rear Rear Admiral Admiral David David Dunbar-Nasmith Dunbar-Nasmith DSC, DSC, Professor Professor Robert Robert O’Neill, O'Neill, Mrs. Mrs. Kathleen Kathleen Nicholson, Nicholson, Professor Professor Keith Keith Neilson, Neilson, Mrs. Mrs. Frances Frances Read, Read, Captain Captain Jeremy Jeremy Read Read RN, RN, Professor Professor Jon Jon Sumida Sumida (my (my coconspirator), coconspirator), Professor Professor Russell Russell Weigley, Weigley, and and Jenny Jenny Wraight. Wraight. II am am obliged obliged to to Tim Tim and and Bahija Bahija Dottridge, Dottridge, Professor Professor Daniel Daniel E. E. Rogers, Rogers, and and Wyatt Wyatt and and Jennifer Jennifer Rushton. Rushton. Thanks Thanks are are also also due due to to the the following: following: Miss Miss Pat Pat Andrews Andrews (Cabinet (Cabinet Office Office Historical Historical Section), Section), Anne-Louise Anne-Louise Antonoff, Antonoff, Miss Miss Elizabeth Elizabeth Bennett Bennett and and Carolyn Carolyn Lye Lye (Churchill (Churchill Archives Archives Centre), Centre), Mr. Mr. Edward Edward Cadwallender, Cadwallender, Dr. Evelyn Evelyn Cherpak Cherpak (U.S. (US. Naval Naval War War College), College), Mr. Mr. Peregrine Peregrine Churchill, Churchill, Dr. Mme. Edith Edith Colli Colli (French (French Naval Naval Archives, Archives, Vincennes); Vincennes); Mr. Mr. Richard Richard von von Mme. Dornberg Dornberg (US. (U.S. National National Archives); Archives); Captain Captain James James Goldrick Goldrick RAN, RAN, Miss Miss Caroline Humphreys Humphreys (Hampshire (Hampshire Records Records Office), OffiCe), Dr. Dr. Charles Charles Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Caroline Dr. Dr. Norman Norman Friedman, Friedman, Dr. Dr. G. G. Andrew Andrew Gordon, Gordon, Capitaine Capitaine de de Vasseau Vasseau Claude Huan, Martin Jones, Mrs. Jill Kelsey (Royal Archives), Mr. Claude Huan, Martin Jones, Mrs. Jill Kelsey (Royal Archives), Mr. G. G. H. H. Le May, Mr. David Lyon Le May, Mr. David Lyon (National (National Maritime Maritime Museum), Museum), George George Malcolmson, Malcolmson, Mrs. Mrs. Jan Jan Martin, Martin, Commander Commander Richard Richard Percival-Maxwell Percival-Maxwell RN RN ret., ret., Professor Professor David David Rosenberg, Rosenberg, Commander Commander Mark Mark Ruddle Ruddle RN RN ret., ret., Dr. Dr. Mark Mark Shulman, Shulman, Miss Miss Bridget Bridget Spiers Spiers (MoD (MoD Naval Naval Library), Library), Anthony Anthony Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/h.eb.31569.

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xi

Acknowledgments Acknowledgments Over Over the the years years II have have received received help help and and encouragement encouragement from from a a great great many many people. people. Among Among my my most most valued valued supporters supporters II am am privileged privileged to to count count the the late late John John Dottridge Dottridge and and the the late late “Gus” “Gus” Britton. Britton. Both Both saw saw aa great great deal deal of active service with of active service with the the Royal Royal Navy—the Navy—the former former held held the the rank rank of of lieulieutenant tenant (RNVR) (RNVR) and and the the latter latter that that of of ordinary ordinary Signalman. signalman. Both Both did did their their best best to to provide provide me me with with a a sense sense of of perspective perspective toward toward the the documents documents I| have have read. read. And And both both were were friends. friends. I| also also owe owe aa debt debt of of thanks thanks to to my my grandfather, grandfather, the the late late Lt.-Commander Lt.-Commander Douglas Douglas Lambert Lambert DSC*, DSC*, who who served served in in submarines submarines from from 1937 1937 to to 1950. 1950. His His name name opened opened many many doors doors for me for me and and served served as as aa letter letter of of introduction introduction to to former former submarine submarine offiofficers, cers, old old comrades, comrades, and and their their families. families. II am am particularly particularly grateful grateful to to Professor Professor George George Baer, Baer, David David Brown, Brown, Professor Professor James James Campbell, Campbell, Jock Jock Gardner, Gardner, Professor Professor Paul Paul Halpern, Halpern, Brian Brian Head, Head, Professor Professor Sir Sir Michael Michael Howard Howard MC, MC, Professor Professor Paul Paul Kennedy, Kennedy, Jan Jan Morris, Morris, the the late late Rear Rear Admiral Admiral David David Dunbar-Nasmith Dunbar-Nasmith DSC, DSC, Professor Professor Robert Robert O’Neill, O'Neill, Mrs. Mrs. Kathleen Kathleen Nicholson, Nicholson, Professor Professor Keith Keith Neilson, Neilson, Mrs. Mrs. Frances Frances Read, Read, Captain Captain Jeremy Jeremy Read Read RN, RN, Professor Professor Jon Jon Sumida Sumida (my (my coconspirator), coconspirator), Professor Professor Russell Russell Weigley, Weigley, and and Jenny Jenny Wraight. Wraight. II am am obliged obliged to to Tim Tim and and Bahija Bahija Dottridge, Dottridge, Professor Professor Daniel Daniel E. E. Rogers, Rogers, and and Wyatt Wyatt and and Jennifer Jennifer Rushton. Rushton. Thanks Thanks are are also also due due to to the the following: following: Miss Miss Pat Pat Andrews Andrews (Cabinet (Cabinet Office Office Historical Historical Section), Section), Anne-Louise Anne-Louise Antonoff, Antonoff, Miss Miss Elizabeth Elizabeth Bennett Bennett and and Carolyn Carolyn Lye Lye (Churchill (Churchill Archives Archives Centre), Centre), Mr. Mr. Edward Edward Cadwallender, Cadwallender, Dr. Evelyn Evelyn Cherpak Cherpak (U.S. (US. Naval Naval War War College), College), Mr. Mr. Peregrine Peregrine Churchill, Churchill, Dr. Mme. Edith Edith Colli Colli (French (French Naval Naval Archives, Archives, Vincennes); Vincennes); Mr. Mr. Richard Richard von von Mme. Dornberg Dornberg (US. (U.S. National National Archives); Archives); Captain Captain James James Goldrick Goldrick RAN, RAN, Miss Miss Caroline Humphreys Humphreys (Hampshire (Hampshire Records Records Office), OffiCe), Dr. Dr. Charles Charles Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Caroline Dr. Dr. Norman Norman Friedman, Friedman, Dr. Dr. G. G. Andrew Andrew Gordon, Gordon, Capitaine Capitaine de de Vasseau Vasseau Claude Huan, Martin Jones, Mrs. Jill Kelsey (Royal Archives), Mr. Claude Huan, Martin Jones, Mrs. Jill Kelsey (Royal Archives), Mr. G. G. H. H. Le May, Mr. David Lyon Le May, Mr. David Lyon (National (National Maritime Maritime Museum), Museum), George George Malcolmson, Malcolmson, Mrs. Mrs. Jan Jan Martin, Martin, Commander Commander Richard Richard Percival-Maxwell Percival-Maxwell RN RN ret., ret., Professor Professor David David Rosenberg, Rosenberg, Commander Commander Mark Mark Ruddle Ruddle RN RN ret., ret., Dr. Dr. Mark Mark Shulman, Shulman, Miss Miss Bridget Bridget Spiers Spiers (MoD (MoD Naval Naval Library), Library), Anthony Anthony Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/h.eb.31569.

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xi

xii xii

Acknowledgments Acknowledgments

Simmonds, Simmonds, Lt.-Commander Lt.-Commander David David Stevens Stevens RAN RAN ret., ret., Dr. Dr. Rodderick Rodderick Sudderby Sudderby (Imperial (Imperial War War Museum), Museum), Commander Commander Jeff Jeff Tall Tall RN RN ret. ret. (RN (RN Submarine Submarine Museum), Museum), Bob Bob Todd Todd (Brass (Brass Foundry, Foundry, National National Maritime Maritime Museum), Lt.-Commander Lt.-Commander Brian Brian Witts Witts RN RN ret. (HMS Excellent Museum), ret. (HMS Excellent RN RN Gunnery and (Southampton Gunnery Museum), Museum), and Dr. Dr. Christopher Christopher Woolgar Woolgar (Southampton University University Library). Library). Three Three institutions institutions contributed contributed generously generously towards towards my my research research expenses. expenses. A A postdoctoral postdoctoral fellowship fellowship from from the the Olin Olin Foundation Foundation under under the the auspices auspices of of the the International International Security Security Program Program at at Yale Yale University University gave gave me me the the opportunity opportunity to to read read and and think think for for more more than than aa year. year. It It was was during during this this time time that that II became became convinced convinced II must must stop stop rewriting rewriting my my dissertation dissertation and and instead instead begin begin the the present present book. book. A A Charter Charter fellowship fellowship at at Wolfson Wolfson College, College, Oxford, Oxford, and and a a Hartley Hartley research research fellowship fellowship at at Southampton Southampton University University enabled enabled me me to to complete complete my my research research and and (nearly) (nearly) finish finish writwriting ing the the manuscript. manuscript.

Extracts Extracts from from the the Royal Royal Archives Archives are are quoted quoted with with the the gracious gracious perpermission of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II; crown COpyright material mission of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II; crown copyright material at at the the Public Public Records Records Office Office and and on on deposit deposit at at various various other other archives archives is is quoted quoted by by permission permission of of the the Controller Controller of of Her Her Majesty’s Majesty's Stationary Stationary Office. Office. For For permission permission to to quote quote extracts extracts from from the the various various manuscript manuscript collections collections II have have used, used, II thank thank the the Admiralty Admiralty Librarian Librarian (collections (collections held held

by by the the Ministry Ministry of of Defence Defence Admiralty Admiralty Library); Library); the the Bodleian Bodleian Library; Library: the the trustees trustees of of the the National National Maritime Maritime Museum Museum (collections (collections held held by by the the National National Maritime Maritime Museum); Museum); the the trustees trustees of of the the British British Museum Museum (collec(collections tions held held at at the the British British Library); Library); Mr. Mr. Nigel Nigel Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster (H. (H. Oakley Oakley Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster papers); papers); the the Royal Royal Navy Navy Submarine Submarine Museum Museum (Rear(RearAdmiral Admiral Frank Frank D. D. Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster papers); papers); Jane Jane Bonham-Carter Bonham-Carter (H. (H. H. H. Asquith Asquith papers); papers); Mrs. Mrs. Margret Margret Sinclair Sinclair (Sir (Sir Henry Henry Campbell-Bannerman Campbell-Bannerman papers); papers); the the trustees trustees of of the the Broadlands Broadlands archive archive and and Dr. Dr. Christopher Christopher Woolgar Woolgar (Admiral (Admiral Prince Prince Louis Louis of of Battenberg Battenberg papers papers and and Sir Sir Edward Edward Cassel Cassel papers); papers); Winston Winston Churchill Churchill (Sir (Sir Winston Winston S. S. Churchill Churchill papers); papers); the the Lord Lord Esher Esher (Viscount (Viscount Lord Lord Esher Esher papers); papers); the the masters masters and and fellows fellows of of Churchill College Cambridge (Admiral of the Fleet Lord Churchill College Cambridge (Admiral of the Fleet Lord Fisher Fisher papers); papers); Gloucestershire Gloucestershire County County Records Records Office Office (Sir (Sir Michael Michael E. E. Hicks Hicks Beach Beach papers); papers); the the Hon. Hon. Mrs. Mrs. Ann Ann Gascoigne Gascoigne and and Mr. Mr. Andrew Andrew Dixon Dixon (Lewis (Lewis Harcourt Harcourt papers); papers); the the Rt. Rt. Hon. Hon. The The earl earl Jellicoe Jellicoe (Admiral (Admiral of of the the Fleet Fleet Lord Lord Jellicoe Jellicoe papers); papers); Lord Lord Keyes Keyes (Admiral (Admiral of of the the Fleet Fleet Lord Lord Keyes Keyes papers); papers); Mr. Mr. David David McKenna McKenna (Reginald (Reginald McKenna McKenna papers); papers); the the late late Rear Rear

Admiral Admiral David David Dunbar-Nasmith Dunbar-Nasmith (Admiral (Admiral Sir Sir Martin Martin E. E. Dunbar-Nasmith Dunbar-Nasmith Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Acknowledgments Acknowledgments

xiii xiii

papers); papers); Mr. Mr. J. J. Edward Edward Sandars Sandars (John (John S. S. Sandars Sandars papers); papers); the the earl earl of of Selborne Selborne (the (the 2d 2d Earl Earl of of Selborne Selborne papers); papers); Mr. Mr. Thomas Thomas Troubridge Troubridge (Admiral (Admiral Ernest Ernest Troubridge Troubridge papers); papers); the the late late Mr. Mr. John John Dottridge Dottridge and and Mrs. Mrs. Anne Anne Lankton Lankton (Admiral (Admiral Sir Sir Reginald Reginald Tupper Tupper papers); papers); the the Bedford Bedford Estate Estate Office Office (Arnold (Arnold White White papers). papers).

Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Abbreviations Abbreviations AP AP APC APC ART ART

BEF BEF Captain Captain (D) (D) Captain Captain (S) (S) CHART CHART Commodore Commodore (S) (S) CID CID DNC DNC DNI DNI DNM DNM DNO DNO a/DNO a/DNO DID DID

DOD DOD DMD DMD

FDSF FDSF FGDN FGDN

FISR FISR FLM FLM

F.P.1. F.P.1.

Armour Armour Piercing Piercing (shell) (shell) Capped Capped Armour Armour Piercing Piercing (shell) (shell) Annual Annual Report Report of of the the Torpedo Torpedo School School (volumes (volumes held held at at Ministry Ministry of of Defence Defence Admiralty Admiralty Library) Library) British British Expeditionary Expeditionary Force Force Senior Senior Captain Captain commanding commanding destroyer destroyer flotilla flotilla or or flotillas flotillas Inspecting Inspecting Captain Captain of of Submarines Submarines Winston Winston S. S. Churchill Churchill Papers, Papers, Chartwell Chartwell Trust Trust Collection Cambridge. Collection held held at at Churchill Churchill College, College, Cambridge. Commodore Commodore (second (second class) class) commanding commanding submarine submarine service service Committee Committee of of Imperial Imperial Defence Defence Director Director of of Naval Naval Construction Construction Director Director of of Naval Naval Intelligence Intelligence Director Director of of Naval Naval Mobilisation Mobilisation Director Director of of Naval Naval Ordnance Ordnance Assistant Assistant Director Director of of Naval Naval Ordnance Ordnance Director Director of of Intelligence Intelligence Division, Division, Naval Naval Staff Staff (after 1912) 1912) (after Staff Naval Staff Division, Naval Operations Division, of Operations Director of Director (after 1912) 1912) (after Staff Naval Staff Division, Naval Mobilisation Division, of Mobilisation Director of Director (after 1912) 1912) (after Flow, Scapa Flow, to Scapa Dreadnought to the Dreadnought From the From Arthur J.J. Marder Marder (5 (5 vols.) vols.) Arthur Fear Fear God God and and Dread Dread Nought, Nought, Arthur Arthur J. J. Marder, Marder, ed. ed. (3 (3 vols.) vols.) Cambridge College Cambridge Churchill College at Churchill held at Papers held Fisher Papers Fisher at held at (1911—1915)(volumes held Minutes (1911-1915)(volumes Lord’s Minutes First Lord’s First Library) Admiralty Library) Defence Admiralty of Defence Ministry of Ministry

ed. Kemp, ed. Peter Kemp, Volume 1,1, Peter Papers Volume Fisher Papers Fisher (Naval Records Records Society: Society: 1960) 1960) (Naval

Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, httpszllhdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

Downloaded on behalf of Digital Theological Library, Claremont, CA

Abbreviations Abbreviations AP AP APC APC ART ART

BEF BEF Captain Captain (D) (D) Captain Captain (S) (S) CHART CHART Commodore Commodore (S) (S) CID CID DNC DNC DNI DNI DNM DNM DNO DNO a/DNO a/DNO DID DID

DOD DOD DMD DMD

FDSF FDSF FGDN FGDN

FISR FISR FLM FLM

F.P.1. F.P.1.

Armour Armour Piercing Piercing (shell) (shell) Capped Capped Armour Armour Piercing Piercing (shell) (shell) Annual Annual Report Report of of the the Torpedo Torpedo School School (volumes (volumes held held at at Ministry Ministry of of Defence Defence Admiralty Admiralty Library) Library) British British Expeditionary Expeditionary Force Force Senior Senior Captain Captain commanding commanding destroyer destroyer flotilla flotilla or or flotillas flotillas Inspecting Inspecting Captain Captain of of Submarines Submarines Winston Winston S. S. Churchill Churchill Papers, Papers, Chartwell Chartwell Trust Trust Collection Cambridge. Collection held held at at Churchill Churchill College, College, Cambridge. Commodore Commodore (second (second class) class) commanding commanding submarine submarine service service Committee Committee of of Imperial Imperial Defence Defence Director Director of of Naval Naval Construction Construction Director Director of of Naval Naval Intelligence Intelligence Director Director of of Naval Naval Mobilisation Mobilisation Director Director of of Naval Naval Ordnance Ordnance Assistant Assistant Director Director of of Naval Naval Ordnance Ordnance Director Director of of Intelligence Intelligence Division, Division, Naval Naval Staff Staff (after 1912) 1912) (after Staff Naval Staff Division, Naval Operations Division, of Operations Director of Director (after 1912) 1912) (after Staff Naval Staff Division, Naval Mobilisation Division, of Mobilisation Director of Director (after 1912) 1912) (after Flow, Scapa Flow, to Scapa Dreadnought to the Dreadnought From the From Arthur J.J. Marder Marder (5 (5 vols.) vols.) Arthur Fear Fear God God and and Dread Dread Nought, Nought, Arthur Arthur J. J. Marder, Marder, ed. ed. (3 (3 vols.) vols.) Cambridge College Cambridge Churchill College at Churchill held at Papers held Fisher Papers Fisher at held at (1911—1915)(volumes held Minutes (1911-1915)(volumes Lord’s Minutes First Lord’s First Library) Admiralty Library) Defence Admiralty of Defence Ministry of Ministry

ed. Kemp, ed. Peter Kemp, Volume 1,1, Peter Papers Volume Fisher Papers Fisher (Naval Records Records Society: Society: 1960) 1960) (Naval

Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, httpszllhdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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xvi xvi

Abbreviations Abbreviations

F.P.2. FP. 2. HMS HMS IQDNO IODNO (01‘ (or PO) PQ)

NID NID NMM NMM P0 PQ (or (or lODNO) IQDNO)

PRO PRO RE RE RN RN RNAS RNAS RNVR RNVR YS, YS, 02 c2

Y8, YS, 03 c3

ed. Kemp, ed. Peter Kemp, 2, Peter Volume 2, Papers Volume Fisher Papers Fisher 1964) Society: 1964) Records Society: (Naval Records (Naval

His Majesty's Majesty’s Ship Ship His Important Questions Questions dealt dealt with with by by the the Director Director of of Important Naval Naval Ordnance Ordnance (volumes (volumes held held at at Ministry Ministry of of Defence Defence Library) Admiralty Library) Admiralty Naval Naval Intelligence Intelligence Division Division National National Maritime Maritime Museum Museum (Greenwich) (Greenwich) Principal Questions Questions dealt dealt with with by by the the Director Director of of Principal Naval Naval Ordnance Ordnance (volumes (volumes held held at at Ministry Ministry of of Defence Defence Admiralty Library) Library) Admiralty Public Record Record Office, Office, Kew Kew Public Royal Royal Engineers Engineers (Army) (Army) Royal Royal Navy Navy Royal Royal Naval Naval Air Air Service Service Royal Royal Naval Naval Volunteer Volunteer Reserve Reserve Winston Winston 3. S. Churchill: Churchill: Young Young Statesman, Statesman, companion companion volume volume 2, 2, Randolph Randolph S. S. Churchill, Churchill, ed. ed. (London, (London, 1967—69) 1967-69) Winston Winston 8. S. Churchill: Churchill: Young Young Statesman, Statesman, companion companion volume volume 3, 3, Randolph Randolph S. S. Churchill, Churchill, ed. ed. (London, (London, 1967—69) 1967-69)

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Revolution Naval Revolution Fisher’s Naval John Fisher's Sir John sir

Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

Downloaded on behalf of Digital Theological Library, Claremont, CA

Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

Downloaded on behalf of Digital Theological Library, Claremont, CA

Introduction Introduction Mr. Mr. Churchill: Churchill: “I “] must must say say again again that that it it would would be be aa very very good good thing thing when when we we have have got got our our report report that that we we should should agree agree upon upon what what papers papers should should be be kept kept and and burn burn all all the the rest. rest. It It is is aa great great pity pity that that there there should should be be aa great great quantity quantity of of documents documents of of all all kinds kinds dealing dealing with with different different aspects aspects of of propro-

fessional fessional views. views. They They all all ought ought to to be be surrendered." surrendered.” The The prime prime minister: minister: “Certainly. “Certainly. The The larger larger the the holocaust holocaust the the better better in in my my opinion.” opinion.” Testimony Testimony of of the the first first lord lord of of the the Admiralty Admiralty before before the the Invasion Invasion Subcommittee Subcommittee of of Imperial Imperial Defense, Defense, 33 December December 1913. 1913.

The The formulation formulation of of British British naval naval policy policy in in the the decade decade or or so so prior prior to to the the beginning beginning of of the the First First World World War War is is usually usually explained explained in in terms terms of of great great power power rivalry rivalry in in Europe. Europe. The The received received opinion opinion is is that that by by about about 1902 1902 the the British British government government realized realized that that the the expansion expansion of of the the High High Sea Sea Fleet Fleet was was intended intended by by German German statesmen statesmen to to gain gain diplomatic diplomatic leverage leverage over over Great Great Britain Britain by by threatening threatening the the Royal Royal Navy’s Navy's command command of of the the narnarrow row European European seas. seas. Once Once recognized, recognized, the the lords lords commissioners commissioners of of the the Admiralty Admiralty responded responded by by implementing implementing aa series series of of overdue overdue reforms reforms designed designed to to improve improve the the navy’s navy’s fighting fighting efficiency. efficiency. As As the the competition competition intensified, however, however, Britain Britain was was obliged obliged to to concentrate concentrate aa steadily steadily larglargintensified, er er proportion proportion of of her her fleet fleet at at home home in in order order to to ensure ensure her her continued continued domdominance inance of of northern northern waters. waters. Beginning Beginning in in December December 1904 1904 the the Board Board of of Admiralty began recalling warships from the periphery toward the cencenAdmiralty began recalling warships from the periphery toward the ter ter of of the the empire.‘ empire.' As As the the legions legions returned, returned, the the security security of of imperial imperial interinterests in the outer marches became increasingly more dependent ests in the outer marches became increasingly more dependent upon upon policy defense policy British defense that British notion that This notion deterrence. This naval deterrence. than naval diplomacy than diplomacy was was driven driven by by an an anti anti German German imperative imperative is is simple, simple, suits suits the the standard standard political political and and diplomatic diplomatic accounts accounts of of the the period, period, and and favors favors the the predispopredisposition sition of of many many to to View view the the period period as as aa lead lead up up to to the the outbreak outbreak of of the the First First World World War.2 War.’ This book book isis founded founded upon upon the the premise premise that that from from the the beginning beginning of of the the This twentieth twentieth century century the the overriding overriding problem problem for for British British defense defense planners planners was was the the insufficiency insufficiency of of central central government government finance. finance. This This is is not not aa novel novel argument. argument. it It features features prominently prominently in in the the works works of of those those historians historians who Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, httpszllhd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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power.3 world power.® as aa world empire as British empire the British of the decline of the decline studied the have studied have relative Britain’s of symptomatic was argue, they limitation, they argue, was symptomatic of Britain's relative Financial limitation, Financial or three or final three the final “in the and “in power, and industrial power, and industrial economic and an economic as an decline as decline an as position [Britain’s] position as an its [Britain's] century its nineteenth century the nineteenth of the decades of four decades four own—shrank its own—shrank of its class of in aa class order—indeed in first order—indeed the first of the power of industrial power industrial techand techindustry and of industry fields of various fields in various overtook itit in nations overtook other nations as other rapidly as rapidly military modern military of modern foundations of the foundations all, the after all, are, after which are, nology, which nology, comand comfinancial and the financial in the predominance in continued predominance Britain’s continued strength.” Britain’s strength.” might. industrial might. for industrial substitute for no substitute was no insist, was further insist, they further world, they mercial world, mercial destabilize inevitably destabilize would inevitably conflict would major conflict in aa major involvement in British involvement Any British Any nation’s the nation’s of the prosperity of the prosperity which the upon which system upon trading system global trading the global the increasingly increasingly service-based service-based economy economy depended.4 depended.* their comprehend their not comprehend did not leaders did Britain’s leaders time, Britain’s the time, at the course, at Of course, Of problems problems in in exactly exactly these these terms. terms. Those Those serving serving at at the the Board Board of of Admiralty Admiralty Before notions. Before such notions. entertained such have entertained not have certainly not would certainly particular would in particular in of Board of the Board of the members of professional members (the professional lords (the naval lords the naval 1914 the 1914 Admiralty) could could see see no no insoluble insoluble industrial industrial or or technological technological obstacles obstacles Admiralty) global thus, global and, thus, fleet and, war fleet supreme war of aa supreme maintenance of continued maintenance the continued to the to maritime maritime supremacy. supremacy. Britain’s Britain’s naval-armaments naval-armaments industry industry was was the the the in the profitable in most profitable and most organized, and best organized, innovative, best most innovative, largest, most largest, supequalitatively supewere qualitatively generally were yards generally British yards in British built in Warships built world. Warships world. rior rior and and cost cost less less than than foreign-built foreign-built craft. craft. The The Admiralty Admiralty maintained maintained close kept aa close and kept sector and private sector the private in the firms in armaments firms with armaments links with close links close First the First of the eve of the eve On the suppliers. On principal suppliers. navy’s principal the navy’s of the health of the health of the eye of eye ArmstrongLtd.; Son & Maxim, Vickers, as such firms War, World World War, firms such as Vickers, Maxim, & Son Ltd.; Armstrongwarshipworld’s warshipthe world’s dominated the still dominated Ltd. still Brown Ltd. John Brown and John Whitworth; and Whitworth; all were all rivals, European their of most unlike and, industry building building industry and, unlike most of their European rivals, were reported to be in good financial shape. It is often forgotten, reported to be in good financial shape. It is often forgotten, furthermore. furthermore, management the management for the responsible for was responsible itself was Admiralty itself of Admiralty Board of the Board that the that The country. The the country. in the concerns in manufacturing concerns largest manufacturing the largest of the one of perhaps one of perhaps of in workmen and artisans 30,000 of upwards employed Dockyards Royal Royal Dockyards employed upwards of 30,000 artisans and workmen in

organizashipbuilding organizaother shipbuilding any other than any more than alone, more Kingdom alone, United Kingdom the United the tion tion in in the the world. world. industhe induswith the endowed with well endowed relatively well Britain relatively Great Britain was Great only was Not only Not of Board the but armaments, but the Board of naval armaments, produce naval to produce required to assets required trial assets trial and largest the of the largest and resources of the resources all the upon all draw upon also draw could also Admiralty could Admiralty owned either owned Navy either Royal Navy The Royal world. The the world. in the empire in maritime empire wealthiest maritime wealthiest locastrategic locaat strategic bases at naval bases of naval network of unrivaled network an unrivaled to an access to had access or had or merworld’s merthe world’s dominated the companies dominated British companies globe. British the globe. around the tions around tions communication cable communication and cable wireless and the wireless of the most of controlled most marine, controlled chant marine, chant networks, networks, and, and, perhaps perhaps most most importantly, importantly, possessed possessed an an effective effective monopmonopoly oly on on the the supply supply of of steam steam coal coal outside outside European European waters waters and and the the east east Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Introduction Introduction

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coast coast of of the the United United States. States. Without Without access access to to coal coal and and colliers, colliers, fleets fleets simply simply could could not not move. move. Ultimately, Ultimately, of of course, course, naval naval mastery mastery depended depended upon upon the the size size and and efficiency efficiency of of the the imperial imperial war war fleet. fleet. During During the the quarquarter ter of of a a century century prior prior to to the the outbreak outbreak of of war, war, the the Royal Royal Navy Navy maintained maintained aa larger larger battleship battleship fleet fleet than than the the secondsecond- and and third-ranking third-ranking naval naval powpowers ers combined combined and and possessed possessed more more cruisers cruisers than than the the four four largest largest naval naval powers. powers. For For the the most most part, part, moreover, moreover, the the fleet fleet was was comprised comprised of of up-toup-todate date warships. warships. As As one one authority authority has has noted, noted, “the “the numerical, numerical, material material and and strategical strategical superiority superiority of of the the Royal Royal Navy Navy was was aa cold, cold, hard hard reality, reality, as as the the French French nation nation found found to to its its dismay dismay at at the the end end of of 1898 1898 when when faced faced with with a a Britain Britain ready ready to to go go to to war war over over the the [control [control of of the] the] Upper Upper Nile.”5 Nile.”> For For good good reasons, reasons, therefore, therefore, the the Admiralty Admiralty had had no no major major worries worries at at the the turn turn of of the the nineteenth nineteenth century century about about the the ability ability of of British British industry industry to to meet meet the the navy’s navy’s mate’riel matériel requirements. requirements. The The board board was was also also broadly broadly satisfied satisfied with with the the existexisting ing stock stock of of modern modern warships warships and and the the condition condition of of the the fleet-support fleet-support infrainfrastructure. structure. What What did did perturb perturb the the naval naval lords, lords, however, however, was was the the willingness willingness of of Parliament Parliament to to fund fund an an adequate adequate warship warship replacement replacement program. program. in In every every era era of of history history the the costs costs associated associated with with building building and and maintaining maintaining modmodern, ern, up-to-date up-to-date fleets fleets have have been been enormous enormous and and beyond beyond the the means means of of all all but but the the richest richest states. states. For For much much of of the the nineteenth nineteenth century, century, Britain Britain had had possessed possessed the the largest largest and and most most efficient efficient navy navy in in the the world, world, and and at at little little cost cost to to the the nation’s nation’s taxpayers, taxpayers, largely largely because because the the other other great great powers powers lacked lacked either either the the industrial industrial base base or or willingness willingness to to mount mount aa sustained sustained challenge. challenge. From From the the mid-18808, mid-1880s, however, however, as as European European powers powers turned turned outward outward and and began began to to develop develop their their maritime maritime strengths, strengths, the the price price of of global global naval naval supremacy supremacy started started to to climb. climb. This This upward upward trend trend in in British British naval naval expenditure expenditure was was accelerated accelerated by by an an unparalleled unparalleled growth growth in in the the cost cost and and complexity complexity of of warships. warships. Between Between 1889 1889 and and 1904 1904 the the price price of of aa modern modern battleship battleship more more than than doubled doubled and and that that of of a a first-class first-class cruiser cruiser quintupled.6 quintupled.° Meanwhile, Meanwhile, largely largely because because the the pace pace of of technological technological change change was was so so rapid, rapid, the the combat-effective combat-effective life life of of aa warship warship dropped dropped to to fifteen fifteen years years or or less. less. As As the the predominant predominant naval naval power power determined determined to to maintain the the largest largest stock stock of of modern modern warships warships in in the the world, world, Britain Britain obviobvimaintain ously ously suffered suffered the the most most from from the the effects effects of of capital capital depreciation. depreciation. Indeed, Indeed, the the declining declining relative relative strength strength of of the the Royal Royal Navy Navy over over this this period period was was due due much much more more to to the the ravages ravages of of capital capital depreciation depreciation than than the the increased increased building programs programs of of rival rival powers. powers. The The financial financial consequences consequences of of rapid rapid building technological technological progress progress were were severe; severe; between between 1889 1889 and and 1904 1904 the the relative relative strength strength of of the the British British Navy Navy remained remained fairly fairly constant constant but but overall overall naval naval expenditures expenditures more more than than doubled. doubled. Over Over the the same same period period capital capital expendiexpenditure ture (on (on construction construction and and major major improvements improvements to to warships warships and and dockdockLambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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of percent of 44 percent year—representing 44 per year—representing million per 24.9 million yards) from £4.9 soared from yards) soared

naval annual naval gross annual of gross percent of 64 percent or 64 million or $26.9 million budget—to £26.9 the total budget—to the total expenditure.7 expenditure.’ comits commeet its to meet money to more money and more more and demanded more Admiralty demanded the Admiralty As the As of decade of last decade the last of the end of the end By the mounted. By opposition mounted. Treasury opposition mitments, mitments, Treasury the into the running into was running expenditure was naval expenditure British naval century, British the nineteenth century, the nineteenth For afford. For could afford. state could the state believed the experts believed financial experts many financial limits what many of what limits of increased be increased not be could not taxation could that taxation believed that they believed reasons they of reasons aa variety variety of position primary position London’s primary of London's city of the city endangering the significantly without endangering significantly without borrow to borrow ability to state’s ability the state’s jeopardizing the or jeopardizing system or financial system in world financial the world in the observed: Mahan observed: Alfred Mahan Capt. Alfred as Capt. And as emergency. And an emergency. in an sums in large sums large and destroy itit and flags; destroy vigour flags; and vigour lessen itit and war; lessen of war; life of the life credit, isis the “Money, credit, “Money, recognized long recognized had long governments had British governments Successive British dies.”8 Successive resistance dies.”® resistance sound of sound maintenance of the maintenance upon the depended upon empire depended the empire of the security of the security that that the in Opinions in deterrence. Opinions naval deterrence. credible naval on aa credible than on less than no less finance no finance economic of economic importance of relative importance the relative on the varied on have varied may have Westminster may Westminster argued experts argued defense experts some defense indeed, some supremacy; indeed, naval supremacy; and naval prosperity prosperity and creation the creation addition the in addition demanded in and demanded insufficient and were insufficient alone were these alone that these that leading most leading century, most twentieth century, the twentieth of the turn of the turn by the Yet by army. Yet large army. of aa large of sound have sound longer have no longer could no Britain could that Britain accepted that day accepted the day of the politicians of politicians alone supremacy—let alone naval supremacy—let towering naval afford towering time afford same time the same at the and at money and money well. as well. army as continental-sized army create aa continental-sized create Britain agreed, Britain have agreed, historians have 1902, historians of 1902, beginning of the beginning about the From about From horizon. strategic horizon. their strategic lower their to lower forces to armed forces the armed instructed the statesmen instructed statesmen in commitments in iettisoning commitments by jettisoning complied by once complied at once Admiralty at of Admiralty Board of The Board The home.9 at home.® fleet at the fleet concentrating the and concentrating globe and the globe of the regions of vital regions less vital the less the pretenhundred-year-old pretenits hundred-year-old abandoned its Navy abandoned Royal Navy the Royal process the the process 1n the In embraced willingly lords willingly embraced naval lords The naval supremacy. The naval supremacy. global naval to global sions to sions the of the growth of steady growth the steady because the argued, because retrenchment, itit isis argued, strategic retrenchment, strategic the of command Navy’s Royal the Royal Navy's command of the threatened the Fleet threatened Sea Fleet High Sea German High German challenge this meet to way only The lsles.’0 The only way to meet this challenge British Isles.'° the British washed the that washed seas that seas unwillthe unwillgiven the and, given waters, and, home waters, in home fleet in battle fleet the battle reinforce the to reinforce was to was way only way the only battleships, the new battleships, more new for more pay for to pay politicians to the politicians of the ingness of ingness abroad. stationed abroad. then stationed vessels then recalling vessels by recalling was by achieved was this be achieved could be this could the under the accomplished under was accomplished fleet was the fleet of the reorganization of subsequent reorganization The subsequent The was 1904 was October 1904 in October who in Fisher, who “Jacky” Fisher, John “Jacky” Sir John Adm. Sir of Adm. direction of direction professional senior professional the senior remained the and remained lord and naval lord senior naval the senior appointed the appointed generally 1910. ItIt isis generally early 1910. until early Admiralty until of Admiralty Board of the Board of the member of member transformed was transformed Navy was Royal Navy the Royal administration the his administration during his that during accepted that accepted formidable into aa formidable organism” into moth-eaten organism” inefficient, moth-eaten drowsy, inefficient, “a drowsy, from “a from Meanwhile, Germany.“ Meanwhile, against Germany.'' war against for war prepared for fully prepared machine fully fighting machine fighting Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, httpsz/lhd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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the overseas overseas dockyards dockyards were were allowed allowed to to run run down, down, the the traditional traditional system system the of of overseas overseas station station fleets fleets was was abolished, abolished, and and their their ships ships redeployed redeployed in in European European waters; waters; fleets fleets were were trained trained for for war war instead instead of of peace-time peace-time operoperation, ation, and and crews crews were were drilled drilled relentlessly relentlessly in in the the techniques techniques of of modern modern gunnery, gunnery, which which were were developed developed by by Adm. Adm. Percy Percy Scott. Scott. The The Fisher Fisher era era was was truly truly aa time time of of profound profound change change for for the the Royal Royal Navy, Navy, and and not not just just in in organizational organizational and and administrative administrative terms. terms. Fisher Fisher iniinitiated tiated aa virtual virtual revolution revolution in in naval naval materiel matériel during during his his five five years years in in office. office. Outdated Outdated ironclads ironclads and and gunboats gunboats were were scrapped scrapped en en masse masse and and replaced replaced with with modern modern dreadnoughts, dreadnoughts, submarines, submarines, and and aircraft. aircraft. Muzzle Muzzle loading loading guns guns and and sail sail training training were were finally finally abolished; abolished; turbine turbine machinery, machinery, wirewireless-telegraphy less-telegraphy sets, sets, and and analog analog fire-control fire-control computers computers were were introintroduced. duced. Yet, Yet, most most historians historians maintain, maintain, technological technological change change had had no no real real impact impact upon upon the the formulation formulation of of naval naval policy. policy. Fisher Fisher and and his his colleagues colleagues rationalized rationalized their their multitude multitude of of new new weapon weapon systems systems within within aa more more or or less less static static strategical strategical and and tactical tactical framework. framework. That That is is to to say, say, while while the the Royal Royal Navy Navy equipped equipped itself itself with with modern modern weaponry, weaponry, naval naval leaders leaders retained retained their their old old theories theories on on the the application application of of naval naval force. force. “That “That the the primary primary duty duty of of the the Navy Navy was was battle battle at at sea sea and and the the destruction destruction of of the the enemy’s enemy's battle battle fleet fleet was was the the opinion opinion of of successive successive Boards Boards of of Admiralty,” Admiralty,” it it is is asserted.12 asserted.’ Tactical Tactical thinking thinking was was equally equally retarded, retarded, it it is is assumed. assumed. Even Even today, today, almost almost aa century century after after the the occurrence occurrence of of these these events, events, it it still not not generally generally recognized recognized that that the the core core histories histories of of the the pre-1914 pre-1914 isis still Royal Royal Navy Navy were were written written without without recourse recourse to to systematic systematic examination examination of of financial, financial, economic, economic, technological, technologicai, administrative, administrative, or or personnel personnel records. records. Or Or that that when when writing writing these these narratives narratives their their authors authors placed placed theory theory ahead ahead of of fact fact and and description. description. That That is is to to say, say, they they interpreted interpreted events events using using the the theory theory of of naval naval warfare warfare rather rather than than making making aa proper proper analysis analysis of of the the background background decision-making decision-making process. process. As As aa consequence, consequence, these these core core hishistories are are still still widely widely regarded regarded as as being, being, ifif not not definitive, definitive, close to it. it. But But tories close to even even those those who who do do accept accept that that there there are are deficiencies deficiencies in in the the currently currently no in no result in would result investigation would further investigation that further believe that narratives believe accepted narratives accepted and motives and Fisher’s motives historians, Fisher’s most historians, To most improvement. To detail improvement. than detail more than more aim his aim obvious: his even obvious: and even unproblematic, and straightforward, unproblematic, seemed straightforward, goals seemed goals Germany. with Germany. war with inevitable war the inevitable for the Navy for Royal Navy the Royal prepare the to prepare was to was first became first Fisher became when Fisher that when book isis that this book of this conclusion of main conclusion The main The the of the growth of the growth by the concerned by unduly concerned not unduly was not he was 1904, he in 1904, lord in sea lord sea conceive he conceive did he only did not only that not shown that be shown will be Fleet. ItIt will Sea Fleet. High Sea German High German

and France and when France time when at aa time program at reform program his reform of his elements of the elements of the most of most that but that interests, but Britain’s interests, to Britain’s threat to main threat the main as the regarded as were regarded Russia were Russia in changes in various changes the various and the alignments and diplomatic alignments European diplomatic in European shifts in the shifts the Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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the the direction direction of of British British foreign foreign policy policy that that occurred occurred after after he he took took office office had had surprisingly surprisingly little little impact impact upon upon his his strategical strategical thinking. thinking. Furthermore, Furthermore, Sir John John Fisher Fisher was was not not convinced, convinced, in in 1904, 1904, that that the the age age of of Pax Pax Sir Britannica Britannica had had passed. passed. Throughout Throughout his his term term as as first first sea sea lord, lord, he he remained remained committed committed to to the the ideal ideal of of global global naval naval supremacy supremacy and and sought sought to to build build aa fleet fleet powerful powerful enough enough to to protect protect Britain’s Britain’s imperial imperial interests interests against against all all comers.'3 comers.'* More More specifically, specifically, Fisher Fisher wanted wanted what what his his predepredecessors cessors in in office office had had sought—namely sought—namely a a navy navy capable capable of of defeating defeating any any combination combination of of (two) (two) maritime maritime powers. powers. That That being being said, said, however, however, he he recrecognized ognized that that Britain Britain could could not not much much longer longer afford afford to to continue continue modernizmodernizing ing and and expanding expanding the the existing existing fleet fleet in in response response to to each each new new invention invention or or every every naval naval expansion expansion by by rival rival powers. powers. He He understood understood that that the the cost cost of of —. maintaining maintaining a a superabundant superabundant fleet fleet of of modern modern battleships battleships and and cruisers cruisers would would soon soon become become fiscally fiscally prohibitive. prohibitive. Fisher proposed that the Fisher proposed that the Royal Royal Navy Navy could could overcome overcome this this financial financial limitation by giving up the old policy of relying upon an limitation by giving up the old policy of relying upon an overwhelming overwhelming numerical numerical superiority superiority to to achieve achieve supremacy, supremacy, and and instead instead exploit exploit new new technologies to build specific force capabilities technologies to build specific force capabilities to to meet meet the the most most probaprobable build ble threats threats to to imperial imperial interests. interests. Or Or put put another another way, way, he he wanted wanted to to build aa new model navy capable of containing new model navy capable of containing specific specific threats threats to to British British interinterests, ests, instead instead of of maintaining maintaining a a conventional conventional fleet fleet organized organized primarily primarily for for battleship engagements and battleship engagements and designed designed to to intimidate intimidate potential potential enemies enemies from Fisher believed believed from even even challenging challenging the the supremacy supremacy of of the the Royal Royal Navy. Navy. Fisher that that new new inventions inventions and and developments developments in in engineering engineering permitted permitted the the crecreation ation of of new new types types of of warships warships and and enabled enabled the the adoption adoption of of new new radical radical methods methods of of applying applying naval naval force. force. He He further further believed believed that that naval naval supremasupremacy cy and and effective effective deterrence deterrence demanded demanded capability capability rather rather than than universal universal presence; force presence; in in other other words, words, the the navy navy did did not not need need to to be be deployed deployed in in force everywhere everywhere at at once—that once—that was was the the dream dream of of only only the the most most extreme extreme jinjingoists. goists. In In the the case case of of oceanic oceanic trade trade protection, protection, for for example, example, Fisher Fisher argued with the argued that that the the development development of of wireless wireless telegraphy telegraphy coupled coupled with the exploitation exploitation of of naval naval intelligence intelligence allowed allowed the thc navy navy to to replace replace the the numernumer-

ous ous assortment assortment of of cruisers cruisers scattered scattered around around the the globe globe with with aa centrally centrally located located force force of of modern modern long-range, long-range, high-speed high-speed vessels vessels that that could could be be vectored vectored toward toward any any commerce commerce raiders raiders at at large.” large." It It will will also also be be argued argued that that the the existing existing narratives narratives of of pre-1914 pre-1914 Royal Royal Navy Navy policy policy are are fundamentally fundamentally flawed flawed because because their their authors authors approached approached their their subject subject with with a a series series of of mistaken mistaken presumptions.‘5 presumptions." For For one one thing, thing, the the change change in in the the diplomatic diplomatic climate climate during during the the prewar prewar decade decade was was not not nearly nearly so so coherent coherent nor nor as as comprehensive comprehensive as as it it appears appears with with hindsight. hindsight. British British policy policy makers makers never never focused focused upon upon the the German German menace menace to to the the exclusion of all others potential threats.16 For another, the exclusion of all others potential threats.'* For another, the naval naval historihistoriLambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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ans ans responsible responsible for for the the core core histories histories failed failed to to consider consider that that the the Admiralty Admiralty was was just just one one of of several several departments departments of of government government competing competing for for limited limited resources. resources. Their Their narratives narratives also also failed failed to to appraise appraise a a myriad myriad of of “internal” “internal” influences influences upon upon the the formulation formulation of of “naval “naval policy,” policy,” such such as as the the prevailing prevailing climate climate of of financial financial limitation, limitation, institutional institutional or or personal personal ambitions, ambitions, or or the the impact impact of of interservice interservice rivalry, rivalry, not not to to mention mention the the conconfusion fusion generated generated by by the the rapid rapid technological technological change. change. In In short, short, they they forgot forgot that that naval naval policy policy was was not not a a function function of of Cabinet Cabinet policy policy or or strategic strategic prinprinciples, ciples, but but the the product product of of individuals individuals belonging belonging to to aa bureaucratized bureaucratized instiinstitution tution and and operating operating within within aa dynamic dynamic environment. environment. For For much much of of the the period period 1904—1914, 1904-1914, it it will will be be shown, shown, many many important important strategic strategic decisions decisions previously previously thought thought to to have have been been taken taken in in response response to to external external considerconsiderations ations such such as as foreign foreign naval naval rivalry rivalry were were in in fact fact determined determined more more by by internal internal domestic domestic concerns, concerns, especially especially money money and and service service politics.‘7 politics.'’ But But undoubtedly undoubtedly the the most most serious serious misperception misperception is is that that Fisher’s Fisher’s overriding overriding aim aim was was to to reorganize reorganize the the navy navy (by (by redistributing redistributing the the battleship battleship fleet) fleet) to to conform conform with with a a change change in in international international climate climate (i.e., (i.e., the the object object of of British British naval naval policy policy switched switched from from providing providing imperial imperial defense defense to to meeting meeting the the German German threat). threat). Or Or to to put put it it another another way, way, the the ends ends of of naval naval policy policy changed Changed but but the the means means remained remained the the same. same. In In fact, fact, Fisher Fisher sought sought to to achieve achieve exactly exactly the the opposite. opposite. With With his his eyes eyes fixed fixed upon upon maintaining maintaining an an effective effective system system of of imperial imperial defense, defense, at at an an affordable affordable price, price, he he reconreconceptualized ceptualized the the theory theory of of applying applying naval naval force. force. One One major major reason reason Why why historians historians have have so so misunderstood misunderstood Fisher’s Fisher’s aims aims and and motivations motivations is is that that for for most most of of his his administration administration he he felt felt comcompelled pelled to to mislead mislead the the nation's nation’s political political executive executive as as to to the the true true direction direction of of naval naval policy. policy. Whereas Whereas the the Conservative Conservative Party Party leadership leadership shared shared his his commitment commitment to to the the principle principle of of naval naval supremacy supremacy and and took took seriously seriously the the responsibility responsibility for for imperial imperial defense, defense, the the other other major major British British political political party. party, the the Liberals, Liberals, were were ambivalent ambivalent toward toward the the former former and and essentially essentially avoided avoided discussing discussing the the latter. latter. From From the the end end of of 1905 1905 until until 1915, 1915, moreover, moreover, the the Liberals Liberals remained remained the the party party of of government. government. The The Liberals Liberals took took office office determined determined to to cut cut naval naval expenditure expenditure by by slashing slashing the the new new construction construction budget budget and and compelling compelling the the navy navy to to live live off off its its existing existing capital. capital. This This shift shift in in naval naval policy policy was was inspired inspired mainly mainly by by financial financial considerations—although considerations—although ideology ideology also also had had a a part part to to play. play. The The Liberals Liberals needed needed to to find find large large savsavings ings in in government government expenditure expenditure in in order order to to pay pay for for their their expensive expensive proprogram gram of of social social reform, reform, and and the the fastest fastest way way of of achieving achieving this this was was to to shrink shrink the the naval naval budget budget by by cutting cutting off off capital capital investment. investment. Liberal Liberal ministers ministers jusjustified tified these these proposed proposed cuts cuts by by insisting insisting that that the the Royal Royal Navy Navy was was far far stronger stronger than than was was necessary necessary to to safeguard safeguard the the country country from from invasion; invasion; that that diplomacy diplomacy rather rather than than naval naval deterrence deterrence should should be be the the primary primary Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. 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selfthe selfthat the and that seas; and distant seas; in distant means interests in British interests protecting British of protecting means of

prolarge proof aa large taxpayer of British taxpayer the British governing relieve the should relieve dominions should governing dominions

own their own for their responsibility for shouldering responsibility portion by shouldering burden by defense burden the defense of the portion of in fleet largest the with satisfied defense. They declared themselves satisfied with the largest fleet in defense. They declared themselves overmatchof capable fleet a meant European waters, which from 1905 meant a fleet capable of overmatch1905 European waters, which from more. no more. and no navy and ing German navy the German ing the suchighly sucproved highly administration proved From Liberal administration the Liberal perspective the one perspective From one propora as spending defense spending as a proporcessful. British defense 1914, British and 1914, 1905 and Between 1905 cessful. Between less to less 50 to than 50 more than from more steadily from fell steadily tion expenditure fell state expenditure total state of total tion of who ministers The misleading. The ministers who are misleading. than statistics are such statistics But such percent. But 40 percent. than 40 any raising any without raising goals without their goals took achieve their to achieve intended to 1905 intended in 1905 office in took office fall, did expenditure naval expenditure did fall, Though naval significant revenues. Though state revenues. additional state significant additional had they had as they budget as navy’s budget the navy’s into the the deeply into as deeply cut as to cut failed to Liberals failed the Liberals the that the explanation isis that traditional explanation first The traditional to. The needed to. hoped—or needed first hoped—or expanthe expanbehind the intent behind aggressive intent Admiralty the aggressive to the point to to point able to was able Admiralty was reason. the reason. of the part of only part was only however, was sion This, however, navy. This, German navy. the German of the sion of the 1905 the after 1905 years after many years for many “threat,” for Notwithstanding German “threat,” the German Notwithstanding the Sea High Sea the High than the stronger than times stronger Royal four times or four three or remained three Navy remained Royal Navy have safely have could safely words, could other words, in other Fleet. construction, in ship construction, capital ship British capital Fleet. British What demanded. What originally demanded. had originally been Liberals had the Liberals as the zero as to zero almost to cut almost been cut exagto exagability to Fisher’s ability Admiral Fisher's was Admiral so was doing so really from doing them from prevented them really prevented true the true blur the menace, blur naval menace, gerate German naval the German of the magnitude of the magnitude gerate the naval British naval of British direction of real direction the real strength conceal the and conceal Navy and Royal Navy the Royal of the strength of to was to maneuvers was policy. successful maneuvers most successful his most of his one of see, one shall see, we Shall As we policy. AS ship capital in propound the concept of a “dreadnought revolution” in capital ship revolution” “dreadnought propound the concept of a huge Navy’s huge Royal Navy’s the Royal design. discount the to discount Admiralty to the Admiralty allowed the This allowed design. This continued justify thereby and superiority in “pre-dreadnought” warships and thereby justify continued warships “pre-dreadnought” in superiority underbe undermust be Fisher, itit must high construction. Fisher, ship construction. capital ship new capital of new levels of high levels European in European fighting in for fighting stood, just for fleet just building aa fleet in building interested in not interested was not stood, was defense imperial defense effective imperial waters. an effective create an to create rather to aiming rather was aiming He was waters. He was Fisher was moreover, Fisher reasons, moreover, force of reasons, variety of For aa variety reach. For global reach. with global force with he course Of budget. especially anxious to preserve the construction budget. Of course he construction the preserve to anxious especially we as also, but warships, wanted to equip the Royal Navy with up-to-date warships, but also, aS we up-to-date with Navy Royal the equip wanted to

to appearing to While appearing Shall capacity. While building capacity. warship building maintain warship to maintain see, to shall see,

Fisher therefore, Fisher masters, therefore, cooperate political masters, his political of his wishes of the wishes with the cooperate with than stronger far only worked to create a new model fleet that was not only far stronger than not was worked to create a new model fleet that pridesigned was also but also was designed prinecessary waters but home waters of home control of ensure control to ensure necessary to thus, and, thus, marily oceans and, world’s oceans the world’s controlling the By controlling defense. By imperial defense. for imperial marily for simulcould simulNavy could Royal Navy the the Royal believed the Fisher believed overseas, Fisher trade overseas, to trade ability to the ability conflict of conflict taneously effects of worst effects the worst from the economy from British economy the British insulate the taneously insulate busileast, busiat least, Britain, at while For Britain, enemy. For the enemy. on the damage on massive damage inflicting massive while inflicting ness would would continue continue as as usual. usual. ness Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, httpsz/lhd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Introduction Introduction

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Thanks Thanks largely largely to to Fisher’s Fisher’s efforts, efforts, between between 1906 1906 and and 1909 1909 the the navy navy was was able able to to retain retain a a much much larger larger share share of of the the national national budget budget than than the the government government intended. intended. As As aa consequence consequence the the pace pace of of social social reform reform was was slower Slower and and the the Liberal’s Liberal’s ability ability to to implement implement their their domestic domestic agenda agenda was was undermined. undermined. Fisher’s Fisher’s ability ability to to preserve preserve the the naval naval budget budget from from signifi— significant cant cuts cuts ultimately ultimately compelled compelled the the Liberal Liberal chancellor chancellor in in 1909, 1909, David David Lloyd Lloyd George, George, to to take take aa huge huge electoral electoral gamble gamble by by massively massively increasing increasing the the level level of of personal personal taxation. taxation. As As it it happened happened that that gamble gamble succeeded. succeeded, and and at at the the 1910 1910 general general election election the the Liberals Liberals were were returned returned to to power power albeit albeit with with aa reduced reduced majority majority in in the the House House of of Commons. Commons. Over Over the the next next four four years years state state revenues revenues increased increased by by aa third third from from £151 £151 million million to to £209 £209 million—partially million—partially the the result result of of the the new new levies levies and and partially partially due due to to a a forfortuitous tuitous surge surge in in yields yields from from existing existing taxes—thus taxes—thus allowing allowing the the governgovernment ment to to pay pay for for both both social social reform reform and and (at (at least least until until 1913) 1913) easily easily meet meet the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s demands demands for for increases increases in in naval naval expenditure. expenditure. the Fisher’s successful successful duplicity duplicity was was largely largely the the result result of of his his ability ability to to Fisher's misleading thereby misleading politicians, thereby the politicians, of the illiteracy of technological illiteracy the technological exploit the exploit them them on on the the real real reasons reasons for for his his various various reforms, reforms, the the purpose purpose of of the the warwarships ships he he was was building, building, and and the the true true strength strength of of the the fleet. fleet. The The best best docudocuHis Sumida.18 His Jon Sumida."® Prof. Jon by Prof. recently by provided recently been provided has been example has mented example mented all why all and why how and explained how has explained policy has ship policy capital ship Fisher’s, capital of Fisher’s analysis of analysis previous previous historians historians have have completely completely misunderstood misunderstood the the so-called so-called “dread“dreadnought revolution.” revolution.” Far Far from from encouraging encouraging the the development development of of the the nought Dreadnought (as (as he be publicly publicly claimed), claimed), Fisher Fisher was was actually actually in in favor favor of of aa Dreadnought allof allbuilding of the building to the opposition to His opposition construction. His battleship construction. in battleship cessation in cessation intended aa indeed intended Fisher indeed however, Fisher notwithstanding, however, battleships notwithstanding, big-gun battleships big-gun “revolution" “revolution” in in capital capital ship ship design. design. He He wanted wanted the the Royal Royal Navy Navy to to build build aa yet armed yet heavily armed cruiser, aa heavily battle cruiser, the battle warship, the armored warship, of armored type of new type new powerful and powerful enough and swift enough be swift to be designed to warship designed armored warship lightly armored lightly comoceanic comBritish oceanic on British preying on cruisers preying enemy cruisers overwhelm enemy to overwhelm enough to enough enemy bring enemy to bring advantage to speed advantage their speed exploiting their of exploiting capable of and capable merce and merce state-of-thetheir state-of-thewhere their ranges where long ranges relatively long at relatively action at to action battleships to battleships to them to allow them would allow battery would all-big-gun battery and all-big-gun equipment and control equipment fire control art fire art cruisbattle cruishis battle developed his Fisher developed Before Fisher return. Before in return. hit in being hit without being hit without hit the fight the to fight cruisers to protected cruisers small protected its small use its to use planned to Navy planned Royal Navy the Royal er, the er, cruisarmored cruisfight armored to fight cruisers to armored cruisers big armored cruisers, big protected cruisers, enemy’s protected enemy’s the cruiser the battle cruiser the battle giving the By giving battleships. By fight battleships. to fight battleships to and battleships ers, and ers, to enough to fast enough making itit fast and making successfully, and battleship successfully, fight aa battleship to fight capability capability to to sought to Fisher sought cruisers, Fisher smaller cruisers, of smaller classes of all classes overwhelm all and overwhelm catch and catch Had three. Had by three. done by previously done work previously the work perform the ship perform of ship type of one type make one make liberathe liberain the resulted in have resulted would have implemented, itit would fully implemented, been fully policy been his policy his as history,” as all history,” “In all manpower. “In scarce manpower. and scarce money and of money amounts of vast amounts of vast tion of tion Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Revolution Naval Revolution Sir Fisher’s Naval John Fisher's Sir John

such for such proposals for few proposals been few another have been “there have observed, “there has observed, scholar has another scholar serthe within from opposition radical changes in force structure.”’® But opposition from within the serBut structure.”‘9 force radical changes in capital his compromise to him vice to Fisher’s radical theories obliged him to compromise his capital obliged theories radical Fisher’s vice to dreadnought (albeit dreadnought conventional (albeit ship building conventional continue building to continue and to policy and ship policy type) battleships. type) battleships. one just one was just concept was cruiser concept This battle cruiser Fisher’s battle that Fisher’s show that will show book will This book firegunnery mechanized the component of his radical vision and that the mechanized gunnery firethat and vision radical component of his As exploit. As to exploit. proposed to he proposed control inventions he the inventions of the one of just one was just system was control system of development the in sums head of the navy, Fisher invested large sums in the development of large invested Fisher head of the navy, intelligence the telegraphy, submarines, long-range torpedoes, wireless telegraphy, the intelligence wireless submarines, long-range torpedoes, “revFisher’s “revof Fisher’s measure of full measure The full services, projects. The other projects. of other range of and aa range services, and considering by considering in by taken in be taken olution only be can only however, can affairs,” however, naval affairs,” in naval olution in that recognized that Fisher recognized the whole. Fisher as aa whole. program as his program of his characteristics of the characteristics adaptation revolutionary adaptation new potentially revolutionary to potentially themselves to lent themselves technologies lent new technologies as so as structure so force structure and naval force entire naval the entire reorganize the to reorganize proposed to thus proposed and thus build aa to build continuing to of continuing better Instead of systems. Instead weapon systems. new weapon exploit new to exploit better to creto creattempted to he attempted cruisers, he and cruisers, ‘fleet battleships and of battleships largely of comprised largely ‘ fleet comprised subdeveloped subnewly developed the newly and the ate cruiser and battle cruiser the battle around the built around navy built ate aa navy water blue water the blue as the serve as to serve was to marine. course, was of course, cruiser, of battle cruiser, The battle marine. The to were Submarines defense. multi-role surface warship for imperial defense. Submarines were to imperial for warship multi-role surface this To this invasion. To form against invasion. defense against naval defense Britain’s naval of Britain’s cornerstone of the cornerstone form the “flotilof “flotilconcept of end, power—the concept sea power—the of sea theory of new theory developed aa new Fisher developed end, Fisher the protect the to protect la intended to strategy intended denial strategy sea denial was aa sea This was defense.” This la defense.” main the main of the absence of British the absence in the invasion in of invasion possibility of the possibility from the Isles from British Isles force naval force project naval to project fleet, ability to the ability Navy the Royal Navy the Royal to the restoring to thus restoring fleet, thus another from another blue” from the blue” from the “bolt from into of aa “bolt fear of without fear waters without distant waters into distant Fisher service. Fisher foreign service. on foreign European was on fleet was surface fleet the surface while the power while European power not maintain ifif not to maintain Britain to hoped enable Britain would enable system would new system his new that his hOped that of spite of in spite powers in great powers other great to other enhance relative to strength relative naval strength its naval enhance its military—or conceived aa military—or Fisher conceived financial parlance, Fisher modern parlance, In modern weakness. In financial weakness. naval—technological naval—technological revolution. revolution. administrahis administraDuring his Fisher’s paper. During to paper. confined to not confined were not theories were Fisher’s theories guise the guise under the program under his program of his tion elements of the elements of the most of introduced most he introduced tion he in was in instance, was for instance, of defense, for flotilla defense, of flotilla system of The system reforms. The necessary reforms. of necessary batof batsquadron of first squadron its first had its Navy had place Royal Navy the Royal 1909 the by 1909 And by 1907. And by 1907. place by all convince all to convince able to immediately able tle not immediately was not Fisher was Although Fisher cruisers. Although tle cruisers. his his professional professional colleagues colleagues of of his his naval naval revolution, revolution, he he was was able, able, neverneverof core of upon aa core relying upon theless, by relying program by his program of his much of through much push through to push theless, to and changes and necessary changes supporters the necessary implement the to implement service to the service within the supporters within by ruthlessly ruthlessly suppressing suppressing all all internal internal dissent. dissent. And And even even though though Fisher's Fisher's by immediate successors successors at at the the Admiralty Admiralty abandoned abandoned flotilla flotilla defense defense and and immediate altered altered much much of of his his strategic strategic policy policy after after his his retirement retirement in in 1910, 1910, within within Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Introduction Introduction

11 11

two two years years worsening worsening financial financial problems problems led led to to them them being being resurrected resurrected by by aa dynamic dynamic new new civilian civilian head head of of the the Admiralty—Winston Admiralty—Winston S. S. Churchill. Churchill. By By 1913, 1913, the the majority majority of of Britain’s Britain’s naval naval leaders leaders had had been been persuaded persuaded that that Fisher’s Fisher’s strategy strategy theory theory was was sound, sound, and and early early the the following following year year the the Board Board of of Admiralty Admiralty (civilian (civilian and and professional) professional) endorsed endorsed the the change change in in policy policy and and prepared prepared to to implement implement his his naval naval revolution. revolution. W ===> S———-

This This book book has has three three parts. parts. Each Each consists consists of of three three chapters. chapters. Part Part one one serves serves as as an an introduction introduction to to the the Fisher Fisher era era proper. proper. The The first first chapter chapter explores explores the the origins origins of of financial financial limitation limitation and and its its impact impact upon upon the the navy. navy. Chapter Chapter two two looks looks at at the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s policy policy with with regard regard to to submarines submarines before before the the appointment appointment of of Fisher Fisher as as first first sea sea lord, lord, and and explodes explodes the the myth myth that that the the Royal Royal Navy Navy ignored ignored the the invention invention of of the the submarine submarine and and was was opposed opposed to to their their incorporation incorporation into into the the fleet. fleet. The The third third chapter chapter studies studies the the evolution evolution of of Fisher’s Fisher’s radical radical theories theories and and shows shows how how his his reaction reaction to to important important innovations innovations (such (such as as the the perfection perfection of of the the submarine) submarine) or or his his appreciation appreciation of of key key events events was was more more often often than than not not fundamentally fundamentally difdifferent ferent from from those those of of his his contemporaries. contemporaries. The The responses responses he he advocated, advocated, accordingly, accordingly, were were also also different. different. Part Part two two covers covers the the Fisher Fisher administraadministration. tion. These These three three chapters chapters examine examine his his true true motives motives and and intentions, intentions, how how he he implemented implemented his his theories, theories, how how he he misled misled the the government government over over the the purposes purposes of of his his reforms, reforms, how how further further technical technical progress progress modified modified his his vision, vision, and and how how he he was was deflected deflected from from his his course course by by a a range range of of political, political, financial, financial, administrative administrative factors, factors, culminating culminating in in his his battle battle for for control control of of naval naval policy policy with with Adm. Adm. Lord Lord Charles Charles Beresford Beresford and and then then the the Liberal Liberal prime prime minister, minister, H. H. H. H. Asquith. Asquith. The The final final three three chapters chapters look look at at how how Fisher’s Fisher's strategic strategic vision vision was was perverted perverted by by his his successors. successors. It It will will be be shown, shown, for for example, example, that that the the ponderous ponderous Grand Grand Fleet Fleet of of Battle Battle system system employed employed by by the the Royal Royal Navy Navy throughout throughout the the First First World World War—a War—a large large integrated integrated fleet fleet of of dreadnoughts, dreadnoughts, cruisers, cruisers, destroyers, destroyers, and and even even subsubmarines marines that that prowled prowled the the North North Sea Sea in in the the hope hope of of catching catching and and annihilating annihilating the the German German fleet fleet at at sea—which sea—which all all historians historians have have thought thought represented represented the the embodiment embodiment of of all all strategic strategic and and tactical tactical thinking thinking for for at at least least twenty twenty years years before before the the war, war, was was in in fact fact created created as as an an experiment experiment during during the the period period 1910—13. 1910-13. The The book book closes closes with with an an analysis analysis of of why why Churchill’s administration administration ultimately ultimately decided decided to to revive revive Fisher's Fisher’s strategy, strategy, Churchill’s so secret. kept so was kept policy was in policy change in the change why the reasons why the reasons and the and

Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

Downloaded on behalf of Digital Theological Library, Claremont, CA

Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

Downloaded on behalf of Digital Theological Library, Claremont, CA

PART PART I|

Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

Downloaded on behalf of Digital Theological Library, Claremont, CA

Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

Downloaded on behalf of Digital Theological Library, Claremont, CA

CHAPTER CHAPTER 11

The The Price Price of of Naval Naval Supremacy Supremacy The The maintenance maintenance of of naval naval supremacy supremacy is is our our whole whole foundation. foundation. Upon Upon it it stands stands not not the the empire empire only, only, not not merely merely the the commercial commercial property property of of our our people, people, not not merely merely aa fine fine place place in in the the world's world’s affairs; affairs; upon upon our our naval naval

supremacy supremacy stands stands our our lives lives and and the the freedom freedom we we have have guarded guarded for for nearly nearly aa thousand thousand years. years. Winston Winston 8. S. Churchill, Churchill, first first lord lord of of the the Admiralty, Admiralty, 10 10 November November 1911 1911

British British naval naval supremacy supremacy has has always always been been a a difficult difficult concept concept to to define. define. Although Although the the term term was was commonplace commonplace in in the the language language of of politicians politicians and and statesmen Statesmen of of the the late-nineteenth late-nineteenth and and early-twentieth early-twentieth centuries, centuries, and and the the notion notion was was already already deeply deeply engraved engraved into into the the national national consciousness consciousness long long before before Capt. Capt. Alfred Alfred Mahan Mahan expounded expounded his his theory theory of of the the influence influence of of sea sea power power upon upon history, history, for for much much of of this this period period aa precise precise definition definition was was regarded regarded as as neither neither necessary necessary nor nor desirable. desirable. The The art art of of naval naval warfare warfare was was aa highly highly complex complex and and technical technical subject subject about about which which politicians politicians knew knew litlittle tle and and cared cared less. less. Statesmen Statesmen thought thought of of navies navies and and sea sea power power in in terms terms of of deterrence deterrence and and prestige prestige rather rather than than fighting fighting capability; capability; this this was was just just as as true true in in 1914 1914 as as it it was was in in 1880. 1880. From From this this perspective perspective numbers numbers of of warwarships ships (and (and their their cost) cost) were were more more important important than than combat combat effectiveness. effectiveness. Throughout Throughout this this period period the the British British government government expected expected the the Royal Royal Navy Navy to to perform perform three three main main tasks: tasks: first, first, and and foremost, foremost, the the navy navy was was to to dominate dominate the the narrow narrow seas seas and and approaches approaches to to the the British British Isles Isles and and so so prevent prevent invasion;‘ invasion;' second, second, the the navy navy was was to to secure secure communications communications with with the the colonies, colonies, and and particularly particularly the the route route through through the the Mediterranean Mediterranean to to India; and India; and and third, third, the the navy navy was was held held responsible responsible for for the the preservation preservation and the of the prosperity of the prosperity which the upon which system upon trading system global trading the global of the security of security nation nation depended. depended. This This involved involved patrolling patrolling the the ocean ocean trade trade routes, routes, chartcharting ing and and surveying, surveying, suppressing suppressing piracy, piracy, and and generally generally protecting protecting British British underalways underwas always return, itit was In return, interference. In from interference. trade from imperial trade and imperial and stood stood that that the the Royal Royal Navy Navy would would be be provided provided with with ample ample forces forces to to ensure ensure other of other combination of reasonable combination any reasonable over any predominance over maritime predominance aa maritime European European great great powers.2 powers.’ This This meant meant sufficient sufficient line-of—battle line-of-battle ships ships to to be be 15

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Revolution Naval Revolution Fisher’s Naval John Fisher's Sir John Sir

sure sure of of a a decisive decisive victory victory in in engagements engagements against against enemy enemy main main fleets, fleets, enough enough cruising cruising vessels vessels to to protect protect maritime maritime trade trade from from interference,3 interference,’ and and a a supply supply of of flotilla flotilla craft craft (chiefly (chiefly gunboats) gunboats) for for imperial imperial constabulary constabulary duties duties and and to to perform perform the the minor minor operations operations of of war. war. was the the responsibility responsibility of of the the lords lords commissioners commissioners for for executing executing ItIt was the the office office of of the the lord lord high high admiral admiral (collectively (collectively known known as as the the Board Board of of Admiralty) of Admiralty) to to articulate articulate the the Royal Royal Navy’s Navy's requirements. requirements. At At the the head head of this this board, board, or or committee, committee, sat sat the the first first lord. lord. This This post post was was aa ministerial ministerial portfolio portfolio carrying carrying senior senior rank rank in in the the Cabinet Cabinet of of ministers, ministers, the the political political executive, executive, and and during during the the period period covered covered by by this this survey survey was was always always held held by of by aa civilian. civilian. His His chief chief assistants assistants were were two two junior junior members members of Parliament, Parliament, who who held held the the offices offices of of financial financial secretary secretary and and parliamenparliamentary tary secretary; secretary; usually usually the the same same man man held held both. both. The The two two most most senior senior civil civil servants the servants in in the the department department (again (again civilians) civilians) were were also also members members of of the Board Board of of Admiralty. Admiralty. They They occupied occupied the the posts posts of of civil civil lord lord (from (from 1912 1912 there there were were two two civil civil lords) lords) and and that that of of permanent permanent secretary. secretary. Three Three naval naval lords, lords, the the controller, controller, and and the the naval naval secretary secretary represented represented professional professional naval naval officers. officers. The The controller, controller, who who sometimes sometimes was was also also referred referred to to as as third third naval naval lord, lord, held held responsibility responsibility for for all all aspects aspects of of naval naval materiel. matériel. He He supervised supervised the the Royal Royal Dockyards, Dockyards, the the Corps Corps of of Naval Naval Constructors, Constructors, the the Contracts Contracts Department, Department, and and the the Directorates Directorates of of Naval Naval Ordnance Ordnance and and Torpedoes. Torpedoes. The The controller, controller, in in effect, effect, was was the the managing managing director director of of the the navy’s navy’s substantial substantial manufacturing manufacturing concerns. concerns. The The naval naval secretary secretary generalgenerally ly served served as as administrative administrative assistant assistant to to the the first first lord lord and and oversaw oversaw the the promotions promotions and and appointments appointments of of naval naval officers. officers. Before Before 1904 1904 the the naval naval lords lords proper proper held held joint joint responsibility responsibility for for the the general general running running of of the the navy. navy. After of After this this date date their their labor labor was was divided: divided: the the senior senior or or first first took took charge charge of operational the operational and and strategic strategic policy; policy; the the second, second, naval naval personnel; personnel; and and the junior junior or or fourth fourth naval naval lord lord was was given given responsibility responsibility for for stores, stores, supply, supply, and and the the transport transport service. service. Although Although it it was was the the first first lord lord who who was was accountable accountable to to Cabinet Cabinet and and Parliament Parliament for for the the navy navy and and thus thus the the man man who who held held ultimate ultimate authority, authority, the the other other members members of of the the Board Board were were not not his his assistants. assistants. Power Power to to take take decisions decisions was was vested vested in in the the Board: Board: without without support support of of the the naval naval lords lords the the first first lord lord could could not not act. act. For For most most of of the the nineteenth nineteenth century, century, Great Great Britain Britain lacked lacked a a great great power power competitor competitor capable capable of of mounting mounting a a serious serious and and sustained sustained chalchallenge lenge at at sea. sea. She She was, was, consequently, consequently, able able to to preserve preserve her her “naval “naval masmastery” tery” at at little little cost, cost, with with a a fleet fleet comprised comprised of of old old ships ships as as well well as as new new ones. ones. Thus, Thus, the the construction construction budget budget was was low. low. Although Although the the numerical numerical strength Strength of of the the active active British British fleet—comprised fleet—comprised of of line-of-battle line-of-battle ships— ships— was was perhaps perhaps only only one-third one-third more more than than that that of of its its principal principal rival, rival, the the Marine Marine Francaise, Frangaise, the the Royal Royal Navy Navy possessed possessed an an enormous enormous reserve reserve stock stock Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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The Price Price of of Naval Naval Supremacy Supremacy The

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of of wooden wooden warships warships that that could, could, in in an an emergency, emergency, be be swiftly swiftly recommisrecommissioned Sioned and and manned manned by by crews crews drawn drawn from from the the largest largest merchant merchant marine marine in in the the world. world. Nor Nor was was Britain’s Britain’s naval naval position position seriously seriously challenged challenged during during the the transition transition from from sail-driven sail-driven to to steam-propelled steam-propelled warships. warships. When When it it came came to to building building ironclads, ironclads, the the Royal Royal Navy Navy was was able able to to rely rely upon upon Britain’s Britain’s huge huge financial financial and and industrial industrial strength strength to to build build warships warships both both faster faster and and cheaper cheaper than than any any other other power. power. As As late late as as 1880, 1880, for for instance, instance, Britain’s Britain’s output output of of coal, coal, pig-iron, pig-iron, and and steel steel was was more more than than twice twice that that of of any any Continental Continental power.4 power.‘ in In 1914 1914 the the British British naval naval armaments armaments industry industry could could still still build build more more warships warships per per year year than than all all the the other other great great naval naval powers powers combined. combined. During During the the 1880s 1880s there there grew grew within within the the country country aa perception perception that that the the Royal Royal Navy Navy was was losing losing its its naval naval mastery, mastery, Great Great Britain’s Britain’s still still comcommanding manding lead lead in in naval naval technologies technologies and and unrivaled unrivaled manufacturing manufacturing strength strength notwithstanding. notwithstanding. Not Not only only had had other other powers powers begun begun to to invest invest in in naval naval power, power, but, but, more more ominously, ominously, Britain’s Britain's economic economic lead lead was was seen seen to to be be slipping slipping to to countries countries with with better better endowed endowed and and more more flexible flexible economies. economies. War War scares scares in in 1884 1884 and and 1885 1885 against against Russia Russia and and again again in in 1888 1888 against against France France incited incited aa public public clamor clamor in in Britain Britain for for naval naval expanexpansion. sion. But But the the government’s government’s response response was was equivocal. equivocal. increases Increases in in naval naval estimates estimates in in 1885 1885 and and 1886 1886 were were followed followed by by cuts cuts in in naval naval expenditure expenditure the the next next two two years. years. Both Both political political parties parties were were reluctant reluctant to to raise raise taxes taxes to to fund fund aa permanent permanent increase increase in in the the naval naval establishment. establishment. The The question question of of whether whether late-Victorian Jate-Victorian Britain Britain retained retained her her naval naval mastery mastery was was immensely immensely difficult difficult to to prove prove or or disprove. disprove. The The crude crude quantitative quantitative measures measures of of naval naval strength strength that that had had served served in in the the age age of of sail sail were were meaningless meaningless in in aa period period of of rapid rapid technological technological innovation, innovation, and and it it was was virtually virtually impossible impossible to to add add aa sufficiently sufficiently flexible flexible qualitative qualitative element element to to the the equation. equation. Battleships Battleships under under construction construction at at the the beginning beginning of of the the decade decade were were already already obsolesobsolescent cent by by the the time time they they had had been been launched launched and and within within ten ten years years were were unfit unfit to to lie lie in in the the line line of of battle, battle, being being no no match match for for more more modern modern vessels. vessels. That That being being said, said, however, however, until until the the development development during during the the late late 18908 1890s of of the the American American navies, navies, and and especially especially the the Japanese Japanese navy, navy, such such warships warships were were capable capable of of rendering rendering service service in in distant distant waters. waters. “In “In the the China China Sea, Sea, on on the the west west coast coast of of South South America, America, in in every every harbour harbour remote remote from from Europe,” Europe,” as as Sir Sir Thomas Thomas Brassey, Brassey, aa prominent prominent naval naval authority, authority, noted noted in in 1882, 1882, “our “our flag flag will will be be shown shown with with credit credit for for years years to to come come in in ironclads, ironclads, condemned condemned as as obsolete obsolete for for aa commission commission in in the the Channel Channel and and Mediterranean.“ Mediterranean.”® in In peacetime peacetime anyway. anyway. The The value value of of these these semi-obsolete semi-obsolete vessels vessels in in wartime wartime was more more debatable. debatable. was Britain’s Britain’s naval naval leaders leaders deliberately deliberately made made little little effort effort to to educate educate their their political political masters masters on on the the true true workings workings of of sea sea power. power. For For the the Admiralty Admiralty Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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there there was was some some advantage advantage in in using using “vague “vague and and insubstantial” insubstantial” language language

whenever whenever the the first first lord lord was was obliged obliged to to ask ask Parliament Parliament for for more more money. money. A A spectrum spectrum of of political political interest interest groups groups could could be be persuaded persuaded to to ensure ensure the the provision provision of of additional additional money money needed needed to to uphold uphold “naval “naval supremacy” supremacy” withwithout out having having to to agree agree how how the the new new appropriation appropriation would would be be spent spent or or what what exactly exactly it it would would buy. buy. The The growing growing complexity complexity of of ironclad ironclad warships warships reinreinforced forced this this tendency tendency to to leave leave all all details details to to the the experts. experts. Whereas Whereas in in the the age age of of sail, sail, laymen laymen could could estimate estimate the the relative relative strength strength of of a a fleet, fleet, in in the the age age of of industrial industrial navies, navies, especially especially during during an an age age of of rapid rapid technological technological change, change, estimates estimates of of the the fighting fighting value value of of warships warships were were highly highly subjecsubjective, tive, and, and, thus, thus, only only professional professional naval naval officers officers were were in in aa position position to to say say with with any any authority authority how how many many ships ships were were required required to to uphold uphold naval naval supremacy—if supremacy—if such such aa number number existed. existed. So So long long as as the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s demands demands upon upon the the Treasury Treasury were were moderate, moderate, and and dissatisfied dissatisfied naval naval officers officers did did not not try try to to stir stir up up public public support support for for more more ships ships by by issuing issuing sensational sensational revelations revelations (as (as occurred occurred in in 1884),6 1884),° the the Cabinet Cabinet seldom seldom chalchallenged lenged the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s authority. authority. Once Once the the navy navy estimates estimates began began to to climb, climb, however, however, the the government government began began demanding demanding justification justification for for further further increases increases in in expenditure. expenditure. The The question question as as to to whether whether or or not not Britannia Britannia still still ruled ruled the the waves waves became became a a political political matter matter of of growing growing importance. importance. By By the the end end of of the the 1880s, 1880s, this this and and other other naval naval issues issues grabbed grabbed the the public public attention attention “in “in aa way way that that would would have have been been unthinkable” unthinkable” ten ten years years before.7 before.’ During During the the winter winter of of 1888, 1888, the the government government came came under under attack attack for for failing failing to to provide provide adequate adequate funding funding for for the the navy navy at at a a time time when when rival rival powers powers were were increasing increasing their their maritime maritime capabilities. capabilities. The The unfairness unfairness of of these these accusations, accusations, based based as as they they were were upon upon subjective subjective measures measures of of naval naval power, power, persuaded persuaded the the first first lord lord of of the the Admiralty, Admiralty, Lord Lord George George Hamilton, Hamilton, that that the the government government could could avoid avoid much much of of the the arbitrary arbitrary criticism criticism of of naval naval policy policy by by publishing publishing a a yardstick yardstick by by which which its its commitment commitment to to upholding upholding British British naval naval supremacy supremacy could could be be visibly visibly measured. measured. In In cooperation cooperation with with the the naval naval lords lords of of the the Admiralty, Admiralty,

Hamilton Hamilton set set himself himself the the task task of of calculating calculating the the navy’s navy’s matériel matériel requirerequire-

ments ments in in aa modern modern war. war. On On 7 7 March March 1889, 1889, the the first first lord lord explained explained his his new new formula formula to to Parliament. Parliament. II have have endeavoured endeavoured to to study study the the speeches speeches of of those those who who in in previous previous years years have have held held my my position position and and that that of of Prime Prime Minister, Minister, so so as as to to ascertain ascertain what what was was the the paramount paramount idea idea underlying underlying their their utterances utterances when when they they spoke spoke of of

the the standard standard at at which which our our naval naval establishment establishment should should be be maintained. maintained. I|

think think II am am correct correct in in saying saying that that the the leading leading idea idea has has been been that that our our estabestablishment lishment should should be be on on such such aa scale scale that that it it should should at at least least be be equal equal to to the the

naval naval strength strength of of any any two two other other countries.8 countries.® Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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By By “our “our establishment,” establishment,” Hamilton Hamilton meant meant the the number number of of modern modern battlebattleships. ships. “Supremacy “Supremacy at at sea,” sea,” he he observed, observed, “must, “must, after after all, all, be be measured measured by by the the number number of of battleships battleships we we can can put put into into the the line.”9 line.” Elsewhere Elsewhere in in his his speech, speech, the the first first lord lord insisted insisted that that only only up-to-date up-to-date types types would would be be countcounted ed toward toward the the new new standard; standard; this this was was aa very very significant significant departure departure from from established established practice practice and and represented represented a a concession concession to to those those who who had had argued argued that that older older battleships battleships would would be be of of little little use use in in a a real real war. war. Deleting Deleting older older vessels vessels also also provided provided justification justification for for new new construction. construction. As As to to how how he he intended intended to to calculate calculate his his “two-Power “two-Power standard,” standard,” as as it it became became known, known, Hamilton Hamilton remained remained deliberately deliberately vague. vague. At At the the very very least least it it meant meant a a modern modern British British battleship battleship force force numerically numerically equal equal to to the the comcombined bined battleship battleship fleets fleets of of the the next next two two strongest strongest naval naval powers; powers; at at the the most most it it provided provided for for a a fleet fleet certain certain of of containing containing the the combined combined fleets fleets of of the the next next two two strongest strongest naval naval powers powers or, or, in in quantitative quantitative terms, terms, aa British British battle battle fleet fleet approximately approximately 10 10 to to 15 15 percent percent larger larger than than that that of of her her potenpotential tial opponents.‘0 opponents.'° Equality Equality plus plus a a margin, margin, in in other other words. words. When When later later that that

March March Hamilton Hamilton announced announced aa huge huge naval naval construction construction program program that that clearly clearly exceeded exceeded his his new new two-power two-power formula, formula, the the confusion confusion was was exacerexacerbated." bated.'' Without Without explaining explaining his his calculations, calculations, Hamilton Hamilton fixed fixed the the estabestablishment lishment of of the the British British fleet fleet at at forty-seven forty-seven battleships. battleships. This This gave gave the the Royal Royal Navy Navy aa margin margin of of six six units units over over the the combined combined battle battle fleets fleets of of France France and and ltaly—the Italy—the then then secondsecond- and and third-ranking third-ranking naval naval powers. powers. Over Over the the next next five five years, years, Hamilton Hamilton revealed revealed to to Parliament, Parliament, seventy seventy new new warships warships would would be be added added to to the the navy’s navy’s list, list, including including ten ten capital capital units units that that were were much much superior superior to to all all previous previous battleships. battleships. The The total total cost cost of of the the Naval Naval Defense Defense Act Act was was projected projected at at twenty-one twenty-one million million for for warships warships plus plus an additional additional five five million million to to pay pay for for improvements improvements in in fleet-support fleet-support infrainfraan structure. Hamilton Hamilton maintained maintained that that this this construction construction program program would would structure. provide provide the the navy navy with with ample ample warships, warships, “adequate “adequate not not only only to to our our immeimmediate, but but also also our our future future wants.” wants.” In In the the process process he he explained explained that that the the diate, Board Board hoped hoped the the magnitude magnitude of of the the sum sum to to be be spent spent under under the the Naval Naval Defense Act Act would would discourage discourage the the naval naval aspirations aspirations of of rival rival powers.” powers.12 Defense All interested interested groups groups quickly quickly accepted accepted the the “two-Power “two-Power standard” standard” as as All the literal literal definition definition of of British British naval naval supremacy; supremacy; in in other other words words public public the still was still Britain was that Britain satisfied that remained satisfied opinion remained parliamentary opinion and parliamentary and supreme at at Sea sea so so long long as as the the Royal Royal Navy Navy possessed possessed as as many many battleships battleships supreme as the the second second and and third third naval naval powers powers combined. combined. In In 1890, 1890, the the standard standard as was endorsed endorsed by by the the Liberal Liberal Party. Party. In In the the House House of of Commons, Commons, the the issue issue was stannew stanthe new why the reason why One reason importance. One in importance. faded in spending faded naval spending of naval of dard appealed appealed to to the the politicians politicians was was that that its its definition definition was dard was so so flexible. flexible. No No amendments amendments were were required required when when Russia Russia assumed assumed the the rank rank of of third third naval naval power, power, or or when when France France and and Russia Russia announced announced their their formal Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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to intended to was intended standard was the standard originally the Whereas originally alliance later. Whereas year later. alliance aa year

upholding with upholding consistent with strength consistent naval strength of naval level of establish minimum level the minimum establish the

After level. After maximum level. as aa maximum regarded as became regarded naval quickly became supremacy, itit quickly naval supremacy, was there was 1890s, there the 1890s, during the programs during naval programs further foreign naval in foreign increases in further increases taxBritish taxthe British that the parties that political parties the political between the informal agreement between informal agreement the matching the of matching burden of full burden the full assume the to assume asked to payer be asked not be would not payer would middle the middle By the ship. By for ship. ship for fleets ship Russian fleets and Russian increases French and the French in the increases in been had been battleships had in battleships superiority” in of superiority” “margin of of Hamilton’s “margin decade, Hamilton’s the decade, of the the of the members of professional members the professional of the dismay of the dismay to the eroded much to zero, much to zero, eroded to Board of of Admiralty. Admiralty. Board of politics of the politics simplified the have simplified may have formula may While two-power formula the two-power While the requirematerial requirenavy’s material the navy’s satisfy the not satisfy did not nevertheless did naval finance, itit nevertheless naval finance, essentially itit that essentially realize isis that to realize failed to have failed historians have ments. most historians What most ments. What to useful to was useful standard. ItIt was military standard. than aa military rather than political rather was always aa political was always naval the naval that the guarantee that as aa guarantee served as as itit served insofar as the Admiralty insofar of Admiralty Board of the Board did certainly did But itit certainly leVel. But minimum level. below aa minimum fall below not fall would not establishment establishment would fundathe fundaor the thinking or strategic thinking naval strategic of naval direction of the direction not either the reflect either not reflect theoretical any theoretical upon any based upon was itit based Nor was doctrine. Nor naval doctrine. mentals of naval mentals of that felt that fact, felt in fact, officers in naval officers senior naval Most senior warfare. Most principles naval warfare. of naval principles of Sir insufficient. Sir was insufficient. battleships was of battleships numbers of in numbers parity in two-power two-power parity from lord from naval lord senior naval as senior served as who served example, who for example, Richards, for Frederick Richards, Frederick the feel the we feel turn we every turn “at every that “at complained that frequently complained 1893 1899, frequently until 1899, 1893 until battleships in battleships equality in with equality content with being content of being policy of the policy of the inconvenience inconvenience of felt, he felt, sea,” he the sea,” by the lives by which lives power which “a power For “a Russia.”13 For with and Russia.”'® France and with France Lord Adm. Lord superiority.”14 Adm. unquestioned superiority.”’"* in unquestioned lies in policy lies “the true policy only true “the only term his term throughout his and throughout agreed and entirely agreed him entirely succeeded him Walter who succeeded Kerr, who Walter Kerr, margin.” “safety margin.” the “safety of the restoration of the restoration for the pressed for constantly constantly pressed and political and prevailing political the prevailing in the that, in appreciated that, both appreciated Nevertheless, Nevertheless, both financial financial climate, climate, their their aspirations aspirations were were impracticable. impracticable. legitimore legitimuch more serious—and much more serious—and held more Britain’s leaders held naval leaders Britain’s naval for suitable for cruisers suitable modern cruisers of modern number of available number the available at the mate—concerns mate—concerns at of defense of the defense for the scheme for In aa scheme trade. In oceanic trade. empire’s oceanic protecting the empire’s protecting the departintelligence departnaval intelligence the naval scare, the war scare, 1885 war the 1885 during the trade prepared during trade prepared of force of its force augment its to augment able to being able Navy being Royal Navy the Royal on the calculated on ment calculated ment armed seventy-five armed least seventy-five at least with at vessels with protection vessels trade protection eighty-three eighty-three trade an that an recognized that had recognized Admiralty had the Admiralty however, the 1892, however, By 1892, ships. By merchant ships. merchant plan the plan and the warship, and modern warship, for aa modern match for no match be no would be cruiser would auxiliary cruiser auxiliary shelved. consequently shelved. was consequently cruisers was as cruisers ships as merchant ships armed merchant use armed to use to There There was was no no alternative, alternative, the the naval naval lords lords argued, argued, other other than than to to build build more more cruisers. cruisers. The The Admiralty Admiralty estimated estimated that that to to provide provide adequate adequate proprotection to to British British trade trade in in time time of of war, war, the the Royal Royal Navy Navy would would require require at at tection least least twice twice as aS many many cruisers cruisers as as its its prospective prospective opponents. opponents. In In other other Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. 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words, words, twice twice as as many many as as those those possessed possessed by by the the Franco-Russian Franco-Russian combicombination. nation. In In number number of of battleships, battleships, it it will will be be noted, noted, the the Admiralty Admiralty acceptaccepted ed (albeit (albeit reluctantly) reluctantly) temporary temporary equality equality with with the the combined combined French French and and Russian Russian fleets. fleets. The The concern concern at at the the shortage shortage of of cruisers cruisers in in time time of of war war was was to to a a certain certain extent extent allayed allayed by by the the announcement announcement in in 1894 1894 of of the the Spencer Spencer program, program, which which added added to to the the naval naval establishment establishment another another seven seven battleships, battleships, twenty twenty large large cruisers, cruisers, and and over over one one hundred hundred flotilla flotilla craft craft (notably (notably torpedo torpedo boat boat destroyers). destroyers). But But soon soon the the naval naval lords lords found found themthemselves selves confronted confronted by by a a quite quite different different and and much much more more serious serious threat threat to to their their preparations preparations for for the the defense defense of of maritime maritime trade. trade.

The The Armored Armored Cruiser Cruiser Threat Threat

In In 1896, 1896, the the French French navy navy laid laid down down a a new new model model cruiser cruiser named named Jeanne Jeanne d’Arc. d’Arc. She She was was aa large, large, high-speed, high-speed, long-range, long-range, armored armored cruiser cruiser that that was was purposely purposely designed designed for for raiding raiding commerce commerce on on the the high high seas. seas. In In theory theory the the great great length length of of the the hull hull coupled coupled with with a a huge huge coal coal capacity capacity would would enable enable her her to to outpace outpace and and outdistance outdistance any any more more powerful powerful adveradversary. sary. But But the the most most remarkable remarkable feature feature of of this this warship warship was was the the provision provision of of an an armored armored belt belt along along the the complete complete length length of of the the hull. hull. Previous Previous gengenerations erations of of “first-class” “first-class” cruisers cruisers had had not not received received this this degree degree of of protecprotection, tion, because because it it was was simply simply not not possible possible to to armor armor a a large large enough enough area area of of the the hull hull without without prohibitive prohibitive sacrifices sacrifices in in either either speed speed or or endurance endurance or or both. both. Instead, Instead, large large cruisers cruisers had had been been given given an an armored armored deck deck located located at at the the waterline waterline covering covering the the machinery machinery spaces spaces and and the the magazines, magazines, which which were were further further protected protected by by coal coal bunkers bunkers located located along along the the ship’s ship’s sides.15 sides." With With the the development development in in the the early early 18903 1890s of of face-hardened face-hardened armor, armor, howhowever, ever, it it became became practicable practicable to to mount mount armor armor plates plates of of sufficient sufficient thickness thickness to to stop stop projectiles projectiles from from medium medium caliber caliber (up (up to to 6—inch) 6-inch) weapons. weapons. This This meant meant that that the the hull hull of of the the Jeanne Jeanne d’Arc, d’Arc, and and all all subsequent subsequent French French sidesidearmored armored cruisers, cruisers, was was virtually virtually shotproof shotproof against against the the armor armor piercing piercing shells Shells fired fired from from the the 6-inch 6-inch guns guns that that composed composed the the main main batteries batteries of of the the British British cruisers cruisers with with the the speed speed to to catch catch them.16 them.'® Their Their own own battery battery of of quick-firing quick-firing guns, guns, moreover, moreover, was was sufficient sufficient to to overwhelm overwhelm even even the the more more powerfully powerfully armed armed (yet (yet slow slow steaming steaming and and slow slow shooting) shooting) old old British British ironironclads clads relegated relegated to to station station duties duties in in distant distant waters. waters. At At first first the the British British paid paid little little attention attention to to the the French French development development of of the the side-armored side-armored cruiser, cruiser, questioning questioning the the accuracy accuracy of of their their intelligence intelligence reports. reports. The The ordering ordering of of two two similar similar vessels vessels at at the the beginning beginning of of 1897 1897 also also drew drew no no response. response. Not Not until until April April that that year, year, after after the the French French parparliament liament voted voted a a supplementary supplementary estimate estimate providing providing for for another another four four armored armored cruisers cruisers protected protected by by the the newly newly perfected perfected Krupp Krupp face-hardened face-hardened armor, armor, did did the the Admiralty Admiralty fmally finally react. react.’‘7 The The Board Board now now realized realized with with Lambert, Nicolas. SIrjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution.

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newest the newest even the outclassed even vessels outclassed powerful vessels these powerful that these concern that some concern some entire Navy’s entire Royal Navy's the Royal obsolete the rendered obsolete effect, rendered in effect, and, in cruisers and, British cruisers British only the only that the agreed that quickly agreed was quickly vessels. Itit was protection vessels. trade protection of trade stock of stock cruisers armored cruisers build armored to build Navy to Royal Navy the Royal for the was for response was appropriate response appropriate the accordingly, the 1897, accordingly, July 1897, 23 July On 23 numbers. On greater numbers. in greater and in own and its own of its of the of the Chancellor of informed Chancellor Goschen, informed George Goschen, Admiralty, George the Admiralty, of the lord of first lord first exertions extra exertions the extra of the view of “in view that “in Hicks-Beech that Michael Hicks-Beech Exchequer Michael Exchequer navy the navy cruisers” the fast cruisers” very fast of very respect of in respect specially in France specially by France made by made six) to six) increased to (later increased four (later immediately four down immediately lay down to lay money to required money required vesFrench vesthe French down the run down to run speed to necessary speed the necessary with the cruisers with large cruisers large necessary the necessary voted the Commons voted of Commons House of the House later the days later Three days sels.18 Three sels.'® French the that learned Admiralty the year, that of end the Toward sum.‘9 sum.'® Toward the end of that year, the Admiralty learned that the French year. following the early cruisers armored more yet down lay to intended intended to lay down yet more armored cruisers early the following year. naval British to challenge direct a as this interpreted rightly Board rightly interpreted this as a direct challenge to British naval The Board The their expressing their in expressing alone in not alone were not London were in London lords in naval lords The naval supremacy. The supremacy. the 1898 February In development.”20 formidable development.”” In February 1898 the and formidable “new and this “new at this alarm at alarm squadron Mediterranean premier Britain’s premier Mediterranean squadron of Britain's chief of in chief commander in commander in then in vessels then cruising vessels the cruising of the ability of the ability to the as to doubts as strong doubts expressed strong expressed cruisers.21 armored fast of generation new generation of fast armored cruisers.”' the new contain the to contain fleet to his fleet his situation the situation of the seriousness of the seriousness explained the Goschen explained month Goschen that month Later that Later Cabinet: the Cabinet: to the to recognise to recognise begun to have begun gauged, have be gauged, can be policy can their policy as their far as so far French, so The French, The most. us most. damage us can damage they can that they battleships that than battleships rather than cruisers rather by cruisers that itit isis by that facts the facts from the seen from been seen had been been had have been battleships have on battleships efforts on their efforts What their What now which isis now program which vast program and vast new and the new in the but in described, but have described, which Ii have which to battleship to new battleship one new only one there isis only Chamber there the Chamber of the sanction of the sanction awaiting the awaiting be be laid laid down down in in 1898. 1898. Their Their first first class class cruiser cruiser program, program, on on the the other other hand, hand, is is most most formidable.22 formidable.”

of batch of first batch Navy’s first Royal Navy's the Royal down the laid down Admiralty laid the Admiralty 1898, the early 1898, in early In carried aa They carried ships. They big ships. were big class were Cressy class six Cressy The six cruisers. The armored cruisers. armored Krupp piercing Krupp of piercing capable of guns capable 9.2-inch guns of 9.2-inch armament of main armament powerful main powerful the in the guns. In 6-inch guns. quick-firing 6-inch of quick-firing battery of numerous battery and aa numerous plate and armor plate armor be would be vessels would such vessels construction, such naval construction, of naval director of then director the then of the Opinion of opinion be thus and success of prospect some with battleship a engage to able able to engage a battleship with some prospect of success and thus be lord naval lord second naval The second France.23 The than France.” other than powers other against powers wars against in wars use in of use of dealing of capable quite be would “they that agreed controller the and and the controller agreed that “they would be quite capable of dealing singly.”1 them singly.” caught them they caught battleships ifif they foreign battleships the foreign of the many of with many with those than larger actually were cruisers armored of hulls the Although Although the hulls of armored cruisers were actually larger than those distheir armor less carried they because battleships, contemporary of of contemporary battleships, because they carried less armor their disbuild. to build. much to so much cost so not cost did not thus did they thus and they great and so great not so was not placement was placement the boilers feed the to feed needed to stokers needed of stokers number of large number the large of the because of But because But Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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when driving driving them them at at high high speeds, speeds, armored armored cruisers cruisers required required larger larger when crews crews than than battleships battleships and, and, as as aa consequence, consequence, were were more more expensive expensive to to maintain. The The dimensions dimensions of of the the Royal Royal Navy's Navy’s second second batch batch of of four four maintain. armored armored cruisers, cruisers, ordered ordered in in May May 1898, 1898, were were even even larger.25 larger.” At At 14,000 14,000 tons, tons, the the four four vessels vessels of of the the Drake Drake class class displaced displaced just just 350 350 tons tons less less than than the the London London class class battleships battleships ordered ordered under under the the same same program program and, and, at £1.05 £1.05 million million apiece, apiece, cost cost virtually virtually the the same.” same.26 To To proceed proceed at at at top top speed, these these craft craft required required aa complement complement of of almost almost nine nine hundred hundred men— men—— speed, no fewer fewer than than one one hundred hundred and and fifty fifty more more than than aa battleship. battleship. On On first first no reading reading these these figures, figures, the the senior senior naval naval lord lord immediately immediately labeled labeled the the authorize to authorize hesitated to too, hesitated Goschen, too, vessels.27 Goschen, eating” vessels.”’ “man eating” as “man Drakes as Drakes their construction, construction, being being concerned concerned not not so so much much with with their their price price as as their their their “vast “vast pull pull on on our our manning manning resources.”28 resources.’* It It was was no no coincidence coincidence that that in in 1898 the the Admiralty Admiralty raised raised an an additional additional 6,300 6,300 active active service service ratings.” ratings.29 1898 French the French to the responding to finished responding Admiralty finished the Admiralty had the sooner had No sooner No unexan unexto an react to to react compelled to were compelled they were than they program, than cruiser program, armored cruiser armored that indications that first indications The first navy.30 The Russian navy.* the Russian in the increase in large increase pectedly large pectedly in London in reached London fleet reached their fleet increase their to increase planning to were planning Russians were the Russians the the informed the Petersburg informed St. Petersburg in St. attache in British attaché The British 1898. The February 1898. early February early Admiralty that that aa senior senior Russian Russian admiral admiral had had “left “left for for the the United United States States Admiralty Tsar later, Tsar month later, warships.“ AA month buy warships.”*' to buy power to discretionary power with discretionary with refused but refused program but construction program naval construction six-year naval announced a a six-year Nicholas announced Nicholas navy. his navy. on his spend on to spend intended to he intended money he much money how much exactly how disclose exactly to disclose to Division Intelligence Division Naval Intelligence the Naval until the act until to act hesitated to Goschen hesitated London, Goschen In London, In meanthe meanIn the intentions.32 In Russian intentions.” the Russian of the sense of clearer sense obtain aa clearer could obtain could proposition “the proposition for “the approval for Cabinet approval obtained Cabinet he obtained time, nevertheless, he time, nevertheless, In be.”33 In might be.”* whatever itit might program whatever Russian program the Russian meet the that must meet we must that we the even the later even months later Several months check. Several blank check. given aa blank effect, was given he was effect, he Russians the Russians that the learned that was learned when itit was aback when taken aback Admiralty was taken Admiralty was in stationed in be stationed to be fleet to new fleet build aa new to build intended $27,560,000 to borrow £27,560,000 to borrow intended to

“The Arthur.34 “The Port Arthur.” at Port base at naval base acquired naval the recently acquired the recently at the East at Far East the Far

shipbuildof shipbuildprogram of gigantic program inaugurated aa gigantic has inaugurated Russian government has Russian government carried be carried to be “which isis to June, “which on 66 June, Cabinet on the Cabinet to the ing,” reported to Goschen reported ing,” Goschen Russian regular Russian the regular in the for in provided for construction provided out the construction to the addition to in addition out in an requested an Admiralty requested the Admiralty challenge, the this challenge, meet this annual To meet budgets.”35 To annual budgets.”*’ and battleships and four battleships for four pay for to pay appropriation to immediate supplementary appropriation immediate supplementary would More would million).36 More 29 million).*° approximately £9 (costing approximately four cruisers (costing armored cruisers four armored year. following year. the following be required the be required neck racing neck was racing Britain was that Britain Admiralty that the Admiralty to the ItIt was apparent to now apparent was now subthat suband that powers and naval powers third-ranking nava] and third-ranking second- and to the secondwith the neck with to neck Navy ifif Royal Navy the Royal for the provided for be provided to be have to would have stantial funds would additional funds stantial additional prothe proof the view of “In view insured. “In be insured. to be was to routes was trade routes the trade of the security of the security the Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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grams grams of of France France and and Russia” Russia” Goschen Goschen hastened hastened to to warn warn the the chancellor chancellor in in a a private private letter letter dated dated 21 21 July July 1898, 1898, “we “we must must resolutely resolutely face face the the

necessity necessity of of our our having having to to add add considerably considerably to to ours ours in in next next years years ordiordinary nary program. program. I| mention mention this this now, now, so so that that there there be be no no misunderstanding misunderstanding as as to to what what we we may may have have to to do. do. What What II am am proposing proposing now now is is not not in in allevialleviation ation of of next next years’ years’ estimates.”37 estimates.”*’ Hicks-Beech Hicks-Beech was was aghast. aghast. The The following following day day Goschen Goschen assured assured him him that that the the navy’s navy’s demands demands were were modest. modest. The The batbattleships were required to maintain the tleships were required to maintain the two-power two-power standard, standard, while while the the addition addition of of just just four four extra extra cruisers cruisers left left the the Royal Royal Navy Navy with with no no margin margin of of superiority. superiority. Later Later that that day day the the first first lord lord reminded reminded the the chancellor chancellor of of the the Exchequer Exchequer that that the the Admiralty Admiralty had had always always maintained maintained that that “we “we must must have have many more many more than than our our enemies enemies if if our our trade trade routes routes and and food food supplies supplies are are to to be be protected.”38 protected.”** The The only only concession concession that that Goschen Goschen was was prepared prepared to to make make was was to to overrule overrule objections objections from from his his advisors advisors to to the the purchase purchase of of smaller smaller armored armored cruisers, cruisers, the the Kent Kent class, class, which which cost cost just just £750,000 £750,000 apiece apiece and and which which required required only only half half the the crew crew of of the the Drake Drake class.39 class.*® In In time time they they proved proved to to be be aa false false economy.40 economy.” In In August August 1898, 1898, and and again again in in December, December, the the first first lord lord badgered badgered Hicks-Beech Hicks-Beech to to sanction sanction the the purchase purchase of of yet yet more more fast fast cruisers, cruisers, but but without without success.41 success.*' A A nationwide nationwide strike strike by by the the engineering engineering unions unions in in 1899 1899 resulted resulted in in aa shortage shortage of of armor armor plate, plate, which which prevented prevented the the Royal Royal Navy Navy from from ordering ordering as aS many many armored armored cruisers cruisers as as it it wanted wanted that that year. year. The The Admiralty, Admiralty, howevhowever, wasted little time in notifying er, wasted little time in notifying the the Treasury Treasury that, that, as as aa consequence, consequence, no no fewer fewer than than seven seven would would have have to to be be laid laid down down the the following following year.42 year.” For For the the first first time, time, moreover, moreover, cruisers cruisers ordered ordered under under the the 1900 1900 program program would would be be given given priority priority over over the the construction construction of of battleships. battleships. Increasingly Increasingly loud loud complaints complaints from from Hicks-Beech Hicks-Beech at at the the magnitude magnitude of of the the sums sums already already spent spent on on armored armored cruisers cruisers failed failed to to discourage discourage the the Admiralty. Admiralty. “Every “Every day day brings brings further further proof proof of of the the kind kind of of cruiser cruiser war war we we shall shall have have to to face, face, if if we we have have war war at at all,” all,” Goschen Goschen replied replied in in February February 1899.43 1899.* Yet Yet it it can can hardly hardly be be denied denied that that the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s approach approach to to meeting meeting the the FrancoFrancoRussian Russian challenge challenge by by maintaining maintaining a a numerically numerically superior superior fleet fleet of of battlebattleships ships and and cruisers cruisers was, was, by by the the turn turn of of the the century, century, running running into into the the limits of the British state’s willingness limits of the British state’s willingness or or ability ability to to pay. pay. Asymmetrical Asymmetrical Force Force Structures Structures The The Board Board of of Admiralty Admiralty had had good good reason reason to to doubt doubt whether whether the the French threat to British French threat to British trade trade could could be be contained contained by by a a naval naval strategy strategy based based upon upon the the maintenance maintenance of of a a large large fleet fleet of of battleships. battleships. In In 1896 1896 Francois Fournier, Francois Fournier, a a highly highly respected respected French French admiral, admiral, postulated postulated that that recent recent advances advances in in technology technology allowed allowed navies navies to to build build new new types types of of warwarships ships and and even even adopt adopt new new force force structures. structures. With With an an eye eye on on confounding confounding Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. 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“perfidious “perfidious Albion,” Albion,” he he suggested suggested that that France France should should build build aa new new fleet fleet comprised comprised of of fast, fast, long-range long-range armored armored cruisers. cruisers. Fournier Fournier advised advised that that these these vessels vessels must must always always strive strive to to exploit exploit their their greater greater speed speed to to avoid avoid fighting fighting with with superior superior British British forces. forces. He He also also argued argued that that deliberately deliberately seeking seeking combat combat with with a a more more numerous numerous enemy enemy fleet fleet made made little little sense sense when when the the opponent’s opponent’s vital vital interests interests could could be be more more effectively effectively attacked attacked by by other other means. means. Rather Rather than than attempting attempting to to contest contest command command of of the the sea, sea, Fournier Fournier believed believed that that the the easiest easiest and and cheapest cheapest way way France France could could strike strike at at Great Great Britain Britain would would be be to to wage wage a a systematic systematic guerre guerre industrielle. industrielle. This This “industrial “industrial war” war” was was to to take take the the form form of of an an attack attack on on the the global global trading trading system. system. The The French French hoped hoped that that sinking sinking British British merchant merchant ships ships would would disdisrupt rupt the the London London financial financial markets markets by by driving driving up up the the price price of of insurance insurance and and interest interest rates rates to to politically politically unacceptable unacceptable levels. levels. The The supposed supposed vulvulnerability nerability of of Britain’s Britain’s financial financial system, system, according according to to Fournier, Fournier, made made the the actual actual material material severing severing of of Britain’s Britain’s trade trade arteries arteries unnecessary.“ unnecessary.“ Steadily Steadily worsening worsening economic economic disruption disruption would would eventually eventually force force the the city city of of London London to to demand demand the the government government make make peace. peace. Fournier Fournier insisted insisted that that the the implementation implementation of of his his strategy strategy was was pracpracticable ticable and and that that the the commerce commerce raiders raiders could could inflict inflict sufficient sufficient damage damage on on Britain’s Britain’s oceanic oceanic trade trade to to bring bring about about the the necessary necessary conditions conditions for for ecoeconomic nomic collapse. collapse. Anticipating Anticipating those those critics critics who who argued argued that that the the French French had hunhad unsuccessfully unsuccessfully employed employed a a similar similar strategy strategy against against Britain Britain one one hundred dred years years before, before, Fournier Fournier explained explained that that the the previous previous attempts attempts to to wage wage aa guerre guerre de de course course by by encouraging encouraging civilian civilian privateering privateering had had failed failed for for two two main main reasons: reasons: first, first, French French attacks attacks on on British British trade trade had had been been haphazard haphazard and and uncoordinated; uncoordinated; and and second, second, the the Royal Royal Navy Navy had had successsuccessfully blockfully contained contained much much of of the the French French effort effort by by mounting mounting an an effective effective blockade ade over over French French home home ports, ports, thus, thus, preventing preventing warships warships free free egress egress to to the the open open seas. seas. The The admiral admiral further further insisted insisted that that the the economic economic system system at at the the end end of of the the nineteenth nineteenth century century was was far far more more complex complex and, and, thus, thus, more more vulnerable vulnerable than than had had existed existed a a century century before. before. In In addition, addition, the the navy navy of of the the Third Third Republic Republic would would be be better better equipped. equipped. Fournier Fournier argued argued that that whereas whereas previously previously the the Marine Marine Francaise Francaise had had lacked lacked reach, reach, it it now now possessed possessed aa global global network network of of defended defended bases bases from from which which to to operate operate purpose-built purpose-built corsairs corsairs in in distant distant waters waters where where British British trade trade was was most most vulnerable. vulnerable. But But the most most important important reason reason Fournier Fournier cited cited in in support support of of his his guerre guerre indusindusthe trielle trielle strategy strategy was was the the widespread widespread belief belief that that close close blockade blockade of of French French ports ports was was no no longer longer practicable.45 practicable.” The The French French admiral’s admiral’s faith faith in in the the ability ability of of the the armored armored cruisers cruisers to to evade evade the the blockade blockade was was based based upon upon the the belief belief that that the the French French navy’s navy’s already already sizeable sizeable force force of of torpedo torpedo boats boats was was capable capable of of driving driving back back the the British observation squadrons whenever necessary. Since 1886 British observation squadrons whenever necessary. Since 1886 the the Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. 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Revolution Naval Revolution Fisher’s Naval ~=Sir John Fisher's Sir John

Originally craft.46 Originally torpedo craft.* in torpedo heavily in investing heavily Marine been investing had been Francaise had Marine Francaise permawaters permaterritorial waters French territorial all French render all to render their been to had been function had their function to open to ports open keeping ports thereby keeping and thereby warships and nently hostile warships for hostile unsafe for nently unsafe primitive relatively primitive still relatively were still torpedoes were trade. 18803, torpedoes the 1880s, During the trade. During they Nevertheless they yards. Nevertheless 600 yards. perhaps 600 of perhaps weapons range of effective range an effective with an weapons with cheap small cheap words aa small other words flotilla—in other the flotilla—in conferred on the power” on “battle power” conferred “battle warship expensive warship most expensive largest most the largest sink the to sink torpedo power to the power had the boat had torpedo boat and artillery and quick-firing artillery of quick-firing 1888 of in 1888 in perfection in the perfection after the But after world. But the world. in the had threat had torpedo threat the torpedo believed the experts believed naval experts high-explosive most naval shells, most high-explosive shells, could battleship could firers aa battleship quick firers of quick battery of with aa battery been Armed with contained. Armed been contained. could before itit could assailant before its assailant sinking its of sinking capable of throw fire” capable of fire” “hail of out aa “hail throw out At daylight. At of daylight. hours of the hours in the least in range—at least approach torpedo range—at within torpedo to within approach to hostile any hostile against any weapon against formidable weapon still aa formidable night, were still boats were torpedo boats night, torpedo suggested Fournier suggested Until Fournier base. Until their base. to their close to too close warship ventured too that ventured warship that by situation by this situation exploit this to exploit endeavor to should endeavor that cruisers should armored cruisers the armored that the the of the potential of night-fighting potential the night-fighting night, the at night, only at entering port only leaving port and leaving entering and howev1890s, howevlate 1890s, the late From the use. From little use. of little be of to be French appeared to flotilla appeared French flotilla warhostile warback hostile driving back night driving at night practiced at boats practiced er, torpedo boats French torpedo the French er, the waters. territorial waters. their territorial in their lurking in ships ships lurking all of all that of from that different from structure different force structure of aa force was of Fournier’s vision was Fournier’s vision the contest to and combat for organized navies, other fleets. Traditional navies, organized for combat and to contest the Traditional fleets. other warships: of warships: categories of general categories three general command comprised three sea, comprised the sea, of the command of would battleships would wartime, battleships In wartime, craft. In flotilla craft. battleships, and flotilla cruisers, and battleships, cruisers, face to face expected to be expected would be scouts would and scouts fight cruisers and battleships, cruisers other battleships, fight other warcraft, wartorpedo craft, for torpedo Except for forth. Except so forth. other and so scouts, and and scouts, cruisers and other cruisers power, Battle power, class. Battle own class. their own ships outside their fight outside to fight intended to not intended were not ships were prove would prove battleships would of battleships Numbers of therefore, improvised. Numbers be improvised. not be could not therefore, could symmetrical or symmetrical conventional or build aa conventional decisive. to build continuing to of continuing Instead of decisive. Instead his urged his Fournier urged navies, Fournier rival navies, of rival fleet, structures of force structures the force matching the fleet, matching that warships that new-model warships build new-model and build peers structure and different structure adopt aa different to adopt peers to the was the cruiser was armored cruiser The armored vessels. The did conventional vessels. with conventional compare with not compare did not enough fast enough were fast craft were These craft type. These perfect intermediate type. the intermediate of the example of perfect example to power to fighting power sufficient fighting possessed sufficient to yet possessed battleships, yet hostile battleships, evade hostile to evade France that France advised that also advised He also overwhelm cruisers; He trade-protection cruisers.. overwhelm trade-protection of aa idea of Fournier’s idea battleships. Fournier’s should expensive battleships. more expensive any more build any not build should not the in the support in considerable support found considerable navy corsairs found of corsairs fleet of upon aa fleet built upon navy built

theFournier’s thelobby.47 Fournier's colonial lobby.*” the colonial from the French particularly from parliament, particularly French parliament,

of imagination of the imagination caught the also caught structure” also ory force structure” “asymmetrical force an “asymmetrical of an ory of committee naval parliamentary the of Edouard Lockroy, the chairman of the parliamentary naval committee chairman the Edouard Lockroy, recLockroy recmarine.48 Lockroy of marine.* minister of as minister who term as short term served aa short also served had also who had with compete to strength financial ognized that his nation lacked the financial strength to compete with the lacked nation his that ognized He neverfleets. He battle fleets. large battle Britain maintaining large powers inin maintaining other powers and other Britain and Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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her keep her to keep France to for France strategy for Fournier’s strategy in Fournier’s opportunity in theless an opportunity saw an theless saw France that notion the addition, In power. In addition, the notion that France maritime power. first-class maritime as a a first-class rank as rank and British, and the British, than the warfare than of warfare form of sophisticated form more sophisticated employ aa more could employ could equipnaval sophisticated technologically sophisticated naval equipfor technologically demand for the demand that the idea that the idea the ment ment would would help help boost boost the the nation’s nation’s flailing flailing industries, industries, also also appealed.49 appealed.” the adopted the actually adopted had actually navy had French navy the French that the suspicions that British suspicions British Founier’s by Founier’s substantiated by be substantiated to be appeared to strategy appeared industrielle strategy guerre industrielle guerre based fleet based main fleet French main the French command the to command 1897 to of 1897 end of 'the end at the appointment appointment at early boosted early considerably boosted was considerably impression was The impression Mediterranean. The the Mediterranean. in in the of minister of of minister office of the office to the returned to was returned Lockroy was when Lockroy year when following year the the following the from the battleship from drop aa battleship to drop was to moreover, was acts, moreover, first acts, his first of his One of marine. marine. One to saved to thus saved money thus the money use the and use program and construction program French construction published published French for pay for to pay and to program, and cruiser program, armored cruiser the armored in the acceleration in an acceleration fund an fund Successive bases. Successive overseas bases. protecting overseas fortifications protecting the fortifications in the improvements improvements in interof interupsurge of an upsurge noted an Paris noted in Paris attaché in naval attaché British naval the British from the reports from reports and press, and the press, politicians, the among politicians, war among naval war of naval theories of radical theories in radical est in est breaktechnological breakImportant technological officers. Important naval officers. junior naval among junior especially among especially weaponry naval weaponry of naval areas of other areas in other engineers in naval engineers French naval by French throughs by throughs From navy. From French navy. new-look French the new-look of the credibility of the credibility strengthened the further strengthened further doubled effectively doubled was effectively torpedoes was all torpedoes of all range of effective range the effective 1898 1898 the mechaguidance mechatheir guidance to their gyroscope to the gyroscope of the application of the application by the overnight by overnight navy’s French navy's the French of the news of was news however, was significant, however, more significant, Even more nism. Even nism. boats.50 torpedo boats.” submarine torpedo with submarine successful experiments with successful experiments commanding the commanding charged the personally charged Lockroy personally 1898, Lockroy On November 1898, 19 November On 19 officer officer of of the the experimental experimental submarine submarine Gustave-Ze’dé, Gustave-Zédé, Lt. Lt. Lucian Lucian Mottez, Mottez, his of his value of military value the military demonstrate the to demonstrate ways to finding ways of finding with task of the task with the Vice of Vice connivance of the connivance With the say. With not say. did not he did benefit he craft.5' whose benefit For whose craft.51 For Gustavethe Gustaveenthusiast, the submarine enthusiast, another submarine Fournier, another Adm. Francois Fournier, Adm. Francois forthcoming the forthcoming participate in to participate permission to Zédé in the granted permission was granted Zédé was Mottez December, Mottez of December, week of first week the first In the exercises. In Mediterranean Fleet exercises. Mediterranean Fleet d’Hyeres Isles d’Hyéres the Isles to the Toulon to from Toulon miles from forty miles navigated the forty craft the his craft navigated his the Magenta; the ship Magenta; training ship gunnery training the gunnery torpedoed the whereupon twice torpedoed he twice whereupon he was she was while she second while the second anchor, the at anchor, was at first battleship was the battleship when the time when first time The enormous. The was enormous. achievement was this achievement of this under significance of The significance way.52 The under way.” an longer an no longer was no that itit was time that first time the first for the submarine demonstrated for had demonstrated submarine had the was the This was war. This of war. acts of deadly acts performing deadly of performing engineer's capable of but capable toy but engineer’s toy at aa torpedo at fired aa torpedo successfully fired had successfully submarine had first submerged submarine time aa submerged first time his repeated his Mottez repeated (1899) Mottez year (1899) new year the new in the surface Early in target. Early surface target. most But most press. But world’s press. the world’s and the Lockroy and of Lockroy achievement benefit of the benefit for the achievement for

intelligence naval intelligence British naval the British of the head of the head foreign notably the analysts, notably naval analysts, foreign naval been had been exercises had the exercises that the claiming that by claiming event by department, the event dismissed the department, dismissed

justified. On seemed justified. skepticism seemed Their skepticism for political reasons.53 Their political reasons.® stage?! for; L b staged E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Fournier, wife, Fournier, his wife, Lockroy, his were Lockroy, attack were the attack witness the to witness Magenta to board Magenta board and notables and other notables several other and several admiral, and port admiral, the port daughter, the and daughter, wife and his wife his encouraged undoubtedly encouraged presence undoubtedly Their presence press. Their the press. of the members of selected members selected trials Gustave-Ze’dé trials second Gustave-Zédé the second Although the atmosphere.54 Although theatrical atmosphere.” aa theatrical in slow in not slow was not Lockroy was stage-managed, Lockroy actually stage-managed, been actually have been not have might not might conto conappearing to thereby appearing capital, thereby political capital, for political success for their success exploiting their exploiting speech In aa speech critics. In foreign critics. his foreign of his suspicions of and suspicions allegations and the allegations firm the firm given Deputies given of Deputies Chamber of the Chamber to the estimates to forthcoming estimates the forthcoming introducing the introducing the of the perfection of the perfection that the claimed that Lockroy claimed instance, Lockroy for instance, 1899, for March 1899, in March in navy.55 French navy.” the French of the fortunes of the fortunes in the renaissance in heralded aa renaissance submarine heralded submarine by credit by the credit of the much of himself much for himself claiming for in claiming backward in not backward was not he was And he And the initiated the had initiated who had he who been he had been that itit had audience that his audience reminding his reminding conthe conwith the rewarded with was rewarded Lockroy was 1896. Lockroy in 1896. back in program back submarine program submarine more build more to build appropriation to large appropriation and aa large chamber and the chamber of the gratulations of gratulations promotion. accelerated promotion. an accelerated received an Mottez received part, Mottez his part, For his submarines. For submarines. Thanks Thanks largely largely to to Lockroy’s Lockroy’s efforts, efforts, by by the the time time he he left left office office in in late late 1899, 1899, another with another commission with in commission submarines in two submarines possessed two navy possessed French navy the French the submarine French submarine the French to the response to British response The British construction. The under construction. ten under ten program program is is the the subject subject of of the the next next chapter. chapter. the strategy, the industrielle strategy, guerre industrielle new guerre the new of the light of the light in the viewed in When viewed When submarine the submarine and the torpedo, and the torpedo, cruiser, the armored cruiser, the armored of the development of development before Even before defense. Even trade defense. of trade system of Britain’s system to Britain’s threat to credible threat posed posed aa credible blockade permanent blockade any permanent made any which made submarine, which the submarine, of the advent of the advent the close “a close that “a conclusion that the conclusion reached the had reached officers had naval officers senior naval untenable, senior untenable, of days of these days in these advisable in seems advisable hardly seems port hardly enemy’s port an enemy’s of an blockade of blockade to Navy to Royal Navy the Royal for the instead, for safer, instead, be safer, would be Warfare.”56 ItIt would Torpedo Warfare.” Torpedo greater to greater drawback to the drawback But the blockade. But “observational” blockade. looser “observational” impose aa looser impose prothe proobvious—without the was obvious—without sea was to sea out to further out station further taking station by taking safety by safety would port would blockaded port the blockaded surrounding the net surrounding the net warships the more warships of more vision of vision escape to escape chance to more chance raiders more commerce raiders giving commerce thus giving thinner, thus be thinner, to be have to have the to the submitted to Admiralty submitted the Admiralty Papers the night. Papers at night. especially at undetected, especially undetected, armored expensive armored build expensive to build required to sums required huge sums the huge justify the to justify Cabinet to Cabinet the that the show that battleships, show of battleships, number of requisite number the requisite to the addition to cruisers inin addition cruisers lucid most lucid The most industrial/e. The guerre industrielle. the guerre of the afraid of truly afraid was truly Admiralty was Admiralty cirmemorandum CirCabinet memorandum in aa Cabinet provided in was provided situation was the situation of the explanation of explanation culated in in January January 1901. 1901. culated statorpedo-boat stawith torpedo-boat studded with now studded Channel isis now the Channel of the coast of French coast The French The has Mobile” “Défense Mobile” has the “Défense as the known as what isis known of what development of this development and this tions. and tions, any blockade any to blockade battleships to British battleships for British impossible for make itit impossible to make object to its object for its for

be would be they would which they to which danger to the danger to the owing to ports owing naval ports French naval the French of the of French the French of the blockade of The blockade submarines. The and submarines. torpedo-boats and by torpedo-boats exposed by exposed Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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ports ports by by aa British British fleet fleet being being thus thus rendered, rendered, in in their their view view impracticable. impracticable, the idea of the French strategists the idea of the French strategists is is that that from from these these ports ports could could issue issue by by night night their their powerful powerful fast fast new new armored armored cruisers, cruisers, which which would would then then proceed proceed to place themselves upon our trade routes and do great to place themselves upon our trade routes and do great damage damage to to our our

mercantile mercantile marine. marine. None None of of the the large large fleet fleet of of unarmored unarmored cruisers cruisers which which are are allocated allocated routes routes would would

for for the the protection protection of of our our commerce commerce on on the the various various trade trade be capable of meeting be capable of meeting any any of of these these new new armored armored cruisers, cruisers, but but as as the the preceding preceding tables tables will will have have shown, shown, we we have have already already begun begun to to

build build the the ships ships that that could could do do so, so, though though not not yet yet in in sufficient sufficient numbers.57 numbers.*’ By By this this time, time, however, however, the the Admiralty Admiralty was was becoming becoming increasingly increasingly aware aware of of the the specter specter of of state state financial financial limitation limitation that that was was casting casting a a lengthenlengthening ing shadow shadow over over the the achievement achievement of of naval naval sufficiency.58 sufficiency. The The cost cost of of building building armored armored cruisers cruisers “in “in sufficient sufficient numbers” numbers” to to protect protect British British trade, trade, while while at at the the same same time time building building sufficient sufficient battleships battleships to to preserve preserve naval naval supremacy, supremacy, was was threatening threatening to to strain strain British British state state finances finances to to the the point point of of collapse. collapse.

Financing Financing the the Navy Navy At At the the end end of of the the nineteenth nineteenth century, century, the the spiraling spiraling trend trend in in naval naval expenditure expenditure was was aa major major worry worry for for most most British British politicians, politicians, who who were were still still unwilling unwilling to to alienate alienate the the electorate electorate by by raising raising taxation taxation to to pay pay for for a a larger larger navy. navy. To To avoid avoid this this the the government government resorted resorted to to borrowing. borrowing. While While paying paying for for current current expenditure expenditure by by adding adding to to the the national national debt debt was was always always politically politically out out of of the the question, question, since since 1895 1895 Parliament Parliament had had relaxed relaxed this this “principle “principle of of national national finance” finance” by by passing passing an an act act that that allowed allowed improveimprovements ments in in naval naval works works to to be be paid paid for for by by the the issue issue of of thirty-year thirty-year bonds.59 bonds.°*° The The government government of of the the day day had had justified justified this this controversial controversial step step by by claimclaiming ing that that improvements improvements to to dockyard dockyard facilities facilities could could legitimately legitimately be be regarded regarded as as aa capital Capital investment investment project project to to meet meet the the navy’s navy's long-term long-term requirements, requirements, in in which which case case there there was was no no reason reason why why the the entire entire cost cost should should fall fall entirely entirely upon upon the the current current generation generation of of taxpayers. taxpayers. As As a a gesgesture ture towards towards fiscal fiscal orthodoxy, orthodoxy, though, though, the the interest interest payable payable on on these these bonds bonds was was deducted deducted from from the the naval naval estimates estimates account. account. This This practice practice of of paying for for naval naval works works by by money money raised raised on on the the capital capital markets markets rather rather paying than the parliaparliathan out out of of current current revenue revenue was was continued continued until until 1904, 1904, when when the mentary mentary finance finance committee committee protested protested it it must must stop. stop. Notwithstanding Notwithstanding the the passage of of successive successive naval naval works works acts, acts, paying paying for for warships warships by by longlongpassage term term borrowing borrowing was was never never an an option option for for any any British British government. government.

The The crisis crisis in in naval naval spending spending came came suddenly. suddenly. In In 1889, 1889, funding funding the the Naval Naval Defense Defense Act Act had had not not been been a a problem problem for for the the Treasury. Treasury. A A year year earearlier, the chancellor of the Exchequer had introduced lier, the chancellor of the Exchequer had introduced a a debt debt conversion conversion Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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scheme that that substantially substantially reduced reduced the the cost cost of of annual annual debt debt servicing, servicing, scheme thereby releasing releasing money money to to pay pay for for the the fleet fleet expansion. expansion. Similarly, Similarly, in in thereby 1894 1894 the the government government had had been been able able to to respond respond generously generously to to the the navy’s navy’s request for for more more warships, warships, because because the the introduction introduction of of graduated graduated scale scale request of death-duties death-duties that that year year subsequently subsequently provided provided the the state state with with an an addiaddiof tional three three million million pounds pounds aa year.” year.60 Between Between 1896 1896 and and 1898, 1898, moreover, moreover, tional the upward upward trend trend in in state state revenues revenues was was sustained sustained by by an an economic economic boom. boom. the govConservative govthe Conservative allowed the taxes allowed existing taxes The from existing revenues from bountiful revenues The bountiful ernment not not only only to to pay pay for for the the large large increases increases in in defense defense expenditure expenditure ernment but also also to to buy buy some some political political popularity popularity with with its its supporters supporters by by easing easing but the burden burden of of land land tax.*' tax.61 Even Even ifif some some political political leaders leaders doubted doubted “that “that the the the junction junction of of Russia Russia and and France France in in aa maritime maritime war war is is at at all all aa probable probable concontingency,” additional additional money money was was always always provided provided whenever whenever the the tingency,” Admiralty Admiralty asked.62 asked.” Indications Indications that that the the British British government government might might encounter encounter difficulties difficulties in in meeting meeting all all the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s future future requirements requirements first first emerged emerged in in the the summer Summer of of 1898. 1898. Treasury Treasury forecasters forecasters had had for for several several months months been been aware aware of of an an impending impending surge surge in in state state expenditure, expenditure, largely largely due due to to the the unprecedented unprecedented size size of of the the 1898—99 1898-99 naval naval construction construction program. program. The The Admiralty Admiralty had had ordered ordered no no fewer fewer than than seven seven battleships battleships and and eight eight armored armored cruisers. cruisers. Initially, Initially, the the Treasury Treasury was was confident confident of of finding finding the the necessary necessary extra extra funds funds if if the the Cabinet Cabinet sanctioned sanctioned the the expenditure. expenditure. The The economy economy was was booming booming and, and, because because most most of of these these vessels vessels would would not not be be laid laid down down until until late late in in the the year, year, the the financial financial burden burden would would not not be be felt felt until until the the following following fiscal fiscal year. year. In In the the autumn autumn of of 1898, 1898, however, however, while while preparing preparing for for the the forthcoming forthcoming budget, budget, Sir Sir Michael Michael Hicks-Beech Hicks-Beech discovdiscovered ered that that the the growth growth of of the the state’s state’s revenue revenue was was no no longer longer keeping keeping pace pace with with projected projected expenditures. expenditures. On On 12 12 October October 1898, 1898, he he cautioned cautioned the the prime prime minister, minister, Lord Lord Salisbury, Salisbury, that that the the level level of of duty duty on on “Beer “Beer and and Spirits” Spirits” had had inexplicably inexplicably reached reached a a point point of of diminishing diminishing returns returns and and that. that, consequently, consequently, in in the the following following year year net net revenue revenue was was projected projected to to fall.63 fall.® This was was serious serious because because excise excise duties duties contributed contributed over over 40 40 percent percent of of This Treasury Treasury revenue, revenue, and and Hicks-Beech Hicks-Beech had had been been relying relying upon upon an an anticipatanticipated increase increase in in revenue revenue from from this this source source to to help help pay pay for for the the naval naval ed increase.64 increase.“ Over Over the the next next few few months, months, the the chancellor chancellor became became increasincreasingly ingly gloomy gloomy at at the the fiscal fiscal outlook. outlook. “I “I am am sorry sorry to to tell tell you,” you,” he he informed informed the the prime prime minister minister at at the the end end of of January January 1899, 1899, “that “that the the prospect prospect is is very very

disagreeable.”65 disagreeable.” Revenues Revenues had had already already begun begun to to fall, fall, and and the the Treasury Treasury

now now anticipated anticipated a a sizeable sizeable budget budget deficit deficit of of at at least least four four million million pounds: pounds: “mainly, “mainly, of of course, course, due due to to the the Army Army and and Navy.”66 Navy.”® At At first first the the prime prime minister minister disputed disputed his his chancellor’s chancellor’s economic economic prepredictions dictions and and refused refused to to let let taxes taxes be be raised. raised. “An “An increase increase of of taxation—l taxation—I Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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wine—~—will and wine—will tea and on tea something on and something tax and income tax the income on the penny on suppose aa penny suppose require require justification justification because because it it is is clearly clearly an an alarmist alarmist budget,” budget,” he he replied. replied. “Though “Though II cannot cannot say say there there is is no no danger,” danger,” he he added, added, “I “I do do not not see see any any danger justifying justifying such such aa step.”*’ step.”67 Salisbury Salisbury insisted insisted that that the the fiscal fiscal deficit deficit danger must must be be the the result result of of a a “temporary” “temporary” shortfall shortfall in in excise excise revenues revenues and and could could legitimately legitimately be be covered covered by by borrowing.68 borrowing.” Hicks-Beech Hicks-Beech strongly strongly disdisagreed. agreed. “This “This is is no no temporary temporary emergency,” emergency,” he he wrote wrote back, back, “it “it is is the the result result of of aa continuous continuous increase increase of of expenditure expenditure which which will will grow grow rather rather than than diminish diminish in in future future years.”69 years.”® The The Admiralty, Admiralty, he he again again protested, protested, was was continuing continuing to to ignore ignore the the Treasury’s Treasury's requests requests for for economy.70 economy.” But But the the prime prime minister minister remained remained unmoved. unmoved. While While Salisbury Salisbury agreed agreed with with HicksHicksBeech Beech that that Goschen’s Goschen’s Board Board of of Admiralty Admiralty had had become become “insatiable,” “insatiable,” and and acknowledged acknowledged that that fiscal fiscal difficulties difficulties existed, existed, he he refused refused to to allow allow the the Treasury Treasury to to impose impose a a ceiling ceiling on on the the navy navy estimates.71 estimates.”' He He did did not, not, howev— however, er, forbid forbid Hicks-Beech Hicks-Beech from from canvassing canvassing his his other other Cabinet Cabinet colleagues colleagues for for support support over over the the issue. issue. British British state state finances finances received received aa mauling mauling during during the the South South African African colonial colonial war war that that lasted lasted from from October October 1899 1899 until until mid-1902. mid-1902. Although Although the the Treasury Treasury quickly quickly raised raised taxes taxes to to meet meet the the necessary necessary increase increase in in military military expenditure, expenditure, the the unexpectedly unexpectedly long long duration duration of of the the Boer Boer War War obliged obliged the the government government to to borrow borrow on on aa large large scale. scale. The The Cabinet’s Cabinet's reluctance reluctance to to further 1900 further of 1900 end of the end at the election at general election the general at the voters at the voters upset the upset encouraged the the preference preference to to pay pay for for the the war war mainly mainly through through loans loans encouraged rather rather than than higher higher taxes. taxes. As As a a result, result, between between October October 1899 1899 and and the the More quarter. More than aa quarter. more than by more grew by debt grew national debt the national 1903, the of 1903, end of end importantly, importantly, from from aa fiscal fiscal standpoint, standpoint, the the annual annual debt debt service service charges charges grew by by almost almost aa third, third, from from £25.9 225.9 million million to to £32.2 232.2 million.” million.72 Over Over the the grew rise. to rise. continued to expenditure continued naval expenditure of naval level of peacetime level same the peacetime period, the same period, to 1897—98 to in 1897-98 million in 222.5 million from £22.5 rose from navy rose the navy on the Gross spending on Gross spending was trend was the trend And the percent). And 80 percent). than 80 more than by more (or by 1904—5 (or £41.7 in 1904-5 million in 241.7 million same the same over the perspective, over in perspective, figures in these figures put these To put still upwards.73 To still upwards.” £142 to £142 million to £103 million from £103 rose from expenditure rose period government expenditure total government period total prehad preHicks-Beech had as Hicks-Beech Furthermore, as million percent). Furthermore, 40 percent). only 40 by only (or by million (or pace keep pace not keep did not taxation did of taxation levels of prewar levels dicted, the prewar from the yields from the yields dicted, the expenditure. with with expenditure. become immediately become not immediately did not crisis did fiscal crisis impending fiscal Of the impending course the Of course apparent apparent to to the the British British government. government. At At the the beginning beginning of of the the Boer Boer War, War, in rise in inexorable rise the inexorable at the concern at more concern Hicks-Beech exhibiting more still exhibiting was still Hicks-Beech was Africa South Africa in South operations in military operations of military cost of the cost naval than the expenditure than naval expenditure account. repayment account. debt repayment the debt upon the having upon was having war was and the war impact the the impact and the that minister that prime minister the prime to the protested to he protested In instance, he for instance, 1900, for January 1900, In January had requested, as expenditure their trimming than the rather than trimming their expenditure as requested, had Admiralty, rather the Admiralty, Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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demandAdmiralty demandthe Admiralty time the This time estimates. This inflated estimates. submitted inflated again submitted yet again yet conthe conto the added to be added warships be armored warships large armored nine large than nine fewer than ed no fewer that no ed that quibble not quibble did not chancellor did the chancellor that the significant that program. ItIt isis significant struction program. struction anger his anger focused his He focused included. He battleships included. two battleships the two of the construction of at construction at of wisdom of the wisdom questioning the policy, questioning cruiser policy, Admiralty’s cruiser the Admiralty’s at the rather at rather techrapid techof rapid period of during aa period bloc during en bloc cruisers en armored cruisers seven armored ordering seven ordering of life of effective life an effective have an to have supposed to were supposed Cruisers were change.74 Cruisers nological change.” nological being already being were already age were this age half this than half less than vessels less but vessels years, but twenty years, twenty we that we be that well be very well may very “It may obsolete. “It as obsolete. Admiralty as the Admiralty by the classified by classified have “we have Salisbury, “we to Salisbury, moaned to Hicks-Beech moaned cruisers,” Hicks-Beech fast cruisers,” more fast want more want fear [but] II fear years [but] ten years last ten the last in the cruisers in of cruisers number of enormous number an enormous built an built in are in we are because we wasted, because comparatively wasted, been comparatively has been money has the money of the much of much hurry.”75 in aa hurry.”” much in too much too pasthe pasbetween the years between eight years the eight In the merit. In had merit. case had Hicks-Beech’s case Hicks-Beech’s armored the armored of the advent of the advent and the 1889 and in 1889 Act in Defense Act Naval Defense the Naval of the sage of sage battlenew battleon new million on 218.8 million spent £18.8 had spent Navy had Royal Navy the Royal 1896, the in 1896, cruiser in cruiser eight next eight the next Over the cruisers. Over first-class cruisers. on first-class million on 27.3 million just £7.3 and just ships and ships to rose to construction rose on construction expenditure on 1904, expenditure and 1904, 1897 and between 1897 years, between years, cruisers. armored cruisers. for armored million for 226.9 million and £26.9 battleships and for battleships million for 229.6 million £29.6 addition. in addition. cruisers in smaller cruisers on smaller spent on been spent had been millions had more millions Several more Several moreprogram,‘ morecruiser program, armored cruiser French armored the French to the responding to of responding cost of The cost The of dimensions of The dimensions warships. The the warships. of the price of the price to the limited to not limited was not over, was over, was cruiser was armored cruiser an armored of an hull of the hull that the recalled that be recalled will be (it will vessels (it these vessels these conspend conto spend Navy to Royal Navy the Royal compelled the battleship) compelled of aa battleship) that of than that larger than larger In them. In accommodate them. to accommodate dockyards to its dockyards all its rebuilding all on rebuilding sums on siderable sums siderable to came to works came naval works on naval spending on total spending 1896, total to 1896, prior to years prior eight years the eight the naval on naval expenditure on period expenditure second period the second over the whereas over million, whereas 25.1 million, £5.1 works works totaled totaled 224.8 £24.8 million.76 million.”® general the general at the politics at from politics retire from to retire decision to Goschen’s decision George Goschen’s George opporrare opporchancellor aa rare the chancellor afforded the 1900 afforded November 1900 in November called in election called election electhe elecbefore the week before control.77 AA week under control.” spending under naval spending bring naval to bring tunity to tunity had too had he too time he some time for some that for Beach that assured Beach Salisbury assured moreover, Salisbury tion, moreover, tion, question “the question address “the Admiralty address of Admiralty Board of the Board see the to see anxious” to “most anxious” been “most been

to “useless” to thought itit “useless” had thought he had that he adding that expenditure,” adding naval expenditure,” about naval about exert to exert desire to The desire lord.78 The first lord.” remained first Goschen remained while Goschen matter while the matter press the press the why the explain why partially explain may partially navy may the navy over the control over financial control tighter financial tighter prime minister minister awarded awarded the the prized prized Admiralty Admiralty portfolio portfolio to to the the earl earl of of prime than man than experienced man less experienced and less younger and much younger was aa much Selborne was Selborne. Selborne Selborne. his predecessor predecessor and and was was in in addition addition Salisbury’s Salisbury’s own own son-in-law. son-in-law. After After his the election, election, Hicks-Beech Hicks-Beech greeted greeted the the new new first first lord lord with with aa letter letter the requesting aa conference conference to to go go through through the the sketch sketch navy navy estimates estimates page page by by requesting page looking looking for for possible possible cuts.” cuts.79 Selborne, Selborne, however, however, refused refused to to be be hushuspage Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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tled tled into into making making concessions concessions and and declined declined the the invitation. invitation. His His resolve resolve to to proceed proceed cautiously cautiously was was bolstered bolstered by by the the senior senior naval naval lord, lord, Adm. Adm. Lord Lord Walter Walter Kerr, Kerr, who who was was equally equally determined determined to to secure secure an an increase increase in in the the naval naval budget. budget. Kerr Kerr wasted wasted no no time time in in remonstrating remonstrating to to his his new new master master that that the the British British government government was was failing failing to to uphold uphold the the two-power two-power stanstandard. dard. The The Royal Royal Navy, Navy, he he complained, complained, was was only only just just clinging clinging to to numerinumerical cal equality equality over over France France and and Russia Russia by by counting counting eight eight old old battleships battleships armed armed with with obsolete obsolete muzzle-loading muzzle-loading guns.80 guns.” The The Treasury Treasury had had already already been been warned warned that that these these units units would would shortly shortly have have to to be be replaced replaced and and two two years years earlier earlier had had agreed agreed in in principle principle to to fund fund their their replacements.“ replacements.* But But since since then then no no money money had had been been forthcoming. forthcoming. Kerr, Kerr, in in fact, fact, demanded demanded even even more; more; he he wanted wanted the the restoration restoration of of the the traditional traditional “margins “margins of of superiorsuperiority” ity” for for battleships battleships and and first-class first-class cruisers. cruisers. By By his his calculations, calculations, over over the the next next five five years years the the Royal Royal Navy Navy should should be be augmented augmented by by at at least least eleven eleven battleships battleships and and no no fewer fewer than than nineteen nineteen armored armored cruisers.82 cruisers.” Selborne Sselborne was was sold.83 sold.®* At At the the end end of of December December 1900 1900 he he replied replied to to the the chancellor that chancellor that that a a reduction reduction in'naval in naval spending spending was was impossible impossible and and that some some increase increase was was necessary. necessary. “Leaving “Leaving out out of of account account the the rapidly rapidly increasing navies of Germany, Japan and the U.S.,” he explained, increasing navies of Germany, Japan and the U.S.,” he explained, “we “we must must keep keep at at least least equal equal to to France France and and Russia Russia combined.” combined.” Selborne Selborne agreed agreed that that a a three-power three-power standard standard was was beyond beyond the the financial financial means means of of the state, but, he added, “I am inclined to think that we shall be the state, but, he added, “I am inclined to think that we shall be liable liable to to be be blackmailed blackmailed by by our our ‘friends’ ‘friends’ if if we we give give ourselves ourselves no no margin.”84 margin.”* Selborne’s “margin” be Selborne’s “margin” translated translated into into a a request request for for naval naval spending spending to to be raised raised by by approximately approximately £2.75 £2.75 million.85 million.® The The first first lord lord of of the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s idea idea of of restoring restoring the the “margin” “margin” was was put put before before the the Cabinet Cabinet on on 17 17 January January 1901.86 1901.® At At the the meeting meeting Selborne Selborne justified justified the the proposal proposal by by pointing pointing out out that that the the recent recent inventions inventions of of the the gyroscopically gyroscopically controlled controlled torpedo torpedo and and the submarine-boat submarine-boat had had “materially “materially increased” increased” the the chances chances of of aa British British the battle battle squadron squadron being being successfully successfully ambushed. ambushed. “The “The loss loss of of a a few few battlebattleships ships by by us us after after starting starting with with an an exact exact equality equality of of numbers,” numbers,” he he observed, observed, “might “might make make just just the the difference difference between between the the possibility possibility and and impossibility impossibility of of an an invasion invasion of of England.”87 England.”®’ Selborne’s Selborne’s costly costly request, request, however, however, received received short short shrift shrift from from the the Cabinet. Cabinet. Much Much to to the the naval naval lords’ lords’ chagrin, chagrin, indeed, indeed, the the new new first first lord lord failed failed to to prevent prevent his his political political colcolleagues leagues from from trimming trimming aa battleship battleship and and an an armored armored cruiser cruiser from from the the building program “for reasons of state.”88 In March 1901 Walter Kerr pribuilding program “for reasons of state.”® In March 1901 Walter Kerr privately vately confessed confessed to to a a friend friend his his exasperation exasperation at at the the “difficulty “difficulty of of getting getting through through anything anything on on account account of of the the Treasury.”89 Treasury.” Pressure Pressure on on the the Admiralty Admiralty to to curb curb their their expenditures expenditures was was renewed renewed toward toward the the end end of of the the year. year. In In October October 1901, 1901, partially partially in in response response to to ominous ominous reports reports from from his his advisers advisers on on the the fiscal fiscal outlook outlook and and partially partially Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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South in South war in the war to the due to debt due national debt mounting national rapidly mounting the rapidly of the because of because in economy in for economy “appeal for an “appeal Cabinet an the Cabinet to the issued to Hicks-Beech issued Africa,9° Hicks-Beech Africa,” revthat revexplained that chancellor explained the chancellor memorandum, the his memorandum, In his estimates.”91 In the estimates.”*' the less or less more or remain more to remain forecast to was forecast taxes was existing taxes from existing generated from enue generated enue constant constant for for many many years. years. Consequently, Consequently, a a return return to to balanced balanced budgets budgets and politically politically desirable desirable levels levels of of direct direct taxation taxation after after the the war war would would not not and be possible possible unless unless “the “the growth growth of of the the normal normal expenditure, expenditure, which which of of be recent years years has has shewn shewn aa tendency tendency to to advance advance at at an an ever ever increasing increasing recent rate” rate” could could be be contained contained or or ideally ideally reversed. reversed. Failure Failure to to do do so, so, he he warned. warned, would would lead lead “straight “straight to to financial financial ruin.”92 ruin.”*? Hicks-Beech Hicks-Beech went went on on in in his his memorandum memorandum to to single single out out the the Admiralty Admiralty as as the the worst worst offender offender and and to to suggest suggest possible possible areas areas in in naval naval expenditure expenditure where where economies economies might might be be found.” found.® But But any any hopes hopes the the chancellor chancellor might might have have entertained entertained of of winning winning Cabinet Cabinet approval approval for for reductions reductions in in the the navy navy estimates estimates were were quickly quickly dashed by the reply several weeks later of Lord Selborne.94 The first dashed by the reply several weeks later of Lord Selborne.” The first lord lord skillfully skillfully persuaded persuaded the the majority majority of of ministers ministers that that “the “the efforts efforts of of France France and and Russia Russia to to establish establish a a naval naval superiority superiority over over this this country” country” was was a a more more immediate and pressing threat to the future of the empire than the immediate and pressing threat to the future of the empire than the pospossibility sibility of of national national bankruptcy.95 bankruptcy.* While While privately privately the the prime prime minister minister “sym“sympathised pathised deeply” deeply” with with HiCks-Beech’s Hicks-Beech’s position, position, he he explained explained that that he he could could not impose a ceiling on not impose a ceiling on naval naval expenditure expenditure or or even even endorse endorse the the chancelchancellor’s lor’s appeal appeal for for economies economies without without risk risk of of breaking breaking up up the the Cabinet.96 Cabinet.” r[\ivelve Twelve months months later, later, in in October October 1902, 1902, the the Cabinet Cabinet inexplicably inexplicably endorsed endorsed the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s policy policy of of equality equality plus plus a a margin. margin. Selborne Selborne was was authorized authorized to to build build up up during during the the next next five five years years aa margin margin above above the the twotwopower power standard standard of of six six battleships battleships and and fourteen fourteen armored armored cruisers—at cruisers—at aa cost cost to to the the Treasury Treasury of of another another £3 £3 million million per per year.97 year.’ The The navy navy was was also also allowed allowed to to build build a a brand brand new new dockyard dockyard at at Rosyth Rosyth on on the the Firth Firth of of Forth, Forth, which which was was projected projected to to cost cost ten ten million million pounds. pounds. Previously, Previously, historians historians have have used used the the decision decision to to establish establish a a dockyard dockyard on on the the North North Sea Sea as as evievidence dence to to support support the the argument argument that that as as early early as as 1902 1902 the the Admiralty Admiralty was was responding responding to to the the growth growth of of the the German German High High Sea Sea Fleet. Fleet. This This was was not not so. so. The The recommendation recommendation to to build build a a dockyard dockyard in in the the north north of of Britain Britain came came from from a a committee committee set set up up to to investigate investigate the the shortage shortage of of berthing berthing and and repair facilities at existing naval ports. The committee chose repair facilities at existing naval ports. The committee chose to to site site the the new new dockyard dockyard at at Rosyth Rosyth because because of of its its proximity proximity to to existing existing shipbuilding shipbuilding

facilities utility in facilities in in Scotland.98 Scotland.” No No mention mention was was made made of of its its potential potential utility in case of a war with Germany. “Any case of a war with Germany. “Any strategical strategical points points in in favor favor of of the the Firth Firth of of Forth,” Forth,” as as Kerr Kerr explained explained in in a a private private letter letter to to Selborne Selborne dated dated 28 28 April April 1902, “are secondary 1902, “are secondary to to the the necessary necessary expansion expansion for for repairs repairs and and berthing.”99 berthing.’” In In any any case, case, shortage shortage of of funds funds resulted resulted in in construction construction work work being being postponed postponed until until late late 1909. 1909. Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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In In view view of of the the long-term long-term financial financial outlook outlook in in 1902, 1902, the the Cabinet’s Cabinet’s willwillingness ingness to to raise raise the the naval naval standard standard was, was, to to say say the the least, least, surprising. surprising. The The decision decision to to give give Selborne Selborne his his naval naval margin margin is is largely largely explained explained by by the the fact fact that that over over the the previous previous twelve twelve months months the the political political balance balance within within the the Conservative Conservative Party Party had had shifted. shifted. At At the the beginning beginning of of July July 1902, 1902, Lord Lord Salisbury Salisbury retired retired as as prime prime minister minister and and had had been been succeeded succeeded by by Arthur Arthur Balfour, Balfour, his his nephew, nephew, who who for for many many years years had had held held aa keen keen interest interest in in defense defense matters. matters. During During the the transition transition of of power, power, Selborne Selborne had had intimated intimated to to Balfour Balfour that that the the price price of of his his loyalty loyalty was was aa promise promise to to endorse endorse his his marmargin.‘00 gin.'® The The first first lord’s lord’s prospects prospects were were boosted boosted later later that that month month after after his his nemesis, nemesis, Hicks-Beech, Hicks-Beech, announced announced his his intention intention to to follow follow Salisbury Salisbury into into retirement. retirement. The The former former chancellor chancellor complained complained to to the the new new prime prime minisminister ter that that he he was was tired tired of of the the Admiralty Admiralty constantly constantly wrecking wrecking his his budget budget forecasts.‘01 forecasts." Selborne Selborne could could scarcely scarcely contain contain his his glee glee at at the the news. news. “Matters “Matters had had got got to to the the point point between between him him and and me,” me,” he he observed observed in in a a letletter ter to to his his friend friend the the secretary secretary of of state state for for India, India, “that “that one one of of us us had had to to go.”102 go.”'? With With his his most most troublesome troublesome critic critic out out of of the the way, way, the the first first lord lord proproceeded ceeded to to convince convince the the rest rest of of the the Cabinet Cabinet to to give give the the Royal Royal Navy Navy the the measure measure of of superiority superiority he he wanted. wanted.

Lord Lord Selborne’s Selborne’s Victory victory was was short-lived.103 short-lived.'’” At At the the end end of of 1902, 1902, the the Treasury Treasury reported reported that that Britain’s Britain’s economic economic boom boom was was over over and and that that the the fiscal fiscal outlook outlook was was dire; dire; though though it it was was difficult difficult to to say say just just how how bad bad the the sitsituation uation was. was. Military Military expenditure expenditure was was still still at at an an inflated inflated level level because because of of the the ongoing ongoing war war in in South South Africa, Africa, and and the the government government was was still still borrowing borrowing large large sums sums to to meet meet all all its its financial financial requirements. requirements. The The Treasury Treasury warned, warned, however, however, that that even even after after the the army army had had been been demobilized demobilized and and expenditure expenditure returned returned to to peace-time peace-time levels, levels, aa sizeable sizeable budget budget deficit deficit could could be be expectexpected. ed. The The government government would would then then be be confronted confronted by by stark stark fiscal fiscal alternaalternatives. tives. They They could could either either abandon abandon certain certain defense defense commitments commitments to to allow allow aa cut cut in in defense defense spending spending or or court court electoral electoral disaster disaster by by maintaining maintaining aa high high level level of of income income tax. tax. Both Both alternatives alternatives carried carried severe severe political political price price tags—though whether whether the the latter latter policy policy was was at at all all practicable practicable was was tags—though doubtful. doubtful. Many Many politicians politicians and and financial financial experts experts believed believed that that the the electorate electorate simply simply would would not not accept accept aa larger larger burden burden of of taxation.104 taxation.'* Some Some within the the Conservative Conservative Cabinet, Cabinet, notably notably the the colonial colonial secretary, secretary, Joseph Joseph within Chamberlain, Chamberlain, believed believed there there was was an an alternative alternative way way of of raising raising additionadditional al revenue revenue while while at at the the same same time time keep keep within within the the bounds bounds of of internainternationally tionally accepted accepted sound sound financial financial methods, methods, and and that that was was to to levy levy aa tariff tariff on on imports. imports. But But this this idea idea was was vehemently vehemently opposed opposed by by aa large large group group of of Cabinet Cabinet ministers ministers who who refused refused to to countenance countenance any any move move away away from from the the principle principle of of free free trade.105 trade.’ While While there there may may have have been been argument argument over over the the b long-tehrmhtrends long-term trends [in in British British state state finances, finances, it it was was clear clear to to everyone everyone that that Lam ert, Nico as. Sirjo nFis er's Nava Revo ution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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consethat conseand that overnight and accomplished overnight be accomplished not be could not revolution could aa fiscal fiscal revolution mediumthe mediumin the least in at least necessary, at be necessary, would be retrenchment would quently some retrenchment quently some civil the civil and the education, and Ireland, education, on Ireland, expenditure on in expenditure cuts in that cuts term. Given that term. Given the was the target was obvious target the obvious question, the the question, of the out of politically out were politically service were service defense budget. budget. defense that budget that defense budget the defensé reduce the to reduce need to the need of the anticipation of in anticipation was in ItIt was the of the committee of defense committee formed aa defense Balfour formed Arthur Balfour 1902 Arthur in December 1902 in December the for the requirements for military requirements the military reviewing the in reviewing him in assist him to assist Cabinet to Cabinet requirements defense requirements essential defense Britain’s essential define Britain’s to define was to aim was His aim empire.106 His empire.’ expenditure. defense expenditure. of defense level of possible level lowest possible the lowest calculate the to calculate thence to and thence and higher considerably higher stood considerably navy stood the navy of the reputation of and reputation status and the status While the While had Cabinet had the Cabinet and the eyes, and Balfour’s eyes, in Balfour’s especially in army, especially the army, of the that of than that than next the for estimates navy the in increase further a authorized recently authorized a further increase in the navy estimates for the next recently military in military cuts in large cuts demanding large time demanding same time the same at the while at year while financial year financial service the that granted for it take not could Admiralty could not take it for granted that the service the Admiralty expenditure, the ,- expenditure, 1903 February In favor. Cabinet’s the retain automatically would automatically retain the Cabinet’s favor. In February 1903 would economies, possible for look to lords naval the naval lords to look for possible economies, urging the began urging Selborne began Selborne take: to take: them to directing them directing derelict the derelict leave the not leave and not efficiency and beside efficiency sit beside to sit fireside to their fireside to their finance to finance process. mental process. their mental reverse their must reverse they must Further they charge. Further sole charge. my sole to my orphan to orphan money get money we get can we how can plan; how ideal plan; the ideal is the “This is say “This to say cease to must cease They must They how sovereign; how “Here isis aa sovereign; instead “Here say instead must say They must out?” They carry itit out?” to carry enough to enough Naval in aa Naval victory in for victory count for really count will really that will of itit that out of squeeze out we squeeze can we much can much war'?’"°7 war?”!07

on attention on its attention fixed its Committee fixed Defense Committee Cabinet Defense the Cabinet meantime, the the meantime, In the In claimed services claimed both services As both invasion. As serious invasion. of serious possibility of the possibility evaluating the evaluating thinkfor thinkgrounds for strong grounds were strong there were defense, there home defense, in home role in primary role the primary the found. be found. would be savings would that savings and that effort and of effort duplication of was duplication there was that there ing that ing was There was complacency. There afford complacency. not afford could not Admiralty could the Admiralty well the as well Here as Here in army, in the army, with the side with would side committee would the committee that the possibility that always aa possibility always which case the axe would fall on the naval budget.108 which case the axe would fall on the naval budget.'® crisis fiscal crisis Edwardian fiscal the Edwardian about the written about been written has been much has Although much Although scarcely have historians controversy, reform tariff subsequent the and the subsequent tariff reform controversy, historians have scarcely and naval of naval level of The level navy.‘09 The the navy.'® upon the impact upon its impact of its extent of the extent appreciated the appreciated became policy, naval of direction the indirectly, the direction of naval policy, became thus, indirectly, and thus, expenditure and expenditure considerations. strategical considerations. than strategical rather than fiscal rather by fiscal determined by increasingly determined increasingly to threatened to fleet threatened cruiser fleet and cruiser battleship and supreme battleship Maintaining aa supreme Maintaining twothe twoafter the so after especially so was especially This was expensive. This prohibitively expensive. become prohibitively become serious were serious There were 1902. There in 1902. upwards in revised upwards was revised standard was power standard power of fleet of superabundant fleet support aa superabundant could support state could the state whether the to whether as to doubts as doubts internal that internal initially that believed initially have believed may have Selborne may warships. Selborne modern warships. modern Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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sigyield sigcould yield approach” could and approach” attitude and in attitude change in “a change to “a coupled to reform reform coupled but taxpayers; but the taxpayers; to the cost to extra cost no extra at no strength at fighting strength additional fighting nificant additional nificant continuing were continuing navies were Foreign navies him. Foreign disabused him. had disabused 1903 had of 1903 events of the the events Sooner money. Sooner of money. out of running out rapidly running was rapidly state was British state the British while the grow while to grow to surto surhave to would have Admiralty would of Admiralty Board of the Board seemed, the later, itit seemed, than later, rather than rather protection its protection withdraw its and withdraw supremacy and naval supremacy global naval to global claim to its claim render its render pervasive The pervasive waters.“0 The distant waters.''® in distant interests in British interests nonessential British to nonessential to longand longacute and by acute confronted by was confronted Britain was Edwardian Britain that Edwardian assumption, that assumption, backthe backforms the finances, forms state finances, of state management of the management in the deficiencies in term deficiencies term drop to to the the revolution revolution in in British British naval naval policy policy that that follows. follows. drop

Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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CHAPTER 22 CHAPTER

Duplicity: and Duplicity: Complexity and Complexity Submarine, the Submarine, and the Admiralty and The Admiralty The 1898—1904 1898-1904 harbours. the harbours, off the or off in or remain in to remain not to be, not will be, navy will the navy of the duty of main duty [Tlhe main [T]he enemy the enemy blockade the to blockade but to operations, but naval operations, our naval of our bases of the bases form the which form which may which may squadrons which any squadrons of any search of in search sea in at sea cruise at and cruise ports, and own ports, his own in his in communications. our communications. interrupt our to interrupt or to colonies or our colonies attack our to attack forth to set forth have set have to auxiliaries to as auxiliaries shown, as be shown, hereafter be will hereafter as will needed, as are needed, vessels are Smaller vessels Smaller concentrated: mainly concentrated: be mainly should be efforts should our efforts which our on which ships on powerful ships the powerful the battle. of battle. time of the time for the primarily for adapted primarily be adapted should be fleet should fighting fleet the fighting but the but against balance against the balance in the set in be set can be enterprises can secondary enterprises in secondary success in No success No struggles. decisive struggles. the decisive in the defeat in defeat Navy British Navy The British Brassey, The Thomas Brassey, Sir Thomas Sir

leadernaval leaderBritain’s naval condemned Britain’s frequently condemned have frequently historians have Naval historians Naval submarine the of development the toward hostility consistent hostility toward the development of the submarine its consistent for its ship for ship negative This negative centuries. This twentieth centuries. early twentieth and early nineteenth and late nineteenth the late during the during attitude navy’s Victorian the of typical was argued, often is it disposition, it is often argued, was typical of the Victorian navy's attitude disposition, such case particular this in But armaments. naval in “progress” toward toward “progress” in naval armaments. But in this particular case such subprimitive when all, After justified. nor fair neither seems criticism criticism seems neither fair nor justified. After all, when primitive subninethe of quarter last the during appear to began first boats marine boats first began to appear during the last quarter of the ninemarine equipped best equipped and best largest and the largest possessed the Navy possessed Royal Navy the Royal century, the teenth century, teenth foundavery the Furthermore, world. the in warships ironclad warships in the world. Furthermore, the very foundaof ironclad fleet of fleet of maintenance continued the upon rested upon the continued maintenance of strategy rested naval strategy British naval of British tions of tions of Board the taught History preponderance. History taught the Board of naval preponderance. crushing naval that crushing that battle of battle line of strongest line the strongest possessed the which possessed power which the power that the Admiralty that Admiralty enemy weaker enemy intimidate weaker to intimidate superiority to this superiority upon this rely upon invariably rely could invariably could

power stronger power the stronger leaving the thus leaving port, thus remain inin port, would remain they would fleets; they battle fleets; battle had superiority” had “moral superiority” this “moral Once this sea. Once the sea. of the command of effective command with effective with and cruisers and its cruisers deploy its then deploy could then power could stronger power the stronger established, the been established, been watch could watch squadrons” could “inshore squadrons” These “inshore coast. These enemy coast. the enemy off the craft off flotilla craft flotilla guard trade, guard overseas trade, enemy’s overseas the enemy’s interdict the movements, interdict ship movements, enemy ship enemy Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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against against the the possibility possibility of of an an invasion invasion fleet fleet putting putting to to sea, Sea, and and intercept intercept commerce raiders. All the while, the squadrons of battleships commerce raiders. All the while, the squadrons of battleships would would remain remain close close by by ready ready to to inflict inflict aa crushing crushing blow blow on on the the enemy enemy main main fleet fleet when When the the opportunity opportunity arose. arose. This This strategy strategy had had been been repeatedly repeatedly proven proven effective effective during during the the age age of of sail, sail, and and at at the the end end of of the the nineteenth nineteenth century century the Board of Admiralty could the Board of Admiralty could see see no no reason reason to to abandon abandon it it for for another. another. Why Why then then should should the the late-nineteenth-century late-nineteenth-century Royal Royal Navy Navy have have wanted wanted to develop to develop submarine submarine boats? boats? And And how how would would it it have have employed employed them them if if it it had? had? The The experimental experimental 'craft craft then then available available possessed possessed neither neither the the range range nor nor the the endurance endurance to to operate operate in in open open waters waters with, with, or or against, against, aa main main fleet. fleet. Nor, Nor, for for that that matter, matter, did did they they carry carry weapons weapons capable capable of of inflicting inflicting serious serious damage damage upon upon aa battleship. battleship. Torpedo Torpedo tubes tubes were were not not fitted fitted to to the the experiexperimental mental craft craft before before 1892 1892 and, and, as as we we have have seen, seen, the the first first successful successful attempt attempt to to fire fire aa torpedo torpedo underwater underwater was was not not made made until until 1898. 1898. Even Even assuming assuming that that aa submarine submarine could could have have crossed crossed the the Channel Channel to to blockade blockade the the enemy enemy coast, coast, aa surface surface vessel vessel that that could could be be built built at at less less cost cost could could perperform form that that duty duty for for aa much much longer longer period period and and considerably considerably more more efficiently. efficiently. Submarines, Submarines, in in other other words, words, were were of of little little use use to to the the Royal Royal Navy. Navy. in In the the hands hands of of “a “a maritime maritime power power on on the the defensive,” defensive,” on on the the other other hand, hand, subsubmarines marines would would obviously obviously prove prove more more useful. useful. They They might might just just have have the the range range to to prove prove troublesome troublesome to to the the enemy enemy inshore inshore squadrons, squadrons, thus thus forcing forcing them them to to take take station station further further to to seaward seaward and and thereby thereby loosening loosening the the blockblockade. ade. But But until until the the very very end end of of the the nineteenth nineteenth century century no no submarine submarine in in exisexistence tence could could reliably reliably perform perform even even this this limited limited mission. mission. Throughout Throughout the the nineteenth nineteenth century, century, the the Board Board of of Admiralty Admiralty kept kept itself itself well well informed informed about about the the capabilities capabilities of of the the experimental experimental subsubmarine marine boats. boats. Beginning Beginning in in 1856 1856 with with the the vessel vessel designed designed by by Charles Charles Fox Fox and and the the prominent prominent naval naval architect architect John John Russell, Russell, Royal Royal Navy Navy officers officers discreetly discreetly inspected inspected all all the the submarine submarine craft craft built built in in Britain Britain by by civilian civilian inventors. inventors. In In 1879, 1879, for for example, example, the the Admiralty Admiralty sent sent observers observers to to watch watch ‘the the trials trials of of Rev. Rev. George George Garrett’s Garrett's Resurgam. Resurgam. In In 1886 1886 naval naval officers officers inspected inspected Charles Charles Waddington’s Waddington’s Porpoise, Porpoise, and and in in 1888 1888 they they tested tested Thorsten Thorsten Nordenfelt’s Nordenfelt's Nordenfelt Nordenfelt IV IV before before it it was was sold sold to to the the Russian Russian government. The The Admiralty Admiralty archives archives show show that that successive successive naval naval minmingovernment. istries istries recognized recognized that that one one day day the the submarine submarine would would be be perfected perfected as as aa weapon weapon of of war.1 war.' But But they they also also saw saw this this could could not not be be achieved achieved without without a a sustained Sustained effort effort and and the the expenditure expenditure of of considerable considerable sums sums of of money. money. Only Only a a large large organization, organization, such such as as aa rival rival navy navy or or aa British British naval naval armaarmaments firm, firm, itit was was felt, felt, possessed possessed sufficient sufficient resources resources and and engineering engineering ments know-how know-how to to complete complete such such aa project. project. So So long long as as the the development development of of underwater underwater craft craft remained remained in in the the hands hands of of amateur amateur inventors, inventors, therefore, therefore, the the pace pace of of progress progress would would continue continue to to be be very very slow. slow. Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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toward policy toward Admiralty’s policy of Admiralty’s Board of the Board years, the hundred years, one hundred For almost one For almost anydo not must Navy Royal the that premise that the Royal Navy must not do anythe premise upon the rested upon submarines submarines rested develtheir sponsoring from navies rival navies from sponsoring their develencourage” rival or encourage” thing “justify or to “justify thing to the at the memoirs at his memoirs in his recorded in Freemantle recorded Edmund Freemantle Sir Edmund Adm. Sir opment. As Adm. opment. As century, twentieth century, the twentieth of the beginning of beginning same the same submarine isis the the submarine towards the mind towards naval mind the naval of the attitude of the natural attitude the natural been has been Fulton has 1805] .. .. .. Fulton [in 1805] St.Vincent [in Lord St.Vincent by Lord expressed by now that expressed as that now as William] Minister William] [Prime Minister before [Prime experiments before [submarine] experiments trying some [submarine] tryn some of Lord of First Lord the First Vincent, the St. Vincent, Lord St. which Lord to which project, to the project, Pitt, favored the who favored Pitt, who

was “Pitt was that, “Pitt stated that, bluntly stated he bluntly and he opposed, and strongly opposed, was strongly Admiralty, was the Admiralty, the they which they war which of war mode of encourage aa mode to encourage existed, to ever existed, that ever fool that greatest fool the greatest the would successful, would which, ifif successful, and which, want, and not want, did not seas did the seas commanded the who commanded who deprive them them of of it.” it."2 deprive

leadnaval leadBritish naval century, British nineteenth century, the nineteenth of the remainder of the remainder Throughout the Throughout than further than went further they went indeed, they Often, indeed, sentiments.3 Often, similar sentiments.’ expressed similar ers expressed ers pubhaving pubofficers having senior officers of senior anecdotes of numerous anecdotes are numerous There are necessary. There necessary. suggestions any suggestions ridiculed any warfare, ridiculed submarine warfare, of submarine talk of all talk at all scoffed at licly scoffed licly that that submarine submarine boats boats might might pose pose a a major major threat threat to to British British supremacy. supremacy, as craft as such craft built such who built inventors who civilian inventors all civilian dismissed all having dismissed and having and deliberprobably deliberwas probably posturing was this posturing officers this Admiralty officers With Admiralty eccentrics“ With eccentrics.* first its first acquire its to acquire decided to finally decided Navy finally Royal Navy the Royal 1901, the in 1901, When, in ate. When, ate. colleague new colleague to aa new explained to navy explained the navy of the controller of then controller the then submarines, the submarines, Britain in Britain built in craft built underwater craft of underwater type of previous type every previous that every Board that the Board on the on made been made has been experiment has sufficient experiment and sufficient examined and carefully examined been carefully “has been “has in each each case case to to ascertain ascertain its its probable probable value. value. Itit has has then then been been quietly quietly in submarine the submarine of the development of the development delaying the of delaying result of the result with the dropped with dropped boat boat for for about about twenty twenty years."5 years.”° keep aa to keep managed to also managed Admiralty also the Admiralty attention the attracting attention Without attracting Without officers British officers 1866, British In 1866, abroad. In progress abroad. submarine progress on submarine eye on watchful eye watchful the by the built by Whale built Intelligent Whale the Intelligent of the inspections of clandestine inspections conducted clandestine conducted The 1881.6 The in 1881.° Ram in Fenian Ram Holland’s Fenian John Holland’s and John Halstead, and Oscar Halstead, American Oscar American improved was improved overseas was progress overseas of progress rate of the rate gauge the to gauge ability to Admiralty’s ability Admiralty’s intelligence Foreign Intelligence the Foreign of the expansion of the expansion with the 1887 with February 1887 after February after Admiralty. the Admiralty. of the (NID) of Division (NID) intelligence Division Naval Intelligence the Naval into the Committee into Committee of veils of thickening veils the thickening pierce the to pierce especially to established especially was established MD was The NID The inforcollate inforto collate and to development and foreign-warship development surrounding foreign-warship secrecy surrounding secrecy progress foreign progress on foreign agents on other agents and other attaches and naval attachés by naval gathered by mation gathered mation acceleratinnovation accelerattechnological innovation of technological pace of the pace As the technologies. As naval technologies. in naval in ed ed during during the the 18803, 1880s, so so up-to-date up-to-date naval naval and and industrial industrial intelligence intelligence time this time at this Progress at Navy. Progress Royal Navy. the Royal to the important to increasingly important became increasingly became could could be be dramatic. dramatic. By By exploiting exploiting aa breakthrough breakthrough in, in, say, say, metallurgy metallurgy or or Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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engineering, engineering, it it was was perfectly perfectly possible possible for for a a foreign foreign power power to to create create aa new new model model battleship battleship possessing possessing significantly significantly greater greater fighting fighting capabilities capabilities than than any any British British warship. warship. Alternatively, Alternatively, that that rival rival navy navy could could develop develop aa submarine. the submarine. or the torpedo or the torpedo as the such as system, such weapon system, new weapon completely new completely In 1887 1887 the the Marine Marine Francaise Francaise became became the the first first major major navy navy to to sponsponIn sor sor the the development development of of the the submarine. submarine. Early Early success success with with aa fifty-ton fifty-ton 1892 in 1892 down in lay down to lay French to the French encouraged the Gymnote, encouraged boat, Gymnote, experimental boat, experimental Gustavechristened Gustavevessel christened two-hundred-and-seventy—ton vessel larger two-hundred-and-seventy-ton much larger aa much Zédé. Zédé. This This craft craft was was built built at at Toulon Toulon Dockyard Dockyard under under great great secrecy secrecy and and took four four years years to to complete. complete. The The British British response response to to news news that that the the took French French had had commenced commenced aa submarine submarine development development program program was was to to order order their naval naval attaché attache in in Paris Paris to to collect collect as as much much relevant relevant information information as as their he could could find.’ find.7 Although Although the the NID NID subsequently subsequently received received some some excellent excellent he

intelligence intelligence on on the the progress progress of of experiments experiments with with Gustave-Zédé, Gustave-Zédé, the the qualqualwithin buried within was buried often was and often appreciated and always appreciated not always was not data was the data of the ity of ity aa mass mass of of contradictory contradictory reports. reports. Not Not having having had had practical practical experience experience of of submarines themselves, themselves, moreover, moreover, officers officers serving serving in in the the NID NID could could not, not, submarines they reports they intelligence reports the intelligence of the value of relative value the reiative judge the understandably, judge understandably, special any had department the in serving officers the of None received. received. None of the officers serving in the department had any special interest interest in in the the subject subject nor nor were were any any given given incentive incentive to to develop develop such such an an expertise. expertise. Analysis Analysis of of intelligence intelligence on on submarine submarine development development received received evaluate. to evaluate. little to was little there was 1896 there until 1896 besides, until and besides, priority, and low priority, only aa low only quickhow misjudged Admiralty the that the Admiralty misjudged how quicksurprising that hardly surprising therefore hardly ItIt isis therefore progressing.8 were progressing.® French were the French ly the ly for source for best source the best service, the secret service, naval secret the naval of the up of setting up the setting Before the Before Paris. in Paris. attache in naval attaché British naval the British was the navy was French navy the French on the information on information the of the enthusiasm of and enthusiasm energy and the energy upon the depended upon course, depended of course, Much, of Much, most was NID the 1899, and 1896 Between post. this for chosen officer officer chosen for this post. Between 1896 and 1899, the NID was most scientifically Jackson, aa scientifically Henry Jackson, Capt. Henry of Capt. services of the services have the to have fortunate to fortunate develthe develpioneering the in pioneering Marconi in Signor Marconi of Signor rival of wasa a rival who was officer who minded officer minded with aa Admiralty with the Admiralty supplied the Jackson supplied telegraphy. Jackson wireless telegraphy. of wireless opment of opment examfor exam1898, for February 1898, in February reports. In informative reports. particularly informative of particularly number of number boat submarine boat sponsored submarine privately sponsored of aa privately trials of first trials the first witnessed the he witnessed ple, he ple, carbe to designed tons eleven only displacing vessel tiny Goubet—a Le Le Goubet—a tiny vessel displacing only eleven tons designed to be cardemonthe by excited was attaché The warship. surface a aboard a surface warship. The attaché was excited by the demonried aboard ried of be of might be craft might such aa craft that such London that informed London immediately informed and immediately stration and stration at Division Intelligence Division at Naval Intelligence the Naval of the director of The director Navy.9 The Royal Navy.’ the Royal to the use to use William Sir William to Sir report to dispiriting report perspective) dispiriting his perspective) (from his the (from passed the once passed once as regarded as widely regarded was widely who was construction, who naval construction, of naval director of the director White, the White, From design.10 From warship design.’ on warship country on the country in the authority in preeminent authority the preeminent the Jackson’s dismissed Jackson’s White dismissed however, White Whitehall, however, at Whitehall, desk at his desk behind his behind actual trials.” of actual result of the result not the and not “estimates and as “estimates craft as the craft of the appraisal of appraisal Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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weapons practical weapons yet practical not yet were not submarines were that submarines DNI that the DNI assured the White assured White relaxed. Admiralty relaxed. The Admiralty war.“ The of war.'' of during that during Whitehall that notified Whitehall Jackson notified Captain Jackson 1899 Captain January 1899 in January In reportedly had reportedly Gustave-Zédé had the Gustave-Zédé maneuvers, the naval maneuvers, French naval recent French recent implicathe implicaJackson the To Jackson Magenta. To battleship Magenta. the battleship at the torpedo at launched aa torpedo launched have vessels have submersible vessels “These submersible serious: “These were serious: achievement were this achievement of this tions of tions will “and will concluded, “and he concluded, warfare,” he modern warfare,” stage inin modern practical stage reached aa practical reached most a In war.” European future a in met, and with, reckoned be to have have to be reckoned with, and met, in a future European war.” In a most and report and Jackson’s report endorsed Jackson's ambassador endorsed British ambassador the British step, the unusual step, unusual likeis invention this in success the in “belief that Admiralty the warned warned the Admiralty that “belief in the success in this invention is likeEngland to England inferiority to naval inferiority their naval regard their to regard Frenchmen to encourage Frenchmen to encourage ly to ly not did not however, diplomat, a of a diplomat, however, did opinions of The opinions great.”12 The so great.”’” means so no means by no as by as with impressed much they were seems, were they much impressed with Nor, itit seems, Admiralty. Nor, the Admiralty. interest the interest Edmund Capt. Edmund Ordnance, Capt. Naval Ordnance, of Naval director of the director Only the report.13 Only Jackson’s report.'* Jackson’s with concerned with less concerned was less he was Though he interest. Though real interest. any real exhibited any Jeffreys, exhibited Jeffreys, whether establishing whether with establishing than with progress than French progress about French more about out more finding out finding value great value of great be of not be might not continues, might development continues, their development "if their submarines “if submarines which ports”—in which their ports’—in in their fleet in enemy’s fleet an enemy’s against an purposes against offensive purposes for offensive for tow or tow convoy or could convoy we could “As we Navy. “As Royal Navy. the Royal to the use to of use be of might be they might case they case they that they opinion that the opinion of the am of distance II am short distance within aa short to within across to them across them speculated.14 be speculated." effectively,” he most effectively,” used most be used might be might the and the Admiralty, and the Admiralty, of the lord of first lord the first Goschen, the George Goschen, Although George Although were they were suggestion, they Jeffreys’s suggestion, considered Jeffreys’s board considered the board of the members of other members other few vindicated aa few be vindicated to be appeared to hesitation appeared Their hesitation more.15 Their do more.'> to do reluctant to reluctant arrived Magenta arrived of Magenta torpedoing of the torpedoing on the report on second report after aa second later after weeks later weeks Gustave-Ze’dé the Gustave-Zédé to the favorable to less favorable “much less judged “much was judged and was Whitehall and at Whitehall at report second report this second wrote this who wrote Just who Jackson.”16 Just Captain Jackson.”'® by Captain given by that given than that than as only to referred was author was referred to only as the author docket, the covering docket, the covering In the known. In not known. isis not of director the that note to note that the director of interesting to Yet itit isis interesting source.” Yet reliable source.” most reliable “a most “a weight more far placed Custance, placed far more weight Reginald Custance, Capt. Reginald intelligence, Capt. Naval Intelligence, Naval of opinion of the opinion upon the did upon he did than he agent than anonymous agent this anonymous of this views of the views upon the upon lords, naval lords, the naval for the papers for the papers Summarizing the attache. Summarizing naval attaché. British naval the British the that insisting that failure,” insisting “a failure,” as “a Gustave-Zédé as the Gustave-Zédé dismissed the curtly dismissed Custance curtly Custance very was very trip was recent trip her recent after her Marseilles after from Marseilles back from coming back ever coming “her ever “her the board, the the board, to the explained to he explained reasons,” he political reasons,” “For political problematical.”17 “For problematical.”" she but she so, but did so, she did said she they said and they succeed and to succeed bound to “was bound Gustave-Zédé “was Gustave-Zédé attendrew attenCustance drew assessment, Custance his assessment, support his To support much.”18 To worth much.”" not worth isis not 17 on 17 Deputies on of Deputies Chamber of French Chamber the French in the delivered in speech delivered to aa speech tion to tion theatrically somewhat theatrically had somewhat marine had of marine minister of the minister which the in which 1899, in March 1899, March described the the recent recent success success of of the the Gustave-Zédé Gustave-Zéde’ as as heralding heralding aa renaisrenaisdescribed

sance sance in in the the fortunes fortunes of of the the Marine Marine Francaise.'9 Frangaise.'? After After William William White White cast cast further doubts doubts on on the the credibility credibility of of Jackson’s Jackson’s assessments, assessments, labeling labeling him him further Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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as as an an “enthusiast,” “enthusiast,” the the Admiralty Admiralty subsequently subsequently dismissed dismissed his his claim claim that that the the Gustave-Zédé Gustave-Zédé had had proved proved the the submarine submarine to to be be aa weapon weapon of of war war and and rejected rejected as as unsubstantiated unsubstantiated his his warning warning that that the the French French had had secretly secretly ordered ordered between between eight eight and and twelve twelve more more submarines.20 submarines.” Again Again the the board board concluded concluded that that no no action action was was necessary. necessary. In In January January 1900 1900 the the short-sightedness short-sightedness of of this this decision decision was was brought brought home home to to the the Admiralty Admiralty after after the the Naval Naval Intelligence Intelligence Division Division was was literally literally flooded with reports indicating that submarine flooded with reports indicating that submarine development development was was now now rapidly rapidly progressing. progressing. First First to to arrive arrive was was a a dispatch dispatch from from the the naval naval attache attaché in in Washington, Washington, D.C., D.C., with with news news of of “a “a rumour rumour that that the the United United States States govgovernment are about to ernment are about to purchase” purchase” the the submarine-boat submarine-boat designed designed by by John John Holland. Holland. Enclosed Enclosed with with the the report report from from Capt. Capt. Charles Charles Ottley Ottley were were conficonfidential dential reports reports on on the the performance performance of of the the boat boat written written by by the the United United States States Navy’s Navy's Board Board of of Inspection Inspection and and Survey, Survey, complete complete with with blueprints.21 blueprints.”' Pressure Pressure on on the the Admiralty Admiralty to to take take action action intensified intensified three three weeks weeks later later after after the the new new naval naval attache attaché in in Paris, Paris, Capt. Capt. Douglas Douglas Gamble, Gamble, reported reported that that his his predecessor predecessor had had not not been been exaggerating exaggerating French French progress. progress. “Submarine“Submarineboats boats of of the the Gustave-Zédé Gustave-Zédé type type are are considered considered to to be be a a real real success,” success,” he he confirmed, confirmed, “and “and the the extremely extremely difficult difficult problem problem of of submerged submerged navigation navigation is is looked looked upon upon as as practically practically solved solved after after ten ten years years of of laborious laborious experiexperiment.”22 ment.’” This This latest latest assessment, assessment, from from a a new new man man who who could could not not be be disdismissed missed as as an an enthusiast, enthusiast, was was impossible impossible to to ignore. ignore. “The “The French French seem seem to to be be overcoming overcoming the the difficulties difficulties of of the the submarine submarine boat,” boat,” noted noted the the new new senior senior naval naval lord, lord, Adm. Adm. Lord Lord Walter Walter Kerr, Kerr, and and “we “we cannot cannot altogether altogether afford afford to to disregard disregard them them and and their their increased increased proficiency.”23 proficiency.” The The Naval Naval Intelligence Intelligence Division Division was was directed directed to to gather gather all all available available intelligence intelligence on on submarines submarines for for submission submission to to the the board, board, and and at at the the same same time time prepare prepare aa confidential confidential print print for for issue issue to to senior senior fleet fleet officers.24 officers.” While While the the papers papers were were being being recovered recovered from from the the files files at at the the record record office, office, in in February February 1900 1900 the the Admiralty Admiralty received received an an urgent urgent despatch despatch from from Adm. Adm. Sir Sir John John Fisher Fisher (commander (commander in in chief, chief, Mediterranean, Mediterranean, 1899—1902) 1899-1902) requesting requesting advice advice on on how how best best to to protect protect warships warships at at anchor anchor from from the the threat of of submarine submarine attack. attack. In In the the dispatch, dispatch, Fisher Fisher expressed expressed his his opinopinthreat

ion ion that that the the easiest easiest solution solution would would be be to to plant plant aa protective protective barrier barrier of of contact mines mines around around his his anchorage.*> anchorage.25 This This suggestion suggestion was was disingenudisingenucontact ous. Fisher Fisher knew knew full full well well that that since since 1895 1895 itit had had been been Admiralty Admiralty policy policy ous. not to to use use or or even even experiment experiment with with contact contact mines mines so so as as not not to to “justify “justify not and and encourage” encourage” the the efforts efforts of of other other powers.26 powers.”* Predictably, Predictably, therefore, therefore, the the board’s board’s initial initial reaction reaction was was to to refuse; refuse; that that is is until until the the imaginative imaginative Captain Jeffreys Jeffreys pointed pointed out out that that “foreign “foreign nations, nations, especially especially France France and and Captain Russia, Russia, have have not not waited waited for for our our “justifying ‘justifying and and encouraging encouraging them’ them’ but but have have [already] [already] adopted adopted them them [contact [contact mines] mines] on on an an extensive extensive scale.”27 scale.” Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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rapidly be rapidly to be “appears to added, “appears he added, Meanwhile, boat, he submarine boat, the submarine Meanwhile, the

and itit warfare,” and of warfare,” instrument of new instrument as aa new approaching position as defined position approaching aa defined

conthemselves confind themselves would find warships would seemed British warships soon British very soon that very likely that seemed likely was Admiralty was the Admiralty that the insisted that fronted Jeffreys insisted craft. Jeffreys underwater craft. with underwater fronted with way practical way only practical “the only wrote, “the he wrote, far, he So far, compelled issue. So the issue. address the to address compelled to home, at home, them at keep them to keep as to much as so much to them so frighten them or frighten boats, or these boats, stop these to stop using on using ban on the ban concluded, the he concluded, so, he seems mines.”28 IfIf so, blockade mines.”” by blockade be by to be seems to lifted. be lifted. to be ought to contact mines ought contact mines can “It can logic.29 “It this logic.” with this uncomfortable with The initially uncomfortable was initially Admiralty was The Admiralty to way to practical way only practical the only mine isis the hardly blockade mine the blockade that the accepted that be accepted hardly be with observation with An observation responded. An meet Custance responded. boat,” Custance submerged boat,” the submerged meet the naval senior naval the senior reflection the further reflection which upon further But upon agreed. But first agreed. at first Kerr at which Kerr of end of the end at the conceded at he conceded events,” he of events,” lord march of “The march mind. “The his mind. changed his lord changed by taken by action taken the action to the part to our part on our April, response on some response for some calls for “now calls April, “now May On 44 May boats.”3° On submarine boats.”* of submarine foreign construction of their construction in their powers in foreign powers appears boats appears submarine boats French submarine the French of the Kerr success of “the success that “the declared that Kerr declared them.”3' AA meet them.”*' to meet now to necessary now to make itit necessary to make assured to sufficiently assured be sufficiently to be at schools at torpedo schools navy’s torpedo the navy’ to the fortnight sent to were sent orders were later, orders fortnight later, experiof experiprogram of secret aa program in secret Portsmouth organize in to organize Devonport to and Devonport Portsmouth and and boats and submarine boats with submarine dealing with of dealing ments means of best means “the best discover “the to discover ments to orders issuing after week a Barely destroying them when discovered.”* Barely a week after issuing orders discovered.”32 when them destroying United the United that the learnt that Admiralty learnt the Admiralty to experiments, the antisubmarine experiments, begin antisubmarine to begin development submarine development of submarine program of States sponsoring aa program now sponsoring was now Navy was States Navy strongly bay,” strongly Manila bay,” of Manila “hero of after the “hero Dewey, the George Dewey, Adm. George Fleet Adm. after Fleet The boat.” The submarine boat.” advised Holland’s submarine John Holland’s purchase John to purchase Congress to advised Congress colthe colupon the impact upon profound impact American had aa profound have had to have seems to decision seems American decision Charles Lord Charles As Lord lective establishment. As naval establishment. British naval the British of the mind of lective mind “when aa observed: “when Fleet, observed: Beresford, Mediterranean Fleet, the Mediterranean in the admiral in rear admiral Beresford, aa rear has States has United States the United of the that of common like that nation like headed nation level headed sense level common sense such that such probable that appear probable tried would appear boats, itit would submarine boats, adopted submarine and adopted tried and craft operations.”34 warlike operations.’ in warlike value in some value have some must have craft must disthe disauthorize the to authorize was to act was Kerr first act His first impressed. His likewise impressed. was likewise Kerr was the advised the he advised Next, he Fleet. Next, patch Mediterranean Fleet. the Mediterranean to the mines to contact mines of contact patch of

and ignored and be ignored cannot be boats cannot first submarine boats of submarine matter of the matter “that the that “that lord that first lord

cerAlmost Cerdesign.”35 Almost will want isis aa design.”® first want us—our first by us—our up by taken up be taken to be have to will have

of pleas of the pleas by the step by tainly “drastic” step this “drastic” take this to take convinced to been convinced had been Kerr had tainly Kerr anxmost anxwas most who was VC, who the Knyvett-Wilson VC, Arthur Knyvett-Wilson Adm. Arthur Rear Adm. controller, Rear the controller, was Wilson ious to develop counter measures against the submarine.* Wilson was submarine.36 the against measures counter develop to ious Charles Capt. by persuaded no submarine enthusiast; but he had been persuaded by Capt. Charles been had he but no submarine enthusiast; until that until Portsmouth, that Robinson, at Portsmouth, school at torpedo school the torpedo of the charge of in charge Robinson, in submaa what of something someone staff something of what a submahis staff and his him and to him explain to could explain someone could means of best means “the best advise “the to advise rine expected to be expected hardly be could hardly he could do he could do rine could

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avoiding avoiding and and destroying destroying them.”37 them.”*’ Accordingly, Accordingly, he he had had asked asked the the board board to to authorize authorize the the purchase purchase of of a a submarine submarine “for “for the the purpose purpose of of ascertaining ascertaining for for ourselves ourselves the the limits limits of of the the powers powers of of these these vessels vessels and and the the best best means means of of avoiding avoiding and and destroying destroying them.”38 them.”* The The logic logic was was irrefutable. irrefutable. “l “I have have read read the the whole whole of of the the papers papers very very carefully,” carefully,” Goschen Goschen gloomily gloomily noted noted on on the the file, file, “they “they are are not not pleasant pleasant reading—for reading—for clearly clearly great great progress progress is is gradually gradually being being made made with with submarine submarine boats.”39 boats.” Reluctantly, Reluctantly, the the first first lord lord granted granted permission permission to to buy buy a a submarine submarine and and entrusted entrusted the the task task of of finding finding aa suitable suitable design design to to Wilson. Wilson. Acquiring Acquiring aa practicable practicable submarine submarine design design for for the the Royal Royal Navy Navy was was never never going going to to be be easy. easy. Except Except for for the the Naval Naval Construction Construction Company Company (since (since taken taken over over by by Vickers Vickers Ltd.) Ltd.) which which had had built built the the Nordenfelt Nordenfelt boats boats in in the the late late 18808, 1880s, no no shipbuilding shipbuilding firm firm in in Britain Britain had had experience experience in in building building such such craft. craft. Unable Unable to to find find aa suitable suitable design design at at home, home, ultimately ultimately the the

Admiralty Admiralty turned turned to to the the United United States. States. The The story story has has often often been been told told of of how how the the Royal Royal Navy Navy ended ended up up buying buying John John Holland’s Holland’s submarine submarine boat, boat, an an Irish-American Irish-American inventor inventor who who devoted devoted his his life life to to perfecting perfecting his his craft craft out out of of hatred hatred for for the the British, British, and and so so need need not not be be recounted recounted here.40 here.* Suffice Suffice it it to to say Say that that in in August August 1900, 1900, Wilson Wilson approached approached the the Holland Holland Torpedo Torpedo Boat Boat Company Company to to find find out out “whether “whether they they are are in in a a position position to to supply supply a a boat boat or or furnish furnish us us with with drawings.”‘“ drawings.”*' After After Sir Sir William William White White (the (the DNC) DNC) grudging— grudgingly ly conceded conceded that that “the “the Holland Holland type type seems seems to to afford afford the the best best opening,” opening,” forformal mal discussions discussions were were opened opened between between the the Admiralty Admiralty and and Isaac Isaac Rice, Rice, president president of of the the Electric Electric Boat Boat Company, Company, which which had had recently recently purchased purchased the the Holland Holland patents.42 patents.” Within Within weeks weeks an an arrangement arrangement was was reached reached wherewhereby by Electric Electric Boat Boat would would license license Messrs. Messrs. Vickers Vickers Ltd. Ltd. of of Barrow-in-Furness Barrow-in-Furness to build build submarines submarines for for the the Royal Royal Navy.“ Navy.43 And And shortly shortly afterwards afterwards the the to Admiralty Admiralty placed placed an an order order for for five five boats. boats. This This was was reckoned reckoned to to be be the the smallest number number that that would would be be required required for for aa program program of of antisubmarine antisubmarine smallest experiments—“one to to be be attached attached to to the the ‘Vernon,’ ‘Vernon,’ one one to to the the ‘Defiance’ ‘Defiance’ experiments—‘one and the the other other three three allocated allocated one one to to each each port port to to be be used used in in connection connection and with with the the destroyer destroyer flotillas flotillas in in practising practising methods methods of of meeting meeting their their attacks.”44 This This was was not not regarded regarded as as aa one-off one-off purchase. purchase. All All parties parties underunderattacks.”“ stood that that ifif the the Holland Holland boats boats proved proved successful, successful, then then Vickers Vickers would would stood receive further further contracts contracts to to supply supply the the Royal Royal Navy Navy with with submarines. submarines. receive On 23 23 October October 1900 1900 Wilson Wilson drafted drafted aa letter letter to to the the Treasury Treasury requestrequestOn ing ing a a secret secret appropriation appropriation to to enable enable the the Admiralty Admiralty to to order order the the subsubmarines marines at at once once and and submitted submitted it it to to the the first first lord lord for for approval. approval. To To his his undoubted surprise, the draft provoked a sharp debate among the memundoubted surprise, the draft provoked a sharp debate among the members bers of of the the board board over over what what exactly exactly the the Royal Royal Navy Navy would would do do with with the the submarines after they had been delivered. In Wilson’s opinion, submarines after they had been delivered. In Wilson’s opinion, for for instance, the craft were needed to find some method “of meeting attacks instance, the craft were needed to find some method “of meeting attacks Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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in numbers in considerable numbers in considerable building in now building are now which are boats which submarine boats of of submarine France.” In In other other words, words, they they were were required required solely solely as tarFrance.” as antisubmarine antisubmarine tarletdraft letthe draft on the Commenting on disagreed. Commenting however, disagreed. colleagues, however, His colleagues, gets.45 His gets.* ter ter Goschen Goschen scribbled: scribbled: doctrine the doctrine to the absolutely to so absolutely ourselves so confine ourselves should confine we should think we not think do not II do subforeign submeeting foreign of meeting means of best means the best ascertain the to ascertain order to in order only in that itit isis only that They States. They United States. the United from the boats from five boats buy five to buy wish to we wish that we boats that marine marine boats Kong, Hong Kong, e.g. Hong boats: e.g. torpedo boats: like torpedo places, like many places, in many us in to us useful to be useful may be may

war.46 of war.“ men of our men of our absence of defend inin absence to defend wish to might wish we might ports we other ports and other and the of the members of other members that other impression that the impression under the was under he was added he Goschen added Goschen conKerr conOctober, Kerr 26 October, on 26 later, on days later, Two days viewpoint. Two his viewpoint. shared his board shared board fessed fessed that that while while he he accepted accepted the the principal principal use use of of the the submarine submarine boats boats at at the the present present stage stage is is to to work work out, out, if if possible, possible, some some plan plan for for meeting meeting hostile hostile submarines, submarines, he he too too was was prepared prepared to to see see the the vessels vessels exploited exploited “for “for to intimidation to an intimidation “as an adapted”—even “as be adapted’—even can be they can which they to which purpose to any purpose any large vessels vessels menacing menacing our our ports.’*’ ports.”7 Kerr, Kerr, itit Should should be be added, added, was was also also large offensive an offensive as an submarine as the submarine developing the of developing possibility of the possibility by the intrigued by intrigued on debate on provoked aa debate have provoked would have comments would these comments Normally, these weapon.48 Normally, weapon.” of beginning of the beginning at the suspended at was suspended discussion was all discussion But all subject. But the subject. the November 1900, 1900, after after the the prime prime minister minister called called aa snap snap general general election. election. November The The Board Board agreed agreed that that the the request request for for the the appropriation appropriation should should be be sent sent immediately. immediately. Goschen Goschen was was not not inclined inclined to to press press his his objections objections to to the the wording of of the the letter letter because because he he had had already already decided decided to to stand stand down down at at —' wording the election election and and quit quit politics. politics. the man was aa man Selborne, was of Selborne, earl of the earl Admiralty, the the Admiralty, of the lord of first lord new first The new The with no no previous previous interest interest or or experience experience in in naval naval affairs. affairs. But But itit should should be be with the for the son-in-law for own son-in-law his own nominated his minister nominated prime minister the prime that the noted that noted accepting to accepting “submit” to he “submit” that he understanding that the understanding on the only on portfolio only vacant portfolio vacant House the House in the secretary in parliamentary secretary the parliamentary as the Arnold-Forster as Oakley Arnold-Forster Hugh Oakley Hugh an of an something of as something him as regarded him peers regarded Arnold-Forster’s peers Commons.49 Arnold-Forster’s of of Commons.® of member of as aa member and as journalist and As aa journalist matters. As defense matters. on defense expert on expert the about the complaints about amplifying complaints reputation amplifying his reputation made his had made he had Parliament, he Parliament, interest various interest by various made by forces made armed forces the armed of the strength of inadequate strength inadequate naval in naval voice in party aa voice the party of the jingoes of the jingoes promised the selection promised His selection groups. His groups. interlong-time interhad aa long-time he had story, he this story, for this importantly for More importantly making. More policy making. policy est est in in submarines. submarines. Before Before Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster joined joined the the government, government, he he had had tried tried to to entice entice Goschen Goschen into into providing providing Parliament Parliament with with an an explanation explanation for for the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s apparent apparent lack lack of of concern concern at at the the development development of of the the submasubmarine.50 rine.’ Throughout Throughout 1900 1900 Goschen Goschen had had not not been been allowed allowed to to rest rest in in peace. peace. L b ”N. I Although :Altto/ugh Arnold-Forster firnold-Forster did did not not succeed succeed inin his his original original object, object, during during E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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one verbal verbal exchange exchange in in the the Commons Commons he he did did succeed succeed in in drawing drawing the the aged aged one first lord into carelessly describing the submarine as “the weapon of first lord into carelessly describing the submarine as “the weapon of the the weaker weaker power.” power.” “l “I have have no no doubt doubt whatsoever,” whatsoever,” the the young young M.‘P. M.P. had had retortretorted, ed, “that “that this this argument argument about about the the weapon weapon of of the the inferior inferior power power seems seems absolutely meaningless?“ Goschen had been made to look absolutely meaningless.”*' Goschen had been made to look foolish foolish and and his his department department reactionary. reactionary. Shortly Shortly before before Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster joined joined the the new new Board Board of of Admiralty Admiralty in in December December 1900, 1900, he he mentioned mentioned to to his his nephew, nephew, aa lieutenant lieutenant in in the the navy, navy, that that he he was was “anxious “anxious that that we we should should start start buildbuilding submarine boats as a reply to the French.”52 He must, therefore, ing submarine boats as a reply to the French.” He must, therefore, have have been been surprised surprised to to learn learn on on taking taking office office that that the the Admiralty Admiralty had had already already secretly secretly negotiated negotiated the the purchase purchase of of five five Holland Holland boats boats (contract (contract dated dated 18 18 December December 1900); 1900); yet yet Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster was was not not satisfied. satisfied. After After the the Christmas Christmas recess, recess, he he petitioned petitioned the the new new first first lord lord to to abandon abandon the the prepretense tense that that the the Admiralty Admiralty was was not not interested interested in in submarines submarines and and also also to to adopt adopt aa more more ambitious ambitious construction construction program. program. Selborne did did indeed indeed begin begin to to pay pay more more attention attention after after he he learned learned on on Selborne 29 29 December December 1900 1900 that that the the French French parliament parliament had had recently recently voted voted “no “no less aa sum” sum” than than £4,750,000 £4,750,000 for for new new flotilla flotilla craft. craft. “This “This means means nearly nearly less 150 150 torpedo-boats torpedo-boats and and submarines,” submarines,” the the first first lord lord exclaimed exclaimed in in aa letter letter British the British reviewing the After reviewing Exchequer!53 After the Exchequer!® of the chancellor of the chancellor to the to began Selborne began program, Selborne submarine program, French submarine the French to the far to thus far response thus response his to his remarked to he remarked think,” he not think,” do not complaints. “I“1 do Arnold-Forster’s complaints. echoing Arnold-Forster’s echoing the buy the to buy decision to the decision that the 1901, that January 1901, 17 January on 17 colleagues on Cabinet colleagues Cabinet week that week Later that soon.”54 Later too soon.”™ day too taken aa day been taken “has been boats “has Holland boats Holland first the first that the lords that naval lords the naval to the dissatisfaction to expressed dissatisfaction Selborne expressed Selborne thus October, thus of October, end of the end before the delivered before be delivered not be would not boat would Holland boat Holland considalready considtheir already extend their to extend months to nine months another nine French another the French allowing the allowing the that the him that concerned him also concerned development.55 Itit also submarine development.” in submarine lead in erable lead erable For boats.56 For French boats. the French as the sophisticated as as sophisticated be as not be might not craft might American craft American secparliamentary sechis parliamentary ordered his subsequently ordered lord subsequently first lord the first reasons the these reasons these an at boats “workable obtaining of possibilities of obtaining “workable boats at an the possibilities reexamine the to reexamine retary to retary that informed quickly was Selborne anticipated.”57 Selborne was quickly informed that now anticipated.”®*’ than now date than earlier date earlier might added, itit might Arnold-Forster added, Nevertheless, Arnold-Forster nil. Nevertheless, were nil. prospects were the prospects the known “well several “well known approach several to approach Admiralty to the Admiralty for the idea for good idea be aa good anyway be anyway subdevelop subto develop Constructors” to British Constructors” encourage British “to encourage order “to in order firms” in firms” the with the up with catch up quickly catch more quickly so more and so Navy and Royal Navy the Royal for the marines for marines parthe parpassed the idea, passed the idea, to the objections to no objections seeing no lord, seeing first lord, The first French.58 The French.* lords.59 naval lords.°*° the naval onto the paper onto secretary’s paper liamentary secretary's liamentary memservice memthe service with the favor with find favor not find did not suggestion did Arnold-Forster’s suggestion Arnold-Forster’s uncomfortable still uncomfortable were still lords were naval lords the naval stage the this stage At this Board. At the Board. of the bers of bers subthe subof the development of the development “encouraging” the blatantly “encouraging” so blatantly of so idea of the idea with the with second naval the second instance, the for instance, Douglas, for Archibald Douglas, Adm. Archibald Vice Adm. marine. Vice marine. Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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the of the powers of inventive powers the inventive use the “to use lord, unwise “to most unwise be most would be felt itit would lord, felt himdeclared and warfare,” country to develop and advance submarine warfare,” and declared himsubmarine advance country to develop and contemplated.”60 present contemplated.” at present is at than is self more than anything more doing anything to doing “averse to self “averse conformed still conformed Vickers with contract Douglas secret contract with Vickers still the secret that the maintained that Douglas maintained subencourage” and “justify to with the old principle of doing nothing to “justify and encourage” subnothing with the old principle of doing his in outspoken more even was Wilson was even more outspoken in his marines. Arthur Wilson Sir Arthur Adm. Sir Rear Adm. marines. Rear of policy the abandon “to rejection recommendation “to abandon the policy of Arnold-Forster’s recommendation of Arnold-Forster’s rejection of Many progress.”61 unostentatious progress.”* Many of unostentatious one of discouragement adopt one to adopt and to discouragement and intensely so intensely submarines so “disliked submarines historians Wilson “disliked that Wilson claimed that have claimed historians have time in time that, in announce that, publicly announce that should publicly board should the board that the suggested that he suggested that he pirates as pirates treated as be treated would be captured would of submarines captured all submarines of all crews of the crews war, the of war, statethis statethat this moreover, that charged, moreover, and have charged, writers have Various writers hanged.”62 Various and hanged.”® offinaval offilate-Victorian naval by late-Victorian held by View” held naval view” ment orthodox naval “the orthodox typified “the ment typified wrote Wilson wrote memorandum Wilson assertions isis aa memorandum cers.® these assertions for these evidence for The evidence cers.63 The selhas selpaper has the paper historians, the by historians, cited by often cited on Though often 1901. Though January 1901. 21 January on 21 Wilson’s why Wilson's explain why must explain format—which must dom original format—which its original in its read in been read dom been conproper conthe proper in the read in When read misrepresented. When views badly misrepresented. so badly been so have been views have by aa obscured by logical, ifif obscured perfectly logical, were perfectly therein were text, expressed therein views expressed the views text, the style. poor poor style. French the French that the acknowledgment that an acknowledgment with an Wilson paper with his paper began his Wilson began not does not this does “but this sound, “but perfectly sound, was perfectly policy submarines was developing submarines of developing policy of own our own of our submarines of by submarines meet itit by to meet be to imply would be policy would best policy our best that our imply that French with French pace with keeping pace in keeping point in no point as see no could see Wilson could suggested.” Wilson as suggested.” such for such use for no use have no submarine would have Navy would Royal Navy the Royal as the construction as submarine construction our to our danger to are aa danger craft. submarines are French submarines that ifif French thought that be thought may be “It may craft. “It “but reasoned, “but he reasoned, theirs,” he to theirs,” ships danger to equal danger an equal be an would be boats would our boats ships our that weakened that so weakened was so this Fleet was our Fleet case ifif our the case be the to be come to only come would only this would recogWilson ports.” our of the French were able to attempt a blockade of our ports.” Wilson recogblockade a the French were able to attempt the crossing the of crossing capable of not capable nized were not submarines were French submarines yet French as yet that as nized that both available became craft became available both Channel, such craft when such predicted, when he predicted, but, he Channel, but, bottled fleets bottled merchant fleets and merchant Britain warships and their warships find their would find France would and France Britain and was While itit was matter. While up the matter. of the crux of the crux was the this was Wilson this For Wilson port. For in port. up in

so not so “it isis not flowing, “it trade flowing, essential overseas trade her overseas keep her to keep Britain to for Britain essential for Thus: ships.” Thus: important own ships.” their own for their access for free access maintain free to maintain them to for them important for nation to aa nation detrimental to be detrimental must be The warfare must submarine warfare of submarine development of The development necthe necand the food and of food supplies of depending its supplies for its surface for the surface at the navigation at on navigation depending on

cannot we cannot [and] we essaries direction [and] this direction invention inin this stop invention cannot stop We cannot life. We of life. essaries of anything doing anything avoid doing delay still avoid should still we should but we longer, but any longer, introduction any its introduction delay its and trapping and of trapping means of our means to that our order that in order improvement in its improvement in its assist in to assist boats submarine boats the submarine destroying than the rate than greater rate at aa greater develop at may develop destroying itit may opportunifavorable opportuniall favorable themselves. take all should take politicians should end,] politicians this end,] [To this themselves. [To Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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ties ties of of enlisting enlisting the the moral moral sense sense of of nations nations against against this this and above all avoid saying anything to prevent and above all avoid saying anything to prevent the the being being adopted adopted in in war war against against the the crews crews of of submarine submarine in the act of using them.64 in the act of using them.™ [my [my italics] italics]

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method method of of warfare, warfare, sternest sternest measures measures boats boats when when caught caught

The The reprisals reprisals Wilson Wilson advocated advocated may may have have been been open open to to question, question, but but his his sentiments were cogent. sentiments were cogent. What What is is more, more, the the other other three three professional professional members members of of the the board board endorsed endorsed the the broad broad thrust thrust of of Wilson’s Wilson’s remarks. remarks. Even the progressive Even the progressive Walter Walter Kerr, Kerr, who who favored favored the the Royal Royal Navy Navy exploiting exploiting submarines, submarines, found found himself himself concurring concurring with with “the “the argument argument he he brings brings forforward.” ward.” His His only only objection objection to to Wilson’s Wilson’s remarks remarks was was that that they they were were “per“perhaps haps too too forcible.”65 forcible.”® Evidently Evidently Selborne Selborne thought thought so so too, too, for for in in March March 1901 1901 Wilson Wilson was was dismissed dismissed from from the the post post of of controller controller for for his his “obsti“obstinate” nate” manner manner and and banished banished to to a a sea-going sea-going command.66 command.® With With the the four four professional professional members members of of the the Board Board of of Admiralty Admiralty unanunanimously imously opposed opposed to to the the motion motion calling calling for for the the Royal Royal Navy Navy to to adopt adopt aa more more openly openly progressive progressive submarine submarine policy, policy, the the motion motion put put forward forward by by the the parparliamentary liamentary secretary secretary seemed seemed defeated. defeated. But But having having served served alongside alongside Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster for for less less than than three three months, months, the the naval naval lords lords had had yet yet to to learn learn that that he he rarely rarely took took “no” “no” for for an an answer. answer. Arnold-Forster’s Arnold-Forster’s goal goal was was made made a a good good deal deal easier easier at at the the end end of of February February 1901, 1901, after after a a Glasgow Glasgow newspaper newspaper revealed revealed what what was was really really under under construction construction inside inside the the covcovered ered “yacht “yacht shed” shed” at at Vickers Vickers yard yard at at Barrow-in-Furness.67 Barrow-in-Furness.® On On 11 March March the the Admiralty Admiralty confirmed confirmed the the story. story. Everyone Everyone now now knew knew that that Britain Britain was was building building submarines—even submarines—even if if it it was was not not yet yet clear clear for for what what purpose purpose they they were were being being built. built. Over Over the the next next few few months, months, Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster subjected subjected his his naval naval colleagues colleagues to to a a sustained sustained verbal verbal attack attack supported supported by by a a wellwelldirected directed barrage barrage of of memoranda.68 memoranda.® In In March, March, for for instance, instance, he he protested protested that that “if “if the the French French were were by by this this time time next next year year to to have have aa squadron squadron of of twenty twenty perfected perfected submarines submarines it it is is impossible impossible to to doubt doubt that that our our [mer[merchant] chant] shipping shipping in in the the narrow narrow waters waters of of the the Channel Channel would would be be exposed exposed to to serious serious danger.”69 danger.”® Whether Whether or or not not members members of of the the Board Board believed believed in in submarines Submarines (which (which they they all all clearly clearly did) did) surely, surely, he he pleaded, pleaded, it it was was sensisensible ble to to keep keep pace pace with with the the French French over over numbers numbers of of submarines submarines completcompleted? ed? “It “It seems seems to to me,” me,” he he urged urged Selborne Selborne in in July, July, “that “that it it may may be be a a good good plan plan to to have have no no submarines, submarines, or or to to have have a a great great many, many, but but there there can’t can't be be much much advantage advantage in in having having six six only.”70 only.”” in In August August 1901 1901 Arnold-Forster Arnoid-Forster developed aa new new line line of of attack. attack. That That month month he he circulated circulated aa memorandum memorandum developed suggesting Suggesting that that Admiralty Admiralty could could use use submarines submarines to to safeguard safeguard the the British British Isles Isles from from invasion. invasion. At At the the time, time, most most of of the the army army was was away away fighting fighting in in South South Africa, Africa, and and there there was was widespread widespread concern concern in in the the country country at at the the possibility possibility of of aa French French invasion. invasion. As As usual usual his his argument argument was was well well prepreLambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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of matter of the matter in the equipped in well equipped as well are as sented we are “Provided we logical. “Provided and logical. sented and speculated, he speculated, submarines neighbours,” he our neighbours,” as our submarines as to disadvantage to being aa disadvantage from being far from so far the weapon, so new weapon, this new of this introduction of the introduction other any other invade any to invade desire to no desire have no us, We have position. We our position. strengthen our will strengthen us, will submarine the submarine invaded. IfIf the not invaded. are not country; ourselves are we ourselves that we important that it’s important country; it’s the case, the the case, be the to be likely to is likely think is proves authorities think some authorities as some formidable as as formidable proves as will shores will our shores on our troops on of troops landing of bombardment the landing and the ports, and our ports, of our bombardment of

impossible.“ become absolutely impossible.” become absolutely

profeshis profesof his advice of the advice overrule the to overrule Although refused to still refused lord still first lord the first Although the persuaded. been persuaded. had been he had personally he sional policy, personally submarine policy, on submarine advisers on sional advisers placed Selborne placed 1901, Selborne November 1901, in November Cabinet in In the Cabinet to the circulated to paper circulated In aa paper seriously be seriously to be vessel to submarine isis aa vessel the submarine on that the “conviction that his “conviction record his on record answer an answer is an “submarine is the “submarine that, the reckoned concurred that, also concurred He also with.”72 He reckoned with.”” to prove to may prove submarine may the submarine value the to whatever value that whatever order that in order submarine in to submarine our to our as to well as as well side as our side on our asset on an asset be an have may be future itit may the future in the war in in war have in by us by upon us work upon to work able to be able may be they may damage they opponents, whatever damage and whatever opponents, and came when itit came Still, when them.”73 Still, upon them.”” retaliate upon to retaliate its able to be able may be we may means, we its means, first the first years, the seven years, next seven the next for the to requirements for navy’s requirements the navy’s projecting the to projecting likely submarines.74 ItIt isis likely twenty submarines.” than twenty lord more than no more for no money for requested money lord requested number minimum number the minimum probably the were probably annum were that per annum vessels per three vessels that three submanufacturing subin manufacturing interested in Vickers them interested keep them to keep demanded to Vickers demanded He patient. He be patient. to be Arnold-Forster to urged Arnold-Forster marines. Selborne urged Meanwhile, Selborne marines. Meanwhile, to “subject to be “subject would be numbers would assured the numbers two” the or two” year or “a year after “a that after him that assured him Arnold-Forster reconsideration.” that Arnold-Forster show that may show hindsight may Although hindsight reconsideration.”75 Although should readers should faster, readers move faster, was to move Admiralty to the Admiralty pressed the have pressed to have right to was right comto comyet to had yet Navy had note Royal Navy the Royal 1901, the November 1901, stage, November this stage, at this that at note that these with these experience with mission practical experience Without practical submarine. Without first submarine. its first mission its understandable. was understandable. craft, caution was with caution proceed with to proceed decision to the decision craft, the Experiments Experiments and and Prototypes Prototypes

the adopted the Navy adopted Royal Navy the Royal The why the reason why important reason most important single most The single proven possible aa proven as possible quickly as American as quickly obtain as to obtain was to boat was Holland boat American Holland was performance was their performance that their underwater matter that not matter did not trials. ItIt did for trials. craft for underwater craft the Submerged, the service. Submerged, well already inin service. submarines already French submarines of French that of below that well below

or knots, or five knots, at five miles at Holland twenty miles just twenty running just of running capable of were capable boats were Holland boats priorifirst prioriAdmiralty’s first less The Admiralty’s boats. The French boats. of French range of the range third the than aa third less than

lords naval lords The naval navigation. The ty submarine navigation. of submarine principles of the principles master the to master was to ty was difficulthe difficulsoon underestimated the greatly underestimated had greatly they had however, they discovered, however, soon discovered, White William White as William not, as ties was not, submarines. ItIt was constructing submarines. actually constructing of actually ties of “folLtd., “folVickers Ltd., had contractors, Vickers the contractors, of the matter of simply aa matter them, simply assured them, had assured lowing” lowing” the the plans plans provided provided by by the the Electric Electric Boat Boat Company. Company. There There was, was, as as Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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a a result, result, a a considerable considerable delay delay in in delivery. delivery. Though Though to to be be fair fair it it must must be be said said that that Vickers Vickers were were not not sold sold the the designs designs of of the the original original Holland Holland but but an an improved improved experimental experimental design design known known in in the the United United States States as as Fulton. Fulton. This This version version was was somewhat somewhat larger larger than than the the prototype, prototype, displacing displacing one one hundred hundred six six tons tons and and measuring measuring sixty-three sixty-three feet feet and and ten ten inches inches in in length length as as opposed to to fifty-three fifty-three feet feet and and only only sixty-five sixty-five tons. tons. The The British British built built boats boats opposed had also also been been given given aa much much more more powerful powerful but but as as yet yet untested untested 180 180 hp. hp. had gasoline engine engine for for surface surface propulsion. propulsion. Teething Teething problems problems took took time time to to gasoline rectify rectify and and further further contributed contributed to to the the delay.76 delay.”* As As a a result, result, HM HM submarine submarine torpedo boat boat “number “number 1” 1” which which was was supposed supposed to to have have been been ready ready by by torpedo October October 1901, 1901, did did not not make make her her first first dive dive at at sea sea until until 6 6 April April 1902.77 1902.” Readers Readers will will recall recall that that in in January January 1901, 1901, Lord Lord Selborne Selborne had had queried queried the naval naval lords lords as as to to whether whether they they still still thought thought that that the the purchase purchase of of the the the Holland Holland boats boats from from Vickers Vickers arranged arranged by by his his predecessor predecessor was was the the best best course. course. By By this this time, time, it it will will also also be be remembered, remembered, the the Admiralty Admiralty no no longer longer regarded regarded submarines submarines simply simply as as antisubmarine antisubmarine targets targets but but as as prototypes prototypes for for future future development. development. At At that that time, time, however, however, no no one one in in the the service service was was really really capable capable of of making making an' an informed informed judgement judgement on on this this question. question. Because the the Admiralty Admiralty were were reluctant reluctant to to depend depend upon upon Vickers Vickers for for techtechBecause nical nical advice, advice, in in May May 1901 1901 Capt. Capt. Reginald Reginald Bacon Bacon was was appointed appointed to to the the controller’s controller's department department with with the the title title of of inspecting inspecting captain captain of of subsubmarines. He He was was charged charged to to acquaint acquaint himself himself with with all all aspects aspects of of submasubmamarines. rine boats boats and and to to oversee oversee their their construction construction and and trials. trials. In In other other words words he he rine was was ordered ordered to to become become the the navy’s navy’s resident resident expert expert on on submarine submarine warfare. warfare. promising was aa promising He was selection. He Bacon’s selection. for Bacon's reason for obvious reason no obvious was no There was There as aa trained as bent, trained technical bent, termed aa technical be termed might be what might with what captain with young captain young But boats. But torpedo boats. surface torpedo with surface experienced with greatly experienced and greatly officer and torpedo officer torpedo less much less and much well-qualified and equally well-qualified several equally possessed several Navy possessed Royal Navy the Royal the officers. prickly officers. prickly new the new informed the Bacon informed boats, Bacon Holland boats, the Holland of the plans of the plans seeing the After seeing After performance the performance that the doubts that his doubts of his May, of William May, Adm. William Rear Adm. controller, Rear controller, Narval, submersible Narval, French submersible the French match the would match craft would American craft the American of the of of surface of the surface along the steering along of steering “capable of be “capable to be reported to been reported had been which had which then and then Channel, and the Channel, cross the to cross sufficient to least sufficient at least distance at for aa distance water for the water the acknowlBacon acknowlsubmarine-boat.”78 Bacon as aa submarine-boat.”” acting as and acting itself and submerging itself of submerging of underwater, safely underwater, operate safely could operate boats could Holland boats the Holland doubtless the that doubtless edged that edged their question their to question him to led him boats led torpedo boats surface torpedo with surface experience with his experience but his but be would be boats would Holland boats the Holland suspected the rightly suspected He rightly capabilities.79 He seagoing capabilities.” seagoing of calmest of the calmest but the anything but in anything operate in to operate small to craft”—-too small weather craft’—too “fair weather “fair Holland fifth Holland and fifth fourth and the fourth before the that before suggested that thus suggested Bacon thus weather.80 Bacon weather.” seatheir seaenhance their to enhance modified to be modified could be lines could their lines down their laid down were laid boats were boats refused to department refused contracts department Admiralty contracts the Admiralty But the abilities.81 But keeping abilities.*’ keeping Lambert, Nicolas. 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allow allow any any alterations alterations to to be be made; made; the the “sea-lawyers” “sea-lawyers” feared feared that that “any “any interference [by the navy] with the plans of the Holland Company interference [by the navy] with the plans of the Holland Company must must result result in in that that company company disclaiming disclaiming responsibility responsibility should should any any mishap mishap occur.”82 Bacon’s arguments that the commercially designed occur.” Bacon’s arguments that the commercially designed Holland Holland boats boats would would not not accurately accurately reflect reflect the the capabilities capabilities of of aa French French submarine submarine was too persuasive to ignore, however. So the following month, the the Board Board was too persuasive to ignore, however. So the following month, of Admiralty authorized the construction of a sixth submarine to be built of Admiralty authorized the construction of a sixth submarine to be built to “Admiralty design” and incorporating the improvements suggested to “Admiralty design” and incorporating the improvements suggested by by Captain as Captain Bacon.83 Bacon.® The The new new model model vessel, vessel, the the “number “number six six boat” boat” or or “A1” “A1” as she she was was known, known, was was laid laid down down two two days days after after Holland Holland 11 was was finally finally comcompleted in February 1902.84 pleted in February 1902." She She was was significantly significantly larger larger than than the the Holland Holland boats, the boats, displacing displacing 203 203 tons, tons, and and propelled propelled by by aa 500 500 hp. hp. engine. engine. By By far far the most important improvement was top most important improvement was the the building building of of aa “conning” “conning” tower tower on on top of of the the deck deck that that greatly greatly improved improved sea-keeping sea-keeping in in poor poor weather. weather. Also Also by by raising raising the the ventilation ventilation intakes intakes sixteen sixteen feet feet above above the the water, water, the the main main engine engine could could be be operated operated on on the the surface surface in in a a seaway Seaway without without the the danger danger of of water water flooding flooding down down the the hatches hatches and and into into the the boat.85 boat.® Shortly Shortly after after Holland Holland 11 was was commissioned commissioned into into the the Royal Royal Navy Navy in in 1902, 1902, she she was was “borrowed” “borrowed” by by the the Torpedo Torpedo School School at at Portsmouth Portsmouth and and employed employed as as an an antisubmarine antisubmarine target.86 target. Over Over the the preceding preceding two two years years the the staff Staff at at the the “Vernon” “Vernon” had had achieved achieved little little success success in in their their quest quest to to develdevelop op a a workable workable antisubmarine antisubmarine weapon. weapon. it It had had been been hoped hoped that that an an antidote antidote would would be be found found in in the the use use of of high high explosive explosive bombs.87 bombs.” In In 1901, 1901, trials trials had had been the been conducted conducted using using aa torpedo torpedo as as the the submarine. submarine. Beforehand, Beforehand, the experts experts at at the the “Vernon” “Vernon” had had expected expected the the target target to to be be destroyed destroyed by by aa 168 168 lb. lb. guncotton guncotton charge charge detonated detonated at at nine nine hundred hundred feet. feet. It It was, was, therefore, therefore, aa considerable shock to discover “that the torpedo was only damaged, at considerable shock to discover “that the torpedo was only damaged, at eighty—four to ninety feet instead of 900 as calculated.”88 Further expereighty-four to ninety feet instead of 900 as calculated.”®* Further experiments iments conducted conducted in in October October 1901, 1901, at at closer closer ranges ranges and and with with bigger bigger (250 lbs. and 500 lbs.) charges had proved equally unsuccessful.89 in (250 Ibs. and 500 Ibs.) charges had proved equally unsuccessful.® In November 1902, the experiments were repeated against the brand new November 1902, the experiments were repeated against the brand new Holland Holland 11 in in the the hope hope that that a a nearby nearby explosion explosion might might incapacitate incapacitate the the crew. But no damage was caused to the submarine—or crew. But no damage was caused to the submarine—or the the crew—by crew—by a a charge charge detonated detonated at at only only fifty fifty yards.90 yards.” At At the the end end of of 1902, 1902, Bacon Bacon confidentially confidentially informed informed the the controller controller that that he believed continuing he believed continuing the the experiments experiments was was futile futile because because of of the the near near impossibility to impossibility of of dropping dropping a a charge charge sufficiently sufficiently close close to to the the submarine submarine to do any damage.“ do any damage." He He advised advised that that first first it it was was necessary necessary to to devise devise some some means means to to locate locate the the approximate approximate position position of of a a submerged submerged vessel.92 vessel.” Shortly of Shortly afterwards afterwards Bacon Bacon initiated initiated attempts attempts to to detect detect the the presence presence of submarines submarines by by using using aa primitive primitive hydrophone hydrophone to to listen listen for for underwater underwater machinery machinery noises.93 noises.* But But the the results results were were discouraging discouraging and and only only served served to to Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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reinforce reinforce his his conviction conviction that that submarines submarines were were effectively effectively “unattackable.” “unattackable.” Yet Yet despite despite Bacon’s Bacon’s insistence insistence that that further further attempts attempts to to develop develop an an exploexplosive Sive antisubmarine antisubmarine weapon weapon were were aa waste waste of of time, time, the the controller controller ordered ordered the the officers officers at at the the “Vernon” “Vernon” to to persevere. persevere. The The Torpedo Torpedo School School spent spent the the next next eighteen eighteen months months trying trying to to develop develop aa bomb bomb that that could could be be dropped dropped from from aa destroyer, destroyer, towed towed to to the the position position where where the the submarine submarine periscope periscope was was last last seen, seen, and and then then detonated. detonated. But But as as Bacon Bacon had had predicted, predicted, it it was was found found impossible impossible to to ascertain ascertain when when or or where where to to fire fire the the charge. charge. Further Further “live” “live” experiments experiments with with a a Holland Holland boat boat confirmed confirmed that that at at aa range range of of “eighty “eighty yards yards the the submarine submarine would would suffer suffer no no inconvenience inconvenience from from the the explosion explosion of of 200l 200lbs of of gun gun cotton.”94 cotton.”™ it It was was not not until until the the controller controller was was warned warned that that the the towed towed explosive explosive charge charge was was more more likely likely to to blow blow the the stern stern off off aa destroyer destroyer than than sink sink aa hostile hostile submarine, submarine, that that the the program program was was finalfinally ly abandoned.95 abandoned.® Another Another reason reason for for dropping dropping the the idea idea was was reluctance reluctance of of the the senior senior naval naval lord lord “to “to lumber lumber up” up” destroyers destroyers with with equipment equipment that that hinhindered dered them them from from performing performing their their primary primary role role as as torpedo torpedo boat boat destroydestroyers.96 ers.”° At At that that time time destroyers destroyers displaced displaced less less than than six six hundred hundred tons tons and and were were thus thus too too small small to to carry carry more more than than aa couple couple of of these these explosive explosive bombs bombs without without endangering endangering their their stability stability and and reducing reducing their their speed.97 speed.” in In February February 1903, 1903, with with the the completion completion and and delivery delivery of of the the remaining remaining Holland Holland boats, boats, Bacon Bacon commenced commenced aa program program of of tactical tactical maneuvers maneuvers between between surface surface ships ships and and his his submarines. submarines. The The early early trials trials off off Portsmouth Portsmouth were were undertaken, undertaken, supposedly, supposedly, “not “not so so much much with the View view of of with'the establishing establishing the the actual actual value value of of the the Holland Holland boat, boat, as as to to arrive arrive at at general general conclusions conclusions as as to to the the visibility visibility of of the the boats, boats, the the errors errors they they would would make make in in attack, attack, and and to to practice practice them them in in the the correction correction of of these these and and at at the the same same time time to to indicate indicate general general rules rules for for ships ships to to avoid avoid these these craft.”98 craft.”® It It must must be be said said though, though, that that Bacon Bacon and and his his lieutenants lieutenants exhibited exhibited far far more more interest interest in in perfecting perfecting submarine submarine tactics tactics than than in in trying trying to to work work out out suitable suitable evaevasive Sive maneuvers maneuvers for for surface surface vessels. vessels. In In any any case, case, after after only only three three months months Bacon Bacon started started to to campaign campaign openly openly for for the the navy navy to to spend spend less less time time trying trying to boats. to destroy destroy submarines submarines and and more more on on developing developing them them as as torpedo torpedo boats. In May May 1903, 1903, the the inspecting inspecting captain captain of of submarines submarines proclaimed proclaimed that that “suf“sufIn ficient ficient experience experience has has been been obtained obtained with with these these boats boats to to assign assign them them aa definite role role in in the the armaments armaments of of the the Navy.”* Navy. ”99 AA group group of of just just three three to to five five definite submarines, he he advised advised the the Admiralty, Admiralty, would would pose pose an an insurmountable insurmountable submarines, obstacle to to aa squadron squadron attempting attempting to to operate operate in in the the vicinity vicinity of of aa port port obstacle where where submarines submarines were were based. based. “The “The risks risks of of allowing allowing aa large large ship ship to to approach approach such such aa port port are are so so great great that that lI unhesitatingly unhesitatingly affirm affirm that that in in war war time time it it should should never never be be allowed,” allowed,” he he thought.100 thought.'*’ Bacon Bacon closed closed his his report report with with aa recommendation recommendation that that the the Admiralty Admiralty consider consider emulating emulating the the French French network network of of “defenses “défenses mobiles” mobiles” by by relying relying upon upon submarines submarines and and Lambert, Nicolas. 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he Submarines, he mines. Submarines, than mines. rather than defense rather coastal defense for coastal boats for torpedo torpedo boats than warships than hostile warships intruding hostile to intruding deterrence to better deterrence far better were aa far advised, advised, were encountered being encountered their being of their possibility of “the possibility mobile, “the being mobile, because being mines mines because disregard.”101 cannot disregard.” enemy cannot an enemy that an fact that coast, isis aa fact the coast, of the part of near any part near any of report of Bacon’s report Captain Bacon’s historian, Captain prominent historian, one prominent to one According According to take to take Admiralty to of Admiralty Board of the Board persuading the in persuading instrumental in was instrumental 1903 was May 1903 May of because of Largely because submarine.102 Largely the submarine.'” of the advent of the advent seriously” the “very seriously” “very Admiralty of Admiralty Board of the Board 1903 the of 1903 autumn of the autumn argued, inin the he argued, report, he Bacon’s report, Bacon’s at boats at few boats “a few of “a allocation of the allocation involving the system” involving “defence system” created aa “defence created histothe histohowever, the Surprisingly, however, bases.”103 Surprisingly, [naval] bases.”' principal [naval] the principal each of the each of departure fundamental departure to aa fundamental amounted to what amounted on what comment on no comment passed no rian passed rian to use to no use of no were of warships were “defensive” warships that “defensive” doctrine that prevailing doctrine the prevailing from the from For overstated. For be overstated. cannot be point cannot this point of this significance of The significance Navy. The Royal Navy. the Royal the the at the circulated at papers circulated in papers that in insisted that Admiralty insisted the Admiralty 1902 the in 1902 instance, in instance, appear. ItIt not appear. [must] not ‘defense’ [must] word ‘defense’ “the word Conference, “the Defense Conference, Colonial Colonial Defense navy isis British navy the British of the object of primary object the primary because the advisedly, because omitted advisedly, isis omitted the this isis the enemy.. . . . this the enemy of the fleet of the fleet attack the to attack but to anything but defend anything to defend not to not dogmathis dogmaby this infected by been infected had been Selborne had Lord Selborne Even Lord aim.”‘°“ Even ultimate aim.”'** ultimate any towards any service towards the service within the hostility within entrenched hostility the entrenched of the View of In view tism.‘°5 In tism.'°> post-captain junior post-captain that aa junior inconceivable that therefore, itit isis inconceivable craft, therefore, “defensive” craft, “defensive” the of the mind of collective mind the collective changed the have changed could have report could single report with aa single armed with armed his making his in making Furthermore, in overnight. Furthermore, virtually overnight. Admiralty virtually of Admiralty Board of Board the with the collide with would collide proposals would his proposals that his well that full well knew full Bacon knew report Bacon report always has always prejudice has “Considerable prejudice doctrine. “Considerable water” doctrine. “blue water” of “blue principles of principles in observed in had observed he had craft,” he torpedo craft,” developing torpedo England developing against England existed against existed torthat torstating that formula stating seductive formula the seductive of the account of on account “chiefly on report, “chiefly his report, his power.”’106 weaker power.’”'” the weaker of the arm of ‘the arm were ‘the craft were pedo craft pedo Captain before Captain months before five months some five that some show that documents show fact, documents In fact, In year almost aa year and almost boats, and Holland boats, the Holland with the trials with tactical trials his tactical began his Bacon began Bacon had Admiralty had the Admiralty Whitehall, the reached Whitehall, report reached making” report “epoch making” his “epoch before his before the in the role in definite role “a definite submarines “a give submarines to give reason to sufficient reason found sufficient already found already the 1902, the October 1902, and October July and between July Sometime between navy.” Sometime the navy.” of the armaments of armaments year submarines aa year ten submarines purchase ten to purchase navy to the navy commit the to commit agreed to lord agreed first lord first

and built and already built nine already the nine to the addition to these inin addition years, these four years, next four the next for the for

b

by memorandum by decision isis aa memorandum this decision to this reference to earliest reference The earliest building. The building. expendithe expendiinvolved the proposal involved The proposal 1902.‘07 The October 1902.'” 10 October dated 10 Selborne dated Selborne the of the one-third of roughly one-third or roughly annum, or per annum, £500,000 per approximately £500,000 of approximately ture of ture underwater to underwater attached to now attached importance now The importance battleship. The new battleship. of aa new price of price contheir confund their to fund willingness to Admiralty’s willingness the Admiralty’s from the gauged from be gauged may be craft may craft vessels flotilla vessels surface flotilla of surface number of proportionate number cutting aa proportionate by cutting struction by struction February in February later, in months later, Four months estimates.‘08 Four naval estimates.’ projected naval the projected from the from of ten batch of first batch the first for the contract for Vickers aa contract awarded Vickers Admiralty awarded 1903, [the I 1903, the Admiralty

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vessels. vessels. That That was was before before Vickers Vickers had had delivered delivered the the last last of of the the Holland Holland would navy would the navy that the evidence that some evidence There isis some Navy.109 There Royal Navy.'” the Royal to the boats to boats have liked liked to to have have ordered ordered even even more more than than ten ten craft craft annually annually but but ten ten have “was “was the the largest largest number number that that Vickers Vickers could could turn turn out.”“0 out.”'"° There There is is no no obvious obvious explanation explanation for for why why the the decision decision to to order order subsubmarines marines in in large large numbers numbers was was taken taken when when it it was. was. It It is is true true that that since since the the summer summer of of 1902 1902 the the navy navy had had been been “playing” “playing” with with its its first first submarine submarine boat. boat. But But clear clear ideas ideas on on submarine submarine tactics tactics or or capabilities capabilities had had yet yet to to emerge emerge and and the the advent advent of of the the submarine submarine had had not not produced produced aa discernible discernible impact impact upon upon naval naval opinion.“ opinion.'"’ In In July, July, Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster was was still still comcomplaining that plaining that the the Admiralty Admiralty was was not not yet yet taking taking submarines submarines seriously.H2 seriously.''” Although Although serious serious doubts doubts had had begun begun to to emerge emerge over over the the practicality practicality of of enforcing enforcing aa close close blockade blockade of of French French ports, ports, these these stemmed stemmed more more from from concern concern at at the the dramatic dramatic improvement improvement in in the the effectiveness effectiveness of of torpedoes torpedoes after after being being fitted fitted with with gyroscopes. gyroscopes. Nor Nor had had intelligence intelligence uncovered uncovered any any new new revelations revelations about about the the French French program.“3 program.'® in In the the absence absence of of concrete concrete documentary evidence, evidence, therefore, therefore, the the only only credible credible explanation explanation for for the the documentary Admiralty’s Admiralty’s change change in in policy policy is is that that majority majority opinion opinion on on the the Board Board had had shifted shifted in in favor favor of of Arnold-Forster’s Arnold-Forster’s proposal proposal to to keep keep pace pace with with French French construction. Such Such aa change change at at Whitehall Whitehall isis plausible.''* plausible.‘14 Since Since ArnoldArnoldconstruction. Forster’s Forster's idea idea had had been been first first rejected rejected in in early early 1901, 1901, two two new new men men had had joined joined the the Board. Board. in In March March 1901, 1901, Capt. Capt. William William May May had had succeeded succeeded Wilson Wilson as as controller. controller. And And in in July July 1902, 1902, the the energetic energetic Adm. Adm. Sir Sir John John Fisher Fisher took took office office as as second second naval naval lord lord in in place place of of Admiral Admiral Douglas. Douglas. As As we we shall shall see, see, both both officers officers soon soon became became powerful powerful and and consistent consistent supsupporters porters of of the the submarine.“5 submarine.' Fighting for for Supremacy: Supremacy: Fighting The The Army, Army, the the Navy, Navy, and and Home Home Defense Defense

the encouraging the for encouraging credit for the credit of the much of seem, much Strange may seem, as itit may Strange as Admiralty Admiralty to to give give submarines submarines “a “a definite definite role role in in the the armaments armaments of of the the the that the understand that to understand essential to army. ItIt isis essential British army. the British to the belongs to Navy” belongs Navy” place took place 1902 took of 1902 winter of the winter during the Whitehall during at Whitehall policy at in policy change in change demarthe demarover the rivalry over interservice rivalry heightened interservice of heightened against background of against aa background the throughout the bases throughout naval bases of naval defense of the defense for the cation responsibility for of responsibility cation of the years the many years For many important. For are important. squabble are this squabble of this Empire. details of The details Empire. The War the War with the disputes with into disputes drawn into being drawn avoid being to avoid Admiralty tried to had tried Admiralty had acted had acted administrations had naval administrations Successive naval question. Successive this question. over this Office over Office entire the entire leave the to leave always to was always course was safest course the safest that the upon principle that the principle upon the responsibility in in the the hands hands of of the the army. army. This This stance stance had had been been reaffirmed reaffirmed responsibility most most recently recently in in December December 1900, 1900, at at aa joint-services joint-services conference conference held held to to of defense of coast defense the coast governing the considerations governing “consider strategical considerations the strategical “consider the Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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the attending naval the United United Kingdom.”"6 Kingdom.”''® On On that that occasion occasion the the attending naval represenrepresentative, tative, Rear Rear Adm. Adm. Custance, Custance, advised advised the the War War Office Office that that “in “in order order that that the the Navy Navy may may not not be be hampered hampered in in its its primary primary functions, functions, the the Admiralty Admiralty decline decline in in any any way way to to be be responsible responsible for for coastal coastal defenses defenses beyond beyond giving giving advice advice on on matters matters that that directly directly or or indirectly indirectly effect effect the the navy. navy. It It follows follows therefore, therefore, that that the the Military Military authorities authorities are are alone alone responsible responsible for for the the same.”“7 same.”''’ In In short, short, the the navy navy did did not not really really care care what what the the War War Office Office did did provided provided their their defensive defensive preparations preparations did did not not interfere interfere with with shipping shipping leaving leaving or or entering entering port. port. There There was was not not an an admiral admiral on on the the flag flag list list who who did did not not earnestly earnestly believe believe that that all all talk talk about about the the possibility possibility of of an an invasion invasion of of the the United United Kingdom Kingdom was was balderdash.118 balderdash.'® During During the the second second half half of of 1902, 1902, the the Admiralty Admiralty was was given given good good reareason son to to reconsider reconsider its its approach. approach. The The preceding preceding twelve twelve months months had had seen seen a a deepening deepening crisis crisis in in government government finances, finances, a a renewed renewed invasion invasion scare scare in in the pressure the press, press, and and the the Admiralty Admiralty had had also also come come under under renewed renewed pressure from from the the Treasury Treasury to to find find savings savings in in their their budget. budget. More More ominously, ominously, the the

War War Office, Office, desperate desperate to to justify justify inflated inflated military military estimates estimates in in the the afteraftermath math of of the the army’s army's dismal dismal performance performance in in the the Boer Boer War, War, began began claiming claiming the invathe need need for for a a large large peace-time peace-time army army to to protect protect the the country country from from invasion. sion. At At the the end end of of 1902, 1902, Prime Prime Minister Minister Arthur Arthur Balfour Balfour ordered ordered the the newly newly established established Cabinet Cabinet Defense Defense Committee Committee to to investigate investigate the the possipossibility of of an an invasion invasion of of the the British British Isles. Isles. At At the the beginning beginning of of 1903, 1903, service service bility chiefs chiefs were were asked asked to to submit submit their their assessments assessments of of the the likelihood likelihood of of the the French invasion of French capturing capturing a a port port on on the the south south coast coast to to facilitate facilitate an an invasion of the the British British Isles.“9 Isles.'’? Seeing Seeing the the fiscal fiscal axe axe poised poised to to strike, strike, the the Admirals Admirals saw saw advantage the finished finished advantage in in quietly quietly abandoning abandoning their their usual usual position. position. When When the papers papers were were distributed distributed for for comment, comment, the the War War Office Office was was dismayed dismayed to to find find that that “the “the Admiralty Admiralty now now contend contend that that the the Navy Navy will will entirely entirely suffice suffice to to protect protect the the United United Kingdom Kingdom from from any any attack attack or or invasion,” invasion,” other other than than the the occasional occasional minor minor raid.120 raid.'”° The The Admiralty Admiralty now now claimed claimed that that history history taught taught “an “an attack attack on on a a firstfirstclass defended defended home home port, port, such such as as Portsmouth, Portsmouth, involving involving not not only only bombomclass bardment by by aa squadron squadron of of armored armored ships, ships, but but the the landing landing of of aa field field force force bardment with with heavy heavy artillery artillery for for the the purpose purpose of of capturing capturing the the place place from from the the land land side, side, [was] [was] impossible impossible .. .. .. while while the the fleet fleet remains remains undefeated.”‘2' undefeated.”'2' Even Even if if

the the main main battle battle fleet fleet suffered suffered aa reverse reverse or or was was temporarily temporarily absent absent from from home home waters, waters, the the naval naval representatives representatives contended, contended, there there would would still still be be sufficient older older battleships battleships and and cruisers cruisers to to form form aa respectable respectable force. force. This This sufficient fleet fleet could could be be bolstered bolstered by by the the navy’s navy’s large large flotilla flotilla of of torpedo torpedo craft, craft, including including the the submarines.122 submarines.'” In In the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s opinion opinion the the role role of of the the army army in in home home defense defense was was simply simply to to provide provide coastal coastal defense defense batteries batteries to to guard guard the the approaches approaches to to important important naval naval bases bases and and other other valuable valuakle marmarLambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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itime itime targets targets such such as as in in the the naval naval shipbuilding shipbuilding yards yards on on the the Tyne.‘23 Tyne.'* “Land “Land fortifications," fortifications,” it it was was admitted, admitted, were were “a “a better better form form of of local local defense, as as aa rule, rule, than than stationary stationary ships.”'’ ships???" In In addition, addition, aa small small field field defense, force force was was required required to to deal deal with with enemy enemy raids. raids. While While the the enemy enemy fleet fleet remained remained in in being, being, the the Admiralty Admiralty advised, advised, “we “we cannot cannot make make sure sure of of prepreventing venting a a small small force, force, say say 5000 5000 men, men, being being landed landed somewhere somewhere in in the the three Kingdoms.”'* Kingdoms.”125 three In In the the ensuing ensuing (and (and animated) animated) discussion, discussion, the the Admiralty Admiralty comprecomprehensively arguments for for aa large field army army for hensively demolished demolished the the War War Office Office arguments large field for home home defense. defense. The The politicians politicians were were persuaded persuaded that that invasion invasion was was indeed indeed impossible impossible so so long long as as the the Royal Royal Navy Navy remained remained supreme supreme at at sea. sea. The The gengenerals Their erals were were left left to to pick pick at at minor minor inconsistencies inconsistencies in in the the navy’s navy’s case. case. Their only line line of of attack attack was was to to query query the the “admission” “admission” that that the the navy navy could could not not only ensure ensure the the interception interception of of all all raiding raiding forces.126 forces.'” If If the the army army was was supposed supposed to to have have sole sole responsibility responsibility for for coastal coastal defense, defense, insisted insisted the the generals. generals, then protection at at then they they should should be be allowed allowed to to fix fix the the appropriate appropriate level level of of protection each port. port. The The War War Office Office then then proceeded proceeded to to demand demand of Of aa force force of of each 350,000 these. 350,000 men men to to defend defend the the British British coasts coasts from from minor minor raids!127 raids!'”’ Of Of these, 229,000 229,000 would would be be locked locked up up in in thirty-seven thirty-seven defended defended ports ports to to man man the the coast defense defense artillery, artillery, garrison garrison the the fortresses, fortresses, and and maintain maintain the the sea sea coast mines sown sown in in the the vicinity vicinity of of those those ports.'” ports.‘28 The The remainder remainder would would form form aa mines mobile mobile field field army. army. When When it it was was suggested suggested that that perhaps perhaps the the size size of of this this force force was was a a little little big big to to deal deal with with enemy enemy raids raids by by no no more more than than 5,000 5,000 men, the the soldiers soldiers retorted retorted they they had had understood understood from from Admiral Admiral Custance Custanee men, that aa strong strong home home army army was was essential essential to to “unshackle” “unshackle” the the navy navy from from the the that British coastline coastline to to conduct conduct the the offensive offensive operations operations prescribed prescribed by by its its British “blue “blue water” water” doctrine, doctrine, and and anyway anyway the the proper proper size size of of the the army army was was a a judge.‘29 to judge.'” qualified to was qualified Office was War Office the War only the which only matter which technical matter technical From From the the navy’s navy’s perspective, perspective, the the most most disturbing disturbing aspect aspect of of the the War War Office defense defense scheme scheme for for the the defense defense of of Home Home Ports Ports was was the the role role Office volunThis volunMiners. This Submarine Miners. of Submarine Corps of Engineers Corps Royal Engineers the Royal to the assigned to assigned when time when at aa time 1870s, at the 1870s, during the established during been established had been formation had teer formation teer which loaders which muzzle loaders firing muzzle slow firing of slow consisted of artillery consisted defense artillery coast defense coast prevent to prevent enough to quickly enough fired quickly and fired trained and being trained of being incapable of were incapable were bomcould bomthey could where they ranges where to ranges closing to from closing warships from propelled warships steam propelled steam to was to mines was the mines of the function of The function guns. The the guns. behind the facilities behind port facilities the port bard the bard gunners defense gunners coastal defense the coastal of the duty of the duty ships: the to ships: obstacle to an obstacle as an serve as serve employed, itit mines employed, The mines removed.130 The being removed.’ from being mines from the mines prevent the to prevent was to was did they did words they other words In other type. In “observation” type. old “observation” the old were the noted, were be noted, should be should detcould detshore could on shore observer on an observer only an ship: only by aa ship: struck by when struck explode when not explode not onate them. them. This This was was not not much much consolation consolation to to the the navy. navy. Most Most of of the the onate Lambergpsgsiggrsismepaea,rg§leowists, and, as had been frequently shown in maneuobservers were reservists, and, aS had been frequently shown in E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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only Admiralty only the Admiralty fact, the In fact, foe.‘3‘ In vers, from aa foe.'*' ship from friendly ship tell aa friendly not tell could not vers, could

recogBoard recogthe Board after the Miners after tolerated of Miners Corps of Engineers Corps Royal Engineers the Royal tolerated the

finanas finanwell as as well capital—political as nized much capital—political too much already too that already 1893 that in 1893 nized in navy’s the navy’s for the return for in return cial—had organization.132 In the organization.” into the sunk into been sunk cial—had been admiral port admiral local port the local consult the to consult silence agreed to had agreed Engineers had Royal Engineers the Royal silence the former Clarke, aa former George Clarke, Sir George before Col. Sir like Col. Cynics like mines.133 Cynics any mines.'® sowing any before sowing the of the “most of that “most sure that felt sure engineers expert, felt defense expert, noted defense and aa noted officer and engineers officer Navy Royal Navy the Royal because the anyway because mines used anyway be used never be will never ports will naval ports at naval mines at channels?”34 don’t obstructing channels!”'* them obstructing want them don’t want Brodrick, John Brodrick, St. John war, St. for war, In state for of state secretary of the secretary 1903, the January 1903, In January reorganize to reorganize preparing to was preparing notified department was his department that his Admiralty that the Admiralty notified the training new training build aa new and build and Miners and Submarine Miners of Submarine Corps of the Corps reequip the and reequip to proposal to was aa proposal reforms was intended reforms school of intended list of the list On the Sheerness.135 On at Sheerness.'*> school at indiscriminatory with indiscriminatory mines with replace observation mines harmless observation relatively harmless the relatively replace the program expensive program an expensive such an on such contact embarking on Before embarking mines. Before contact mines. question general question “the general Brodrick on “the opinion on their opinion for their Admiralty for the Admiralty asked the Brodrick asked Capt. Warfare.”136 Capt. Naval Warfare.”'** in Naval mines in of submarine mines of submarine functions of future functions the future of the was school, was mine-warfare school, and mine-warfare George torpedo and the torpedo of the charge of in charge Egerton, in George Egerton, the first first naval naval officer officer to to comment. comment. His His View view was was unequivocal. unequivocal. Egerton Egerton the contact sow contact to sow soldiers to part-time soldiers shuddered allowing part-time of allowing thought of the thought at the shuddered at more and more country and the country to the cheaper to mines be cheaper would be “It would ports. “It British ports. off British mines off defences floating defences the floating “if the reliable advised, “if he advised, view,” he of view,” point of naval point from aa naval reliable from Navy.” the Navy.” to the over to of turned over were turned waters were home waters in home arsenals in chief arsenals the chief of the Egerton Egerton went went on on to to suggest suggest the the Admiralty Admiralty should should consider consider whether whether “sub“submarines marines and and torpedo-boats torpedo-boats could could take take the the place place of of submarine submarine mines”?I37 mines”?'*’ Capt. Henry Henry Jackson, Jackson, formerly formerly the the naval naval attache attaché in in Paris Paris and and now now servServCapt. assessment. Egerton’s assessment. echoed Egerton’s DN0, echoed ing the DNO, to the assistant to as assistant Whitehall as at Whitehall ing at Somewhat Somewhat more more diplomatically, diplomatically, however, however, he he stressed stressed that: that: the the increased increased range range of of modern modern guns guns has has in in most most cases cases reduced reduced the the value value effectively and effectively laid and be laid not be could not of mines could observation mines the observation as the minefields, as the minefields, of the fired, fired, at at distances distances beyond beyond which which effective effective attack attack by by artillery artillery fire fire could could not not the defending the guns defending the guns on the ships on be attacking ships the attacking by the out by carried out easily carried be easily rear.138 in rear.'** dockyard in as aa dockyard such as minefield, objective such main objective the main on the possibly on and possibly minefield, and

obserplaced obsersuitably placed replace aa suitably “Nothing,” well replace “can well admitted, “can Jackson admitted, “Nothing,” Jackson observation for observation deep for too deep was too water was vation the water ports the many ports off many But off mine.” But vation mine.” now were now army were the army why the was why mines which was effectively which employed effectively be employed to be mines to of Board of the Board that the proposing adamant that was adamant Jackson was mines. Jackson contact mines. lay contact to lay proposing to were defense were port defense improved port Admiralty proposal. IfIf improved this proposal. oppose this must oppose Admiralty must deemed necessary, necessary, Jackson Jackson agreed agreed with with Egerton, Egerton, then then in in many many cases cases deemed submarine boats boats might might well well prove prove safer safer and and more more reliable reliable than than contact contact submarine mines mines.'°° ‘39 Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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The The new new director director of of Naval Naval Intelligence, Intelligence, Capt. Capt. the the Prince Prince Louis Louis of of Battenberg, Battenberg, was was less less happy happy with with the the idea idea of of detailing detailing submarines submarines for for the the defense defense of of ports ports in in lieu lieu of of mines. mines. He He agreed agreed that that “the “the submarine submarine could could in in the the near near future future be be relied relied upon upon to to do do all all that that aa minefield minefield does does now now and and probably probably aa good good deal deal more.”140 more.”'” Indeed, Indeed, at at aa meeting meeting of of the the CID CID on on 14 14 February, February, Battenberg Battenberg referred referred to to the the embryonic embryonic submarine submarine flotilla flotilla as as “probably “probably the the most most formidable formidable obstacle obstacle of of all” all” to to a a successful successful French French amphibious amphibious raid raid on on the the south south coast.”1 coast.’ But But the the DN1 DNI recognized recognized that that nomnominating inating submarines submarines for for port port defense defense duties duties would would have have wider wider implicaimplications. tions. On On 26 26 February February he he reminded reminded the the naval naval lords lords that that for for years years the the army army had had been been trying trying to to foist foist upon upon the the Admiralty Admiralty the the responsibility responsibility for for the the defense defense of of the the navy’s navy’s coaling coaling stations stations scattered scattered around around the the world.142 world.'”

The The last last attempt attempt had had been been made made just just twelve twelve months months earlier. earlier. “One “One of of the the chief chief reasons reasons why why the the War War Office Office has has so so persistently persistently endeavoured endeavoured to to throw throw on on to to the the Admiralty Admiralty the the duty duty of of providing providing garrisons garrisons for for certain certain colonial colonial ports,” ports,” the the DN1 DNI suspected, suspected, “is “is that that many many of of these these places places are are unhealthy unhealthy [and] [and] the the duties duties irksome irksome in in time time of of peace.”143 peace.”'* Battenberg Battenberg feared feared an an admission admission by by the the Admiralty Admiralty that that submarines submarines could could protect protect naval naval ports ports more more effectively effectively and and also also probably probably at at less less cost cost than than mines, mines, might might well well induce induce the the soldiers soldiers to to petition petition the the government government to to give give navy navy the the responsibility responsibility for for all all imperial imperial ports. ports. This This eventuality, eventuality, he he reminded reminded his his superiors, superiors, would would add add considerably considerably to to the the expense expense and and complexity complexity of of naval naval strategic strategic policy.144 policy.'** In In his his opinion, opinion, such such an an unpleasant unpleasant possibility possibility was was to to be be avoided: avoided: The The arrangement arrangement by by which which the the War War Office Office defends defends our our ports ports leaving leaving us us free free to to do do our our duty duty at at sea, sea, is is the the basis basis of of our our War War Policy. Policy. it It is is not not a a question, question, as as some some naval naval officers officers contend, contend, that that we we could could do do it it better better than than the the army. army. Probably Probably we we could. could. The The point point is is that that if if we we were were to to undertake undertake it, it, aa portion portion of of the the strength strength which which we we are are now now able able to to develop develop at at sea, sea, would would be be absorbed absorbed by by local local defenses.I45 defenses.'*

L b

The The first first lord lord refused refused to to allow allow such such aa stance. stance. “If “If the the submarines submarines can can do do more more effectively effectively and and economically economically the the work work done done by by the the larger larger submasubmarine rine mining mining organisation organisation of of the the Army," Army,” he he told told the the naval naval lords lords on on 4 4 March, March, “then “then submarine submarine boats boats must must replace replace submarine submarine mines mines whether whether controlled controlled by by the the Army Army or or the the Navy.”146 Navy.”'* Fortunately Fortunately Selborne Selborne was was perpersuaded Suaded to to suspend suspend judgement judgement until until after after a a joint joint services services committee committee had had been been given given aa chance chance to to investigate investigate the the merits merits of of idea. idea. Brodrick’s Brodrick’s agreeagreement ment to to the the formation formation of of such such aa committee committee allowed allowed the the matter matter to to be be shelved Shelved until until the the end end of of the the year. year. This, This, however, however, did did not not stop stop the the naval naval lords lords from from trying trying to to prejudice prejudice the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s case. case. The The naval naval represenrepresentatilvesj tatives [appointed/to appointed to the the joint joint service service committee committee were were briefed briefed not not to to

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of admission of an admission as an (mis)interpreted as be (mis)interpreted could be make that could statement that any statement make any the of the estimate of an estimate give an to give pressed to ports. IfIf pressed naval defend ports. to defend responsibility to naval responsibility that reply that to reply ordered to were ordered they were submarines, they and submarines, relative mines and of mines value of relative value mines replacing mines submarines replacing of submarines question of any question be any never be while could never there could while there naval to naval close to mines close plant mines to plant not to army not the the army prefer the would prefer Admiralty would the Admiralty freethe freewith the “interfere with would “interfere they would because they bases, Portsmouth, because as Portsmouth, such as bases, such boats.”7 [submarine] boats.”'” the [submarine] of the dom action of of action dom of for responsibility for assuming responsibility not assuming for not Aside reasons for political reasons the political from the Aside from to as to doubts as genuine doubts some genuine held some have held must have port Admiralty must the Admiralty defenses, the port defenses, Captain from Captain reports from latest reports The latest the course. The such aa course. taking such of taking wisdom of the wisdom technical minor technical numerous minor that numerous Bacon indicated that 1903) indicated February 1903) (dated February Bacon (dated relied be relied could be submarines could before submarines overcome before problems be overcome to be had to still had problems still and Kerr, and Lord Kerr, Selborne, Lord Lord Selborne, mid-March, Lord In mid-March, upon duties. In combat duties. for combat upon for subthe subthemselves the for themselves witness for to witness William Portsmouth to visited Portsmouth all visited May all William May further giving further to giving View to the view with the Solent—possibly with marine the Solent—possibly in the trials in boat trials marine boat defense.I48 port defense.'® for port them for upon them relying upon consideration of relying idea of the idea to the consideration to the and the poor, and exceptionally poor, was exceptionally week was Unfortunately that week weather that the weather Unfortunately the unfavorThe unfavorboasts. The Bacon’s boasts. Captain Bacon's to Captain Holland up to live up to live failed to boats failed Holland boats At measurable. At was measurable. Board was the Board upon the had upon able demonstration had this demonstration impact this able impact Battenberg when Battenberg Committee, when Defense Committee, the Cabinet Defense the Cabinet of the meeting of next meeting the next the on the thoughts on Admiralty’s thoughts the Admiralty’s outline the to outline was Office to War Office the War by the asked by was asked before. than before. cautious than more cautious much more was much reply was utility his reply submarines, his of submarines, utility of advised, he advised, evidence,” he sufficient evidence,” of sufficient possession of in possession “We present in at present not at are not “We are This war. This in war. submarines in of submarines value of the value of the estimate of to exact estimate an exact form an to form able to be able to be in experience in they experience difficulty they main difficulty the main that the know, that do know, much, we do however, we much, however, the on the latter isis on the latter when the and when enemy and the enemy of the attacking view of good view keep aa good to keep attackn isis to seriously to seriously as to great as so great be so will be difficulty will move this difficulty that this probable that seems probable move itit seems limited.149 very limited.'” also very action isis also of action radius of Their radius militate value. Their their value. against their militate against

as acting as submarines acting to submarines objections to technical objections Besides and technical political and the political Besides the inside concern inside some concern been some have been must have the there must ports, there of ports, defense of main defense the main

that news that to news officers to flag officers many flag from many reaction from Whitehall probable reaction the probable at the Whitehall at purposes. defensive purposes. for defensive submarines for purchase submarines the to purchase intended to Admiralty intended the Admiralty

men antagonize men to antagonize bound to was bound defense was the defense to the Allocating resources to naval resources Allocating naval parwas parlatter was The latter Custance. The Reginald Custance. or Reginald like Lambton or Hedworth Lambton Adms. Hedworth like Adms. mind” of mind” “attitude of defensive “attitude assuming aa defensive ticularly navy assuming the navy to the opposed to ticularly opposed

as submarine as the submarine develop the to develop wished to who wished those who and all those condemned all loudly condemned and loudly

b

ports our ports defending our of defending method of effective method most effective “The most aa defensive vessel. “The defensive vessel. against offensive against rigorous offensive “is aa rigorous blustered, “is he blustered, and invasion,” he preventing invasion,” and preventing develbe develshould be submarine should the submarine that the and that the enemy, and the enemy, of the force of floating force the floating weapon. defensive weapon. not defensive and not offensive and an offensive oped view—as an in view—as that in with that oped with to offensive to the offensive from the diverted from be diverted will be [Otherwise] large money will of money sums of large sums [[Other’wisel

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the the defensive. defensive. . . . The The fact fact is is that that naval naval opinion opinion is is and and has has been been for for years years saturated saturated with with the the ideas ideas of of defense defense not not withstanding withstanding the the efforts efforts of of aa small small minority minority to to counteract counteract them.”‘50 them.”'° The The Possibility Possibility of of Invasion: Invasion: A A Role Role in in Imperial Imperial Defense Defense

In In the the fall fall of of 1903, 1903, Prime Prime Minister Minister Arthur Arthur Balfour Balfour came came under under renewed renewed pressure pressure to to find find aa solution solution to to the the on-going on-going military military reform reform issue. issue. ln In March, March, the the House House of of Commons Commons had had rejected rejected as as too too expensive expensive the latest War Office proposal to reorganize the British army the latest War Office proposal to reorganize the British army into into six six European style army corps: yet six months later the secretary of European style army corps: yet six months later the secretary of state state for for war war confessed confessed he he was was unable unable to to put put forward forward aa cheaper cheaper and and more more flexflexible scheme.‘51 The administration of the War Office had recently ible scheme." The administration of the War Office had recently been been subject subject to to further further criticism criticism by by the the independent independent commission commission appointed appointed under the chairmanship of Lord Elgin to investigate under the chairmanship of Lord Elgin to investigate the the abysmal abysmal performance performance of of the the army army during during the the South South African African war. war. The The generals, generals, however, however, had had chosen chosen to to ignore ignore the the commission’s commission's report. report. Finally, Finally, the the chancellor chancellor of of the the Exchequer Exchequer warned warned that that he he could could not not deliver deliver a a politipolitically cally significant significant cut cut in in the the rate rate of of income income tax tax until until after after defense defense spendspending ing had had been been brought brought under under control. control. Here Here again, again, the the blame blame lay lay at at the the door door to to the the War War Office Office administration. administration. The The generals generals were were obstructing obstructing all all military the military calculate the to calculate Committee to Defense Committee Cabinet Defense the Cabinet by the attempts by attempts requirements requirements of of the the empire empire in in order order to to fix fix the the establishment establishment of of the the army army at at aa realistic realistic and and affordable affordable level. level. Balfour, Balfour, recognized recognized he he had had “to “to do do something” something” about about the the army army and and the the War War Office Office bureaucracy bureaucracy in in order order to to bring bring down down military military expenditure expenditure and and so so rally rally his his supporters supporters in in the the know. yet know. not yet did not he did exactly he what exactly But what Commons.152 But Commons.'” The The urgency urgency of of finding finding aa solution solution was was underlined underlined in in September September 1903, 1903, after after the the Cabinet Cabinet disintegrated disintegrated over over the the question question of of whether whether or or not not the the by constraints by fiscal constraints its fiscal overcome its to overcome try to should try Party should Conservative Party Conservative renouncing Britain's Britain’s commitment commitment to to free free trade trade and and adopting adopting an an empire empire renouncing conthan conrather than desperation rather was desperation imports. ItIt was on imports. tariffs on of tariffs system of wide system wide viction viction that that drove drove most most MPs MPs to to call call for for imperial imperial preference.153 preference.’ During During the the to comment to without comment able without was able Balfour was followed, Balfour that followed, reshuffle that Cabinet reshuffle Cabinet rotate rotate the the discredited discredited Brodrick Brodrick out out of of Pall Pall Mall Mall and and into into the the India India Office. Office. To replace replace him, him, the the prime prime minister minister first first turned turned to to the the highly highly respected respected To than more than do more to do declined to Esher declined but Esher Esher; but Lord Esher; neutral Lord politically neutral and politically and interthe interinvestigate the to investigate experts to independent experts of independent committee of small committee chair aa small chair post the post offered the subsequently offered Balfour subsequently Office. Balfour War Office. the War of the organization of nal organization nal eventually before eventually statesmen before other statesmen ten other to ten war to for war state for of state secretary of of secretary of parliamenthe parliamenArnold-Forster, the Oakley Arnold-Forster, to Oakley chalice” to “poisoned chalice” the “poisoned handing the handing Arnoldlike Arnoldnot like did not Balfour did Personally, Balfour Admiralty. Personally, the Admiralty. to the secretary to tary secretary tary “uncompromising an “uncompromising was an he was that he view that held view widely held the widely sharing the Forster, Sharing Forster, Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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personality personality whose whose dogmatism dogmatism and and self Self assertiveness assertiveness went went beyond beyond all all limits.”154 limits.”'** Nevertheless, Nevertheless, the the prime prime minister minister recognized recognized Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster possessed possessed “great “great ability” ability” and and a a “burning “burning zeal” zeal” for for military military reform.‘55 reform.'® He He was, was, moreover, moreover, a’tariff a tariff reformer. reformer. But But perhaps perhaps most most importantly, importantly, he he shared shared Balfour’s Balfour’s view view “of “of the the War War Office’s Office’s gross gross exaggeration exaggeration of of its its

importance importance in in the the defense defense of of the the empire.”156 empire.”’”°

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Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster took took office office as as secretary secretary of of state state for for war war on on 5 5 October October 1903, 1903, charged charged with with the the task task of of defining defining precisely precisely the the role role of of the the army army in in imperial imperial defense, defense, thus thus permitting permitting the the Cabinet Cabinet Defense Defense Committee Committee to to fix fix the the level level of of its its permanent permanent strength.‘57 strength.’ The The former former defense defense correspondent correspondent set set to to work work with with some some very very clear clear ideas ideas on on army army reform.158 reform.'® Within Within two two months months Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster had had sketched sketched a a new new organization organization for for the the army army which which at at first first glance glance appeared appeared to to be be much much more more suitable suitable for for imperial imperial defense defense purposes purposes than than Brodrick’s Brodrick’s army army corps corps plan. plan. Basically, Basically, the the scheme scheme called called for for massive massive reductions reductions in in military military garrisons garrisons at at home home and and overseas overseas in in order order to to free free men men and and money money for for the the creation creation of of a a large large rapid rapid deployment deployment force. force. As As a a bonus, bonus, he he promised promised to to deliver deliver substantial substantial savings savings in in military military expenditure. expenditure. Of Of course course there there were were a a number number of of drawbacks drawbacks to to his his scheme. scheme. For For example, example, the the new new minister minister demanded demanded the the jettisoning jettisoning of of several several important important military military commitments commitments without without considering considering the the politipolitical cal or or diplomatic diplomatic repercussions. repercussions. But, But, as as we we shall shall see, see, Arnold-Forster’s Arnold-Forster’s biggest biggest mistake mistake was was the the methods methods be he employed employed to to achieve achieve his his goals. goals. Not Not only only did did he he not not bother bother obtaining obtaining the the support support of of the the senior senior military military adviadvisors sors who who would would have have to to implement implement the the proposed proposed reforms, reforms, but but in in pursupursuing ing his his objective objective he he was was devious devious and and underhanded. underhanded. Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster began began looking looking for for savings savings by by scrutinizing scrutinizing the the large large number number of of auxiliary auxiliary and and volunteer volunteer units units organized organized for for home home defense. defense. In In view view of of his his penchant penchant for for submarines submarines and and his his recent recent experience experience at at the the Admiralty, Admiralty, it it was was hardly hardly surprising surprising that that within within a a month month of of taking taking office office he he decided decided to to take take an an axe axe to to the the Royal Royal Engineers Engineers Corps Corps of of Submarine Submarine Miners.159 Miners.'*® He He was was undoubtedly undoubtedly encouraged encouraged to to pursue pursue this this course course after after discovering discovering on on 30 30 October October that that his his old old colleague colleague the the senior senior naval naval lord lord had had recently recently become become more more favorably favorably inclined inclined to to the the idea idea of of allocating allocating submarines submarines for for port port defense defense duties.160 duties.’ After After reading reading Captain Captain Bacon’s Bacon’s “epoch “epoch making” making” report report on on tactical tactical trials trials with with submarines, submarines, Kerr Kerr admitted admitted to to having having second second thoughts thoughts over over the the Board’s Board’s refusal refusal to to have have anything anything to to do do with with port port defenses.‘61 defenses.'®' Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster had had also also known, known, of of course, course, that that the the previous previous March, March, the the first first lord lord had had been been uncomfortable uncomfortable with with Battenberg’s Battenberg’s suggestions suggestions that that the the Admiralty Admiralty should should deliberately deliberately mislead mislead the the government government over over the the practicability practicability of of using using submarines submarines in in this this role.162 role.’ He He had had reasons reasons to to believe, believe, therefore, therefore, that that Selborne Selborne would would help help him him overovercome come any any lingering lingering resistance resistance from from the the armed armed forces. forces. Thus Thus after after conconLambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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sulting sulting the the army’s army's commander commander in in chief chief on on the the subject subject of of the the disbandment disbandment of of the the Royal Royal Corps Corps of of Miners,163 Miners,'* on on 22 November November Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster wrote wrote unofficially unofficially to to Selborne Selborne asking asking for for his his support support in in abolishing abolishing the the “military “military aquatics.” aquatics.” “The “The mining,” mining,” his his letter letter began, began, is is undertaken undertaken with with the the object object of of protecting protecting maritime maritime ports ports against against attack attack from from the the sea; sea; in in other other words words with with the the object object of of denying denying access access to to foreign foreign men men of of War. war. 1I have have frequently frequently heard heard it it said said that that in in the the opinion opinion of of Naval Naval offiofficers, cers, much much of of the the work work done done by by these these submarine submarine miners miners is is useless, useless, or or superfluous, superfluous, as as far far as as the the Navy Navy is is concerned. concerned. II remember remember that that there there have have frequently frequently been been complaints complaints during during the the maneuvers maneuvers of of the the difficulties difficulties caused caused by by the the want want of of harmony harmony between between land land and and sea sea forces, forces, respectively.‘64 respectively.'*

“If “If on on the the other other hand,” hand,” suggested suggested Arnold-Forster, Arnold-Forster, “the “the Navy Navy thinks thinks that that submarine mines are necessary,” submarine mines are necessary,” then then in in order order to to eliminate eliminate confusion confusion in in the the command command and and control control of of seaward seaward defenses, defenses, “the “the Navy Navy itself itself should should undertake undertake the the service service which which they they are are particularly particularly qualified qualified to to perform.” perform.” To sweeten To sweeten the the pill pill he he offered offered to to transfer transfer the the £556,000 £556,000 spent spent annually annually on on the the “aquatics” “aquatics” from from the the army army to to the the navy navy estimates.165 estimates.'® By By approachapproaching ing Selborne Selborne unofficially, unofficially, the the war war minister minister clearly clearly hoped hoped to to entice entice the the first first lord lord to to overrule overrule the the politically politically inspired inspired objections objections to to a a formal formal transtransfer. fer. Despite Despite the the loss loss of of the the original original copy copy of of the the aforementioned aforementioned “Bacon “Bacon report” report” and and the the all-important all-important minute minute sheets sheets with with the the remarks remarks of of the the naval naval lords, lords, it it is is possible possible to to reconstruct reconstruct the the docket docket from from the the sizeable sizeable extracts extracts quoted quoted by by Arthur Arthur Marder Marder in in his his book book The The Anatomy Anatomy of of British British Sea Sea Power. Power. In In addition, addition, there there are are among among Selborne’s Selborne’s private private papers papers a a number number of of documents documents on on the the subject. subject. According According to to Marder, Marder, “the “the Admiralty Admiralty found found the the report report most most instructive” instructive” and and “it “it was was agreed agreed after after full full discussion discussion that that Bacon’s Bacon’s experience experience had had proved proved that that submarines submarines were were a a very very effective effective ‘défense ‘défense mobile’ mobile’ for for the the naval naval harbours.”166 harbours.”'® This This is is unquestionunquestionable. able. The The Board Board decided decided that that “submarines “submarines should should gradually gradually replace replace minefields minefields in in the the defense defense system, system, aa few few boats boats each each at at each each of of the the principrincipal pal naval naval bases—Portsmouth, bases—Portsmouth, Sheerness, Sheerness, Plymouth, Plymouth, Malta, Malta, Hong Hong Kong, Kong, Oueenstown, Queenstown, Pembroke. Pembroke. Some Some were were [also] [also] to to be be stationed stationed at at Dover Dover and and Gibraltar Gibraltar where where their their presence presence would would make make passage passage of of the the straits straits very very hazardous hazardous for for any any hostile hostile ships.” ships.” Even Even Battenberg, Battenberg, it it seems, seems, endorsed endorsed the the scheme.167 scheme.'® There There is is no no doubting doubting Kerr’s Kerr’s change change of of heart. heart. In In a a private private letter letter to to Selborne Selborne dated dated 4 4 November, November, the the senior senior naval naval lord lord credited credited Bacon Bacon with with having having persuaded persuaded him him that that “not “not only only are are submarine submarine boats boats more more effective effective in in themselves,” themselves,” but but “we “we may may well well accept accept in in principle, principle, that that wherever wherever we we have have submarine submarine boats, boats, the the mines mines may may go.”168 go.”'*® Commenting Commenting on on the the former former Lambeparlgamgptaemagegg ionary’s offer parliamentary secretary's offer to to transfer transfer or or abolish abolish the the “military “military aquatE-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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ics,” ics,” Kerr Kerr responded responded with with cautious cautious enthusiasm.169 enthusiasm.'® Accordingly Accordingly on on 14 14 November Selborne Selborne informally informally replied replied to to Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster that: that: November If If the the War War Office Office ask ask the the Admiralty Admiralty to to relieve relieve them them of of the the responsibility responsibility for for submarine submarine mines, mines, the the Admiralty Admiralty will will reply reply that, that, so so far far as as the the Naval Naval Ports Ports are that responsibility responsibility transferred are concerned, concerned, they they are are willing willing to to have have that transferred to to

them as as submarines submarines become become available. available. We We could, could, I think, them think, begin begin with with the the [three] [three] Home Home Ports Ports at at once. once. But But in in respect respect of of the the eighteen eighteen ports ports in in which which there there is is now now aa submarine submarine mining mining organisation organisation but but which which are are not not naval naval ports, ports, the the Admiralty Admiralty would would not not be be prepared prepared to to accept accept responsibility. responsibility.

Though Though eventually, eventually, he he added, added, “submarines “submarines might might be be stationed stationed at at these these non-naval non-naval ports ports in in charge charge of of the the R.N.V.R.” R.N.V.R.” (Royal (Royal Navy Navy Volunteer Volunteer Reserve).‘70 The Admiralty were considering a Reserve).'” The Admiralty were considering a proposal proposal to to store store the the unwanted unwanted experimental experimental submarines submarines on on land land to to prevent prevent deterioration, deterioration, which which would would be be commissioned commissioned during during wartime wartime by by crews crews of of reservists."“ reservists.'” But it would be many years, Selborne But it would be many years, Selborne emphasized, emphasized, before before such such aa scheme scheme could could be be implemented. implemented. That That the the Admiralty Admiralty was was greatly greatly impressed impressed by by Captain Captain Bacon’s Bacon’s report report cannot cannot entirely entirely explain explain the the newfound newfound willingness willingness to to employ employ submarines submarines as as adjuncts adjuncts to to port port defenses. defenses. It It will will be be recalled recalled that that when when the the Admiralty Admiralty had had discussed discussed this this question question earlier earlier in in 1903, 1903, few few officers officers had had doubted doubted that that submarines submarines would would provide provide aa better better defense defense than than mines. mines. Much Much more more serious serious concerns concerns had had been been expressed expressed over over the the “political,” “political,” financial, financial, and and strategic strategic ramifications ramifications of of the the navy navy taking taking responsibility responsibility for for the the defense defense of of naval naval bases. bases. Selborne’s Selborne’s senior senior professional professional advisors advisors had had all all been been vehemently opposed to the idea. vehemently opposed to the idea. So So why why then then six six months months later later did did the the Board Board suddenly suddenly overcome overcome these these fears? fears? The The reason reason is is almost almost certainly certainly attributable attributable to to the the increasingly increasingly bitter bitter debate debate in in the the Cabinet Cabinet Defense Defense Committee over the allocation of Committee over the allocation of limited limited defense defense resources. resources. Minutes Minutes by by Battenberg Battenberg dated dated October October 1903, 1903, makes makes it it clear clear that that it it was was with with their their eyes eyes focused focused on on the the War War Office Office rather rather than than the the French, French, that that the the Admiralty agreed Admiralty agreed to to tie tie submarines submarines to to the the defense defense of of naval naval bases. bases. “The “The establishment establishment of of submarine submarine stations stations along along the the South South Coast Coast of of England,” England,” Battenberg Battenberg remarked, remarked, ought ought to to go go aa long long way way towards towards dispelling dispelling the the ever-recurring ever-recurring fears fears of of invainva-

sion sion so so dear dear to to the the “old “old women women of of both both sexes" sexes” mentioned mentioned by by Lord Lord St.Vincent. St.Vincent. To To these these (a (a few few live live in in the the War War Office) Office) it it may may be be pointed pointed out out that that the the French French in in all all their their utterances utterances on on the the subject—be subject—be they they Ministerial Ministerial speeches speeches or or press press articles—point articles—point out out with with pride pride that that the the existence existence of of submarines submarines as as part part of of the the defense defense mobile mobile [sic] [sic] makes makes any any attempt attempt at at invasion invasion of of French French territory territory the the act act of of lunacy. lunacy. They They are are quite quite right right and and the the argument argument cuts cuts both both ways.‘72 ways.'” Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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The The Admiralty’s Admiralty’s motives motives are are not not hard hard to to understand. understand. By By the the end end of of 1903, 1903, the the thoroughness thoroughness with with which which the the Cabinet Cabinet Defense Defense Committee Committee was was studystudying ing Britain’s Britain’s imperial imperial strategic strategic policy policy had had convinced convinced the the naval naval lords lords that that the the government government was was determined determined to to make make deep deep cuts cuts in in the the defense defense budbudget. get. And And it it was was obvious obvious that that as as the the pool pool of of defense defense resources resources shrank, shrank, either either the the Royal Royal Navy Navy would would have have to to abandon abandon its its claim claim to to naval naval supremasupremacy cy or or fight fight the the army army for for aa greater greater share share of of the the defense defense budget. budget. As As we we have have seen, seen, at at the the beginning beginning of of 1903 1903 the the Admiralty Admiralty chose chose the the latter latter policy policy by by disputing disputing War War Office Office claims claims for for the the need need to to retain retain a a large large army army for for home home defense. defense. Their Their subsequent subsequent decision decision to to take take responsibility responsibility for for the the defense defense of of naval naval bases, bases, therefore, therefore, was was no no more more than than another another step step along along this this road. road. Whether Whether the the Admiralty Admiralty really really believed believed that that submarines submarines were were needneeded ed to to defend defend ports ports from from possible possible invasion invasion or or raids raids by by hostile hostile cruisers cruisers was was not not the the point: point: the the argument argument justified justified the the claim claim that that the the navy navy could could protect the the country country at at less less cost cost and and more more efficiently efficiently than than the the army army and and protect that that the the navy navy should should thus thus receive receive priority priority in in the the allocation allocation of of the the limited limited resources.173 defense resources.'” defense The The Admiralty Admiralty had had another another reason reason to to propose propose giving giving submarines submarines an an important role role in in home home defense. defense. Since Since taking taking over over the the chairmanship chairmanship of of important the the Cabinet Cabinet Defense Defense Committee Committee in in mid-1903, mid-1903, Prime Prime Minister Minister Arthur Arthur Balfour Balfour had had developed developed a a keen keen interest interest in in the the submarine. submarine. Very Very quickly, quickly, this this enthusiasm enthusiasm had had grown grown into into a a conviction conviction that that the the submarine submarine offered offered the the only only affordable affordable solution solution to to Britain’s Britain’s chronic chronic defense defense problems. problems. In In November, Balfour Balfour drafted drafted aa memorandum memorandum outlining outlining his his thoughts thoughts on on the the November, possibility possibility of of “Serious “Serious Invasion” Invasion” which which subsequently subsequently was was adopted adopted as as the the Defense Committee's Committee’s final final report report on on the the subject. subject. In In itit the the prime prime minister minister Defense Navy Royal Navy the Royal as the long as So long Admiralty. So the Admiralty. with the unequivocally with sided unequivocally sided retained command command of of the the sea sea in in home home waters, waters, he he concurred, concurred, “the “the chief chief retained rather Indian, rather of Indian, that of face isis that to face has to country has this country which this problem which military problem military case, Office case, War Office the War of the rejection of his rejection Explaining his defense.”I74 Explaining Home defense.”'” of Home than of than modified “profoundly modified been “profoundly had been question had invasion question the invasion that the argued that Balfour argued Balfour in wars” in old wars” “the old During “the invention.” During of invention.” progress of the progress by the advantage by our advantage to our to the for the possible for been possible always been not always had not explained, itit had he explained, sail, he of sail, age of the age the But point. But threatened point. the threatened at the force at superior force concentrate aa superior to concentrate Navy to Royal Navy Royal in in the the age age of of technology, technology, steam steam power power enabled enabled warships warships to to move move indeindependently of of the the wind wind direction, direction, and and wireless wireless telegraphy telegraphy permitted permitted an an pendently much too much not too “It isis not horizon.175 “It the horizon.'” over the from over ships from his ships summon his to summon admiral to admiral of bodies of large bodies landing large of landing problem of whole problem the whole “that the concluded, “that he concluded, say,” he to say,” to the of the invention of the invention by the revolutionised by been revolutionised has been shore has hostile shore on aa hostile troops on troops submarine.”‘76 the submarine.”'” and the torpedo and torpedo even that even Admiralty that the Admiralty with the agreed with Balfour agreed theme, Balfour this theme, Developing this Developing Navy’s Royal Navy's the Royal waters, the home waters, from home absent from was absent fleet was battle fleet British battle the British ifif the Lambert, Nicolas. 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effective an effective provide an still provide would still craft would flotilla craft and flotilla cruisers and of cruisers force of ample force ample continued the continued upon the not upon reasoning not his reasoning based his He based invasion. He to invasion. deterrent to deterrent but done) but had done) Admiralty had the Admiralty (as the fleet (as reserve fleet sizeable reserve of aa sizeable existence of existence covnor aa covconvoy nor invasion convoy an invasion neither an that neither assumption that the assumption upon the rather upon rather torpedo the torpedo of the reach of within reach remain within “long remain dare “long would dare fleet would battle fleet ering battle ering submarine.” the submarine.” and the and History History has has no no record record of of what what would would happen happen to to an an army army of of 70,000 70,000 men men closely packed in improvised transports if even two or three torpedo-boats closely packed in improvised transports if even two or three torpedo-boats got got in in amongst amongst them—to them—to say say nothing nothing of of a a whole whole flotilla. flotilla. That That the the confusion confusion the the destruction destruction and and the the horror horror would would exceed exceed anything anything which which we we can can easily easily

imagine imagine in in cold cold blood blood is is certain.‘77 certain.'” Balfour Balfour reasoned reasoned that that because because battleships battleships could could not not sweep sweep the the sea sea of of the the Royal Royal Navy’s Navy's much much larger larger fleet fleet of of torpedo torpedo boats, boats, and and because because “the “the submarine submarine cannot cannot be be driven driven from from the the sea sea at at all,” all,” invasion invasion across across a a narnarrow row stretch stretch of of water water such such as as the the English English Channel Channel would would thus thus be be imposimpossible.178 sible.'” The The first first lord lord of of the the Admiralty Admiralty m0ved moved quickly quickly to to endorse endorse Balfour’s Balfour's assumptions.179 assumptions.'” At At a a meeting meeting of of the the Defense Defense Committee Committee held held on on 25 25 November, November, Balfour Balfour explored explored the the possibility possibility of of further further extending extending the the role role of of subsubmarines marines to to imperial imperial defense. defense. During During a a discussion discussion on on the the appropriate appropriate scale scale of of defenses defenses for for the the naval naval base base at at Bermuda,180 Bermuda,'® the the prime prime minister minister asked asked the the naval naval and and military military representatives representatives to to consider consider “whether “whether the the island island might might not not be be made made almost almost impregnable impregnable at at a a small small cost cost by by strengthening strengthening the the naval naval defenses, defenses, and and whether, whether, in in this this case, case, the the existing existing garrison garrison might might not not be be reduced”?“” reduced”?'*' What What exactly exactly Balfour Balfour had had meant meant emerges emerges from from the the written written reply reply submitted submitted by by the the War War Office. Office. This This docudocument shows shows that that the the phrase phrase “strengthening “strengthening naval naval defenses” defenses” meant meant “the “the ment addition addition of of submarine-boats submarine-boats and and more more torpedo-boats torpedo-boats to to the the local local naval naval force.“82 force.”'* Very Very properly properly the the generals generals had had replied replied that that “this “this is is a a matter matter for for the the naval naval authorities authorities to to determine”-—then determine’—then with with aa parting parting shot shot added added sevseveral eral reasons reasons why why the the Army Army did did not not believe believe the the idea idea practicable.183 practicable.’® Although Although this this time time the the Admiralty Admiralty was was much much slower slower to to endorse endorse the the prime prime minister’s minister’s idea, idea, it it seems seems that that Selborne Selborne at at once once assured assured Balfour Balfour in in private private that that his his department department would would look look favorably favorably on on the the idea.‘84 idea.'* In In January January 1904, 1904, the the prime prime minister minister wrote wrote to to another another submarine submarine enthusiast, enthusiast, Adm. Adm. Sir Sir John John Fisher, Fisher, that that “some “some of of the the things things you you recommend recommend have, have, I| think, think, been been already already practically practically agreed agreed upon upon by by the the defense defense Committee Committee and and the the Cabinet, Cabinet, e.g. e.g. the the substitution substitution of of submarines submarines for for mines, mines, and and the the defense defense of of places places like like Malta, Malta, Gibraltar Gibraltar and and Bermuda Bermuda by by submarines.”185 submarines.”'® Balfour Balfour was was not not the the only only one one to to be be excited excited by by the the thought thought of of using using submarines fortioinmperial defense. The political members of the Cabinet submarines for imperial defense. The political members of the Cabinet Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolu E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Defense Defense Committee, Committee, including including Arnold-Forster, Arnold-Forster, Selborne, Selborne, Esher Esher and and Austen Austen Chamberlain Chamberlain (the (the chancellor chancellor of of the the Exchequer) Exchequer) were were all all mesmesmerized merized by by the the possibilities possibilities offered offered of of building building twenty twenty or or thirty thirty subsubmarines marines for for the the price price of of aa single single battleship. battleship. In In one one highly highly imaginative imaginative paper paper distributed distributed at at this this time, time, Lord Lord Esher Esher prophesied prophesied that that “submarine “submarine boats, boats, coupled coupled with with a a system system of of rapid rapid communications communications by by W/T, W/T, will will not not impossibly impossibly alter alter the the scheme scheme of of defense defense for for our our coaling coaling stations stations all all over over the the world.”186 world.” Another Another advantage advantage of of relying relying upon upon submarines, submarines, Balfour Balfour thought, thought, was was that that their their military military value value would would depreciate depreciate much much more more slowslowly ly than than conventional conventional surface surface ships ships because because enemy enemy transports transports would would always always be be vulnerable vulnerable to to even even the the oldest oldest and and slowest slowest submarine submarine boats. boats. This This idea idea came came from from Admiral Admiral Fisher.187 Fisher.'® In In early early 1904, 1904, the the Prime Prime Minister Minister wrote wrote to to Selborne: Selborne: II wish wish we we had had more more submarines. submarines. Would Would it it not not be be possible possible to to induce induce some some new new firm firm to to build build us us a a few? few? They They are, are, after after all, all, cheap, cheap, and and their their peculiaripeculiarity ty is is that, that, inasmuch inasmuch as as they they cannot cannot be be attacked attacked by by other other submarines, submarines, the the type type does does not not get get antiquated;—-in antiquated;—in other other words, words, however however much much submarines submarines may may be be improved improved in in the the future, future, existing existing submarines submarines will will never never become become obsolete obsolete as as against against the the types types of of vessels vessels with with which which they they are are intended intended to to fight.188 fight.'*°

Adopting Adopting aa high high technology technology approach approach to to national national defense defense seemed seemed to to offer offer a a realistic realistic chance chance to to cut cut the the Gordian Gordian Knot Knot that that had had been been dogging dogging British British defense defense planners planners for for more more than than twenty twenty years—how years—how to to provide provide effective effective defense defense of of imperial imperial maritime maritime interests interests at at a a time time of of “imperial “imperial overoverstretch.” Or Or to to put put itit another another way, way, exploiting exploiting high high technology technology appeared appeared stretch.” to to offer offer the the government government aa way way of of meeting meeting defense defense commitments commitments at at a a time time when when costs costs were were spiraling spiraling and and financial financial resources resources were were either either static static or or diminishing. diminishing. But But as as we we shall shall see, see, ordinary ordinary naval naval officers officers greeted greeted this this vision vision with with skepticism. skepticism.

At At the the end end of of November November 1903, 1903, Selborne Selborne arranged arranged with with ArnoldArnoldForster Forster for for Captain Captain Bacon Bacon to to tour tour all all the the army army mining mining establishments establishments at at the three three Home Home Ports Ports to to inspect inspect their their suitability suitability for for conversion conversion into into subsubthe marine marine bases.189 bases.'®® On On 14 14 December December 1903, 1903, Kerr Kerr circulated circulated Bacon’s Bacon's favorfavorable appraisal appraisal to to the the other other naval naval Lords Lords along along with with aa request request for for them them to to able endorse endorse the the plan.190 plan.'* in In his his minute, minute, the the senior senior naval naval lord lord hinted hinted that that taktaking ing responsibility responsibility for for the the three three naval naval bases bases would would only only be be the the first first step. step. “Commercial “Commercial and and other other naval naval ports ports in in the the United United Kingdom Kingdom will will have have to to be be considered in the future,” he noted, “but the commercial ports in any considered in the future,” he noted, “but the commercial ports in any Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.3l 569.

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case case must must be be left left until until our our foreign foreign naval naval bases bases have have been been provided.”‘91 provided.”'*' Much Much

to Kerr’s Selborne’s surprise, surprise, however, however, both Vice Adm. Adm. Charles Charles Drury Drury to Kerr’s and and Selborne’s both Vice (who (who in in September September had had replaced replaced Fisher Fisher as as second second naval naval lord) lord) and and Rear Rear Adm. Adm. John John Durnford Durnford (the (the junior junior lord), lord), replied replied that that they they were were “unable “unable to to agree agree to to

this this far far reaching reaching proposal."192 proposal.”'” To To better better understand understand their their objections, objections, the the first first lord lord called called upon upon Drury Drury and and Durnford Durnford to to submit submit their their views views in in writing. writing. Rear Rear Adm. Adm. John John Durnford Durnford was was particularly particularly forceful forceful in in his his condemcondemnation nation of of the the proposal. proposal. Substituting Substituting naval naval submarines submarines for for army army mines, mines, he he anticipated, would would be be anticipated, a a great great and and additional additional burden burden to to the the Navy Navy in in men men and and materiel, materiel, the the Navy Navy Estimates Estimates must must bear bear it: it: these these are are and and must must be be limited, limited, and and do do what what you you will, will, Vote Vote 8 8 [the [the construction construction budget] budget] is is the the loser. loser. A A large large and and well well trained trained personnel personnel will will be be required required sooner sooner or or later. later. .. .. .. I| think think the the acceptation acceptation [sic] [sic] of of the the principle principle as as regards regards the the Home Home Ports Ports will will in in the the end end involve involve taking taking over over a a great great deal, deal, including including probably probably the the coaling coaling stations stations abroad, abroad, 3a propopropo-

sition sition that that has has been been always always strongly strongly resisted, resisted, as as involving involving the the Navy Navy in in local local defense defense and and making making him him responsible responsible for for the the safety safety of of localities, localities, thus thus hamhampering pering his his liberty liberty and and freedom freedom of of action action with with the the fleet fleet at at sea)” sea.'”

Drury Drury concurred. concurred. “This “This is is a a principle principle of of defense defense that that their their Lordships Lordships have have up up to to the the present present time time never never admitted admitted as as part part of of the the duties duties of of the the Royal Royal Navy Navy [and] [and] if if this this principle principle is is now now adopted adopted the the Admiralty Admiralty must must be be prepared prepared to to appropriate appropriate a a large large number number of of Submarine Submarine boats boats and and perpersonnel ”'94 Both sonnel as as “fixed “fixed defenses. defenses.”'** Both admirals admirals also also expressed expressed their their doubts doubts on on the the efficiency efficiency of of submarines. submarines. Durnford Durnford insisted insisted on on first first seeing seeing aa demonstration. demonstration. So So did did Drury. Drury. “As “As far far as as II know,” know,” wrote wrote the the former, former, no no practical practical experiment experiment has has been been made made by by us us in in this this direction. direction. Our Our subsubmarines marines have have never never run run aa torpedo torpedo at at a a ship ship underway underway or or at at anchor anchor for for that that matter, and I strongly urge that matter, and I strongly urge that more more practical practical experiments experiments be be undertaken. undertaken, as as for for instance instance in in attempting attempting to to prevent prevent ships ships of of the the home home Fleet Fleet entering entering the Solent . . . we are the Solent .. . we are in in no no sense sense ready ready for for the the transfer. transfer. Captain Captain Bacon Bacon with with his his eyes eyes fixed fixed on on the the success success of of submarines submarines has has become become an an enthusiast(!).‘95 enthusiast(!).'*

Drury’s Drury’s and and Durnford’s Durnford’s memoranda memoranda indicate indicate just just how how secret secret the the subma— submarine rine experimental experimental program program had had been been kept. kept. They They also also indicate indicate how how deeply deeply embedded embedded among among naval naval officers officers was was the the notion notion that that the the Admiralty Admiralty should should have have nothing nothing to to do do with with defensive defensive preparations—for preparations—for political political reasons. reasons. Rear Rear Admiral Admiral Durnford’s Durnford’s memorandum memorandum indicates indicates he he was was unaware unaware that that the the “practical “practical trials” trials” he he demanded demanded had had already already been been carried carried out. out. Considering Considering this this officer’s officer’s rank rank and and position, position, not not to to mention mention his his experiexperience ence as as a a torpedo torpedo officer, officer, it it seems seems remarkable. remarkable. Yet Yet the the fact fact is is confirmed confirmed in in minutes minutes attached attached to to the the file file by by Rear Rear Admiral Admiral May, May, the the controller. controller. “I “I

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am am afraid,” afraid,” he he wrote, wrote, “neither “neither the the Second Second nor nor Junior Junior Naval Naval Lords Lords has has

had had the the benefit benefit of of seeing seeing the the reports reports of of tactical tactical exercises exercises that that have have already already been been carried carried out out by by submarines.”196 submarines.”'® And And on on 6 6 January January 1904, 1904, Kerr Kerr added: “the Second and Junior added: “the Second and Junior Naval Naval Lord’s Lord’s can can hardly hardly be be aware aware of of the the extent extent of of the the experience experience already already gained.”197 gained.”'*’ Kerr Kerr also also dismissed dismissed the the fear fear that that by by agreeing agreeing to to provide provide the the seaward seaward defense defense of of the the Home Home Ports Ports the the navy might later navy might later be be compelled compelled to to accept accept the the full full responsibility responsibility for for the the defense defense of of “our “our principal principal Naval Naval Ports Ports and and our our coaling coaling stations.”198 stations.”'® On On 7 7 January January 1904, 1904, Selborne Selborne endorsed endorsed this this view. view. “I “I cannot cannot agree,” agree,” he he wrote, wrote, “that “that the the question question raised raised in in these these papers papers has has any any connection connection with with that that of of the the garrisons garrisons of of the the coaling coaling stations stations or or Home Home Ports.”199 Ports.”' Days Days later, later, howhowever, ever, Selborne Selborne and and Kerr Kerr learned learned they they had had been been mistaken. mistaken. Three Three weeks weeks earlier, earlier, and and unbeknown unbeknown to to Selborne, Selborne, Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster had had outlined outlined his his army army reform reform scheme scheme to to the the prime prime minister.200 minister.2” The The secsecretary retary of of state state for for war’s war’s memorandum memorandum posited posited that that Britain’s Britain’s requirerequirements ments for for imperial imperial defense defense could could be be met met with with a a regular regular army army of of 190,000 190,000 strong—always strong—always assuming assuming “that “that aa successful successful invasion invasion of of the the UK UK by by a a large large force force need need not not be be contemplated contemplated under under present present conditions.” conditions.” Out Out of of this this total, total, one one hundred hundred thousand thousand men men would would be be organized organized into into a a rapid rapid reacreaction tion force force and and the the remainder remainder forming forming permanent permanent garrisons garrisons around around the the globe?“ globe.” Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster further further informed informed Balfour Balfour that that he he still still anticipatanticipated ed an an overall overall saving saving in in the the army army budget, budget, mainly mainly realized realized by by cutting cutting the the militia, militia, the the volunteers volunteers and and the the auxiliary auxiliary reserves reserves such such as as the the Corps Corps of of Miners, Miners, but but the the need need to to retain retain so so many many regulars regulars for for garrison garrison duties duties meant meant that that the the overall overall reduction reduction in in the the military military budget budget could could not not be be as as large large as as he he originally originally had had promised.202 promised.”” But, But, he he deviously deviously offered, offered, it it is is possible possible that that an an additional additional reduction reduction of of the the Army Army might might be be effected effected by by a a change change of of policy policy with with respect respect to to the the defense defense of of naval naval bases bases at at home home and and abroad. abroad. It It would would be be no no doubt doubt advantageous advantageous to to the the Army Army if if the the duties duties of of maintaining maintaining garrisons garrisons and and fixed fixed defenses defenses of of all all naval naval bases bases and and coaling coaling stations Stations abroad, abroad, except except Gibraltar, Gibraltar, Malta, Malta, Aden, Aden, Indian Indian defended defended ports, ports, and and the the Cape Cape were were transferred transferred to to the the Admiralty. Admiralty. To To avoid avoid an an undue undue proportion proportion

of of foreign foreign service service thus thus being being thrown thrown upon upon the the Royal Royal Marines, Marines, the the entire entire defenses defenses of of the the Naval Naval bases bases at at Plymouth, Plymouth, Portsmouth, Portsmouth, and and the the Medway, Medway,

might also also be be handed handed over over to to the the Navy.”” Navy.203 might

Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster must must have have known known that that the the Board Board of of Admiralty Admiralty would would never never approve approve such such an an idea.204 idea.™ It It is is also also difficult difficult to to believe believe that that he he could could have have interpreted interpreted Selborne’s Selborne’s agreement agreement to to take take charge charge of of the the defenses defenses for for the the three three Home Home Ports Ports for for an an endorsement endorsement of of the the principle principle that that the the navy navy should should take take full full responsibility responsibility for for all all imperial imperial naval naval bases. bases. Selborne’s Selborne’s blettershadF letter had been/emphatic been emphatic on on this this point. point. Nevertheless, Nevertheless, notes notes in in ArnoldArnoldLam ert, ico as. ir a n is er's ava evo ution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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exploit to exploit intended to actually intended he actually that he suggest that papers suggest private papers Forster’s private Forster’s entire the entire undertake the to undertake Admiralty to “the Admiralty compel “the to compel concession to Selborne’s concession Selborne’s navy,”5 aa the navy,”® by the stations by coaling stations and coaling bases and naval bases of naval defense" of maritime defense” maritime to not to “ought not Office “ought War Office the War himself the convinced himself had convinced he had which he duty which duty for responsibility for entire responsibility the entire Admiralty the the Admiralty upon the foisting upon thus foisting By thus have.”206 By have.” secrethe secrestations, the coaling stations, and coaling bases and naval bases imperial naval all imperial of all defense of the defense the dramatic a affecting of goal his achieve to hoped war for state of tary tary of state for war hoped to achieve his goal of affecting a dramatic expeditionary his expeditionary for his men for freeing men and freeing budget and Office budget War Office the War in the reduction in reduction but plan, but the plan, discovered Admiralty the exactly when clear not is It force. force. It is not clear when exactly the Admiralty discovered the it was certainly not well received. it was certainly not well received. working By working outraged. By more outraged. even more were even generals were the generals possible, the IfIf possible, War the of machinery the than rather than the machinery of the War Committee rather Defense Committee the Defense through the through his for his approval for Cabinet approval gain Cabinet to gain hoped to had hoped Arnold-Forster had Office, Arnold-Forster Office, He command. He high command. army high the army to the intentions to his intentions revealing his before revealing scheme before scheme soon as that as soon rightly) that quite rightly) (probably quite arguing (probably by arguing behavior by such behavior justified such justified large impose large to impose plan to government plan any government of any learned of chiefs learned service chiefs the service as the as proved quickly proved was quickly he was Indeed he solidify.207 Indeed quickly solidify.”” would quickly resistance would cuts, resistance cuts, right. right. When When in in the the last last week week of of December December 1903, 1903, the the War War Office Office adminisadminisCorps Royal Corps the Royal abolish the to abolish intention to minister’s intention their minister’s discovered their trators discovered trators by state by of state secretary of the secretary brake the to brake tried to immediately tried they immediately Miners, they of Miners, of informing informing him him he he could could not not act act before before the the joint joint service service committee committee on on the the On long. On for long. work for not work did not This did reported.208 This had reported.”" war had in war mines in of mines function of function forand forreport and the report of the copy of draft copy acquired aa draft Arnold-Forster acquired January, Arnold-Forster 77 January, had he had that he him that informing him note informing covering note with aa covering Selborne with to Selborne warded itit to warded already already taken taken steps steps to to disband disband the the “aquatics” “aquatics” at at the the three three Home Home Ports. Ports. Would the the Admiralty Admiralty endorse endorse the the abolition abolition of of mining mining stations stations at at any any Would inquired? innocently inquired? he innocently ports, he other ports, other the of the meeting of special meeting convened aa special Selborne convened 1904, Selborne January 1904, 13 January On 13 On that show minutes The question.209 the consider to Admiralty of Board Board of Admiralty to consider the question.”°° The minutes show that the in the aids in “effective aids be “effective would be submarines would that submarines agreed that present agreed everyone present everyone major each at stationed be should be stationed at each major flotilla should that aa flotilla and that port” and of aa port” defense of defense to available to be available would be craft would sufficient craft years sufficient two years Within two base.210 Within naval base.?'’? naval naval the naval however, the now, however, By now, waters?“ By home waters.”'' in home bases in naval bases six naval the six defend the defend more proceed more to proceed resolved to and resolved Arnold-Forster and of Arnold-Forster wary of more wary were more lords were lords established was established Office.212 ItIt was War Office.” the War with the negotiations with their negotiations in their cautiously in cautiously “their” link “their” to link attempt to any attempt resist any would resist Admiralty would the Admiralty henceforth the that henceforth that garrisons.213 military garrisons.*” of military strength of the strength of the reappraisal of to aa reappraisal submarines to submarines thanks their thanks expressing their Arnold-Forster expressing to Arnold-Forster wrote to Board wrote the Board Accordingly, the Accordingly, to bound to were bound they were “as they Ports “as Home Ports the Home from the minefields from the minefields removing the for removing for hamper hamper the the movements movements and and curtail curtail the the effectiveness” effectiveness” of of submarines submarines politely Admiralty politely the Admiralty sentence the next sentence the next in the Then in them.214 Then from them.?"* operating from operating insisted insisted that that the the “sole “sole responsibility responsibility for for the the defense defense of of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, Lambert, Nicolas. 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Devonport, and and the the Medway, Medway, will will henceforward henceforward as as heretofore heretofore rest rest with with Devonport, the the War War Office.”215 Office.”?'° Replying Replying to to Arnold-Forster’s Arnold-Forster’s personal personal communication, communication, Selborne explained explained that that at at present present his his advisors advisors were were “not “not disposed” disposed” to to Selborne press for for the press the abolition abolition of of minefields minefields at at any any other other ports, ports, although although they they were were prepared prepared to to see see the the formation formation of of yet yet another another joint joint service service commitcommittee tee to to consider consider the the matter.216 matter.?'® Any counterattack counterattack that that Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster might might have have contemplated contemplated Any making making against against the the Admiralty Admiralty was was unavoidably unavoidably postponed postponed in in February February 1904, 1904, after after Japan Japan commenced commenced hostilities hostilities against against Russia Russia by by launching launching aa surprise torpedo torpedo attack attack on on the the enemy enemy fleet fleet stationed stationed at at Port Port Arthur. Arthur. As As surprise both departments departments were were keen keen to to observe observe the the effectiveness effectiveness of of modern modern both weapon weapon systems systems in in action action before before committing committing to to any any policy policy decisions, decisions, it it was was agreed agreed that that further further discussion discussion on on the the substitution substitution of of mines mines for for subsubmarines would would be be suspended.”” suspended.217 The The files files were were not not reopened reopened until until July July marines 1904.218 During During this this interlude, interlude, meanwhile, meanwhile, as as the the generals generals learned learned the the 1904.?'* true true scale scale of of Arnold-Forster’s Arnold-Forster’s proposed proposed scheme scheme for for military military retrenchretrenchment, opposition opposition to to any any changes changes in in policy policy solidified solidified inside inside the the War War ment, Sir Gen. Sir Lt. Gen. intelligence, Lt. military intelligence, of military director-general of the director-general by the Led by Office.219 Led Office.?’® William Nicholson, Nicholson, the the soldiers soldiers fought fought “tenaciously” “tenaciously” to claim William to retain retain their their claim for aa role in home home defense. defense. Their for role in Their first first action action was was to to try try to to stop stop the the disdisbandment of of the the Royal Royal Engineers Engineers Corps Corps of of Miners. Miners. In In February February 1904, 1904, the the bandment themselves announced themselves council announced army council established army newly established the newly of the members of members “at “at variance” variance” with with the the secretary secretary of of state state for for war war over over the the plans plans to to disdisdefinitively of definitively wisdom of the wisdom question the to question “inclined to and “inclined corps, and the corps, band the band opinions As opinions boats.”220 As [submarine] boats.”*” the [submarine] of the favor of in favor mines in the mines abolishing the abolishing army the army May, the In May, defiance?“ In open defiance.*?' to open way to gave way resistance gave hardened, resistance hardened, was opinion was military opinion that military Committee that Defense Committee the Defense informed the council informed council the of the requirements of garrison requirements overall garrison the overall in the reduction in any reduction to any “opposed to “opposed the for the responsibility for take responsibility to take refusal to Admiralty’s refusal the Admiralty’s of the view of in view Empire, in Empire, bases”?22 overseas bases.”?” of overseas defense of defense from opposition from stiff opposition unexpectedly stiff encountered unexpectedly also encountered Arnold-Forster also Arnold-Forster were ministers were Two ministers militia. Two the militia. abolish the to abolish plans to his plans to his Cabinet to the Cabinet within the within brother the brother was the third was and aa third regiments; and local regiments; their local of their colonels of honorary colonels honorary badly had badly Arnold-Forster had that Arnold-Forster clear that was clear staff. Itit was of staff. chief of of army’s chief the army's of the simAfter aa simman. After the man. of the characteristic of was characteristic This was support.223 This his support.’” misjudged his misjudged Esher Lord Esher to Lord remarked to Balfour remarked year, Balfour that year, later that misunderstanding later ilar misunderstanding ilar someone with someone talked with has talked he has after he “believes after often “believes that Arnold-Forster often that Arnold-Forster have might have Selborne might sympathy Selborne any sympathy Similarly, any agree.”224 Similarly, always agree.’ that they always that they conAdmiralty conto Admiralty bases to naval bases imperial naval transfer imperial to transfer proposal to had the proposal for the had for the Notwithstanding the duplicity. Notwithstanding Arnold-Forster’s duplicity. after Arnold-Forster’s trol evaporated after had evaporated trol had Arnold-Forster reform, Arnold-Forster military reform, for military ideas for his ideas to his strength opposition to of opposition strength of deteriorate to deteriorate continued to position continued fiscal position the fiscal as the that as remained confident that remained confident Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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the the logic logic of of his his arguments arguments would would eventually eventually prevail. prevail. In In June June 1904, 1904, he he succeeded succeeded in in placing placing the the question question of of whether whether to to abolish abolish the the “Aquatics” “Aquatics” high high on on the the agenda agenda for for discussion discussion by by the the newly newly formed formed Committee Committee of of Imperial Imperial Defense. Defense. He He was was confident confident that that a a change change in in attitude attitude at at Whitehall Whitehall was was likely likely with with the the imminent imminent appointment appointment of of Sir Sir John John Fisher Fisher to to the the post post of of senior senior naval naval lord.225 lord.”” After After one one particularly particularly frustrating frustrating meetmeeting of of the the Cabinet, Cabinet, Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster recording recording in in his his diary: diary: ing

we we discussed discussed the the reduction reduction of of Colonial Colonial garrisons garrisons at at some some length, length, and and iI made made considerable considerable Fisher Fisher comes comes to to the the

progress progress in in Admiralty, Admiralty, II

getting getting my my principles principles admitted. admitted. When When do not doubt that some do not doubt that some of of the the battalions battalions

at at which which my my friends friends now now boggle boggle will will be be brought brought home home and and out out of of their their prepresent sent useless useless garrisons garrisons at at short short order.226 order.”

Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster knew knew that that he he and and Admiral Admiral Fisher Fisher shared shared a a similar similar stratestrategic gic outlook. outlook. They They had had worked worked closely closely when when both both served served on on the the Board Board of of Admiralty Admiralty in in 1902, 1902, and and more more recently recently while while Fisher Fisher had had been been serving serving as as aa member member of of the the War War Office Office Reconstitution Reconstitution Committee. Committee. As As we we shall shall see see in in the the next next chapter, chapter, the the admiral admiral was was fully fully aware aware of of the the political political imporimportance tance to to the the government government of of securing securing reductions reductions in in the the military military estimates. estimates. Indeed Indeed his his appointment appointment to to succeed succeed Kerr Kerr had had been been the the result result of of his his promise promise that that he he could could find find the the government government substantial substantial savings savings in in the the naval naval estimates estimates which which would would enable enable the the Conservative Conservative Party Party to to make make tax tax cuts, cuts, thereby thereby improving improving its its chances chances of of reelection. reelection. Fisher Fisher was was determined determined that that any any further further reductions reductions in in defense defense expenditure expenditure should should be be imposed imposed on on the the army army rather rather than than the the Royal Royal Navy. Navy.

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CHAPTER 33 CHAPTER

Radical Radical Jack Jack Fisher, Fisher, 1899—1904 1899-1904 II am am perfectly perfectly certain certain II am am right right in in what what II tell tell you you and and II am am perfectly perfectly con— convinced vinced II could could carry carry out out all all the the proposals proposals I[ make, make, but but ten ten years’ years’ experiexperience ence at at the the Admiralty Admiralty as as Director Director of of Naval Naval Ordnance Ordnance and and Controller Controller of of the the Navy Navy in in very very troublesome troublesome times times has has taught taught me me that that unless unless one one has has the the actual actual carrying carrying out out of of reforms reforms and and innovations, innovations, with with ruthless ruthless and and relentrelentless less removal removal of of all all obstructionists, obstructionists, it it is is usually usually aa waste waste of of time time and and only only causes causes friction friction.... . .. Sir Sir John John Fisher Fisher to to Selborne, Selborne, 19 19 December December 1900 1900

The The naval naval career career of of John John Arbuthnot Arbuthnot Fisher Fisher already already has has been been the the subsubject ject of of three three major major and and two two minor minor biographies, biographies, a a “caprice,” “caprice,” plus plus numerous numerous other other books, books, articles, articles, and and essays.‘ essays.' More More biographies biographies are are in in the the process process of of being being written: written: countless countless others others have have been been aborted.2 aborted. In In addition, addition, there there have have been been published published no no fewer fewer than than five five volumes volumes of of Fisher’s Fisher’s private private and and official official correspondence. correspondence. Despite Despite this this huge huge volume volume of of output, output, however, however, the the magnimagnitude tude and and exact exact nature nature of of Jacky’s Jacky’s achievements achievements have have been been scarcely scarcely recogrecognized. nized. Partially Partially this this is is because because Fisher’s Fisher's biographers biographers blindly blindly accepted accepted the the old old assumptions assumptions as as to to his his motives, motives, his his intentions, intentions, and and the the direction direction of of his his naval naval policy. policy. And And partly partly it it is is because because his his biographers biographers and and naval naval historians historians have have slanted slanted their their efforts efforts away away from from analyzing analyzing his his naval naval policy policy in in favor favor of of trying trying to to capture capture Jacky’s Jacky’s personality; personality; ignoring ignoring warnings warnings from from those those who who knew knew him him well well that that “no “no writer, writer, however however capable capable a a judge judge of of character character ... . .. can make make ‘Jacky ‘Jacky Fisher’ Fisher’ as as he he really really was was to to live live again again for for the the benefit benefit of of can those those who who never never saw saw or or knew knew him.”3 him.” “It “It is is difficult difficult enough enough to to describe describe a a man man who who differs differs but but little little from from the the normal normal run run of of mankind,” mankind,” wrote wrote Fisher’s Fisher's first biographer biographer and and former former naval naval assistant, assistant, Reginald Reginald Bacon: Bacon: first How How can can success success be be achieved achieved when when portraying portraying one one of of whom whom a a close close observer wrote: wrote: “I“I have have known known personally personally aa dozen dozen men men who who have have been been in in observer my my time time among among the the most most remarkable remarkable and and famous famous men men in in the the world; world; Lord Lord Fisher Fisher was was the the most most fascinating fascinating of of them them all, all, and and the the least least like like any any other other man.” man.” Since Since it it is is impossible impossible to to describe describe personality personality in in mere mere words, words, the the more more abnormal abnormal the the person person the the more more difficult difficult the the description description becomes.4 becomes.‘ Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Something Something of of Fisher’s Fisher’s character character can can of of course course be be recovered recovered by by examinexamining ing his his private private correspondence, correspondence, but but it it should should not not be be forgotten forgotten that that the the Admiral Admiral communicated communicated most most of of his his ideas ideas verbally verbally rather rather than than on on paper. paper. Those who who knew knew and and worked worked alongside aldngside Fisher Fisher remembered remembered him him mainly mainly Those as as a a “demonic” “demonic” and and mesmerizing mesmerizing conversationalist conversationalist rather rather than than as as “a “a great great letter letter writer.”5 writer.”> That That Fisher Fisher generally generally provoked provoked violently violently contrastcontrasting emotions emotions in in people people also also makes makes itit hard hard to to draw draw aa balanced balanced picture. picture. As As ing Jan Jan Morris Morris discovered discovered while while gathering gathering material material for for her her “caprice”, “caprice’, “Fisher, itit seemed, seemed, was was aa Great Great Englishman, Englishman, aa disgrace disgrace to to his his uniform, uniform, “Fisher, manipulator, aa hobgoblin, hobgoblin, aa damned damned Socialist, Socialist, aa crook, crook, aa paragon paragon of of aa manipulator, kindness, kindness, aa parvenu, parvenu, aa cad, cad, aa genius, genius, a a fraud, fraud, a a delight. delight. Only Only one one thing thing all all were were agreed agreed upon: upon: he he had had a a marvellous marvellous face.”6 face.”® Fisher Fisher is is more more easily easily measured measured by by his his deeds. deeds. Entering Entering the the Royal Royal Navy Navy in in 1854, 1854, “penniless” “penniless” and and “forlorn,” “forlorn,” he he rose rose to to the the top top of of his his proprofession fession on on his his own own merit merit and and in in spite spite of of the the widespread widespread jealousy jealousy and and mismistrust trust he he inspired inspired among among his his peers. peers. “I “I won’t won't hide hide from from you you that that II am am called called a a ‘Radical ‘Radical enthusiast,’ enthusiast, ‘Gambetta,’ ‘Gambetta,’ and and several several other other names names indicating indicating aa very very bad bad opinion opinion of of me,” me,” he he admitted admitted to to prospective prospective allies.7 allies.’ Fisher Fisher never never once once received received an an accelerated accelerated promotion. promotion. He He was was thus thus sixty-one-years sixty-one-years old old when when he he was was at at last last promoted promoted admiral admiral and and just just three three months months short short of of his his sixty-fourth Sixty-fourth birthday birthday when when he he was was appointed appointed senior senior naval naval lord. lord. Throughout Throughout his his career, career, Fisher Fisher retained retained the the reputation reputation for for being being aa proprogressive gressive officer officer with with a a keen keen interest interest in in new new technologies. technologies. He He was was an an expert expert in in gunnery gunnery and and also also aa pioneer pioneer in in torpedo torpedo warfare. warfare. But But it it was was as as a a Whitehall Whitehall administrator administrator that that Jacky Jacky was was to to leave leave his his mark mark upon upon the the serservice. vice. In In 1886, 1886, Fisher Fisher was was appointed appointed to to the the Admiralty Admiralty as as director director of of Naval Naval Ordnance, Ordnance, remaining remaining there there for for the the unusually unusually long long period period of of five five years. years. After After a a brief brief spell spell as as superintendent superintendent of of Portsmouth Portsmouth Dockyard Dockyard overseeing overseeing the the construction construction of of HMS HMS Royal Royal Sovereign—the Sovereign—the “dreadnought” “dreadnought” of of her her day day and and lead lead ship ship of of the the Naval Naval Defense Defense Act—Fisher Act—Fisher returned returned to to the the Admiralty Admiralty as as controller controller of of the the navy navy in in 1892. 1892. Here Here again again he he served served aa doudouble ble term: term: this this time time an an unprecedented unprecedented five-and-a-half five-and-a-half years. years. In In 1897. 1897, after after fifteen fifteen years years away away from from the the sea, sea, Fisher Fisher left left the the Admiralty Admiralty to to take take command command of of the the North North America America and and West West Indies Indies Station, Station, a a maritime maritime backwater backwater that that was was normally normally allocated allocated to to passed passed over over flag flag officers officers as as a a sinecure. Sinecure. Half Half way way through through this this commission, commission, however, however, in in March March 1899. 1899, George George Goschen Goschen telegraphed telegraphed Sir Sir John John Fisher Fisher informing informing his his that that the the Cabinet Cabinet had had selected selected him him to to attend attend the the forthcoming forthcoming Hague Hague Peace Peace

Conference Conference as as the the British British naval naval delegate delegate and and that that afterwards afterwards he he would would be be given given the the command command of of the the Mediterranean Mediterranean Fleet—which Fleet—which at at that that time time was was “the “the tip-top tip-top appointment appointment of of the the service.”8 service.”® Both Both honors honors were were unexunexpected; pected; the the latter latter particularly particularly so so because because Fisher Fisher had had no no reputation reputation of of Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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being being a a “fighting “fighting admiral” admiral” and and in in making making the the appointment appointment the the first first lord lord had men.9 had passed passed over over several several more more senior senior and and arguably arguably better better qualified qualified men.° Why Why exactly exactly Goschen Goschen picked picked Fisher Fisher for for the the job, job, thereby thereby reviving reviving his his flagflagging ging career, career, is is still still not not clear. clear. Fisher’s Fisher’s ideas ideas on on the the application application of of naval naval force force underwent underwent a a dradramatic matic modification modification while while serving serving in in the the Mediterranean Mediterranean between between September of his recent career career September 1899 1899 and and June June 1902. 1902. Having Having spent spent most most of his recent developing developing new new weapon weapon systems systems and and overseeing overseeing their their development development and and eventual eventual procurement, procurement, he he had had found found little little time time to to consider consider properly properly the the implications implications of of the the veritable veritable revolution revolution in in naval naval materiel matériel that that had had occurred occurred with with the the introduction introduction during during the the 18908 1890s of of armored armored cruisers, cruisers, destroyers, destroyers, and and submarines, submarines, not not to to mention mention wireless wireless telegraphy, telegraphy, smokesmokeless less powder, powder, and and quick-firing quick-firing guns.10 guns.'® But, But, to to be be fair, fair, nor nor had had anyone anyone else. AS As the the man man who who had had been been mainly mainly responsible responsible for for introducing introducing the the else. new equipment equipment into into service, service, Fisher Fisher was was perhaps perhaps thought thought to to be be the the best best new qualified qualified admiral admiral to to develop develop ideas ideas for for means means of of using using them. them. In In the the Mediterranean, Mediterranean, the the prospect prospect that that in in the the event event of of war war he he would would be be commanding Britain's Britain’s premier premier fleet fleet encouraged encouraged Fisher Fisher to to think think very very commanding carefully about about how how he he would would employ employ his his forces. forces. He He was was undoubtedly undoubtedly carefully encouraged to to do do so so by by the the knowledge knowledge that that in in recent recent years years the the French French encouraged Mediterranean fleet fleet had had been been worked worked up up to to aa high high level level of of efficiency, efficiency, first first Mediterranean by Adm. Adm. Albert Albert Gervais Gervais and and then then by by Adm. Adm. Francois Francois Fournier.'' Fournier,“ Fournier, Fournier, by moreover, was was highly highly regarded regarded as as aa tactician tactician and and known known to to favor favor radical radical moreover, deployment. force deployment. on force theories on theories All All Fisher’s Fisher’s contemporaries contemporaries and and naval naval historians historians have have agreed agreed that that the admiral admiral injected injected aa new new spirit spirit and and sense sense of of purpose purpose into into the the the Mediterranean Fleet.” Fleet.12 “It “It isis difficult difficult for for anyone anyone who who had had not not lived lived under under Mediterranean about,” brought about,” Fisher brought change Fisher what aa change realise what to realise regime to previous regime the previous the memoirs. his memoirs. in his recalled in marines, recalled the marines, in the captain in then aa captain Hankey, then Lord Hankey, Lord In enthusiasm. In of enthusiasm. full of and full keen and be, keen will be, always will and always was, and personnel was, Naval personnel Naval comparaon comparawasted on often wasted was often keenness was this keenness however, this era, however, pre-Fisher era, the pre-Fisher the tively unworthy unworthy objects. objects. Before Before his his arrival arrival the the topics topics and and arguments arguments of of the the tively

cleaning the cleaning as the matters as such matters to such confined to mainly confined were mainly messes .. .. .. were officers’ messes officers’ and anchors, and and anchors, nets and torpedo nets of torpedo out of getting out the getting brasswork, the and brasswork, paint and of paint of forgotten were these regime Fisher’s of year a After a year of Fisher's regime these were forgotten trivialities. After similar trivialities. similar gunstrategy, guntactics, strategy, on tactics, controversies on incessant controversies by incessant replaced by were replaced and were and and renaissance and veritable renaissance was aa veritable etc. ItIt was blockade etc. warfare, blockade torpedo warfare, nery, torpedo nery,

fleet.'3 the fleet.’ in the officer in every officer affected every affected

the commanding the while commanding was while that itit was recognized that also recognized have also Scholars have Scholars Mediterranean Fleet Fleet that that Fisher Fisher formulated formulated the the new new theory theory of of capital capital Mediterranean But lord.M But naval lord.'* senior naval becoming senior after becoming introduce after to introduce tried to he tried design he ship design ship Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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in occurred in that occurred changes that profound changes the profound few realized the have realized commentators have few commentators how of question of how fundamental question more fundamental the more on the his period on this period during this thinking during his thinking fought. be fought. should be and should future would and wars would future wars developed Fisher developed that Fisher Mediterranean that the Mediterranean ItIt was in the serving in while serving also while was also the with the coincided with appointment coincided his appointment As his warfare. As his submarine warfare. in submarine interest in his interest testing main testing their main and their program, and acceleration submarine program, French submarine the French in the acceleration in first the first was the Fisher was that Fisher wonder that small wonder ground was small Toulon, itit was off Toulon, was off ground was As seriously. As threat seriously. underwater threat the underwater take the to take British commander to fleet commander British fleet the pressing the was pressing Fisher was shown, Fisher been shown, has been early 1900, itit has February 1900, as February early as might some might that some order that in order mines in contact mines on contact ban on their ban Admiralty revoke their to revoke Admiralty to anchor.15 at anchor.’ when at fleet when the fleet protect the to protect be Mediterranean to the Mediterranean to the out to sent out be sent Beresford, Charles Beresford, Lord Charles Adm. Lord Rear Adm. command, Rear in command, second in his second for his Except for Except the In the seriously.16 In possibility seriously.'® this possibility take this to take chose to no admiral chose British admiral other British no other in developments in further developments about further informed about meantime himself informed kept himself Fisher kept meantime Fisher employdid employas did dividends, as paid dividends, newspapers paid French newspapers the French France.'’ Reading the France.)7 Reading establishing or establishing maneuvers or naval maneuvers French naval on French spy on to spy ing officials to consular officials ing consular Mediterranean the Mediterranean spanned the that spanned an network that intelligence network informal intelligence an informal very he very that he show that Selborne show Lord Selborne to Lord letters to region.'® private letters Fisher’s private region.‘8 Fisher’s significance the significance Yet the submarine—boats.I9 Yet with submarine-boats.'® quickly fascinated with became fascinated quickly became appreFisher’s appretime Fisher's this time At this overstated. At be overstated. not be should not of enthusiasm should this enthusiasm of this over concern over greater concern his greater by his overshadowed by was overshadowed submarines was of submarines hension hension of fleet. surface fleet. French surface the French the develnewly develthe newly of the specter of the specter by the haunted by Fisher particularly haunted was particularly Fisher was arsenals French arsenals the French in the congestion in Although congestion oped cruiser. Although side-armored cruiser. oped side-armored the left the Fisher left after Fisher till after vessels till these vessels of these most of of most completion of the completion delayed delayed the source were aa source service were entered service already entered had already that had few that the few Mediterranean, the Mediterranean, Mediterranean the Mediterranean to the attached to ships attached the ships of the None of of concern.20 None great concern.” of great as calibre as “such calibre of “such were of complained, were Fisher complained, duties, Fisher scouting duties, for scouting Fleet Fleet for not to to cause cause an an admiral admiral grave grave concern concern ifif allowed allowed to to wander wander from from the the not cruisers third-class cruisers the third-class use the than use Rather than protection ships.”21 Rather larger ships.”*' of larger protection of preFisher pretherefore, Fisher provided, therefore, been provided, had been he had and which he with which gunboats with and gunboats ferred to to employ employ torpedo-boat torpedo-boat destroyers destroyers to to scout scout for for the the fleet. fleet. IfIf these these ferred proper for proper qualities for seakeeping qualities or seakeeping endurance or craft the endurance have the not have did not craft did Fisher trouble. Fisher escape trouble. to escape speed to the speed had the they had least they cruiser at least work, at cruiser work, danmore daneven more prove even would prove cruisers would armored cruisers anticipated French armored the French anticipated the commerce as commerce independently as deployed independently gerous contain ifif deployed to contain difficult to and difficult gerous and raiders.” raiders.22 “It “it can can be be incontestably incontestably shewn,” shown,” he he wrote, wrote, “that “that unarmored unarmored another after another one after captured one be captured and be powerless and rendered powerless be rendered can be cruisers cruisers can preponthe preponbe the may be great may how great matter how no matter cruisers no armored cruisers swifter armored by swifter by derance in in numbers numbers of of unarmored unarmored cruisers.”” cruisers.”23 Fisher’s Fisher’s concerns concerns were were derance widely widely shared. shared. Both Both Selborne Selborne and and Kerr Kerr accepted accepted that that the the “armored “armored cruiser cruiser will will brook brook no no rival rival in in war.”24 war.””* Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, httpszllhd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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by posed by fleet posed his fleet to his threat to the threat about the also about concerned also was concerned Fisher was Fisher surface torpedo torpedo boats. boats. By By 1901, 1901, the the French French flotilla flotilla in in the the western western MediterMeditersurface ranean had had grown grown to to ninety-five ninety-five vessels, vessels, though though only only forty-six forty-six were were reckreckranean oned oned to to be be effective effective beyond beyond inshore inshore waters.25 waters.” Coping Coping with with the the numerous numerous French torpedo torpedo flotillas flotillas was was always always going going to to be be aa major major headache headache for for any any French British observation observation squadron squadron cruising cruising the the Gulf Gulf of of Lyons Lyons in in wartime. wartime. British Attrition was expected to Attrition was expected to be be high. high. In In February February 1902, 1902, Fisher Fisher confessed confessed his his doubts whether whether the the Mediterranean Mediterranean Fleet Fleet would would be be able able to to keep keep an an effeceffecdoubts tive tive watch watch over over Toulon.26 Toulon.” But But after after reading reading of of the the aggressive aggressive deployment deployment of of torpedo craft craft during during the the French French naval naval maneuvers maneuvers in in 1900 1900 and and 1901, 1901, torpedo Fisher Fisher became became much much more more concerned concerned that that larger larger French French torpedo torpedo boats boats might simply simply ignore ignore the the inshore inshore squadron squadron and and attack attack more more valuable valuable tartarmight gets lying lying further further out out to to sea.”’ sea.27 Still Still more more alarming alarming was was the the possibility possibility that that gets the the French French flotilla flotilla operating operating in in conjunction conjunction with with their their numerically numerically weak weak battle battle squadron squadron might might be be aa potent potent match match for for the the British British fleet. fleet. For For many many years the the French French had had been been practicing practicing their their torpedo torpedo boats boats to to launch launch mass mass years attacks against enemy battle squadrons. Hitherto the Royal Navy had disattacks against enemy battle squadrons. Hitherto the Royal Navy had dismissed the threat—at least during the hours of daylight—trusting to missed the threat—at least during the hours of daylight—trusting to the the numerous quick-firing guns guns mounted mounted on on their their ships ships to to throw throw out out an an impenimpennumerous quick-firing etrable “hail “hail of of shot” shot” which which would would sink sink the the enemy enemy torpedo torpedo craft craft before before they they etrable reached firing range. reached firing range. By the the beginning beginning of of the the twentieth twentieth century, century, however, however, the the relative relative difdifBy ference between between the the effective effective range range of of naval naval artillery artillery and and the the torpedo torpedo ference narrowed considerably. considerably. The The addition addition of of aa gyroscope gyroscope to to the the torpedo torpedo guidguidnarrowed ance mechanism mechanism in in 1896,. 1896,. an an invention invention perfected perfected by by 1900, 1900, overnight overnight ance ranges at ranges only at accurate only weapon accurate from aa weapon torpedo from existing torpedo the existing transformed the transformed disthis distimes this three times at three hit at could hit that could one that into one yards into hundred yards six hundred to six up to up range maximum range considered aa maximum was considered yards was 600 yards ago 600 year ago “Whereas aa year tance. “Whereas tance. in aa Egerton in George Egerton Capt. George noted Capt. on,” noted relied on,” be relied could be torpedo could which aa torpedo at which at report that was widely circulated within the fleet during report that was widely circulated within the fleet during 1900, 1900, now 1,000 1,000 or or even even 2,000 2,000 can can be be relied relied on; on; and and whilst whilst at at that that time time running running from from now

tube, other tube, any other from any as from good as as good now itit isis as unreliable, now quite unreliable, was quite tube was stern tube aa stern under ship under the ship with the even with even hill requires fleet a of tics tics of a fleet requires full

being That being helm. That extreme helm. extreme would I and consideration, consideration, and I would

tac— the tacon the effects on its effects so, its so, French, the that out point point out that the French,

who, who, we we know, know, advocate advocate the the use use of of torpedo torpedo boats boats in in fleet fleet actions, actions, will will derive derive from the the adoption adoption of of the the gyroscope gyroscope so so much much advantage advantage that that we we can can no-longer no-longer from which to which fleet to the fleet to the encumbrance to an encumbrance as an merely as boats merely these boats on these look on to look afford to afford 1,200 say, 1,200 at, say, boat at, torpedo boat destroying aa torpedo of destroying prospect of The prospect attached .. .. .. The are attached they are they destroying of destroying chances of the chances than the less than much less very much action isis very fleet action during aa fleet yards during yards yards 1,200 yards at 1,200 hitting at torpedo hitting the torpedo of the chances of the chances and the range, and yards range, 600 yards at 600 one at one

yards.28 600 yards.” at 600 formerly at was formerly than itit was now than greater now isis greater Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handIe.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Fisher, Admirals Fisher, including Admirals leaders, including naval leaders, senior naval most senior 1901, most By early 1901, By early agreed Wilson, agreed Arthur Wilson, and Arthur Rawson and Harry Rawson Sir Harry Lord Beresford, Sir Charles Beresford, Lord Charles .that that with with increasing increasing range range and and accuracy, accuracy, the the torpedo torpedo was was becoming becoming a a the that say to exaggeration no is “It tactics.29 fleet in fleet tactics.” “It is no exaggeration to say that the significant factor in significant factor fact," accomplished fact,” an accomplished now an is now which is application, which perfecting this application, of this perfecting of made “has 1901, January in Admiralty in January 1901, “has made the Admiralty of the lord of acknowledged first lord the first acknowledged the has than itit has offence than of offence weapon of dangerous weapon more dangerous the four-fold more torpedo aa four-fold the torpedo been.”30 previously previously been.”* commanfleet commanBritish fleet that British torpedo that the torpedo for the fear for of fear out of mainly out was mainly Itit was long-range practice long-range to practice squadrons to battle squadrons their battle encouraging their ders began encouraging ders began guns naval guns of naval range of effective range the effective 1900, the of 1900, beginning of the beginning At the gunnery.*'’ gunnery.“ At folafter, folyear after, the year But the yards.32 But 2,000 yards. than 2,000 less than be less to be held to was generally held was generally comthen comWilson, then Arthur Wilson, Sir Arthur Adm. Sir Vice Adm. exercises, Vice fleet exercises, of fleet series of lowing lowing aa series mander mander in in chief chief of of the the Channel Channel Squadron, Squadron, was was persuaded persuaded of of “the “the respect respect action, naval action, modern naval in aa modern held in be held must be torpedo must gyroscopic torpedo the gyroscopic in which the in which Mark (18-inch Mark torpedo (18-inch present torpedo the present with the even with that, even and appear that, would appear and itit would W), itit isis unsafe unsafe to to approach approach within within 2,000 2,000 yards.” yards.” Wilson Wilson concluded: concluded: IV), “This “This points points to to the the all-importance all-importance of of long long range range fire.”33 fire.”* Fisher Fisher was was yet yet tacfleet tacof fleet point of cardinal point be aa cardinal must be that itit must insisted that He insisted more cautious. He more cautious. sufare sufwe are though we (even though enemy (even the enemy of the yards of 4,000 yards inside 4,000 get inside to get tics “not to tics “not fering from from want want of of accuracy accuracy in in gunfire gunfire due due to to want want of of velocity), velocity), because, because, fering 1900, June 1900, as June early as As early in.”34 As get in.”** will get torpedo will the torpedo so, the do so, you do as you as sure as as sure Fisher was was authorizing authorizing gunnery gunnery officer officer to to conduct conduct practice practice shoots shoots with with Fisher medium medium caliber caliber quick-firing quick-firing guns guns (which (which then then were were regarded regarded as as aa batbat6,000 of 6,000 range of unprecedented range then unprecedented the then at the weapons) at tleship’s long-range weapons) tleship’s long-range Admiralty the Admiralty Fleet, the Mediterranean Fleet, the Mediterranean from the lead from the lead yards.® Following the yards.35 Following next next year year directed directed that that all all fleets fleets should should practice practice at at that that range range at at least least once once aa year. year. These These impossibly impossibly high high standards standards were were modified modified after after very very better of better introduction of the introduction with the 1905, with disappointing until 1905, Not until results. Not disappointing results. techcontrol techfire contro] sophisticated fire more sophisticated sight-setting and more instruments and sight-setting instruments niques, did did the the Royal Royal Navy Navy again again strive strive to to master master long-range long-range gunnery.36 gunnery.” niques, Lack of of confidence confidence in in long-range long-range naval naval gunnery, gunnery, meanwhile, meanwhile, led led Lack Fisher Fisher and and Wilson Wilson to to attach attach torpedo-boat torpedo-boat destroyers destroyers to to their their battle battle darkness, of darkness, hours of the hours during the especially during that especially believed that squadrons. Both believed squadrons. Both destroyers destroyers would would protect protect the the line line of of battle battle from from torpedo torpedo attack attack far far more more reliably reliably than than battleship battleship gunfire. gunfire. “It “It will will be be simply simply suicidal,” suicidal,” Fisher Fisher leclectured tured his his subordinate subordinate captains, captains, “for “for any any battleship battleship squadron squadron to to cruise cruise without without an an attendant attendant destroyer destroyer flotilla.”37 flotilla.”*’ A A series series of of fleet fleet exercises exercises were were held the Fisher held to to demonstrate demonstrate the point.38 point.*® When When Fisher arrived arrived in in the the Mediterranean, Mediterranean, he he was was given given only only sixteen sixteen destroyers destroyers and and thereafter thereafter was was constantly constantly complaining complaining that that the the force force at at his his disposal disposal was was insufficient insufficient for for his his needs.39 needs.* According According to to his his own own committee committee of of experts experts at at least least sixty sixty Lambert, Nicolas. 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were were required. required. The The Admiralty, Admiralty, however, however, were were unsympathetic unsympathetic to to his his demands.40 demands.* “Both “Both Fisher Fisher and and Wilson,” Wilson,” Lord Lord Walter Walter Kerr Kerr protested protested to to Selborne in August 1901, “have used their destroyers for purposes Selborne in August 1901, “have used their destroyers for purposes which Which they they were were not not intended.”‘“ intended.”“' “Destroyers “Destroyers were were not not intended intended to to accompany a fleet at sea,” Kerr explained on another paper, accompany a fleet at sea,” Kerr explained on another paper, “but “but were were designed designed to to operate operate from from bases bases against against the the torpedo torpedo boats boats of of the the enemy enemy also operating from a base”; instead of employing also operating from a base”; instead of employing destroyers destroyers as as scouts, scouts, Kerr Kerr declared, declared, fleet fleet commanders commanders should should use use the the third-class third-class cruisers cruisers and and gunboats with which gunboats with which they they had had been been provided.42 provided.” The The senior senior naval naval lord lord was was encouraged encouraged to to stand stand firm firm on on this this point point by by the the DN1 DNI Rear Rear Adm. Adm. Reginald Reginald Custance, Custance, who who was was convinced convinced that that using using destroyers destroyers to to screen screen a a fleet fleet rather rather than than deploying deploying them them to to seek seek out out and and destroy destroy enemy enemy torpedo torpedo craft craft was was unsound. unsound. “The “The mind mind of of the the Commander Commander in in Chief Chief leans leans largely largely to to aa defensive defensive policy,” policy,” he he sneered, sneered, “and “and that that [worse] [worse] he he has has to to some some extent extent indoctrinated indoctrinated those those about about him him with with the the same same views.”43 views.”* In In official official minutes minutes to to the the Board, Board, Custance Custance accused accused Fisher Fisher of of promulgating promulgating pusillanimous pusillanimous doctrine—a doctrine—a serious serious charge. charge. Kerr Kerr was was inclined inclined to to agree.44 agree.’ Both Both men, men, howhowever, ever, underestimated underestimated the the torpedo torpedo threat, threat, and and neither neither offered offered an an alternaalternative tive method method of of protecting protecting aa fleet fleet from from torpedo torpedo attack.45 attack.* After After Fisher Fisher left left the the Mediterranean Mediterranean in in June June 1902, 1902, he he became became increasingly increasingly convinced convinced that that the the danger danger from from torpedoes torpedoes would would soon soon inhibinhibit it the the Royal Royal Navy Navy from from regularly regularly deploying deploying its its armored armored warships warships within within range range of of hostile hostile torpedo torpedo craft.46 craft.** To To the the consternation consternation of of naval naval officers officers such such as as Rear Rear Adm. Adm. William William May, May, the the controller, controller, the the plausibility plausibility of of this this notion notion strengthened strengthened as as the the range range of of the the torpedo torpedo continued continued to to lengthen.47 lengthen.” “Soon “Soon it it will will be be 5,000 5,000 yards,” yards,” Fisher Fisher exclaimed exclaimed to to his his flag flag captain captain in in January January 1904, 1904, “and “and then then where where is is your your gunnery gunnery going going to to be?”48 be?” Later Later that that year, year, furthermore, furthermore, the the Royal Royal Navy Navy began began experimenting experimenting with with aa device device that that heated heated the the compressed compressed air air used used to to drive drive the the torpedo’s torpedo’s engine.49 engine.* “Heaters” “Heaters” threatened threatened to to extend extend the the range range of of torpedoes torpedoes well well beyond beyond the the maximum maximum range range at at which which naval naval artillery artillery could could then then be be fired fired with with effect.50 effect.” Another Another reason reason to to take take torpedoes torpedoes seriously seriously was was that that its its warhead warhead was was much more more destructive destructive than than aa shell shell fired fired by by the the biggest biggest gun. gun. ItIt was was gengenmuch erally accepted accepted that that “one “one shot shot getting getting home home from from aa torpedo torpedo tube tube isis worth worth erally thirty thirty from from aa gun.”5' gun.”*' The The magnitude magnitude of of the the danger danger from from torpedoes torpedoes was was brought brought home home to to the the Admiralty Admiralty in in 1903 1903 after after practical practical trials trials revealed revealed that that existing armored armored warships warships were were even even more more vuinerable vulnerable to to underwater underwater existing damage than than had had previously previously been been presumed.” presumed.52 The The most most dramatic dramatic confirconfirdamage mation mation of of this this fact fact took took place place in in September. September. This This involved involved the the old old cruiser cruiser HMS HMS Belleisle Belleisle that that had had been been specially specially modified modified to to withstand withstand aa hit hit from from aa torpedo. torpedo. So So confident confident were were the the experts experts of of the the “Vernon” “Vernon” that that they they had had made made the the ship ship unsinkable unsinkable that that the the experiment experiment was was conducted conducted inside inside Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Portsmouth Portsmouth Harbor; Harbor; to to everyone’s everyone's embarrassment embarrassment the the ship ship sank sank at at her her mooring mooring inside inside seven seven minutes. minutes. “I “I regret regret very very much,” much,” atterwards afterwards wrote wrote Admiral Admiral May, May, “but “but II fear fear we we must must accept accept that that with with our our present present knowledge knowledge it is not possible to make a ship invulnerable against attacks it is not possible to make a ship invulnerable against attacks of of the the 1818inch Whitehead, without going to prohibitive size.”53 Subsequently, inch Whitehead, without going to prohibitive size.”® Subsequently, aa priprivate vate salvage salvage company company was was hired hired to to remove remove the the wreck wreck from from the the middle middle of of the harbor. harbor.54 the In In the the autumn autumn of of 1902, 1902, Admiral Admiral Fisher Fisher was was unexpectedly unexpectedly recalled recalled to to Whitehall Whitehall as as second second naval naval lord.55 lord.® Although Although recognizing recognizing that that Sir Sir John John was was too too senior senior to to be be “playing “playing second second fiddle," fiddle,” Selborne Selborne had had overruled overruled Kerr’s Kerr’s objections objections and and insisted insisted upon upon recruiting recruiting Fisher’s Fisher’s unrivaled unrivaled administrative administrative skills skills to to help help sort sort out out the the navy’s navy's critical critical personnel personnel problems. problems. Among Among Fisher’s Fisher's duties duties as as second second naval naval lord lord was was the the responsibility responsibility for for providing providing crews crews to to man man the the armada armada of of new new submarines submarines under under construction.56 construction.® This This allowed allowed him him special special access access to to the the dookets dockets on on submarine submarine policy, policy, which which until until then then had had been been given given aa limited limited circulation circulation even even within within Whitehall. Whitehall. It It also also brought brought him him into into contact contact with with Capt. Capt. Reginald Reginald Bacon, Bacon, the the inspecting inspecting captain captain of of submarines, submarines, who who proceeded proceeded to to educate educate him him on on the the tactical tactical possibilities possibilities with with submarines. submarines. Until Until then then Fisher’s Fisher’s notions notions had had been been simsimplistic, plistic, lacking lacking in in detailed detailed knowledge knowledge of of their their technical technical limitations limitations and and actual actual capabilities. capabilities. Before Before he he became became second second naval naval lord, lord, for for instance, instance, Fisher Fisher had had envisaged envisaged the the Royal Royal Navy Navy using using submarines submarines to to “flush “flush out out like like rabbits” rabbits” reluctant reluctant enemy enemy warships warships sheltering sheltering in in port.57 port.*’ Capt. Capt. Edmond Edmond Jeffreys, Jeffreys, the the DN0, DNO, Capt. Capt. Henry Henry Jackson, Jackson, the the former former naval naval attaché attaché in in Paris, Paris, and and Adm. Adm. Lord Lord Walter Walter Kerr Kerr had had all all expressed expressed similar similar ideas.58 ideas. Thanks Thanks to to Bacon, Bacon, Fisher Fisher was was disabused disabused of of such such impracticable impracticable ideas ideas and and left left Whitehall Whitehall with with a a thorough thorough grasp grasp of of the the true true tactical tactical possibilities possibilities of of submarines.59 submarines.°° Much Much more more difficult difficult to to gauge gauge is is the the extent extent to to which which Bacon Bacon might might have have contributed contributed to to the the radicalization radicalization of of Fisher’s Fisher’s thinking thinking on on naval naval strategy. strategy. Many Many historians historians have have assumed assumed Bacon’s Bacon’s influence influence upon upon the the admiral admiral was was great: great: but but as as their their private private correspondence correspondence has has not not survived survived this this imposimpossible sible to to prove. prove. Nevertheless, Nevertheless, it it is is perhaps perhaps significant significant to to note note that that Bacon Bacon did did not not complete complete his his report report on on the the role role of of the the submarine submarine until until 31 31 May May 1903, 1903, and and that that it it did did not not arrive arrive in in Whitehall Whitehall until until October—or October—or several several

months months after after Fisher Fisher quit quit the the Board.60 Board.© Yet Yet in in aa speech speech to to the the Royal Royal Academy Academy delivered delivered on on 14 14 May May 1903, 1903, Fisher Fisher was was already already asking asking the the audiaudience ence to to consider: consider: the the submarine-boat submarine-boat and and wireless wireless telegraphy. telegraphy. When When they they are are perfected perfected we we do not know what a revolution will come about. In their do not know what a revolution will come about. In their inception inception they they were were weapons weapons of of the the weak. weak. Now Now they they loom loom large large as as weapons weapons of of the the strong. strong. Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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of fear of slightest fear the slightest there the Is there waters? Is Will narrow waters? in narrow be in to be able to be able fleet be any fleet Will any invasion with with them, them, even even for for the the most most extreme extreme pessimist?® pessimist?61 invasion

not was not notwithstanding, itit was vision notwithstanding, This Fisher’s vision of Fisher's demonstration of early demonstration This early September in September Portsmouth, in at Portsmouth, chief at until in chief commander in became commander he became after he until after underalready underbeing already “revolution” being 1903, this “revolution” of this talk of to talk began to he began that he 1903, that submaBritish upon British submaway. influence upon Fisher’s influence of Fisher's extent of the extent should the Nor should way. Nor former one former submarine,” one “The submarine,” rine overstated. “The be overstated. stage be this stage at this policy at rine policy inspecting inspecting captain captain of of submarines submarines asserted asserted in in his his memoirs, memoirs, “was “was Fisher’s child, child, and and his his dynamic dynamic energy energy overrode overrode all all naval naval and and departdepartFisher's mental mental obstruction obstruction and and gave gave itit aa good good start start in in life.”®? life.”62 But, But, although although “Radical “Radical Jack” Jack” did did lend lend his his “irresistible” “irresistible” drive drive to to Captain Captain Bacon’s Bacon’s camcampaign paign in in the the spring spring of of 1903 1903 “to “to give give the the submarine submarine aa definite definite role role in in the the armaments armaments of of the the navy,” navy,” his his support support was was indirect indirect and and his his influence influence limlimited. ited. As As we we have have seen, seen, Fisher's Fisher’s “zealous “zealous support” support” simply simply was was not not aa facfactor tor in in the the Admiralty's Admiralty’s decision decision to to accept accept the the submarine submarine as as an an adjunct adjunct ports. to naval ports. of naval defense of the defense to the As commander commander in in chief chief at at Portsmouth, Portsmouth, the the submarine submarine service service came came As under under Fisher’s Fisher’s direct direct command. command. He He was was thus thus in in aa position position to to watch watch closely closely the the development development of of the the embryonic embryonic Holland Holland boats. boats. Possibly Possibly Fisher Fisher was was alluding alluding to to his his own own conversion conversion when when he he wrote wrote in in November November 1903. 1903, that that “only “only those those who who have have seen seen a a flotilla flotilla of of submarine-boats submarine-boats (as (as at at Portsmouth) Portsmouth) working working out out in in the the open open sea sea can can form form the the right right conception conception of of the the revolution revolution they they have have caused.’® caused.”63 The The Admiral Admiral subsequently subsequently took took and and to down to politicians down influential politicians created bring influential to bring opportunity to every opportunity created every Portsmouth Portsmouth to to see see the the submarines submarines for for themselves. themselves. In In one one instance, instance,

from MP’s from of MP’s lot of took aa lot Fisher took recalled “Jackie Fisher submariner, “Jackie young submariner, one young recalled one college training college new training Portsmouth inspect new to inspect Volcano to [HMS] Volcano in [HMS] Osborne in to Osborne Portsmouth to tug the tug attacked the “submarines attacked [on crossing “submarines the crossing During the White] During of White].” Isle of the Isle [on the running provide aa running to provide hand to on hand was on and Fisher was Spithead.”64 Fisher at Spithead.”* off at showed off and showed the outlining the programs outlining commentary distribute programs to distribute and to display, and the display, of the commentary of made have made chief "Submarines have tour. “Submarines the tour. by the covered by interest covered of interest points of chief points invasion, regards invasion, as regards feasible as impossible just feasible perhaps just formally perhaps was formally what was impossible what down bring down will bring as will! and economies as Office economies War Office such War of such productive of be productive will be and will Mr. as Mr. “but as booklets: “but these booklets: in these income claimed in he claimed 2,” he the £,” in the 3d in to 3d tax to income tax occasions special occasions On special Rudyard story.”65 On another story.’”’"® ‘that’s another says, ‘that’s Kipling says, Rudyard Kipling inside visits inside Fisher unauthorized visits make unauthorized to make journalists to selected journalists allowed selected Fisher allowed publicity.66 submarines favorable publicity.® for favorable return for in return submarines in the to the abilities to Some assigned abilities Fisher assigned that Fisher alleged that have alleged historians have Some historians his of his all of not all Most ifif not so. Most not so. was not submarine This was possess.67 This not possess.® did not that itit did submarine that Reginald from Reginald came from ideas submarines came with submarines possibilities with tactical possibilities the tactical on the ideas on notothe notocultivated the deliberately cultivated Bacon. had deliberately Jacky had lord, Jacky naval lord, second naval As second Bacon. As Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.riet/2027/heb.31569.

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riously riously “prickly” “prickly” inspecting inspecting captain captain of of submarines, submarines, in in order order to to keep keep his his

own own emerging emerging thoughts thoughts on on the the strategic strategic implications implications of of submarines submarines within he within the the bounds bounds of of technical technical and and tactical tactical practicability. practicability. After After he became became commander commander in in chief chief at at Portsmouth, Portsmouth, the the two two developed developed an an even even closer closer working working relationship. relationship. When When Fisher Fisher was was appointed appointed senior senior naval naval lord lord in in October October 1904, 1904, indeed, indeed, he he invited invited Bacon Bacon to to become become his his assistant. assistant. It accused of of It is is also also relevant relevant to to note note that that in in early early 1904, 1904, Bacon Bacon too too was was accused exaggerating to exaggerating the the capabilities capabilities of of submarines. submarines. His His response response had had been been to “insist “insist that that my my experience experience as as to to the the performance performance of of the the boats boats is is greater greater than boat than that that of of many many critics critics who who have have never never seen seen an an attack attack made, made, or or a a boat submerged.”68 submerged.” Bacon Bacon always always maintained maintained that that only only a a handful handful of of persons persons were were really really qualified qualified to to make make assessments assessments of of the the value value of of submarines.69 submarines.® Few were Few officers, officers, he he declared, declared, realized realized just just how how rapidly rapidly submarine submarine were developing. developing. With With hindsight hindsight it it is is possible possible to to see see that that Bacon Bacon was was justified justified in in his his claims. claims. As As early early as as January January 1904, 1904, Bacon Bacon began began planning planning exercisexercises es “far “far out out in in the the [English] [English] Channel.”70 Channel.”” Once Once the the A A class class submarines submarines began began entering entering service service in in the the middle middle of of that that year, year, Bacon Bacon conducted conducted “extended “extended maneuvers” maneuvers” on on the the French French side side of of the the Channel Channel “over “over towards towards the the Channel Channel Islands?“ Islands.”’”' Also Also in in early early 1904, 1904, the the Admiralty Admiralty endorsed endorsed Bacon’s 800 Bacon’s plans plans for for aa BOO-ton 300-ton submarine submarine with with aa radius radius of of action action of of 800 miles designed to operate anywhere in the Channel for up to a week.72 miles designed to operate anywhere in the Channel for up to a week.” One class submarines One of of the the ten ten A Aclass submarines projected projected under under the the 1903—4 1903-4 estimates estimates was was replaced replaced by by an an experimental experimental (B (B type) type) vessel. vessel. By By 1906, 1906, after after just just three three years years service, service, the the original original Holland Holland boats boats were were classified classified as as obsoobsolete lete by by the the Royal Royal Navy Navy and and judged judged unsuitable unsuitable even even for for training training duties.73 duties.” At At Portsmouth, Portsmouth, Fisher Fisher spent spent aa great great deal deal of of time time contemplating contemplating the the impact impact submarines submarines would would have have upon upon traditional traditional methods methods of of conducting conducting war war at at sea. sea. Fisher, Fisher, for for instance, instance, read read Bacon’s Bacon’s report report on on the the possibilities possibilities of of submarines submarines more more carefully carefully than than Kerr, Kerr, and and reflected reflected upon upon about about the the more more “fantastic” “fantastic” predictions predictions it it contained. contained. “He “He was was _ particularly particularly impressed impressed with with the the fact fact that that the the submarine submarine was was no no answer answer to to the the subsubmarine,” marine,’ recalled recalled Captain Captain Bacon, Bacon, “here “here was was aa new new invention, invention, to to combat combat which new veswhich some some new new method, method, some some new new appliance, appliance, perhaps perhaps some some new vessel, Fisher was sel, would would have have to to be be invented.”74 invented.”” For For the the foreseeable foreseeable future, future, Fisher was persuaded, persuaded, submarines submarines would would remain remain “absolutely “absolutely unattackable.” unattackable.” To To Fisher, this was “the pith and marrow Fisher, this was “the pith and marrow of of the the whole whole matter.”75 matter.”” If If correct, correct, he vessels he reasoned, reasoned, then then it it was was difficult difficult to to imagine imagine how how large large armored armored vessels could could exercise exercise command command of of seas seas in in the the face face of of submarines.76 submarines.”® In In May May 1903, 1903, Bacon Bacon had had suggested suggested that that the the Dover Dover Straits Straits “might, “might, and and should should be be easily easily held held and and controlled controlled by by torpedo torpedo craft craft without without risking risking large large ships ships at at sea, By sea, wasting wasting coal coal and and exposed exposed to to attack attack in in such such narrow narrow waters.”77 waters.”” By January January 1904 1904 Fisher Fisher had had already already gone gone further further and and was was speculating speculating that that Lambert, Nicolas. 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improved improved torpedo torpedo craft craft would would be be able able to to control control the the “narrow “narrow seas” seas” and and other other key key strategic strategic waters: waters: he he predicted predicted that that “in “in the the course course of of a a few few years years no no fleet fleet will will be be able able to to remain remain in in the the [western] [western] Mediterranean Mediterranean or or in in the the English English Channel!”78 Channel!” A A number number of of letters letters written written by by Fisher Fisher in in the the first first half half of of 1904, 1904, show show in in unambiguous unambiguous language language that that he he envisaged envisaged the the submarine submarine playing playing a a cencentral tral role role in in the the next next war. war. “My “My beloved beloved submarines," submarines,” he he wrote wrote to to a a friend friend in in March, March, are are “going “going to to magnify magnify the the naval naval power power of of England England seven seven times times more more than than present.”79 present.”” “lt’s “It’s astounding astounding to to me, me, perfectly perfectly astounding, astounding, how how the the very very best best amongst amongst us us absolutely absolutely fail fail to to realise realise the the vast vast impending impending revrevolution Olution in in naval naval warfare warfare and and naval naval strategy strategy that that the the submarine submarine will will accomplish,” accomplish,” he he exclaimed exclaimed to to Admiral Admiral May. May. “In “In all all seriousness seriousness II don’t don’t think think it it is is even even faintly faintly realised—the realised—the immense immense impending impending revolution revolution which which the the submarines submarines will will effect effect as as offensive offensive weapons weapons of of war,” war,” he he added, added, before before going going on on to to suggest suggest that, that, “when “when you you calmly calmly sit sit down down and and work work out out what what will will happen happen in in the the narrow narrow waters waters of of the the Channel Channel and and the the Mediterranean, Mediterranean, how how totally totally the the submarines submarines will will alter alter the the effects effects of of Gibraltar, Gibraltar, Port Port Said, Said, Lemnos Lemnos and and Malta, Malta, it it makes makes one’s one’s hair hair stand stand on on end!”80 end!”®° Submarines Submarines and and Fleet Fleet Maneuvers Maneuvers

On On 13 13 January January 1904, 1904, the the Admiralty Admiralty instructed instructed Sir Sir Arthur Arthur Wilson Wilson to to arrange a series of exercises off Portsmouth between arrange a series of exercises off Portsmouth between Bacon’s Bacon’s subsubmarines marines and and his his Channel Channel Squadron.“ Squadron.*' These These orders orders were were prompted prompted by by concerns expressed at Whitehall by the second concerns expressed at Whitehall by the second and and junior junior naval naval lords lords at at the the wisdom wisdom of of abolishing abolishing the the observation observation minefields minefields at at naval naval bases, bases, examined examined in in the the last last chapter.82 chapter.” The The maneuvers maneuvers were were set set for for March; March; their their object object was was “to “to ascertain ascertain as as far far as as possible possible the the extent extent of of the the danger danger which which threatens threatens aa fleet fleet compelled compelled by by strategic strategic exigencies exigencies to to move move within within the the radius radius of of action action of of a a strong strong hostile hostile torpedo torpedo craft craft flotilla, flotilla, but but having having the the advantage advantage of of superiority superiority of of force.”83 force.”® Wilson Wilson arrived arrived at at Portsmouth Portsmouth at at the the end end of of February February 1904, 1904, however, however, with with a a very very different different agenda agenda in in mind. mind. Since Since his his departure departure from from the the Admiralty Admiralty some some three three years years before, before, he he had had been frequently frequently urging urging “a “a commencement commencement being being made made in in the the work work for for been which which these these [submarines] [submarines] were were originally originally purchased—namely, purchased—namely, the the investigation investigation of of the the best best methods methods of of destroying destroying them them or or of of frustrating frustrating their attacks.”84 “You know,” Wilson privately reminded Lord Selborne their attacks.” “You know,” Wilson privately reminded Lord Selborne shortly before the exercises commenced, “l attach great importance shortly before the exercises commenced, “| attach great importance to to developing the the means means of of destroying destroying submarines submarines boats, boats, while while all all efforts efforts developing hitherto hitherto have have been been made made on on the the side side of of improving improving them.”85 them.”® By By insisting insisting upon upon framing framing the the program program of of events events himself himself and and at at the the same time time appointing appointing himself himself commander commander of of the the attacking attacking fleet, fleet, Sir Sir same Arthur Arthur succeeded succeeded in in altering altering the the intended intended character character of of the the exercises exercises to to Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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had Admiralty had the Admiralty as the “wargame” as organizing aa “wargame” of organizing Instead of ends. Instead his ends. serve his serve the test the to test maneuvers to set-piece maneuvers of set-piece series of arranged aa series Wilson arranged wanted, Wilson wanted, had staff had his staff and his he and weapons he antisubmarine weapons several antisubmarine of several practicability of practicability official his official in his successful, in proved successful, devices proved the devices of the none of Although none devised. Although devised. the of the result “the that thought the with himself consoled Wilson report report Wilson consoled himself with the thought that “the result of guard a as destroyers of value great the establish to been has maneuvers has been to establish the great value of destroyers as a guard maneuvers exerThe exersubmarines.”86 The with submarines.”® infested with be infested to be supposed to waters supposed in waters fleet in to aa fleet to that showed March, of end the at Admiralty the informed the Admiralty at the end of March, showed that he informed cises, he cises, by sea to putting from submarine-s intimidate easily intimidate submarines from putting to sea by could easily destroyers could destroyers conclusion this of validity The periscopes.87 The validity of this conclusion their periscopes.® for their directly for steering directly steering all with all loss with accidental loss the accidental by the demonstrated by been demonstrated have been to have appeared to appeared and into run been had She had been run into and A1. She HMS A/7/. submarine HMS new submarine brand new the brand of the hands of hands shook deeply shook loss deeply The loss area.88 The the area.™ through the passing through steamer passing mail steamer by aa mail sunk by sunk program his of remainder of his program the remainder short the cut short to cut Wilson to prompted Wilson and prompted Bacon and Bacon maneuvers.89 of maneuvers.” of who officers who other officers among other argument among bitter argument provoked bitter report provoked Wilson’s report Wilson’s had they had thought they instance, thought for instance, Fisher, for maneuvers. Fisher, the maneuvers. to the witness to been witness had been had In time. In of time. waste of complete waste them aa complete made them have made to have as to “unrealistic” as so “unrealistic” been so been scenarios tactical scenarios set-piece tactical the set-piece condemned the be condemned Esher he Lord Esher to Lord letter to aa letter circumstances of circumstances set of misleading set most misleading “the most being “the as being Wilson as by Wilson devised by devised have to have ought to “we ought case, “we any case, in any evolved!”0 In have evolved!”™ could have man could of man mind of the mind that the that Fleet Home Fleet the Home as the force as large force such aa large against such submarines against many submarines as many times as 55 times secprivate secKing’s private the King’s to the explained to Fisher explained destroyers,” Fisher of destroyers,” flotillas of and 33 flotillas and had Wilson had that Wilson complained that commentators complained Other commentators Knollysf’l Other Lord Knollys.*’ retary, Lord retary, missed consequently missed had consequently and had issues and tactical issues with tactical preoccupied with too preoccupied been too been the the strategical strategical lessons lessons taught taught by by the the exercises. exercises. Bacon, Bacon, for for example. example, the was the maneuvers was the maneuvers of the lesson of important lesson most important the most that the argued that argued the “on submarines his by his submarines “on the exercised by influence” exercised restraining influence” “extraordinary restraining “extraordinary

Bacon predicted, Bacon had predicted, Fisher had and Fisher he and As he Fleet.”92 As Home Fleet.”” the Home of the operations of operations Channel the Channel intimidated the successfully intimidated had successfully submarines had the submarines out, the pointed out, pointed harm’s of harm’s sea—out of to sea—out out to well out battleships well his battleships kept his had kept Wilson had Squadron. Wilson Squadron. were they were dockyard they the dockyard bombard the to bombard position to no position in no were in they were way—where they way—where supposed supposed to to have have “attacked.” “attacked.” Capt. Capt. Robert Robert Arbuthnot, Arbuthnot, the the chief chief umpire. umpire, and care and restraining care “introduced aa restraining had “introduced submarines had the submarines that the observed that also observed also only not only that not Admiralty that the Admiralty told the he told report, he his report, In his fleet.” In the fleet.” on the vigilance on vigilance had the the maneuvers maneuvers shown shown the the capabilities capabilities of of the the submarine submarine to to be be “very “very had great,” its great,” but but more more fundamentally fundamentally “the “the fear fear of of what what it it can can do do renders renders its best who best Fisher who was Fisher Characteristically, itit was greater."93 Characteristically, still greater.”* strength still strength original the original of the here of have here we have submarines we six submarines “The six results. “The the results. up the summed up summed milsinking milin sinking maneuvers in recent maneuvers the recent in the “succeeded in declared, “succeeded he declared, type,” he type,” lions of of £’s 2’s of of battleships battleships and and cruisers cruisers and and established established such such aa ‘funk’ ‘funk’ as as to to lions keep keep the the Home Home Fleet Fleet miles miles away away from from Portsmouth.”94 Portsmouth.”” Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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In In May May 1904, 1904, Fisher Fisher organized organized aa second second series series of of maneuvers maneuvers to to setsettle tle the the argument argument over over “the “the relative relative value value of of the the destroyer destroyer and and the the subsubmarine boat boat when when opposed opposed to to each each other.”® other.”95 In In contrast contrast to to Wilson, Wilson, Fisher marine Fisher remained aloof aloof from from conducting conducting the the trials trials and and sensibly sensibly delegated delegated all all remained responsibility for for writing writing the the official official report report to to Edward Edward Charlton Charlton (captain (captain responsibility of of destroyers destroyers at at Portsmouth) Portsmouth) and and Reginald Reginald Bacon Bacon (inspecting (inspecting captain captain of of submarines). submarines). The The admiral’s admiral’s trust trust was was not not misplaced. misplaced. His His subordinates subordinates concluded concluded after after three three weeks weeks of of trials trials that that “the “the balance balance of of power power to to inflict inflict damage damage lies lies with with the the submarine.” submarine.” While While they they conceded conceded that that escorting escorting destroyers destroyers could could distract distract submarines submarines from from larger larger targets, targets, “the “the destroydestroyers however incur considerable danger in thus protecting ers however incur considerable danger in thus protecting aa ship.” ship.” For For destroyers destroyers “to “to remain remain in in such such waters waters without without any any objective objective other other than than the the attack attack of of 8M. S.M. boats, boats, we we consider consider decidedly decidedly hazardous,” hazardous,” and and likely likely to to prove more danger to the hunter than the hunted. Bacon and Charlton prove more danger to the hunter than the hunted. Bacon and Chariton closed closed their their report report by by reminding reminding their their superiors superiors that that “no “no method method by by which destroyers can inflict which destroyers can inflict injury injury on on s.m. s.m. boats boats with with certainty, certainty, has has yet yet been been devised.”96 devised.’ Fisher held held up up this this report report as as aa vindication vindication of of his his idea idea on on the the deterdeterFisher rent rent value value of of submarines, submarines, but but in in London London the the naval naval lords lords were were less less sure.97 sure.%” While While conceding conceding that that the the submarines submarines certainly certainly “had “had the the best best of of it,” it,” Kerr Kerr found found it it “not “not easy easy to to imagine imagine struggles struggles between between s.m. s.m. and and destroyers destroyers unless they they were were forming forming aa cover cover to to battleships battleships operating operating against against aa unless port.”98 In In which which case, case, May port.”* May agreed, agreed, “when “when submarines submarines are are harassed harassed by by aa well well organised organised combination combination of of small small boats boats or or vessels, vessels, their their attention attention must must be be taken taken off off the the primary primary object object viz:—the viz:—the battleships.”99 battleships.” Admiral Admiral Wilson Wilson was was similarly similarly unconvinced. unconvinced. Returning Returning his his copy copy of of the the report report to to the the Admiralty, Admiralty, the the commander commander in in chief chief insisted insisted that that it it did did “not “not throw throw any any additional light light on on the the important important question question of of the the risks risks that that destroyers destroyers additional would would really really incur incur from from the the torpedoes torpedoes of of submarines.”100 submarines.”'” He He felt felt that that this this the with trials” actual by “except settled be really be settled “except by actual trials” with the not really could not question could question submarines firing real torpedoes fitted with collision heads. The only submarines firing real torpedoes fitted with collision heads. The only problem problem with with this this apparently apparently sensible sensible suggestion suggestion was was that that even even without without knots thirty-one at proceeding torpedo lb.) (1,326 ton half a warhead, a a warhead, a half ton (1,326 lb.) torpedo proceeding at thirty-one knots destroyer.‘°‘ plated lightly a 3i even or damage or even sink a lightly plated destroyer.'” seriously damage could seriously could Nonetheless, Nonetheless, Wilson Wilson thought thought the the loss loss of of a a couple couple of of destroyers destroyers would would be be experience.‘02 the experience.'” worth the worth lrish the Irish in the held in were held maneuvers were of maneuvers series of third series 1904, aa third August 1904, In August In plus destroyers, plus six destroyers, and six hundred and one hundred and one submarines and eight submarines involving eight Sea involving Sea were there were again there Once again Squadron. Once Channel Squadron. the Channel from the units from fleet units several fleet several too too few few submarines submarines to to patrol patrol or or “infest” “infest” the the waters waters around around their their base, base, thus thus compelling compelling the the submariners submariners to to improvise improvise new new tactics tactics for for the the occaoccasion. sion. Bacon Bacon subsequently subsequently chose chose to to confound confound his his opponents opponents by by instructLambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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ing ing the the Holland Holland boats boats to to operate operate on on the the surface surface at at night. night. “The “The result result was was in in every every way way satisfactory,” Satisfactory,” he he afterwards afterwards gloated, gloated, “five “five destroyers destroyers were were attacked attacked at at close close range, range, and and in in no no case case was was a a submarine submarine seen.” seen.” With With their their low low silhouettes silhouettes the the craft craft were were found found to to be be virtually virtually invisible invisible at at night.103 night.'°* Though Though these these tactics tactics worked worked they they were were dangerous, dangerous, and and for for this this reason reason were were prohibited prohibited in in all all subsequent subsequent fleet fleet maneuvers maneuvers before before 1914. 1914. With With the the three three larger larger more more seaworthy seaworthy A A class class vessels vessels Bacon Bacon had had h0ped hoped to to “strike “strike a a blow blow at at the the battle battle fleet.” fleet.” But But the the opportunity opportunity never never arose. arose. Wilson’s Wilson’s fleet fleet seemed seemed content content “merely “merely to to steam steam up up and and down down the the manoeuvre manoeuvre area area with with as as little little loss loss as as possible.”104 possible.”'™ Although Although frustrated frustrated from from actually actually engaging engaging the the Channel Channel Squadron, Squadron, the the submarines submarines were were again again judged judged by by neutral neutral umpires umpires to to have have exerted exerted a a decisive decisive “moral “moral influinfluence” ence” over over its its movements. movements. “The “The existence existence of of submarines submarines made made the the close close blockade blockade of of Milford Milford Haven Haven more more difficult, difficult, and and the the fact fact of of their their presence presence ' inspired inspired fear," fear,” judged judged chief chief umpire umpire Rear Rear Adm. Adm. Hugh Hugh Grenfell. Grenfell. Although Although “they “they were were repeatedly repeatedly being being reported reported off off Oueenstown Queenstown [they] [they] never never left left the the precincts precincts of of Milford Milford Haven.”“’5 Haven.”'® Begging Begging to to differ differ with with Wilson, Wilson, Rear Rear Adm. Adm. Charles Charles Robinson Robinson reported reported that that “battleships “battleships and and cruisers cruisers are are not not safe safe within within the the radius radius of of action action of of hostile hostile torpedo torpedo craft, craft, even even though though protected protected by by a a larger larger force force of of destroyers destroyers than than is is possessed possessed by by their their enemy.”106 enemy.”'® This This exercise exercise killed killed dead dead any any lingering lingering thoughts thoughts of of imposing imposing a a close close blockade blockade against against aa port port defended defended by by submarines.107 submarines.'” The The Irish Irish Sea Sea maneuvers maneuvers also also provided provided yet yet another another endorsement endorsement of of Bacon’s Bacon’s and and Fisher’s Fisher's axiom axiom that that “ship “ship will will not not risk risk themselves themselves in in narrow narrow waters waters known known to to contain contain submarine submarine boats. boats. The The risk risk is is out out of of all all proportion proportion to to the the gain.”‘08 gain.”'® National National Strategic Strategic Policy Policy

As As commander commander in in chief, chief, Portsmouth, Portsmouth, Adm. Adm. Sir Sir John John Fisher Fisher was was in in a a marvelous position to marvelous position to watch watch the the extraordinarily extraordinarily rapid rapid progress progress being being made made by by the the navy navy in in exploiting exploiting several several recent recent inventions inventions and and improve improve the the effectiveness effectiveness of of naval naval armaments. armaments. Letters Letters passed passed through through his his office office en en

route route to to the the Admiralty Admiralty from from HMS HMS Excellent Excellent (overseeing (overseeing the the development development of of long long range range gunnery); gunnery); HMS HMS Vernon Vernon (the (the torpedo torpedo and and mine mine warfare warfare school, school, which which had had also also been been given given the the responsibility responsibility for for wireless wireless telegteleg-

raphy); raphy); and and of of course course HMS HMS Mercury Mercury (head (head quarters quarters of of the the submarine submarine

section). section). Fisher Fisher was was well well placed placed to to consult consult with with the the heads heads of of these these establishments establishments when when he he needed needed clarification clarification of of certain certain points. points. In In addition, addition, with with the the entertainment entertainment facilities facilities of of Admiralty Admiralty House House at at his his disdisposal, posal, he he was was able able to to cultivate cultivate a a wide wide range range of of political political and and industrial industrial leaders leaders and and most most importantly importantly cement cement his his friendship friendship with with King King Edward Edward Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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VII VII and and his his satellites.109 satellites.’ But But undoubtedly undoubtedly the the most most valuable valuable experience experience he he acquired acquired at at Portsmouth Portsmouth was was the the insight insight he he gained gained into into the the difficulties difficulties with with formulating formulating national national defense defense policy, policy, through through his his close close association association with with two two of of the the most most influential influential defense defense authorities authorities of of the the day—Reginald day—Reginald Viscount Viscount Esher Esher and and Arthur Arthur James James Balfour. Balfour. Shortly Shortly after after being being sent sent to to Portsmouth, Portsmouth, Fisher Fisher was was invited invited first first by by the the king king and and then then by by the the prime prime minister minister to to join join “The “The War War Office Office Reconstitution Reconstitution Committee” Committee” chaired chaired by by Lord Lord Esher. Esher. Despite Despite fierce fierce objections objections from from the the Admiralty Admiralty that that he he would would be be fully fully occupied occupied with with routine routine administrative administrative duties, duties, Fisher Fisher was was able able to to accept accept the the post post after after Balfour Balfour silenced silenced Selborne’s Selborne’s protests protests by by arranging arranging for for the the committee committee to to assemble assemble at at Admiralty Admiralty House, House, Portsmouth, Portsmouth, rather rather than than in in London.“0 London.''® The The third third memmember ber of of the the committee committee was was Col. Col. Sir Sir George George Clarke, Clarke, a a retired retired soldier soldier turned turned colonial colonial governor. governor. The The prime prime minister’s minister’s determination determination that that Fisher Fisher would would be be one one of of the the triumvirate triumvirate is is an an indication indication of of the the confidence confidence he he had had in in the the latter’s latter’s abilities. abilities. During During 1903, 1903, the the two two had had often often met met while while both both were were in in attendance attendance at at the the royal royal palaces. palaces. In In their their conversations, conversations, Fisher Fisher convinced convinced Balfour Balfour that that he he understood understood the the government’s government's financial financial difficulties, difficulties, and and let let it it be be known known he he accepted accepted that that for for political political reasons reasons defense defense cuts cuts were were inevitable. inevitable. “The “The time time is is coming coming when when the the cry cry will will be be heard heard for for “retrench“retrenchment ment and and reform,” reform,” he he chimed. chimed. “It “It is is well well to to face face the the inevitable inevitable reaction reaction of of public public sentiment, sentiment, and, and, if if possible, possible, to to anticipate anticipate it it by by wise wise economies.”‘“ economies.”"' Fisher Fisher willingness willingness to to accept accept Balfour’s Balfour's invitation invitation to to reform reform the the War War Office Office was was not not motivated motivated entirely entirely by by personal personal ambition. ambition. Having Having served served so so recently recently as as second second naval naval lord, lord, Fisher Fisher was was also also aware aware of of the the wrangling wrangling within within the the Cabinet Cabinet Defense Defense Committee Committee over over the the army’s army’s role role in in home home defense. defense. And And he he recognized recognized that that a a seat seat on on the the Esher Esher committee committee would would afford afford chances chances to to undermine undermine the the War War Office Office case case for for a a large large home home army. army. After After his his appointment appointment was was finally finally confirmed, confirmed, Fisher Fisher informed informed the the nervous nervous Lord Lord Selborne Selborne of of his his intention intention to to exploit exploit every every such such opportunity!“2 opportunity!''? He He jusjustified this this aggressive aggressive stance stance by by claiming claiming that that securing securing the the necessary necessary tified funds funds to to uphold uphold Britain’s Britain’s naval naval supremacy supremacy was was more more important important than than solthe solamongst the bitterness amongst and bitterness “ill-feeling and the “ill-feeling avoid the to avoid treading carefully to treading carefully diers” diers” which which would would result result from from such such an an aggressive aggressive posture.“3 posture.'” As As soon soon as as the the inquiry inquiry got got underway, underway, Admiral Admiral Fisher Fisher urged urged Lord Lord Esher Esher and and Sir Sir George George Clarke Clarke first first to to consider consider the the broad broad picture. picture. “We “We cannot reform reform the the Army Army administration,” administration,” he he argued, argued, “until “until itit isis laid laid down down cannot Furthermore, administer.”“4 Furthermore, to administer.”''* going to what administration isis going the administration what the Office isis War Office the War of the organisation of the organisation that the forefront that the forefront in the put in be put to be has to ItIt has what stated what yet stated has yet Who has superiority. Who naval superiority. our naval with our associated with intimately associated intimately we want want the the British British Army Army to to do? do? No No one! one! .. . . .. what what would would be be the the good good of of aa _. we Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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keep to keep insufficient to was insufficient Navy was the Navy Germany ifif the of Germany that of as that big as as big British Army as British Army

sea?“5 the sea?!” of the command of command

army defense army home defense that aa home retort that Office retort War Office To standard War the standard counter the To counter pointed Fisher disaster, naval disaster, Fisher pointed against aa naval policy” against served “insurance policy” an “insurance as an served as conbe conwould be nation would the nation supremacy the naval supremacy her naval out lost her Britain lost that ifif Britain out that starvation.H6 but starvation.'’® invasion but with invasion fronted not with fronted not days three days has three England has May England of May month of the month momentz—ln the Follow for aa moment:—In this for Follow this in-gaththe in-gathof the account of (on account September (on of September month of the month country—in the the country—in in the food in food incoming the incoming Stop the food. Stop weeks food. three weeks there isis three harvest) there ering English harvest) the English of the ering of capitumust capitucountry must The country do? The Army do? the Army can the what can two: what or two: week or for aa week food for food than powerful than more powerful belly isis more empty belly “an empty said, “an Admiral said, French Admiral the French As the late! late! As

patriotism!“7 patriotism!'”

mean not mean does not this does but this navalist: but fervent navalist: was aa fervent Fisher was John Fisher Sir John course Sir Of course Of some as some motivated, as were motivated, navy were the navy for the priority for financial priority gain financial to gain attempts to his attempts his rivalry. interservice rivalry. of interservice sense of “childish” sense by aa “childish” suggested, by have suggested, historians have historians the from the taken from Army isis aa'penny the Army on the spent on penny spent “every penny wrote “every he wrote When he When penny taken Nevertheless, right.“8 Nevertheless, was right.''® he was limitation, he financial limitation, acute financial of acute time of at aa time Navy,” at Navy,” when Fisher Fisher first first began began to to grapple grapple with with the the problems problems of of national national defense defense when of horizon of limited horizon the limited beyond the far beyond extended far vision extended his vision that his demonstrated that he he demonstrated Esher the Esher before the Shortly before strategists. Shortly naval strategists. of naval School” of the Water School” “Blue Water the “Blue Edward King Edward with King possibility with the possibility raised the Admiral raised the Admiral Committee convened, the Committee convened, single into aa single forces into armed forces Britain’s armed reorganizing Britain’s of reorganizing Balfour of Arthur Balfour and Arthur VII and Vil the course, the of course, defense—provided, of of defense—provided, minister of supreme minister under aa supreme service under service hatching scheme hatching big scheme new big got aa new “We got navy.”9 “I’ve the navy.'’® to the army subordinated to was subordinated army was been has been which has shade which the shade in the everything in put everything will put think will which II think year which next year next he it,” in people influential very some interesting am past. II am interesting some very influential people in it,” he the past. in the done in done for only for millions only 23 millions for 23 idea for “My idea September. “My of September. end of the end at the son at his son to his wrote to wrote [T]he tax. [T]he income tax. penny income three penny and three Navy, and the Navy, for the millions for 37 millions Army, 37 the Army, the milown its providing county each army, Lieutenant’s army, each county providing its own milLord Lieutenant's be aa Lord will te Army Army will purextraneous purfor extraneous army for expeditionary army small expeditionary and aa small militia and la militia force aa la itary force itary put when put schemes—even when revolutionary schemes—even that revolutionary learned that soon learned Jacky soon poses.“20 Jacky poses.”'”? Most interests. Most established interests. to established appeal to not appeal admiral—did not senior admiral—did by aa senior forward by forward understand not understand did not found, did he found, leaders, he military leaders, and military political and Britain’s political of Britain’s of

be must be navy must the navy that the see that to see enough to well enough strategy well maritime strategy of maritime benefits of benefits given given financial financial priority priority ahead ahead of of the the Army. Army. They They always always tried tried to to steer steer aa arguin arguheadway in more headway made more he made that he discovered that Fisher discovered course. Fisher middle course. middie arguing of arguing instead of profligacy instead military profligacy attacking military and attacking emphasizing and by emphasizing ments by ments the the merits merits of of his his own own case. case. deliberately Fisher deliberately Committee, Fisher Esher Committee, the Esher on the tenure on his tenure During his During steered steered the the inquiry inquiry towards towards the the broader broader questions questions of of military military policy policy and and Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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the he surreptitiously the organization organization of of the the field. field. After After opening opening this this door door he surreptitiously responsi“unnecessary” responsiof “unnecessary” relieved of Office relieved War Office the War have the to have campaigned to campaigned bilities that that entitled entitled the the generals generals to to claim claim aa share share of of the the defense defense budget. budget. bilities For For example, example, he he was was quite quite prepared prepared to to see see the the Admiralty Admiralty assume assume the the burden of of manning manning the the coastal coastal defense defense batteries batteries at at home home and and overoverburden seas.121 Sseas.'”' Fisher Fisher gave gave and and was was given given considerable considerable support support in in his his endeavors endeavors by by Oakley Oakley Arnold-Forster, Arnold-Forster, the the secretary secretary of of state state for for war, war, who who was was an an old old acquaintance acquaintance and and shared shared many many of of his his views.122 views.'” It It is is no no coincidence coincidence that that Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster drafted drafted the the outline outline of of his his scheme scheme of of Army Army reform reform while while he he was was staying staying with with Fisher Fisher at at Portsmouth Portsmouth during during the the weekend weekend of of 5—6 5-6 December 1903.' IQOB.‘23 December In In November November 1903, 1903, Fisher Fisher was was asked asked to to appraise appraise aa draft draft copy copy of of the the prime prime minister’s minister's report report on on “The “The Possibility Possibility of of Serious Serious Invasion." Invasion.” Balfour Balfour had had written written that that even even if if the the navy’s navy's battle battle fleet fleet was was absent absent from from home home waters, waters, he he had had been been convinced convinced that that the the Royal Royal Navy’s Navy’s superiority superiority in in cruiscruisers ers and and flotilla flotilla craft craft would would be be sufficient sufficient to to deter deter any any French French attempt attempt at at invasion.124 invasion.'** Fisher Fisher appreciated appreciated the the emphasis emphasis on on the the implications implications of of the the torpedo torpedo armed armed flotilla. flotilla. The The paper paper was was returned returned with with his his favorable favorable comcomments, ments, and and an an endorsement endorsement of of the the basic basic premise premise that: that: A A raid raid on on the the sea sea coast coast is is all all that that is is possible possible with with aa fleet fleet or or aa squadron squadron backing up up the the landing landing force force and and ready ready to to re-embark re—embark it, it, but but serious serious invainvabacking sion sion (as (as defined defined in in this this paper) paper) is is absolutely absolutely now now beyond beyond the the conception conception of of the the pessimists pessimists however however extreme extreme because because as as stated stated (though (though hardly hardly in in forceforceful ful enough enough terms) terms) in in this this paper paper the the development development of of the the submarine-boat submarine-boat has has absolutely absolutely precluded precluded the the idea idea of of aa mass mass of of transports transports approaching approaching any any posiposition tion where where the the landing landing of of troops troops is is feasible.‘25 feasible.'”

At At the the end end of of December, December, Balfour Balfour invited invited Fisher Fisher to to expand expand upon upon his his arguarguments. ments. The The admiral admiral enthusiastically enthusiastically complied. complied. In In aa paper paper entitled entitled “Invasion and and Submarines,” Submarines,” Fisher Fisher contended contended that that aa successful successful “sur“sur“Invasion prise” prise” invasion invasion of of the the British British Isles Isles would would depend depend upon upon the the enemy enemy capcapturing aa port port to to facilitate facilitate the the landing landing of of heavy heavy equipment equipment and and supplies. supplies. turing “No “No rational rational commander,” commander,” he he asserted, asserted, “would “would rely rely on on landing landing on on an an open open beach.” beach.” Fisher Fisher went went on on to to plead plead that that if if the the Royal Royal Navy Navy provided. provided, say, say, three three submarines submarines for for the the defense defense of of each each port port on on the the south south coast, coast, the enemy enemy would would be be intimidated intimidated from from launching launching an an amphibious amphibious assault assault the intimidate isis word intimidate “The word neutralized. “The been neutralized. had been submarines had the submarines first the until first until used since the history of the world points to intimidation being used since the history of the world points to intimidation being the the greatgreatrationale this was only Not operations.”126 hostile against hostile operations.”'° Not only was this rationale safeguard against est safeguard est well well argued, argued, being being essentially essentially the the same same that that the the War War Office Office had had always always was ports, itit was major ports, all major at all mines at observation mines of observation siting of the siting justify the to justify used to used also calculated calculated to to leave leave the the soldiers soldiers unable unable to to respond. respond. also Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, httpsz/lhd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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The The memorandum memorandum on on “Invasion “Invasion and and Submarines” Submarines” was was not not the the prodproduct uct of of Fisher’s Fisher’s desire desire to to draw draw attention attention to to the the possibilities possibilities with with subsubmarines, marines, as as has has often often been been assumed. assumed. It It was was not not a a particularly particularly good good example example of of his his vision vision in in anticipating anticipating the the dominance dominance of of the the submarine submarine in in the the war war at at sea.127 sea.'?’ Most Most of of the the ideas ideas employed employed were were not not original. original. Balfour Balfour certainly certainly did did not not regard regard the the paper paper as as at at all all controversial. controversial. “It “It is is unnecesunnecessary sary to to tell tell you,” you,” he he replied replied to to Fisher, Fisher, “how “how heartily heartily II am am in in sympathy sympathy with with your your observations observations on on the the relations relations between between submarines submarines and and invainvasion.”128 sion.”'”® 80 So self-evident self-evident did did he he regard regard the the connection, connection, indeed, indeed, that that he he did did not not bother bother to to spell spell it it out. out. Actually, Actually, “Invasion “Invasion and and Submarines” Submarines” was was intended intended to to serve serve as as aa political political document. document. It It was was drafted drafted to to provide provide ammunition ammunition against against recalcitrant recalcitrant generals generals and and their their supporters supporters in in Cabinet.129 Fisher actually wrote in Cabinet.'?? Fisher actually wrote in his his covering covering letter letter to to Jack Jack Sanders. Sanders, the the prime prime minister’s minister's private private secretary: secretary: “I “I got got out out the the invasion invasion print print from from our our War War Office Office committee committee to to show show the the futility futility of of invasion invasion and and the the six six Army Army corps corps and and the the mismanagement mismanagement of of the the Woolwich Woolwich arsenal.“30 arsenal.”'® The The timing timing of of its its circulation circulation is is equally equally significant. significant. It It almost almost certainly certainly was was no no coincidence that Fisher circulated his paper shortly after Arnold-Forster coincidence that Fisher circulated his paper shortly after Arnold-Forster launched launched his his campaign campaign to to replace replace the the army’s army's observation observation mines mines guardguarding the navy’s ports with ing the navy's ports with submarine submarine boats.‘3‘ boats.'* Gratified Gratified by by the the favorable favorable reception reception given given to to his his paper paper by by Balfour, Balfour, Fisher Fisher immediately immediately aired aired his his much much more more radical radical idea idea that that very very soon soon subsubmarines, marines, in in conjunction conjunction with with surface surface torpedo torpedo craft, craft, would would be be able able to to concontrol trol key key strategic strategic waters, waters, which which he he referred referred to to as as “narrow “narrow seas.”‘32 seas.”'? “Even “Even Satan Satan disguised disguised as as the the Angel Angel of of Light,” Light,” he he told told the the prime prime minister, minister, “would“wouldn’t n't persuade persuade any any late late colleagues colleagues at at the the Admiralty Admiralty that that in in the the course course of of aa few few years years no no fleet fleet will will be be able able to to remain remain in in the the Mediterranean Mediterranean or or the the English English Channel.”133 Channel.”'** In In another another letter, letter, also also written written in in January January 1904, 1904, this this time time addressed addressed to to Rear Rear Adm. Adm. Francis Francis Bridgeman, Bridgeman, Fisher Fisher predicted predicted that: that: a) a) The The submarine submarine is is coming coming into into play play in in ocean ocean warfare warfare almost almost immediately. immediately.

b) b) Associated Associated with with aa Whitehead Whitehead torpedo torpedo eighteen eighteen feet feet in in length length it it will will disdisplace place the the gun gun and and absolutely absolutely revolutionise revolutionise naval naval tactics. tactics.

c) Cc) No No single single submarine submarine ever ever built built or or building building will will ever ever be be obsolete. obsolete.

“I “I stake stake my my reputation reputation on on the the absolute absolute reliability reliability of of these these three three statestatements,” ments,” Fisher Fisher proclaimed. proclaimed. “The “The deduction deduction is:—‘drop is:—‘drop a a battleship battleship out out of of the the program’ program’ (if (if it it be be necessary necessary on on account account of of financial financial necessities) necessities) but but at at any any cost cost double double the the output output of of submarines.”134 submarines.”'** Qualifications Qualifications as as Senior Senior Naval Naval Lord Lord In In May May 1904, 1904, Sir Sir John John Fisher Fisher was was formally formally invited invited to to become become senior senior naval naval lord lord from from October, October, following following the the retirement retirement of of Lord Lord Walter Walter Kerr. Kerr. Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Contrary Contrary to to general general belief, belief, before before then then his his appointment appointment was was far far from from being being a a certainty certainty even even though though the the field field of of selection selection was was very very narrow.‘35 narrow.'*® Fisher’s Fisher's proven proven talents talents as as an an administrator administrator might might have have made made him him the the obvious obvious choice choice but but he he was was almost almost sixty-four sixty-four years years old. old. Furthermore, Furthermore, “Radical “Radical Jack” Jack” was was highly highly unpopular unpopular among among his his peers peers and and generally generally disdistrusted.”6 trusted.'*° Among Among his his fiercest fiercest critics critics was was Lord Lord Walter Walter Kerr.I37 Kerr.'*’ Indeed Indeed it it had had been been growing growing friction friction between between the the two, two, caused caused by by the the Kerr’s Kerr's refusal refusal to to endorse endorse Fisher’s Fisher's ideas ideas to to alleviate alleviate the the strain strain on on the the naval naval budget, budget, that that had had caused caused the the latter’s latter’s early early departure departure from from the the office office of of second second naval naval lord lord in in the the summer summer of of 1903.’38 1903.’ “My “My dear dear Walker,” Walker,” Fisher Fisher had had remarked remarked to to his his private private secretary secretary after after one one particularly particularly heated heated Board Board meeting, meeting, “I “I did did not not think think admirals admirals could could have have been been so so rude rude to to one one another!”‘39 another!”'® According According to to Rear Rear Adm. Adm. George George King-Hall, King-Hall, who who was was then then serving serving in in Whitehall Whitehall and and who who knew knew both both men men well, well, Kerr Kerr and and Fisher Fisher made made no no attempt attempt to to conceal conceal their their dislike dislike for for each each other.140 other.'*® Selborne’s Selborne’s habitual habitual reluctance reluctance to to ignore ignore professional professional naval naval opinion, opinion, caused caused him him to to hesitate hesitate appointing him appointing Fisher Fisher as as senior senior naval naval lord. lord. What What eventually eventually compelled compelled him to to relent relent was was intensifying intensifying pressure pressure from from the the Cabinet Cabinet to to reduce reduce the the navy navy estimates, flag estimates, and and recognition recognition that that Fisher Fisher was was the the only only admiral admiral on on the the flag list list willing willing (and (and able) able) to to find find economies economies in in naval naval expenditure. expenditure. “In “In his his heart heart of of hearts,” hearts,” Capt. Capt. Louis Louis Battenberg Battenberg wrote wrote to to Fisher, Fisher, shortly shortly before before he he was was finally finally offered offered the the top top post, post, Lord Lord Selborne Selborne “knows “knows you you are are the the directing brain and mainspring of the ‘Selborne Administration.’ directing brain and mainspring of the ‘Selborne Administration.’ Before Before you you joined joined the the Board Board and and since since you you left left it, it, he he has has accomplished accomplished nothing nothing [though] he would rather die than admit this to others. [though| he would rather die than admit this to others.... . 3"“ ."'"' In In 1904, 1904, Britain Britain still still based based her her naval naval supremacy supremacy upon upon aa conventionconventionnumerically was numerically that was cruisers, that and cruisers, battleships and of battleships comprised of fleet comprised al fleet al strateNaval stratepowers. Naval naval powers. third-ranking naval and third-ranking second- and the secondthan the stronger than stronger gy was was based based upon upon the the theory theory of of deterrence. deterrence. For For this this to to work, work, the the Royal Royal gy fleet any fleet in any victory in guarantee victory to guarantee battleships to sufficient battleships required sufficient Navy required Navy To trade. To of trade. defense of the defense ensure the to ensure cruisers to of cruisers force of large force and aa large action, and action, committed was committed Admiralty was the Admiralty strength, the relative strength, Navy’s relative Royal Navy's the Royal maintain the maintain per cruisers per armored cruisers four armored and four battleships and new battleships three new average) three (on average) build (on to build to reasons, financial reasons, complex financial of complex series of For aa series craft. For smaller craft. plus smaller annum plus annum becomwas becomsupremacy was naval supremacy to naval approach to this approach 1900 this by 1900 explained, by already explained, already of price The impossible. become had it 1904 By sustain. to difficult ing ing difficult to sustain. By 1904 it had become impossible. The price of million $1.4 cost cruisers and million, 21.6 to risen had battleship each each battleship had risen to £1.6 million, and cruisers cost £1.4 million million—represent£12 million—representabove £12 budget above construction budget the construction pushing the apiece,I42 pushing apiece,'” ing a 30 percent increase since the turn of the century!“ ing a 30 percent increase since the turn of the century.'** Meanwhile, Meanwhile, the the expenditure. naval in cut significant cut in naval expenditure. demanding aa significant was demanding Treasury was Treasury Fisher Fisher was was undoubtedly undoubtedly an an imaginative imaginative and and gifted gifted administrator, administrator, historians historians have have agreed. agreed. But But what what they they have have failed failed to to appreciate appreciate is is that Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Fisher’s Fisher's ability ability in in 1904 1904 to to offer offer significant significant economies economies in in naval naval expendiexpenditure stemmed stemmed mainly mainly from from his his radically radically different different vision vision of of future future naval naval ture warfare. During the early months of 1904, in anticipation of his promowarfare. During the early months of 1904, in anticipation of his promotion tion to to senior senior naval naval lord, lord, Fisher Fisher began began outlining outlining his his ideas ideas for for reform reform on on paper and circulating them to trusted friends for comment.”4 Those paper and circulating them to trusted friends for comment.'* Those relating relating to to the the distribution distribution of of the the fleet fleet and and the the warship warship construction construction proprogram, in particular, were based upon a fundamentally undergram, in particular, were based upon a fundamentally different different understanding of of naval naval strategy. strategy. Fisher, Fisher, moreover, moreover, was was acutely acutely aware aware of of the the standing controversy withcontroversy his his ideas ideas would would provoke, provoke, which which is is why why he he deliberately deliberately withheld held them them from from Selborne Selborne until until after after he he was was safely safely established established in in Whitehall.‘45 Whitehall.'* “I’m “I'm not not such such a a born born idiot idiot as as to to tell tell those those chaps chaps at at the the Admiralty Admiralty what what I’m I'm going going to to do do before before I| go go there,” there,” he he once once let let slip slip to to his his flag flag captain.I46 captain.'* Alth0ugh Although these these papers papers have have been been widely widely available available for for many many years, years, naval naval historians historians have have dismissed dismissed Fisher’s Fisher’s assaults assaults on on conconventional ventional naval naval theory, theory, such such as as his his suggestion suggestion to to abandon abandon the the construcconstruction tion of of battleships, battleships, as as speculative speculative rhetoric. rhetoric. In In fact, fact, abandoning abandoning the the construction construction of of battleships battleships was was fundamental fundamental to to affect to Fisher’s Fisher's vision vision of of future future war war at at sea sea and and central central to to his his plans plans to affect large large cuts cuts in in naval naval expenditure. expenditure. “ln “In approaching approaching the the important important question question of of ship ship design design the the first first essential essential is is to to divest divest our our minds minds totally totally of of the the idea idea that in that a a single single type type of of ship ship as as now now built built is is necessary,” necessary,” Fisher Fisher declared declared in aa carefully “The Fighting carefully reasoned reasoned paper paper written written in in early early 1904, 1904, entitled entitled “The Fighting Characteristics Characteristics of of Vessel Vessel of of War.”"'7 War.”'” “STRATEGY,” “straTEecy,” he he wrote, wrote, not not tradition, tradition, “should “should govern govern the the types types of of ships ships to to be be designed.”148 designed.”'* Fisher, Fisher, it it must must be be understood, understood, thought thought of of strategy strategy in in terms terms of of capability capability rather rather than than deterdeterrence. rence. He He believed believed that that the the Royal Royal Navy’s Navy's principal principal duties duties were were to to prevent prevent invasion invasion of of the the United United Kingdom Kingdom and and to to protect protect sea sea communications communications with with the the empire. empire. Fisher, Fisher, incidentally, incidentally, also also believed believed that that a a guerre guerre industrielle industrielle waged waged against against British British commerce commerce would would be be much much more more difficult difficult to to contain contain than were than most most naval naval officers officers realized.149 realized.'*? Recognizing Recognizing that that battleships battleships were vulnerable vulnerable to to torpedo torpedo attack attack in in the the “narrow “narrow waters” waters” of of the the English English Channel, Channel, and and lacked lacked the the endurance endurance and and speed speed to to catch catch commerce commerce raidraiding ing armored armored cruisers cruisers on on the the high high seas, seas, led led Fisher Fisher to to query query the the utility utility of of battleships. battleships. “Here,” “Here,” Fisher Fisher postulated, postulated,

there there is is try try can can

good good ground ground for for enquiry enquiry whether whether the the naval naval supremacy supremacy of of aa councounany longer be assessed by its battleships. To build any longer be assessed by its battleships. To build battleships battleships

merely merely to to fight fight an an enemy’s enemy's battleships, battleships, so so long long as as cheaper cheaper craft craft can can

destroy destroy them, them, and and prevent prevent them them of of themselves themselves protecting protecting sea sea Operations. operations, is is merely merely purposes purposes

to to breed breed Kilkenny Kilkenny cats cats unable unable to to catch catch rats rats or or mice. mice. For For fighting fighting they would be excellent, they would be excellent, but but for for gaining gaining practical practical results results they they would would be be useless. Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Fisher Fisher continued: continued:

Of Of what what use use is is a a battle battle fleet fleet to to a a country country called called (A) (A) at at war war with with a a country country called called (B) (B) possessing possessing no no battleships, battleships, but but having having fast fast armored armored cruisers cruisers and and clouds clouds of of fast fast torpedo torpedo craft? craft? What What damage damage would would (A's) (A’s) battleships battleships do do to to

(B)? (B)? Would Would (B) (B) wish wish for for a a few few battleships battleships or or for for more more armored armored cruisers? cruisers? Would Would not not (A) (A) willingly willingly exchange exchange aa few few battleships battleships for for more more fast fast armored armored cruisers? cruisers? In In such such aa case, case, neither neither side side wanting wanting battleships battleships is is presumptive presumptive evidence evidence that that they they are are not not of of much much value.‘50 value.'°

Although Although Fisher Fisher closed closed his his paper paper by by conceding conceding that that “naval “naval experience experience is is not not sufficiently sufficiently ripe ripe to to abolish abolish totally totally the the building building of of battleships” battleships’ he he was was being being deliberately deliberately disingenuous. disingenuous. In In another another paper paper written written at at about about the the same Same time time he he noted noted that that “no “no one one can can draw draw the the line line where where the the armored armored cruiser cruiser becomes becomes a a battleship battleship any any more more than than when when aa kitten kitten becomes becomes a a cat!”““ As Professor Jon Sumida has shown, once Fisher cat!”'' As Professor Jon Sumida has shown, once Fisher was was safely safely installed installed in in the the chair chair of of the the senior senior naval naval lord lord he he began began openly openly pressing pressing for the battleship to be replaced for the battleship to be replaced by by the the “super” “super” armored armored cruiser—later cruiser—later known known as as the the battle battle cruiser—a cruiser—a large large armored armored vessel vessel with with the the speed speed and and endurance to endurance to perform perform trade trade protection protection duties, duties, yet yet with with the the gun gun armaarmament ment to to engage engage battleships battleships when when necessary.‘52 necessary.'” Building Building a a single single dual dual purpose purpose armored armored warship warship instead instead of of two two types types offered offered enormous enormous potenpotential tial saving saving in in both both money money and and manpower. manpower. Fisher’s Fisher's “battle “battle cruiser cruiser concept” concept” becomes becomes more more comprehensible comprehensible once once it it is is understood understood that that by by the the time time he he was was appointed appointed senior senior naval naval lord, lord, he he was was convinced convinced that that in in the the face face of of hostile hostile torpedo torpedo craft craft and and subsubmarines, marines, large large armored armored ships ships could could not not be be regularly regularly deployed deployed in in the the “narrow “narrow seas.” seas.” No No one one was was more more aware aware that that Fisher Fisher really really believed believed that that such such a a revolution revolution in in naval naval warfare warfare had had occurred occurred than than the the first first lord lord of of the the Admiralty, the earl of Selborne. On Admiralty, the earl of Selborne. On leaving leaving the the Admiralty Admiralty to to become become gov— governor ernor of of South South Africa Africa in in early early 1905, 1905, he he warned warned Balfour Balfour of of what what he he regarded as Fisher’s eccentric viewpoint. “i always regarded as Fisher’s eccentric viewpoint. “J always said,” said,” Selborne Selborne wro te, wrote, that that the the battleship battleship held held the the field, field, that that the the battleship battleship counted counted for for more more than than anything else, else, and and that that no no number number of of cruisers cruisers could could be be substitutes substitutes for for anything

them. Fisher Fisher did did not not believe believe this this when when Ii left left the the Admiralty, Admiralty, though though he he them. believed believed it it before before all all other other opinions opinions when when he he was was Commander-in-Chief Commander-in-Chief in in the the Mediterranean. Mediterranean. Fisher Fisher believed believed that that the the torpedo torpedo as as used used by by torpedotorpedoboats boats and and the the submarine submarine was was going going to to make make the the narrow narrow seas seas (they (they widely widely interpreted) interpreted) impossible impossible for for battleships, battleships, that that the the torpedo torpedo was was going going to to be be the lord lord and and master master of of the the narrow narrow seas seas under under all all conditions. conditions. II never never the believed anything anything of of the the kind.'* kind.‘53 believed Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, httpszllhd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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raids and raids invasion and deter invasion to deter fleet to battle fleet the battle upon the relying upon of relying Instead of Instead Royal the Royal to the task to this task give this to give proposed to Fisher proposed Isles, Fisher British Isles, the British against the against prove defense” prove “flotilla defense” would “flotilla only would Not only flotilla. Not armed flotilla. torpedo armed own torpedo Navy’s own Navy's mainand mainbuilt and be built could be fleet could mosquito fleet but aa mosquito argued, but he argued, effective, he more effective, more revolution Such aa revolution fleet. Such battle fleet. than aa battle cost than less cost considerably less and considerably tained and tained battleship. traditional battleship. the traditional for the role for no role left no course, left of course, strategy, of naval strategy, in naval in Royal the Royal reorientate the to reorientate attempts to Fisher’s attempts behind Fisher’s logic behind the logic was the then was This then This decisive win decisive to win primarily to organized primarily being organized from being away from fleet away surface fleet Navy’s surface Navy's communioceanic communito oceanic threat to the threat combating the towards combating actions, towards fleet actions, battle fleet battle “flotilof “flotiltheory of Fisher's theory on Fisher’s expand on shall expand we shall chapter we next chapter the next In the cations. In cations. and strategy, and coherent strategy, into aa coherent idea into this idea of this evolution of the evolution follow the defense,” follow la defense,’ la examine its its implementation implementation in in the the wider wider context. examine

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PART PART II II

Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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CHAPTER CHAPTER 4 4

Necessary Necessary Reforms, Reforms, 1904—1905 1904-1905 it It is is impossible, impossible, without without confusion confusion of of narrative, narrative, to to deal deal chronologically chronologically with with Sir Sir John John Fisher’s Fisher's work work as as First First Sea Sea Lord. Lord. His His many many activities activities ran ran

concurrently concurrently during during the the whole whole period period that that he he held held office. office. Adm. Adm. Reginald Reginald Bacon, Bacon, The The Life Life of of Lord Lord Fisher Fisher

On On 20 20 October October 1904, 1904, Adm. Adm. Sir Sir John John Fisher Fisher joined joined the the Board Board of of Admiralty Admiralty as as senior senior naval naval lord.‘ lord.' His His first first business business was was to to change change the the title title of of his his office. office. The The next next day day (Trafalgar (Trafalgar Day) Day) Jacky—as Jacky—as he he was was popularly popularly known—was known—was proclaimed proclaimed first first sea sea lord.2 lord.? Since Since learning learning of of his his appointappointment ment the the previous previous May, May, Fisher Fisher had had been been working working on on aa policy policy manifesto manifesto outlining Outlining his his intended intended course course of of action. action. For For most most of of the the summer summer he he “steadfastly “steadfastly declined declined to to say say aa word word or or write write aa line” line” about about his his plans plans until until safely Safely installed installed in in his his chair chair at at Whitehall.3 Whitehall.’ The The admiral admiral made made Lord Lord Selborne Selborne wait wait until until the the third third week week of of August August before before showing showing him him just just an an outline outline of of his his proposed proposed administrative administrative reforms.4 reforms.’ Although Although Radical Radical Jack Jack refused refused to to divulge divulge his his thoughts thoughts to to anyone, anyone, even even to to his his future future colleagues, colleagues, several several persons persons anticipated anticipated he he was was contemplating contemplating “revolutionary “revolutionary schemes.”5 schemes.”* When When on on the the very very eve eve of of his his appointment appointment Sir Sir John John finally finally unveiled unveiled his his grand grand “scheme” “scheme” to to the the first first lord, lord, this this proved proved to to be be the the case.6 case.° Early Karly in in November November the the first first sea sea lord lord bound bound together together aa selection selection of of his his prints, prints, some some of of which which included included the the marginal marginal comments comments written written by by Selborne naval Selborne on on the the October October drafts, drafts, and and circulated circulated them them to to selected selected naval officers officers under under the the title title of of “Naval “Naval Necessities.”7 Necessities.”’ Included Included in in this this volume volume were were thirty-four thirty-four essays, essays, thirteen thirteen sets sets of of tables, tables, plus plus nine nine appendices. appendices. The The size Size of of this this document document and and the the range range of of subjects subjects it it covered covered not not only only reveal reveal Fisher’s Fisher’s “boundless “boundless energy energy and and relentless relentless enthusiasm,” enthusiasm,” it it also also stands stands as as a a testament testament to to his his organizational organizational skills skills and and professional professional competence.“ competence.* The The scope scope of of Fisher’s Fisher’s Vision vision was was extraordinary. extraordinary. “Naval “Naval Necessities” Necessities” reprepresented resented aa blueprint blueprint for for tackling tackling simultaneously simultaneously all all the the major major problems problems which which had had been been plaguing plaguing the the navy navy for for at at least least twenty twenty years. years. In In aa preampreamble ble to to the the manuscript, manuscript, Fisher Fisher insisted insisted that that “the “the scheme scheme herein herein shadowed shadowed forth forth must must be be adogned adopted as as a a Whole! whole! Simply Simply because because all all portions portions of of it it are are Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revol E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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be will be tampering will any tampering that any interlaced that so interlaced all so absolutely essential—and itit isis all absolutely essential—and in introduced be not could reforms The fatal!”® This was no hyperbole. The reforms could not be introduced in hyperbole. no fatal!”9 This was interrethan rather interdependent were they part or in series because they were interdependent rather than interrepart or in series because below. clearer below. become clearer will become case will the case was the lated. this was How this lated. How Fisher’s of Fisher's outlines of broad the endorsed Admiralty endorsed the broad outlines After of Admiralty Board of the Board After the of committee a appointed immediately Selborne immediately appointed a committee of crusade reform, Selborne of reform, crusade of Naval of Director the of chairmanship the under the chairmanship of the Director of Naval Whitehall administrators under Whitehall administrators more in more scheme in the scheme appraise the to appraise Battenberg, to of Battenberg, Intelligence, Louis of Prince Louis Intelligence, Prince promised also lord first The preparations.10 The first lord also promised detail necessary preparations." the necessary make the and make detail and be would be designs would warship designs armored warship new armored his new Fisher course his due course in due that in Fisher that of light in considered and considered in light of Designs” and on Designs” “Committee on examined special “Committee by aa special examined by concombat under tested materiel tested under combat connaval matériel of naval recently evaluations of received evaluations recently received to Fisher to allowing Fisher of allowing Instead of navy.“ Instead Japanese navy.'' the Japanese ditions by the supplied by ditions supplied of chairman of aa as chairman work as to work him to put him Selborne put committee, Selborne oversee DNI’s committee, the DNI’s oversee the estimates naval estimates the naval of the vote of every vote scrutinize every to scrutinize charged to finance committee charged finance committee In time. In his time. all his nearly all occupied nearly task occupied This task economies. This looking possible economies. for possible looking for steering Battenberg steering the Battenberg November, the of November, end of the end the towards the meantime, towards the meantime, reforms the reforms and the complete and were complete arrangements were all arrangements that all committee reported that committee reported implemented. be implemented. to be ready to ready “the Cabinet, “the the Cabinet, to the proclaimed to Selborne proclaimed 1904 Selborne On December 1904 On 66 December distribthe distribin the changes in certain changes make certain to make decided to have decided Board Admiralty have of Admiralty Board of the mobilization, the its mobilization, for its arrangements for the arrangements in the and in fleet, and the fleet, ution of the ution of on principles, on “The principles, explain!”2 “The to explain.” desire to which II| desire of which nature reason of and reason nature and the and the ships and Majesty’s ships His Majesty’s of His distribution of peace distribution which present peace the present which the from “date from began, “date lord began, first lord the first based,” the are based,” stations are their stations arrangement of their arrangement of the was the wind was when wind and when exist and not exist did not telegraph did electric telegraph aa period the electric when the period when new of new emergence of the emergence years the thirty years preceding thirty the preceding Over the motive power.” Over motive power.” the changed the totally changed had totally globe had the globe around the powers around naval powers first-class first-class naval the addition the In addition operated. In Navy operated. Royal Navy the Royal which the in which strategic environment in strategic environment period this period during this technologies during new technologies of new application of and application development development and and range, and capabilities, range, fighting capabilities, the fighting improved the had dramatically improved had dramatically have battleships have older battleships the older all the Navy all British Navy the British “In the warships. “In of warships. endurance endurance of the all the that all said that be said now be may now that itit may so that ones, so modern ones, by modern been replaced by been replaced he battleships,” he modern battleships,” of modern composed of are composed commission are battle in commission fleets in battle fleets consequences its consequences in its reaching in far reaching and far significant and more significant still more “but still reported, “but reported, numof aa numpossessed of becoming possessed rapidly becoming now rapidly country isis now this country that this isis the fact that the fact new this hew years this four years past four the past Over the cruisers.”13 Over armored cruisers.”'? ber modern armored of modern ber of numbers. considerable numbers. in considerable navies in rival navies to rival added to been added had been warship had of warship type of type has that has anything that from anything them from differentiate them that differentiate ships, that these ships, The features inin these The features armatheir armaand their armour . . . and their armour. speed .. ... . their great speed their great are their preceded them, are preceded them, older battleships. the older of the that of as that powerful as as powerful cases isis as ment, some cases in some which in ment, which Lambert, Nicolas. 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With With such such ships ships even even the the best best protected protected cruisers cruisers would would engage engage at at aa conconsiderable disadvantage, and the slower or smaller protected cruisers siderable disadvantage, and the slower or smaller protected cruisers and and all all unprotected unprotected cruisers cruisers would would be be hopelessly hopelessly outmatched; outmatched; their their only only chance chance would would be be flight, flight, and and they they could could not not flee flee because because they they have have not not the the speed.‘4 speed."

In In their their wake, wake, Selborne Selborne thus thus concluded, concluded, the the armored armored cruiser cruiser has has brought brought

“a “a revolution revolution in in respect respect of of the the composition composition of of our our cruiser cruiser squadrons.”15 squadrons.”

Selborne Selborne next next outlined outlined the the plans plans to to rationalize rationalize the the strategic strategic comcommand mand and and control control for for the the numerous numerous gunboats gunboats and and cruising cruising vessels vessels scatscattered tered around around the the globe globe into into three three geographical geographical commands. commands. In In essence, essence, he he opened, opened, various various station station fleets fleets were were to to be be merged merged and and warships warships “too “too old old to to fight fight and and too too slow slow to to run run away” away” withdrawn withdrawn from from service. service. To To supsupport port the the colonial colonial station station fleets, fleets, the the Royal Royal Navy Navy presently presently maintained maintained four four main main fighting fighting fleets. fleets. In In home home waters waters there there were were the the Channel Channel Squadron, Squadron, composed composed of of eight eight battleships, battleships, and and the the Home Home Fleet, Fleet, with with another another eight eight plus plus a a “flying “flying squadron” squadron” of of six six armored armored cruisers. cruisers. Overseas, Overseas, the the navy navy maintained maintained twelve twelve battleships battleships in in the the Mediterranean Mediterranean and and five five in in China.‘6 China.'® Included Included within within each each fleet fleet was was also also a a “fast-division” “fast-division” of of two two or or more more armored cruisers.l7 Selborne announced that from 1 January 1905, armored cruisers.'’ Selborne announced that from 1 January 1905, the the existing existing Channel Channel Squadron Squadron would would be be shifted shifted to to Gibraltar Gibraltar and and thenceforth thenceforth known known as as the the Atlantic Atlantic Fleet; Fleet; the the Home Home Fleet Fleet would would be be renamed renamed the the Channel Fleet and its strength increased from eight to twelve Channel Fleet and its strength increased from eight to twelve battleships battleships by recalling recalling four four units units from from the the Mediterranean." Mediterranean.‘8 AA decision decision on on the the future future by of the China battle squadron would be deferred until the end of of the China battle squadron would be deferred until the end of the the henceforwould henceforcruisers would armored cruisers addition, armored In addition, War.'9 In Russo-Japanese War.'® Russo-Japanese ward ward be be separated separated from from battleship battleship commands commands and and grouped grouped into into three three techniAlthough technianywhere.”20 Although go anywhere.”” to go “ready to squadrons “ready flying squadrons independent flying independent cally cally these these squadrons squadrons would would be be affiliated affiliated to to the the fighting fighting fleets fleets in in tactical than tactical administrative than for administrative more for done more was done this was waters, this European waters, European when but when battleships but the battleships support the to support not to was not role was primary role Their primary reasons. Their reasons. outer the outer reinforce the rapidly reinforce or rapidly routes or trade routes the trade defend the to defend necessary to necessary empire.“ the empire.?! of the marches of marches continSelborne continfleet, Selborne the fleet, of the redistribution of the redistribution with the conjunction with In conjunction In of manning of for manning arrangements for the arrangements reform the to reform planned to Admiralty planned the Admiralty ued, the ued, were waters home in based warships system, old the Under fleet. the the fleet. Under the old system, warships based in home waters were of quarter of so, aa quarter or so, months or six months Every six commission. Every in commission. permanently in kept permanently kept postwas or schools training into fleet the of out rotated was crew each each crew was rotated out of the fleet into training schools or was postyoungest the youngest generally the depots, generally the depots, from the entries from “fresh entries with “fresh overseas, with ed overseas, ed

of shifting of constant shifting This constant place.”22 This their place.”” taking their seamen, taking entered seamen, last entered and last and trainwith traininterfered with efficiency, interfered fighting efficiency, the fighting undermined the complements undermined complements ing, ing, and and caused caused resentment resentment among among the the lower lower deck. deck. Even Even more more unpopuLambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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abroad years abroad six years to six up to spending up of spending prospect of the prospect was the ratings was the ratings with the lar with lar scheme new the Under overseas. service for commissioned ship their if if their ship commissioned for service overseas. Under the new scheme fixed for aa fixed commissioned for be commissioned would be ships would all ships that all intended that Admiralty intended the Admiralty the except her from removed be will man or officer “No years. two of period of two years. “No officer or man will be removed from her except period men sea men at sea years at two years spending two After spending death.” After or death.” sickness or promotion, sickness by promotion, by reserve.23 in ship a crewing home” “at year one spend to allowed be would be allowed to spend one year “at home” crewing a ship in reserve.” would Hitherto, announced.24 Hitherto, also announced.” was also reserve was fleet reserve the fleet of the reorganization of AA reorganization were list effective the on still but crews permanent without permanent crews but still on the effective list were warships without warships by after looked was machinery their and creeks various creeks and their machinery was looked after by up various scattered up scattered

seamen of seamen pool of were drawnfrom These were parties. These maintenance parties. and maintenance care and care drawn from aa pool and backwards and went backwards “who went Ports, “who Home Ports, the Home of the each of at each barracks at in barracks kept in kept of period a In off.”25 told were told off.”* In a period of they were which they to which ships to the ships to the daily to forwards daily forwards active of active mixture of with aa mixture commissioned with be commissioned would be ships would these ships emergency these emergency full of full case of In case reservists. In and reservists. schools and training schools the training from the ratings from service ratings service of crews of the crews diluting the by diluting formed by be formed would be crews would additional crews mobilization, additional mobilization, could warship could of aa warship captain of the captain meant the This meant commission. This in commission. already in ships already ships of aa beginning of the beginning at the men at trained men his trained of his quarter of to aa quarter up to lose up to lose expect to expect war.26 war.” The The disadvantages disadvantages of of this this system system were were obvious. obvious. It It took took months, months, Most efficiency.27 Most peak efficiency.”’ reach peak to reach crews to scratch crews for scratch years, for sometimes years, sometimes business the business more the and more more and becoming more daily becoming was daily “gunnery was importantly, “gunnery importantly, men and men officers and the officers shooting, the efficient shooting, really efficient obtain really to obtain and to experts; and of experts; of commisnewly commisships.”28 AA newly own ships.” their own in their [constantly] in trained [constantly] be trained to be had to had an for an match for no match was no out, was pointed out, system pointed the system of the critics of ship, critics sioned ship, sioned crew. experienced crew. an experienced by an manned by craft manned enemy craft enemy warbest warthe best 1905, the January 1905, in January promulgated in scheme, promulgated new scheme, the new Under the Under and squadrons and homogenous squadrons into homogenous together into grouped together were grouped reserve were in reserve ships in ships comwar comtheir war of their two-fifths of of two-fifths crew” of “nucleus crew” permanent “nucleus given aa permanent each given each unskilled the unskilled less the crew less full crew to aa full equivalent to was equivalent this was Essentially this plements. Essentially plements. only were only who were handlers—men who ammunition handlers—men and ammunition stokers and as stokers such as men, such men, could crew could nucleus crew service. AA nucleus active service. on active was on ship was the ship when the needed when really needed really tacand tacgunnery and for gunnery sea for to sea ship to their ship take their periodically take and periodically normally and drill normally drill by that by was that arrangement was new arrangement this new of this advantage of main advantage The main exercises. The tical exercises. tical the ratings, the skilled ratings, and skilled officers and principal officers of principal teams of the teams together the keeping together keeping level the level almost the at almost maintained at be maintained could be warship could the warship of the efficiency of fighting efficiency fighting man(and mancost (and the cost of the fraction of at aa fraction yet at warship yet commissioned warship fully commissioned of aa fully of local the local from the crews from balance crews draft balance to draft hours to of hours matter of took aa matter power). ItIt took power). training training schools. schools. that admitting that quietly admitting by quietly Cabinet by to Cabinet address to his address closed his lord closed first lord The first The “in order order to to provide provide the the personnel personnel for for the the above above mentioned mentioned purposes purposes aa “in been have been value have fighting value small fighting comparatively small of comparatively ships of of ships number of certain number certain that was that say was not say did not he did What he commission.”29 What from commission.””° withdrawn from be withdrawn will be or will or the navy from the ships from 154 ships than 154 fewer than no fewer off no strike off to strike planned to Admiralty planned the Admiralty the Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book», Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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list. list. This This decision, decision, Lord Lord Selborne Selborne knew, knew, would would be be greeted greeted with with a a storm storm of protest—which protest—which isis probably probably why why he he omitted omitted to to print print any any figures figures in in his his of memorandum. memorandum. For For many many years, years, pressed pressed by by Arnold—Forster, Arnold-Forster, he he had had been been trying trying to to reduce reduce the the numbers numbers of of dilapidated dilapidated gunboats gunboats in in commission commission but but had had been been always always thwarted thwarted by by protests protests against against such such aa reform reform by by other other departments departments of of government, government, and and by by the the refusal refusal of of Lord Lord Walter Walter Kerr Kerr to to disregard disregard their their wishes. wishes. The The former former senior senior naval naval lord lord had had maintained maintained that that “the “the Foreign Foreign Office, Office, Colonial Colonial Office Office and and India India Office Office are are largely largely responsible responsible both both for for the the present present distribution distribution and and also also for for the the present present composition composition of of those those squadrons.”30 squadrons.” And And he he had had insisted insisted that that the the navy navy was was obliged obliged to to provide provide the the numbers numbers of of gunboats gunboats requested. requested. Kerr’s Kerr's reluctance reluctance to to endorse endorse retrenchment retrenchment had had been been reinforced reinforced by by his his personal personal conviction conviction that that “if “if we we do do not not show show the the flag flag we we shall shall lose lose prestige” prestige” overseas.“ overseas." Selborne, Selborne, believing believing “disruption “disruption of of the the Board Board was was aa greater greater evil" evil” than than the the retention of these obsolete craft, had always refused to overrule retention of these obsolete craft, had always refused to overrule Kerr.32 Kerr.*? Or Or so so he he claimed. claimed. Fisher’s Fisher's perspective perspective of of imperial imperial defense defense and and of of the the navy’s navy's obligaobligations to the other departments was quite tions to the other departments was quite different. different. He He held held that that the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s first first duty duty was was to to ensure ensure the the fighting fighting efficiency efficiency of of the the main main fleet. fleet. Since Since the the end end of of 1901, 1901, if if not not earlier, earlier, Fisher Fisher had had been been urging urging Selborne Selborne to to replace replace isolated isolated gunboats gunboats scattered scattered across across the the globe globe with with centrally centrally located located cruiser cruiser squadrons.33 squadrons.* “The “The Navy Navy is is being being fleeced fleeced in in every every direction direction by by every every department department of of the the state” state” he he protested protested in in one one letter letter to to the the first first lord. lord. “We “We ought ought to to absolutely absolutely decline decline any any work work for for our our ships ships and and men men that that unfits unfits them them for for fighting?“ fighting.”** More More than than half half seriously, seriously, Fisher Fisher sugsug-

gested gested that that “police “police duties” duties” might might be be performed performed just just as as well well by by aa retired retired officer in a converted merchant ship armed with machine gun!°** gun!35 officer in a converted merchant ship armed with aa machine Incidentally, when in December 1904 Kerr wrote to congratulate Incidentally, when in December 1904 Kerr wrote to congratulate the the first first lord lord on on the the new new “scheme,” “scheme,” he he acknowledged acknowledged that that “the “the key” key” to to the the reforms reforms was was the the policy policy of of scrapping scrapping the the gunboats—“which gunboats—‘“which as as you you may may remember,” remember,’ he he conceded, conceded, “I “I was was always always a a bit bit shy shy about about not not on on the the Admiralty Admiralty so so much much as as the the Foreign Foreign Office Office account.”36 account.”** Motives Motives and and Intentions Intentions

Historians Historians have have uncritically uncritically attributed attributed the the “rearrangement “rearrangement of of naval naval forces” and related reforms announced by Selborne at the forces” and related reforms announced by Selborne at the end end of of 1904 1904 to to a a desire desire by by the the Admiralty Admiralty to to concentrate concentrate the the fleet fleet against against the the “German “German navy navy menace.”37 menace.”*’ Arthur Arthur Marder, Marder, for for instance, instance, insisted insisted that that Fisher Fisher perpersuaded suaded the the rest rest of of the the Board Board to to distribute distribute warships warships “to “to meet meet strategical strategical ‘(and ‘(and not not sentimental)’ sentimental)’ requirements.” requirements.” The The first first sea sea lord’s lord's motives motives and and intentions intentions were were “to “to concentrate concentrate the the cream cream of of the the fleet fleet where where it it belonged—in belonged—in home home waters.”38 waters.” To To achieve achieve this this primary primary goal, goal, he he further further Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, httpszllhd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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argued, argued, Fisher Fisher sacrificed sacrificed the the Royal Royal Navy’s Navy's ability ability to to protect protect British British lives lives reorganithe reorganipolicy, the scrapping policy, the scrapping And the waters. And distant waters. in distant interests in and interests and zation of of the the fleet fleet reserve, reserve, and and the the introduction introduction of of nucleus nucleus crews crews were were zation similarly explained explained by by him him as as intended intended simply simply to to improve improve the the war war readireadisimilarly ness of of ships ships in in reserve.* reserve.39 By By placing placing aa larger larger proportion proportion of of the the fleet fleet in in ness reserve, reserve, Marder Marder declared, declared, Great Great Britain Britain was was steadily steadily (and (and subtly) subtly) able able to to concentrate concentrate the the fleet fleet in in home home waters waters “without “without unduly unduly straining straining the the interinternational national political political situation” situation” or or offending offending sensitive sensitive public public opinion. opinion. Thus, Thus, he he reasoned, reasoned, “Fisher “Fisher concentrated concentrated the the most most powerful powerful battleships battleships in in the the North Sea Sea before before the the Germans Germans were were aware aware of of what what was was happening.”” happening.”40 North With With the the benefit benefit of of hindsight hindsight there there is is much much logical logical appeal appeal to to this this explaexplanation. And it conforms with most of the standard political nation. And it conforms with most of the standard political and and diplodiplomatic matic accounts accounts of of this this period.“ period.” Until Until recently, recently, most most historians historians of of this this period period have have agreed agreed that that between 1902 and 1906, a fundamental shift occurred between 1902 and 1906, a fundamental shift occurred in in the the direction direction of of British British diplomacy. diplomacy. Henceforward Henceforward London London regarded regarded Germany Germany rather rather than than the the Franco-Russian Franco-Russian alliance alliance as as the the most most dangerous dangerous threat threat to to British British interests.42 interests.** Lately, Lately, however, however, aa group group of of scholars scholars have have protested protested the the importance importance placed placed on on the the Anglo-German Anglo-German antagonism antagonism in in the the formulation formulation of of British British foreign foreign policy.“ policy. While While not not denying denying that that aa deterioration deterioration in in relarelations tions did did occur occur between between Germany Germany and and Great Great Britain Britain during during this this period, period, they they argue argue that that imperial imperial considerations considerations continued continued to to have have a a major major influinfluence ence upon upon foreign foreign policy policy decision decision making. making. Britain, Britain, after after all, all, was was not not simsimply ply aa European European state state but but rather rather an an imperial imperial power. power. This This school school insists. insists, that that for for most most of of the the decade decade before before the the outbreak outbreak of of war war in in 1914, 1914, Russia, Russia, not Germany, was regarded as the not Germany, was regarded as the greatest greatest long-term long-term threat threat to to Britain Britain and and her her empire.44 empire.“ While While it it is is not not intended intended to to enter enter this this debate debate here, here, it it is is pertinent, pertinent, nevertheless, nevertheless, to to question question the the widespread widespread notion notion that that the the Admiralty, Admiralty, and and specifically specifically Fisher, Fisher, was was among among the the first first to to recognize recognize the the German threat and that this is what induced him in 1904 to German threat and that this is what induced him in 1904 to press press for for aa redistribution redistribution of of the the fleet. fleet. As As we we shall shall see see later, later, there there are are many many reasons reasons to doubt whether the Admiralty was as preoccupied to doubt whether the Admiralty was as preoccupied with with the the German German threat threat at at this this time time as as has has so so often often been been asserted. asserted. New New evidence evidence has has been been found, moreover, to found, moreover, to show show that that Fisher Fisher possessed possessed aa more more imperialist imperialist perperspective spective than than has has been been generally generally realized.45 realized.*

Many Many historians historians have have overstated overstated the the strength strength of of the the German German navy navy in in 1904. 1904. At At that that time, time, Germany Germany was was still still only only the the fourthfourth- or or fifth-ranking fifth-ranking naval naval power—depending power—depending on on how how one one counts counts the the strength strength of of the the United United States States Navy. Navy. In In numbers numbers of of battleships, battleships, the the High High Sea Sea Fleet Fleet was was a a quarquarter ter the the strength strength of of the the Royal Royal Navy, Navy, and and in in cruisers cruisers and and flotilla flotilla craft craft the the Germans Germans were were even even weaker. weaker. Ships Ships for for ship, ship, moreover, moreover, German German vessels vessels were were qualitatively qualitatively inferior inferior to to British British ones. ones. Although Although Germany Germany had had aa pubpubLambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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lished lished naval naval program program that that provided provided eventually eventually for for the the provision provision of of a a “home fleet” consisting “home fleet” consisting of of nineteen nineteen modern modern battleships, battleships, many many of of these these warships warships had had not not yet yet been been built built and and it it was was by by no no means means certain certain that that the the German German legislature legislature was was prepared prepared to to endorse endorse an an ongoing ongoing replacement replacement program program to to ensure ensure that that the the fleet fleet was was always always provided provided with with up-to-date up-to-date warships.46 was not warships.* In In addition, addition, until until the the beginning beginning of of 1905 1905 the the Admiralty Admiralty was not yet yet aware aware of of the the seriousness seriousness of of Russia's Russia’s naval naval losses losses in in the the Far Far East, Kast, and and nobody then en nobody predicted predicted that that the the Russian Russian Second Second Pacific Pacific Squadron, Squadron, then en route the Straits route for for Port Port Arthur, Arthur, would would be be intercepted intercepted and and annihilated annihilated at at the Straits of of Tsushima Tsushima at at the the end end of of May. May. The The few few internal internal planning planning documents documents from from this this period period that that have have survived survived suggest suggest that that if if the the Admiralty Admiralty were were concerned concerned about about the the High High Sea Sea Fleet Fleet at at the the end end of of 1904, 1904, then then it it was was in in the the context context of of the the German German fleet fleet joining joining a a triple triple alliance alliance against against Britain. Britain. “The “The worst worst case case which which can can befall befall us us under under present present conditions conditions is is for for Germany Germany to to throw throw her her weight weight against against us us in in the the middle middle of of aa still still undecidundecided ed war war between between [us [us and] and] France France and and Russia Russia in in alliance,” alliance,” noted noted Selborne Selborne on on 21 21 November November 1904.47 1904.” Whether Whether or or not not British British foreign foreign policy policy underwent underwent a a fundamental fundamental shift shift in in response response to to the the growing growing Anglo-German Anglo-German antagonism, antagonism, no no one one can can deny deny that that throughout throughout the the winter winter of of 1904—while 1904—while the the Admiralty Admiralty was was preparing preparing to to adopt adopt Fisher’s Fisher’s scheme—all scheme—all eyes eyes in in London London were were focused focused on on the the war war in in the the Far Far East East between between Russia Russia and and Japan.48 Japan.” With With justification. justification. France France was was allied allied to to Russia. Russia. And And since since 1902, 1902, Britain Britain and and Japan Japan had had been been allies. allies. Hitherto, Hitherto, the the Western Western powers powers had had avoided avoided entanglement entanglement in in the the conflict, conflict, being being able able to to do do so so because because the the two two antagonists antagonists were were so so evenly evenly matched. matched. But But there there was was real real concern concern both both in in London London and and Paris Paris that that if if one one of of the the belligerents belligerents gained gained the the upper upper hand hand in in the the conflict, conflict, the the other other might might demand demand military military assistance assistance from from their their ally, ally, which which could could well well precipitate precipitate aa global global war.49 war.” The The Admiralty Admiralty certainly certainly took took this this eventuality eventuality seriously. seriously. While While Selborne’s Selborne’s memorandum memorandum was was being being printed printed for for distribution distribution to to the the Cabinet on on 66 December, December, the the Admiralty Admiralty was was ordering ordering large large stocks stocks of of coal coal Cabinet to to be be deposited deposited at at Aden Aden and and Hong Hong Kong, Kong, and and the the British British Mediterranean Mediterranean Fleet RussoFleet was was standing standing by by to to proceed proceed east east of of Suez.50 Suez. Even Even so, so, the the RussoJapanese War War had had little little impact impact upon upon the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s deliberations deliberations in in the the Japanese winter of of 1904 1904 upon upon the the redistribution redistribution of of the the fleet. fleet. Selborne’s Selborne’s memoranmemoranwinter dum to to Cabinet Cabinet makes makes itit clear clear that that while while fixing fixing the the strengths strengths of of the the varivaridum ous ous squadrons squadrons the the Admiralty Admiraity were were looking looking beyond beyond the the war war in in the the Far Far East. East. The notion notion that that an an anti-German anti-German imperative imperative spurred spurred the the Admiralty Admiralty The into initiating initiating wholesale wholesale reform reform was was first first challenged challenged by by the the author author of of into Fisher’s most most authoritative authoritative biography, biography, Ruddock Ruddock Mackay. Mackay. He He noted noted that that Fisher's naval Britain’s naval 1904 Britain's in 1904 that in View that the view support the to support evidence to little evidence was little there was there waters home waters in home fleet in the fleet concentrate the to concentrate deliberately to sought deliberately leadership sought leadership Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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the that the argued that subsequently argued Mackay subsequently navy. Mackay German navy. growing German the growing against the against power. great power. single great any single against any directed against not directed was not redistribution was 1904 redistribution 1904 flexremained flexprobabilities remained strategic probabilities the strategic of the view of Admiralty’s view “the Admiralty’s Rather, “the Rather, then suggested, then he suggested, place, he took place, force took naval force of naval concentration of any concentration ible.”51 IfIf any ible.”*' own Fisher’s own use Fisher’s to use created, to was created, fleet was Atlantic fleet new Atlantic Gibraltar. AA new at Gibraltar. was at itit was cruisers and cruisers battleships and fastest battleships and fastest best and “our best comprised “our which comprised words, which words, to ready to instantly ready “always instantly flank, “always the flank, on the poised on admirals,” poised best admirals,” our best and our and North the North in. the world) in the world) in the fleet in any fleet of any speed of highest speed the highest (at the scale (at the scale turn the turn new the new to the refer to did refer Selborne did Admittedly, Selborne Mediterranean.”5-’- Admittedly, the Mediterranean.” or the Sea or Sea effimost effithe most of the navy of “a navy as “a Cabinet as to aa Cabinet memorandum to his memorandum in his fleet in German fleet German that itit [sic] that circumstanced [sic] “fortunately circumstanced was “fortunately noted itit was also noted and also type” and cient type” cient its all its including all and including fleet and its fleet of its whole of the whole almost the concentrate almost to concentrate able to isis able should historians should warned, historians Mackay warned, as Mackay But, as ports.” But, home ports.” its home at its battleships at battleships “leave to “leave careful to be careful should be and should remark and single remark of aa single out of much out too much make too not make not lord first lord the first paragraph the same paragraph the same In the context.”53 In its context.”* in its sentence in the sentence the observation Selborne’s observation And Selborne’s powers. And naval powers. great naval the great of the each of to each referred to referred can forefront,” can the forefront,” in the always, in as always, stands, as navy stands, French navy “the French that “the therein, that therein, perand perFinally, and did.54 Finally, Marder did.™ “innocuous”—-—as Marder as “innocuous’—as classified as be classified scarcely be scarcely the how the on how ideas on Fisher’s ideas that Fisher's show that documents show conclusively, documents most conclusively, haps most haps 1902 of 1902 beginning of the beginning to the back to traced back be traced can be redistributed can be redistributed should be fleet should fleet when when there there was was very very little little concern concern about about the the German German fleet. fleet. In In February February replacethe replacefor the calling for Selborne calling to Selborne paper to submitted aa paper Fisher submitted year, Fisher that year, that Channel the Channel for the and for squadrons and cruiser Squadrons with cruiser fleets with station fleets the station of the ment of ment orgaand orgadistribution and proposed distribution The proposed Gibraltar. The to Gibraltar. moved to be moved to be Squadron to Squadron 1904.55 in 1904.°° made in those made to those identical to almost identical were almost nization were nization or “flexible” or traditionally “flexible” of aa traditionally idea of the idea reasons the various reasons For various For interests imperial interests British imperial protect British to protect designed to strategy designed “Gibraltar-based” strategy “Gibraltar-based” histoamong histoacceptance among widespread acceptance achieved widespread never achieved comers never all comers against all against rians. rians. The The thesis thesis was was most most recently recently dismissed, dismissed, if if not not actually actually ignored, ignored, by by —' Britain’s of Britain’s analysis of his analysis into his fit into not fit did not that itit did found that He found Friedberg. He Aaron Friedberg. Aaron arguments central arguments the central of the one of 1905, one and 1905, 1895 and between 1895 decline between relative decline relative “acquiAdmiralty “acquithe Admiralty period the ten-year period this ten-year of this end of the end at the that at was that which was of which of in oceans” in world’s oceans” the world’s of the control of long-standing control its long-standing of its loss of the loss in the esced in esced in admitted in he admitted Although he waters.”56 Although home waters.” in home “supremacy in ensure “supremacy to ensure order to order a redistribua footnote footnote that that maybe, maybe, “in “in their their early early formulations, formulations, Fisher’s Fisher’s redistributhe in the forces in of forces balance of the balance over the concern over by aa concern driven by were driven schemes were tion schemes tion he anti-French,” he essentially anti-French,” were essentially they were words they other words Mediterranean—in other Mediterranean—in went went on on to to assert assert that that “there “there seems seems little little doubt doubt that that by by the the beginning beginning of of 1905 1905 Germany Germany had had emerged emerged as as Britain’s Britain’s number number one one enemy enemy at at sea.”57 sea.”” In In the main main text text he he took took as as given given that that “the “the intention intention and and eventual eventual result result of of the the the scheme scheme that that Selborne Selborne announced announced [in [in December December 1904] 1904] was was to to permit permit a a permanent permanent strengthening strengthening of of British British naval naval power power in in European European waters waters at at Lambert, Nicolas. 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the the expense expense of of the the Far Far East East and and the the Western Western hemisphere. hemisphere. This This became became evident evident in in the the following following year year after after five five battleships battleships were were withdrawn withdrawn from from the the China China station station and and assigned assigned to to the the Channel Channel fleet.”58 fleet.” (No (No mention mention was was made made of of the the enhanced enhanced military military effectiveness effectiveness of of the the numerically numerically smaller smaller British British “station” “station” fleets fleets after after the the reorganization.) reorganization.) To To reinforce reinforce this this arguargument ment he he cited cited evidence evidence which which showed showed that that even even before before Fisher’s Fisher’s arrival arrival at at Whitehall, Whitehall, several several more more open-minded open-minded officers officers at at the the Admiralty, Admiralty, notably Capt. Louis Battenberg (the DN1) had already recognized notably Capt. Louis Battenberg (the DNI) had already recognized the the inevitable inevitable and and had had been been pressing pressing Selborne Selborne to to recall recall battleships battleships from from disdistant tant waters waters to to face face Germany.59 Germany.” A closer examination A closer examination of of Battenberg’s Battenberg’s correspondence correspondence with with Selborne, Selborne, however, reveals some confusion however, reveals some confusion over over precisely precisely what what the the DN1 DNI was was asking asking for for and and why. why. It It is is true true that that he he wanted wanted to to recall recall “the “the China China B[attle] B[attle] Ships,” Ships,” and and did did argue argue that that the the deployment deployment of of these these ships ships in in the the Far Far East East was was “misplaced power.”60 Other documents dating “misplaced power.”* Other documents dating from from this this period period cast cast his his words words in in quite quite aa different different light. light. For For one one thing, thing, when when Battenberg Battenberg asked asked the the China China battleships battleships be be brought brought home, home, he he was was not not proposing proposing (as (as implied) implied) to to reinforce reinforce the the numbers numbers of of battleships battleships in in commission commission in in home home waters. waters. This This is is made made clear clear in in a a subsequent subsequent letter letter the the DN1 DNI penned penned to to Selborne: Selborne: “I “I wish wish we we could could get get two two Oceans Oceans [class [class battleships] battleships] home home from from China China and and with with the the two two [Oceans] [Oceans] in in reserve, reserve, replace replace the the four four Royal Royal Sovereigns Sovereigns in in the the Home Home Fleet?“ Fleet.”*' Four Four days days later later he he further further clarified clarified his his thoughts. thoughts. Battenberg Battenberg argued argued that that he he wanted wanted the the newer newer battleships battleships home home from from China China because because he he was was afraid afraid that that in in wartime wartime the the older older Royal Royal Sovereigns Sovereigns would would handicap handicap the the rest rest of of the the Home Home Fleet. Fleet. Battenberg Battenberg felt felt they they belonged belonged in in reserve. reserve. “It “It is is merely merely aa matter matter of of degree,” degree,” he he explained: explained: “they “they are are undoubtedly very very powerful powerful ships ships and and fit fit to to lie lie in in our our line line for for aa good good many many undoubtedly years years to to come. come. Still Still in in protection, protection, armament armament and and speed speed they they stand stand now now at at the bottom bottom of of the the list list of of our our completed completed first first class class ships ships to to the the number number of of the Royal the off Paying serious.”62 is speed in difference the and . . . forty forty .. . and the difference in speed is serious.” Paying off the Royal have would have Fleet would Home Fleet the Home to the Oceans to the Oceans transferring the and transferring Sovereigns and Sovereigns resulted in a net reduction of battleships in full commission.63 resulted in a net reduction of battleships in full commission.” Similarly, when when in in early early October October 1904 1904 Battenberg Battenberg asked asked for for “the “the four four Similarly, Mediterranean Duncan’ Duncan” class class battleships battleships to to be be brought brought home, home, he he did did not not Mediterranean Navy Royal Navy the Royal time the this time At this Fleet. At Sea Fleet. High Sea German High the German face the to face them to want them want already had had sixteen sixteen modern modern battleships battleships in in home home waters. waters. Rather, Rather, he he wantwantalready the of the battleships of remaining battleships five remaining the five cover” the and cover” match and “to match them “to ed them ed Russian Russian Baltic Baltic Fleet.64 Fleet. On On this this occasion occasion the the DN1 DNI was was worried worried about about the the possibility possibility of of an an alliance alliance between between Russia Russia and and Germany, Germany, who who “have “have now now between between Kiel Kiel and and Libau Libau seventeen seventeen first first class class battleships battleships in in commission commission

(5+12).”65 (5+12).” As As unlikely unlikely as as such such aa combination combination seemed, seemed, even even Kerr Kerr admitted admitted “one “one cannot cannot shut shut ones’ ones’ eyes eyes to to the the possibility possibility of of aa Russo-German Russo-German combiLambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. , E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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advised Kerr advised Walter Kerr Lord Walter occasion Lord this occasion on this Though on someday.”66 Though nation someday.” nation DN1 the DNI believed the controller) believed (the controller) May (the William May Adm. William and Adm. he and that he Selborne that Selborne Squadron Channel Squadron the Channel of the battleships of sixteen battleships The sixteen overcautious. The being overcautious. was being was foreign than foreign powerful than more powerful were more unit were for unit unit for (which unit Fleet (which Home Fleet and Home and defense.67 home defense.® of home purposes of the purposes for the force for sufficient force quite sufficient be quite would be ships) would ships) conmore conmuch more am much added, “I“1 am he added, reinforcing, he needed reinforcing, Fleet needed Home Fleet the Home IfIf the for have for we have object we an object commission, an in commission, destroyers in more destroyers getting more in getting cerned in cerned personnel.”68 of personnel.’® want of from want meet from to meet unable to but unable view but in view had in time had some time some the in the service in for service needed for were needed moreover, were destroyers, moreover, additional destroyers, These additional These nothing. did nothing. Kerr did Ultimately, Kerr Sea. Ultimately, North Sea. the North than the rather than Mediterranean rather Mediterranean evidence of evidence weight of the weight that the believe that to believe continue to historians continue Most historians Most (or strategic (or by strategic mainly by inspired mainly being inspired reforms being naval reforms 1904 naval the 1904 to the points to points observations Mackay’s observations aimed, Mackays were aimed, and were considerations and diplomatic) considerations diplomatic) character the character about the notions about Preconceived notions Germany. Preconceived at Germany. notwithstanding, at notwithstanding, hapreally hapwhat really of what picture of the picture obscure the helped obscure also helped have also sea have at sea war at of war of have to have believed to warfare isis believed naval warfare as naval long as So long 1904. So of 1904. end of the end at the pened at pened redis1904 redisthe 1904 of the object of the object that the and that battleships and of. battleships affair of an affair mainly an been mainly been the then the waters, then European waters, to European units to capital units all capital recall all to recall was to tribution was tribution of concentration of affect aa concentration to affect attempting to was attempting Admiralty was the Admiralty that the argument that argument howevsaid, howevbeing said, That being incontrovertible. That seems incontrovertible. Germany seems against Germany force against force an in an resulted in actually resulted redistribution actually the redistribution that the forgotten that often forgotten er, itit isis often er, commisfull commisin full battleships in British battleships of British numbers of the numbers in the reduction in overall reduction overall fully thirty-five fully had thirty-five Navy had Royal Navy the Royal 1904 the October 1904 in October Whereas in sion. Whereas sion. thirty-two. only thirty-two. at only stood at figure stood this figure later this year later battleships, aa year manned battleships, manned comfully comof fully number of the number that the fact that the fact significant isis the more significant even more Perhaps even Perhaps batfour batAlthough four fell. Although also fell. waters also home waters in home kept in battleships kept missioned battleships missioned 1904, of 1904, end of the end at the Fleet at Mediterranean Fleet the Mediterranean from the recalled from were recalled tleships were tleships (King units (King newer units eight newer simultaneously eight requested, simultaneously had requested, Battenberg had as Battenberg as from steaming from days steaming Gibraltar—two days to Gibraltar—two dispatched to were dispatched class) were Edward class) Edward numbers, crude numbers, in crude Expressed in Sea. Expressed North Sea. the North from the away from four away and four Malta and Malta this move move left left the the Royal Royal Navy Navy with with only only the the twelve twelve battleships battleships of of the the this vessels older vessels fourteen older by fourteen supported by albeit supported waters, albeit home waters, in home Fleet in Channel Fleet Channel the of the battleships of newest battleships twelve newest the twelve match the to match crews, to nucleus crews, by nucleus manned by manned certainly was certainly waters was home waters in home fleet in British fleet the British Although the Fleet. Although Sea Fleet. High Sea High stronger stronger after after 1904 1904 than than it it had had been been before, before, this this was was largely largely the the result result making thereby making crews, thereby nucleus crews, with nucleus reserve with in reserve warships in providing warships of providing of effifighting effiThe fighting commission. The full commission. in full units in as units efficient as as efficient almost as them almost them ciency ciency of of the the fleet fleet in in home home waters waters was was increased, increased, in in other other words. words, through through reorganization reorganization of of existing existing resources resources rather rather than than through through an an increase increase in in absolute absolute numbers. numbers. Indeed, Indeed, the the total total of of battleships battleships in in the the naval of naval distribution of of distribution issue of The issue fell. The actually fell. fleets actually reserve fleets and reserve active and active personnel personnel will will be be considered considered later. later. Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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While While trying trying to to fathom fathom the the complex complex strategic strategic intentions intentions behind behind the the 1904 1904 reforms, reforms, historians historians have have allowed allowed themselves themselves to to be be mesmerized mesmerized by by the the marching marching and and counter counter marching marching of of battleships. battleships. A A closer closer look look at at the the evidence evidence shows shows that that in in 1904 1904 Britain’s Britain’s naval naval leaders leaders were were at at least, least, and and perhaps perhaps more, more, concerned concerned with with the the numbers numbers and and redistribution redistribution of of armored armored cruisers. cruisers. In In the the last last chapter chapter it it was was shown shown that that historians historians have have been been certainly certainly wrong wrong in in thinking thinking that that Sir Sir John John Fisher Fisher measured measured naval naval strength Strength by by numbers numbers of of battleships. battleships. There There is is ample ample evidence evidence that that he he attached attached more more importance importance to to armored armored cruisers. cruisers. While While Fisher Fisher was was servserving ing as as commander commander in in chief, chief, Mediterranean, Mediterranean, for for example, example, he he postulated postulated in in one one of of his his lectures lectures to to fleet fleet officers officers that that in in the the next next war war admirals admirals would would fly fly their their flags flags in in armored armored cruisers cruisers rather rather than than battleships battleships and and use use their their cruiser cruiser squadrons squadrons as as the the principle principle striking striking force.69 force.® In In February February 1902, 1902, when when Fisher Fisher first first aired aired his his ideas ideas on on aa large—scale large-scale redistribution redistribution of of the the fleet, fleet, he he proposed proposed that that an an “elite” “elite” Atlantic Atlantic fleet fleet based based at at Gibraltar Gibraltar should should be be formed formed of of twelve twelve armored armored cruisers.70 cruisers.” More More tangibly, tangibly, in in October October 1904 1904 Fisher Fisher handed handed Lord Lord Selborne Selborne aa paper paper that that claimed claimed “there “there is is good good ground ground for for enquiry enquiry whether whether the the naval naval supremacy supremacy of of aa country country can can any any longer longer be be assessed assessed by by its its battleships.”71 battleships.””’ Although Although he he went went on on to to anticipate anticipate objecobjections tions to to this this proposal proposal and and conceded conceded that that maybe maybe giVing giving up up battleship battleship conconstruction struction was was not not yet yet practicable, practicable, he he was, was, personally, personally, convinced convinced that that his his new-model new-model “super” “super” armored armored cruisers cruisers could could better better protect protect Britain’s Britain’s far far flung flung empire empire than than battleships. battleships. Jacky Jacky went went on on to to suggest suggest that that the the navy navy should should measure measure its its relative relative strength strength by by numbers numbers of of armored armored cruisers cruisers and and torpedo torpedo craft craft rather rather than than battleships.72 battleships.” The The battleship battleship of of the the olden olden days days was was necessary necessary because because it it was was the the one one and and only only vessel vessel that that nothing nothing could could sink sink except except another another battleship. battleship. Now Now every every battleship battleship is is open open to to attack attack by by fast fast torpedo-craft torpedo-craft and and submarines. submarines. Formerly, Formerly, transports transports or or military military operations operations could could be be covered covered by by aa fleet fleet of of battle-ships battle-ships with with the the certainty certainty that that nothing nothing could could attack attack them them without without first first being crushed crushed by by the the covering covering fleet! fleet! now now all all this this has has been been absolutely absolutely being altered! AA battle-fleet battle-fleet isis no no protection protection to to anything, anything, or or any any operation operation during during altered!

dark dark hours, hours, and and in in certain certain waters waters no no protection protection in in daytime daytime because because of of the the submarine. Hence Hence what what isis the the use use of of battleships battleships as as we we have have hitherto hitherto submarine. known known them? them? None! None! Their Their one one and and only only function—that function—that of of ultimate ultimate security security of of defense defense is is gone—lost! gone—lost! No No one one would would seriously seriously advocate advocate building building battlebattleships ships merely merely to to fight fight other other battleships—since battleships—since if if battleships battleships have have no no funcfunc-

tion tion that that the the first first class class armored armored cruiser cruiser cannot cannot fulfil, fulfil, then then they they are are useless useless fought.73 be fought.” to be need to not need do not and do enemy and an enemy to an to

Fisher’s Fisher's paper paper did did not not convince convince the the first first lord lord of of the the Admiralty.74 Admiralty.”* Nor Nor did did he he manage manage to to persuade persuade him him to to cancel cancel the the two two battleships battleships authorized authorized but but Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, httpszllhdl.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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not yet yet laid laid down down under the 1904-5 1904-5 program. program. The The maxim maxim “from not under the “from which which |I will never never depart,” depart,” Selborne will Selborne replied, replied, is is to to “lay “lay down down battleships battleships every every year.”75 The The only only concession concession he he was was prepared prepared to to make make was was to to agree agree gengenyear.”” erally erally with with Fisher’s Fisher’s observation observation that that “the “the battleship battleship type type and and the the other.”76 each other.”” into each merging into are merging type are cruiser type armored cruiser armored Barely Barely months months later, later, in in early early 1905, 1905, Fisher Fisher issued issued repeated repeated appeals appeals to the Committee on Designs to endorse his call for the Royal to to the Committee on Designs to endorse his call for the Royal Navy Navy to abandon the construction of battleships. He requested his chosen abandon the construction of battleships. He requested his chosen experts of experts to to set set aside aside the the turbine turbine driven driven all-big—gun all-big-gun battleship battleship in in favor favor of the faster, less well-protected “armored cruiser” version." With one the faster, less well-protected “armored cruiser” version.” With one exception exception they they refused: refused: but but agreed agreed to to reconsider reconsider the the proposal proposal at at a a latter latter date. Ultimately the Board of Admiralty ordered under the date. Ultimately the Board of Admiralty ordered under the 1905—6 1905-6 proprogram gram four four (later (later reduced reduced to to three) three) “lndomitable” “Indomitable” type type big-gun big-gun armored armored cruisers up. cruisers plus plus HMS HMS Dreadnought. Dreadnought. Still, Still, however, however, Fisher Fisher did did not not give give up. After Selborne’s departure from the first sea sea After Selborne’s departure from the board board in in March March 1905, 1905, the the first lord Admiralty to to lord launched launched his his third third attempt attempt to to persuade persuade the the rest rest of of the the Admiralty give up give up the the construction construction of of battleships battleships in in favor favor of of battle battle cruisers.78 cruisers.” This This time pertime he he approached approached his his goal goal obliquely. obliquely. He He disingenuously disingenuously tried tried to to persuade suade his his colleagues colleagues that that overall overall savings savings would would accrue accrue from from adopting adopting aa single, single, qualitatively qualitatively superior, superior, “multi-role” “multi-role” armored armored warship-type warship-type instead instead of of continuing continuing to to build build both both battleships battleships and and armored armored cruisers. cruisers. Unfortunately, the 1906-7 Unfortunately, his his so-called so-called “fusion “fusion design” design” projected projected for for the 1906-7 program on program was was rejected rejected by by his his second second (hand-picked) (hand-picked) Committee Committee on Designs. the AngloDesigns. In In the the committee’s committee’s opinion, opinion, the the recent recent cementing cementing of of the AngloFrench at French understanding understanding coupled coupled to to the the annihilation annihilation of of the the Russian Russian fleet fleet at Tsushima, had significantly diminished the Royal Navy Tsushima, had significantly diminished the the likelihood likelihood that that the Royal Navy would cruiser would have have to to fight fight the the global global cruiser cruiser war war for for which which the the battle battle cruiser had been primarily designed. It was felt that “whatever had been primarily designed. It was felt that “whatever armored armored cruiser cruiser peril to peril still still remained remained could could be be met met by by existing existing vessels.”79 vessels.”” Instead, Instead, to Fisher’s chagrin, the design committee recommended the construction Fisher’s chagrin, the design committee recommended the construction of of more more battleships battleships or or “dreadnoughts” “dreadnoughts” as as they they were were becoming becoming known. known. Fisher was not the Fisher was not the only only senior senior policy policy maker maker in in Whitehall Whitehall at at this this time time with with a a high high regard regard for for the the armored armored cruiser. cruiser. Even Even before before Jacky’s Jacky’s appointappoint-

ment petiment as as first first sea sea lord lord had had been been confirmed, confirmed, Battenberg Battenberg had had been been petitioning of tioning Selborne Selborne that that the the imminent imminent completion completion of of the the large large number number of armored the armored cruisers cruisers then then under under construction construction must must drastically drastically “affect “affect the foreign foreign stations—beyond stations—beyond the the Mediterranean.”80 Mediterranean.”® Battenberg’s Battenberg’s corresponcorrespondence Fisher’s dence with with Selborne Selborne shows shows that that he he shared shared much, much, if if not not all, all, of of Fisher’s concern urged concern of of the the armored armored cruiser cruiser threat. threat. In In May May 1904 1904 the the DN1 DNI had had urged

the the first first lord lord to to overrule overrule Kerr’s Kerr’s opposition opposition and and go go ahead ahead with with the the formaformation tion of of a a second second “flying” “flying” squadron squadron “ready “ready to to go go anywhere.” anywhere.” But But “nothing “nothing that that II can can say,” say,” he he afterwards afterwards lamented lamented to to Fisher, Fisher, “will “will make make Selborne Selborne Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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give give way. way. He He is is as as obstinate obstinate as as a a mule.”81 mule.”*' Later Later in in November, November, Battenberg Battenberg counseled the the first first lord lord to to switch switch all all funds funds earmarked earmarked for for new new battlebattlecounseled ships under under the the 1905-6 1905—6 program program to to buy buy “five “five armored armored cruisers cruisers of of the the ships new new type”—-in type’—in other other words words five five battle battle cruisers.82 cruisers.” It It is is no no coincidence, coincidence, furfurthermore, that that when when Prince Prince Louis Louis left left Whitehall Whitehall in in February February 1905, 1905, he he thermore, was was promoted promoted to to command command the the First First Cruiser Cruiser Squadron Squadron based based at at Gibraltar. Gibraltar. The The importance importance Battenberg Battenberg attached attached to to the the armored armored cruiser—cruiser— incidentally—sheds incidentally—sheds important important new new light light on on his his attempts attempts as as DNl DNI to to bring bring home home the the battleships battleships from from China. China. It It has has already already been been shown shown that that when when he he first first made made this this suggestion suggestion he he had had not not envisaged envisaged increasing increasing the the numnumber ber of of battleships battleships in in home home waters; waters; he he had had wanted wanted to to substitute substitute them them for for two two Royal Royal Sovereigns Sovereigns which which he he thought thought belonged belonged in in reserve. reserve. It It is is now now clear clear that that he he wanted wanted to to pay pay off off these these ships ships in in order order to to free free personnel personnel to to man man aa couple couple of of new new armored armored cruisers.83 cruisers.” Thus Thus when when Battenberg Battenberg referred referred to to the the battleships battleships in in China China as as being being “misplaced “misplaced power,” power,” what what he he really really meant meant was was that that capital capital ships ships were were not not the the appropriate appropriate vessels vessels to to protect protect British British interests interests east east of of Suez Suez where where the the main main threat threat to to British British interests interests was was directed directed at at seaborne seaborne commerce.84 commerce.” 0r Or put put another another way, way, the the battlebattleships were were locking locking up up valuable valuable personnel personnel that that might might better better be be employed employed ships in in new new cruisers—a cruisers—a View view that that mirrored mirrored exactly exactly the the opinion opinion of of the the first first sea sea lord.85 lord.® The The views views of of Fisher Fisher and and Battenberg Battenberg on on the the importance importance of of armored armored cruisers belie belie the the notion notion that that Britain’s Britain’s naval naval leaders leaders thought thought about about naval naval cruisers strategy only only in in terms terms of of battleships. battleships. strategy Motives Motives and and Intentions—Part Intentions—Part 2 2

There isis too too often often aa tendency tendency by by naval naval historians historians to to stress stress the the role role There securiexternal securicountry’s external particular country’s of aa particular context of the context in the forces in armed forces of of armed domestic of domestic policy of upon policy influence upon the influence considering the of considering expense of the expense at the ty at ty considerations.“ considerations.* The The argument argument that that the the 1904 1904 naval naval reforms reforms were were inspired inspired solely solely or or mainly mainly by by external external factors factors such such as as the the change change in in the the European diplomatic diplomatic climate climate or or aa growing growing perception perception of of aa threat threat to to European on based on empire isis based German empire expansionist German an expansionist by an posed by interests posed British interests British probadministrative probmany administrative the many of the account of no account thin takes no also takes evidence. ItIt also thin evidence. lems lems confronting confronting the the Admiralty Admiralty at at this this time time and and the the interrelatedness interrelatedness of of been has been example, itit has For example, reforms. For administrative reforms. and administrative strategic and the strategic the considerwas considerAdmiralty was of Admiralty Board of the Board while the that while demonstrated that recently demonstrated recently was Whitehall was at Whitehall mind at everyone’s mind in everyone’s uppermost in “scheme,” uppermost Fisher’s “scheme,” ing Fisher's ing naval future naval for future plans for all plans on all Cabinet on the Cabinet by the imposed by limits imposed strict limits the strict the the on the largely on lord largely sea lord first sea appointed first was appointed spending.*”’ Fisher was lndeed, Fisher spending.87 Indeed, estinaval estiin naval reduction in significant reduction the significant make the understanding would make he would that he understanding that mates mates that that the the Balfour Balfour government government so so desperately desperately required. required. When When Selborne Selborne first first offered offered him him the the post post on on 14 14 May May 1904, 1904, he he made made it it “abun— “abunLambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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basis essential basis “the essential be “the must be “economy” must that “economy” admiral that the admiral to the clear” to dantly dantly clear” policy. ”88 Admiralty policy.’® of Admiralty of reached present reached the present for the have for Estimates have Navy Estimates the Navy that the certain that quite certain ItIt isis quite no be no there can only not 1905-06 In year. present year. In 1905-06 not only can there be the present in the maximum in their their maximum

Admiralty the Admiralty of the influence of the influence for the necessary, for but itit isis necessary, possible increase, but possible increase, finances, national finances, the national of the stability of the stability for the and for Commons and of Commons over House of the House over the decrease.89 substantial show aa substantial decrease.” should show we should that that we

from come from would come savings would of savings most of envisaged most he envisaged that he added that lord added first lord The first The necof necpostponement of the postponement and the program and construction program the construction in the reduction in aa reduction had Selborne had course, Selborne of course, stage, of his stage, At his votes. At other votes. on other expenditure on essary expenditure essary redistribution.90 warship redistribution.” on warship ideas on Fisher’s ideas hear Fisher’s to hear yet yet to imporparamount importhe paramount appreciate the to appreciate failed to either failed have either writers have Most writers Most winthe winduring the reform during naval reform for naval motive for as aa motive limitation as financial limitation of financial tance tance of influenced issue influenced money issue the money how the misunderstood how have misunderstood they have or they 1904, or of 1904, ter of ter efficiency” and efficiency” “economy and that “economy true that sense itit isis true one sense In one making. In decision making. decision historians some historians as some “scheme,” as Fisher’s “scheme,” behind Fisher’s motives behind principal motives the principal were the were volunteer to volunteer inspired to was inspired Jacky was that Jacky say that to say wrong to But itit isis wrong argued. But have argued. have volunteered. not volunteered. were not They were efficiency.“ They of efficiency.”’ sake of the sake for the purely for economies purely economies “adminisan “adminisdisplaying an for displaying condemned for be condemned fairly be cannot fairly Fisher cannot Similarly, Fisher Similarly, his of his formulation of the formulation in the thinking” in of thinking” way of strategic way than strategic rather than trative rather trative of lack of “evident lack an “evident possessing an for possessing criticized for be criticized he be can he Nor can scheme.92 Nor scheme.” his of his variants of later variants and later this and in this both in analysis, both strategic analysis, in strategic interest in interest “organisasolving “organisafor solving concern” for “overriding concern’ an “overriding showing an for showing or for scheme.” or scheme,” overwhelmthe overwhelmignore the accusations ignore Such accusations problems.”93 Such technical problems.” or technical tional tional or to specifically to Admiralty specifically the Admiralty into the brought into was brought Fisher was that Fisher evidence that ing evidence ing probadministrative probconsequent administrative the consequent solve the and solve retrenchment and implement retrenchment implement the in the shift in execute aa shift to execute order to in order lord in sea lord first sea appointed first not appointed was not He was lems. He lems. remembered. be remembered. always be must always This must orientation.94 This strategic orientation.“ Navy’s strategic Royal Navy's Royal office, took office, he took before he days before three days just three this, just forget this, Fisher forget Lest Lest Fisher thing first thing “the first priorities: “the of priorities: order of the order home the hammered home again hammered Selborne Selborne again 20 October 20 on October Board on the Board on the seat on your seat taken your have taken you have after you do after must do we must we

once When once [19105/6. When for [19]05/6. estimates for the estimates of the framework of the framework establish the isis to to establish to able to be able will be Admiralty will the Admiralty of the departments of the departments then the that then done that have done we have we of consideration of the consideration for the free for be free shall be we shall and we details and the details up the filling up so on filling go on he time, he same time, the same At the with.”95 At deal with.” to deal desire to we desire subjects we multifarious subjects the multifarious the deteriorate to deteriorate forecast to was forecast climate was financial climate the financial that the Fisher that cautioned Fisher cautioned

be to be have to would have cuts would deeper cuts even deeper that even likely that was likely and itit was further and still further still made looks made in in the the navy navy estimates. estimates. “Revenue “Revenue is is dropping dropping so so fast fast that that it it looks like like a a deficit deficit on on the the estimated estimated revenue revenue of of the the current current year year of of two two millions millions and and on on that that of of next next year year of of [even [even more]!!!”96 more]!!!’"* In In early early November, November, the the chanchancellor cellor of of the the Exchequer Exchequer reminded reminded Selborne Selborne that that “the “the whole whole character character of of Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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the the budget, budget, vile vile or or passable” passable” depended depended upon upon the the magnitude magnitude of of the the savsavings ings offered offered by by the the Board Board of of Admiralty. Admiralty. “Nothing “Nothing but but millions millions would would realreally ly help.”97 help.”®’ Accordingly, Accordingly, there there can can be be little little doubt doubt that that Fisher’s Fisher’s proposals proposals for for the the redistribution redistribution of of the the fleet fleet were were accepted accepted by by Selborne Selborne not not because because they they better better suited suited “strategical “strategical requirements,” requirements,” though though they they did, did, but but priprimarily marily because because the the new new organization organization he he was was offering offering was was very very much much cheaper cheaper to to maintain. maintain. Another Another “domestic” “domestic” concern concern worrying worrying Selborne Selborne in in 1904 1904 was was the the acute acute shortage shortage of of trained trained personnel.98 personnel.” For For many many years years the the navy navy had had seen seen this this as as its its worst worst long-term long-term problem.99 problem.” It It is is not not generally generally appreciated appreciated that that the the Royal Royal Navy Navy did did not not keep keep its its entire entire fleet fleet in in full full commission. commission. ln In peacepeacetime, time, at at least least one-third one-third of of naval naval personnel personnel were were billeted billeted ashore ashore in in traintraining ing schools schools and and almost almost half half the the “War “War Fleet” Fleet” was was in in reserve. reserve. To To develop develop its its full full two-power two-power strength, strength, therefore, therefore, the the Royal Royal Navy Navy had had to to mobilize mobilize the the reserve. reserve. With With the the high high degree degree of of probability probability that that Britain Britain would would be be facing facing two, two, if if not not three, three, other other great great powers powers in in the the next next war, war, it it was was essential essential that that her her fleet fleet could could be be made made ready ready for for action action as as quickly quickly as as possible. possible. In In his his memorandum memorandum to to Cabinet Cabinet dated dated 6 6 December December 1904, 1904, the the first first lord lord stated stated that that one one of of the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s main main objectives objectives in in proposing proposing the the fleet fleet reorreorganization ganization was was “to “to overcome overcome certain certain difficulties difficulties with with which which they they have have been been long long confronted confronted in in matters matters of of mobilization.”"’° mobilization.”' For For at at least least fifteen fifteen years years the the navy navy had had been been unable unable to to keep keep more more than than aa handful handful of of ships ships of of the the fleet fleet reserve reserve in in good good mechanical mechanical condition condition because because of of aa shortage shortage of of personnel.“ This further exacerbated the inefficiency of the newly compersonnel.'”' This further exacerbated the inefficiency of the newly commissioned missioned warships warships manned manned at at the the outbreak outbreak of of hostilities hostilities by by scratch scratch crews.‘02 crews.'” The The introduction introduction of of the the nucleus nucleus crew crew system system was was intended intended to to eliminate eliminate these these problems.“ problems.'® Just Just how how seriously seriously the the first first lord lord regarded regarded the the personnel personnel issue issue is is revealed revealed in in aa memorandum memorandum sent sent by by Selborne Selborne to to Lord Lord Knollys, Knollys, King King Edward Edward Vll’s VII's personal personal secretary. secretary. The The first first lord lord intiintimated mated that that the the manning manning difficulty difficulty was was in in fact fact the the main main reason reason for for reform: reform: The The Board Board for for some some years years past past have have had had no no greater greater anxiety anxiety than than in in respect respect of of the the condition condition of of the the ships ships in in the the Fleet Fleet reserve reserve on on mobilization mobilization for for war. war. . . . there there never never has has been been aa time time in in recent recent years years when when there there were were enough enough ... officers officers and and men men at at home home to to provide provide proper proper care care and and maintenance maintenance parties parties for for the the ships ships in in the the Fleet Fleet reserve, reserve, and and the the Board Board have have come come to to the the decision decision offiof offinumber of sufficient number provide aa sufficient to provide evil isis to this evil cure this to cure way to only way the only that the that cers and and men men for for the the purpose purpose of of keeping keeping these these ships ships in in proper proper order. order. cers These officers officers and and men men could could only only be be provided provided in in one one way way and and that that isis by by These reducing the the number number of of ships ships in in commission.'" commission.”4 reducing

Understanding Understanding the the personnel personnel question, question, which which has has been been mostly mostly ignored ignored by by naval historians, is essential to naval historians, is essential to comprehending comprehending the the distribution distribution of of the the Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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period entire period the entire throughout the but throughout 1904, but in 1904, just in not just warships not Navy’s warships Royal Royal Navy’s had manpower had fleet manpower 1904, fleet and 1904, 1889 and Between 1889 beyond. Between and beyond. 1914 and before before 1914 the over the expansion, over huge expansion, the huge Despite the 131,100. Despite to 131,100. doubled to than doubled more than more had commission had in commission ships in of ships size of and size number and the number in the increases in period increases same period same Parliament.105 by Parliament.'’™ voted by personnel” voted in personnel” increases in the increases swallowed the than swallowed “more than “more 1904 in 1904 pressing in more pressing even more was even personnel was of personnel shortage of the shortage words the other words In other In fifteen these fifteen Over these simple. Over was simple. explanation was The explanation 1889. The in 1889. been in had been than itit had than years as old, old. years “practically “practically no no vessels vessels were were being being discarded discarded from from the the Navy Navy as was relief was no relief Hence no upkeep. Hence their upkeep. worth their not worth therefore, not and, therefore, date, and, of date, out of out perof peramount of the amount in the expected, in been expected, have been reasonably have might reasonably as might obtained, as obtained, were ones were new ones the new as the ships as oldest ships the oldest of the rid of getting rid by getting required, by sonnel required, sonnel an as an But, as ships. But, modern ships. of modern abundance of an abundance had an navy had the navy 1904 the In 1904 built.”"’6 In built.”' all supplied all have supplied “to have explained, “to subject explained, this subject on this memorandum on Admiralty memorandum Admiralty been have been would have crews, would nucleus crews, even nucleus crews, even with crews, Navy with the Navy of the ships of ships or increased, or largely increased, were largely navy were the navy of the numbers of the numbers unless the impossible unless impossible up.""’7 broken up.”'” were broken establishments were training establishments the training of the whole of the whole unless the unless finanonly finannot only was not 1904 was in 1904 existed in that existed organization that naval organization the naval Clearly the Clearly introThe intromanpower. The of manpower. wasteful of also wasteful but also maintain but to maintain expensive to cially expensive cially old 154 old of 154 scrapping of subsequent scrapping the subsequent and the 1905, and in 1905, “scheme” in the “scheme” of the duction of duction officers 950 officers than 950 fewer than no fewer released no have released to have calculated to later calculated was later ships, was ships, estabnaval estabentire naval the entire perspective, the into perspective, this into put this To put men.108 To 11,000 men.'® and 11,000 and not were not who were coastguardsmen who 5,000 coastguardsmen (including 5,000 time (including this time at this lishment at lishment personnel odd personnel 30,000 odd the 30,000 and the peacetime and in peacetime warships in man warships to man available to available even Yet even men. Yet 130,000 men. about 130,000 at about stood at depots) stood training depots) at training ashore at billeted ashore billeted enough have enough not have did not still did navy still the navy vessels, the old vessels, many old this many scrapping this after scrapping after men to to provide provide crews crews for for all all its its modern modern warships.’ warships!” men of numbers of “the numbers expand “the to expand continuing to reasons, continuing financial reasons, mainly financial For mainly For Lord earlier Lord years earlier Three years 1904.“0 Three after 1904.'° option after an option longer an no longer was no navy” was the navy” the “ancilin “ancilgrowth in projected growth the projected at the alarm at expressing alarm begun expressing had begun Selborne had Selborne in expansion in from expansion pensions—resulting from and pensions—resulting victuals, and votes—wages, victuals, lary” votes—wages, lary” he 1901, he June 1901, as June early as As early personnel.“' As service personnel.'"’ active service of active numbers of the numbers the warnnumbers, warnin numbers, growth in the growth to the brakes to the brakes apply the to apply unsuccessfully to tried unsuccessfully tried the then the direction then this direction in this taken in not taken were not steps were that ifif steps lords that naval lords the naval ing the ing comroyal comappoint aa royal and appoint hands and own hands their own into their matters into take matters might take Cabinet might Cabinet Kerr’s unheeded. Kerr's went unheeded. however, went time, however, that time, at that entreaties at His entreaties mission.“2 His mission.'? led subsequently led crisis subsequently personnel crisis worsening personnel the worsening address the to address reluctance to reluctance Fisher of Fisher appointment of the appointment on the insist on to insist 1901, to of 1901, end of the end at the lord, at first lord, the first the the untangling the of untangling task of the task with the charged with was charged Fisher was lord. Fisher naval lord. second naval as second as existing their existing optimize their better optimize might better Admiralty might the Admiralty that the so that mess so personnel mess personnel manpower manpower resources. resources. This This step step had had unfortunately unfortunately backfired backfired on on Selborne. Selborne. his in his miscalculations in serious miscalculations uncovered serious Fisher uncovered 1902, Fisher of 1902, end of the end Towards the Towards “war the “war man the to man required to men required of men number of the number for the estimates for predecessors’ estimates predecessors’ Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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fleet” fleet” fixed fixed for for completion completion by by the the end end of of 1905.“3 1905.'" The The result result had had been been aa furfurther ther expansion expansion in in prospective prospective naval naval personnel personnel requirements. requirements. When When Fisher Fisher became became first first sea sea lord, lord, the the Royal Royal Navy Navy was was already already paying paying almost almost aa million million aa year year in in pensions pensions and and related related charges. charges. According According to to calculations calculations made made by by Fisher Fisher at at the the end end of of 1905, 1905, even even if if the the establishment establishment of of the the navy navy could could be be held held constant constant at at 131,000 131,000 men, men, this this sum sum was was set set to to double double withwithin in aa matter matter of of years years as as the the additional additional ratings ratings recruited recruited during during the the 1890s 1890s began began retiring retiring from from the the service.”4 service.'" The The Admiralty Admiralty had had other other compelling compelling reasons, reasons, besides besides finance, finance, to to stem stem the the flow flow of of recruits recruits into into the the navy. navy. There There was, was, as as Selborne Selborne put put it it in in 1902, 1902, “a “a definite definite limit limit to to the the rate rate at at which which additional additional men men can can be be added added to to the the personnel personnel of of the the Navy.” Navy.” Not Not only only was was the the supply supply of of high-quality high-quality volunteers volunteers limited, limited, but but “the “the complements complements of of our our ships ships are are even even now now too too young young and and I|

should Should deplore deplore the the rate rate of of addition addition being being further further forced.”“5 forced.”'’ In In 1904', 1904, sixty sixty percent percent of of naval naval personnel personnel were were under under twenty-five twenty-five years years of of age."6 age.''® At At first first glance glance it it is is difficult difficult to to see see why why the the first first lord lord was was quite quite so so concerned. concerned. On On paper, paper, the the numbers numbers borne borne by by the the Royal Royal Navy Navy increased increased between between 1900 1900 and and 1904 1904 by by only only 19,100 19,100 from from 110,978 110,978 to to 130,078—a 130,078—a 16 16 percent percent increase increase over over the the space space of of four four years. years. These These figures, figures, however, however, do do not not include include the the numbers numbers enlisted enlisted to to replace replace the the “natural “natural wastage” wastage” of of men men leaving leaving the the navy navy once once their their term term of of engagement engagement had had expired. expired. If If these these are are included, included, the the total total number number of of men men recruited recruited by by the the navy navy over over these these four four years years reached reached 58,892.“7 58,892.'" Perhaps Perhaps as as many many as as 40 40 percent percent of of ratings ratings serving serving at at the the end end of of 1904, 1904, therefore, therefore, may may have have been been in in the the navy navy for for less less than than four four years. years. For For aa professional professional service, service, this this was was an an unacceptably unacceptably high high proporproportion. tion. The The entry entry of of large large numbers numbers of of recruits, recruits, moreover, moreover, brought brought with with them them aa host host of of administrative administrative problems.‘”’ problems.''® Most Most importantly, importantly, British British warships warships were were increasingly increasingly being being fitted fitted with with sophisticated sophisticated labor-saving labor-saving equipment equipment designed designed to to be be operated operated by by skilled skilled ratings.“9 ratings.''? As As many many as as three-quarters three-quarters of of the the seamen seamen ratings ratings in in Invincible Invincible (1906-design (1906-design battle battle cruiser) cruiser) were were supsupposed to to hold hold higher higher rates rates as as compared compared with with only only one-third one-third of of the the seamen seamen posed complement complement manning manning the the armored armored cruiser cruiser Drake Drake designed designed only only four four years years earlier.120 earlier.'” The The crux crux of of the the problem problem was was that that it it took took the the navy navy not not less less than than six six years years to to qualify qualify aa suitable suitable ordinary ordinary seaman seaman as as a‘specialist a’specialist gunnery gunnery or or torpedo torpedo rating?“ rating.'?' Or Or twice twice as as long long as as it it took took to to build build aa large large ship. ship. And And to to keep keep its its warships warships at at aa high high level level of of battle battle efficiency, efficiency, the the Royal Royal Navy Navy needneeded ed experienced experienced long long service service ratings. ratings. Further Further examination examination of of the the redistribution redistribution of of personnel personnel at at the the end end of of 1904 1904 brings brings to to light light more more evidence evidence to to contradict contradict the the notion notion that that the the naval naval reforms reforms were were motivated motivated primarily primarily by by an an anti-German anti-German imperative. imperative. Between 1902 and 1909, effective fleet manpower remained level level at at Between 1902 and 1909, effective fleet manpower remained between 85,000 85,000 and and 90,000.'” 90,000.‘22 The The other other 30,000-odd 30,000-odd men men were were billeted billeted between Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, httpsz/lhd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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personnel of personnel distribution of in distribution shifts in the shifts of the examination of close examination ashore. AA close ashore. of numbers of large numbers that large confirms that 1907 confirms April 1907 and April 1904 and October 1904 between between October 1904, October 1904, In October reserve.123 In in reserve.'” ships in into ships planned, into as planned, flow, as did flow, seamen seamen did

year 2,357; aa year at 2,357; stood at crews stood nucleus crews into nucleus formed into men formed of men number of the number the than fewer than no fewer reached no and reached 12,507 and to 12,5907 jumped to had jumped number had the number later the later in increase in no increase absolutely no was absolutely there was But there 1907. But January 1907. by January men by 14,335 men 14,335 In fell. In numbers fell. fact numbers In fact waters. In home waters. in home afloat in personnel afloat of personnel number of the number the home in home ships in to ships allocated to men allocated 42,915 men were 42,915 there were 1904 there October 1904 October 42,001 just 42,001 to just dipped to had dipped number had this number later this months later Twelve months waters. Twelve waters. nucleus in nucleus reserve, in in reserve, ships in to ships allocated to men allocated all men include all figures include (these figures (these period same period the same During the commission)?“ During full commission).'** in full and in readiness, and crews readiness, crews including (again including battleships (again to battleships allocated to personnel allocated of personnel number of total number the total the thouover aa thouby over fell by actually fell reserve) actually in reserve) and in commission and in commission ships in both ships both overseas of overseas scrapping of the scrapping by the freed by men freed the men words, the other words, In other sand.125 In sand.’ that for that or, for battleships or, man battleships to man transferred to not transferred were not vessels were cruising vessels cruising to went to actually went They actually waters. They home waters. in home warships in other warships any other matter, any matter, drarose Fleet Atlantic the to allocated men of number The Gibraltar. Gibraltar. The number of men allocated to the Atlantic Fleet rose drafollowing the following 13,351 the to 13,351 1904, to October 1904, in October zero in almost zero from almost matically from matically away steaming days four was moreover, Squadron, Gibraltar The year. year. The Gibraltar Squadron, moreover, was four days steaming away really was Germany If Malta. from days two just yet Flow Scapa from from Scapa Flow yet just two days from Malta. If Germany was really station to station sense to more sense made more have made would have threat itit would major threat as aa major regarded as regarded of coast of south coast the south on the Oueenstown on at Queenstown perhaps at home, perhaps to home, closer to them closer them Ireland, rather rather than than at at the the entrance entrance to to the the Mediterranean. Mediterranean. In In any any case, case, Ireland, home in home ships in crewing ships men crewing of men number of the number did the 1906 did early 1906 until early not until not the until the not until And not office.126 And took office.’ Fisher took before Fisher level before the level reach the waters reach waters numany numin any home in arriving home begin arriving legions” begin “the legions” did “the 1907 did of 1907 beginning of beginning had circumstances had and circumstances conditions and see, conditions shall see, we shall as we time, as this time, By this bers.127 By bers.'?’ assertions undermine assertions seriously undermine figures seriously These figures changed. These considerably changed. considerably concentraof concentrapolicy of pursuing aa policy was pursuing Admiralty was of Admiralty Board of Fisher’s Board that Fisher's that of aa thesis of Mackay’s thesis corroborate Mackay’s to corroborate tend to and tend Sea, and North Sea, the North in the tion in tion more flexible strategic deployment. more flexible strategic deployment. important more important were more cruisers were armored cruisers mind armored Fisher’s mind in Fisher’s that in Given that Given changes actual changes the actual consideration the into consideration taking into after taking and after battleships, and than battleships, than what that suggests evidence the personnel, naval of distribution the in in the distribution of naval personnel, the evidence suggests that what fleximore a of creation the was accomplish to intended actually Jacky Jacky actually intended to accomplish was the creation of a more flexiintertrade interand trade territorial and overseas territorial Britain’s overseas protecting Britain’s for protecting system for ble system ble ests. In In essence, essence, Fisher Fisher devised devised his his scheme scheme to to facilitate facilitate aa change change in in the the ests. method method by by which which the the Admiralty Admiralty employed employed naval naval force, force, not not to to concentrate concentrate the the fleet fleet in in home home waters. waters. The The Royal Royal Navy’s Navy's primary primary strategical strategical mission mission was in retretwas intended intended to to remain remain the the same. same. If If this this does does not not seem seem obvious obvious in rospect not rospect it it is is because because his his plan plan for for the the redistribution redistribution of of the the fleet fleet was was not fully fully implemented. implemented. A A closer closer examination examination of of Fisher’s Fisher’s original original proposals, proposals, Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. 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as as set set out out in in “Naval “Naval Necessities,” Necessities,” shows shows that that after after paying paying off off the the old old gunboats gunboats and and cruising cruising vessels vessels in in distant distant waters waters he he anticipated anticipated sending sending the the crews crews back back out out in in armored armored cruisers.128 cruisers.'* For For example, example, the the number number of of cruisers cruisers on on station station in in the the Pacific Pacific was was originally originally scheduled scheduled to to rise rise from from nineteen nineteen to to twenty-eight. twenty-eight. As As aa first first step, step, after after scrapping scrapping the the old old cruising cruising vessels, vessels, Fisher Fisher was was able able in in 1905 1905 to to commission commission aa half-dozen half-dozen brand-new brand-new armored armored cruisers cruisers that that had had been been sitting sitting in in reserve reserve for for want want of of crews.129 crews.'” Fisher Fisher hoped hoped that that station station fleets fleets would would eventually eventually be be made made up up solely solely of of these these vessels.‘30 vessels.'*° He He had had first first considered considered this this ideal ideal while while serving serving in in the the Mediterranean!“ Mediterranean."*’ Looking Looking further further ahead ahead he he had had hoped hoped to to commission commission another another thirty thirty armored armored cruisers.‘32 cruisers.'” The The first first sea sea lord lord proposed proposed to to find find the the necessary necessary crews crews by by further further pruning pruning the the number number of of old old protected protected cruiscruisers ers on on the the navy navy list list and, and, more more controversially, controversially, by by cutting cutting the the number number of of men men allocated allocated to to the the battle battle fleet. fleet. In In “Naval “Naval Necessities,” Necessities,” Fisher Fisher originaloriginally ly proposed proposed to to cut cut the the number number of of battleships battleships in in full full commission commission from from thirty-five thirty-five to to twenty-eight.‘33 twenty-eight.'"* This This recommendation, recommendation, however, however, was was not not implemented. implemented. The The new new distribution distribution of of the the fleet, fleet, as as announced announced on on 11 January January 1905, 1905, was was actually actually the the product product of of aa compromise compromise reached reached between between Fisher, Fisher, Selborne, and and aa small small Admiralty Admiralty committee committee headed headed by by Battenberg.'™ Battenberg.134 In In Selborne, order to secure unanimous support for his scheme, order to secure unanimous support for his scheme, the the first first sea sea lord lord was was obliged to to make make aa number number of of concessions. concessions. Consequently, Consequently, the the change change in in obliged the the pattern pattern of of warship warship distribution distribution was was not not as as pronounced pronounced as as he he had had originally intended. intended. Largely Largely in in order order to to save save money, money, Selborne Selborne directed directed originally that that more more ships ships be be retained retained in in home home waters. waters. Most Most importantly, importantly, Fisher’s Fisher's attempt attempt to to increase increase the the numbers numbers of of armored armored cruisers cruisers available available for for impe— imperial rial defense defense duties duties was was compromised compromised by by Selborne’s Selborne’s stubborn stubborn faith faith in in bat— battleships. Initially Initially the the first first lord lord refused refused to to recall recall the the five five battleships battleships from from tleships. China.‘35 When, When, in in the the spring Spring of of 1905 1905 Fisher Fisher was was at at last last permitted permitted to to China.’ order order them them home, home, itit was was on on the the proviso proviso that that four four remain remain in in full full commiscommiseach one each and one Fleet, and Channel Fleet, the Channel to the added to be added would be battleships would Two battleships sion. Two sion. to the the Atlantic Atlantic and and Mediterranean Mediterranean Squadrons.136 Squadrons.'* Selborne Selborne also also insisted insisted to had lord had sea lord first sea the first battleships the obsolete battleships eleven obsolete reserve eleven in reserve keeping in on on keeping earmarked for for scrap.137 scrap.'*’ Needless Needless to to say, say, all all these these battleships battleships continued continued earmarked were there were 1905, there October 1905, in October result, in As aa result, manpower. As scarce manpower. absorb scarce to to absorb reserve in Ships” “Fighting of A” “List original Fisher’s original “List A” of “Fighting Ships” in reserve on Fisher’s warships on still still warships for for want want of of crews, crews, including including six six armored armored cruisers, cruisers, twelve twelve first-class first-class protected protected cruisers, cruisers, and and sixteen sixteen destroyers.‘38 destroyers.'** Even Even if if Fisher Fisher had had been been prevented prevented by by Selborne Selborne from from fully fully implementing implementing his his original original plans, plans, nevernevertheless, theless, the the Royal Royal Navy’s Navy's fighting fighting efficiency efficiency had had certainly certainly been been increased, increased, the the worst worst administrative administrative problems problems had had been been solved, solved, and and over over three and and aa half half million million had had been been shaved shaved from from the the naval naval estimates. estimates. three Lambert, Nicolas. 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Enquiry Invasion Enquiry 1904 Invasion the 1904 and the The Leadership and Tory Leadership The Tory

he 1904, he October 1904, in October Whitehall in at Whitehall arrived at Fisher arrived John Fisher Sir John time Sir By the time By the force best force the best was the battleships was on battleships centered on fleet centered that aa fleet no believed that longer believed no longer convinced he convinced was he Nor was interests. Nor imperial interests. British imperial protecting British structure for protecting structure for the longer the any longer was any water was blue water the blue in the fleet in enemy fleet that the enemy out the seeking out that seeking he before he years before several years for several that for seen that have seen We have policy. We best strategic policy. best strategic should navy should the navy believed the privately believed had privately Fisher had lord, Fisher sea lord, became first sea became first cruisarmored cruissuper armored of super favor of in favor battleships in of battleships abandon construction of the construction abandon the previous the previous In the missions. In defense missions. imperial defense oceanic imperial for oceanic suited for better suited ers, ers, better armored large armored that large convinced that also convinced was also Fisher was that Fisher shown that chapter was shown chapter itit was the around the seas around narrow seas the narrow in the employed in be employed safely be not safely could not warships warships could that theory that developed aa theory he developed supposition, he this supposition, upon this Based upon Isles. Based British Isles. British subof subfleet of “mosquito” fleet by aa “mosquito” provided by be provided instead be could instead defense could home home defense and evolution and the evolution to the return to now return We now craft. We torpedo craft. surface torpedo and surface marines and marines implementation implementation of of this this concept concept of of “flotilla “flotilla defense.” defense.” asserFisher’s asserJohn Fisher's Sir John questioned Sir have questioned would have officers would naval officers Few naval Few to missions to principal missions two principal just two had just Navy had Royal Navy the Royal wartime the in wartime that in tion that tion trade the trade protecting the and protecting invasion, and from invasion, country from the country defending the perform: defending perform: achievof achievmethod of simplest method the simplest that the believed that most believed whereas most But whereas routes. But routes. them, sink them, and sink action and to action warships to enemy warships the enemy bring the to bring was to goals was these goals ing these ing He practicable. He be practicable. not be would not this would believed this Fisher believed reasons Fisher of reasons variety of for aa variety for endeavseas, endeavnarrow seas, the narrow patrolling the squadron patrolling battle squadron British battle that aa British feared that feared puttn from putting convoy from invasion convoy an invasion deter an or deter fleet or enemy fleet oring an enemy out an seek out to seek oring to association his association Since his attack.‘39 Since torpedo attack.'*® to torpedo to vulnerable to be vulnerable would be sea, would to sea, morePortsmouth, moreat Portsmouth, serving at were serving both were while both Bacon while Reginald Bacon with Capt. Reginald with Capt. would there would future there foreseeable future the foreseeable for the that for persuaded that been persuaded had been over, he had over, he hencethat, hencepostulate that, to postulate him to led him This led submarines. This against submarines. defense against be no defense be no with principally with here principally deal here Seas’——we deal ‘Narrow Seas’—we the ‘Narrow of the defense of “the defense forth, forth, “the Mediterranean”— the Mediterranean’"— of the basin of western basin the western and the Channel and English Channel the English the the from the separate from and separate apart and quite apart question quite “a question as “a with as dealt with be dealt should should be its upon its rely upon must rely Navy must Royal Navy The Royal fleets.”140 The fighting fleets.”'* working main fighting the main of the working of torpedo torpedo flotilla flotilla to to patrol patrol the the narrow narrow seas. Seas. by (backed by submarines (backed and submarines boats and torpedo boats The destroyers, torpedo that destroyers, idea that The idea indeinvasion indedeterring invasion of deterring capable of by capable might by fleet) might reserve fleet) the reserve units of the units of recalled, be recalled, will be 1903, itit will In 1903, new. In not new. was not fleet was battle fleet the battle from the pendently pendently from the by the claims by rebut claims to rebut argument to similar argument forward aa similar put forward had put the Admiralty had the Admiralty was fleet was battle fleet the battle whenever the possible whenever was possible invasion was that invasion Office that War Office War

absent from from home home waters waters or or ifif the the navy navy suffered suffered aa temporary temporary setback. setback. absent This This argument argument had had been been accepted accepted as as plausible plausible by by the the Cabinet Cabinet Defense Defense

Committeem And And the the concept concept of of “torpedo “torpedo armed armed flotilla” flotilla” had had subsesubseCommittee.'*’ L b

possibilthe possibilon the paper on minister’s paper prime minister’s the prime quently bNeeln been incorporated in the incOrporated in N. Iquently

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ity ity of of serious serious invasion.M2 invasion." Furthermore, Furthermore, the the first first lord lord of of the the Admiralty Admiralty had had endorsed endorsed Balfour’s Balfour’s conclusions.‘43 conclusions.'** “Our “Our fleet fleet of of torpedo torpedo craft,” craft,” Selborne Selborne wrote wrote in in 1904, 1904, “play “play an an immense immense part part in in the the naval naval protection protection of of this this country country against against invasion. invasion. It It has has really really been been on on the the superiority superiority of of our our fleet fleet of of torpedo torpedo craft craft in in all all possible possible naval naval contingencies contingencies that that the the Committee Committee of of Imperial Imperial Defense Defense has has felt felt able able to to advise advise that that the the strength strength of of the the home home Army Army may may be be calculated calculated apart apart from from any any fear fear of of serious serious invasion.”I44 invasion.”' Fisher, Fisher, however, however, was was the the first first British British admiral admiral to to suggest suggest the the Royal Royal Navy Navy should should deliberately deliberately rely rely upon upon the the torpedo torpedo flotilla flotilla rather rather than than the the battle battle fleet fleet to to act act as as the the main main instrument instrument of of strategic strategic deterrence. deterrence. ln In “Naval “Naval Necessities” Necessities” Fisher Fisher proposed proposed to to organize organize four four “defense “défense mobile” mobile” groups, groups, comprising comprising each each of of one one flotilla flotilla of of twenty-four twenty-four destroyers destroyers and and one one section section of of twelve twelve submarines, submarines, and and station station them them along along the the south south coast.145 coast.'* Selborne Selborne agreed.146 agreed.'* The The advantages advantages of of using using torpedo torpedo craft craft to to defend defend naval naval ports, ports, Fisher Fisher claimed, claimed, had had long long been been recognized recognized by by most most naval naval officers. officers. A A torpedo torpedo armed armed flotilla flotilla not not only only provided provided aa port port with with a a more more efficient efficient defense defense than than existing existing mines mines and and guns, guns, but but their their mobility mobility allowed allowed them them to to be be moved moved according according to to strategic strategic requirements. requirements. The The problem problem was was that that up up to to this this time time naval naval officers officers had had always always been been relucreluctant tant to to admit admit this this “for “for fear fear the the Admiralty Admiralty in in any any way way accepting accepting aa part part responsibility responsibility in in the the local local defences.”“‘7 defences.”'” In In consequence, consequence, the the defense defense of of naval naval ports ports had had been been left left in in the the hands hands of of the the army army who, who, it it was was widely widely felt, felt, “have “have never never attempted attempted seriously seriously to to make make their their officers officers in in charge charge of of guns guns or or minefields minefields acquainted acquainted with with the the typical typical differences differences between between British British and and foreign foreign warships?”8 warships.”'*® One One naval naval authority, authority, Battenberg, Battenberg, once once described described the the army’s army's understanding understanding of of their their role role in in coast coast defense defense as as “childish—there “childish—there is is no no other other word word for for it.”'49 it.”'*® The The time time had had come, come, Fisher Fisher agreed agreed in in 1904, 1904, for for “a “a reconsideration reconsideration of of the the whole whole question question of of control” control” and and the the “establishment “establishment of of floating floating local local defences.”'50 defences.”'” If If this this entailed entailed the the navy Navy assuming assuming full full responsibility responsibility for for port port defenses—then defenses—then so so be be it. it. Readers Readers will will recall recall that that for for some some months months before before Fisher Fisher was was appointappointed ed first first sea sea lord, lord, there there had had been been muted muted War War Office Office calls calls for for the the navy navy to to take take some some responsibility responsibility for for port port defenses. defenses. Oakley Oakley Arnold-Forster, Arnold-Forster, the the ambitious secretary secretary of of state state for for war, war, had had been been for for some some time time “not “not only only ambitious willing willing but but anxious” anxious” for for the the lines lines of of demarcation demarcation to to be be redrawn.‘5‘ redrawn.'*’ But But the the generals generals and and admirals admirals both both had had shied shied away away from from picking picking up up what what might might turn turn out out to to be be aa double-edged double-edged sword. sword. Arnold-Forster’s Arnoid-Forster’s insistent insistent prespressure, Sure, however, however, persuaded persuaded Balfour Balfour that that this this matter matter ought ought to to be be considconsidered ered by by the the Committee Committee of of imperial Imperial Defense. Defense. Discussions Discussions over over whether whether or or not the Corps of Submarine Miners should be transferred from not the Corps of Submarine Miners should be transferred from army army to to navy navy control control were were scheduled scheduled for for the the autumn autumn of of 1904. 1904. Predictably, Predictably, the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s first first position position paper paper written written that that summer summer opposed opposed the the idea idea Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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the however, the Kerr, however, Walter Kerr, from Walter unequivocally.'” over from took over Fisher took After Fisher unequivocally.152 After service which service about which arguing about of arguing Admiralty Instead of tune.153 Instead their tune.'* changed their Admiralty changed attenrefocused attensuccessfully refocused should lord successfully sea lord first sea the first mines, the the mines, control the should control mines these mines not these or not whether or of whether tion question of fundamental question more fundamental the more onto the tion onto all. at all. employed at be employed were should be and should use and any use of any were of by discussed by formally discussed was formally The mines was observation mines of observation value of military value The military 1904. November 1904. 22 November on 22 held on the meeting held hour meeting three hour heated three during aa heated CID during the CID the in the aggressiveness in his aggressiveness temper his Unlike not temper did not Fisher did predecessor, Fisher his predecessor, Unlike his representatives Office representatives War Office presence the War Although the ministers. Although Cabinet ministers. of Cabinet presence of were they were character, they forceful character, certainly was aa forceful lord was sea lord first sea the first that the knew that certainly knew of line of direct line brutally direct and brutally caught language and violent language his violent by his guard by off guard totally off caught totally likemore like“far more would “far argument.'* thundered, would Jacky thundered, mines, Jacky Observation mines, argument.154 Observation most anyway most and anyway ports, and ly most ports, to most protection” to than aa protection” hindrance than be aa hindrance to be ly to Obviously protection. Obviously were effective protection. provide effective to provide extent” to in extent” “insufficient in were “insufficient govof govlanguage of the language not the they was not This was forthwith. This abolished forthwith. be abolished should be they should night That night Arnold-Forster.155 That ernment. even Arnold-Forster.' startled even bellicosity startled Fisher’s bellicosity ernment. Fisher’s exaggerated “very exaggerated he made “very had made Admiral had the Admiral that the diary that his diary in his noted in he noted to dangerous to “more dangerous were “more statements” minefields were the minefields that the insisting that by insisting statements” by moreover, self-confidence, moreover, breezy self-confidence, friend lord’s breezy sea lord’s first sea The first foe.”’56 The than foe.”'* friend than matter,”‘57 the matter,”'*’ about the had “nothing about knowing “nothing Despite knowing contagious. Despite proved contagious. had proved into waded into had waded Austen Exchequer, had the Exchequer, of the chancellor of the chancellor Chamberlain, the Austen Chamberlain, observation of observation abolition” of branch abolition” the and branch “root and demand aa “root to demand discussions to the discussions events: recent events: of recent mines.'*® irony of the irony upon the reflected upon Arnold-Forster reflected mines.158 Arnold-Forster originalwho originalsituation. I,I, who odd situation. An odd The mining: An submarine mining: of submarine abandonment of The abandonment ly ly started started the the idea, idea, in in November November 1903, 1903, and and was was rebuffed rebuffed by by the the Admiralty, Admiralty, now now appear appear as as the the councillor councillor of of moderation, moderation, begging begging the the Admiralty Admiralty reprerepreare They are end. They an end. desirable an so desirable sentatives towards so even towards fast, even too fast, go too to go not to sentatives not going going too too fast!‘59 fast!'*

Fisher after Fisher mollified after partially mollified was partially The minister was war minister the war day the following day The following thick rather aa thick with rather on with “laid itit on privately had “laid he had that he him that to him admitted to privately admitted the bolster the to bolster brush.” necessary to being necessary as being language as his language justified his He justified brush.” He military the military rule the over rule resolve to over members to committee members civilian committee the civilian of the resolve of been had been generals had the generals “experts.” apparently, the meeting, apparently, the meeting, Throughout the “experts.” Throughout and advice and their advice muttering ignored their CID ignored the CID consequences” ifif the “dire consequences” muttering “dire disapArnold—Forster disapendorsed abolition.160 IfIf Arnold-Forster for abolition.'© recommendation for the recommendation endorsed the motives. his motives. with his sympathized with proved certainly sympathized he certainly methods, he Fisher’s methods, of Fisher’s proved of The war war minister minister often often confessed confessed in in his his diary diary that that he he was was equally equally exasThe exasno there isis no and there advisors, and military advisors, his military perated of his uncooperativeness of the uncooperativeness by the perated by steamFisher steamof Fisher sight of the sight at the doubt exhilarated at been exhilarated had been him had of him part of that part doubt that the to the written to already written had already indeed, had rollering Arnold-Forster, indeed, generals. Arnold-Forster, the generals. rollering the first member member of of the the army army council, council, Gen. Gen. Neville Neville Lyttleton, Lyttleton, aa terse terse letter letter first Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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demanding demanding action. action. “in “In pursuance pursuance to to the the decision decision arrived arrived at at today today at at the the

C.l.D.,” C.1.D.,” he he wrote, wrote, “I “J presume presume you you will will now now take take action action with with regard regard to to the the question question of of submarine submarine defense. defense. it It was, was, i| think, think, practically practically agreed agreed that that submarine submarine mining mining in in naval naval ports ports should should cease cease forthwith forthwith and and that that the the up.””" broken up.”'®' be broken should be establishment should establishment Direct Direct instructions instructions from from the the secretary secretary of of state state for for war war proved proved to to carry little little weight weight with with the the army army council. council. Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster was was roundly roundly disdiscarry liked liked and and distrusted distrusted by by his his subordinates. subordinates. The The generals generals had had been been stung stung by by Fisher’s Fisher's criticisms criticisms and and had had resented resented being being portrayed portrayed as as a a bunch bunch of of reacreactionaries tionaries clinging clinging to to an an obsolete obsolete weapon weapon system. system. They They were were also also not not aa little little afraid afraid of of the the wider wider repercussions repercussions if if they they surrendered surrendered control control of of the the mines. mines. Two Two days days after after the the fifty-eighth fifty-eighth meeting meeting of of the the CID, CID, the the soldiers soldiers demanded demanded aa stay stay of of execution, execution, claiming claiming that that the the Admiralty Admiralty had had “misled” “misled” the the committee. committee. They They continued continued to to insist insist that that observation observation mines mines were were aa cheap cheap and and valuable valuable adjunct adjunct to to coastal coastal defences.‘62 defences.'” The The next next day, day, 25 25 November, November, the the CID CID was was reconvened. reconvened. At At this this second second meeting, meeting, Fisher Fisher clevcleverly erly changed changed tack. tack. Instead Instead of of complaining complaining about about the the uselessness uselessness of of the the mines mines he he instead instead revealed revealed that that the the navy navy now now believed believed submarine submarine boats boats could could prove prove more more efficient efficient than than mines mines for for the the port port defense. defense. The The first first sea sea lord lord went went on on to to request request the the CID CID direct direct all all “submarine “submarine mining mining establishestablishments” ments” be be “handed “handed over over to to the the Admiralty, Admiralty, who who would would arrange arrange to to station station submarine he submarine boats boats in in lieu.”'63 lieu.”'® Anticipating Anticipating the the army’s army’s objections, objections, he declared declared that that the the navy navy was was ready ready to to guarantee guarantee that that submarines submarines would would protect protect all all ports ports against against raids. raids. Fisher Fisher was was just just about about to to ask ask the the cm CID to to give maritime give the the Admiralty Admiralty the the full full responsibility responsibility for for all all naval naval ports, ports, maritime fortresses, fortresses, and and coastal coastal batteries, batteries, when when aa nervous nervous Lord Lord Selborne Selborne reigned reigned in his his first first sea sea lord. lord. Already, Already, however, however, Fisher's Fisher’s bold bold maneuvering maneuvering had had in again again caught caught the the War War Office Office off off balance balance and and left left the the generals generals spluttering. spluttering. Throughout Throughout the the meeting meeting the the first first sea sea lord lord received received strong strong backing backing from from Col. George George Clarke, Clarke, now now serving serving aS as permanent permanent secretary secretary to to the the CID. CID. The The Col. mines observation mines of observation value of military value the military describe the to describe used to had used he had language he language opinion Clarke’s opinion Fisher’s!‘““. Clarke’s as Fisher’s!'* colorful as as colorful been as have been to have reported to was reported was widely was widely He was minister. He prime minister. the prime with the weight with more weight carried more probably carried probably conclusions any conclusions before any But before warfare.I65 But mine warfare.'® on mine expert on an expert as an regarded as regarded were were reached reached the the meeting meeting was was adjourned.166 adjourned.'® Despite continued continued opposition opposition to to the the scheme scheme from from the the generals generals and and Despite November 30 on quickly, too moving were events that doubts lingering lingering doubts that events were moving too quickly, on 30 November Arnold-Forster assured assured Balfour Balfour that that he he regarded regarded the the original original decision decision to to Arnold-Forster abolish abolish the the mines mines at at naval naval ports ports “as “as binding binding on on the the War War Office Office and and have have already taken taken the the necessary necessary steps steps to to give give effect effect to to it.”'®’ it.”'67 At At the the next next meetmeetalready ing ing of of the the CID, CID, on on 2 2 December, December, the the prime prime minister minister ruled ruled that that all all mining mining establishments at at the the main main naval naval bases bases should should be be “at “at once” once” transferred transferred establishments Lambert, Nicolas. 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“to “to Admiralty Admiralty charge.“68 charge.”'® The The abolition abolition of of mines mines at at the the other other ports ports took took aa little little longer longer to to resolve. resolve. Balfour Balfour felt felt that that commercial commercial ports, ports, which which were were not not directly directly protected protected by by warships, warships, were were more more likely likely to to be be raided raided than than the forthe navy navy was was willing willing to to admit.169 admit.'® For For this this reason reason he he instructed instructed the the formation coastal mation of of a a joint joint service service committee committee to to consider consider whether whether or or not not coastal batteries batteries alone alone could could adequately adequately protect protect commercial commercial ports.‘70 ports.'” But, But, importantly, he also stipulated that the Admiralty would be “the sole importantly, he also stipulated that the Admiralty would be “the sole authority authority for for advising advising as as to to what what classes classes of of hostile hostile ships ships may may reasonably reasonably be expected to enter certain waters.”I71 Even so, it was three be expected to enter certain waters.”'” Even so, it was another another three months months before before the the CID CID finally finally endorsed endorsed the the dismantling dismantling of of mining mining stastations tions at at commercial commercial ports.172 ports.'” Much Much to to Arnold-Forster’s Arnold-Forster’s annoyance annoyance the the CID CID did did not not go go on on to to make make the “clear pronouncement” the “clear pronouncement” he he had had wanted wanted “as “as to to the the future future responsibilresponsibility ity of of the the army army in in connection connection with with the the non-naval non-naval ports.”‘73 ports.”'” The The committee committee had apparently had apparently lost lost sight sight of of the the question: question: who who would would be be held held accountable accountable if if aa commercial commercial port port were were bombarded? bombarded? Yet Yet it it seems seems that that Selborne Selborne had had urged this end urged Balfour Balfour not not to to investigate investigate these these questions questions too too closely. closely. To To this end he colleagues as he informally informally assured assured the the prime prime minister minister that that “my “my naval naval colleagues as well well as as myself myself look look forward forward to to stationing stationing submarine submarine boats boats at at these these ports, ports, to to be be manned, manned, as as II believe, believe, by by officers officers and and men men of of the the R.N.V.R.””4 R.N.V.R.”'% Ignoring From Sir Ignoring the the whole whole question question was was certainly certainly the the easiest easiest solution. solution. From Sir John John Fisher’s Fisher’s perspective, perspective, however, however, this this was was no no more more than than detail. detail. The The principle principle of of relying relying upon upon submarines submarines had had already already been been endorsed, endorsed, and and thus thus the the door door was was now now open open to to the the navy navy setting setting up up a a chain chain of of submarine submarine bases bases and and adopting adopting the the strategy strategy of of flotilla flotilla defense.175 defense.' The The navy, navy, moreover, moreover, had had struck struck a a major major blow blow at at the the army’s army’s case case for for a a role role in in home home defense. defense. In In light light of of the the still still deteriorating deteriorating fiscal fiscal climate, climate, the the significance significance of of this this should Should not not be be underestimated. underestimated. In the In March March 1905, 1905, the the Admiralty Admiralty scored scored a a decisive decisive victory victory against against the War Office in the battle War Office in the battle over over the the question question of of responsibility responsibility for for home home defense.176 defense.'” After After listening listening to to a a fine-polished fine-polished presentation presentation by by Fisher Fisher and and the new the new DNI, DNI, Capt. Capt. Charles Charles Ottley, Ottley, the the CID CID at at last last “affirmed “affirmed the the doctrine doctrine that that the the maximum maximum strength strength of of the the army army raid raid against against which which we we need need propro-

vide, vide, could could not not exceed exceed 5,000 5,000 men.”‘77 men.”'” This This decision decision gave gave the the navy navy clear clear priority priority in in the the allocation allocation of of defense defense resources resources for for the the task task of of home home defense defense and and relegated relegated the the army army to to little little more more than than a a minor minor supporting supporting role. role. The The generals generals were were dismayed. dismayed. Arnold-Forster, Arnold-Forster, on on the the other other hand, hand, at at once once capitalized capitalized upon upon this this decision decision by by resuming resuming his his campaign campaign for for reducreductions tions in in “the “the absolutely absolutely useless useless force force of of 375,000 375,000 men men in in peacetime peacetime addiadditional tional to to the the regular regular Army Army and and Navy, Navy, all all tied tied to to this this country.”178 country.”'® Reform Reform of of the the militia militia was was now now given given top top priority.‘79 priority.'”? Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster also also succeedsucceeded ed in in forcing forcing the the prime prime minister minister to to publish, publish, on on 12 12 May May 1905, 1905, an an outline outline Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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of of the the conclusions conclusions reached reached so so far far by by the the CID. CID. The The war war minister minister h0ped hoped this this would would divert divert some some of of the the “flood “flood of of uninformed uninformed public public opinion opinion in in favour favour of of maintaining maintaining [these] [these] useless useless forces.”'80 forces.”'* It It is is quite quite clear, clear, theretherefore, fore, that that by by the the spring spring of of 1905, 1905, the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s dominance dominance in in matters matters concerning concerning imperial imperial defense defense policy policy had had reached reached aa new new high. high. Yet, Yet, with with one one exception, exception, this this fact fact has has been been overlooked overlooked by by most most historians!“ historians.'*! Fisher’s Theory Theory of of Flotilla Flotilla Defense Defense Fisher’s Adm. Sir Sir John John Fisher Fisher seldom seldom explained explained his his radical radical strategic strategic theories theories Adm. in in writing. writing. Fortunately, Fortunately, however, however, two two documents documents have have survived survived in in which which Fisher Fisher set set out out his his concept concept of of “flotilla “flotilla defense.” defense.” Both Both date date from from early early 1905. 1905. These These show show that that Fisher Fisher intended intended that that the the aforementioned aforementioned mobile mobile defense defense groups groups would would not not be be restricted restricted to to harbor harbor or or coastal coastal defense defense mismissions. sions. They They would would be be deployed deployed well well forward forward into into the the middle middle waters waters with with orders to to prevent prevent enemy enemy transports transports and and large large warships warships from from cruising cruising on on orders the the narrow narrow seas seas without without incurring incurring serious serious risk risk of'being of being torpedoed. torpedoed. The The object Object was was explained explained in in a a “rough “rough paper” paper” sent sent to to Balfour Balfour on on 24 24 January January entitled entitled “Submarines “Submarines Used Used Offensively.”182 Offensively.”'®? The The Royal Royal Navy’s Navy's latest latest subsubmarines, Fisher Fisher began, began, the the B B type, type, were were seaworthy seaworthy enough enough to to operate operate at at marines, aa considerable considerable distance distance from from their their bases bases and and in in most most weather. weather. They They were were quite quite capable capable of of patrolling patrolling the the straits straits at at Dover Dover and and Gibraltar. Gibraltar. Others Others could could be be positioned positioned off off enemy enemy ports ports ready ready to to attack attack large large ships ships as as they they came came out. out. In In fact, fact, Fisher Fisher claimed, claimed, submarines submarines could could be be used used anyanywhere “within “within the the limits limits of of their their radius radius of of action.”'83 action.”'® Their Their range range could could be be where supplemented, moreover, moreover, by by towing towing them them out out to to sea sea with with surface surface ships. ships. supplemented, different Fisher’s fundamentally different was fundamentally however, was objective, however, strategic objective, Fisher’s strategic “offensive that “offensive postulated that He postulated from strategists. He naval strategists. conventional naval of conventional that of from that movefree movethe free of the strategy circumspection of the circumspection include the to include held to be held must be strategy must an movement isis an free movement ments their free limits their that limits activity that any activity enemy, any the enemy, of the ments of coma was enemy an enemy was a comto an action sea to the sea “denying” the Simply “denying” offence.”'84 Simply of offence.”'** action of had too had French too the French that the pletely aware that also aware was also He was thinking. He of thinking. way of new way pletely new the in anywhere less or submarine boats that could also operate more or less anywhere in the more operate also could that boats submarine channel. Consequently: Consequently: channel. to opposed to when opposed us when and us France and to France The same to the same Channel isis the the Channel in the position in The position since (!) since submarine (‘) the submarine to the one answer to only answer the only is the submarine is The submarine another. The one another. be can be vessel can particular vessel one particular they no one and no craft and all craft elude all to elude able to be able should be they should

use the use by the so, by being so, This being them. This built destroy them. to destroy upon to relied upon be relied can be which can built which Channel, the Channel, in the units in large units of keep large to keep impossible to made impossible maybe made craft itit maybe these craft of these invathen invacan, then enemy can, the enemy but the so but do so or cannot do we cannot waters. IfIf we confined waters. other confined or other on craft on these craft of these provision of the provision for the sion necessity for the necessity hence the certainty; hence sion isis aa certainty; instantly become instantly they become our purpose they this purpose for this them for having them But having frontiers. But sea frontiers. our sea Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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[by navigation [by years navigation many years before many use .. .. .. before extended use further extended for further available for available armored vessels} vessels] in in the the western western basin basin of of the the Mediterranean Mediterranean in in wartime wartime armored underdangerous undervery dangerous become aa very will become Channel) will English Channel) the English with the (equally with (equally

boat.185 of boat.'® class of this class of this action of offensive action the offensive to the owing to taking owing taking In In other other words words if if the the ability ability to to deploy deploy formations formations of of large large surface surface ships ships in in the the narrow narrow seas seas was was denied denied to to both both sides, sides, then then neither neither France France nor nor Britain would would be be able able to to convoy convoy an an expeditionary expeditionary force force across across the the chanchanBritain nel. nel. Strategically, Strategically, mutual mutual sea sea denial denial would would be be much much more more advantageous advantageous to to Britain Britain because because it it left left the the Royal Royal Navy Navy free free to to protect protect the the trade trade routes routes and to to defend defend distant distant colonies colonies with with armored armored ships ships that that would would otherwise otherwise and have have been been tied tied to to home home waters. waters. The The principle principle of of flotilla flotilla defense defense seems seems not not to to have have been been finally finally adoptadopted ed until until after after Lord Lord Selborne Selborne had had left left the the Board Board of of Admiralty. Admiralty. On On 2 2 March March 1905, 1905, he he was was posted posted to to the the governorship governorship of of South South Africa Africa and and his his portfoportfolio lio handed handed to to the the earl earl of of Cawdor Cawdor (formerly (formerly chairman chairman of of the the Great Great Western Western Railway).186 Railway).'®° The The new new first first lord lord was was quickly quickly convinced convinced by by Fisherthat Fisher that the the advent advent of of the the submarine submarine heralded heralded aa revolution revolution in in the the conduct conduct of of war war at at sea. sea. In In March March 1905, 1905, Cawdor Cawdor and and Fisher Fisher prepared prepared a a memorandum memorandum for for Cabinet Cabinet entitled entitled “Submarine-boats,” “Submarine-boats,” which which was was intended intended to to give give some some indication indication of of the the “general “general uses uses these these vessels vessels may may be be put put in in wartime.”187 wartime.”'® This This paper paper was was a a remarkably remarkably detailed detailed presentation presentation of of the the navy’s navy’s secret secret “flotilla “flotilla defense” defense” strategy, strategy, and and included included a a section section on on Fisher’s Fisher’s new new theory theory of of mutual mutual sea sea denial. denial. So So explicit explicit was was it, it, indeed, indeed, that that there there must must be be some some question question whether whether Cawdor Cawdor actually actually circulated circulated it it to to the the full full Cabinet. Cabinet. Copies Copies do do not not exist exist in in any any private private papers papers of of leading leading Cabinet Cabinet ministers ministers deposited deposited at at national national archive archive centers.188 centers.'® This This paper paper provides provides the the historian historian with with the the clearest clearest exposition exposition of of the the concept concept of of flotilla flotilla defense defense and and more more generally generally a a statement statement of of the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s views views at at this this time time on on the the military military value value of of submarines. submarines. “Their “Their main main attribute,” attribute,” emphasized emphasized Lord Lord Cawdor, Cawdor, “is “is their their invisibility.” invisibility.” This This “invests “invests them them with with a a subtle subtle power power of of producing producing great great uncertainty uncertainty and and apprehension apprehension in in the the minds minds of of officers officers and and crews crews of of vessels vessels working working in in certain certain waters.”189 waters.”'® Also, Also, Their Their use use in in “expectant” “expectant” blockade blockade cannot cannot be be denied, denied, whether whether this this watchwatching ing is is in in the the offing offing of of an an enemy’s enemy's harbour harbour or or in in confined confined waters waters within within

reach reach of of the the boats’ boats’ bases. bases. We We must must also also not not neglect neglect the the possibility possibility of of cercertain tain waters waters being being denied denied to to large large ships, ships, from from the the danger danger of of being being attacked attacked

in in daylight daylight by by submarine submarine boats, boats, and and at at night night by by torpedo torpedo craft. craft. The The only only way, way, at at present, present, of of meeting meeting such such an an investment investment is is by by following following suit, suit, and and denying denying the the waters waters in in turn turn to to the the enemy, enemy, thereby thereby neutralising neutralising these these areas areas

for for offensive offensive operations. operations. Such Such aa case case may may be be far, far, at at present, present, from from actual actual Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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realisation: realisation: but but affairs affairs move move quickly quickly in in these these days, days, and and we we must must be be ready ready to to forestall forestall any any dangerous dangerous contingencies.‘90 contingencies.'” [my [my italics] italics. ]

The The message message was was unmistakable. unmistakable. Confronted Confronted by by “unattackable” “unattackable” subsubmarines marines by by day day and and “invisible” “invisible” small small craft craft at at night, night, the the Royal Royal Navy’s Navy’s fighting fighting fleets fleets could could not not possibly possibly remain remain in in the the narrow narrow seas seas without without incurring incurring serious serious risks. risks. In In aa letter letter to to aa journalist journalist friend friend written written at at the the end end of of March March 1905, 1905, Fisher Fisher stated stated that that not not even even the the Dreadnought Dreadnought would would be be able able to to cruise cruise the the English English Channel Channel in in the the presence presence of of submarines.191 submarines.'*' “I “IT won’t won't weary weary you you with with technicalities,” technicalities,” promised promised Fisher Fisher in in another another letletter ter addressed addressed to to Lord Lord Cromer Cromer and and dated dated 22 22 April April 1905, 1905, “but “but suffice suffice to to say Say that that within within three three or or four four years years of of this this date date (and (and you you might might keep keep this this letter letter for for curiosity!) curiosity!) the the English English Channel Channel and and the the western western basin basin of of the the Mediterranean Mediterranean will will not not be be habitable habitable by by aa fleet fleet or or squadrons squadrons in in wartime.”"~"2 wartime.”'” How How practical practical was was the the concept concept of of flotilla flotilla defense defense at at this this time? time? Certainly Certainly the the submarines submarines available available to to the the Royal Royal Navy Navy in in 1905 1905 were were relarelatively tively primitive primitive compared compared to to the the vessels vessels employed employed ten ten years years later later during during the the First First World World War. War. But But readers readers should should note note that that at at this this time time Fisher Fisher was was talking talking about about submarine submarine operations operations in in the the narrow narrow waters waters of of the the English English Channel Channel and and the the Mediterranean. Mediterranean. The The sea sea conditions conditions in in these these areas areas were were much much less less severe severe than than the the prevailing prevailing weather weather in, in, say, say, the the western western approaches approaches or or the the Heligoland Heligoland Bight. Bight. The The many many practical practical experexperiments iments with with these these early early craft craft suggest suggest their their range range and and endurance endurance was was sufsufficient.193 ficient." In In January January 1904, 1904, the the Inspecting Inspecting captain captain of of submarines submarines expressed expressed confidence confidence that that the the A A class class could could operate operate as as far far away away as as the the Channel Channel Islands.‘94 Islands.'** He He also also thought thought that that the the new new B B and and C C classes classes (which (which were were essentially essentially the the same), same), due due to to enter enter service service towards towards the the end end of of that that anynavigating anyof navigating capable of and capable seaworthy and more seaworthy much more be much would be year, would year, positive such positive With such week.‘95 With to aa week.'® up to for up Channel for English Channel the English in the where in where to reason to every reason had every Fisher had therefore, Fisher experts, therefore, the experts, by the assessments by assessments performof performcapable of were capable 1905 were in 1905 available in submarines available the submarines that the believe that believe ten that ten note that should note readers should Finally, readers envisaged. Finally, he envisaged. missions he the missions ing the ing eastthe eastin the patrols in on patrols creditably on performed creditably craft performed same craft these same later these years later years ern ern Mediterranean Mediterranean Sea, Sea, the the Adriatic Adriatic Sea, Sea, and and the the North North Sea. Sea. If If there there was was any any doubt doubt over over the the practicability practicability of of flotilla flotilla defense, defense, it it admitalways admitFisher always submarines. Fisher of submarines. shortage of relative shortage the relative from the stemmed from stemmed craft flotilla craft of flotilla “swarms” of upon “swarms” depend upon to depend going to was going strategy was the strategy that the ted that ted “infesting” “infesting” or or “saturating” “saturating” the the narrow narrow seas.196 seas.'* He He once once estimated estimated the the numequal numan equal and an submarines and hundred submarines one hundred to one close to require close would require navy would navy twenty than twenty fewer than were fewer there were however, there 1904, however, In 1904, boats.197 In torpedo boats.'*” of torpedo ber of ber submarines submarines available. available. Two Two years years later later the the total total stood stood at at just just thirty-three. thirty-three. Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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craft. torpedo craft. surface torpedo with surface equipped with better equipped slightly better was slightly Navy was Royal Navy The Royal The waters home in commission in vessels forty about were there were about forty vessels in commission in home waters In 1905 there In 1905 coveted Fisher coveted 1904, Fisher December 1904, In December reserve. In in reserve. so in or so eighty or plus another eighty plus another idea the abandoned wisely but Mediterranean the Mediterranean but wisely abandoned the idea in the the destroyers in forty destroyers the forty

these recall these to recall tried to had tried he had waters.198 IfIf he home waters.'’® to home them to of withdrawing them of withdrawing he when he hypocrisy; when for hypocrisy; condemned for been condemned have been certainly have would certainly he would vessels he vessels the bullied had he Mediterranean, he had bullied the chief, Mediterranean, in chief, commander in been commander had been had destroyers. more destroyers. out more sending out into sending Admiralty into Admiralty steps of steps number of took aa number Fisher took John Fisher Sir John 1905, Sir February 1905, in February Beginning in Beginning to was to act was first act His first waters. His home waters. in home craft in flotilla craft of flotilla number of the number boost the to boost to reserve in reserve vessel in torpedo vessel effective torpedo “every effective that “every directing that order directing an order issue an issue full fifths full two fifths of two crew of with aa crew commissioned with henceforth commissioned and henceforth now and [be] now [be] sub“very subthat “very warned that were warned admirals were port admirals time, port same time, the same At the strength!”99 At strength.”'®? should organisation should former organisation the former of the extensions of and extensions improvements and stantial improvements stantial writ— craft writflotilla craft of flotilla organization of new organization the new on the report on anticipated.”200 AA report be anticipated.”?~ be that intended that was intended stated itit was clearly stated DNl clearly the DNI by the later by months later several months ten several ten craft” torpedo craft” “foreign torpedo all “foreign cover all to cover be to would be wartime would in wartime role in primary role their primary their coast Continental coast the Continental along the all along “distributed all channel “distributed the channel across the stationed across stationed to intended to was intended defense was flotilla defense words, flotilla other words, In other Elbe.”201 In the Elbe.”*” to the Brest to from Brest from there— Continent, therethe Continent, and the Isles and British Isles the British between the waters between the waters all the control all control blue.” the blue.” from the “bolt from possible “bolt any possible from any country from the country shielding the by shielding by was defense was flotilla defense of flotilla concept of the concept that the evidence that tangible evidence most tangible The most The allothe alloin the change in the change in the lies in Admiralty lies of Admiralty Board of the Board by the ratified by actually ratified actually his During his office. During took office. Fisher took after Fisher resources after construction resources of construction cation of cation rocketed craft rocketed flotilla craft new flotilla of new purchase of the purchase on the spending on administration, spending administration, signifmore signifthe more all the made all This isis made pounds.202 This million pounds.”” two million over two to over one to from one from budget construction budget total construction the total period the same period the same over the because over icant because icant when way: when another way: Put another percent. Put 20 percent. million—almost 20 two million—almost by two dropped by dropped construction the construction of the percent of 10 percent than 10 less than Whitehall, less at Whitehall, arrived at Fisher arrived Fisher grown had grown proportion had the proportion 1909 the By 1909 flotilla. By the flotilla. to the allocated to was allocated budget was budget the Had the third?“ Had took aa third.” submarines took which submarines of which percent, of 20 percent, over 20 to over to in change in the change 1905, the after 1905, power after in power remained in government remained Conservative government Conservative more even more and even quicker and been quicker have been would have expenditure would naval expenditure of naval pattern of the pattern the on committee on estimates committee naval estimates the naval of the meeting of first meeting the first At the pronounced.204 At pronounced.” should year should millions aa year half millions and aa half “nine and that “nine directed that Fisher directed 1905, Fisher July 1905, 20 July 20 absorb would absorb flotilla would the flotilla on the Spending on construction.” Spending new construction.” on new spent on be spent be for called for 1906 called for 1906 estimates for sketch estimates The sketch sum.205 The that sum.?” of that percent of 30 percent over 30 over special” “destroyer special” one “destroyer destroyers, one fleet destroyers, five fleet destroyers, five coastal destroyers, twenty coastal twenty four the four to the addition to in addition down in laid down be laid to be submarines to twenty submarines and twenty (Swift), and (Swift),

scheduled was scheduled program was flotilla program the flotilla year the following year The following vessels.206 The armored vessels.” armored concareful conmost careful the most deserves the program deserves This program larger.207 This even larger.” been even have been to have to

structure and force structure ideal force Fisher’s ideal of Fisher's expression of the expression siderahtion as L b N I sideration as [being being the am ert,

ico as. Sirjo nFis er’s Nova Revo ution.

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as as an an indication indication of of the the point point to to which which his his radical radical conception conception of of naval naval warfare warfare had had already already reached. reached. Fisher’s Fisher’s desperation desperation to to expand expand the the flotilla flotilla as as quickly quickly as as possible possible can can be be seen seen also also in in his his decision decision to to order order small small and and cheap cheap vessels vessels in in prefpreference erence to to larger larger types.208 types.*° Immediately Immediately after after taking taking office office he he canceled canceled a a contract contract for for thirteen thirteen River River class class destroyers.209 destroyers.”® In In their their place place he he ordered ordered vessels vessels he he called called coastal coastal destroyers.“0 destroyers.”"° These These short-range short-range yet yet highly highly seaseaworthy worthy craft craft were were designed designed for for operations operations in in the the channel channel and and could could be be delivered delivered at at half half the the price price of of a a River?“ River”"' Hitherto, Hitherto, no no historian historian has has offered offered any any explanation explanation as as to to why why between between 1905 1905 and and 1907 1907 the the navy navy ordered ordered thirty-six thirty-six coastal coastal destroyers destroyers and and only only twelve twelve fleet fleet destroyers. destroyers. The The navy navy also also experimented experimented with with even even smaller smaller craft. craft. In In 1906, 1906, Fisher Fisher accompanied the king and queen to witness accompanied the king and queen to witness the the official official trials trials of of the the Alfred Alfred Yarrow—designed Yarrow—designed motor motor torpedo torpedo boat; boat; the the craft craft displaced displaced no no more more than than eight eight tons tons and and was was propelled propelled by by twin twin napier napier gasoline gasoline engines, engines, givgiving ing a a surface surface speed speed of of over over twenty-five twenty-five knots.”2 knots.?’? These These craft craft were were not not adopted adopted before before 1914, 1914, however. however. Again, Again, naval naval historians historians have have provided provided no no rational large rational explanation explanation for for Fisher’s Fisher's willingness willingness to to continue continue ordering ordering large numbers numbers of of small small but but again again relatively relatively cheap cheap C C class class submarines submarines after after 1906, built. The 1906, when when larger, larger, more more efficient efficient craft craft could could have have been been built. The answer answer was was simple. simple. According According to to Capt. Capt. Sydney Sydney Hall, Hall, who who had had been been closeclosely ly involved involved in in their their design design and and who who in in 1906 1906 was was appointed appointed inspecting inspecting captain captain of of submarines, submarines, “this “this was was merely merely a a question question of of money money policy—policy— [the] [the] Admiralty Admiralty said said they they preferred preferred to to have have twelve twelve single single screw screw rather rather than than eight eight or or nine nine twin twin screw” screw” submarines.213 submarines.?!” The The switch switch to to flotilla flotilla defense defense enabled enabled the the Admiralty Admiralty to to scrap scrap aa fairfairly ly sizable sizable fleet fleet of of obsolete obsolete armored armored warships warships kept kept in in reserve reserve at at anchoranchorages ages around around the the country, country, whose whose sole sole function function was was to to be be mobilized mobilized in in war war to assist assist in in home home defense.” defense.2M This This produced produced overall overall savings savings in in the the navy navy to estimates, which, which, of of course, course, was was the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s single single most most important important estimates, proboats protorpedo boats and torpedo submarines and of submarines force of period. AA force this period. during this goal during goal vided not not only only aa more more effective effective and and flexible flexible deterrent deterrent against against invasion, invasion, vided wararmored warold armored than old maintain than and maintain build and to build cheaper to also cheaper was also but itit was but maintaining and maintaining repairing and of repairing cost of the cost of the estimates of the estimates Relieving the ships. Relieving ships. these vessels vessels saved saved an an estimated estimated £845,000 £845,000 aa year.” year.“5 Further Further savings savings these were accrued accrued by by rendering rendering unnecessary unnecessary projected projected increases increases in in personpersonwere nel and and works. works. Historians Historians have have argued argued these these savings savings were were made made possipossinel ble by by improvements improvements in in the the efficiency efficiency of of the the battle battle fleet.?'° fleet.“6 This This study, study, ble however, has has shown shown that that much much of of the the reserve reserve fleet fleet was was supplanted, supplanted, at at however, lesser cost, cost, by by the the expansion expansion of of the the flotilla. flotilla. lesser Choosing to to rely rely mainly mainly on on the the torpedo torpedo and and the the flotilla flotilla to to deter deter invainvaChoosing sion sion was was unquestionably unquestionably a a fundamental fundamental shift shift in in strategic strategic thinking thinking by by the the Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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126 126

Revolution Naval Revolution Fisher’s Naval John Fisher’s Sir John Sir

Admiralty. Admiralty. But But it it must must be be understood understood that that flotilla flotilla defense defense represented represented a a change change in in method method rather rather than than strategic strategic objective. objective. It It also also represented represented a a switch switch towards towards an an essentially essentially “reactive” “reactive” form form of of naval naval warfare. warfare. The The idea idea of mutual mutual sea sea denial denial did did not not conform to any any previously previously recognized recognized theory theory of conform to of naval naval strategy. strategy. ItIt was was fundamentally fundamentally at at odds odds with with the of the idea idea of of using using the the battle fleet offensively to enforce command of the sea by seeking and battle fleet offensively to enforce command of the sea by seeking out out and destroying destroying the the enemy enemy fleet fleet in in the the blue blue water. water. And And it it undercut undercut the the notion notion of of the the superior superior battle battle fleet fleet acting acting primarily primarily as as an an instrument instrument of of strategic strategic deterrence deterrence by by intimidating intimidating the the weaker weaker fleet.217 fleet.*"” Fisher Fisher did did not not expect expect the the flotilla flotilla to to sink sink every every enemy enemy ship ship in in the the narrow narrow seas. seas. A A fast-moving fast-moving ship ship was was a a difficult difficult target target to to torpedo, torpedo, but but cruisers cruisers steaming steaming at at economic economic speed speed or or lumbering lumbering transports transports would would be be much much easier easier targets targets to to hit. hit. The The presence presence of of the the flotilla flotilla was was intended intended to to prevent prevent armored armored warships warships from from “exercising” “exercising” or or “enforcing” “enforcing” command command of of the the sea. sea. And, And, as as we we shall shall see, see, the the ability ability to to rely rely upon upon the the flotilla flotilla to to deter deter invasion invasion was was intended intended to to allow allow the the Admiralty Admiralty unprecedented unprecedented flexibility flexibility in in wartime wartime to to deploy deploy armored armored squadrons squadrons to to reinforce reinforce the the outer outer marches marches of of the the empire. empire. It It also also providprovided ed justification justification for for adopting adopting the the battle battle cruiser cruiser type type of of capital capital ship. ship. These These fast, fast, powerfully powerfully armed, armed, long-range long-range warships warships were were far far better better suited suited for for imperial imperial defense defense missions missions than than battleships. battleships. Without Without doubt, doubt, Fisher’s Fisher's strategy strategy of of flotilla flotilla defense defense in in conjunction conjunction with with the the battle battle cruiser cruiser concept, concept, marked marked a a complete complete turn turn around around in in the the traditional traditional strategic strategic ethos ethos of of the the British British Admiralty.218 Admiralty.?"°

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CHAPrER 55 CHAPTER

Defending Defending British British Naval Naval Supremacy, Supremacy,

1905—1908 1905-1908

When When 1| was was Controller Controller of of the the Navy Navy 1I had had an an excellent excellent secretary. secretary. Whenever Whenever I| asked asked him him for for facts, facts, he he always always asked asked me me what what II wanted wanted to to prove! prove! There There is is no no doubt doubt that that facts facts are are most most misleading. misleading. Adm. Adm. Sir Sir John John Fisher, Fisher, 1904 1904

On 44 December December 1905, 1905, Balfour Balfour resigned resigned as as prime prime minister minister bringing bringing On to to aa close close ten ten years years of of Conservative Conservative administration. administration. He He surrendered surrendered the the reins reins of of power power to to the the Liberal Liberal leader leader Sir Sir Henry Henry Campbell-Bannerman. Campbell-Bannerman. By By seeking than seeking rather than office rather from office resigning from of resigning step of unusual step the unusual taking taking the dissolution of of Parliament, Parliament, Balfour Balfour compelled compelled his his successor successor to to form form aa dissolution government before before being being allowed allowed to to appeal appeal to to the the country. country. This This was was aa government political ploy ploy designed designed to to test test the the “brittle “brittle unity” unity” of of the the opposition. opposition. He He political “Liberal so-called “Liberal the so-called between the rift between visible rift still aa visible was still there was believed there believed the and the Africa, and South Africa, in South war in the war supported the had supported who had MPs, who lmperialist” MPs, Imperialist” addition, In addition, Party. In Liberal Party. the Liberal of the members of “pro-Boer” members mainstream “pro-Boer” mainstream of coalition of uncertain coalition an uncertain him an around him orbit around in orbit had in Campbell-Bannerman Campbell-Bannerman had nationalists, Irish nationalists, and Irish unionists, and trade unionists, nonconformists, trade radicals, nonconformists, social radicals, social allegiance. their allegiance. for their price for demand aa price to demand expected to be expected could be who could of who all of all “a parade “a to parade opponents to his opponents forcing his thus forcing in thus pleasure in sly pleasure took sly Balfour took Balfour generforthcoming generthe forthcoming before the voters before the voters of the front of in front linen” in decade’s dirty linen” decade’s dirty the Chamberlain, the Joseph Chamberlain, with Joseph along with that along possible that also possible election.‘ ItIt isis also al election.' al hoped leader hoped Conservative leader the Conservative reform,” the “tariff reform,” for “tariff leading advocate for Tory advocate leading Tory purge itit and purge party and his party unify his help unify might help opposition might in opposition period in brief period that aa brief that the won the coalition won Liberal coalition the Liberal however, the 1906, however, January 1906, In January traders.2 In free traders.’ of free of of Commons of of Commons House of the House in the majority in gaining aa majority overwhelmingly, gaining election overwhelmingly, election office of office out of period out long period facing aa long were facing consequently, were Tories, consequently, The Tories, 358. The 358. drastic even drastic stop even to stop powerless to themselves powerless found themselves importantly, found more importantly, and, more and, policy.3 in policy.° changes in changes Campbell-Bannerman’s platform platform during during the the election election was was built built upon Campbell-Bannerman's upon pledges to to reallocate reallocate government government funds funds for for social social reform, reform, and and of of course course pledges Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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1 27 127

128 128

Revolution Naval Revolution Fisher’s Naval John Fisher's Sir John Sir

to maintain maintain free free trade. trade. From From aa fiscal fiscal standpoint, standpoint, however, his two two key to however, his key policies policies were were contradictory. contradictory. Implementing Implementing the the former former would would involve involve the the expenditure of of aa great great deal deal of of money, money, whereas whereas the the latter latter policy policy denied denied expenditure the Treasury Treasury the the only only conceivable conceivable new new source source of of revenue. revenue. The The experts, experts, the moreover, did did not not anticipate anticipate that that the the yields yields from from existing existing taxes taxes would would moreover, rise rise significantly, significantly, and and if if anything anything they they expected expected them them to to keep keep falling.4 falling.‘ At At

this stage, stage, neither neither Campbell-Bannerman Campbell-Bannerman nor nor H. H. H. H. Asquith, Asquith, his his chancelchancelthis lor lor of of the the Exchequer, Exchequer, were were prepared prepared to to contemplate contemplate radical radical solutions solutions to to the the financial financial problem. problem. Instead, Instead, they they intended intended to to finance finance all all welfare welfare proprograms grams by by making making reductions reductions in in defense defense expenditure expenditure to to pay pay off off the the unfunded unfunded debt debt incurred incurred during during the the Boer Boer War War and and apply apply the the savings savings from from debt debt service service to to increasing increasing social social welfare. welfare. This This policy policy won won over over the the radiradicals cals in in Parliament Parliament who who were were ideologically ideologically opposed opposed to to spending spending money money on on armaments. armaments. Senior Senior Liberal Liberal Party Party politicians politicians gave gave little little if if any any thought thought to to the the orgaorganization nization of of the the armed armed forces forces before before they they assumed assumed power. power. During During the the Boer Boer War, War, and and ever ever since, since, discussions discussions of of military military and and imperial imperial issues issues had had proved proved highly highly divisive divisive for for the the party. party. After After 1903, 1903, the the party party leadership leadership agreed agreed that that such such questions questions were were best best left left alone.5 alone.> Most Most Liberals Liberals were were only only too too pleased. pleased. Many Many potential potential ministers ministers regarded regarded the the entire entire subject subject as as aa “distasteful” “distasteful” distraction distraction from from more more important important domestic domestic issues.6 issues.® As As one one historian historian has has noted, noted, the the Liberal Liberal front front benches benches “cleared “cleared magically” magically” whenever whenever service service matters matters were were debated debated in in the the House.7 House.’ When When the the Liberals Liberals at at last last gained gained power, power, indeed, indeed, Campbell-Bannerman Campbell-Bannerman encounencountered tered great great difficulty difficulty in in filling filling all all the the administrative administrative posts posts at at the the Admiralty Admiralty and and the the War War Office. Office. It It took took him him no no less less than than three three weeks weeks to to find find someone someone willing willing to to serve serve as as parliamentary parliamentary secretary secretary for for the the Admiralty. Admiralty. Few Few political political commentators commentators would would have have disagreed disagreed with with the the observation observation made made by by the the secretary secretary of of the the Committee Committee of of Imperial Imperial Defense, Defense, Sir Sir George George Clarke, Clarke, “that “that in in matters matters of of national national defense, defense, a a

Liberal Liberal Government Government would would not—on not—on taking taking office—command office—command great great conficonfidence.”8 dence.”® Defense Defense issues, issues, nevertheless, nevertheless, had had to to be be addressed addressed if if for for no no betbetter ter reason reason than than the the fiscal fiscal implications implications of of military military expenditure. expenditure. The The implementation implementation of of social social reforms reforms depended depended upon upon the the effective effective managemanagement ment of of the the armed armed forces. forces. While While the the new new prime prime minister minister personally personally favored favored drastic drastic cuts cuts in in the the military, military, he he realized realized that that any any journey journey along along

this this road road must must be be aa slow slow one one so so as as not not to to frighten frighten his his “Liberal “Liberal imperialimperialist” ist” passengers passengers who who believed believed in in strong strong defences. defences. On On the the other other hand, hand, he he could could not not proceed proceed so so slowly slowly as as to to risk risk upsetting upsetting the the more more numerous numerous “progressive” “progressive” wing wing of of his his government government which which was was impatient impatient for for social social reform, or the “radicals” who were zealously reform, or the “radicals” who were zealously keen keen to to attack attack what what they they regarded regarded as as the the “bloated” “bloated” level level of of armaments.9 armaments. In In the the end, end, CampbellCampbellLambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Defending British British Naval Naval Supremacy, Supremacy, 1905-1908 1905—1908 Defending

129 129

Bannerman Bannerman found found the the simplest simplest course course of of action action was was again again to to evade evade the the issues. By promising to send official representatives issues. By promising to send official representatives to to the the internationinternational al conference conference on on multilateral multilateral disarmament disarmament scheduled scheduled to to be be held held at at the the Hague in early 1907, he succeeded Hague in early 1907, he succeeded in in postponing postponing any any immediate immediate conconfrontation frontation between between his his multifarious multifarious supporters. supporters. Even Even so, so, during during their their first year of office he and first year of office he and his his ministers ministers remained remained constantly constantly wary wary of of their their unpredictable unpredictable radical radical tail. tail.

Welfare Welfare or or Warfare: Warfare: Naval Naval Finance Finance and and the the Liberal Liberal Government Government

Because Because the the Liberals Liberals took took office office at at the the end end of of the the financial financial year year they they were were more more or or less less compelled compelled to to pass pass the the defense defense estimates estimates drawn drawn up up by by the the previous previous Conservative Conservative administration. administration. They They were were also also given given little little option option but but to to allow allow Sir Sir John John Fisher Fisher to to continue continue at at the the Admiralty Admiralty as as first first sea sea lord lord after after Balfour Balfour specially specially arranged arranged for for him him to to be be promoted promoted admiadmiral ral of of the the fleet. fleet. This This final final step step in in rank rank allowed allowed Fisher Fisher to to remain remain on on the the active active list list for for another another five five years—without years—without which which he he would would have have been been obliged obliged to to retire retire upon upon reaching reaching his his sixty-fifth sixty-fifth birthday birthday on on 25 25 January January 1906. 1906. Surprisingly Surprisingly little little controversy controversy resulted resulted from from this this last-minute last-minute propromotion. motion. The The Liberals Liberals were were delighted delighted to to find find that that the the estimates estimates prepared prepared by by Fisher Fisher and and Lord Lord Cawdor Cawdor provided provided for for aa respectable respectable cut cut in in naval naval expenditure expenditure of of one one and and a a half half million. million. Toward Toward the the end end of of January January 1906, 1906, Sir Sir John John Fisher Fisher reported reported back back to to the the former former Conservative Conservative first first lord lord that that although although the the Liberal Liberal Cabinet Cabinet would would inevitably inevitably demand demand further further retrenchretrenchment ment later later in in the the year, year, he he was was confident confident his his “new “new colleagues” colleagues” would would stand stand up up for for the the Admiralty. Admiralty. The The radical radical parliamentary parliamentary secretary, secretary, Edmund Edmund Robertson, Robertson, had had been been tamed—while tamed—while the the new new first first lord, lord, Earl Earl Tweedmouth, Tweedmouth, “shows “shows such such aa nice nice spirit spirit as as to to make make me me very very happy.”“’ happy.” Confident Confident in in Fisher’s Fisher’s abilities abilities as as steward, steward, Cawdor Cawdor and and Balfour Balfour subsequently subsequently agreed agreed not not to to quibble quibble with with any any modest modest cuts cuts in in the the naval naval budget budget he he might might endorse endorse so so as as not not to to provoke provoke the the Liberals Liberals into into dismissing dismissing him him and and then then imposing imposing draconian draconian reductions. reductions. From From aa Liberal Liberal perspective, perspective, the the situation situation at at the the War War Office Office was was brighter. brighter. Richard Richard Haldane Haldane took took office office as as war war minister minister determined determined to to make make deep deep cuts cuts in in military military expenditure. expenditure. Immediately Immediately upon upon learning learning of of his his appointment, appointment, indeed, indeed, Haldane Haldane had had promised promised Asquith, Asquith, his his

close close friend, friend, that that before before the the end end of of the the year year he he would would somehow somehow trim trim two two million million from from his his budget.“ budget.'' Confident Confident that that Haldane Haldane and and Tweedmouth Tweedmouth were were committed committed to to seeking seeking out out further further economies economies within within their their departments, departments,

therefore, therefore, Asquith Asquith devoted devoted his his time time during during the the first first few few months months of of 1906 1906

L

to to preparing preparing his his first first budget. budget. In In early early May May 1906, 1906, the the chancellor chancellor of of the the Exchequer Exchequer resolved resolved to to scruscruttin'ize the naval naval bRudget, tinize the budget, it it having having become become evident evident that that Tweedmouth Tweedmouth had

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the neither the first neither At first savings. At further savings. no Treasury further the Treasury offering the of offering intention of no intention the by the alarmed by unduly alarmed were unduly leaderships were Admiralty Conservative leaderships the Conservative nor the Admiralty nor idenhe idenwas he only was Not only lenient. Not be lenient. would be news. Asquith would expected Asquith all expected They all news. They of admirer of professed admirer also aa professed was also he was tified but he imperialist” but “liberal imperialist” as aa “liberal tified as had Asquith had moreover, Asquith month, moreover, the month, of the Sir beginning of the beginning At the Fisher. At John Fisher. Sir John his of his effort of the effort with the pleased with was pleased he was assured that he Tweedmouth that Lord Tweedmouth assured Lord howdiscovered, howsoon discovered, Admiralty soon The Admiralty “most Board.”12 The prudent Board.”’? and prudent able and “most able Chancellor’s The Chancellor's misplaced.‘3 The was misplaced." ever, Asquith was in Asquith faith in the faith that the ever, that Tweedmouth after Tweedmouth noticeably after demeanor cooled noticeably Whitehall cooled towards Whitehall demeanor towards paycontinue payto continue allowed to was allowed Admiralty was the Admiralty explained unless the that unless him that to him explained to the loans, the raising loans, by raising facilities) by port facilities) to port ing (improvements to works (improvements naval works for naval ing for rise to rise have to would have (1907-8) would year (1907-8) annual following year the following for the estimates for annual estimates bill—even loan bill—even works loan naval works “new naval sharply.'* pleased. AA “new not pleased. was not Asquith was sharply.I4 Asquith the of the out of quite out works—is quite existing works—is confined completing existing of completing provision of to provision confined to altobe altowould be bill would such a a bill propose such “To propose question,” May. “To 23 May. on 23 replied on he replied question," he of House of the House in the up in took up we took which we gether position which the position with the inconsistent with gether inconsistent fiscal its fiscal achieve its might achieve Treasury might the Treasury Commons that the order that in order 1905’”5 In in 1905.”"> Commons in expendinaval expendireduce naval to reduce found to be found must be way must targets, insisted, aa way Asquith insisted, targets, Asquith chancellor’s The chancellor's mind.'6 The his mind.'* change his ture. could change declared, could he declared, “Nothing,” he ture. “Nothing,” of meeting of special meeting convene aa special to convene Fisher to John Fisher intransigence Sir John prompted Sir intransigence prompted do could do they could best they the best that the concluded that lords concluded the sea lords the sea which the at which board at the board be could be This could level.17 This 1906 level.'’ the 1906 at the was estimates at navy estimates 1907 navy the 1907 hold the to hold was to achieved Portsmouth dockyard, dockyard, achieved by by deferring deferring planned planned improvements improvements to to Portsmouth batthe batcanceling the and canceling commission, and full commission, reducing in full ships in of ships number of the number reducing the projected another projected and another program and 1906—7 program the 1906-7 tle under the authorized under cruiser authorized tle cruiser estimates. 1907—8 estimates. under the 1907-8 under the extract could extract he could that he confident that Asquith compromise, confident the compromise, rejected the Asquith rejected heavy further heavy any further that any grounds that the grounds on the much Admiralty on the Admiralty from the more from much more future. immediate future. the immediate in the unnecessary in ship appeared unnecessary construction appeared ship construction navy British navy the British of the strength of present strength the present According calculations, the his calculations, to his According to supported was supported contention was This contention standard.”18 This “far two-Power standard.”'® the two-Power exceeds the “far exceeds somethat somememorandum that Admiralty memorandum by internal Admiralty an internal in an contained in figures contained by figures to reason to little reason saw little therefore, saw Asquith, therefore, how hands.19 Asquith, his hands." into his fallen into had fallen how had his side-step his to side-step endeavored to Tweedmouth endeavored June, Tweedmouth negotiate. of June, end of the end At the negotiate. At Although Cabinet. Although the Cabinet. to the directly to appealing directly department's by appealing antagonist by department’s antagonist circulathe circulatmemorandum he the memorandum sound, the were sound, the presented were he presented arguments he the arguments lord first lord The first written. The poorly written. and poorly ed confused and was confused colleagues was his colleagues among his ed among the years the two years past two the past over the that over out that opened pointing out by pointing case by his case opened his Admiralty Admiralty had had reduced reduced their their expenditure expenditure by by five five million million (13 (13 percent). percent), budget. next budget. their next from their million from further million cut aa further to cut and offered to already offered had already and had combattleships comof battleships numbers of of numbers terms of in terms that in While admitting that candidly admitting While candidly went he went powerful,” he very powerful,” Navy isis very Royal Navy the Royal of the position of present position “the present pleted “the pleted Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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on argue that construction was was necessary necessary because on to to argue that some some capital capital ship ship construction because the of battleships the fighting fighting value value of battleships rapidly rapidly depreciated. depreciated. Tweedmouth Tweedmouth explained that “the “the life life of of aa modern modern battleship battleship isis brief— brief— explained to to his his colleagues colleagues that an instance, an for instance, 1908, for In 1908, class.”20 In first class.” the first in the years in fifteen years than fifteen more than not more not entire class class of of six six battleships battleships presently presently in in commission commission would would be be declared declared entire obsolete in 1911 another six. All obsolete en en bloc; bloc; and and in 1911 the the Royal Royal Navy Navy would would lose lose another six. All the while, while, the the relative relative strength strength of of the the British British fleet fleet would would be further eroderodthe be further ed update and their ed as as other other maritime maritime powers powers continued continued to to update and increase increase of of their navies. navies. Thus, Thus, Tweedmouth Tweedmouth explained, explained, “for “for us us to to fold fold our our hands hands and and allow allow aa serious serious gap gap in in the the continuity continuity of of our our construction construction of of the the newest newest type type of of battleships battleships would would be be aa rash rash experiment, experiment, and and likely likely to to lead lead to to future future disdisaster.”21 aster.”*' This This case, case, which which amounted amounted to to an an appeal appeal for for the the government government to to sacrifice their their current current spending spending plans plans by by insuring insuring against against an an invisible invisible sacrifice threat threat to to national national security—that security—that might might materialize materialize after after their their term term of of office had had expired—was expired—was unlikely unlikely to to succeed. succeed. office The The crudeness crudeness of of the the arguments arguments employed employed in in the the Admiralty Admiralty memomemorandum for the randum enabled enabled Asquith Asquith swiftly swiftly to to undermine undermine any any latent latent support support for the navy within within the the Cabinet. Cabinet. “The “The upshot upshot of of Lord Lord Tweedmouth’s Tweedmouth’s forecast forecast of of navy the that there there the Navy Navy Estimates Estimates for for 1907—1908,” 1907-1908,” he he warned warned on on 9 9 July, July, “is “is that will be be aa net net increase increase on on the the current current year’s year’s expenditure expenditure of of 750,000[£]” 750,000[£]” will at aa time time of of “profound “profound peace.”” peace.”22 The The chancellor chancellor revealed revealed to to his his surprised surprised at the fall the indeed fall would indeed expenditure would naval expenditure overall naval although overall that although colleagues that colleagues next year year as as the the Admiralty Admiralty memorandum memorandum claimed claimed the the navy navy estimates estimates the the next “headline” “headline” figure figure would would in in fact fact rise. rise. The The first first lord, lord, Asquith Asquith pointed pointed out, out, naval for naval pay for to pay money to year money next year from next that from mention that to mention neglected to had neglected had works would would no no longer longer be be borrowed borrowed but but instead instead charged charged to to the the navy navy estiestiworks on thoughts on own thoughts his own out his set out to set proceeded to then proceeded Asquith then account. Asquith mates account. mates subject. the subject. the conpresent conunder present rate, under any rate, (at any expenditure (at naval expenditure in naval factor in governing factor The governing The ditions) ditions) is is the the cost cost of of new new construction; construction; just just as as in in the the case case of of the the Army Army it it the number number of of men men to to be be maintained maintained on on the the establishment. establishment. But But naval naval isis the the because the retrenchment, because to retrenchment, easily to more easily much more itself much lends itself expenditure lends expenditure disthe within entirely hand isis entirely within the disin hand put in be put to be construction to new construction of new amount of amount Government.23 the Government.” of the cretion of cretion

as treated as be treated never be must never declared, must Asquith declared, budget, Asquith construction budget, The construction The concerned; primarily, concerned: even primarily, or even alone, or Admiralty isis alone, the Admiralty which the in which question in “a question “a opinion naval opinion allow naval to allow been to has been tendency has the tendency past the years past many years for many though for though matter.” the in influence decisive, a even and predominant, a exercise to to exercise a predominant, and even a decisive, influence in the matter.” Rather Rather it it should should be be seen seen as as “a “a question question of of policy policy which which ought ought to to be be deciddecided by the Cabinet as a whole.”24 He then went on to explain why he believed ed by the Cabinet as a whole.”™ He then went on to explain why he believed the navy navy did did not not really really need need the the three three battleships battleships they they had had requested.”° requested.25 the Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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It It was was Asquith’s Asquith’s contention contention that that since since the the signing signing of of the the Entente Entente with with France France and and the the annihilation annihilation of of the the Russian Russian fleet fleet in in the the Russo-Japanese Russo-Japanese War, War, Britain’s Britain’s two-power two-power naval naval standard standard was was no no longer longer an an appropriate appropriate yardstick yardstick by by which which to to measure measure the the strength strength of of the the Royal Royal Navy Navy and and thus thus needed needed to to be be “revised.”26 “revised.” He He was was careful careful not not to to propose propose an an outright outright renunciation renunciation of of the the standard. standard. The The chancellor chancellor realized realized that that plotting plotting such such

aa course course would would involve involve political political dangers. dangers. “In “In the the first first instance,” instance,” he he theretherefore fore advised, advised, the the Cabinet Cabinet should should ask ask the the Committee Committee of of Imperial Imperial Defense Defense to to consider consider “what “what our our standard standard of of naval naval strength strength should should be.”27 be.”?’ The The essence essence of of Asquith’s Asquith’s argument argument for for revision revision was was that that a a naval naval standard, standard, which which required required Britain Britain to to build build against against “the “the two two most most powerful powerful navies navies in in the the world,” world,” was was too too rigid. rigid. He He acknowledged acknowledged that that when when France France and and Russia Russia had had been been the the secondsecond- and and third-ranking third-ranking naval naval powers powers the the standard standard had had made made sense. sense. Since Since Germany’s Germany's promotion promotion to to the the rank rank of of third-ranking third-ranking naval naval power power in in May May 1905, 1905, however, however, the the Royal Royal Navy Navy had had been been striving striving to to overmatch overmatch the the battle battle fleets fleets of of France France and and Germany.28 Germany.” “Is “Js it it reasonable,” reasonable,” the the chancellor chancellor asked asked of of his his colleagues, colleagues, “to “to expect expect us us to to build build aa combicombination nation of of that that character—in character—in the the whole whole sphere sphere of of speculative speculative politics politics by by far far the the most most improbable improbable that that can can be be conceived?” conceived?” Even Even if if it it was, was, he he observed, observed, there there seemed seemed no no need need for for Britain Britain to to lay lay down down more more battleships battleships for for some some years. years. According According to to Weedmouth’s Tweedmouth’s own own figures figures the the Royal Royal Navy Navy already already possessed possessed “47 “47 completed completed battleships battleships less less than than fifteen fifteen years years old old against against 29 29 in in France France and and Germany.” Germany.” As As for for the the potential potential future future threat, threat, Asquith Asquith continued, continued, “a “a great great deal deal of of the the Admiralty Admiralty argument” argument” on on the the need need to to lay lay down down more more capital capital ships ships “rests “rests on on the the effective effective fulfilment fulfilment by by other other powers powers of of the the paper paper programs programs [which] [which] are are to to a a great great extent extent part part of of the the game game of of ‘bluff,’ ‘bluff,’ which which the the Continental Continental Powers Powers seem seem to to be be bent bent on on playplaying.”29 ing.”?° On On this this point point the the chancellor chancellor was was adamant. adamant. “The “The French French program,” program,” he he reiterated reiterated in in a a letter letter to to Weedmouth Tweedmouth the the following following day, day, “exists “exists and and will will in in the the main main continue continue to to exist exist on on paper paper and and no-where no-where else.” else.” And And “in “in

Germany, Germany, the the Kaiser Kaiser encounters encounters great great and and ever ever increasing increasing difficulties difficulties in in getting getting his his way way with with the the Reichstag.”30 Reichstag.”* There There did did not not appear appear to to be be any any visvisible ible justification, justification, therefore, therefore, for for Britain Britain to to lay lay down down any any more more new new battlebattleships ships for for the the foreseeable foreseeable future. future. Tweedmouth, Tweedmouth, who who was was regarded regarded by by his his colleagues colleagues as as aa weak weak minminister, ister, was was no no match match for for Asquith’s Asquith’s formidable formidable debating debating skills.31 skills.*’ The The chancellor chancellor of of the the Exchequer Exchequer argued argued his his case case against against the the Admiralty Admiralty so so convincingly convincingly that that by by the the end end of of Cabinet Cabinet deliberations deliberations on on 9 9 July, July, not not even even the the liberal liberal imperialists imperialists were were prepared prepared to to stand stand by by the the first first lord. lord. Richard Richard Haldane, Haldane, indeed, indeed, seemed seemed more more anxious anxious to to buy buy himself himself more more time time to to find find sufficient sufficient economies economies at at the the War War Office Office by by pushing pushing the the navy navy further further into into the the Treasury’s Treasury's line line of of fire. fire. After After the the meeting, meeting, he he joined joined Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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those those who who were were pressing pressing Campbell-Bannerman Campbell-Bannerman to to impose impose drastic drastic cuts cuts in in the the naval naval shipbuilding shipbuilding budget.” budget.” But But surely surely the the most most remarkable remarkable aspect aspect of of this this story story was was the the attitude attitude of of Asquith Asquith himself. himself. As As a a liberal liberal imperialist imperialist he he was was supposed supposed to to be be protecting protecting the the Royal Royal Navy—-—not Navy—not leading leading the the charge charge against against that that institution. institution. Any Any analysis analysis of of Asquith’s Asquith’s motives, motives, of of course, course, must must remain remain speculative. speculative. He He may may well well have have gengenuinely uinely believed believed that that under under the the prevailing prevailing diplomatic diplomatic climate climate aa drastic drastic naval naval retrenchment retrenchment was was safe. safe. But But it it should should not not be be forgotten forgotten that that as as chancellor chancellor of of the the Exchequer Exchequer he he was was at at this this time time under under intense intense pressure pressure from from the the backbenchers backbenchers to to find find money money to to pay pay for for social social reform. reform. Put Put bluntly, bluntly, he he knew knew he he would would be be blamed blamed if if the the party’s party's social social program program stalled Stalled for for lack lack of of funds. funds. In In addition, addition, Asquith Asquith was was an an ambitious ambitious man man who who hoped hoped one one day day to to become become prime prime minister. minister. As As chancellor chancellor he he took took care care to to groom groom himself himself as as aa “progressive” “progressive” and and actively actively sought sought the the supsupport port of of the the radical radical and and Labor Labor members members of of Parliament. Parliament. In In his his memomemorandum randum to to Cabinet Cabinet of of 9 9 July, July, for for example, example, Asquith Asquith made made aa transparent transparent bid bid for for radical radical support support when when he he suggested suggested that that “a “a reduction reduction in in our our shipbuilding shipbuilding program program would would be be the the best best earnest earnest we we could could give give to to the the world” world” to to demonstrate demonstrate our our willingness willingness to to disarm.33 disarm.” This This sentence sentence cancannot not be be interpreted interpreted as as anything anything else. else. Asquith’s Asquith’s idea idea of of revising revising the the naval naval standard standard appealed appealed to to the the Cabinet. Adopting Adopting his his formula formula of of superiority superiority over over any any “reasonable “reasonable comcomCabinet. bination” bination” of of foreign foreign powers powers promised promised to to allow allow the the government, government, at at its its own own discretion, to to reduce reduce naval naval spending spending below below the the onerous onerous “irreducible “irreducible minmindiscretion, imum” imum” prescribed prescribed by by the the two-power two-power standard. standard. The The first first hurdle hurdle to to cross cross was was the the Board Board of of Admiralty. Admiralty. But But the the sea sea lords lords were were determined determined to to fight. fight. Ignoring Ignoring the the Treasury Treasury directive, directive, they they obstinately obstinately refused refused to to delete delete more more than aa token token three three destroyers destroyers and and four four submarines submarines from from the the published published than building program. program. Replying Replying to to Asquith’s Asquith’s claim claim that that presently presently there there was was building no justification justification for for building building more more battleships, battleships, the the Board Board resorted resorted to to the the no somewhat somewhat weak weak argument argument that that it it was was aa “necessity” “necessity” to to lay lay down down three three more “dreadnoughts” “dreadnoughts” in in 1906 1906 in in order order to to complete complete aa tactical tactical unit unit of of more four.34 Itlt nevertheless nevertheless sufficed. sufficed. More More controversially controversially they they also also refused refused four.* point blank blank to to drop drop any any more more armored armored ships ships from from the the next next (1907-8) (1907—8) propropoint gram.35 gram.” Here Here the the Board Board could could offer offer nothing nothing more more than than its its original original arguargument. “We “We cannot cannot build build for for the the moment,” moment,” Fisher Fisher pleaded: pleaded: ment. The The ships ships we we lay lay down down this this year year may may have have their their influence influence on on the the internainternational most tional situation situation twenty twenty years years hence. hence, when when Germany—or Germany—or whoever whoever our our most likely likely antagonist antagonist may may be be then—may then—may have have the the co-operation co-operation (even (even if if only only temporary) temporary) of of another another great great naval naval power. power. Hence Hence a a two-Power two-Power standard, standard, rationally interpreted, interpreted, isis by by no no means means out out of of date.* date.36 rationally Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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further justify further to justify try to not try did not Admiralty did the Admiralty that the ItIt is note that to note important to is important tried have tried To have navy. To German navy. the German of the growth of the growth to the pointing to construction by pointing construction by relthe relin the disparity in huge disparity the huge given the ridicule, given invited ridicule, to have invited would have so would do so to do

wanted Admiralty wanted the Admiralty which, the Besides which, navies. Besides two navies. the two ative of the strengths of ative strengths

rival largest rival the largest overmatching the of overmatching capable of fleet capable much than aa fleet more than much more effecThe effecwaters. The home waters. of home control of guaranteeing control thus guaranteeing European and thus fleet and European fleet one force, one larger force, much larger very much required aa very empire required Britain’s empire tive of Britain’s defense of tive defense thirdand thirdsecond- and the secondof the strength of combined strength the combined to the at equal to least equal at least the that the supremacy that naval supremacy global naval was global And itit was powers. And strongest naval powers. strongest naval maintain. to maintain. wished to Admiralty wished Admiralty the and the Tweedmouth and just, Tweedmouth was just, case was their case that their belief that its belief in its Confident Confident in with Campbell-Bannerman with left Campbell-Bannerman This left Cabinet. This the Cabinet. defy the to defy Board continued to Board continued risk aa and risk Tweedmouth and out Tweedmouth force out or force Asquith or restrain Asquith two alternatives: restrain two alternatives: fragile his fragile test his to test wish to no wish Having no lords. Having sea lords. the sea by the mass resignation by mass resignation surprisnot surprisminister not prime minister the prime power, the in power, months in six months only six coalition after only coalition after Three Admiralty. Three the Admiralty. backed the and backed route and safer route politically safer the politically chose the ingly chose ingly program. 1906—7 program. the 1906-7 under the down under laid down were laid accordingly, were ships, accordingly, capital capital ships, financial next financial the next for the that for lord that first lord the first to the intimated to Asquith intimated On July, Asquith 10 July, On 10 by proposed by compromise proposed accept aa compromise to accept willing to now willing was now he was year (1907—8) he year (1907-8) “by enquired, “by he enquired, line,” he to line,” in to everyone in bring everyone to bring possible to not possible “Is itit not Haldane. Haldane. “Is (or dreadnoughts (or certain dreadnoughts two certain 1907/8 two for 1907/8 program for the program announcing as the announcing as [results] the [results] on the contingent on third contingent and aa third them) and call them) to call chose to you chose whatever whatever you offer aa to offer seems to [T]his seems March? [T]his next March? held next be held to be conference to of Hague conference the Hague of the Two conviction.”37 Two of conviction.’*’ sacrifice of without sacrifice pass without all pass can all we can which we over which bridge over bridge of Board of recalcitrant Board still recalcitrant the still persuaded the minister persuaded prime minister the prime days later the days later deal.38 the deal.* accept the to accept Admiralty to Admiralty his reflected his probably reflected stage probably this stage at this off at back off to back willingness to Asquith’s willingness Asquith’s Vinwould vinpolicy would naval policy into naval investigation into CID investigation proposed CID the proposed that the confidence confidence that the During the revised. During be revised. to be standard to two-power standard the two-power for the demands for his demands dicate his dicate of secretary of permanent secretary the permanent Clarke, the George Clarke, Sir George debate, Sir estimates debate, recent estimates recent lay we lay “if we that “if assurances that Asquith assurances feeding Asquith privately feeding been privately had been CID, had the CID, the improbthe improbagainst the superiority against of superiority margin of year, aa margin this year, battleship this one battleship down one down assured.”39 absolutely assured.” be absolutely will be Germany will and Germany France and of France combination of able combination able appoint aa “to appoint Campbell-Bannerman “to pressing Campbell-Bannerman been pressing had been Clarke had Meanwhile, Clarke Meanwhile, Colonel policy.”40 Colonel building policy.”* of building question of whole question the whole reconsider the to reconsider committee to committee Admiralty the Admiralty ships the capital ships of capital number of the number to the only to not only objected not Clarke objected Clarke

allthe allto the opposed to was opposed he was see, he shall see, we shall as we also, as but also, build but to build wished to wished and authority and his authority exceed his to exceed moment to this moment chose this he chose why he Just why type. Just big-gun type. big-gun having at having frustrated at was frustrated he was Possibly he clear. Possibly not clear. affairs isis not naval affairs intervene inin naval intervene In reform.“1 In army reform.” for army schemes for latest schemes the latest in the voice in Haldane aa voice by Haldane denied by been denied been before “meddling” before Clarke’s “meddling” discovered Clarke’s fortuitously discovered Tweedmouth fortuitously case, Tweedmouth any case, any Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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the the prime prime minister minister had had time time to to refer refer the the question question of of the the naval naval standard standard forformally mally to to the the CID.42 CID.” Fisher Fisher was was beside beside himself himself with with anger anger on on learning learning of of the the attempt attempt to to usurp usurp the the Admiraltys Admiralty’s authority. authority. “The “The sooner sooner we we send send Clarke Clarke to to die die of of yellow yellow fever fever as as Governor Governor of of some some West West Indian Indian island,” island,” he he fumed fumed in in aa letter would letter to to Tweedmouth, Tweedmouth, “the “the better!”43 better!’* The The sea sea lords, lords, he he warned, warned, would ferociously ferociously resist resist any any further further attempts attempts to to refer refer future future naval naval construction construction to to the the Committee Committee of of Imperial Imperial Defense.44 Defense.“ Before Before proceeding, proceeding, it it is is worth worth noting noting that that several several historians historians have have noticed noticed that that from from 1906 1906 Sir Sir John John Fisher Fisher became became increasingly increasingly reluctant reluctant to to cooperate cooperate with with any any ClD CID investigation investigation that that touched touched on on naval naval affairs.45 affairs.* Clarke’s Clarke’s maneuvering maneuvering during during the the summer summer of of 1906 1906 indicate indicate that that the the Admiral Admiral was was not not paranoid—as paranoid—as some some have have suggested—rather suggested—rather he he justifijustifiably ably concerned concerned that that the the organization organization he he had had helped helped to to father father had had been been corrupted.46 corrupted.* When When Balfour Balfour had had been been in in the the chair, chair, the the CID CID had had instinctiveinstinctively ly sided sided with with the the navy navy on on every every issue issue “which “which the the two two [service] [service] departdepartments 'views.”47 The ments held held opposite opposite views.”*’ The senior senior Liberal Liberal politicians, politicians, by by contrast, contrast, were were less less inclined inclined to to favor favor the the Admiralty Admiralty case. case. Meanwhile Meanwhile Fisher Fisher found found himself himself on on the the horns horns of of a a dilemma. dilemma. On On the the one one hand hand he he had had Asquith, Asquith, encouraged encouraged by by Sir Sir George George Clarke, Clarke, pressing pressing to to annihilate annihilate the the capital-ship capital-ship construction construction budget. budget. On On the the other, other, he he faced faced growing growing criticism criticism of of his his administration administration from from officers officers who who disapproved disapproved of of his his increasingly increasingly radical radical reforms. reforms. Revealing Revealing to to the the Cabinet Cabinet the the true true direction direction of of his his naval naval policy, policy, in in other other words, words, necessarily necessarily meant meant inviting inviting further further and and potentially potentially disastrous disastrous criticism criticism from from within within the the service. service. It It is is little litthe wonder wonder that that Fisher Fisher became became reluctant reluctant to to hold hold frank frank discussions discussions of of naval naval policy policy with with outsiders. outsiders. From From mid-1906, mid-1906, moreover, moreover, he he started started to to conceal conceal the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s true true thoughts thoughts on on naval naval subjects subjects and and instead instead sought sought to to employ employ arguments arguments that that were were designed designed to to justify justify the the current current levels levels of of naval naval expenditure. expenditure. For For this this decepdeception to to work, work, itit was was thus thus essential essential to to avoid avoid naval naval policy policy being being scrutinized scrutinized tion by to by outside outside experts, experts, such such as as Clarke, Clarke, especially especially if if they they were were predisposed predisposed to be be hostile. hostile. Between Between 1906 1906 and and 1910, 1910, the the relationship relationship between between the the Liberal Liberal Cabinet Cabinet and and the the Board Board of of Admiralty Admiralty became became increasingly increasingly characterized characterized by by mutual mutual distrust distrust and and suspicion. suspicion. perdisastrous pertheir disastrous to their response to first response Admiralty’s first The Admiralty’s resume: The To resume: To formance formance in in the the estimates estimates debate debate of of July July 1906, 1906, was was to to find find a a different—— different— and and more more effective—argument effective—argument with with which which to to block block Cabinet Cabinet demands demands for for cessation in in the the construction construction of of armored armored warships.* warships.48 Thereafter, Thereafter, the the aa cessation Board Board began began to to claim claim that: that: until until recently recently although although each each succeeding succeeding type type of of battleships battleships were were an an improvement improvement on on their their predecessors, predecessors, the the advance advance in in fighting fighting efficiency efficiency from from Lambert, Nicolas. 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introthe introwhereas—with the small, whereas—with one comparatively small, was comparatively another was to another type to one type power fighting power in fighting 200% in of 200% forward of leap forward duction Dreadnoughts—a leap the Dreadnoughts—a of the duction of all designs, all dreadnought designs, the dreadnought with the has compared with as compared that as so that effected, so been effected, has been date.49 of date.® out of less out or less more or are more existing battleships are of battleships types of existing types

all-big-gun that all-big-gun claim that Admiralty’s claim the Admiralty’s in the Certainly justification in was justification there was Certainly there predreadover predreadadvantage over gunnery advantage ships considerable gunnery have aa considerable would have ships would that 1906 that July 1906 in July suggest in to suggest Board to the Board for the noughts.*° hand for other hand the other On the noughts.50 On obsolete battleships obsolete existing battleships all existing render all would render their superiority would gunnery superiority their gunnery Admiralty the Admiralty that, the significant that, perhaps significant was question.“ ItIt isis perhaps to question.*' open to more open was more Dreadnought HMS Dreadnought of HMS launch of the launch after the made immediately after claims immediately such claims no such made no pracbattle pracsquadron battle of squadron results of the results Furthermore, the 1906.52 Furthermore, February 1906.” in February in in conditions, in certain conditions, under certain that under suggested that year suggested tices that year conducted that tices conducted armed battleships armed weather, battleships misty weather, or misty seas or engagements rough seas in rough fought in engagements fought over edge over the edge have the might have guns might quick-firing guns of quick-firing battery of with secondary battery with aa secondary comof comnumber of “large number afterwards, aa “large years afterwards, all-big-gun many years For many ships.‘53 For all-big-gun ships. dreadnoughts of dreadnoughts superiority of the superiority that the insist that to insist petent continued to officers” continued petent officers” adminAdmiralty adminsenior Admiralty Even senior exaggerated.54 Even was exaggerated.** over battleships was older battleships over older calculating that calculating politicians) that to politicians) not to (though not istrators confessed (though privately confessed istrators privately publn pubcomplexity.”55 In extreme complexity.”*° of extreme “one of was “one type was each type of each value of relative value the the relative engagements naval engagements future naval in future that in maintained that Admiralty maintained the Admiralty however, the lic, lic, however, Fisher though Fisher even though Furthermore, even matter.”56 Furthermore, “only would matter.” dreadnoughts would “only dreadnoughts battleships “dreadnought” battleships of “dreadnought” building of the building to the was opposed to personally opposed was personally as himself as presented himself he presented Whitehall he outside Whitehall cruiser), outside battle cruiser), the battle (preferring the (preferring an uncompromising uncompromising defender defender of of the the type, type, branding branding anyone anyone who who contracontraan dicted dicted the the official official line line as as aa heretic. heretic. Another Another argument argument Fisher Fisher started started had Admiralty had the Admiralty that the was that Dreadnought was the Dreadnought building the justify building to justify using using to forthat forintelligence that by intelligence battleships by all-big-gun battleships been building all-big-gun to building driven to been driven eign navies navies were were already already moving moving in in this this direction.*’ direction.57 The The evidence evidence to to supsupeign claims the claims not the or not whether or But whether thin.58 But however, isis thin.°*® argument, however, this argument, port this port really What really point. What the point. misses the not misses or not true or were true dreadnoughts were for dreadnoughts made for made conthe conof the preservation of the preservation was the Admiralty was the Admiralty and the Fisher and to Fisher mattered to mattered struction budget. budget. This This will will become become clearer clearer below. below. struction for claims for Admiralty’s claims the Admiralty’s refute the to refute Lacking knowledge to technical knowledge the technical Lacking the was Clarke was George Clarke Sir George 1906 Sir September 1906 in September warships,59 in model warships,” new model the new the described by by one one neutral neutral observer observer as as having having become become “all “all agog agog against against described dreadnoughts.”® dreadnoughts.”60 Henceforth Henceforth he he encouraged encouraged Liberal Liberal ministers ministers to to believe believe that that the the decision decision to to build build the the Dreadnought Dreadnought and and “the “the three three monster monster armored cruisers” cruisers” was was the the “worst “worst mistake mistake ever” ever” made made by by aa Board Board of of armored Admiralty.61 Admiralty.®' After After other other naval naval powers powers also also started started to to build build “dread“dreadnoughts,” Britain’s huge huge numernumernoughts,” Fisher Fisher was was accused accused of of “throwing “throwing away" away” Britain’s ical ical advantage advantage in in conventional conventional battleships. battleships. 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of of his his remarks remarks struck struck aa chord chord with with many many in in the the Cabinet.62 Cabinet.” This This impresimpression sion was was reinforced reinforced towards towards the the end end of of 1906, 1906, by by aa series series of of articles articles in in the press questioning the wisdom of the Admiralty’s “dreadnought policy” the press questioning the wisdom of the Admiralty’s “dreadnought policy” authored authored by by the the former former DNl DNI Rear Rear Adm. Adm. Reginald Reginald Custance, Custance, the the highly highly respected naval theorist and respected naval theorist and tactician, tactician, Sir Sir William William White, White, the the ex-DNC. ex-DNC, and Adm. Adm. Sir Sir Frederick Frederick Richards, Richards, the the former former senior senior naval naval lord.** lord.63 What What itit and is important to realize, nevertheless, and what these distinguished offiis important to realize, nevertheless, and what these distinguished officers did not realize, was the adoption of the dreadnought cers did not realize, was the adoption of the dreadnought type type battlebattleships ships proved proved to to be be the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s best best justification justification for for the the continued continued construction construction of of big-ships big-ships during during the the Liberal Liberal administration; administration; without without the the concept of of aa “dreadnought “dreadnought revolution” revolution” itit isis difficult difficult to to see see how how Fisher Fisher concept could could have have persuaded persuaded the the Cabinet Cabinet between between 1906 1906 and, and, say, say, 1909, 1909, to to ignore ignore the the protests protests of of their their radical radical tail tail and and continue continue building building large large armored armored warships. warships. it It was was no no coincidence coincidence that that at at the the beginning beginning of of 1907, 1907, several several Cabinet Cabinet ministers began began openly openly to to question question Fisher's Fisher’s claims claims for for the the overwhelming overwhelming ministers superiority of of the the all-big-gun all-big-gun armored armored vessel vessel over over predreadnought predreadnought types. types. superiority Others, David David Lloyd Lloyd George George for for example, example, complained complained publically publically that that the the Others, dreadnought policy policy was was aa “piece “piece of of wanton wanton and and profligate profligate ostentation’— ostentation”— dreadnought whatever whatever that that meant.64 meant.” In In January, January, Campbell-Bannerman Campbell-Bannerman admitted admitted to to Asquith that that he he too too resented resented having having to to pay pay the the costs costs associated associated with with the the Asquith development and and construction construction of of “experimentally “experimentally large large ships ships which which no no development other power power possesses.’* possesses.”65 Growing Growing skepticism skepticism over over the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s other claims of of aa “dreadnought “dreadnought revolution” revolution” may may explain explain why, why, that that month, month, the the claims Cabinet refused refused to to allow allow the the Admiralty Admiralty to to sell sell two two predreadnoughts predreadnoughts to to Cabinet the Brazilian Brazilian navy navy and and use use the the proceeds proceeds to to build build “another “another Dreadnought Dreadnought the or Invincible.”® Invincible.”66 Of Of course course the the politicians politicians may may simply simply have have felt felt that that for for or more carried more battleships carried old battleships two old purposes, two deterrence purposes, and deterrence diplomatic and diplomatic weight weight than than one one new new one.“ one.*’ But But judging judging from from the the tone tone of of Asquith’s Asquith’s correcorrelikely. seem likely. not seem does not this does subject this the subject on the spondence on spondence In early early 1907 1907 doubts doubts over over the the direction direction of of Admiralty Admiralty construction construction In policy had had become become sufficiently sufficiently widespread widespread for for Fisher Fisher to to recruit recruit the the hishispolicy policy.68 construction policy.” his construction of his criticism of rebut criticism help rebut to help Corbett to Julian Corbett torian Julian torian confidential several confidential with several Corbett with provided Corbett lord provided sea lord first sea the first end, the this end, To this To Building our Building of our Aspects of Strategic Aspects “The Strategic entitled “The one entitled the one including the papers including papers subCorbett subDN1,70 Corbett the DNI,” Ottley, the Charles Ottley, with Charles cooperation with In cooperation Program.”69 In Program.’® dreadthe dreadof the defense of partisan, defense impressive, ifif partisan, an impressive, produced an sequently produced sequently which type which the type of the criticism of dampening criticism in dampening succeeded in that succeeded type that nought type nought

write to write invitation to an invitation and an lord and sea lord first sea the first of the gratitude of the gratitude him the earned him earned further propaganda propaganda articles articles on on behalf behalf of of the the Admiralty.” Admiralty.”ll The The historian historian further in papers in further papers two further produced two summer produced that summer later that and later agreed and cautiously agreed cautiously support of of recent recent naval naval reforms.” reforms.72 While While Corbett’s Corbett’s articles articles silenced silenced the the support Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Admiralty’s Admiralty’s loudest loudest critics critics they they did did not not convince convince their their most most dangerous dangerous foe. Chancellor Chancellor Asquith, Asquith, who who in in April April 1908 1908 would would become become prime prime minisminisfoe. ter, remained remained “sceptical” “sceptical” (in (in the the matter matter of of shipbuilding) shipbuilding) as as to to the the whole whole ter, “dreadnought” policy for many more years. One of Asquith’s first acts “dreadnought” policy for many more years. One of Asquith’s first acts as as prime prime minister, minister, indeed, indeed, would would be be to to dismiss dismiss Tweedmouth Tweedmouth as as first first lord lord and want and replace replace him him with with the the chief chief secretary secretary from from the the Treasury. Treasury. “I “I don’t don’t want to press you," an impatient Asquith wrote to the new first lord of the to press you,” an impatient Asquith wrote to the new first lord of the Admiralty in July 1908, for example, “but as you have now surveyed the Admiralty in July 1908, for example, “but as you have now surveyed the whole whole situation situation from from the the inside, inside, 1I should should be be very very glad glad to to know know if if you you have have come to any conclusion of your own as to the lines upon which come to any conclusion of your own as to the lines upon which conconstruction money struction ought ought to to proceed proceed for for the the next next few few years. years. There There is is much much money in in it——and it—and more more than than money. money.... . 3’73 .”” Fisher’s ability from Fisher's ability from the the end end of of 1906 1906 to to always always provide provide a a plausible plausible answer answer as as to to why why more more cuts cuts should should not not be be made made in in the the naval naval construcconstruction budget budget made made him him extremely extremely unpopular unpOpular with with his his political political masters. masters. “I“I tion confess confess that that after after a a year’s year’s experience,” experience,” Asquith Asquith wrote wrote to to CampbellCampbellBannerman, Bannerman, lI have and have very very little little confidence confidence in in the the present present lot lot of of Sea Sea Lords Lords who who chop chop and change change as as the the whim whim suits suits them. them. Our Our naval naval supremacy supremacy is is so so completely completely assured assured having having regard regard to to the the sketchy sketchy paper paper program program and and inferior inferior shipshipbuilding building resources resources of of the the other other powers powers that that there there is is no no possible possible reason reason for for allowing allowing ourselves ourselves to to be be hastily hastily rushed rushed into into these these nebulous nebulous and and ambitious ambitious developments." developments.”

Campbell-Bannerman Campbell-Bannerman “entirely” “entirely” shared shared Asquith’s Asquith’s “dislike “dislike and and suspisuspicions. of the Navy.”75 Unfortunately cions. of the Navy.” Unfortunately at at a a time time when when the the international international naval the naval situation situation was was so so confused confused it it was was impossible impossible to to disregard disregard the expert advice from the Board of Admiralty. “There is desperately expert advice from the Board of Admiralty. “There is desperately little little sound sound standing standing ground ground in in all all this,” this,” sighed sighed Campbell-Bannerman.76 Campbell-Bannerman.” This This uncertainty, however, did not discourage him uncertainty, however, did not discourage him from from again again trying trying (unsuc(unsuccessfully) cessfully) to to coax coax Tweedmouth Tweedmouth into into endorsing endorsing a a change change in in the the definition definition of the two-power standard.77 “I think it will be sadly misunderstood of the two-power standard.” “I think it will be sadly misunderstood ifif you lord you were were to to throw throw over over its its validity validity at at the the present present time,” time,” the the first first lord had replied. had replied. “All “All governments governments for for at at least least twenty-one twenty-one years years have have acceptaccepted ed and and acted acted up up to to the the Two Two Power Power Standard Standard and and it it is is not not to to be be lightly lightly abandoned of abandoned now.”78 now.”” The The public public had had identified identified it it as as the the very very definition definition of

national the national security. security. He He did did not not need need to to add add that that any any attempt attempt to to dilute dilute the standard standard was was bound bound to to be be used used against against the the government government with with potentialpotentially ly serious serious effect. effect.

From From the the beginning beginning of of 1907 1907 the the Cabinet Cabinet and and Treasury Treasury became became resigned resigned to to do do no no more more than than hold hold the the line line on on the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s spending. spending. This This uneasy uneasy truce truce between between the the departments departments lasted lasted for for almost almost a a year, year, Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, httpszl/hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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until until the the Liberal Liberal Party’s Party’s radical radical tail tail began began to to twitch twitch restlessly.79 restlessly.” On On 4 4 November, November, one one hundred hundred and and thirty-eight thirty-eight backbencher backbencher MP’s MP’s submitted submitted aa petition petition to to the the prime prime minister minister calling calling for for massive massive cuts cuts in in defense defense spendspend- ‘— ing.80 ing. After After gauging gauging the the strength strength of of feeling feeling within within the the party, party, on on 20 20 November November the the Chief Chief Whip Whip reported reported to to the the Cabinet Cabinet that that “unless “unless some some subsubstantial Stantial reduction reduction is is made made in in the the combined combined total total of of naVal naval and and military military expenditure, expenditure, the the Government Government may may be be exposed exposed to to aa serious serious attack attack by by aa considerable considerable section section of of their their own own followers?“ followers.”* Before Before the the Cabinet Cabinet had had time time to to react react to to this this potential potential threat, threat, however, however, the the very very next next day day indeed, indeed, Asquith Asquith was was “aghast” “aghast” to to learn learn from from Tweedmouth Tweedmouth that that the the Admiralty Admiralty intended intended to to ask ask for for an an increase increase in in their their budget budget next next year year of of between between one one and and two two million.82 million.” The The increase increase was was the the result result of of the the Admiralty Admiralty having having now now to to pay pay for for works works out out of of the the annual annual navy navy estimates estimates rather rather than than borborrow row the the money money as as they they had had been been doing doing since since 1895. 1895. “I “I need need hardly hardly tell tell you,” you,’ the the Chancellor Chancellor at at once once wrote wrote back, back, “that “that II cannot cannot and and will will not not be be responsible for submitting such estimates to the House of Commons.”83 responsible for submitting such estimates to the House of Commons.”® This This time time Asquith’s Asquith’s reply reply was was not not simply simply an an expression expression of of personal personal ideideology ology or or symptomatic symptomatic of of his his desire desire to to remain remain friendly friendly with with the the radicals radicals for for political political reasons. reasons. He He was was committed committed (and (and becoming becoming increasingly increasingly desdesperate) to find money to pay for the Old Age Pensions Bill due to perate) to find money to pay for the Old Age Pensions Bill due to be be introduced introduced before before Parliament Parliament early early the the following following year.84 year. Yet Yet this this time time Asquith Asquith could could hardly hardly accuse accuse the the Admiralty Admiralty of of profligacy. profligacy. The The building building program for 1908—9 was modest; consisting of just one capital program for 1908-9 was modest; consisting of just one capital ship—a ship—a battleship—and battleship—and aa new new model model armored armored cruiser cruiser (armed (armed with with eight eight 9.29.2inch inch guns) guns) plus plus the the usual usual number number of of flotilla flotilla craft.85 craft. Had Had the the Admiralty Admiralty not not been been obliged obliged to to provide provide for for naval naval works, works, indeed, indeed, the the navy navy estimates estimates would would actually actually shown shown aa slight slight fall. fall. Finding Finding economies economies elsewhere elsewhere in in the the naval naval budget budget was was unlikely. unlikely. Tweedmouth Tweedmouth warned warned that that after after the the recent recent announcement announcement of of another another expansion expansion of of the the German German fleet, fleet, it it was was not not pospossible sible to to reduce reduce the the numbers numbers of of ships ships in in commission commission or or delete delete obsolete obsolete vessels vessels from from the the reserve. reserve. On 26 26 November, November, the the Cabinet Cabinet peremptorily peremptorily informed informed the the Admiralty Admiralty On that that their their estimates estimates “must “must be be completely completely revised revised with with the the view view of of secursecuring ing that that the the estimated estimated expenditure expenditure on on the the Navy Navy for for 1908/09 1908/09 shall shall not not exceed the the figures figures of of last last year.”** year.”86 Moreover, Moreover, “the “the Cabinet Cabinet have have decided decided exceed that no no estimate estimate for for aa new new Dreadnought Dreadnought need need be be included included in in the the estiestithat mates for 1908—09.”87 Unable to persuade Needmouth to stand firm, mates for 1908-09.”®’ Unable to persuade Tweedmouth to stand firm, Fisher Fisher offered offered to to compromise.88 compromise.” By By delaying delaying payments payments on on outstanding outstanding contracts and postponing the calling of tenders until the end contracts and postponing the calling of tenders until the end of of the the finanfinancial year, he suggested, the necessary increase might be restricted cial year, he suggested, the necessary increase might be restricted to to just just £500,000.89 £500,000." These These measures, measures, however, however, would would have have only only deferred deferred expenditure. expenditure. In In the the meantime, meantime, the the Treasury Treasury would would still still have have to to cough cough up up Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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withdrew Admiralty withdrew the Admiralty however, the an later, however, days later, Five days million. Five half million. extra half an extra 1.4 extra 1.4 an extra for an demand for original demand the original this resubmitted the instead resubmitted and instead offer and this offer resolve. new resolve. found aa new had found lord had first lord the first million. lords the sea lords the sea to the Thanks to million. Thanks docusigned docuwith aa signed Tweedmouth with On presented Tweedmouth they presented 1907, they December 1907, On 33 December

memorandum the memorandum with the Along with diktat.90 Along ment Cabinet’s diktat.° the Cabinet’s at the protesting at ment protesting

New the New of the beginning of the beginning At the went resignation.“ At mass resignation.” of mass threat of verbal threat went aa verbal drawn.”92 daggers drawn.”” “at daggers still “at were still Year Admiralty were the Admiralty and the Treasury and the Treasury Year the the because the convincing because been convincing have been Tweedmouth’s must have performance must Tweedmouth’s performance himself bracing himself was bracing secretary, was private secretary, prime his private to his according to minister, according prime minister, Admiralty.93 of Admiralty.” Board of entire Board the entire to of the resignation of accept resignation to accept tensions, defuse tensions, and defuse disaster and In possible disaster this possible off this head off to head attempt to an attempt In an into secretary, foreign the Grey, Campbell-Bannerman sent Sir Edward Grey, the foreign secretary, into Edward Sir sent Campbell-Bannerman chowas choHe was economies. He out economies. ferret out to ferret Whitehall committee to small committee with aa small Whitehall with found however, found Grey, however, neutral. Grey, as neutral. sen him as regarded him sides regarded both sides because both sen because of week of first week the first during the sometime during nothing. afterwards, sometime shortly afterwards, And shortly nothing. And objections Treasury’s the overruled January 1908, the prime minister overruled the Treasury's objections minister prime the January 1908, before But before plans.94 But spending plans.* and Admiralty’s spending the Admiralty’s endorse the to endorse agreed to and agreed of House the before estimates navy Tweedmouth had time to lay the navy estimates before the House of the lay to Tweedmouth had time Political attack. heart major a Commons, Campbell-Bannerman suffered a major heart attack. Political suffered Commons, Campbell-Bannerman time.95 of time.® matter of only aa matter was only death was or death commentators resignation or his resignation knew his commentators knew the shifting thus leader, deputy In the meantime Asquith was appointed deputy leader, thus shifting the appointed was In the meantime Asquith February. of beginning the At Cabinet. the balance within the Cabinet. At the beginning of February, power within of power balance of was Admiralty was the Admiralty with the deal with accordingly, Campbell-Bannerman’s deal accordingly, Campbell-Bannerman’s minisof assembly an to declared void. Sir John Fisher was summoned to an assembly of minissummoned was Fisher John Sir void. declared to determined to unanimously determined “had unanimously ters Cabinet “had the Cabinet that the told that was told he was where he ters where last below last them below bring them to bring as to so as reduce £1,340,000, so by £1,340,000, Estimates by Navy Estimates the Navy reduce the the to the made to already made year’s concessions already the concessions Withdrawing the figure.”96 Withdrawing year’s figure.”® whatestimates whatnavy estimates the navy in the Admiralty increase in any increase allow any to allow refusing to and refusing Admiralty and to remarked to Fisher remarked soever Afterwards, Fisher provocation. Afterwards, of provocation. act of clear act was aa Clear soever was that and that wheels and within wheels his wheels within were wheels “there were suspected “there he suspected that he DNI that his DNI TweedLord Tweedeject Lord to eject want to there who want Cabinet who the Cabinet in the party in strong party there isis aa strong been has been estimates has the estimates mouth.” on the crisis on “the crisis that “the believed that now believed He now mouth.” He conto conhad to also had Fisher also view.”97 Fisher largely in view.”” object in this object with this manufactured with largely manufactured of behavior eccentric say to not tend with the increasingly unpredictable not to say eccentric behavior of unpredictable increasingly the with tend “menlord’s “menfirst lord’s the first Lord that the noted that commentators noted Polite commentators Tweedmouth.98 Polite Lord Tweedmouth.”

he said he Others said decay.”99 Others of decay.”® tal signs of alarming signs shown alarming lately shown had lately powers had tal powers

had had gone gone mad. mad. counterattack.100 to counterattack.'” At resolved to lord resolved sea lord first sea the first January, the of January, end of the end At the jourwith jourlinks with close links Throughout maintained close always maintained had always he had career he his career Throughout his press the press used the had used he had 1884, he nalists least 1884, at least Since at editors. Since newspaper editors. and newspaper nalists and Fleet in Fleet confidant in closest confidant to Fisher’s closest 1908, Fisher’s In 1908, politicians.‘01 In overcome politicians.’" to overcome with was it Thus Street isygaAswglaegjes was James L. Garvin—the editor of the Observer.'” Thus it was with Observer.”2 the of editor Garvin—the L. Lambert, Nicola§§£§h§ utIon. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Garvin’s Garvin's help help that that Fisher Fisher connived connived to to embarrass embarrass Asquith Asquith and and the the Liberal Liberal government government by by leaking leaking information information to to the the public public that that contradicted contradicted repeatrepeated ed ministerial ministerial denials denials of of an an estimates estimates “crisis.” “crisis.” On On 9 9 February, February, the the Observer Observer published an “official" published an “official” letter letter received received from from the the first first sea sea lord, lord, deliberately deliberately composed composed to to stir stir up up public public opinion, opinion, that that pompously pompously demanded demanded to to know know who who had had passed passed the the newspaper newspaper confidential confidential papers papers on on naval naval policy— policy— thereby thereby implying implying that that the the editorials editorials were were accurate!103 accurate!’ Garvin’s Garvin's biographer biographer concluded concluded that that the the operation operation was was brilliantly brilliantly successful successful and and “undoubtedly” “undoubtedly” did did much much “to “to force force the the Radicals Radicals in in the the Cabinet Cabinet to to modify modify their their demands.”104 demands.”'™ In In essence essence this this is is correct, correct, though though it it does does requires requires qualification. qualification. On On 12 12 February February 1908, 1908, the the Cabinet Cabinet called called the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s bluff bluff by by granting granting an an increase increase in in navy navy estimates estimates of of just just under under £900,000 £900,000 and and then then declaring declaring the the subject subject closed.105 closed.’ It It worked. worked. Tweedmouth Tweedmouth capitulated. capitulated. He He refused refused to to resign resign over over his his department department being being thus thus short-changed, short-changed, although had although he he was was furious furious at at “the “the very very cavalier cavalier manner" manner” in in which which he he had been he been treated treated by by his his political political colleagues. colleagues. That That being being said, said, however, however, he only only conceded conceded after after making making it it clear clear that that the the Admiralty Admiralty expected expected to to be be granted a appropriation later granted a supplementary supplementary appropriation later in in the the autumn. autumn. Tweedmouth Tweedmouth requested requested from from Asquith Asquith that that a a written written “assurance “assurance should should be be given given to to me me [now] [now] that that a[ny] a[ny] proposal proposal for for a a supplementary supplementary estimate estimate will this will not not be be received received with with ‘surprise’ ‘surprise’ nor nor blank blank opposition.”'06 opposition.”'°® Whether Whether this thinly his disthinly veiled veiled ultimatum ultimatum achieved achieved his his end end or or merely merely precipitated precipitated his dismissal missal from from the the Cabinet Cabinet several several weeks weeks later later is is debatable. debatable. In In any any case, case, at at the the beginning beginning of of April April 1908, 1908, upon upon formally formally succeeding succeeding CampbellCampbellBannerman as as prime prime minister, minister, Asquith Asquith replaced replaced Lord Lord Tweedmouth Tweedmouth with with Bannerman the the much much trustworthier trustworthier Reginald Reginald McKenna, McKenna, after after Winston Winston Churchill Churchill refused the the post.'*’ post."’7 McKenna McKenna had had previously previously served served as as Asquith’s Asquith’s chief chief refused assistant assistant at at the the Treasury. Treasury. It It is is significant significant that that both both candidates candidates Asquith Asquith wing “economist” wing the “economist” of the members of leading members were leading post were the post for the considered for considered of of the the party, party, avowedly avowedly bent bent on on securing securing reductions reductions in in armaments.‘08 armaments.'” Shortly after after his his dismissal, dismissal, Tweedmouth Tweedmouth sent sent Asquith Asquith aa bitter bitter letter letter Shortly reminding reminding him him that that during during his his two two years years at at the the Admiralty Admiralty he he had had repeatrepeatedly compromised compromised his his own own convictions convictions and and acted acted in in the the Party’s Party’s interest interest edly by by refusing refusing to to stand stand by by his his sea sea lords. lords. “I “I ought ought to to have have resigned resigned when when the the Cabinet did not not Cabinet again again and and again again out cut down down my my estimates,” estimates,” he he reflected, reflected, “I“I did do do so so because because it it would would have have involved involved the the resignation resignation of of the the whole whole Board Board thing.”'°9 terrible thing.”' been a a terrible have been would have that would and that civil and and civil sea and sea Fisher Fisher won won another another point point for for the the Admiralty Admiralty in in March March when, when, during during a a debate debate on on the the navy navy in in the the House House of of Commons, Commons, Asquith Asquith mistakenly mistakenly described described the the second second armored armored vessel vessel projected projected under under the the 1908—9 1908-9 proprogram gram as as a a “battle-cruiser.”“0 “battle-cruiser.”'’ Fisher Fisher gleefully gleefully exploited exploited this this slip slip of of the the Lambetqncgugjjgngheasftaea preparing aa new new design, design, surreptitiously surreptitiously upgradtongue and after Rhmastily hastily preparing E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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9.2-inch eight 9.2-inch with eight armed with cruiser” armed “armored cruiser” 15,500-ton “armored projected 15,500-ton the projected ed the ed

difThe difcruiser.“I The battle cruiser.'"' gunned battle 12-inch gunned 19,000-ton 12-inch full-sized 19,000-ton into aa full-sized guns into guns pounds million pounds of aa million quarter of the quarter for the up for made up than made more than price more in price ference in ference

February. back inin February. estimates back the estimates from the trimmed from arbitrarily trimmed had arbitrarily Cabinet had the Cabinet the government the government that the Parliament that informed Parliament had informed minister had prime minister the prime After the After nothing. do nothing. could do he could cruiser” he “battle cruiser” ordering aa “battle be ordering would be would Complex Industrial Complex Naval Industrial The Naval The

batthe batdefend the to defend went to Fisher went which Fisher to which lengths to extraordinary lengths The extraordinary The two-power the two-power of the redefinition of endorse aa redefinition to endorse refusal to his refusal standard, his tleship standard, tleship program dreadnought program the dreadnought of the defense of aggressive defense his aggressive and his standard, and standard, chapters previous chapters in previous forward in put forward arguments put the arguments contradict the to contradict appear to appear best the best was the fleet was battleship fleet supreme battleship that aa supreme believed that longer believed no longer he no that he that the at the Yet at interests.“2 Yet imperial interests."* British imperial defending British for defending structure for force structure force priwas he ships, capital more demanding was Fisher that time same same time that Fisher was demanding more capital ships, he was priof margin of present margin “our present that “our allies that and allies friends and closest friends his closest assuring his vately assuring vately as great so is years) for foe possible only (our Germany over superiority superiority over Germany (our only possible foe for years) is so great as our endangering our anything endangering of anything talk of to talk extreme to the extreme in the absurd in render itit absurd to render to In altogether!!!”3 shipbuilding all stopped we if even supremacy, naval naval supremacy, even if we stopped all shipbuilding altogether''!”'” In claimed lord sea first the 1907, October dated Edward King to letter to King Edward dated October 1907, the first sea lord claimed aa letter Navy,” German Navy,” the German than the stronger than times stronger four times now four Navy isis now English Navy “the English “the have shall have we shall so we because ifif so this, because all this, parade all to parade want to don’t want we don’t but we but the of the Members of 150 Members and 150 MP, and Brunner MP, John Brunner Sir John trouble. Sir Parliamentary trouble. Parliamentary warmest Campbell-Bannerman’s warmest Henry Campbell-Bannerman’s Sir Henry are Sir who are Commons who of Commons House of House him sent him have sent adversity, have in adversity, friends in steadfast friends his steadfast been his have been and have supporters and supporters showing convincingly showing read, convincingly have read, papers II have best papers the best of the one of recently one quite recently quite strong. ItIt so strong. are So all—we are at all—we ships at new ships any new down any lay down to lay want to don’t want we don’t that we that quite true!'" true!““ isis quite

insist Admiralty insist the Admiralty did the why did then why believed then be believed to be are to statements are such statements IfIf such evithe over confusion the of Much battleships? more ordering upon upon ordering more battleships? Much of the confusion over the evinarratives historical most in assumption pervasive the from stems dence dence stems from the pervasive assumption in most historical narratives efficiency.115 of efficiency.'’ sake of the sake for the simply for economies simply volunteered economies Fisher volunteered that Fisher that that forgotten often is it Furthermore, case. the not was simply This This simply was not the case. Furthermore, it is often forgotten that expenditure. naval in cuts largest the commanded government Balfour’s Balfour's government commanded the largest cuts in naval expenditure. Conservative the Conservative by the lord by sea lord first sea appointed first was appointed Fisher was seen, Fisher have seen, we have As we AS significant effect would he that understanding the on administration administration on the understanding that he would effect aa significant governthat realized he because agreed He estimates. navy the navy estimates. He agreed because he realized that governin the cut in cut ment ment had had to to “repair “repair and and rebuild rebuild the the structure structure of of British British financial financial credit credit been however, been had, however, There had, war.””6 There African war.”''® South African the South by the shaken by rudely shaken so rudely so “Augean” the cleansing for cleansing the “Augean” return for key—in return the key—in this isis the off—and this pay off—and aa pay the naval keep the to keep allowed to been allowed had been Fisher had budget, Fisher naval budget, the naval from the waste from waste Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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construction construction budget budget more more or or less less intact. intact. This This enabled enabled him him to to build build the the ships ships he he desired desired to to effect effect his his naval naval revolution. revolution. In In July July 1905, 1905, the the first first sea sea lord lord informed informed the the Naval Naval Estimates Estimates Committee Committee that that for for the the next next four four years years the the construction construction budget budget would would be be sustained sustained at at “nine “nine and and half half million million a a year.””7 year.”'” With With this this sum, sum, he he had had hoped hoped to to lay lay down down annually annually four four new new model model battle battle cruisers cruisers and and make make “large “large increases” increases” in in the the numbers numbers of of “submarines “submarines and and torpedo torpedo craft.”“8 craft.”''® Assuming Assuming the the navy navy estimates estimates did did not not rise rise above above 33 33 million, million, this this would would have have pushed pushed up up the the naval naval construction construction budget budget to to a a shade shade under under 30 30 percent percent of of total total navy navy estimates.“9 estimates.''’? Arthur Arthur Balfour Balfour not not only only knew knew about about Fisher’s Fisher’s aspirations—he aspirations—he endorsed endorsed them. them. One One of of his his last last acts acts as as prime prime minister minister was was to to issue issue a a parliamentary parliamentary paper paper committing committing his his party party to to consolidating consolidating the the Fisher Fisher revolution. revolution. The The memorandum memorandum also also served served to to announce announce that that if if the the Conservatives Conservatives were were returned returned to to power, power, the the navy navy would would be be given given approximately approximately nine nine and and aa half half million million per per annum annum for for new new construction.‘20 construction.'” Historians Historians have have made made a a great great deal deal of of confusion confusion over over the the purpose purpose of of the the so-called so-called “Cawdor “Cawdor Memorandum.” Memorandum.” When When Balfour Balfour authorized authorized its its pubpublication lication his his intention intention had had been been to to convince convince the the electorate electorate that that the the Conservatives Conservatives at at last last had had naval naval expenditure expenditure under under control, control, and and that that if if reelected naval conreelected would would spend spend no no more more than than nine nine and and a a half half million million on on naval construction struction annually. annually. Four Four large large armored armored vessels vessels aa year, year, in in other other words, words, was supposed to have been a maximum program.”' The Liberal was supposed to have been a maximum program.'*' The Liberal Party, Party, however, however, along along with with most most historians, historians, were were not not privy privy to to the the informal informal understanding understanding between between Balfour Balfour and and Fisher. Fisher. They, They, consequently, consequently, regardregarded the Cawdor ed the Cawdor Memorandum Memorandum as as a a thinly thinly disguised disguised attempt attempt to to convince convince the numthe public public that that four four large large armored armored vessels vessels a a year year was was the the minimum minimum number ber that that had had to to be be laid laid down down annually annually in in order order to to maintain maintain British British naval naval supremacy.122 supremacy.'” The The document, document, in in other other words, words, was was seen seen as as another another politpolitical ical ploy ploy designed designed to to restrict restrict the the Liberals’ Liberals’ fiscal fiscal freedom freedom of of action action after after taking taking power.123 power.'* Fisher, Fisher, who who actually actually drafted drafted the the memorandum, memorandum, insisted insisted in mainin his his memoirs memoirs that that both both these these interpretations interpretations were were wrong.124 wrong.'?* He He maintained tained that that the the prescribed prescribed four four ships ships a a year year building building policy policy represented represented the the average average number number of of warships warships required required to to be be laid laid down down over over the the fivefiveyear year period, period, the the actual actual number number of of contracts contracts awarded awarded each each year year dependdepending ing upon upon a a range range of of factors. factors. Fisher Fisher explained: explained: [Great [Great Britain] Britain} builds builds simply simply and and solely solely to to maintain maintain the the command command of of the the sea sea against against other other Powers. Powers. For For this this end end the the Admiralty Admiralty must must have have its its hands hands free free to to determine determine from from year year to to year year what what the the shipbuilding shipbuilding requirements requirements

are. are. But, But, again, again, this this does does not not mean mean that that our our efforts efforts must must be be spasmodic, spasmodic, that that because because foreign foreign Powers Powers lay lay down down six six ships ships one one year year and and none none the the next next, therefore therefore we we must must do do the the same. same. For For administrative administrative reasons, reasons, which which

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dilate to dilate place to the place not the this isis not case this any case in any which in and which obvious, and be obvious, should should be by year by approximate year should approximate shipbuilding should that shipbuilding necessary that very necessary upon, upon, itit isis very or increases or that increases and that figure, and normal figure, some normal to some practicable, to as practicable, far as so far year, year, so This gradually. This made gradually. be made should be necessary, should become necessary, they become when they decreases, decreases, when yet and yet year, and to year, year to from year program from the program determining the of determining principle, of double principle, double be to be has to years, has of years, number of over aa number built over ships built of ships number of the number averaging averaging the shipAdmiralty shipthe Admiralty understand the to understand desires to who desires anyone who by anyone grasped by firmly firmly grasped policy.125 building policy.’ building

over that over assurance that an assurance than an more than no more was no short, was in short, program, in Cawdor program, The Cawdor The year.126 ships a3 year.'* four ships at four average at would average construction would new construction years new five years next five the next the below. explained below. be explained will be construction will averaging construction of averaging importance of The importance The paronly parbudget isis only construction budget the construction of the defense of aggressive defense Fisher's aggressive Fisher’s to required to he required ships he model ships new model the new build the to build desire to his desire by his explained by tially explained tially his 1906 his January 1906 by January seen, by have seen, we have As we revolution. AS naval revolution. his naval effect his effect opinion majority opinion by majority rejected by been rejected had been project had warship project armored warship “fusion” armored “fusion” hopes Jacky’s hopes months Jacky’s nine months within nine that within true that though itit isis true Whitehall; though within Whitehall; within elecsophisticated electhe sophisticated after the revived after were revived reconsidered were be reconsidered would be that itit would that was Pollen was Arthur Pollen by Arthur designed by computer designed control computer fire control trical-mechanical fire trical-mechanical of hope of all hope up all given up therefore, given not, therefore, had not, He had attention.127 He his attention.'?”? to his brought to brought understand properly understand To properly design. To ship design. capital ship in capital revolution in his revolution affecting his affecting preserve to preserve 1908 to and 1908 1906 and between 1906 hard between so hard fought so Fisher fought John Fisher Sir John why Sir why look to look necessary to battleships itit isis necessary “dreadnought” battleships of “dreadnought” construction of the construction the to particularly to more particularly and more policy, and shipbuilding policy, Admiralty’s shipbuilding the Admiralty’s at the closer at closer the and the Navy and Royal Navy the Royal between the links between complex links increasingly complex the increasingly examine the examine warship building building industry. industry. warship supply to supply prerogative to the prerogative retained the always retained had always crown had the crown Historically, the Historically, conwas conAdmiralty was the Admiralty sail, the of sail, age of the age in the Navy. In Royal Navy. the Royal to the armaments to armaments DockRoyal Dockthe Royal in the ships-of-the-line in own ships-of-the-line its own build its and build design and to design tent to tent Private Ordnance. Private Royal Ordnance. the Royal by the produced by guns produced with guns them with arm them and arm yards, and yards, and frigates and as frigates such as ships such smaller ships build smaller to build only to exploited only were exploited resources were resources significhange signifinot change did not procurement did of procurement pattern of the pattern Outwardly, the sloops.128 Outwardly, sloops.'?®

steam by steam propelled by steel, propelled of steel, built of warships built of warships introduction of the introduction after the cantly after cantly explohigh explofiring high of firing capable of guns capable breech-loading guns mounting breech-loading screws mounting driven screws driven of supplier of sole supplier the sole as the Dockyards as the Dockyards retained the Admiralty retained The Admiralty shells. The sive shells. Sive at manufactured at guns manufactured with guns armed with Navy armed Royal Navy the Royal to the warships to armored warships armored

torpedo than torpedo larger than nothing larger built nothing firms built Private firms Arsenal. Private Woolwich Arsenal. the Woolwich the in reflected in however, reflected continuity, however, apparent continuity, This apparent destroyers.129 This and destroyers.'”? boats and boats impormasked imporwarships, masked armored warships, large armored for large contracts for of contracts allocation of the allocation the

the mid-18808 the the mid-1880s From the procurement. From naval procurement. of naval pattern of the pattern in the shifts in tant shifts tant Royal Royal Dockyards Dockyards relied relied increasingly increasingly upon upon trade trade to to supply supply sophisticated sophisticated heavy engineering. engineering. Private Private firms firms supplied supplied aa steadily steadily larger larger proportion proportion (by (by heavy Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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value) value) of of the the components components that that made made up up a a warship. warship. This This included included the the rifled rifled breech-loading breech-loading guns guns and and marine marine engines, engines, plus plus all all complex complex hydraulic hydraulic and and electrical electrical equipment. equipment. After After the the passage passage of of the the 1889 1889 Naval Naval Defense Defense Act Act and and the the subsequent subsequent rapid rapid expansion expansion of of the the fleet, fleet, the the Royal Royal Dockyards Dockyards proved proved incapable incapable of of meeting meeting all all the the navy’s navy’s requirements requirements for for large large warships. warships. Because Because aa large large proportion proportion of of dockyards dockyards personnel personnel and and facilities facilities were were permanently permanently prepreoccupied in refitting older warships, the Admiralty occupied in refitting older warships, the Admiralty was was compelled compelled to to give give a a significant Significant proportion proportion of of large-ship large-ship contracts contracts to to private private sector sector yards. yards. Though Though the the Royal Royal Dockyards Dockyards always always received received priority, priority, as as the the decade decade proprogressed, eressed, steadily steadily worsening worsening congestion congestion and and underinvestment underinvestment in in these these yards yards forced forced the the Admiralty Admiralty to to channel channel a a steadily steadily larger larger share share of of concontracts tracts towards towards the the private private firms.‘30 firms.'? The The Royal Royal Dockyards’ Dockyards’ majority majority hold hold on on the the building building of of large large warships warships was was finally finally broken broken in in the the mid-1890s. mid-1890s. In In 1897, 1897, the the Board Board of of Admiralty Admiralty was was compelled compelled by by a a shortage shortage of of large large buildbuilding ing slips slips in in the the state-owned state-owned shipbuilding shipbuilding yards yards to to order order all all six six (12,000 (12,000 ton) ton) armored armored cruisers cruisers of of the the Cressy Cressy class class from from trade.'3' trade.'*' Thereafter, Thereafter, between between 1897 1897 and and 1904, 1904, more more than than half half of of the the sixty-two sixty-two large large warships warships ordered ordered for for the the navy navy were were built built in in private private yards. yards. Over Over this this seven seven year year period period the the capacity capacity of of the the private private warship warship construction construction industry industry in in Britain Britain multiplied. multiplied. By By 1904, 1904, there there were were at at least least fourteen fourteen major major compacompanies nies “listed” “listed” as as having having the the necessary necessary facilities facilities and and experience experience to to build build the the hulls hulls of of large large armored armored ships; ships; some some firms firms could could build build more more than than one one at at a a time.'32 time.'’” This This meant, meant, in in theory, theory, sufficient sufficient capacity capacity existed existed in in the the councountry try to to out-build out-build all all the the major major naval naval powers powers in in the the world. world. Contemporary Contemporary politicians politicians (and (and historians historians alike) alike) subsequently subsequently assumed assumed that that in in the the last last resort resort Britain Britain could could easily easily out-build out-build any any challenger challenger that that threatened threatened her her naval naval supremacy.I33 supremacy.'® As As we we shall shall see see the the reality reality was was different. different. In In late late 1904, 1904, when when the the financial financial horizon horizon seemed seemed likely likely to to remain remain darkly darkly clouded clouded for for some some years years to to come, come, the the Admiralty Admiralty recognized recognized that that with with the the number number of of large large armored armored ships ships laid laid down down annually annually set set to to fall fall sharply, sharply, existing existing warship warship building building capacity capacity could could not not possibly possibly be be kept kept fully fully employed. employed. It It was was inevitable inevitable that that many many “great “great shipbuilding shipbuilding firms” firms” would would find find themselves themselves starved starved of of “Admiralty “Admiralty custom.”I34 custom.”'* In In January January 1905, 1905, Fisher, Fisher, as as first first sea sea lord, lord, initiated initiated aa review review of of the the navy’s navy’s shipbuilding shipbuilding policy policy and and appointed appointed himself himself as as chairman chairman of of the the committee committee estabestablished lished to to consider consider this this matter. matter. For For reasons reasons that that will will be be explained explained below, below, the the naval naval administration administration was was also also anxious anxious to to establish establish aa stable—and stable—and sustainable—working sustainable—working partnership partnership between between the the navy navy and and the the private private armaments armaments firms. firms. Fisher Fisher was was certainly certainly the the officer officer best best qualified qualified to to understand understand the the dynamics dynamics of of this this relationship. relationship. Over Over the the previous previous twenty twenty b years years he he had had built built up up an an unrivaled unrivaled knowledge knowledge of of naval naval technology technology and and Lam ert, Nico as. Sirjo nFis er's Nava Revo ution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, httpszllhd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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consecutively served consecutively he served 1897 he and 1897 munitions 1883 and Between 1883 procurement. Between munitions procurement. Ordnance, Naval Ordnance, of Naval director of in School, director Gunnery School, the Gunnery of the captain of of captain posts of the posts in the He navy. He the navy. of the controller of and controller superintendent Dockyard, and Portsmouth Dockyard, of Portsmouth superintendent of that terms, that consecutive terms, two consecutive had unparalleled two an unparalleled for an post for last post this last in this served in had served to him to for him enough for senior enough been senior not been isis six had not however, had office, however, That office, years. That six years. busi“conducted busiNavy “conducted make Royal Navy the Royal ways the the ways in the changes in fundamental changes make fundamental relaclose relavery close maintained very also maintained ness.” Fisher also officer, Fisher naval officer, for aa naval Unusually for ness.” Unusually Josiah Sir notably day, notably Sir Josiah the day, tionships of the industrialists of leading industrialists the leading with the tionships with of directors of senior directors were senior whom were of whom Vavasseur Noble—both of Andrew Noble—both Sir Andrew and Sir Vavasseur and conhis conof his most of bequeathed most Armstrong. Vavasseur bequeathed indeed, Vavasseur death, indeed, his death, On his Armstrong. On manageremarkable manageFisher’s remarkable John Fisher’s siderable Sir John son. Sir Fisher’s son. to Fisher’s estate to siderable estate between acknowledged; between ment widely acknowledged; were widely subject were his subject of his grasp of and grasp skills and ment skills fabulous of fabulous offers of by offers tempted by 1887 being tempted constantly being was constantly he was 1913 he and 1913 1887 and of head of as head stipend as his stipend times his salaries five times than five p.a.—more than £20,000 p.a.—more to £20,000 (up to salaries (up the the navy) navy) to to become become “dictator” “dictator” of of aa leading leading armaments armaments firm.'*® firm.135 Fisher's small small “shipbuilding “shipbuilding industry industry committee”—for committee’—for want want of of a a betbetFisher’s Designs on Designs Committee on ter 1905 Committee famous 1905 the famous with the closely with label—worked closely ter label—worked all-big-gun of all-big-gun appointed practicability of the practicability consider the to consider Selborne to Lord Selborne by Lord appointed by armored warships. warships. Armed Armed with with the the endorsement endorsement of of these these two two councils, councils, armored “conthat “conAdmiralty that of Admiralty Board of the Board the persuade the to persuade managed to lord managed sea lord first sea the first siderable siderable advantages” advantages” would would result result from from the the navy navy taking taking delivery delivery of of its its and three and normal three the normal to the new opposed to as opposed months as sixteen months within sixteen warships within new warships Fisher construction,” Fisher rapid construction,” by rapid aa half enabled by are enabled “We are years.136 “We more years.'** or more half or latthe latall the practically all explained, with practically line with fighting line the fighting into the vessels into get vessels “to get explained, “to joined warships joined most warships est then most Until then them.”137 Until in them.”'*’ embodied in improvements embodied est improvements models. available models. latest available the the latest to the inferior to was inferior that was equipment that with equipment fleet with the fleet Not Not only only did did this this reduce reduce their their fighting fighting efficiency, efficiency, but but the the need need subsesubsecostly.‘38 was costly.'* quently them was refit them to refit quently to large construct aa large to construct took to time itit took Amazing the time halving the seem, halving may seem, at itit may Amazing at in practices in labor practices armored Reforming labor attainable. Reforming be attainable. to be proved to warships proved armored warships big-gun as big-gun such as components, such path components, the critical path ordering critical and ordering dockyards, and the dockyards, conthe conplacing the before placing months before mountings several months engines, several turbine engines, and turbine mountings and January In January times.139 In tract completion times.'*? reduce completion to reduce most to the most did the hull, did the hull, for the tract for comparative Britain’s comparative develop Britain’s to develop 1905, resolved to Admiralty resolved of Admiralty Board of the Board 1905, the to drawback to only drawback The only advantage utmost?”0 The the utmost.”'*° “to the construction “to rapid construction in rapid advantage in every few every build aa few to build afford to only afford “rapid can only “we can that “we was that shipbuilding” was “rapid shipbuilding” of effect of the effect had the times had completion times year.’'*' shortening completion because shortening was because This was year.”““ This new for aa new payment for the payment accelerating previously the whereas previously spending; whereas naval spending; accelerating naval ship ship was was spread spread over over four four or or more more years, years, with with rapid rapid building building the the full full burburden fell fell upon upon just just two two or or three three fiscal fiscal years. years. Prior Prior to to 1905, 1905, the the Admiralty Admiralty den had envisaged envisaged its its long-term long-term construction construction program program to to average average out out at at had three three battleships battleships and and four four armored armored cruisers cruisers per per annum. annum. In In order order to to Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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adopt adopt rapid rapid building, building, therefore, therefore, without without increasing increasing expenditure, expenditure, the the

Admiralty Admiralty was was forced forced to to cut cut the the size size of of this this program. program. But But as as the the Admiralty Admiralty was was already already under under pressure pressure to to do do so so anyway anyway this this was was viewed viewed as as desirable. desirable. From From Fisher's Fisher’s perspective perspective the the priority priority was was to to feed feed the the shipshipbuilding building industry industry with with enough enough money money each each year year to to keep keep it it solvent, solvent, not not to to maximize maximize the the numbers numbers of of warships warships to to be be laid laid down down each each year. year. At At a a meeting meeting held held on on 6 6 January January 1905, 1905, the the Admiralty Admiralty decreed decreed that that henceforth henceforth contracts contracts for for two two capital capital ships ships would would be be reserved reserved for for Royal Royal Dockyards Dockyards at at Portsmouth Portsmouth and and Devonport, Devonport, thus thus leaving leaving two two others others for for the the private private sector.‘42 sector.'” It It was was also also agreed agreed that that “any “any abnormal abnormal increase increase in in building building can, can, it it is is hoped, hoped, be be met met by by private private yards."143 yards.”'* The The immediate immediate result result of of the the decision decision to to adopt adopt this this two-two two-two formula formula resulted resulted in in discharge discharge of of over over 8,000 8,000 redundant redundant state-employed state-employed dockyard dockyard workers.I44 workers.'* Actually Actually the the Royal Royal Dockyards Dockyards could could easily easily have have supplied supplied four four ships ships a a year. year. However, However, for for the the navy navy to to have have relied relied exclusively exclusively upon upon the the state state sector sector to to provide provide large large warships warships would would have have been been “simply “simply ruinous ruinous to to the the private private shipbuilding shipbuilding trade trade of of this this country.”“‘5 country.”’*® Already Already many many armaments armaments firms firms had had been been left left struggling struggling to to cope cope with with the the sharp sharp decline decline in in military military proprocurement curement in in the the aftermath aftermath of of the the Boer Boer War.146 War.'* It It was was thus thus hoped hoped that that two two capital capital ship ship contracts contracts per per year year plus plus orders orders from from overseas overseas would would be be sufficient sufficient to to keep keep solvent solvent the the four four principal principal warship warship building building firms, firms, i.e., i.e., Vickers, Vickers, Armstrong-Whitworth, Armstrong-Whitworth, the the Fairfield Fairfield Shipbuilding Shipbuilding Company, Company, and and John John Brown Brown & & Co. Co. Ltd.147 Ltd.’ In In late late 1905, 1905, the the Admiralty Admiralty deliberately deliberately invited invited the three three last last named named firms firms to to build build the the three three Invincible Invincible class class battles battles the cruisers authorized authorized to to be be laid laid down down that that year, year, rather rather than than following following the the cruisers normal practice practice of of putting putting the the contracts contracts out out for for tender. tender. Although normal Although this this controversial controversial procedure procedure was was not not repeated, repeated, it it should should be be noted noted that that not not until the the exceptional exceptional ten ten capital capital ship ship program program of of 1909 1909 did did the the Admiralty Admiralty until quartet. this quartet. outside this firm outside award to aa firm contract to ship contract big ship award aa big The good reareaThe Admiralty Admiralty was was not not motivated motivated by by altruism. altruism. There There were were good turn could turn generally could they generally First, they sons shipbuilders. First, private shipbuilders. the private ruin the to ruin not to sons not the Second, the dockyards. Second, the dockyards. than the out cheaper than and cheaper faster and warships faster out warships Admiralty wanted wanted to to combat combat the the spreading spreading unionization unionization among among dockyard dockyard Admiralty workers and and the the reluctance reluctance by by politicians politicians to to discharging discharging unwanted unwanted men men workers prithe prifrom the competition from that competition hoped that during was hoped inactivity.‘48 ItIt was of inactivity.'* periods of during periods Third, down.’49 Third, costs down.'” keep costs help keep and help vate militancy and curb militancy help curb would help sector would vate sector in the the event event of of war war the the Royal Royal Dockyards Dockyards were were expected expected to to be be fully fully occuoccuin pied with with repairing repairing damaged damaged ships, ships, and and that that consequently consequently building building would would pied would navy would the navy be therefore, the hostilities, therefore, of hostilities, period of During aa period suspended.150 During be suspended.'” have have to to rely rely upon upon private private yards yards for for new new ships ships to to maintain maintain the the flow flow of of upupto-date to-date warships warships into into the the fleet. fleet. (There (There isis no no evidence evidence to to suggest suggest the the Admiralty envisaged envisaged the the suspension suspension of of large large warship warship construction construction durdurAdmiralty Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Dockyard the Dockyard keep the to keep that to recognized that ing Board recognized the Board Lastly, the war.) Lastly, major war.) ing aa major total the total not the destruction, ifif not the destruction, in the workmen result in “would result employed “would fully employed workmen fully neighher neighover her possesses over country possesses this country extinction, which this advantage which an advantage of an extinctibn, of in aa numbers, in large numbers, in large vessels in war vessels bours, produce war to produce power to the power viz., the bours, viz., conAdmiralty’s conthe Admiralty’s of the head of the head As the short cost.”‘5‘ As moderate cost.”'*' at moderate and at time, and short time, the Office, the War Office, the War in the counterpart in tracts his counterpart to his explained to department explained tracts department of proportion of large proportion award aa large to award navy importance” to special importance” “of special was “of felt itit was navy felt of sources of those sources open those keep open to keep contracts order to “in order firms “in private firms to private contracts to to reasons to other reasons had other Admiralty had The Admiralty supply need.”'52 The of need.”'” times of against times supply against the against the country against the country in the capacity in maintain shipbuilding capacity of shipbuilding level of the level maintain the that fact that the fact was the compelling was More compelling race." More possibility “arms race.” future “arms of aa future possibility of large of large bulls of the hulls build the to build ability to the ability although had the dockyards had state dockyards the state although the the upon the dependent upon totally dependent become totally had become armored they had 1905 they by 1905 vessels, by armored vessels, technologiof technologiproduction of and production design and private the design in the expertise in for expertise sector for private sector armor-plate, mountings, armor-plate, big-gun mountings, as big-gun such as cally components such sophisticated components cally sophisticated well for well accounted for items accounted three items these three and Together these engines.‘53 Together turbine engines.’ and turbine ship. capital ship. of aa capital cost of the cost of the over percent of 50 percent over 50 resistance Admiralty’s resistance the Admiralty’s that the confirm that memoranda confirm Several internal memoranda Several internal substanwas substan1905 was after 1905 budget after construction budget naval construction the naval in the to cuts in deep cuts to deep armaments the armaments upon the impact upon damaging impact the damaging at the tially concern at by concern motivated by tially motivated first the first of the height of the height at the written at document written in aa document 1906, in July 1906, industry. In July industry. In noted Board noted the Board estimates, the navy estimates, the navy major against the onslaught against Treasury onslaught major Treasury then: down, then: laid down, that were laid vessels were armored vessels no armored threatened, no as threatened, if, as that if, shipbuilding yards, yards, armor armor plate plate factories, factories, and and arsenals arsenals [will [will be] be] thrown thrown shipbuilding out out of of gear gear by by aa cessation cessation of of work work and and the the discharge discharge of of skilled skilled mechanics mechanics challenged, be challenged, ... again be will again supremacy will naval supremacy our naval when our come when will come day will [A] day . . . [A] and and when, when, by by consequence, consequence, the the ability ability to to rapidly rapidly build build warships warships in in considconsiderable erable numbers numbers will will be be aa national national asset asset of of incalculable incalculable importance. importance. To To

ever expansion ever should expansion starve will, should present will, the present in the vote in construction vote the construction starve the any of any cost of the cost again enhance the inevitably enhance merely inevitably not merely necessary, not become necessary, again become future program, program, but but will will greatly greatly impair impair the the national national power power of of rapid rapid naval naval future recuperation recuperation in in the the vital vital matter matter of of our our output output of of new new warships.'™ warships.154

the to the memorandum to The lords’ memorandum sea lords’ the sea in the prominent in was prominent argument was same argument The same first first lord lord of of 33 December December 1907, 1907, protesting protesting against against Cabinet Cabinet instructions instructions to to delete delete the the sole sole dreadnought dreadnought from from the the 1908—9 1908-9 program. program. Although Although itit isis quite quite true true that that our our preponderance preponderance in in battleships battleships at at the the prepre-

sent sent moment moment might might justify justify the the omission omission of of the the solitary solitary battleship battleship proposed, proposed, the by the afforded by yet (now afforded certainty (now absolute certainty and absolute knowledge and full knowledge the full with the yet with battleship large battleship German commence a a large to commence having to of having issued) of just issued) program just German program program program in in 1909/10, 1909/10, itit would would be be most most unbusinesslike, unbusinesslike, and and indeed indeed disasdisasLambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.3l 569.

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trous trous to to close close down down the the armor armor plate plate industry industry of of this this country country by by the the entire entire cessation of battleship building. It would be similarly disastrous to cessation of battleship building. It would be similarly disastrous to abruptabruptly ly stop stop the the manufacture manufacture of of heavy heavy gun gun mountings.155 mountings.'®

By By 1905, 1905, the the Royal Royal Navy Navy had had become become completely completely dependent dependent upon upon the the priprivate vate sector sector to to supply supply the the mountings mountings and and turrets turrets for for the the 12-inch 12-inch guns guns that that had had become become the the standard standard main main armament armament for for all all its its capital capital ships.156 ships.'* Messrs. Messrs. Vickers Vickers Ltd. Ltd. and and Armstrong-Whitworth Armstrong-Whitworth & & Co. Co. were were the the only only two two firms firms in in England England with with the the facilities facilities to to build build these these enormously enormously complex complex machines machines with with the the necessary necessary expertise expertise and and precision. precision. The The design design of of the the mountings mountings was was originally originally the the property property of of the the Armstrong Armstrong Company. Company. Since Since the the late late 1890s, 1890s, moreover, moreover, these these two two private private firms firms had had been been colluding. colluding. They They had had pooled pooled their their technical technical knowledge, knowledge, agreed agreed to to share Share the the research research and and development development burden, burden, and and had had cut cut their their manufacturing manufacturing costs costs by by stanstandardizing dardizing their their product. product. The The response response by by the the Admiralty Admiralty had had been been to to approach approach other other firms firms and and provide provide them them with with copies copies of of the the Armstrong Armstrong plans. plans. In In 1903, 1903, the the Admiralty Admiralty had had been been obliged obliged to to award award Vickers Vickers and and Armstrong Armstrong an an effective effective oligopoly oligopoly in in the the supply supply of of big-gun big-gun mountings mountings in in return return for for the the companies’ companies’ agreement agreement to to drop drop legal legal proceedings proceedings against against the the Controller’s Controller's Department Department for for back-payment back-payment of of royalties royalties and and infringeinfringement ment of of their their patents.“57 patents.'*’ As As aa result, result, Messrs. Messrs. Beardmore Beardmore and and John John Brown Brown Ltd. Ltd. had had been been forced forced to to close close their their brand-new brand-new gun gun mounting mounting plants plants for for want want of of contracts. contracts. Although Although the the granting granting of of this this concession concession certainly certainly narrowed narrowed the the field field of supply for big-gun mountings, for a period the Royal Navy benefited of supply for big-gun mountings, for a period the Royal Navy benefited from from the the arrangement. arrangement. The The speed speed at at which which aa manufacturer manufacturer could could supply supply such such specialized specialized naval naval equipment equipment was was closely closely correlated correlated to to its its stock stock of of manufacturing manufacturing plant plant and and pool pool of of experienced experienced machinists. machinists. Neither Neither factors factors could could be be improvised. improvised. The The scale scale of of the the plant plant required required to to construct construct big-gun big-gun mountings mountings may may be be gauged gauged from from the the fact fact that that it it required required no no fewer fewer than than five five hundred hundred machines machines to to build build just just one one unit.158 unit. Many Many were were custom-made custom-made for for the the job.159 job.' As As aa consequence, consequence, their their supply supply was was highly highly inelastic. inelastic. The The Admiralty Admiralty could could not not purchase purchase gun gun mountings mountings on on demand. demand. Battleship Battleship turturrets rets had had to to be be ordered ordered at at least least six six months—large months—large orders orders required required nine nine months—before months—before the the ships ships for for which which they they were were required required were were laid laid down. down. For For obvious obvious reasons, reasons, the the Admiralty Admiralty wanted wanted their their suppliers suppliers to to keep keep aa large large margin margin of of surplus surplus capacity capacity in in anticipation anticipation of of the the need need to to acceleraccelerate ate naval naval construction. construction. But But for for private private firms firms this this made made no no economic economic sense. sense. Experience Experience had had taught taught them them that that the the Royal Royal Navy’s Navy's demand demand for for capital ships (and thus big-gun mountings) was unpredictable. In addicapital ships (and thus big-gun mountings) was unpredictable. In addition, tion, the the costs costs of of retaining retaining extra extra skilled skilled workmen workmen and and underemploying underemploying factories equipped with up-to-date machine tools factories equipped with up-to-date machine tools were were prohibitive, prohibitive, Lambert, Nicolas. 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owing high owing was high depreciation was capital depreciation of capital cost of especially the cost when the time when at aa time especially at few moreover, few were, moreover, There were, progress.160 There to technological progress.'® of technological pace of rapid pace the rapid to the govBritish govthe British even the Not even machinery. Not alternate specialized machinery. such specialized for such uses for alternate uses of level of desired level the desired retaining the of retaining costs of the costs ernment incur the to incur prepared to was prepared ernment was expensive. too expensive. was too factory. ItIt was ordnance factory. royal ordnance spare at aa royal capacity at industrial capacity spare industrial of some of cover some to cover position to in aa position were in however, were Private companies, however, Private companies, more. What isis more, overseas. What products overseas. their products selling their by selling overheads by their plant overheads their plant first the first During the so.161 During do so.'* to do them to encouraged them the actively encouraged Admiralty actively the Admiralty per30 perand 30 20 and between 20 earned between Vickers earned decade century, Vickers twentieth century, the twentieth of the decade of from factories from mountings factories gun mountings their gun by their cent generated by incomes generated their incomes of their cent of oligopan oligopto an coupled to markets coupled overseas markets exploit overseas to exploit exports. freedom to This freedom exports. This conthe conArmstrong the Messrs. Armstrong and Messrs. Vickers and gave Vickers oly market, gave home market, their home in their oly in Royal the Royal supply the to supply required to they required than they plant than fidence larger plant maintain larger to maintain fidence to in scale in of scale economies of significant economies exploit significant to exploit Navy, them to allowed them thus allowed and thus Navy, and mountbig-gun mountmake big-gun to make position to in aa position were in they were result, they production.'® As aa result, production.162 As put itit to put Or to supplier. Or potential supplier. other potential any other than any faster than ings substantially faster ings substantially mountings big-gun mountings deliver big-gun could deliver companies could another large companies two large way, two another way, During firms. During smaller firms. four smaller or four three or of three efforts of quicker combined efforts the combined than the quicker than As all-important. As was all-important. manufacture was of manufacture speed of the administration, speed Fisher administration, the Fisher parliamento aa parliamen1907 to July 1907 in July explained in the Ordnance explained Naval Ordnance of Naval director of the director employ to employ refused to Admiralty refused the Admiralty why the into why inquiring into tary committee inquiring select committee tary select the the state-owned state-owned Royal Royal Gun Gun Factory: Factory: 12-inch manufacture 12-inch doubt, manufacture no doubt, could, no The [Arsenal] could, Woolwich [Arsenal] that Woolwich fact isis that The fact not aa were not time were firms ifif time private firms of private hydraulic designs of the designs to the machinery to gun machinery hydraulic gun increasing considerably increasing without considerably that without factor observed that be observed to be is to [but] itit is . . .. [but] factor .. to Woolwich to for Woolwich possible for not possible both Arsenal, itit isis not the Arsenal, of the staff of and staff plant and the plant both the requirepresent requirethe present meet the to meet time to in time machinery in manufacture gun machinery hydraulic gun manufacture hydraulic now are now cruisers are and cruisers battleships and that battleships ments—it out that pointed out being pointed ments—it being required required to to be be completed completed in in two two years.'® years.163

after even after required even not required were not factory were The gun factory Woolwich gun the Woolwich of the facilities of The facilities allof allintroduction of the introduction after the mountings after the big-gun mountings for big-gun demand for in demand surge in the surge 12-inch four 12-inch carried four battleships carried big-gun predreadnought battleships Whereas predreadnought ships. Whereas big-gun ships. big-guns these big-guns of these ten of require ten would require guns dreadnoughts would turrets, dreadnoughts two turrets, in two guns in gun heavy gun of heavy manufacture of of manufacture “rapidity of mounted Again, “rapidity turrets. Again, five turrets. in five mounted in

milithe milito the explained to Jackson) explained Henry Jackson) mountings,” (Capt. Henry controller (Capt. the controller mountings,” the

greatest the greatest of the “is of 1907, “is July 1907, arsenal inin July tary the arsenal of the superintendent of tary superintendent posand itit isis posshipbuilding, and naval shipbuilding, of naval conditions of importance present conditions under present importance under

of organization of and organization facilities, and plant, facilities, sible by plant, only by requirements only meet requirements to meet sible to latterly been latterly have been Trade have private Trade the private of the the resources of The resources best. The very best. the very and ample, and now ample, are now and are requirements, and greatly new requirements, the new meet the to meet increased to greatly increased are much in advance of those are much in advance of those at at Woolwich.”"54 Woolwich.”'*

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By By 1909, 1909, however, however, the the advantages advantages of of relying relying upon upon an an oligopoly oligopoly to to navy the navy that the possible that clear. ItIt isis possible less clear. were less supply components were critical components supply critical meeting At aa meeting Armstrong. At and Armstrong. Vickers and upon Vickers reliant upon overly reliant became overly had had became February in February ministers in government ministers senior government and senior lords and sea lords the sea between between the 1909, itit emerged emerged that that for for the the previous previous three three years years the the Admiralty Admiralty had had 1909, production their production retaining their for retaining return for In return firms. In both firms. subsidizing both been subsidizing been for expectations for their expectations that their higher that level higher at aa level capacity mountings at gun mountings for gun capacity for orders prices for for the the orders warranted, warranted, the the companies companies had had been been paid paid inflated inflated prices few gun gun mountings mountings they they had had completed.'® completed.165 The The minutes minutes of of this this meeting meeting few also show show that that the the traditionally traditionally aggressive aggressive posture posture adopted adopted by by the the also Admiralty towards towards their their suppliers suppliers was was being being tempered tempered by by recognition recognition Admiralty that that the the navy navy was was in in aa position position of of absolute absolute dependence. dependence. Those Those officials officials present present initially initially proposed proposed solving solving this this problem problem by by modernizing modernizing and and extending the the plant plant at at Woolwich. Woolwich. But But the the Admiralty Admiralty at at once once rejected rejected this this extending idea on on the the grounds grounds of of time time and and cost. cost. Furthermore, Furthermore, the the chancellor chancellor of of the the idea Exchequer Exchequer had had to to be be disabused disabused of of his his notion notion that, that, if if enough enough pressure pressure was was applied, applied, private private firms firms could could always always meet meet the the navy’s navy’s requirements. requirements. It It was was explained explained to to him him that that the the manufacturing manufacturing capacity capacity simply simply did did not not exist; and and anyway anyway the the Admiralty Admiralty no no longer longer had had the the necessary necessary leverage leverage to to exist; in again in and again 18903, and the 1890s, during the 1888, during in 1888, Previously, in employ tactics. Previously, such tactics. employ such or Vickers or either Vickers coaxed either or coaxed bullied or easily bullied had easily 1902, Admiralty had the Admiralty 1902, the Armstrong to to extend extend their their gun gun making making capacity threatening to to give give Armstrong capacity by by threatening the however, the Scare," however, “Navy Scare,” 1909 “Navy the 1909 During the contracts firm.'66 During another firm.'® to another contracts to firms these firms to these go to not go could not “we could explained “we then Admiralty explained the Admiralty of the lord of first lord then first orders, these orders, for these return for in return unless in nothing unless you nothing give you will give ‘we will say, ‘we and say, now now and many so many spend so to spend undertake to will undertake you will valuable, you very valuable, which be very not be may not which may firm new firm that aa new estimated that Admiralty estimated The Admiralty hundred pounds.”’ The thousand pounds.’” hundred thousand even to even experience to years experience two years least two at least require at entering would require industry would the industry entering the the plus the Armstrong, plus or Armstrong, Vickers or either Vickers of either output of match existing output the existing match the thus suasion, thus Moral suasion, years. Moral several years. for several book for promise order book full order of aa full promise of feasibly be feasibly could be that could pressure that only pressure the only now the advised was now lord, was first lord, the first advised the not have not they have years they three years or three two or last two the last applied, “for the then “for even then but even applied, but with footing with good footing very good on aa very us on put us to put made as to us as of us out of profit out such aa profit made such them.”'67 them.”'®’ not chose not administration chose Fisher administration the Fisher why the reason why Another important reason Another important was ships was armored ships build armored to build Dockyards to to Royal Dockyards the Royal upon the exclusively upon rely exclusively to rely armaprivate armathe private upon the dependent upon that become dependent had become navy had the navy 1905 the by 1905 that by of costs of The costs systems. The weapon systems. new weapon of new ments development of the development for the giants for ments giants during equipment existing of versions developing updated or improved versions of existing equipment during aa improved or updated developing freand high invariably were progress period of rapid technological progress were invariably high and fretechnological rapid of period keep to keep tried to have tried to have Dockyards to Royal Dockyards quently the Royal For the unpredictable. For quently unpredictable. bata aboard a batequipment aboard naval equipment of naval piece of every piece to every abreast improvements to of improvements abreast of Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Sir of Sir words of the words In the impossible. In financially impossible. tleship been financially have been would have tleship would

progress “the progress Construction, “the Naval Construction, of Naval director of former director William the former White, the William White,

rapid increasing, rapid is increasing, armaments] is naval armaments] [in naval discovery [in of and discovery invention and of invention neveris task the enormous, the task is neveris enormous, outlay is the outlay changes unceasingly, the occur unceasingly, changes occur providwere providVickers were as Vickers such as firms such century, firms the century, of the ending.”'* turn of the turn At the ending.”168 At cent per cent 6—12 per to 6-12 average to “on average amounting “on sums amounting ing with sums scientists with their scientists ing their effort. sustained effort. required aa sustained also required Development also of profits.”69 Development net profits.”' annual net of annual train to train years to took years workmen took and workmen draftsmen, and Teams designers, draftsmen, skilled designers, of skilled Teams of could components could warship components build warship to build required to plant required and the plant and the assemble; and and assemble; the in the compete in to compete wished to that wished firm that Any firm overnight. Any not improvised overnight. be improvised not be one over one of over team of required aa team instance, required for instance, mountings, for design big-gun mountings, of big-gun design of the for the draltsmen for paid) draftsmen highly paid) (and highly first-class (and experienced first-class hundred experienced hundred alone.”° team alone.'” design team design placed badly placed was badly Navy was Royal Navy the Royal century the twentieth century the twentieth of the turn of the turn At At the specialized required specialized that required projects that development projects and development research and to out research carry out to carry was staff was technical staff of technical shortage of navy’s shortage The navy’s effort.”‘ The sustained effort.'”' or sustained expertise or expertise service and service maintain and properly maintain not properly could not sometimes itit could that sometimes acute that so acute so to personnel to the personnel find the alone find led alone had, led already had, equipment itit already sophisticated equipment sophisticated position. better position. no better in no was in Ordnance was Royal Ordnance The Royal models. The improved models. develop improved develop ordnance the ordnance of the superintendent of chief superintendent the chief 1907 the in 1907 instance, in for instance, When, for When, in participate in to participate allowed to be allowed should be Woolwich should that Woolwich suggested that factory suggested factory Ordnance Naval Ordnance of Naval director of the director mountings,” the heavy mountings,” for heavy work for “design work “design that: Board that: the Board reminded the reminded No No Woolwich Woolwich design design of of even even the the smallest smallest naval naval gun gun mounting mounting has has ever ever yet yet of copies of close copies usually close are usually in are sent in designs sent the designs although the accepted, although been accepted, been the by the designed by ever designed mountings ever gun mountings large gun only large the only and the mountings; and existing mountings; existing Royal Royal Carriage Carriage Department, Department, viz., viz., the the 9.2—inch 9.2-inch mountings mountings of of HM HM Ships Ships ever failures ever absolute failures as absolute regarded as been regarded have been “Terrible,” have and “Terrible,” “Powerful’ and “Powerful” since since they they were were installed. installed. Large Large sums sums of of money money have have been been and and are are being being spent in in endeavors endeavors to to improve improve them, them, but but they they will will never never be be satisfactory satisfactory spent owing owing to to the the initially initially bad bad design.172 design.'”

inventive civilian inventive encourage civilian to encourage navy to the navy of the ability of the ability time the same time the same At the At on money on public money allocate public to allocate reluctance to the reluctance by the constrained by was constrained talent was talent docubest docuThis best inventions. This unperfected inventions. still unperfected yet still promising yet developing promising developing Argo the Argo between the squabble between the squabble situation isis the this situation of this example of mented example mented Company Company and and the the Admiralty Admiralty in in the the development development of of the the Pollen Pollen gunnery gunnery fire fire control control computer!" computer.'” Rather Rather than than continue continue to to subsidize subsidize this this small small and and financially financially shaky shaky company, company, the the Ordnance Ordnance Department Department repeatedly repeatedly urged urged the the inventor inventor sell-out sell-out his his patents patents to to one one of of the the armaments armaments giants. giants. He He refused. refused. Although Although perhaps perhaps insensitive insensitive and and high-handed, high-handed, the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s behavior tow Ell)". Pollen was understandable. Because research and behavior toward Pollen was understandable. Because research Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revo E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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development development programmed programmed were were expensive expensive and and required required sustained sustained develdevelopment opment effort, effort, only only large large firms firms like like Viokers Vickers Ltd. Ltd. or or Armstrong-Whitworth Armstrong-Whitworth were were in in a a position position to to assume assume the the risks risks and and costs costs normally normally associated associated with with the the sponsorship sponsorship of of inventions.174 inventions.’ The The Royal Royal Navy Navy would would then then step step forward forward and and buy buy the the finished finished product. product. In In return return for for private private companies companies continuing continuing research research and and developdevelopment, ment, and and maintaining maintaining construction construction capacity, capacity, the the navy navy was was obliged obliged to to direct direct aa steady steady flow flow of of orders orders for for naval naval equipment equipment to to ensure ensure the the firms firms remained remained sufficiently sufficiently profitable. profitable. in In other other words words the the relationship relationship between between the the Admiralty Admiralty and and the the private private shipbuilding shipbuilding firms firms had had evolved evolved into into one one of of mutual mutual dependence. dependence. The The navy navy had had entered entered what what historian historian William William McNeill McNeill has has termed termed the the age age of of “command “command technology.”175 technology.”'” In In order order to to obtain obtain up—toup-todate date naval naval equipment equipment the the Admiralty Admiralty was was compelled compelled to to underwrite underwrite the the research research and and development development efforts efforts of of private private firms firms by by promising promising lucrative lucrative contracts contracts for for the the perfected perfected weapon weapon system. system. Only Only rarely rarely did did companies companies experience experience difficulties difficulties in in justifying justifying the the costs costs of of research research and and development development to to their their customer. customer. Under Under special special circumstances, circumstances, the the Admiralty Admiralty could could reward firms with-the reward firms with the promise promise of of an an oligopoly oligopoly in in the the distribution distribution of of concontracts, tracts, such such as as in in the the case case of of big-gun big-gun mountings. mountings. But But costs costs of of developing developing improved improved big big gun gun mountings mountings were were so so large large they they could could be be amortized amortized only only by by directing directing towards towards those those firms firms aa steady steady flow flow of of orders orders for for large large armored armored warships. warships. These These contracts contracts were were so so lucrative lucrative they they effectively effectively determined determined which which companies companies in in Britain Britain flourished flourished and and which which foundered. foundered. During During the the period period 1905—14, 1905-14, aa dozen dozen or or so so yards yards teetered teetered on on the the verge verge of of bankruptbankruptcy, cy, maintaining maintaining their their cash cash flow flow only only by by taking taking orders orders for for merchant merchant ships ships at at out cut prices prices and and depleting depleting reserves.I76 reserves.'” Some, Some, like like Thames Thames Iron Iron Works Works in in 1912, 1912, went went under. under. |_ This This brief brief sketch sketch of of the the interconnections interconnections between between the the Admiralty Admiralty shipbuilding policy policy and and the the armaments armaments firms firms will will have have demonstrated demonstrated to to shipbuilding the reader reader that that Fisher’s Fisher’s defense defense of of battleship battleship construction construction was was not not necnecthe essarily essarily symptomatic symptomatic of of his his anxiety anxiety to to acquire acquire the the “dreadnoughts” “dreadnoughts” themthemselves. His His efforts efforts in in this this direction direction can can be be also also attributed attributed to to recognition recognition selves. of the the need need to to preserve preserve the the warship-building warship-building industry. industry. Obviously Obviously this this of could could never never be be stated stated explicitly explicitly to to Cabinet. Cabinet. The The idea idea that that an an essential essential plank plank of of British British naval naval policy policy was was to to guarantee guarantee large large contracts contracts to to the the

“armaments ring” ring” was was not not likely likely to to appeal appeal to to Liberal Liberal ministers ministers on on either either “armaments economic or orideological grounds.177 This This isis not not to to say say that that Fisher Fisher did did not not economic ideological grounds.'” want any any dreadnoughts. dreadnoughts. For For his his purposes purposes they they were were better better than than preprewant dreadnoughts and and as as he he often often used used to to remark, remark, “half “half aa loaf loaf is is better better than than dreadnoughts no bread.” bread.” Even Even so, so, in in view view of of his his stated stated preference preference for for battle battle cruisers cruisers no (which (which he he continued continued to to believe believe would would one one day day be be adopted adopted as as the the standard standard armored war foignthe Royal Navy), and his acknowledgment armored warship for the Royal Navy), and his acknowledgment that the the that hip Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fishers§aval evolut E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, httpsz/lhd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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fleet fleet was was already already amply amply provided provided with with capital capital ships, ships, suggest suggest that that his his efforts to to resist resist cuts cuts in in the the construction construction budget budget probably probably stemmed stemmed more more efforts from industrial industrial than than military military considerations.‘78 considerations.'” After After all, all, battle battle cruisers cruisers from also also required required armor, armor, big-guns big-guns and and turbine turbine engines. engines. There There is is other other evidence evidence for for thinking thinking that that industrial industrial considerations considerations

were were at at least least as as important important as as strategic strategic ones. ones. When When in in August August 1908 1908 the the Cabinet Cabinet offered offered to to buy buy for for the the Royal Royal Navy Navy (at (at discount!) discount!) three three Brazilian Brazilian dreadnought dreadnought battleships battleships then then under under construction construction in in England England to to prevent prevent them them being being possibly possibly sold sold to to Germany, Germany, the the Admiralty Admiralty declined.179 declined.'” “We “We should should prefer,” prefer,” the the Board Board replied, replied, “to “to give give the the shipbuilding shipbuilding trade, trade, which which is is very very depressed, depressed, the the benefit benefit of of the the work work and and the the wages wages arising arising from from fresh fresh construction.”180 construction.”'® Fisher Fisher had had yet yet another another reason reason to to refuse refuse the the offer. offer. In In the the autumn autumn of of 1908, 1908, the the DNC DNC was was working working on on the the design design of of “Sans “Sans Pareil”—a Pareil’—a new new battle battle cruiser cruiser armed armed with with eight eight new new model model 13.5-inch 13.5-inch guns. guns. There There is is overwhelming overwhelming evidence evidence that that Fisher Fisher hoped hoped this this vessel vessel would would be be adopted adopted as as the the model model for for all all six six (later (later eight) eight) capital capital units units proprojected jected for for the the 1909—10 1909-10 program.““ program.'*' But But that that came came later. later. Submarine Design Design and and Production Production Submarine

While While there there were were manifest manifest advantages advantages in in exploiting exploiting private private firms, firms, the the Admiralty Admiralty recognized recognized the the drawbacks drawbacks to to the the Royal Royal Navy Navy relying relying upon upon them them too too heavily. heavily. Fundamentally, Fundamentally, private private companies companies did did not not exist exist for for the the benebene-

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fit fit of of the the state. state. Their Their ultimate ultimate goal goal was was profit.182 profit.'*? Consequently, Consequently, while while the the Admiralty directed Admiralty directed contracts contracts towards towards selected selected firms firms in in order order to to preserve preserve productive productive capacity, capacity, at at the the same same time time they they had had to to be be careful careful to to keep keep the the field field of of supply supply wide wide enough enough to to prevent prevent collusion collusion in in pricing. pricing. In In addition addition to to exploiting exploiting the the “invisible “invisible hand” hand” of of competition, competition, the the Admiralty Admiralty also also used used the the Royal Royal Dockyards Dockyards to to monitor monitor the the costs costs of of labor labor and and material material within within the the industry. industry. Civil Civil servants servants employed employed by by the the contracts contracts department department kept kept prices prices under under review review to to ensure ensure that that the the navy navy was was not not being being exploited!“ exploited.’* Profiteering Profiteering was was most most difficult difficult to to detect detect in in the the submarine submarine industry. industry. This This was was because because submarine submarine construction construction was was aa highly highly specialized specialized business business about about which which few few people people properly properly understood. understood. Furthermore, Furthermore, the the Admiralty Admiralty Board of Board of 1902 1902 had had inadvertently inadvertently made made the the task task harder harder by by granting granting Vickers Vickers aa seven-year seven-year monopoly monopoly on on submarine submarine contracts contracts in in return return for for assuming assuming all all the the costs costs of of development development and and on on the the understanding understanding suffisufficient cient capacity capacity would would be be retained retained to to meet meet all all the the navy’s navy’s requirements. requirements. In In 1905, 1905, due due mainly mainly to to growing growing concern concern in in Whitehall Whitehall that that Vickers Vickers were were makmaking ing “super-normal” “super-normal” profits profits on on submarine submarine contracts, contracts, the the navy navy delayed delayed the the introduction introduction of of an an improved improved type type of of submarine.‘84 submarine.'* The The last last major major advance advance made made by by the the navy navy in in the the field field of of submarine submarine N_ I design, design \IvNaithle was the B B type type approved approved at at the the end end of of 1903. 1903. Except Except for for minor minor

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improvements improvements in in the the arrangements arrangements of of the the batteries batteries the the C C class class was was basibasically cally the the same same craft. craft. In In 1903, 1903, submarine submarine design design had had been been still still very very much much constrained—rather constrained—rather than than led—by led—by the the limits limits of of engineering engineering and and techno— technological logical knowledge!“-5 knowledge.'” Although Although the the Admiralty Admiralty acknowledged acknowledged the the superiorsuperiority ity of of the the 300 300 ton ton vessels vessels of of the the B B class class over over earlier earlier models, models, it it was was felt felt that that “for “for seagoing seagoing purposes purposes they they will will be be of of little little use.”186 use.” What What the the navy navy really really wanted, wanted, declared declared the the controller controller in in January January 1904, 1904, was was a a long-range long-range vessel vessel capable capable of of operating operating on on the the high high seas seas in in any any weather. weather. “The “The sea sea limitations” limitations” of of aa submarine, submarine, he he recognized, recognized, “will “will always always be be governed governed by by the the size size of of the the boat.” boat.” With With this this objective objective in in mind, mind, Captain Captain Bacon Bacon was was instructed instructed “to “to rough rough out out the the design design of of a a boat boat of of 1000 1000 tons tons displacedisplacement.”‘87 ment.”'*’ Nothing Nothing came came of of this this exercise. exercise. And And not not until until 1905 1905 was was the the pospossibility Sibility of of building building an an “oversea” “oversea” boat boat again again seriously seriously considered considered when when the the Admiralty Admiralty secured secured an an appropriation appropriation under under the the 1905—6 1905-6 estimates estimates for for one improved submarine. one improved submarine. On On 23 23 June June 1905, 1905, Capt. Capt. Henry Henry Jackson, Jackson, who who had had recently recently sucsucceeded Admiral May as controller of the navy, assembled ceeded Admiral May as controller of the navy, assembled aa select select group group of of officers officers at at the the Admiralty Admiralty to to consider consider two two alternative alternative submasubmarine designs.‘88 Both sets of plans differed greatly from rine designs.’ Both sets of plans differed greatly from existing existing British British boats. boats. As As French French naval naval designers designers had had discovered discovered some some eight eight years years earearlier, lier, with with existing existing engineering engineering knowledge knowledge there there was was an an effective effective limit limit to to the the size size of of aa mono-hulled mono-hulled submarine. submarine. The The easiest easiest way way of of overcoming overcoming this technological barrier was to place the “ballast tanks” this technological barrier was to place the “ballast tanks” outside outside the the pressure hull thereby leaving more room inside the hull for pressure hull thereby leaving more room inside the hull for additional additional fuel fuel or or larger larger engines. engines. Both Both prototypes prototypes laid laid before before the the submarine submarine comcommittee of 1905 incorporated this feature. This indicates mittee of 1905 incorporated this feature. This indicates that that the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s principal principal goal goal was was to to develop develop larger larger submarines. submarines. The The French, French, of of course, course, had had adopted adopted the the Laubeuf Laubeuf double-hull double-hull system. system. The The British British solution solution was was somewhat somewhat different. different. The The “CZ” “C2” design design had had its its balballast last tanks tanks on on top, top, the the “D” “D” was was given given side side or or “saddle” “saddle” tanks. tanks. The The task task of of the committee committee was was to to chose chose which which model model to to adopt adopt as as the the prototype prototype for for the future future development. development. Eventually Eventually the the “D” “D” plans plans were were chosen chosen largely largely on on account account of of its its better better anticipated anticipated underwater underwater performance. performance. It It was was “also “also agreed at at the the meeting meeting that that heavy-oil heavy-oil [diesel] [diesel] engines engines should should be be adoptadoptagreed ed as soon as a suitable engine working with it is available.“89 ed as soon as a Suitable engine working with it is available.”'®’ The The

advantages advantages were were manifest: manifest: “a “a diesel diesel engine engine which which is is about about twice twice the the weight weight and and one one and and a a half half times times the the volume volume of of a a petrol petrol engine engine for for the the same power” consumes “about half the weight and less than half Same power’ consumes “about half the weight and less than half the the volume volume of of fuel fuel than than an an oil oil engine.” engine.” In In other other words, words, for for a a given given quantity quantity of of fuel fuel aa submarine submarine propelled propelled by by diesels diesels could could proceed proceed twice twice as as far far than than it it could could if if driven driven by by a a petrol petrol engine. engine. Diesel Diesel fuel, fuel, moreover, moreover, cost cost less less than than half half the the price price of of gasoline.190 gasoline.'” There There is is no no evidence evidence that that the the “D” “D” Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, httpszllhd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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in requirements in operational requirements future operational of future expectation of in expectation selected in type was selected .type was more appeared more Committee appeared Submarine Committee the Submarine anything, the the Sea. IfIf anything, North Sea. the North all not all most ifif not 1905, most In 1905, French.191 In the French.'” with the pace with concerned keeping pace at keeping concerned at for primarily for designed primarily being designed still being were still craft were torpedo craft the Navy’s torpedo Royal Navy’s the Royal Channel.192 the Channel.'” in the action in action in let in not let was not submarine was experimental submarine new experimental the new for the The contract for The contract Vickers that Vickers learn that to learn annoyed to most annoyed was most Admiralty was of Admiralty 1905-6. Board of The Board 1905—6. The was price was The price vessel. The new vessel. the new build the to build £84,000 to was demanding £84,000 was demanding vessel. class vessel. of aa CC class cost of the cost than the percent—more than 60 percent—more £30,000—or £30,000—or 60 Submarine the Submarine of the meeting of the meeting At the outrage.193 At Board’s outrage.'* the Board’s shared the Jackson shared Jackson extra the extra that the out that “pointed out had “pointed Bacon had Captain Bacon and Captain be and Committee he Committee must which must vessels which of vessels case of the case in the consideration in serious consideration was aa serious expense was expense the “for the limit “for the limit set the Fisher set August Fisher On 88 August numbers.”‘94 On be in numbers.”'* built in be built twelve have twelve to have “preferred to Admiralty “preferred The Admiralty boat.195 The per boat.'* £60,000 per moment” at £60,000 moment” at Other submarines.196 Other screw” submarines.'® twin screw” nine twin or nine eight or than eight rather than screw rather single screw single conwas concommittee was the committee instance, the For instance, given. For also given. were also delay were reasons for delay reasons for tried.” and tried.” “made and been “made yet been not yet had not engine had diesel engine suitable diesel that aa suitable cerned that cerned “makexperience “makhis experience in his that in Jackson that reminded Jackson Bacon reminded meeting Bacon the meeting After the After producing attending producing difficulties attending the difficulties of the view of rosy view take aa rosy to take apt to so apt are SO ers are ers be should be work should at work engine at exact engine the exact of the short of “nothing short that “nothing an engine” that an engine” To justified. To proved justified. was proved caution was Bacon’s caution time Bacon’s In time granted.”197 In for granted.”'” taken for taken an constructing an not constructing for not excuse for no excuse was no this was however, this some officers, however, some officers, gasoline by gasoline propelled by hull-form propelled improved hull-form an improved with an craft with experimental craft experimental engines. engines. was submarines, was of submarines, captain of inspecting captain new inspecting the new Lees, the Edgar Lees, Capt. Edgar Capt. susbeen sushad been project had “D” project type “D” the type that the told that be told to be unhappy to especially unhappy especially to letters to forceful letters several forceful write several to write him to prompted him news prompted The news pended. The pended. objections technical objections the technical that the insisting that reconsider, insisting to reconsider, him to Jackson urging him Jackson urging In aa exaggerated.198 In grossly exaggerated.’ been grossly had been immediately had vessel immediately the vessel ordering the to ordering to the that the Lees that to Lees explained to Bacon explained off,” Bacon “lay off,” to “lay him to signaling him letter signaling letter 1902 The 1902 contract.199 The the contract.'*® placing the not placing for not motive for ulterior motive an ulterior had an Admiralty had Admiralty both for both provided for which provided clause which included aa clause agreement included monopoly agreement Vickers’s monopoly Vickers’s either by either out by taken out patents taken subsequent patents any subsequent of any ownership of share ownership to share parties to parties retained had retained however, had Vickers, however, boats. Vickers, submarine boats. with submarine connected with party connected party firm the firm since the Ever since product. Ever finished product. the finished on the price on final price the final set the the to set right to the right

exorbitant considered exorbitant Admiralty considered the Admiralty what the demanded what habitually demanded had habitually had

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submarines. their submarines. to their improvements to trivial improvements most trivial the most making the for making prices for prices the subsequently the straw; subsequently last straw; the last been the had been type had “D” type the “D” for the tender for The tender The Vickers with Vickers agreement with its agreement renegotiate its to renegotiate determined to became determined Admiralty became Admiralty further letting further before letting costs before and costs prices and over prices check over closer check establish aa closer and establish and the negotiating the by negotiating goal by this goal accomplish this be accomplish best be could best navy could The navy contracts. The contracts. from license from under license Dockyard under Royal Dockyard submarines inin aa Royal few submarines rightFWto right to build/a build a few

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revealed, Bacon revealed, types,” Bacon and DD types,” (32 and the C2 of the designs of the designs started the Vickers.200 “I“i started Vickers.” to intimating thus By patents?”1 Holland the infringe to way no “in as so So aS “in no way to infringe the Holland patents.””” By thus intimating to Vickers that the navy was capable of designing and building its own subVickers that the navy was capable of designing and building its own submarines, the the Admiralty Admiralty hoped hoped to to bring bring about about aa moderation moderation ininprices.202 marines, prices.” for authorized for submarines twelve the of seven just order to decision The The decision to order just seven of the twelve submarines authorized 1905 was possibly another 1905 was possibly another attempt attempt to to apply apply pressure. pressure. in In his his reply reply to to Captain Captain Lees, Lees, Bacon Bacon explained explained that that the the Admiralty Admiralty did did havof havinconvenience of the inconvenience incur the or incur Vickers or with Vickers totally with break totally to break want to not want not ing ing to to build build all all the the navy’s navy’s submarines submarines in in Royal Royal Dockyards. Dockyards. “We “We cannot cannot do do better than than cooperate cooperate with with Messrs Messrs Vickers Vickers in in building building the the number number we we better want. They They have have experience experience which which itit would would take take three three years years for for any any other other want. firm or or the the Dockyards Dockyards to to acquire.”*’ acquire.”203 Besides, Besides, he he added, added, “for “for the the firm Admiralty to to have have suddenly suddenly repudiated repudiated the the validity validity of of the the patents patents would would Admiralty have have been been aa very very unfair unfair proceeding.”204 proceeding.”** The The Admiralty Admiralty only only wanted wanted Vickers company, howhowVickers to to moderate moderate their their prices. prices. Negotiations Negotiations with with the the company, easily so easily not so was not Vickers was expected. Vickers than expected. slower than much slower proceeded much ever, proceeded ever, intimidated. In In November, November, with with still still no no compromise compromise in in sight, sight, Lees Lees lost lost intimidated. real the real to the as to “views as his “views with his controller with the controller to the wrote to again wrote and again patience and patience hopeleft hopebe left to be not to are not we are design ifif we the DD design with the proceeding with of proceeding necessity of necessity the that the insist that to insist continued to however, continued Bacon, however, French.”205 Bacon, the French.”?” behind the lessly behind lessly Admiralty should should wait wait until until aa new new agreement had been been signed signed with with Admiralty agreement had Vickers.206 Vickers.”° it It took took another another six six months months pressure pressure before before Vickers Vickers finally finally caved caved in. in. On On 17 17 May May 1906, 1906, Vickers Vickers licensed licensed the the Royal Royal Navy Navy to to construct construct craft type craft “D” type the “D” later the months later Three months Dockyards. Three Royal Dockyards. in Royal submarines in submarines ironically, £69,000.207 Ironically, of £69,000.”” price of contract price at aa contract Vickers at from Vickers ordered from was ordered was The margin. The profit margin. Vickers’s profit of Vickers’s magnitude of true magnitude the true realized the never realized Bacon never Bacon percent.208 70 percent.” as 70 much as as much profit—perhaps as enormous profit—perhaps made enormous still made company still company submaexperimental submathe experimental that the was that shenanigans was these shenanigans of these result of net result The net The the During the 1908. During late 1908. until late trials until her trials begin her not begin did not D1 did H.M.S. D1 rine H.M.S. rine the ordering the continue ordering to continue but to choice but little choice had little Admiralty had the Admiralty interim the interim class. superseded CC class. superseded

The The Home Home Fleet Fleet Saga Saga to way to only way the only that the decided that Admiralty decided of Admiralty Board of the Board 1906, the May 1906, In May In proconstruction pro(1907—8) construction next (1907-8) the next in the cuts in more cuts for more demands for off demands head off head

commission.209 full commission.*” ships inin full of ships number of the number reduce the to reduce be to would be gram would gram yield to yield calculated to was calculated ships was armored ships eleven armored Decommissioning eleven Decommissioning calculated Fisher calculated works, Fisher naval works, in‘ naval savings in further savings to further Added to £250,000.“0 Added £250,000.2"° for demands for chancellor’s demands the chancellor’s meet the to meet freed to be freed could be money could enough money that enough that third the third sacrifice the to sacrifice having to without having expenditure without in expenditure reduction in overall reduction an overall an other no other “By no program. “By 1906—7 program. the 1906-7 under the projected under warship projected armored warship armored insistFisher insistpromised,” Fisher as promised,” Estimates as Navy Estimates the Navy reduce the we reduce can we means can means Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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tradethe tradewith the happy with all happy at all not at was not ed.2'' however, was Tweedmouth, however, Lord Tweedmouth, ed?“ Lord “visible” particularly “visible” was aa particularly battleships was off battleships off. paying off that paying realized that He realized off. He Britain’s that Britain’s accusations that attract accusations to attract economy, bound to was bound which was one which and one economy, and misconsiderable miswith considerable was with jeopardized. ItIt was naval being jeopardized. was being supremacy was naval supremacy to order to that inin order Cabinet that to Cabinet reported to he reported givings, June he that inin June therefore, that givings, therefore, planwas planAdmiralty was the Admiralty targets the spending targets achieve set spending government’s set the government’s achieve the two and two Fleet and Channel Fleet the Channel from the (three from ning battleships (three seven battleships retire seven to retire ning to armored four armored and four Squadrons) and each Mediterranean Squadrons) and Mediterranean Atlantic and the Atlantic from the each from reserve.212 crew reserve.?” nucleus crew in nucleus them in cruisers place them and place service and active service from active cruisers from commanders the commanders warning the delayed warning lord delayed For first lord the first reasons the political reasons For political be to be about to was about squadrons was their squadrons in their in ships in of ships number of the number that the chief that in chief the in the attack in fierce attack under fierce came under had came reduced.?" government had the government July, the In July, reduced.213 In cutting by cutting program by Cawdor program the Cawdor from the press departing from for departing Parliament for and Parliament press and Tweedmouth and Tweedmouth budget, and construction budget, naval construction an the naval from the ship from armored ship an armored end the end until the not until was not Thus itit was critics. Thus his critics. had inflame his further inflame to further wish to no wish had no Tweedmouth dismay, Tweedmouth his dismay, To his released. To of was released. news was the news that the 1906 that August 1906 of August objecof objecbarrage of uncomfortable barrage most uncomfortable was to aa most subjected to immediately subjected was immediately the nerves, the his nerves, calm his to calm effort to an effort In an tions commanders.214 In fleet commanders.’ angry fleet from angry tions from him: assured him: lord assured sea lord first first sea the of the time of the time at the than at power than in power greater in sea isis greater The at sea force at naval force present naval The present have to have Russia to and Russia France and for France possible for Dogger was possible when itit was incident, when Bank incident, Dogger Bank then strength then naval strength our naval considered our we considered and we us, and thrown against us, lot against their lot in their thrown in and friend, and our friend, was France our annihilated, France Russia isis annihilated, Now Russia sufficient. Now amply sufficient. was amply how so how ourselves; so than ourselves; weaker than Germany times weaker many times foe. many possible foe, only possible our only Germany our pitch higher pitch at aa higher sea at at sea can strength at our strength up our keeping up justify keeping or justify support or we support can we than than that??' that?215

an Before redistribution an of redistribution scheme of the scheme publish the to publish able to was able Admiralty was the Admiralty Before the the leaked the Mediterranean, leaked officer chief, Mediterranean, in chief, commander in the commander of the staff of the staff on the officer on are we are afraid we am afraid gist newspaperman.216 “I“I am hostile newspaperman.’"* to aa hostile proposals to the proposals of the gist of subselikely Tweedmouth subseaffairs,” Tweedmouth naval affairs,” about naval hucker about great hucker in aa great be in to be likely to six of six placing of quently “the placing October, “the 15 October, on 15 minister on prime minister the prime to the reported to quently reported at reserve at battleships crew reserve nucleus crew the nucleus in the cruisers in armored cruisers four armored and four battleships and

it.”2"" about it.”°”” arising about home outcry arising great outcry there isis aa great and there out and come out now come has now home has the to the In announced to Fisher announced later Fisher days later ten days agitation, ten the agitation, quell the to quell effort to an effort In an to freed to thus freed crewmen thus press the crewmen use the to use planning to was planning Admiralty was the Admiralty that the press that improve improve the the war war readiness readiness of of the the nucleus nucleus crew crew reserve reserve by by organizing organizing the the best best ships ships into into distinct distinct squadrons. squadrons. The The ten ten armored armored warships warships scheduled scheduled to be be withdrawn withdrawn from from active active service service in in April April 1907 1907 would would form form the the corps to corps delite d’elite of of aa new new “Home “Home Fleet.” Fleet.” In In order order that that these these ships ships could could be be mobimobilized lized even even quicker quicker than than hitherto hitherto was was possible, possible, they they would would be be manned manned by by 60 60 percent percent of of their their war war complements. complements. Hitherto, Hitherto, two-fifths two-fifths had had been been the the Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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normal.“8 normal.” In In addition, addition, the the highly highly regarded regarded Rear Rear Adm. Adm. Sir Sir Francis Francis Bridgeman Bridgeman was was to to be be made made solely solely responsible responsible for for their their fighting fighting efficienefficiency.219 cy.*' Fisher’s Fisher’s attempt attempt to to dampen dampen criticism criticism had had little little effect. effect. if If anything, anything, it it served served only only to to confuse confuse matters matters by by creating creating the the impression impression that that a a secsecond ond “fleet” “fleet” was was being being established established in in home home waters waters quite quite distinct distinct from from the the Channel Channel Fleet.220 Fleet.?”° Hostility Hostility to to the the new new fleet fleet organization organization was was fueled fueled by by negative negative covercoverage age given given to to the the proposals proposals in in the the press. press. Tory Tory activists activists in in Fleet Fleet Street, Street, who who had had become become restless restless at at what what they they perceived perceived as as a a lack lack of of vigor vigor disdisplayed played by by their their Party’s Party’s leaders leaders in in attacking attacking cuts cuts in in the the House, House, deliberdeliberately ately amplified amplified objections objections raised raised by by Fisher’s Fisher’s personal personal enemies.221 enemies.”' The The controversy controversy over over the the “Home “Home Fleet” Fleet” was was to to have have much much more more serious serious impliimplications. cations. From From the the moment moment he he became became first first sea sea lord, lord, Sir Sir John John Fisher Fisher had had been been subjected subjected to to constant constant abuse abuse from from various various serving serving and and retired retired naval naval officers, officers, back-bench back-bench politicians politicians and and uninformed uninformed naval naval interest interest groups groups who who disagreed disagreed with with his his policies policies and and methods. methods. But But his his opponents opponents had had been been unable unable to to mount mount effective effective opposition opposition because because they they were were themselves themselves divided divided over over which which of of Fisher’s Fisher's reforms reforms were were bad bad for for the the service. service. Although Although press press criticism criticism of of the the Admiralty Admiralty briefly briefly subsided subsided in in December December 1906, 1906, the the decision decision to to create create the the Home Home Fleet Fleet had had served served as as aa rallying rallying point point for for Fisher’s Fisher's enemies. enemies. The The disparate disparate groups groups subsequently subsequently coalesced coalesced into into what what became became known known as as “the “the syndicate syndicate of of discontent.”222 discontent.”2” Their Their one one comcommon mon objective objective was was to to remove remove Sir Sir John John Fisher Fisher from from power. power. Compared to to the the activities activities of of Col. Col. Sir Sir George George Clarke, Clarke, the the press press camcamCompared paign paign waged waged against against the the formation formation of of the the Home Home Fleet Fleet was was only only a a minor minor irritant. irritant. Readers Readers will will recall recall that that throughout throughout 1906, 1906, the the secretary secretary of of the the CID CID had had been been sniping sniping at at the the Admiralty Admiralty and and giving giving support support to to the the Cabinet Cabinet campaign Campaign for for drastic drastic reductions reductions in in naval naval construction. construction. To To his his indignaindignation, tion, Clarke Clarke first first learned learned of of “the “the proposed proposed battleship battleship reduction” reduction” from from the the Standard.223 Standard.” The The prime prime minister, minister, evidently, evidently, had had not not troubled troubled to to inform inform the the cm CID of of the the decision decision he he had had endorsed endorsed some some four four months months previously.224 previously.?”* “I “] think think that that if if reductions reductions are are to to be be made made of of this this kind,” kind,” he he protested protested to to Lord Lord Esher Ksher on on 15 15 October October from from his his desk desk in in the the ClD, CID, “they “they ought ought to to be be considconsidered ered here.”225 here.’?” Clarke, Clarke, it it should should be be noted noted for for future future reference, reference, was was one one of of the the very very few few men men to to notice notice that that although although the the Admiralty Admiralty was was proposing proposing net net reductions reductions in in the the “battleship “battleship force,” force,” at at the the same same time time they they planned planned “to “to increase increase our our torpedo torpedo boat boat and and submarine submarine preponderance.”226 preponderance.” He He disdisapproved. approved. The The former former army army officer officer had had never never been been impressed impressed with with subsubmarines. marines. Nor Nor had had he he been been receptive receptive to to the the concept concept of of the the torpedo torpedo armed armed flotilla.227 He persisted in equating naval power with battleships.228 flotilla.??7 He persisted in equating naval power with battleships.?” Over Over the the next next four four weeks weeks Clarke Clarke synthesized synthesized the the various various arguments arguments circulatingiaegainst the formation of the Home Fleet and circulating sagainst the formation of the Home Fleet and presented presented them them Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjoh Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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made being made case being conceive aa case can conceive on Campbell-Bannerman.229 “I“I can to Campbell-Bannerman.”” paper to on paper commission in commission ships in of ships number of the number out reducing the for reducing time for present time the present at the out at 15 on 15 minister on prime minister the prime to the reported to he reported with economies,” he to economies,” View to with aa view for reasons for political reasons strong political are strong there are November, hand, there other hand, the other “on the November, “on prothe prowas the to was objected to most objected he most What he not fleet.”230 What Channel fleet.”2°° the Channel reducing the not reducing kept battleships kept commissioned battleships fully commissioned of fully posal number of the number reduce the to reduce posal to the than the fewer than two fewer was two in fourteen—which was to fourteen—which down to waters down home waters in home ignored had ignored (Fisher had Sea. (Fisher North Sea. the North strength across the Fleet across Sea Fleet High Sea the High of the strength of exploit)?“ to exploit.)**' critics to his critics for his opening for easy opening warnings an easy be an would be this would warnings this argued, he argued, Fleet, he Channel Fleet, stronger Channel The numerically stronger of aa numerically possession of The possession advantage.”232 political advantage.” and political “moral and always government aa “moral British government the British gave the always gave endeavouring been endeavouring have been country have this country in this Furthermore, writers in “numerous writers Furthermore, “numerous alarming the alarming of the one of and one scare, and for German scare, create aa German to create time to some time for some Roberts. ItIt Lord Roberts. of Lord imprimatur of the imprimatur received the brochures nature received this nature of this brochures of certain country aa certain this country in this produced in has produced isis clear propaganda has this propaganda that this clear that take to take necessary to which itit isis necessary of which suspicion of of suspicion feeling and of uneasiness and of uneasiness feeling of numerically mind aa numerically public mind the public in the that in account.” believed that Clarke believed account.”233 Clarke our between our interposing between of interposing purpose of stronger important purpose the important “served the fleet “served stronger fleet of that of to that superior to always superior force always shores invasion, aa force imagined invasion, the imagined and the shores and Germany.”234 Germany. "2" weight much weight how much indicate how to indicate evidence to There direct evidence no direct sadly no There isis sadly certainly he certainly though he minister, though prime minister, the prime Clarke’s with the carried with opinions carried Clarke’s Opinions the to the reaction to Fisher’s reaction contrast Fisher’s By contrast boasted great.235 By was great.?® influence was his influence boasted his had Edward, had King Edward, assured King he assured Clarke, he paper Colonel Clarke, unequivocal. Colonel was unequivocal. paper was tacthe tacoverstated the had overstated and had Fleet and Home Fleet mistaken new Home the new of the function of the function mistaken the battlefourteen battleremaining fourteen The remaining Fleet.236 The tical Channel Fleet.” the Channel of the weakness of tical weakness German entire German the entire to the superior to ships qualitatively superior themselves qualitatively by themselves were by ships were laytenable, laywas tenable, claim was this claim experts this naval experts to naval High Although to Fleet.237 Although Sea Fleet.’ High Sea men, who who measured measured naval naval strength strength by by counting counting numbers numbers of of battleships, battleships, men, govBritish govway a a British no way was no there was right: there was right: Clarke was were convinced.238 Clarke not convinced.”* were not commisfully commisof fully number of the number reducing the seen reducing be seen to be ernment afford to could afford ernment could The navy. The rival navy. of aa rival strength of the strength below the sioned waters below home waters in home battleships in sioned battleships matter that matter For that arguments. For qualitative arguments. public such qualitative understand such not understand did not public did for Hardinge, for Charles Hardinge, Sir Charles officials. Sir government officials. neither most government did most neither did thought Office, thought Foreign Office, the Foreign at the undersecretary at instance, permanent undersecretary the permanent instance, the German the German with the comparison with in comparison Fleet in that Channel Fleet the Channel of the weakness of “the weakness that “the tried he tried November, he In November, scandal.”239 In positive scandal.””°° Fleet Henry isis aa positive Prince Henry under Prince Fleet under inquiry independent inquiry an independent for an government for the government to within the support within up support drum up to drum into into the the distribution distribution of of the the fleet.240 fleet.?*° answer to answer having to at having impatient at became impatient quickly became very quickly lord very sea lord first sea The first The to refused to consistently refused he consistently But he critics.241 But his critics.2" by his raised by point raised new point every every new divulge divulge the the function function of of the the Home Home Fleet: Fleet: this, this, he he insisted, insisted, “is “is the the Lambert, Nicolas. 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inscrutable inscrutable secret secret of of the the Admiralty, Admiralty, and and will will remain remain so.”242 so.” His His refusal refusal to to explain explain clearly clearly his his strategic strategic policy policy lost lost him him a a considerable considerable number number of of friends. friends. “In “In a a country country like like ours, ours, governed governed by by discussion,” discussion,” Lord Lord Esher Esher wrote to to the the Admiral, Admiral, “a “a great great man man isis never never hanged. hanged. He He hangs hangs himself. himself. wrote Therefore Therefore pray pray be be Machiavellian, Machiavellian, and and play play upon upon the the delicate delicate instruments instruments of of public public opinion opinion with with your your fingers fingers and and not not with with your your feet—however feet—however tempting tempting the the latter latter may may be.”243 be.” Thanks Thanks to to Sir Sir George George Clarke’s Clarke’s agitation, agitation, opposition Opposition to to the the Home Home Fleet Fleet within within official official circles circles refused refused to to subside. subside. By By the the beginning beginning of of 1907, 1907, Fisher Fisher had had become become sufficiently sufficiently unnerved unnerved to to consider modifying modifying his his stance.” stance.244 In In February, February, Clarke Clarke confided confided to to Esher Esher consider that that the the Channel Channel Fleet Fleet would would “probably “probably be be returned returned to to sixteen sixteen if if what what II know know is is true.”245 true.”?* Clarke Clarke expected expected the the Atlantic Atlantic squadron squadron would would be be recalled recalled from from Gibraltar Gibraltar and and amalgamated amalgamated into into the the Channel Channel Fleet.246 Fleet.?“ To To everyone’s everyone's surprise surprise Fisher Fisher did did not not do do this. this. Instead, Instead, reported reported an an incredulous [ohn] F[isher] incredulous Louis Louis Battenberg, Battenberg, “it “it is is the the intention intention of of JJ[ohn] F[isher] to to form best form the the Sheerness/Chatham Sheerness/Chatham division division of of the the Home Home Fleet Fleet of of our our eight eight best battleships.” With With good good reason reason he he asked: asked: “where “where isis the the sense sense of of this”?2*’ this”?’-47 battleships.” The The decision decision to to attach attach the the most most powerful powerful ships ships in in the the navy, navy, including including Dreadnought and and the the three three Invincible Invincible class class all-big-gun all-big—gun cruisers cruisers to to what what Dreadnought had had been been originally originally conceived conceived as as a a reserve reserve fleet fleet was was manifestly manifestly illogiillogical.248 cal.2 Subsequent Subsequent charges charges that that the the Home Home Fleet Fleet now now was was “neither “neither a a reserve nor nor aa striking striking force” force” were were fully fully justified.“ justified.249 Some Some years years later later reserve Battenberg suggested suggested to to one one correspondent correspondent that that Fisher Fisher took took this this errant errant Battenberg adminishis adminison his attacks on by attacks antagonized by so antagonized become so had become he had because he step because step tration from from Lord Lord Charles Charles Beresford, Beresford, who who had had been been selected selected to to inherit inherit tration command of of the the Channel Channel Fleet, Fleet, that that he he “was “was determined determined that that Beresford Beresford command may charge may This charge command.”250 This honourable aa command.”*” and honourable big and so big have so not have would not would occurred have occurred to have appear to not appear does not thought does the thought but the basis, but some basis, had some have had have in Fisher, in that Fisher, likely that more likely later. ItIt isis more years later. several years until several Battenberg until to Battenberg to making into making himself into tripped himself inadvertently tripped criticism, inadvertently side-step criticism, to side-step trying to trying lord sea lord first sea the first 1907, the March 1907, On 55 March blunder. On publicity blunder. greater publicity even greater an even an the to the distribution to fleet distribution in fleet changes in the changes explain the to explain summoned to was summoned was explain “to explain that “to insisting that details, insisting into details, go into to go refused to Fisher refused Again Fisher Cabinet. Again Cabinet. most kept most be kept must be what must public what making public involves making clearly involves matter clearly the matter the assembly the assembly upon the impressed upon he impressed Instead he plans.”251 Instead fighting plans.””' secret—our fighting secret—our were Ministers were system.”252 Ministers crew system.””” nucleus crew the nucleus of the advantage of enormous advantage “the enormous “the the keep the to keep point: to the point: home the drove home which drove memorandum which given aa memorandum each given each This million.253 This four million.?* additional four an additional cost an would cost manned would fully manned fleet fully entire fleet entire of creation of the creation for the Approval for understood. Approval Cabinet understood. the Cabinet that the language that was language was George Sir Meanwhile, granted.254 subsequently was Fleet Home new the the new Home Fleet was subsequently granted.** Meanwhile, Sir George Clarke Clarke was was left left spluttering spluttering that that “the “the entire entire organization organization (naval) (naval) in in home home waters is thoroughly bad.”255 waters is thoroughly bad.”*” Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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The Silent Silent Fanfare Fanfare The

From From the the beginning beginning it it was was Fisher’s Fisher's intention intention to to organize organize the the Home Home Fleet Fleet into into a a “real “real fighting fighting fleet fleet of of the the first first quality quality and and peculiarly peculiarly adapted adapted for for the the first first onslaught onslaught of of war."256 war.”?* The The word word in in italics italics should should be be noted. noted. When When he he first first wrote wrote to to Tweedmouth Tweedmouth with with his his idea idea for for “a “a fresh fresh ‘Home ‘Home Fleet,” Fleet,” he he indicated indicated there there were were aa number number of of subtle subtle aspects aspects to to the the scheme.257 scheme.’ “You “You will will see see when when II explain explain the the details details (too (too intricate intricate for for a a letletter),” ter),” he he hinted, hinted, “how “how everything everything fits fits into into our our purpose.”258 purpose.’ Alas Alas he he never never set set down down on on paper paper what what exactly exactly be he intended. intended. As As a a result result historians historians have have assumed assumed the the squadron squadron of of battleships battleships based based at at Chatham Chatham formed formed the the core core of of the the Home Home Fleet—taking Fleet—taking little little notice notice of of the the first first sea sea lord’s lord’s claim claim that that things things were were not not what what they they seemed.259 seemed.”” “It “It is is surely surely obvious obvious to to all,” all,” he he hinthinted ed in in another another memorandum memorandum prepared prepared for for Cabinet, Cabinet, “that “that the the whole whole of of the the vessels vessels in in reserve reserve are are not not of of equal equal fighting fighting importance, importance, and and also also it it is is manifest manifest that that some some vessels, vessels, such, such, for for instance, instance, as as torpedo torpedo craft craft and and subsubmarines, marines, are are wanted wanted sooner sooner than than others.”260 others.”®° Under Under the the order order of of councilwhich council. which created created the the Home Home Fleet: Fleet: the the entire entire flotilla flotilla of of torpedo torpedo craft craft ..... . and and all all submarines submarines in in full full commiscommission which are not sion which are not allocated allocated for for local local defense defense of of Home Home Ports, Ports, together together with with all all scouts, scouts, torpedo-gunboats, torpedo-gunboats, destroyers destroyers and and their their respective respective parent parent vesvessels, sels, repair repair ships ships and and mine mine laying laying vessels vessels now now in in commission commission with with nuclenucleus us or or special special service service crews, crews, under under the the command command of of the the Admiral Admiral (D) (D) and and respective Captain (D)s will be respective Captain (D)s will be affiliated affiliated to to the the Home Home Fleet, Fleet, and and be be placed placed under under the the supreme supreme command command of of the the Commander-in—Chief. Commander-in-Chief, Home Home Fleet.261 Fleet.2*'

L b N. I

Fisher, Fisher, however, however, for for some some reason reason decided decided not not to to publicize publicize this this fact.262 fact.2° As As aa result, result, while while the the eyes eyes of of the the politicians politicians and and public public were were fixed fixed on on the the reshuffling reshuffling of of several several old old battleships, battleships, the the redistribution redistribution of of more more than than one one hundred hundred flotilla flotilla craft craft passed passed unnoticed.263 unnoticed.” One One of of those those who who did did notice notice it it was was Capt. Capt. (later (later Adm.) Adm.) Douglas Douglas Brownrigg. Brownrigg. In In November November 1906, 1906, he he wrote wrote to to Balfour’s Balfour’s secretary secretary drawing drawing his his attention attention to to the the unobtrusive unobtrusive movemovements ments of of flotillas flotillas from from the the south south to to the the east east coast. coast. Additional Additional destroyers destroyers were were brought brought home home from from overseas. overseas. “It “It is is natural natural that that no no flourish flourish of of trumpets trumpets should should be be required required over over this,” this,” he he cryptically cryptically noted.264 noted.? The The conconcentration centration of of flotilla flotilla craft craft in in home home waters waters would would have have been been even even more more noticeable noticeable if if the the Admiralty Admiralty had had gone gone ahead ahead with with plans plans to to reallocate reallocate subsubmarine marine flotillas flotillas to to Dover, Dover, Harwich, Harwich, Hull Hull and and Dundee. Dundee. But But “in “in view view of of the the contiguity contiguity of of existing existing facilities” facilities” at at Portsmouth, Portsmouth, and and doubtless doubtless the the cost cost of of setting setting up up new new bases, bases, it it was was decided decided that that in in peace peace time time only only aa reinforced reinforced flotilla flotilla at at Harwich Harwich would would be be permanently permanently maintained maintained on on the the east east coast.265 coast.? ghaFthFisheRr What Fisher hinted hinted at at but but never never explained explained was was that that the the torpedo torpedo flotillas flotillas

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were were the the core core of of the the Home Home Fleet; Fleet; and and flotilla flotilla defense defense was was the the strategy strategy “peculiarly “peculiarly adapted” adapted” for for the the defense defense of of the the narrow narrow seas. seas. In In aa confidential confidential memorandum memorandum written written to to mollify mollify angry angry fleet fleet comcommanders manders who who had had been been stripped stripped of of their their destroyer destroyer flotillas, flotillas, the the Admiralty Admiralty clearly clearly explained explained that: that: it it has has to to be be observed observed that that new new strategic strategic conditions conditions necessitate necessitate the the employemploy-

ment ment of of the the largest largest practicable practicable number number to to be be obtained obtained of of these these vessels vessels for for North North Sea Sea service, service, and and for for this this reason reason aa number number of of torpedo-boat torpedo-boat destroydestroy-

ers ers have have been been brought brought home home from from China, China, the the Mediterranean Mediterranean and and Gibraltar Gibraltar to to strengthen strengthen the the home home force, force, leaving leaving only only aa small small proportion proportion of of torpedo torpedo craft craft abroad. abroad. [Also] [Also] the the political political circumstances circumstances were were quite quite different different when when

originally originally twenty-four twenty-four destroyers destroyers were were attached attached to to the the Channel Channel Fleet.266 Fleet.?®

To To take take their their place, place, the the Admiralty Admiralty encouraged encouraged those those self-governing self-governing Dominions Dominions interested interested in in formn forming their their own own navies navies to to build build large large flotilla flotilla craft craft capable capable of of supporting supporting Royal Royal Navy Navy armored armored squadrons squadrons operating operating in in distant distant waters.267 waters.?é’ Fisher’s Fisher’s boast boast that that the the torpedo torpedo craft craft of of the the Home Home Fleet Fleet were were intendintend-

ed ed to to be be “the “the advanced advanced guard guard and and first first striking striking force force of of the the whole whole fleet,” fleet,” in in other other words words the the core core of of the the Home Home fleet, fleet, is is corroborated corroborated by by evidence evidence of of changes changes in in the the distribution distribution of of personnel personnel manning manning ships ships in in home home waters.268 waters.” Subsequent Subsequent to to the the decommissioning decommissioning of of the the eleven eleven armored armored vessels vessels in in 1906—7, 1906-7, the the crews crews of of all all torpedo torpedo craft craft in in nucleus nucleus crew crew reserve reserve were were strengthened from from 40 40 to to 80 80 percent percent of of their their war war complements. complements. Between Between strengthened October October 1906 1906 and and April April 1907, 1907, personnel personnel allocated allocated to to flotilla flotilla craft craft jumped jumped 20 20 percent percent from from 10,315 10,315 to to 12,486.269 12,486. Colonel Colonel Repington, Repington, military military correcorrespondent for for the the Times, Times, grasped grasped what what was was intended. intended. Commenting Commenting on on the the spondent plans‘to plansto establish establish submarine submarine and and destroyer destroyer bases bases on on the the east east coast, coast, he he explained to to his his editor, editor, “this “this apparently apparently defensive defensive organization organization will will not not explained prevent [ohn] F[isher] prevent Sir Sir JJ[ohn] F[isher] from from using using the the whole whole of of the the boats boats offensively offensively when when he he pleases, pleases, and and that that knowledge knowledge of of the the existence existence of of this this mobile mobile defense defense on on the the east east coast coast would would be be aa far far greater greater deterrent deterrent to to me me if if II were were German officer officer than than the the existing existing distribution.”?” distribution.”270 aa German The The ability ability to to rely rely upon upon “flotilla “flotilla defense” defense” to to prevent prevent invasion invasion also also gave the the Admiralty Admiralty far far greater greater flexibility flexibility in in deployment deployment of of squadrons squadrons of of gave armored warships. warships. Whereas Whereas “the “the constitution constitution of of the the Home Home Fleet, Fleet, and and its its armored effective administration administration and and efficiency, efficiency, entirely entirely rests rests on on its its retention retention in in effective home waters,” waters,” the the Admiralty Admiralty explained explained in in June June 1907, 1907, that that “the “the Channel Channel home and Atlantic Atlantic Fleets Fleets are are on on another another and and entirely entirely different different basis. basis. They They are are and commissioned definitely definitely for for two two years’ years’ service, service, and and could could be be sent sent tomortomorcommissioned row row on on distant distant and and prolonged prolonged service, service, involving involving indefinite indefinite absence absence from from home, home, should should political political considerations considerations render render it it necessary, necessary, without without its its Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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was, defense was, Flotilla defense inconvenience.”271 Flotilla administrative inconvenience.”’” any administrative causing any causing incompaan with Together incompapolicy. an with naval Together Fisher’s of policy. hinge the naval Fisher’s therefore, of therefore, the hinge now Admiralty now the Admiralty bases, the overseas bases, and overseas stations and coaling stations of coaling rable network of rable network the reinforce to vessels the armored reinforce of to vessels squadrons send armored to of ability to send squadrons the ability had the had the to Isles British the exposing without Empire the of outer marches of the Empire without exposing the British Isles to the outer marches risk of of invasion.?” invasion.272 risk

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CHAPTER CHAPTER 6 6

Illusions [Ilusions and and Realities: Realities:

Naval Naval Strategic Strategic Planning, Planning, 1905—190 1905-19099 There There is is another another theory theory with with regard regard to to the the submarine. submarine. We We are are going going to to have have a a new new British British tradition, tradition, and and a a new new British British doctrine, doctrine, that that the the main main fleet fleet is is to to remain remain in in harbour harbour because because the the fleet fleet is is in in danger danger at at sea! sea! .. . .. Nelson Nelson would would turn turn in in his his grave grave . . . Adm. Adm. Lord Lord Charles Charles Beresford, Beresford, May May 1914. 1914.

Before Before 1914, 1914, few few Englishmen Englishmen would would have have disagreed disagreed that that the the mainmaintenance tenance of of naval naval supremacy supremacy was was the the foundation foundation of of British British commercial commercial prosperity prosperity and and imperial imperial security. security. Public Public confidence confidence in in the the Royal Royal Navy Navy was was concomitantly concomitantly absolute absolute and and latent latent determination determination to to uphold uphold naval naval strength strength whatever whatever the the cost cost was was a a political political factor factor that that no no British British governgovernment ment could could disregard.‘ disregard.' This This troubled troubled certain certain Liberal Liberal ministers, ministers, who who saw saw that that current current high high levels levels of of defense defense expenditure expenditure precluded precluded spending spending on on social social reform. reform. Despite Despite the the Cabinet’s Cabinet's best best efforts, efforts, in in 1908 1908 the the Royal Royal Navy Navy still still swallowed swallowed about about 25 25 percent percent of of annual annual state state revenue. revenue. To To some, some, the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s ability ability to to withstand withstand government government pressure pressure for for cuts cuts in in the the navy navy estimates estimates was was deeply deeply frustrating. frustrating. “In “In the the present present humour humour of of the the country country about about warships, warships, there there is is no no economy economy to to be be looked looked for for in in that that quarter,” quarter,” complained complained John John Morley Morley (secretary (secretary of of state state for for India) India) in in 1908, 1908, “the “the more more we we spend spend in in novelties novelties of of every every sort sort upon upon the the water, water, the the more more popular popular will will be be the the spending spending ministers ministers with with the the public.”2 public.” Compared Compared with with men men like like Balfour, Balfour, Arnold-Forster, Arnold-Forster, Lansdowne Lansdowne and and Selborne, Selborne, Liberal Liberal ministers ministers were were ignorant ignorant of of how how sea sea power power actually actually worked. worked. They They assumed assumed that that naval naval combat combat was was an an affair affair of of close close blockblockades ades and and battleships. battleships. Whenever Whenever naval naval officers officers tried tried to to explain explain the the necesnecessity sity of of maintaining maintaining a a balanced balanced force, force, invariably invariably the the politicians politicians asked asked them them to to simplify simplify their their demands demands by by expressing expressing their their requirements requirements in in numnumbers bers of of battleships. battleships. Yet, Yet, for for aa combination combination of of financial financial and and political political reareaLambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, httpszllhd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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165

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outthese outof these masters of new masters their new disabuse their to disabuse little to did little sons, Admiralty did the Admiralty sons, the twothe instance, for administration, for instance, the twoFisher administration, the Fisher dated During the notions. During dated notions. drastic against drastic bulwark against effective bulwark an effective as an recognized as power was recognized standard was power standard even that acknowledged that even be acknowledged also be must also Though itit must cuts estimates. Though navy estimates. the navy in the cuts in publicly lords sea lords publicly the sea by the attempt by an attempt different, an been different, ifif circumstances had been circumstances had been aa have been would have declined would had declined battleships had of battleships utility of the utility to that the declare that to declare selfmeans selfno means by no was by truth was The truth undertaking. The difficult dangerous undertaking. and dangerous difficult and warnaval warof naval understanding of fuller understanding with aa fuller experts” with evident “naval experts” to “naval even to evident even naval of naval understanding of simplistic understanding Cabinet’s simplistic Liberal Cabinet's the Liberal fare. Furthermore, the fare. Furthermore, the of the study of or study in or interest in of interest lack of of lack product of the product entirely the affairs not entirely was not affairs was thinking to thinking predisposed to generally predisposed were generally colors were all colors subject. of all Politicians of subject. Politicians diplomatand diplomatdeterrence and of deterrence instrument of an instrument as an more as Navy more about Royal Navy the Royal about the countprestige countviewpoint, prestige this viewpoint, From this force. From fighting force. as aa fighting than as influence than icic influence told been told had been they had Battleships, they effectiveness. Battleships, operational effectiveness. than operational more than for more ed for ed such Changing such power. Changing naval power. of naval symbols of ultimate symbols the ultimate were the years, were many years, for many for overnight. accomplished overnight. be accomplished not be could not attitudes could deep-rooted deep-rooted attitudes of nature of the nature misunderstanding the of misunderstanding guilty of less guilty no less are no Historians Historians are largethis isis largethat this said that be said must be however, itit must fair, however, be fair, To be power. To sea power. British British sea the in the scholars in leading scholars of leading errors of fundamental errors the fundamental to the attributable to ly ly attributable policy naval policy Edwardian naval of Edwardian historians of events, historians misrepresenting events, By misrepresenting field. field. By history diplomatic history and diplomatic political and their political of their efforts of the efforts compromised the have compromised have more were more policy were financial policy state financial and state policy and naval policy British naval colleagues. colleagues. British hisMost hisrealized. Most generally realized. been generally has been than has interrelated than and interrelated complicated and complicated August to August up to that up proposition that the proposition question the without question torians accepted without have accepted torians have against war against next war the next fighting the envisaged fighting leaders envisaged naval leaders Britain’s naval 1914, Britain’s 1914, sophistimore sophistinothing more involved nothing victory involved for victory strategy for their strategy that their Germany; that Germany; naval that naval and that coast; and enemy coast; the enemy against the operations against offensive operations than offensive cated than cated somewhere fleets somewhere battle fleets of battle clash of decisive clash in aa decisive climax in operations would climax operations would recwhile recinstance, while for instance, Marder, for Sea.3 Marder, North Sea.* the North of the half of southern half the southern in the in ognizing ognizing that that Fisher Fisher in in fact fact “had “had no no great great use” use” for for close close blockade. blockade, insisted insisted that that his his strategy strategy for for war war against against Germany Germany involved involved aa “modified” “modified” Bight Heligoland Bight the Heligoland inside the craft inside light craft by light blockade by observation blockade of observation system system of distance respectable distance fleet aa respectable main fleet supporting main the supporting keep the to keep intended to and intended and away away from from “the “the nearest nearest German German destroyer destroyer base.”4 base.”’ He He also also believed believed that that more or more one or of one capture of “the capture involved “the plan involved Jacky’s plan of Jacky’s part of integral part an integral an German German islands, islands, to to be be established established as as an an oversea oversea base base for for the the [observa[observational] tional] blockading blockading flotillas.”5 flotillas.”> Marder Marder also also insisted insisted that that Fisher Fisher saw saw decideciread have read writers have Other writers strategy. Other naval strategy. of naval end of ultimate end the ultimate as the battle as sive battle sive much much more more into into Fisher’s Fisher's expressions expressions of of interest interest in in amphibious amphibious warfare. warfare. A A few few have have gone gone so so far far as as to to suggest suggest that that aggressive aggressive “brown “brown water” water’ comcombined bined operations operations were were at at the the heart heart of of his his strategic strategic vision: vision: that that he he envisenvisaged “the “the massing massing of of overwhelming overwhelming naval naval strength strength on on the the very very doorstep doorstep aged Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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of of the the enemy, enemy, beating beating in in all all his his naval naval and and coastal coastal defences, defences, and and opening opening the the enemy’s enemy's seaboard seaboard to to the the possibility possibility of of aa British British military military descent.”6 descent.”® But But it it is is not not easy easy to to reconcile reconcile Fisher’s Fisher’s supposed supposed advocacy advocacy of of such such reckreckless less amphibious amphibious schemes schemes with with his his more more frequent frequent prophecies prophecies on on the the power power of of the the torpedo torpedo armed armed flotilla.7 flotilla.” Those Those who who propound propound such such theories, theories, moreover, moreover, tend tend to to ignore ignore his his explicit explicit predictions predictions about about the the impact impact subsubmarines marines would would have have upon upon the the conduct conduct of of war.8 war. The The one one fact fact even even the the best best historians historians accept accept is is that that Fisher Fisher was was an an unimaginatively conventional unimaginatively conventional strategist. strategist. Paul Paul Kennedy Kennedy has has suggested suggested that that although although the the admiral admiral possessed possessed aa genius genius for for recognizing recognizing the the potential potential of of new new weapon weapon systems systems even even before before they they had had been been perfected, perfected, paradoxically: paradoxically: [Jacky] [Jacky] appears appears to to have have had had little little consistent consistent appreciation appreciation of of the the many many practical practical ways ways in in which which this this newer newer weaponry weaponry would would undermine undermine the the effeceffectiveness tiveness of of his his beloved beloved Royal Royal Navy: Navy: for for example, example, that that neither neither the the German German nor nor the the British British fleets fleets dare dare cruise cruise in in the the North North Sea Sea when when those those waters waters were were infested infested by by submarines; submarines; that that aa close close blockade blockade was was aa thing thing of of the the past; past; that that amphibious amphibious landings landings [on [on the the German German coast] coast] would would be be immensely immensely difficult, difficult, if if not not impossible impossible to to carry carry out out in in the the face face of of the the enemy.9 enemy.°

Critics Critics and and admirers admirers alike alike have have generally generally agreed agreed Fisher Fisher expended expended most most of of his his energy energy dealing dealing with with questions questions of of materiel matériel policy policy and and so so “had “had litlittle tle or or no no time—or time—or inclination—to inclination—to consider consider the the fundamentals fundamentals of of naval naval strategy and and particularly particularly the the extent extent to to which which the the new new technology technology was was strategy revolutionising revolutionising the the conduct conduct of of naval naval warfare.”m warfare.”'® As As aa corollary corollary to to this, this, historians historians have have generally generally assumed assumed that that Fisher Fisher introduced introduced all-big-gun all-big-gun armored armored vessels vessels merely merely to to improve improve the the fighting fighting efficiency efficiency of of the the battle battle fleet.” fleet.'' His His strategic strategic myopia myopia has has been been partially partially excused excused by by suggestions suggestions that most most of of his his contemporaries contemporaries appeared appeared to to share share this this same same weakness. weakness. that Historians Historians have have thus thus concluded concluded that that the the entire entire British British naval naval leadership leadership possessed possessed aa “crudely “crudely Mahanian Mahanian vision vision of of the the workings workings of of sea sea power.”'2 power.”” Or put another way: “the Admiralty fixed its mind on the prospect Or put another way: “the Admiralty fixed its mind on the prospect of of aa single single great great battle battle that that would would decide decide the the command command of of the the sea” sea” and and of light of In light force.13 In naval force.’ applying naval of applying ways of other ways consider other even consider not even would not would unjustiseem Fisher of criticisms these reviewed already evidence already reviewed these criticisms of Fisher seem unjustithe evidence the fied.‘4 While While the the majority majority of of naval naval officers officers serving serving before before 1914 1914 may may have have fied.'* autobe autonot be should not historians should outlook, historians Mahanian outlook, broadly Mahanian possessed aa broadly possessed ever officers ever fleet officers by fleet expressed by opinions expressed the opinions that the assume that matically assume matically reflected “that “that imponderable imponderable and and unknown unknown quantity—the quantity—the mind mind of of the the reflected British Admiralty.”'> Admiralty.”'5 As As Capt. Capt. Charles Charles Ottley Ottley explained explained to to War War Minister Minister British Richard Haldane Haldane on on 11 11 December December 1909, 1909, “not “not one one naval naval officer officer out out of of Richard fifty has has any any knowledge knowledge of of what what the the British British fleet fleet will will do do in in war, war, or or how how fifty it.”'6 do it.”'° will do itit will Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Fisher’s for Fisher's basis for rational basis more rational Recent presented aa more has presented scholarship has Recent scholarship disconclusively Offer Avner Germany. strategic thinking on a war against Germany. Avner Offer conclusively disagainst war a on strategic thinking prewar the prewar in the thinking in naval thinking “British naval that “British proved assertion that Marder’s assertion Arthur Marder’s proved Arthur would blockade would which blockade to which degree to decade extraordinary degree the extraordinary anticipate the not anticipate did not decade did during that showed He 1914—18.”17 in throttle the German war economy in 1914-18." He showed that during economy war German the throttle Intelligence Naval Intelligence the Naval of the division of Fisher’s trade division the trade administration, the Fisher’s administration, vulnerGermanyfs of study simplistic) Department made a detailed (albeit simplistic) study of Germany's vulner(albeit Department made a detailed of Board the did only Not blockade.18 ability to systematic économic blockade.’® Not only did the Board of economic ability to systematic 1905 between sometime but argued, he Admiralty consider this scheme, he argued, but sometime between 1905 Admiralty consider this scheme, The preparation.”‘9 The war preparation.” British war in British and element in central element “became aa central 1908 itit “became and 1908 the that forcibly so argued having despite Yet evidence seems irrefutable. Yet despite having argued so forcibly that the evidence seems irrefutable. grand naval of understanding sophisticated Admiralty pursued a more sophisticated understanding of naval grand Admiralty pursued a more author the author that the indications that are indications there are strategy suspected, there previously suspected, than previously strategy than policy operational navy’s the that idea the of found it difficult to let go of the idea that the navy’ operational policy go found it difficult to let prehow for explanations no offered He remained Mahanian.20 He offered no explanations for how preessentially Mahanian.”° remained essentially what or blockade, commercial the enforce the commercial blockade, or what cisely to enforce intended to Admiralty intended the Admiralty cisely the inside Fleet inside Sea Fleet High Sea the High contain the to contain measures necessary to be necessary to be thought to were thought measures were economy. German the throttling was Navy was throttling the German economy. Royal Navy the the Royal while the Sea while North Sea the North by complicated by intentions isis complicated Discovering operational intentions Admiraltys operational the Admiralty’s Discovering the perithis from this peridating from policy” dating “strategic policy” of “strategic the expositions of formal expositions of formal paucity of the paucity that remembered that be remembered must be written. ItIt must ever written. were ever od.?' documents were such documents Few such od.21 Few naval Britain’s of majority the century the majority of Britain’s naval at twentieth century the twentieth of the beginning of the beginning at the stairthe stairfrom the leading from corridor leading dark corridor the dark leaders along the offices along in offices worked in leaders worked strategy naval on discussion Most room. case outside the Admiralty board room. Most discussion on naval strategy board Admiralty the case outside crethe creconsider the not consider did not leaders did Naval leaders was orally. Naval conducted orally. and conducted informal and was informal attempt no attempt made no and made necessary, and be necessary, to be ation plans to war plans written war detailed written of detailed ation of inforthis inforencouraged this Fisher encouraged 1912. Fisher before 1912. to documents before such documents compile such to compile theoradical theohis radical to his opposition to considerable opposition was considerable mality. there was that there Aware that mality. Aware expressing avoiding expressing deliberately avoiding he deliberately Whitehall, he ry within Whitehall, even within war, even naval war, of naval ry of

be might be documents might such documents fear such for fear writing for official writing his thoughts inin official strategic thoughts his strategic war for war preparations for Admiraltys preparations the Admiralty’s to the clues to used other clues Most other him. Most against him. used against administrative of files the all nearly of have been lost with the destruction of nearly all the files of administrative destruction the with lost have been ordintelligence, ordof intelligence, departments of the departments within the correspondence generated within correspondence generated by only survived have Fragments nance, mobilization, and personnel.” Fragments have survived only by personnel.”and nance, mobilization,

hisoffer histo offer appear to which appear period which this period from this papers from of papers chance. set of only set The only chance. The Sea North Sea on North thoughts on Admiraltys thoughts the Admiraltys of the torians picture of coherent picture any coherent torians any to officers naval by given statements given by naval officers to written statements Strategy and written verbal and the verbal are the strategy are the the Committee Committee of of Imperial Imperial Defense.23 Defense.” W EEE SS

major three major conducted three Cabinet conducted Liberal Cabinet the Liberal 1910, the and 1910, 1906 and Between 1906 Between the compelled investigations into aspects of national defense that compelled the that defense neszozgfebpayonal ”$981.. ttpos mightier/"m Wktig Nicolas Lambert E-book, Columbia??? 0 out ress 20 Downloaded on behalf of Digital Theological Library, Claremont, CA

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Admiralty Admiralty to to give give the the CID CID an an explanation explanation of of their their strategic strategic policy. policy. No No sooner sooner had had the the Conservative Conservative ministry ministry left left office, office, indeed, indeed, than than various various interest interest groups groups began began pressing pressing the the incoming incoming government government to to exhume exhume the the old old strategical strategical problems problems recently recently laid laid to to rest rest by by Arthur Arthur Balfour. Balfour. The The most most vocal vocal and and certainly certainly most most persistent persistent of of these these was was the the National National Service Service League League which which since since the the end end of of the the Boer Boer War War had had been been campaigning campaigning for for the the introduction introduction of of some some form form of of military military conscription conscription for for all all male male adults adults in in Britain.24 Britain.“ The The appointment appointment of of Field Field Marshal Marshal Lord Lord Roberts, Roberts, one one of of the the country’s most respected soldiers, to head countrys most respected soldiers, to head this this organization organization in in early early 1906 1906 provided provided the the National National Service Service League League with with aa clearer clearer sense sense of of direcdirection. tion. Roberts Roberts demanded demanded the the formation formation of of aa large large home home defense defense army army to to serve serve as aS an an insurance insurance against against the the possibility possibility of of aa sudden sudden invasion. invasion. So So strongly strongly did did he he feel feel on on this this subject, subject, indeed, indeed, that that several several months months earlier earlier he he had had resigned resigned as as special special representative representative to to the the CID CID after after Balfour Balfour had had dismissed dismissed such such aa precaution precaution as as unnecessary.25 unnecessary.” As As soon soon as as the the Conservatives Conservatives were were out out of of office, office, Roberts Roberts and and his his band band started started agitating agitating for for this this decision decision to to be be reviewed reviewed in in light light of of recent recent changes changes in in diplomatic diplomatic conditions. conditions. Mr. Mr. Balfour, Balfour, they they pointed pointed out, out, had had examined examined the the possibility possibility of of aa French French rather rather than than German German invasion. invasion. The The Admiralty Admiralty had had persuaded persuaded him him that that aa “bolt “bolt from from the the blue” blue” was was impossible impossible largely largely because because the the French French lacked lacked sufficient sufficient commercial commercial shipping shipping to to gather gather in in secret secret the the transport transport to to carry carry an an invasion invasion army.26 army.” Since Since then, then, Roberts Roberts and and his his folfollowers lowers claimed, claimed, Germany Germany had had become become a a more more likely likely and and much much more more forformidable midable threat threat to to British British interests. interests. The The campaign campaign for for an an inquiry inquiry into into the the possibility possibility of of aa German German invasion invasion also also received received quiet quiet encouragement encouragement from from the the newly newly constituted constituted Army Army General General Staff. Staff. Throughout Throughout 1906 1906 and and 1907, 1907, Sir Sir John John Fisher Fisher fought fought hard hard against against the the establishment establishment of of aa new new invasion invasion inquiry.27 inquiry.”” From From his his perspective perspective the the navy navy had had nothing nothing to to gain gain and and everything everything to to lose. lose. In In 1904, 1904, the the prime prime minister minister had had placed placed the the entire entire responsibility responsibility for for protecting protecting the the country country against against invasion invasion and and raids raids in in the the hands hands of of the the Admiralty.28 Admiralty.” And And along along with with these these responsibilities responsibilities the the navy navy had had received received priority priority in in the the allocation allocation of of limited limited defense defense resources. resources. Fisher Fisher was was convinced convinced that that the the generals generals were were interinterested ested only only in in exploiting exploiting every every opportunity opportunity that that occurred occurred during during such such an an

investigation investigation to to demand demand aa larger larger slice slice of of the the defense defense budget.29 budget.” And And any any War War Office Office success success would would inevitably inevitably jeopardize jeopardize future future naval naval estimates. estimates. In In his his opinion, opinion, securing securing adequate adequate funding funding for for the the navy navy was was much much more more important important than than achieving achieving harmony harmony in in national national strategic strategic policy. policy. Following Following the the appointment appointment in in 1907 1907 of of Gen. Gen. William William Nicholson Nicholson as as chief chief of of the the General Staff, Staff,30 the the first first sea sea lord’s lord’s suspicions suspicions of of the the army's army’s motives motives borborGeneral dered dered on on paranoia.3| paranoia.*' After After being being humiliated humiliated at at the the 1903 1903 invasion invasion inquiry, inquiry, he he reminded reminded the the DN1, DNI, Nicholson Nicholson had had defiantly defiantly proclaimed proclaimed “his “his day day would would yet come to conquer.” The general had salways always refused prithe priadmit the to admit refused to Eflfidfiffib‘fifgolmémfifl‘é’fwfiulheigeneenalnhad

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notomoreover, aa notowas, moreover, he was, defense; he imperial defense; in imperial Navy in macy Royal Navy the Royal of the macy of with everyone with almost everyone antagonized almost who antagonized personality who riously abrasive personality riously abrasive quite was quite man was such aa man with such Cooperation with contact.33 Cooperation into contact. whom came into he came whom he impossible. impossible. establishthe establishto the opposition to his opposition express his not express could not Of Fisher could course Fisher Of course blustered he blustered Instead he terms. Instead bold terms. such bold inquiry inin such ment government inquiry of aa government ment of the to the suggest to would suggest last would the last after the soon after so soon inquiry so invasion inquiry that another invasion that another was aa This was Board.34 This the Board.” in the confidence in lacked confidence government lacked public the government that the public that from admonitions from him admonitions earned him also earned it.35 ItIt also knew it.* he knew weak and he argument and weak argument believe to believe only to not only are not functions are “Your functions friends. “Your some staunchest friends. his staunchest of his some of all at all Germans at the Germans defeat the to defeat enough to strong enough navy strong that possess aa navy you possess that you wheryou, wherin you, that isis in belief that the belief justify the to justify “but to Esher, “but Lord Esher, points,” warned Lord points,” warned day’s your day's of your part of but part perhaps but Tiresome perhaps required! Tiresome ever whenever required! and whenever ever and to replied to he replied generals, he The generals, unrepentant. The was unrepentant. however, was work.”** Fisher, however, work.”36 Fisher, at sidings at railway sidings of railway miles of and miles foolscap and of foolscap reams of out reams trot out “will trot Ksher, Esher, “will in get in can get who can soldiers who German soldiers of German millions of and millions Bremen, and Hamburg and Bremen, Hamburg and the quickly the how quickly explain how to explain on to go on then go seconds,” then in 55 seconds,” train in of aa train out of and and out they But they Britain."7 But of Britain.*’ coast of east coast the east on the disembark on could disembark German army could German army army invasion army the invasion how the protested, how lord protested, sea lord first sea the first would say, the never say, would never Royal the Royal by the intercepted by being intercepted without being Sea without North Sea the North would across the pass across would pass appointed Campbell-Bannerman appointed 1907, Campbell-Bannerman September 1907, in September Ultimately, in Navy. Navy. Ultimately, this investigate this to investigate CID to the CID of the subcommittee of chair aa subcommittee to chair Chancellor Asquith to Chancellor Asquith possibility. possibility. at inquiry at an inquiry such an face such to face wanting to not wanting for not reasons for Fisher other reasons had other Fisher had would investigation would any investigation that any concerned that especially concerned this was especially He was time. He this time. This, Sea. This, North Sea. the North for the plans for operational plans navy’s operational the navy’s force discuss the to discuss him to force him costs.38 all costs.* at all avoided at be avoided to be had to Tweedmouth, had he Lord Tweedmouth, to Lord explained to he explained disopen disan open that an afraid that more afraid was more Fisher was it. Fisher with it. do with Security little do had little Security had schisms widening schisms the widening expose the would expose policy would strategic policy cussion current strategic of current cussion of administration his administration to his opposition to growing opposition by growing caused by within service caused the service within the at were at there were Ottley, there Charles Ottley, Capt. Charles to Capt. According to officers. According fleet officers. among among fleet

each navy” each the navy” within the thought within of thought schools of dozen schools this “half aa dozen least “half at least time at this time Fisher’s regarded Fisher's others regarded the others all the and all theories; and with strategic theories; own strategic their own with their for 1890s, for early 1890s, the early In the new. In not new. were not rifts were Such rifts policy “retrograde.”39 Such as “retrograde.”** policy as whether over whether navy over the navy within the debate within fierce debate been aa fierce had been there had instance, instance, there conto consystem to signaling system developed signaling newly developed use aa newly fleet should use commanders should fleet commanders individual allow individual or allow squadron, or their squadron, in their ships in all ships of all movements of trol the movements trol the

In action.40 In to action.” enemy to the enemy bringing the initiative inin bringing own initiative Captains their own use their to use captains to revolution inin his revolution engineer his to engineer determination to 1907, Fisher’s determination however, Fisher’s 1907, however,

remorseand remorserelentless and “ruthless, relentless sometimes “ruthless, the sometimes and the policy, and strategic strategic policy, these exacerbated these had exacerbated reform, had through reform, force through to force used to he used methods he less” methods less” natural natural schisms schisms within within the the service service to to extremes. extremes. As As a a result, result, Fisher Fisher found found Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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that support support for for his his reforms reforms was was at at times times insecure insecure even even within within the the Board Board that support unanimous support the unanimous upon the rely upon of could rely he could as he long as so long But so Admiralty. But of Admiralty. of his his closest closest followers, followers, often often referred referred to to as as the the “fishpond,” “fishpond,” he he was was gengenof erally erally able able to to implement implement his his policy. policy. AS As we we shall shall see, see, however, however, Fisher Fisher increasingly discovered discovered that that his his supporters supporters were were themselves themselves divided divided increasingly over the the wisdom wisdom of of his his more more radical radical proposals. proposals. At At these these times was over times Jacky Jacky was vulnerable to to counterattack. counterattack. vulnerable On On no no subject subject was was the the Royal Royal Navy Navy more more divided divided than than over over the the quesquestion tion of of North North Sea Sea strategy. strategy. Opposition Opposition was was already already growing growing to to the the adopadoption officers. Up Up to to this this time, time, the the tion of of flotilla flotilla defense defense among among senior senior fleet fleet officers. Admiralty Admiralty had had managed managed to to conceal conceal from from outsiders outsiders the the strength strength of of oppoopposition to to official official policy policy from from within within the the service, service, by by aa combination combination of of sition appeals for for loyalty loyalty and and threats threats of of courts-martial courts-martial for for dissenters dissenters who who appeals betrayed betrayed secrets. secrets. Members Members of of the the syndicate syndicate of of discontent, discontent, however, however, were were only only too too keen keen to to broadcastthis broadcast this fact fact as as justification justification for for an an open open ended ended investigation investigation of of Fisher’s Fisher’s administration.“ administration.*' And And giving giving evidence evidence before before aa CID CID inquiry, inquiry, of of course, course, would would allow allow them them to to criticize criticize Fisher’s Fisher’s board board withwithout danger danger of of disciplinary disciplinary action. action. Chief Chief among among these these antagonists antagonists was was out Adm. Adm. Lord Lord Charles Charles Beresford, Beresford, the the fleet fleet commander commander in in chief, chief, who who had had long aspired aspired to to the the office office of of first first sea sea lord. lord. So So keen keen was was he he to to eject long eject Fisher Fisher from from Whitehall Whitehall that that he he seemed seemed deaf deaf to to warnings warnings that that his his actions actions threatthreatened ened to to undermine undermine public public confidence confidence in in the the service, service, or or that that such such displays displays of disharmony disharmony prejudiced prejudiced the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s dealings dealings with with the the government. government. of Politicians disliked disliked inconsistent inconsistent or or conflicting conflicting advice advice on on defense defense matmatPoliticians ters. ters. Since Since their their embarrassing embarrassing performances performances in in front front of of Balfour’s Balfour’s CID, CID, the the soldiers soldiers had had learned learned to to suppress suppress ruthlessly ruthlessly all all internal internal dissent dissent over over military military policy. policy. These These underlying underlying political political considerations considerations must must always always be be 1907 the 1907 to the presentation to kept Admiralty’s presentation the Admiralty’s analyzing the when analyzing mind when in mind kept in inquiry.42 invasion invasion inquiry.* The testimony testimony given given to to the the CID CID by by Fisher, Fisher, Tweedmouth Tweedmouth and and the the direcdirecThe has 1908, has May 1908, and May 1907 and tor December 1907 between December Intelligence between Naval Intelligence of Naval tor of given given scholars scholars the the impression impression that that the the Board Board of of Admiralty Admiralty during during this this period was was steering steering aa conventional conventional strategic strategic course. course. In In the the words words of of one one period hiswith histhick with was thick air was “the air naval meetings “the committee meetings during committee historian, during naval historian, torical torical arguments arguments drawn drawn from from earlier earlier wars.’* wars.”43 The The naval naval representatives representatives that argument that the argument upon the defense upon to entire defense their entire built their argued, built CID, itit isis argued, the CID, to the British the British invade the to invade attempted to ever attempted history had ever power had hostile power no hostile taught no history taught secure to secure order to in order sea in Isles the sea of the command of win command to win seeking to first seeking without first Isles without their their army’s army’s lines lines of of communication.“ communication.44 ItIt thus thus followed followed that that so so long long as as the the

British fleet fleet remained remained supreme supreme invasion invasion would would remain remain aa chimera.45 chimera.® British Without doubt, doubt, the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s case case was was aa masterly masterly exposition exposition of of the the Without principles of of naval naval warfare warfare in in the the age age of of sail. sail. But But it it clearly clearly offered offered little little principles Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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twentieth the twentieth in the Germany in against Germany war against naval war of naval conduct of the conduct to the relevance to relevance approach Navy’s approach Royal Navy's the Royal that the impression that the impression conveyed the also conveyed century. ItIt also century. for Nothing, for outdated. Nothing, and outdated. amateurish and was amateurish 1914 was before 1914 strategy before to strategy to deteras aa determines as and mines submarines and of submarines value of the value about the said about was said instance, was instance, Sea. North Sea. the North inside the operations inside naval operations offensive naval to offensive rent to rent What critics critics have have failed failed to to realize, realize, however, however, isis that that both both sets sets of of serserWhat more much more were much inquiry were invasion inquiry 1907 invasion the 1907 attended the who attended chiefs who vice chiefs vice interested in in maneuvering maneuvering for for political political position position than than debating debating real real interested of lord of first lord then first the then inquiry, the invasion inquiry, 1913 invasion the 1913 At the problems.46 At strategic problems.* strategic that: explained that: Churchill—frankly explained Admiralty—Winston Churchill—frankly Admiralty—Winston estimates Army estimates the Army that the was that Admiralty was the Admiralty of the position of the position ago the years ago five years five order position—in order Fisher’s position—in Lord Fisher’s was Lord down—that was cut down—that greatly cut be greatly to be ought ought to done, were done, that were that, ifif that and that, Navy, and the Navy, on the money on spend money and spend economise and to to economise small only aa small of only or of all, or at all, army at regular army any regular of any need of no need absolutely no was absolutely there was there

arguAdmiralty arguThe Admiralty up. The taken up. was taken that was position that of position sort of the sort was the That was one. That one. of lots of and lots end, and to end, beginning to from beginning tone from that tone in that pitched in all pitched were all ments were ments Truths modification. Truths considerable modification. required considerable which required made which were made statements statements were were pushed pushed to to the the point point where where they they ceased ceased really really to to carry carry aa truthful truthful were .47 . . .* line. .. opposite line. the opposite took the hand, took other hand, the other on the Office, on War Office, The War meaning. meaning. The

in In other other words, words, the the arguments arguments employed employed by by both both sets sets of of service service chiefs chiefs stratethan strateconsiderations than political considerations and political financial and by financial more by inspired more were inspired were docurecognized docuministers recognized several ministers time, several the time, at the Indeed, at principles. Indeed, gic principles. gic examfact examin fact be in to be policy to Admiralty policy of Admiralty statements of be statements to be purporting to ments purporting ments advanthe advanfor the printed for manifestos, printed semi-confidential manifestos, John’s semi-confidential “Sir John’s of “Sir ples of ples tage of the press.” Fisher made these “secret” documents available to tage of the press.” Fisher made these “secret” documents available to propanavalist propahis navalist amplify his to amplify willing to was willing who was platform who with aa platform anyone with anyone prominent many prominent of many papers of private papers the private in the found in be found can be Examples can ganda.48 Examples ganda. journalists journalists and and politicians. politicians. The explanation explanation for for why why the the Admiralty Admiralty misrepresented misrepresented their their true true The strategic opinions at the CID, and why Fisher chose to employ the “hisstrategic opinions at the CID, and why Fisher chose to employ the “historical” torical” case case rather rather than than explain explain “flotilla “flotilla defense,” defense,” is is found found in in the the private private correspondence of of the the naval naval representatives representatives involved involved in in the the invasion invasion correspondence inquiry. From From the the very very beginning, beginning, Fisher Fisher declared declared he he was was far far too too busy busy inquiry. fighting the fighting battles battles over over the the estimates estimates to to spend spend time time himself himself preparing preparing the

Admiralty’s brief brief to to the the CID. C1D.49 He He thus thus delegated delegated “the “the whole whole thing’ thing” into into Admiralty’s the hands hands of of the the director director of of Naval Naval Intelligence. Intelligence.50 Although Although obliged obliged to to the attend for the the attend the the meetings, meetings, Fisher Fisher made made no no attempt attempt to to hide hide his his disdain disdain for proceedings proceedings and and used used the the occasions occasions to to catch catch up up on on his his correcorrespondence.“ spondence.” “I “I am am here here wasting wasting my my time,” time,” he he wrote wrote to to one one friend friend during during one one particularly particularly slow slow afternoon afternoon at at Number Number 2, 2, Whitehall Whitehall Gardens, Gardens, “con“considering sidering an an invasion invasion of of England England by by Germany Germany under under the the inconceivable inconceivable Lambert, Nicolas conditions of the hQQlIdIQeWQ/mué‘w ‘bolt from the blue’ school.”” SChOOl. 52 E- book, ColumbiSfiflcfl’mflgflfié’fif5mg, Downloaded on

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The invasion invasion inquiry inquiry came at aa most most inconvenient inconvenient time the The came at time for for the Admiralty. Admiralty. After After having having sewing serving more more than than three three years years as as DNl, DNI, in in September September 1907 1907 the the experienced experienced Capt. Capt. Charles Charles Ottley Ottley retired retired from from the the service. service. He He subsequently subsequently became became secretary secretary of of the the CID CID in in succession succession to to Sir Sir George George Clarke. Clarke. While While the the appointment appointment of of aa sailor sailor to to this this post post was was certainly certainly of of benefit benefit to to the the navy navy generally, generally, Fisher Fisher suffered suffered as as aa result result of of the transfer. the transfer. Ottley Ottley had had been been perhaps perhaps his his most most stalwart stalwart lieutenant lieutenant inside inside the the Admiralty. Admiralty. More More than than any any other other officer’s officer’s his his strategic strategic views views mirrored mirrored those those of of his his chief. chief. Nevertheless Nevertheless Ottley Ottley had had to to go. go. The The Board Board had had already already granted granted him him one one extension extension to to his his term term of of office office in in Whitehall, Whitehall, aa second second was was impossible. impossible. Also, Also, having having never never commanded commanded a a line line of of battle battle ship ship for for aa minimum minimum of of six six years years he he was was not not eligible eligible for for promotion promotion to to flag flag rank rank on on the the active active list list and and was was thus thus facing facing mandatory mandatory retirement. retirement. The The officer officer nominated nominated to to become become Ottley’s Ottley’s successor successor was was something something of of an an unknown unknown quantity quantity to to the the first first sea sea lord. lord. Capt. Capt. Edmund Edmund Slade Slade had had a a reputation reputation within within the the service service as as an an intellectual intellectual and and aa keen keen student student of of hishistory. tory. He He was was also also something something of of aa loner. loner. Prior Prior to to his his appointment appointment as as DNl DNI he he had had served served as as the the president president of of the the War War College.53 College. When When the the two two had had first first met met Fisher Fisher had had thought thought Slade Slade “clever.”54 “clever.”* But But this this initially initially favorable favorable impression impression quickly quickly evaporated evaporated after after it it became became apparent apparent that that he he was was an an officer officer who who firmly firmly believed believed that that historical historical “principles” “principles” of of maritime maritime stratstrategy egy transcended transcended advances advances in in technology technology and and were were thus thus applicable applicable to to the the strategic Strategic environment environment of of the the early early twentieth twentieth century.55 century. Slade, Slade, for for instance, instance, firmly firmly believed believed in in amphibious amphibious warfare warfare and and in in the the practicability practicability of of close close blockade.56 blockade. As As one one historian historian has has noted, noted, his his strategic strategic thought thought had had aa decidedly decidedly eighteenth-century eighteenth-century flavor.57 flavor.*’ Slade Slade was was also also politically politically rather rather naive.58 naive.** Being Being aa straight-forward straight-forward character, character, he he regarded regarded all all inter-service inter-service rivalry rivalry as as “childish” “childish” and and political political maneuverings maneuverings (even (even by by politicians) politicians) as as “dishonest.”59 “dishonest.” He He once once seriously seriously suggested suggested that that the the Admiralty Admiralty ought ought to to endorse endorse the the army’s army's campaign campaign for for increased increased estimates: estimates: he he thought thought Fisher’s Fisher’s refusal refusal to to do do so so aa symptom symptom of of his his small-mindedness!60 small-mindedness!® He He never never seemed seemed to to understand understand that that the the upholding upholding of of Britain’s Britain’s naval naval supremacy supremacy depended depended first first and and foremost foremost upon upon the the negotiation negotiation of of adequate adequate funding. funding. Slade Slade could could never never quite quite grasp grasp why why Fisher Fisher would would not not find find time time to to work work out out strategic strategic problems problems with with him him in in detail, detail, preferring preferring instead instead to to spend spend his his time time entertaining entertaining politicians. politicians. He He never never saw saw the the connection—although connection—although at at times times he he came came close. close. “I “I think think it it is is as as much much or or even even more more the the estimates estimates than than invasion invasion which which is is waying waying [sic] [sic] on on his his mind,” mind,” he he speculated speculated in in a a letletter ter to to the the historian historian Julian Julian Corbett Corbett dated dated 11 December December 1907.“ 1907." But But twelve twelve months months later later he he was was still still complaining complaining that that Fisher's Fisher’s “whole “whole energies energies are are now now given given up up to to intriguing intriguing with with the the politicians politicians and and not not to to working working out out war war Lambptr whales”, ”3’62 gaggeuas Ottley problems.”® Whereas Ottley had had worked worked closely closely with with the the first first sea sea lord lord in in Fisher’s N E'Etfibfifiéfii‘fiiifit‘éfifii’ffiififiWe‘istfifi‘atBsma‘fid the preparation of the navy estimates and had had been been a a member member of of the

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parto parinvited to rarely invited was rarely successor was his successor committee, his estimates committee, Admiralty estimates Admiralty ticipate ticipate in in discussions discussions concerning concerning financial financial questions.63 questions.® It It is is fair fair to to say say naval of aa naval that of to that limited to strictly limited was strictly horizon was intellectual horizon Slade’s intellectual that Slade’s that theorist.64 theorist.” As early early as as August August 1907, 1907, Sir Sir John John Fisher Fisher had had commenced commenced shooting shooting AS cirhe cirmonth he that month of that end of the end At the lobby. At invasion lobby. the invasion at the broadsides at own broadsides his own his miscelcontaining aa miscelRaids,” containing and Raids,” “invasions and entitled “Invasions document entitled culated aa document culated laneous laneous collection collection of of documents documents prefaced prefaced with with a a memorandum memorandum of of his his composition.65 own composition.® own We We have have now now a a permanent permanent flotilla flotilla of of our our latest latest type type of of submarine, submarine, with with their attendant attendant vessels, vessels, stationed stationed at at Harwich Harwich .. .. .. similarly similarly there there are are perpertheir manently manently on on the the same same coast coast the the active active service service destroyers destroyers of of the the Eastern Eastern group group ..... . is is it it conceivable conceivable that that with with these these never never absent, absent, always always ready. ready,

irresistible irresistible weapons weapons of of attack, attack, able able to to commit commit unutterable unutterable havoc havoc amongst amongst

helpless helpless thousands thousands crowding crowding the the transports, transports, the the masses masses of of transports transports necnecessary essary to to effect effect the the operation operation of of an an invasion, invasion, or or even even the the lesser lesser number number obligatory for a raid, would dare to emerge from the German obligatory for a raid, would dare to emerge from the German ports ports until until these these vessels vessels have have been been swept swept away? away? But But who who is is to to sweep sweep them them away? away? We We

have have 123 123 destroyers destroyers and and forty forty submarines. submarines. The The Germans Germans have have 48 48 destroydestroyers and one submarine!66 ers and one submarine!®

Days are not Days later later Fisher Fisher came came close close to to revealing revealing flotilla flotilla defense. defense. “If “If we we are not safe make safe from from invasion,” invasion,” he he wrote wrote angrily angrily to to the the Prince Prince of of Wales, Wales, “then “then make us us so. so. Spend Spend money money on on submarines, submarines, destroyers, destroyers, etc., etc., but but don’t don’t waste waste money money on on an an armed armed mob.”67 mob.”” [A [A conscript conscript army] army. | Slade, Slade, with with his his strong strong belief belief in in the the lessons lessons of of history, history, disliked disliked Fisher’s Fisher's revolutionary revolutionary strategic strategic theory theory of of “flotilla “flotilla defense.” defense.” Throughout Throughout his his term term of of office Though office as as DNl DNI he he consistently consistently deprecated deprecated the the value value of of submarines.68 submarines.” Though by by this this time time it it was was Slade, Slade, not not Fisher, Fisher, who who was was out out of of step step with with majority majority Opinion on opinion within within the the Admiralty. Admiralty. In In November November 1907, 1907, the the officers officers serving serving on the the naval naval estimates estimates committee committee unanimously unanimously agreed agreed that that in in future future conflicts conflicts “the “the use use of of submarines submarines on on enemy enemy coasts” coasts” was was “inevitable” “inevitable” and and recomrecom-

mended mended that that money money should should be be set set aside aside for for building building aa flotilla flotilla of of suitable suitable craft.69 craft.” In In 1908, 1908, Captain Captain Ottley Ottley observed observed that that “it “it is is today today absolutely absolutely certain certain

that that aa single single British British torpedo torpedo boat boat or or submarine submarine manned manned by by aa dozen dozen men men can can send send two two or or three three Atlantic Atlantic liners liners (each (each holding holding perhaps perhaps 3000 3000 or or 4000 4000 troops) troops) to to the the bottom bottom by by merely merely pressing pressing a a button.”70 button.”” When When Fisher Fisher first first asked asked Slade Slade in in the the autumn autumn of of 1907 1907 how how he he proproposed posed to to handle handle the the invasion invasion inquiry, inquiry, the the DN1 DNI suggested suggested that that instead instead of of risking risking controversy controversy by by outlining outlining the the flotilla flotilla concept, concept, the the Admiralty Admiralty should should instead instead emphasize emphasize there there was was no no historical historical precedent precedent for for any any power power attem ting to launch an invasion before attaining command of the sea. attempting to launch an invasion before attaining command of the sea. Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn FisPer's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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“keep and “keep details” and and details” “figures and avoid “figures words—to avoid own words—to his own He wanted—in his He wanted—in this that realized certainly realized that this Fisher certainly principles.”71 Fisher broad principles.”” the on broad thing on the thing lobby invasion lobby the invasion that the was that he was as he aware as advantages, aware offered advantages, approach approach offered commander fleet commander the fleet Beresford, the Charles Beresford, Lord Charles Adm. Lord call Adm. to call was intending to was intending shall we shall as we Beresford, Admiralty.”72 Beresford, as the Admiralty.”” against the evidence against give evidence “to give chief, “to in chief, in current discussing current Not discussing defense. Not flotilla defense. to flotilla opposed to utterly opposed see was utterly below, was see below, calling for calling justification for the justification removed the however, removed operational policy, however, Operational policy, authorized subsequently authorized Fisher subsequently why Fisher probably why This isis probably testify. This to testify. Beresford to Beresford allayed were allayed doubts were minute doubts Last minute arguments. Last historical arguments. his historical employ his to employ Slade to Slade histonaval histothe naval Corbett, the Julian Corbett, friend Julian personal friend his personal recruited his DN1 recruited the DNI after the after however, Fisher, however, to Fisher, Unbeknown to respected.73 Unbeknown Fisher respected.” opinions Fisher whose opinions rian, whose rian, War the War with the fences with some fences mend some Admiralty mend the Admiralty see the to see keen to also keen was also Slade was Slade Office. Office. “The “The more more I| think think of of this this invasion invasion business,” business,” the the DN1 DNI privately privately told told am more II am “the more assistant, “the his assistant, as his serve as to serve agreed to latter agreed the latter after the Corbett after Corbett pleased pleased it it should should have have come come up, up, as as we we now now ought ought to to have have aa good good chance chance only but only forces, but separate forces, two separate not two are not Navy are and Navy Army and the Army that the shewing that of shewing of divisions of of one one force.”” force.”74 Corbett Corbett agreed.” agreed.75 Publicly Publicly admitting admitting the the army army had had divisions sertwo serthe two “bringing the help “bringing would help felt, would both felt, defense, both home defense, in home play in to play role to aa role certainly were certainly direction were this direction in this steps in While steps more.”76 While little more.””® together aa little vices together vices desirable, in in the the prevailing prevailing financial financial climate, climate, they they were were neither neither attainable attainable desirable, wise. nor wise. nor were Tweedmouth were Lord Tweedmouth and Lord Fisher and December, Fisher of 99 December, morning of the morning On the On Corbett. and Corbett. Slade and by Slade drafted by paper drafted position paper the position see the to see allowed to finally allowed finally to concessions to proposed concessions the proposed at the protests at strong protests lodged strong immediately lodged Both immediately Both last the last at the that at recalled that doubtless recalled Fisher doubtless contained. Fisher Office itit contained. War Office the War the Admiralty’s the Admiralty’s of the out of deal out great deal made aa great had made soldiers had the soldiers inquiry the invasion inquiry invasion lord first lord The first possible.77 The still possible.” were still raids were unlikely raids however unlikely that however admission that admission “Since Fisher.78 “Since John Fisher.” Sir John than Sir “bloodthirsty” than more “bloodthirsty” even more apparently even was apparently was later Corbett later to Corbett reported to Slade reported Tweedmouth," Slade Lord Tweedmouth,” seen Lord have seen left I| have you left you had aa and |I had Army and the Army to the references to all references out all cut out to cut wanted to “He wanted day. “He that day. that Navy our Navy that our say that to say [merely] to wants [merely] He wants that. He over that. him over with him fight with great fight great consideration.”79 any consideration.” with any cope with to cope strong to sufficiently strong be sufficiently must be must the with the battling with was battling Admiralty was the Admiralty moment the that moment at that that at Considering that Considering

surprisslightly surprisestimates, itit isis slightly 1908—9 estimates, the 1908-9 over the Office over Cabinet War Office and War Cabinet and insisting from insisting superiors from his superiors dissuade his to dissuade managed to ing DN1 managed the DNI that the ing that opening the opening during the nevertheless, during Slade, nevertheless, to Slade, Thanks to changes.80 Thanks these changes.” upon these upon “selfnoticeable “selfexercised noticeable Admiralty exercised the Admiralty inquiry the days invasion inquiry the invasion of the days of its presented its lobby presented invasion lobby the invasion while the “self-restraint” while and “self-restraint” effacement” and effacement” the however, the intensified, however, crisis intensified, estimates crisis naval estimates concurrent naval the concurrent As the case.“ As case.*' more assume aa more to assume superiors to his superiors from his pressure from more pressure under more came under DN1 came DNI Slade December, Slade 20 December, On 20 Office. On War Office. the War towards the posture towards aggressive posture aggressive back go back to go anxious to “very anxious again “very were again masters were his masters that his Corbett that to Corbett reported to reported Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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across comes across nothing comes that nothing guarantee that can guarantee Navy can the Navy that the contention that the contention to the to military the military get the only get will only way. ItIt will bold way. such aa bold in such put itit in to put want to don’t want but II don’t but long as long [so] as required [So] are required they are see they to see them to want them round—we want all round—we up all backs up backs importance. ”32 relative importance.”” their relative of their view of great aa view too great take too not take do not they do as they as withdrew again withdrew Tweedmouth again and Tweedmouth Fisher and judgement Fisher better judgement their better Against their Against objections.“3 their objections.® their more steadily more became steadily Fisher became John Fisher Sir John progressed, Sir inquiry progressed, the inquiry As the As into ourselves into got ourselves have got we have thinks we “He thinks presentation. “He Slade’s presentation. with Slade’s uneasy with uneasy only “It isis only December.84 “It 24 December.® on 24 Corbett on informed Corbett DN1 informed the DNI nest,” the hornets nest,” aa hornets thing whole thing the whole at the looks at and looks himself and with himself honest with be honest not be will not he will because he because from than from from aa broad stand point.”® point.”85 from aa partisan partisan point point of of view view rather rather than broad stand arguhistorical arguSlade’s historical however, Slade’s perspective, however, lord’s perspective, sea lord’s first sea the first From the From ments ments were were abstractions. abstractions. The The DNl DNI failed failed to to emphasize emphasize the the value value of of wirewireless telegraphy telegraphy and and the the development development of of the the torpedo torpedo armed armed flotilla, less flotilla, or or explain that that because because of of these these inventions inventions overseas overseas invasion explain invasion was was now now a a much much more more difficult difficult operation operation than than it it had had been been in in the the age age of of sail— sail— Fisher’s times Fisher’s At times 1903. At in 1903. back in CID back the CID impressed the had impressed that had arguments that arguments annoyance annoyance at at Slade’s Slade’s timidity timidity boiled boiled over. over. On On several several occasions occasions he he elbowed elbowed his his advocate advocate aside aside and and launched launched himself himself at at the the soldiers. soldiers. On On 4 4 April April 1908, 1908, Slade Slade recorded recorded in in his his diary diary that that “Sir “Sir J. J. said said aa great great deal deal about about submarines—never submarines—never becoming becoming obsolete—n0 obsolete—no enemy’s enemy's ships ships reachreaching ing our our coasts coasts etc—very etc.—very wild wild statements.”86 statements.”® Afterwards Afterwards Slade Slade managed managed war“flotilla waron “flotilla views on his views of his text of entire text the entire have the to have Fisher to persuade Fisher to persuade to fare” expunged.’ expunged.87 The The minutes minutes of of that that meeting meeting show show the the secretariat secretariat subsubfare” sequently deleted deleted the the offending offending paragraphs.® paragraphs.88 Although Although on on this this occasion occasion sequently Fisher acquiesced, acquiesced, at at subsequent subsequent meetings meetings he he again again publicly publicly contradictcontradictFisher submarines.89 of submarines.” importance of the importance stressing the by stressing DN1 by the DNI ed the ed definnarrow definemploying narrow and employing arguments and historical arguments his historical to his sticking to By sticking By itions of of sea sea power power Slade Slade may may have have managed managed to to score score aa series series of of debatdebatitions ing points points at at the the CID.” CID.90 But But in in his his final final report report Asquith Asquith failed failed to to reendorse reendorse ing the absolute absolute primacy primacy of of the the navy navy in in national natiOnal defense.” defense.“ “There “There is,” is,” as as the Lord Lord Esher Esher explained explained to to the the king: king: novel condition condition attached attached by by the the committee, committee, which which has has come come prominentprominentaa novel ly forward in consequence of the evidence laid before them ly forward in consequence of the evidence laid before them by by Lord Lord

Roberts, and and itit isis inin order order to to make make sure sure an an expedition expedition fitted fitted out out secretly secretly inin Roberts, German ports, ports, could could not not effect effect aa landing landing by by evading evading the the fleet, fleet, an an Army Army German must be be kept kept in in this this country, country, at at all all times, times. of of such such strength, strength, that that any any hoshosmust

tile tile Force, Force, in in order order to to have have aa chance chance of of success, success, must must come come 70,000 70,000 strong. strong.

This This condition, condition, Esher Esher felt, felt, “very “very materially materially strengthens strengthens the the hands hands of of the the Secretary Secretary of of State State for for War War against against those those who who have have been been anxious anxious to to reduce reduce the the Army. Army.”””92 This This of of course course did did not not please please Fisher, Fisher, or or do do much much for for Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Slade’s Slade’s career career prospects. prospects. Anything Anything that that strengthened strengthened the the army’s army's hand hand weakened weakened the the navy’s navy’s claim claim upon upon limited limited defense defense resources. resources. An An officer officer who who proved proved successful successful as as DNI DNI could could have have expected expected to to remain remain in in the the post post for for at at least least three three years: years: Slade’s Slade’s term term lasted lasted just just one one year year and and four four months. months. At At the the end end of of 1908 1908 he he was was “kicked “kicked upstairs” upstairs” with with the the rank rank of of rear rear admiral admiral and and shipped shipped off off to to the the East East Indies Indies because, because, as as Capt. Capt. Herbert Herbert King-Hall King-Hall explained explained to to his his brother, brother, George, George, aa rear rear admiral, admiral, “the “the

Admiralty Admiralty wished wished to to get get rid rid of of him him as as DNI.”93 DNI.”*

Naval Naval War War Planning Planning against against Germany Germany The The Admiralty Admiralty did did not not begin begin making making formal formal preparations preparations for for war war against against Germany Germany before before the the so-called so-called Moroccan Moroccan crisis crisis during during the the sumsummer mer of of 1905.94 1905." It It began began in in early early 1905 1905 with with an an attempt attempt by by France France to to extend her influence in North extend her influence in North Africa. Africa. Germany Germany took took exception exception to to French French action action in in Morocco Morocco and and a a quarrel quarrel ensued. ensued. The The British, British, who who cared cared little little for for Morocco, Morocco, at at first first paid paid little little attention. attention. As As the the Germans Germans became became more more aggressive aggressive in in pressing pressing their their point point of of View, view, however, however, the the British British moved moved steadily steadily closer closer towards towards declaring declaring open open support support for for France.95 France.® The The increasincreasingly ingly Euro-centric Euro-centric shift shift in in the the orientation orientation of of British British foreign foreign policy policy creatcreated ed a a major major problem problem for for the the Board Board of of Admiralty. Admiralty. Hitherto, Hitherto, the the Royal Royal Navy Navy had had been been organized organized and and equipped equipped as as a a force force for for imperial imperial defense. defense. It It had had been been expected expected that that the the next next war war would would be be fought fought on on the the world’s world’s oceans oceans protecting protecting British British merchant merchant shipping shipping from from marauding marauding squadrons squadrons of of French French or or Russian Russian armored armored cruisers, cruisers, not not supporting supporting military military operations operations on the the European European continent.” continent.96 An An oceangoing oceangoing fleet fleet designed designed to to achieve achieve on control of of the the trade trade routes routes could could not not be be easily easily adapted adapted to to fight fight coastal coastal control operations. There There was was another another consideration. consideration. How, How, during during aa period period of of operations. financial financial limitation, limitation, could could the the Royal Royal Navy Navy afford afford to to build build warships warships suitsuitable able for for offensive offensive operations operations in in the the North North Sea Sea and and still still maintain maintain aa fleet fleet capable capable of of meeting meeting its its imperial imperial commitments? commitments? The foundation foundation of of the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s first first plan plan for for war war against against Germany Germany The was was built built upon upon the the Royal Royal Navy’s Navy's ability ability to to interdict interdict all all oceanic oceanic trade trade passing passing through through the the North North Sea Sea and and the the English English Channel. Channel. In In June June 1905, 1905, Charles Charles Ottley, Ottley, then then DNI, DNI, noted noted that that “the “the British British Isles, Isles, lying lying like like aa breakbreakwater water six six hundred hundred miles miles long, long, athwart athwart the the path path of of German German trade trade with with the the west” west” gave gave the the Royal Royal Navy Navy aa stranglehold stranglehold over over German German trade; trade; an an effeceffective tive “blockade “blockade of of the the German German ports ports would would today today sever sever an an artery, artery, essenessential, tial, it it seems seems to to me, me, to to the the financial financial existence existence of of Germany.”97 Germany.”®” In In April April 1906, 1906, Fisher Fisher referred referred to to the the commercial commercial blockade blockade as as being being “our “our great great anti-German anti-German weapon.”98 weapon.” Two Two years years later, later, Ottley Ottley reminded reminded the the first first lord lord that that “throughout “throughout the the whole whole time time II was was DNI DNI the the Admiralty Admiralty claimed claimed that that the the Lambegmcg gsrsairghicalosition of this country and her preponderant geographical position of this country and her preponderant seapower seapower hn Fisher's NRal Revolut E-book, Columbia. U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|. handle. net/2027/heb.31569. Downloaded on behalf of Digital Theological Library, Claremont, CA

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Germany strangling Germany of strangling means of simple means and simple certain and us aa certain give us to give combined combined to would trade would oceanic trade German oceanic of German destruction of the destruction that the idea that The idea sea.”99 The at sea.”® at be acknowledged by by be sufficient sufficient to to compel compel Germany Germany to to sue sue for for peace peace was was acknowledged one one officer officer sewing serving in in the the NID NID in in 1907, 1907, “to “to represent represent the the View view of of a a conconsiderable section section of of those those well well qualified qualified to to judge.”'” iudge.”‘°° Papers Papers in in the the siderable Admiralty archives archives confirm confirm that between 1906 1906 and and 1909 the trade trade diviAdmiralty that between 1909 the division of of the the NID NID made made aa detailed detailed appraisal appraisal of of the the impact impact aa blockade blockade would would sion have upon upon the the German German economy." economy.‘°‘ The The secret secret instructions instructions given given to to the the have British naval naval delegation delegation (led (led by by the the ubiquitous ubiquitous Charles Charles Ottley) Ottley) attending attending British the 1907 1907 Hague Hague Peace Peace Conference, Conference, further further indicate indicate that that the the Admiralty Admiralty the was intent intent on on waging waging economic economic warfare warfare against against Germany.'” Germany.102 was While While the the Admiralty Admiralty planners planners agreed agreed that that aa commercial commercial blockade blockade would would form form the the main main thrust thrust of of the the navy’s navy’s war war effort, effort, this this consensus consensus did did not not extend extend to to operational operational policy policy inside inside the the North North Sea. Sea. Setting Setting up up cordons cordons to interdict interdict German German oceanic oceanic trade trade would would consume consume only only aa fraction fraction of of the the to navy’s navy’s resources resources and and provided provided no no role role for for the the armored armored squadrons. squadrons. There There seemed seemed little little glory glory to to be be won won in in performing performing such such operations. operations. More More optioptimistic mistic officers officers hoped hoped that that sooner sooner or or later later the the High High Sea Sea Fleet Fleet would would put put to the to sea sea in in an an attempt attempt to to break break up up the the lines lines of of blockade, blockade, thus thus offering offering the British British battle battle fleet fleet an an opportunity opportunity to to win win aa second second Trafalgar, Trafalgar, but but Fisher Fisher was was not not so so sure sure the the Germans Germans would would be be so so foolish. foolish. Indeed, Indeed, he he expressed expressed reservations reservations at at the the wisdom wisdom of of the the British British fleet fleet actively actively seeking seeking battle. battle. The The first first sea sea lord lord did did not not object object to to the the idea idea of of bringing bringing the the enemy enemy to to action action under under favorable favorable circumstances. circumstances. He He simply simply believed believed that that deploying deploying armored armored warships warships in in the the North North Sea Sea was was always always going going to to involve involve a a high high degree degree of of risk. risk. He He consistently consistently maintained maintained that that to to avoid avoid aa surprise surprise tortorpedo pedo attack, attack, “our “our armored armored units units are are not not wanted wanted there there at at the the first first outoutbreak break of of war.”‘03 war.”'@ Fisher Fisher was was even even more more secretive secretive about about what what he he planned planned to to do do in in the the second second phase phase of of the the war—once war—once the the fleet fleet was was fully fully mobilized. mobilized. It It is is possible possible that that he he had had not not yet yet finally finally made made up up his his own own mind. mind. A A number number of of senior senior officers officers thought thought that that such such aa policy policy of of “wait “wait and and see” see” would would be be the the wisest wisest course. course. Admiral Admiral of of the the Fleet Fleet Sir Sir Arthur Arthur Wilson, Wilson. the the man man designated designated to to command command the the war war fleet fleet in in any any major major conflict, conflict, believed believed that that “the “the action action to to be be taken taken would would depend depend so so entirely entirely on on extremely extremely complicated complicated and and uncertain uncertain political politica) conditions conditions that that it it would would be be extremely extremely difficult difficult to to frame frame any any plan plan of of operations operations beforehand.”‘04 beforehand.”'™ This This was was also also Ottley’s Ottley’s view. view. He He thought thought that that “to “to lay lay down down a a hard hard and and fast fast plan plan of of sea sea operations operations against against an an enemy enemy the the disposition disposition of of whose whose forces forces cancannot be be accurately accurately foreseen, foreseen, and and without without information information as as to to the the political political not circumstances circumstances under under which which hostilities hostilities might might be be expected, expected, is is futile.”‘05 futile.”'® Another Another secret secret report report written written by by Ottley Ottley in in January January 1907, 1907, indicates indicates he he was was sympathetic sympathetic to to Fisher’s Fisher’s idea idea of of employing employing only only flotilla flotilla craft craft in in the the Lambert, Nicola Ni 0 Fislg’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columb‘North (“Eight Sea. flflna Press, 2002, httpszllhd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569. 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[E]ven [E]ven today, today, in in her her numerous numerous flotilla flotilla of of fast fast craft craft (scouts, (scouts, destroyers destroyers and and torpedo-boats) torpedo-boats) this this country country already already possesses possesses the the nucleus nucleus of of aa mosquito mosquito fleet, fleet, which, which, while while it it admittedly admittedly does does not not possess possess the the wide wide radius radius of of action action of of our our present present unarmoured unarmoured cruisers, cruisers, will will at at all all events events be be able able to to press press

home home its its investigations investigations off off enemy’s enemy's ports ports fronting fronting upon upon the the Narrow Narrow Seas Seas and and German German Ocean, Ocean, [North {North Sea] Sea] with with aa well well grounded grounded confidence confidence that, that, if if chased, chased, it it may may show show aa clean clean pair pair of of heels heels to to an an enemy enemy in in superior superior force.‘06 force.’

Whether Whether or or not not political political Opinion opinion would would have have allowed allowed Fisher Fisher to to rely rely upon upon “steady “steady pressure” pressure” exerted exerted by by the the commercial commercial blockade blockade and and flotilla flotilla defense defense to to deny deny the the North North Sea Sea to to the the enemy’s enemy's large large ships ships is is another another question. question. After After the the war war scare scare in in January January 1906, 1906, the the Board Board of of Admiralty Admiralty had had good good reasons reasons to to believe believe that that in in aa war war against against Germany, Germany, Britain Britain would would probably probably be be allied allied to to France, France, and and that that aa commercial commercial blockade blockade “might “might not not be be sufficiently sufficiently aggressive aggressive to to suit suit French French ideas,” ideas,” or, or, for for that that matter, matter, the the ideas ideas of of British British politicians. politicians. Naval Naval leaders leaders recognized recognized there there was was aa strong strong possibility possibility that that the the government government of of the the day day might might ask ask the the British British armed armed forces forces to to make make aa more more active active contribution contribution to to the the joint joint war war effort.107 effort.'”’ This This prospect prospect placed placed Fisher Fisher in in aa dilemma. dilemma. As As we we have have seen, seen, he he had had been been utterly utterly convinced convinced that that operating operating fleets fleets of of large large ships ships in in the the narrow narrow seas seas in in the the face face of of aa torpedo torpedo armed armed flotilla flotilla was was too too dangerous. dangerous. Distant Distant comcommercial mercial blockade, blockade, he he also also believed, believed, was was the the only only way way the the Royal Royal Navy Navy could could hurt hurt Germany Germany without without losing losing too too many many ships. ships. The The need need to to preserve preserve Britain’s Britain’s capability capability to to provide provide imperial imperial security security was was always always in in the the back back of of his his mind. mind. Yet Yet at at the the same same time time the the first first sea sea lord lord realized realized that that unless unless the the navy navy met met the the demand demand for for an an offensive offensive policy policy against against Germany, Germany, the the government government would would probably probably turn turn to to the the army. army. Of Of course course war war with with Germany Germany might might never never come. come. But But that that was was not not the the point. point. The The real real danger, danger, from from Fisher’s Fisher's perspective, perspective, was was that that in in anticipation anticipation of of possible possible conflict conflict the the politicians politicians might might reallocate reallocate defense defense resources resources in in favor favor of of the the War War Office. Office. The The refusal refusal of of successive successive prime prime ministers ministers to to rule rule out out the the possipossibility bility of of sending sending most most of of the the British British army army to to the the continent continent to to fight fight alongside alongside the the French French can can only only have have spurred spurred the the Admiralty Admiralty into into devising devising alternate alternate plans.‘08 plans.'® These These did did not not have have to to be be genuine genuine or or withstand withstand close close scrutiny. scrutiny. All All that that was was required required was was something something on on paper paper to to show show politipoliticians cians to to justify justify the the existing existing levels levels of of naval naval expenditure—and expenditure—and of of course course demonstrate demonstrate that that the the navy navy would would be be capable capable of of meeting meeting the the government’s government's demands demands should should aa more more active active policy policy in in support support of of France France be be wanted. wanted. in In the the winter winter of of 1906, 1906, Fisher Fisher appointed appointed aa small small committee committee under under Capt. Capt. George George Ballard Ballard to to examine examine the the feasibility feasibility of of various various amphibious amphibious schemes schemes that that had had been been submitted submitted to to him.109 him.’*® During During the the first first Moroccan Moroccan cricrisis, sis, for for instance, instance, Admiral Admiral Wilson Wilson had had proposed proposed landing landing British British military military forces in Denmark and Schleswig-Holstein with distracting object ofof distracting the object With the Marxian;lssmatlnlate‘r farms Down'eermafiosemiers‘awycadmium French frontier." frontier.“° Another Another of of his his ideas German soldiers away from the French

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of blockade of close blockade facilitate aa close to facilitate Heligoland to of Heligoland island of the island capture the to capture was to was December in Slade by forward put plan, Another coast. Sea North the the North Sea coast. Another plan, put forward by Slade in December mobile “a mobile of “a use of the use advocated the College, advocated War College, the War at the serving at while serving 1905, while 1905, we transports fastest the in embarked men 15,000 or 10,000 say of army of say 10,000 or 15,000 men embarked in the fastest transports we army the later, years several Ottley by written letter a to According get.”"' can get.”"' According to a letter written by Ottley several years later, the can the against the operations against combined operations any combined that any reported that committee reported Ballard committee Ballard impracticable.”“2 “utterly were Heligoland of Island the or coast German coast or the Island of Heligoland were “utterly impracticable.”'” German othallowing othfrom allowing Fisher from stop Fisher not stop did not however, did appraisal, however, negative appraisal, This negative This believed Slade, notably officers, Some schemes.“3 similar schemes." Some officers, notably Slade, believed consider similar to consider ers to ers Other exceptions. Other were exceptions. they were But they practicable. But were practicable. operations were such operations that such that desperof “councils as plans these regarded Whitehall in serving officers serving in Whitehall regarded these plans as “councils of desperofficers feasible.”“4 are feasible.”'" others are no others because no solely because “entertained solely were “entertained that were ation” that ation” the mind the in keep to remember to asked are readers are asked to remember to keep in mind proceeding, readers Before proceeding, Before war. for plans actual and studies feasibility studies and actual plans for war. between feasibility distinction between distinction the from the drawn from officers drawn dozen officers some dozen 1907, some of 1907, half of first half the first During the During MD and and the the War War College College were were instructed instructed to to explore explore the the strategic strategic options options NID of idleness of enforced idleness or enforced destruction or “the destruction case “the in case Navy in Royal Navy the Royal to the open to open to sufficient considered itself considered sufficient to in itself not in flag isis not German flag the German under the shipping under shipping bring Germany Germany to to terms.”' terms.”“'5 This This group group was was quite quite Separate separate from from the the bring Ballard Committee.''® Committee.“6 The The Whitehall Whitehall Committee, Committee, as as itit was was referred referred to, to, Ballard June in June together in bound together were bound which were of which some of papers some of papers number of wrote aa number wrote for schemes for outlined schemes document outlined This document Plans." This “War Plans.” of “War title of the title under the 1907 under 1907 blockade close a facilitate to islands Sea North various of capture the the capture of various North Sea islands to facilitate a close blockade very outwardly very Although outwardly bases.n7 Although naval bases.'"’ German naval of German bombardment of the bombardment and the and impressive (one copy ran to almost eight hundred pages of print) the impressive (one copy ran to almost eight hundred pages of print) the been therefore, since, have and impracticable, manifestly were schemes schemes were manifestly impracticable, and have since, therefore, been held up up as as the the prime prime example example of of inadequate inadequate strategic strategic planning planning by by the the held but plans war real not were these Actually 1914.“8 before Admiralty Admiralty before 1914.''® Actually these were not real war plans but strategic studies.'’® studies.“9 In In the the preface preface to to the the proof proof copy copy isis aa disclaimer disclaimer which which Strategic reads—“the opinions and plans herein (to which others will be reads—'the opinions and plans herein (to which others will be added added from from time time to to time) time) are are not not in in any any way way to to be be considered considered as as those those definitely definitely adopted, adopted, but but are are valuable valuable and and instructive instructive of of the the variety variety of of considerations considerations governing governing the the formulation formulation of of war war schemes.”‘20 schemes.”'”° The real real function function of of the the 1907 1907 war war plans plans was was twofold. twofold. Firstly Firstly they they The served to to show show government government ministers ministers that that the the navy navy could could offer offer an an offenoffenserved sive Adm. Sive strategy strategy against against Germany. Germany. Secondly, Secondly, they they rebutted rebutted claims claims by by Adm. Lord Lord Charles Charles Beresford Beresford and and other other members members of of the the syndicate syndicate of of discondiscontent that that the the Admiralty Admiralty had had no no ideas ideas on on how how to to fight fight aa war war against against tent Germany.‘21 There There isis aa substantial substantial amount amount of of evidence evidence to to indicate indicate that that Germany.'”' the the 1907 1907 war war plans plans were were intended intended to to serve serve as as no no more more than than a a smoke smoke screen. screen. One One copy copy has has attached attached to to the the front front a a highly highly suggestive suggestive memomemorandum written, by Fisher which states in the first paragraph that “the randum written by Fisher which states in the first paragraph that “the Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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of evidence of sufficient evidence are sufficient manuscript are and manuscript 780 print and of print herewith of pages herewith 780 pages four last four the last during the planning during the war planning to war given to study given and study thought and close thought the close influential to influential widely to circulated widely years.” '” Portions were circulated document were the document of the Portions of years.”‘22 Cabinet Cabinet ministers ministers including including avowed avowed pacifists!'** pacifists!123 Several Several years years after after the the severto severconfided to Fisher confided moreover, Fisher purpose, moreover, war their purpose, served their had served plans had war plans consumption the consumption for the solely for produced solely been produced had been al they had that they friends that his friends of his al of “not later, “not years later, some years recalled some he recalled Wilson, he of Arthur Wilson, Sir Arthur critics.‘24 Sir his critics.'** of his conthe conon the anything. I,I, on Cabinet anything. the Cabinet tell the being wouldn’t tell Machiavelli, wouldn't being aa Machiavelli, trary, told told them them so so much much that that they they thought thought me me perfect. perfect. II gave gave them them 600 600 trary, pages of of print print of of war war plans!”125 plans!”'” The The exclamation exclamation mark mark was was Fisher’s. Fisher's. pages In In 1908, 1908, Fisher Fisher authorized authorized aa third third investigation investigation into into the the practicabilpracticabilcapture to capture plan, to The plan, Germany. The against Germany. warfare against ity amphibious warfare waging amphibious of waging ity of brainchild the brainchild was the Sea, was Baltic Sea, the Baltic to the entrance to the the entrance controlling the islands controlling the islands of DNI DNI Edmund Edmund Slade, Slade, who, who, itit will will be be recalled, recalled, was was aa consistent consistent advocate advocate of of combined combined operations.’ operations.126 He He believed believed that that aa mobile mobile amphibious amphibious force force of “would “would paralyse paralyse all all German German initiative initiative and and would would tie tie up up aa large large portion portion of. of their their forces forces to to the the sea sea coast.”127 coast.”'?? On On 11 February, February, Slade Slade was was authorized authorized to to develop develop his his plan plan in in conjunction conjunction with with officers officers at at the the Naval Naval War War College. College. On On this this occasion, occasion, the the DNI DNI went went so so far far as as to to hold hold talks talks with with his his opposite opposite number number in in the the War War Office, Office, and and over over next next few few months months much much interdepartinterdepartmental correspondence correspondence was was accumulated.’ accumulated.128 The The contents contents of of these these mental papers did did not, not, however, however, signify signify the the determination determination of of the the Admiralty Admiralty to to papers outthe outFrom the interpreted.‘29 From so interpreted.'?? be so thus be not thus adopt should not and should strategy and the strategy Mom the proBaltic prothe Baltic of the skeptical of set was skeptical Slade) was (except Slade) involved (except everyone involved set everyone ject." ject.130 On On 20 20 May May 1908, 1908, the the DNI DNI moaned moaned in in his his diary diary that that the the first first sea sea lord lord could could never never find find time time to to discuss discuss the the plan. plan. He He also also noted noted “I“I don't don’t de Osmond de Capt. Osmond summer Capt. that summer Later that all.”““ Later at all.”'*' think ideas at my ideas likes my he likes think he Brock Brock (deputy (deputy director director of of Naval Naval Intelligence) Intelligence) confessed confessed to to aa staff staff officer officer War Naval War the Naval regarded the in colleagues regarded his colleagues and his he and that he Office that War Office the War in the of president of the president was the Nor was verbiage.”132 Nor of verbiage.”'*? College's mass of “a mass as “a plan as Baltic plan College’s Baltic recogHe recogillusions. He any illusions. under any the Bayly, under Lewis Bayly, Adm. Lewis Rear Adm. College, Rear War College, the War political his political serve his to serve paper to on paper nized plan on the plan wanted the only wanted Fisher only that Fisher nized that “were memoirs, “were his memoirs, in his noted in dryly noted Bayly dryly purposes. plans,” Bayly war plans,” “These war purposes. “These Ottley Captain Ottley afterwards, Captain years afterwards, Some years duly him.”"~*3 Some by him.”'* drawer by into aa drawer put into duly put to Esher to Lord Esher to Lord letter to in aa letter made project in the project to the reference to oblique reference an oblique made an period the period during the Admiralty during illustrate the Admiralty in the planning in war planning of war state of the state illustrate the the regarding the abroad regarding time abroad the time at the were at notions were 1907-9. “Preposterous notions 1907—9. “Preposterous the that the suggested that solemnly suggested People solemnly College! People functions War College! Naval War the Naval of the functions of the though the As though plans! As war plans! prepare war to prepare was to educational establishment was educational establishment secrets secrets of of the the first first sea sea lord lord were were to to be be discussed discussed in in lecture lecture room room debates debates of of aa score score of of perfectly perfectly irresponsible irresponsible half half pay pay commanders commanders and and capcaptains!"'** tains!”'34 Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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combined of combined strategy of to aa strategy committed to truly committed been truly had been Admiralty had the Admiralty IfIf the

project” “Baltic project” grandiose “Baltic Slade’s grandiose then Slade’s Sea, then North Sea, the North in the operations in operations

consubcommittee conCID subcommittee the CID to the revealed to been revealed have been certainly have almost certainly would almost would gaththis gathdescribed this Fisher described memoirs Fisher his memoirs In his 1908.”5 In December 1908.'* on 33 December vened on vened war of war event of the event in the strategy in British strategy discuss British to discuss meeting to plenary meeting as aa plenary ering as ering contitheir contiexplained their Staff explained General Staff the General occasion the this occasion On this Germany. On with Germany. with be to be seemed to This seemed time. This first time. the first for the government for the government to the strategy to nental strategy nental amphibious of amphibious plan of its plan with its respond with to respond Admiralty to the Admiralty for the moment for the moment the lord sea lord first sea the first meeting, the the meeting, before the Just before not. Just did not. they did But they attack. But attack. the Instead the plan.136 Instead Baltic plan.'** his Baltic about his word about one word say one to say not to Slade not ordered Slade ordered blockade economic blockade an economic for an plan for detailed plan CID aa detailed the CID to the submitted to Admiralty submitted Admiralty subsequent at aa subsequent When at approved.137 When immediately approved.'®? was immediately which was Germany which of Germany of by Admiralty by the Admiralty embarrass the to embarrass tried to Office tried War Office the War CID the the CID of the meeting of meeting himself distanced himself immediately distanced Fisher immediately plan, Fisher Slade’s plan, of Slade’s gist of the gist leaking the leaking had Admiralty had the Admiralty that the replied that categorically replied He categorically scheme. He whole scheme. the whole from the from an that an success that naval success British naval to British essential to be essential not be would not “it would concluded “it concluded this followed this He followed Baltic.”138 He the Baltic.”'*® to the access to regain access to regain made to be made should be effort should effort Alexander Adm. Alexander Rear Adm. DNI, Rear new DNI, the new by the composed by memorandum composed with memorandum up with up Only plan.139 Only Baltic plan.’® entire Baltic the entire repudiated the less repudiated or less more or which more Bethell, which Bethell, plans his plans that his him that on him dawn on finally dawn did itit finally Whitehall did left Whitehall had left Slade had after Slade after academic.”I40 “purely academic.”'*° been “purely always been had always had Question Submarine Question The Submarine The

practicathe practicaof the convinced of certainly convinced was certainly Fisher was 1908, Fisher of 1908, end of the end By the By of end of the end At the Sea. At North Sea. the North in the strategy in defense strategy flotilla defense the flotilla using the of using bility of bility her commenced her finally commenced DI finally HMS D1 submarine HMS ton) submarine (600 ton) big (600 the big year the that year that itself maintaining itself “of maintaining capable “of be capable to be promised to craft promised This craft trials. This builders’ trials. builders’ implications the implications to the attention to draw attention To draw periods.” To long periods.” for long unaided, for sea, unaided, at sea, at most his most of his one of perhaps one drafted perhaps Fisher drafted 1908 Fisher of 1908 end of the end at the fact, at this fact, of this of Submarine “The Submarine Entitled “The warfare. Entitled naval warfare. on naval documents on prescient documents prescient the occurred inin the had occurred “revolution” had that aa “revolution” notice that served notice Question,” itit served Question,” any with any particularly with power, particularly any power, “with any war “with naval war of naval conductn of of conducting method of method and Sea and North Sea the North of the waters of narrow waters the narrow of the account of on account power, on European power, European ships large ships to large denied to being denied Mediterranean, being and Mediterranean, Channel and English Channel Baltic, English Baltic,

made had made Fisher had Although Fisher out.”““ Although cleared out.” submarine isis cleared the submarine until the war until of war of only Not only assertive. Not more assertive. was more he was occasion he this occasion on this before, on prophecy before, this prophecy this subma“oversea” submaprototype “oversea” its prototype tested its successfully tested Navy successfully Royal Navy the Royal had the had

conspend conto spend beginning to now beginning was now also was Germany also ominously Germany more ominously but more rine, but rine, siderable sums sums on on aa submarine submarine development development program. program. siderable of type of this type of this capability of the capability realize the fully realize Germans fully the Germans when the inevitable when ItIt isis inevitable having small of having account of on account yet, on so yet, do so not do do not probably do submarine—they probably submarine—they Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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experience experience with with them them at at sea sea (they (they have have but but 33 to to our our 60)—the 60)—the North North Sea Sea and all its ports will be rendered uninhabitable by our big ships—until and all its ports will be rendered uninhabitable by our big ships—until we we have have cleaned cleaned out out their their submarines.I42 submarines.'”

“The “The first first practical practical necessity necessity that that arises arises from from a a consideration consideration of of the the above above facts,” facts,” Fisher Fisher concluded, concluded, was was that that “this “this country country must must produce produce more more than than the the six six a a year year which which our our present present vote vote provides.”143 provides.”'* In In addition, addition, the the navy navy must must resume resume its its efforts efforts to to combat combat the the submarine. submarine. Both Both these these suggestions suggestions were were swiftly swiftly acted acted upon. upon. In In the the spring spring of of 1909 1909 the the Admiralty Admiralty secretly secretly established established an an “anti-submarine” “anti-submarine” committee.”“ committee.'** Later Later that that sumsummer mer Fisher Fisher “told “told the the first first lord lord we we must must have have one one million million next next year year for for submarines”—-more submarines’—more than than double double the the existing existing submarine submarine construction construction budget.‘45 budget.'* At At the the same same time, time, the the committee committee engaged engaged in in estimating estimating the the navy’s navy's personnel personnel requirement requirement for for the the next next five five years, years, under under Vice Vice Adm. Adm. Francis Francis Bridgeman, Bridgeman, was was warned warned that that a a large large expansion expansion in in the the submarine submarine fleet fleet was was impending. impending. Sadly Sadly the the original original figures figures given given to to the the manning manning committee committee have have not not survived. survived. Although Although in in an an interim interim report, report, Bridgeman Bridgeman noted noted that that according according to to his his calculations, calculations, based based upon upon the the figures figures given given him, him, the the Admiralty Admiralty was was planning planning to to build build over over this this five five year year period period almost almost one one hundred hundred additional additional submarines.H6 submarines.'* In April April 1909, 1909, Fisher Fisher circulated circulated aa second second draft draft of of “The “The Submarine Submarine In Question” to to selected selected officers officers within within the the Admiralty.'*’ Admiralty.”7 Alas Alas only only the the comcomQuestion” ments ments from from Rear Rear Adm. Adm. John John Jellicoe, Jellicoe, then then serving serving as as controller controller of of the the navy, navy, have have survived. survived. Jellicoe’s Jellicoe’s reply reply was: was: “I “I entirely entirely agree agree in in the the concluconclusions sions that that we we must must spend spend more more money money on on submarines submarines and and that that we we must must devise devise something something in in the the shape shape of of a a submarine submarine destroyer.” destroyer.” But, But, he he went went on on to to suggest, suggest, Germany Germany could could not not possibly possibly build build enough enough submarines submarines to to saturate saturate the the North North Sea Sea for for another another eight eight or or ten ten years.‘48 years.'** Even Even then: then: it it seems seems to to be be going going rather rather too too far far to to say say that that the the German German submarine submarine development development must must render render the the North North Sea Sea and and all all its its ports ports uninhabitable uninhabitable by by big big ships ships and and that that this this fact fact inevitably inevitably points points to to big big ship ship battles battles being being fought fought in in more more open open waters. waters. My My reasoning reasoning is is as as follows:—ln follows:—In the the early early stages Stages of of aa war war with with Germany Germany it it will will no no doubt doubt be be the the case, case, when when the the German German submarines submarines become become very very numerous. numerous. At At this this stage stage it it would would seem seem that that the the command command of of the the narrow narrow waters waters will will be be fought fought for for by by small small craft craft and and submarines, the the big big ships ships kept kept in in safety. safety. But But aa time time will will come come when when the the subsubsubmarines, marines marines will will have have been been so so reduced reduced in in numbers numbers by by this this fighting fighting that that present present Conditions will will be be reproduced, reproduced, the the big big ships ships will will get get into into the the North North Sea Sea and and conditions the decisive decisive action action may may well well be be fought fought in in those those waters waters .. .. .. therefore therefore the the time time the to Sea to North Sea the North into the forced into be forced will be Fleet will Battle Fleet own Battle our own when our come when must come must endeavor to to bring bring the the German German fleet fleet to to action.'** action.‘49 endeavor Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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senlast senthis last alongside this margin alongside the margin in the scrawled in Fisher scrawled agree” Fisher don’t agree” “|“1 don’t Question” Submarine Question” “The Submarine of “The discussion of further discussion Unfortunately further tence.150 Unfortunately tence.'© was suspended suspended for for six six months. months. The The file file did did not not reach reach the the desk desk of of the the first first was lord of of the the Admiralty Admiralty until until the the end end of of September September 1909.'*' 1909”” During During the the lord adminhis adminof his criticisms of off criticisms fending off in fending occupied in fully occupied was fully Fisher was interim Fisher interim istration istration and and strategic strategic policy policy before before aa Cabinet Cabinet select select committee committee chaired chaired Asquith. H. Asquith. H. H. minister H. prime minister by prime by Charlie BB Charlie

On 24 24 March March 1909, 1909, Adm. Adm. Lord Lord Charles Charles Beresford Beresford hauled hauled down down his his flag flag On as commander commander in in chief, chief, Channel Channel Fleet. Fleet. Ordinarily Ordinarily he he could could have have expected expected as to remain remain in in this this post post for for another another year. year. But But the the Board Board of of Admiralty Admiralty could could to no no longer longer tolerate tolerate his his constant constant sniping sniping at at official official policy policy and and gross gross insubinsubordination. ordination. Beresford Beresford not not surprisingly surprisingly was was most most indignant indignant at at having having been been effectively sacked. sacked. The The order order to to “come “come ashore” ashore” represented represented an an ignominignomineffectively ious ious end end to to his his distinguished distinguished albeit albeit checkered checkered career, career, and and also also the the death death of his his life-long life-long ambition ambition to to become become first first sea sea lord. lord. Within Within aa week week Beresford Beresford of took took his his revenge. revenge. On On 22 April, April, he he wrote wrote to to the the prime prime minister minister accusing accusing the the Board Board of of Admiralty Admiralty of of failing failing to to ensure ensure the the construction construction of of sufficient sufficient small small craft, craft, strategic strategic incompetence incompetence in in the the distribution distribution of of the the fleet, fleet, and and not not proproviding viding the the fleet fleet with with properly properly formulated formulated strategic strategic plans plans for for war. war. He He also also intimated intimated to to Asquith Asquith that that if if his his government government failed failed to to take take appropriate appropriate action action the the letter letter would would be be published.‘52 published.’ At At first, first, Sir Sir John John Fisher Fisher thought thought he he had had little little reason reason to to be be concerned. concerned. Although Although “Charlie “Charlie B” B” had had a a large large folfollowing lowing in in the the country country and and many many influential influential society society friends,‘53 friends,'® the the first first sea sea lord lord believed believed that that it it was was not not in in the the government’s government's interest interest to to investigate investigate the the charges. charges. The The Cabinet Cabinet was was largely largely responsible responsible for for any any shortage shortage of of modern modern warships, warships, and and the the prime prime minister minister himself himself had had endorsed endorsed the the decision decision to to

sack sack Beresford Beresford after after having having been been convinced convinced of of his his incompetence.154 incompetence.'™ Also, Also, it it was was widely widely known known that that there there was was personal personal animosity animosity between between the the two two admirals. admirals. Most Most of of London London society, society, indeed, indeed, knew knew that that the the first first sea sea lord lord and and the the commander commander in in chief chief had had for for several several months months not not been been on on speaking speaking terms.‘55 terms.'* Beresford’s Beresford’s accusations, accusations, therefore. therefore, could could easily easily have have been been disdismissed missed as as the the ravings ravings of of an an embittered embittered and and jealous jealous man. man. It It thus thus came came as as aa considerable considerable shock shock when when Fisher Fisher learned, learned, ten ten days days later, later, that that Asquith Asquith had had resolved resolved to to chair chair aa subcommittee subcommittee of of the the CD CID to to investigate investigate Beresford’s Beresford’s complaints.156 complaints.'° More More ominously ominously the the prime prime minisminister ter had had deliberately deliberately excluded excluded from from his his committee committee those those regular regular members members of of the the CID CID known known to to think think highly highly of of the the first first sea sea lord, lord, men men such such as as Lords Lords Esher, Esher, Crewe Crewe and and Morley. Morley. Considering Considering that that Asquith Asquith could could have have safely safely ignored ignored Beresford’s Beresford’s complaints, complaints, his his decision decision to to hold hold an an inquiry inquiry was was probprob-

ably ably motivated motivated more more by by political political considerations considerations than than aa desire desire to to investiinvesti-

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gate gate the the rift rift within within the the navy. navy. At At that that particular particular moment moment the the prime prime minisminister ter was was furious furious with with the the Admiralty Admiralty for for having having repeatedly repeatedly defied defied Cabinet Cabinet instructions instructions to to request request money money for for just just four four dreadnoughts dreadnoughts under under the the 1909—10 1909-10 program)?” program.'’ Asquith, Asquith, it it will will be be recalled, recalled, believed believed that that the the Cabinet Cabinet should should always always have have the the dominant dominant voice voice in in fixing fixing the the size size of of the the construction construction budget budget and and as as chancellor chancellor of of the the Exchequer Exchequer had had fought fought to to curtail curtail the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s influence.158 influence.'* In In early early 1909, 1909, however, however, Fisher, Fisher, supsupported ported by by the the new new first first lord, lord, Reginald Reginald McKenna, McKenna, had had refused refused to to withdraw withdraw the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s request request for for the the construction construction of of six six capital capital ships ships that that year year plus plus six six more more the the following following year year on on the the grounds grounds that that naval-industrial naval-industrial intelligence intelligence indicated indicated an an expansion expansion in in German German warship-building warship-building capacicapacity. ty. Ultimately, Ultimately, the the British British government government had had been been compelled compelled to to fund fund no no fewer fewer than than eight eight units units in in 1909—10, 1909-10, despite despite receiving receiving money money from from Australia Australia and and New New Zealand Zealand to to pay pay for for two two additional additional battle battle cruisers.159 cruisers.'°° More More seriously seriously for for Asquith, Asquith, McKenna McKenna and and Fisher’s Fisher’s intransigence intransigence had had produced produced in in the the public public mind mind aa major major “navy “navy scare,” scare,” and and their their blunt blunt refusal refusal to to compromise compromise had had in in March March nearly nearly split split the the Cabinet.‘60 Cabinet.'© In In addition, addition, the the bill bill for for the the additional additional capital capital ships ships had had threatened threatened to to upset upset the the Cabinet’s Cabinet’s electoral promise promise to to introduce introduce aa system system of of old old age age pensions. pensions. In In order order to to electoral finance finance the the unexpected unexpected increase increase in in naval naval expenditure expenditure and and retain retain their their program program of of social social reform, reform, the the Cabinet Cabinet had had been been consequently consequently forced forced into into taking aa political political gamble gamble by by endorsing endorsing David David Lloyd Lloyd George’s George’s “radical” “radical” taking budget. budget. Asquith Asquith thus thus had had ample ample reason reason in in May May 1909 1909 to to seek seek a a change change of of leadership leadership at at Whitehall Whitehall and and to to try try exerting exerting tighter tighter control control over over the the Admiralty. Admiralty. Yet Yet he he was was also also aware aware that that public public opinion opinion would would not not allow allow him to to dismiss dismiss Fisher Fisher or or McKenna McKenna without without cause. cause. He He first first needed needed aa lever. lever. him The The ensuing ensuing investigation, investigation, which which amounted amounted to to the the Liberal Liberal Cabinet’s Cabinet's 1914, before 1914, policy before naval policy of naval details of the details learn the to learn effort to determined effort most determined most Though Whitehall. Though at Whitehall. mismanagement at of mismanagement evidence of any evidence uncover any to uncover failed to failed adminthe admindisrupted the search disrupted committee’s search The committee’s effort. The of effort. want of not through want not through upset quite upset has quite enquiry has “The enquiry year. “The half aa year. for half Admiralty for the Admiralty of the istration of istration [is] “everyone [is] May, “everyone on 99 May, May on Admiral May to Admiral wrote to Fisher wrote Admiralty,” Fisher the Admiralty,” the the In the superiors.”‘6' In their superiors.”'* against their give against to give evidence to up evidence getting up employed getting employed say to say much to too much scarcely too “it isis scarcely that “it observed that Ottley observed Captain Ottley aftermath aftermath Captain prowas proEnquiry was Beresford Enquiry the Beresford which the during which months during six months that the six for the that for concentrated was concentrated Admiralty was the Admiralty of the machinery of thinking machinery entire thinking ceeding the entire ceeding the The shelved."‘62 The necessarily shelved.”'? was necessarily matter was other matter every other and every on question, and that question, on that the in the captains in senior captains two senior of two suspension of the suspension by the upset compounded by was compounded upset was 1909, of 1909, end of the end By the Beresford. By to Beresford. papers to confidential papers passing confidential NID caught passing MD caught of backlog of large backlog with aa large faced with was faced Admiralty was understaffed Admiralty the already understaffed the already of number of to aa number attention to proper attention give proper not give could not result could as aa result and as work and work

and Question,” and Submarine Question,” “The Submarine Fisher’s “The included Fisher's These included files.163 These important files.'* important Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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shell. piercing shell. armor piercing existing armor all existing of all design of the design in the flaw in major flaw of aa major reports of reports searched committee searched his committee and his Asquith and which Asquith with which thoroughness with the thoroughness Indeed the Indeed less were less they were that they suspicion that the suspicion to the color to lends color records lends Admiralty records the Admiralty the in than in complaints than specific complaints quite specific Beresford’s quite to Beresford’s listening to in listening interested in interested administration. naval administration. the naval of the workings of true workings the true about the more about out more finding out finding between feud between extraordinary feud the extraordinary interpreted the have interpreted historians have Most historians Most Others clash.164 Others personality clash.'* than aa personality more than little more as little B” as “Charlie B” and “Charlie Fisher and Fisher numof aa numcriticism of public criticism Beresford’s public to Beresford’s bickering to their bickering attributed their have attributed have redistribution fleet redistribution the fleet with the particularly with “more particularly reforms, “more Fisher’s reforms, of Fisher’s ber of ber adenot adedo not however, do explanations, however, simplistic explanations, These simplistic 1906.‘65 These of 1906.'© scheme” of scheme” “personal” their “personal” why their or why dispute or the dispute of the origins of the origins either the explain either quately explain quately corps. ItIt isis officer corps. navy’s officer the navy's of the most of divided most so divided and so embroiled and quarrel embroiled quarrel natBeresford’s natto Beresford’s feud to the feud of the intensity of the intensity attribute the to attribute sufficient to hardly sufficient hardly on egged on was egged he was that he suggest that to suggest or to temperament,” or Irish temperament,” “bellicose Irish urally “bellicose urally posiin aa posibest in those best of those One of discontent.‘66 One of discontent.'® syndicate of the syndicate of the members of by members by first the first to the assistant to as assistant serving as After serving Bacon. After Reginald Bacon. was Reginald judge was to judge tion to tion years, two years, for two fleet for Beresford’s fleet in Beresford’s captain in as aa captain then as 1905, then in 1905, lord in sea lord sea In Ordnance. In Naval Ordnance. of Naval director of as director 1908 as in 1908 Whitehall in to Whitehall returned to Bacon returned Bacon the started the Beresford started that Beresford suggested that Bacon suggested Fisher, Bacon Lord Fisher, of Lord biography of his biography his feud after after Fisher Fisher was was promoted promoted to to the the rank rank of of admiral admiral of of the the fleet, fleet, thus thus feud retirement normal retirement the normal beyond the navy beyond the navy of the head of as head remain as to remain him to allowing him allowing years five years only five was only who was claimed, who he claimed, Beresford, he sixty-five.‘67 Beresford, of sixty-five.'*’ age of age younger younger and and very very ambitious, ambitious, subsequently subsequently realized realized that that he he had had to to depose depose Fisher ifif he he was was ever ever to to succeed succeed him. him. “In “In fairness fairness to to Lord Lord Charles,” Charles,” he he Fisher nevertheless conceded, conceded, “it “it must must be be stated stated that that both both he he and and those those around around nevertheless Why Fisher.” Why than Fisher.” lord than sea lord first sea better first make aa better would make he would considered he him considered him fundamental were fundamental there were that there implied that he implied but he exactly; but say exactly; not say did not Bacon did Bacon of questions of important questions over important admirals over two admirals the two between the disagreements between disagreements naval policy.’ policy.168 Evidence Evidence in in the the Admiralty Admiralty archives archives confirms confirms this this impresimpresnaval SlOIl. sion. examiclose examimerits close and merits unusual and most unusual was most career was naval career Beresford’s naval Beresford’s had peer, had Irish peer,. an Irish of an son of younger son the younger Beresford, the Charles Beresford, Lord Charles nation. Lord nation. may he may while he Yet while service. Yet the service. within the popular within immensely popular been immensely always been always posalways poshad always he had subordinates, he his subordinates, of his loyalty of the loyalty commanded the have commanded have

sessed an an undeniable undeniable talent talent for for antagonizing antagonizing his his superiors superiors which which proprosessed dispute. Fisher-Beresford dispute. the Fisher-Beresford at the looking at for looking context for important context an important vides an vides The records records show show that that during during his his career career as as an an admiral, admiral, the the Board Board of of The Admiralty Admiralty formally formally censured censured him him on on no no fewer fewer than than five five occasions; occasions; once once in 1895, 1895, twice twice in in 1902, 1902, once once in in 1903 1903 and and once once in in 1904.'® 1904.169 Fisher Fisher did did not not in bother.‘70 bother.'” Lord Lord Walter Walter Kerr, Kerr, the the former former senior senior naval naval lord, lord, found found Beresford Beresford to to be be “childish “childish and and unreasonable” unreasonable” as as well well as as hopelessly hopelessly “insubordinate.”‘7' “insubordinate.”'”' He He too too found found him him unresponsive unresponsive to to reason. reason. “Beresford “Beresford Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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is is aa curious curious man,” man,” Kerr Kerr remarked remarked to to Lord Lord Selborne Selborne after after one one such such quarquarrel, rel, “it “it is is aa marked marked ‘trait’ ‘trait’ in in his his composition composition that that when when he he is is completely completely pulverised pulverised by by arguments arguments and and facts, facts, he he always always starts starts again again as as if if nothing nothing has has happened. happened. II have have observed observed this this odd odd feature feature in in him him for for aa long long time time past . . . 3"” past... .”'” Fisher, Fisher, Kerr, Kerr, and and even even their their predecessor, predecessor, Sir Sir Frederick Frederick Richards, Richards, all all tried tried to to force force Beresford Beresford into into retirement. retirement. But But he he always always sursurvived, vived, thanks thanks mainly mainly to to his his numerous numerous social social and and political political connections. connections. Whenever Whenever the the naval naval establishment establishment tried tried to to place place the the querulous querulous admiral admiral on on the the beach beach he he always always managed managed to to get get himself himself elected elected to to Parliament.173 Parliament.'” From From this this platform platform he he would would then then proceed proceed to to harangue harangue the the Board Board with with impunity! impunity! In In 1874, 1874, 1885, 1885, 1897 1897 and and again again in in 1902, 1902, Beresford Beresford was was returned to Westminster. The returned to Westminster. The last last three three occasions occasions were were by-elections. by-elections. In In 1886, 1886, he he even even secured secured the the nomination nomination of of the the new new Conservative Conservative governgovernment ment for for one one of of the the junior junior ministerial ministerial posts posts at at the the Admiralty Admiralty which which nornormally mally went went to to aa civilian; civilian; on on accepting accepting he he rejected rejected a a bizarre bizarre offer offer to to become become chief chief commissioner commissioner of of the the London London Metropolitan Metropolitan Police Police Force.174 Force.'” Two Two years years later Jater Beresford Beresford dramatically dramatically resigned resigned from from the the Admiralty Admiralty and and returned returned to to Parliament—to Parliament—to attack attack his his former former colleagues! colleagues! A A naval naval officer officer “serving” “serving” in in the the House House of of Commons Commons was was allowed allowed to to remain remain on on the the active active list list and and be be promoted promoted according according to to the the normal normal rules rules of of seniority. seniority. He He could could not, not, therefore, therefore, be be forced forced by by the the Admiralty Admiralty into into retirement. retirement. During During his his naval naval career career which which lasted lasted from from 1878 1878 till till 1909, 1909, Beresford Beresford served served just just eight eight years years and and two two hundred hundred and and fifty fifty days days at at sea sea and and no no less less than than fourfourteen teen years years in in Parliament.175 Parliament.'” On On his his retirement retirement from from the the service service in in 1909, 1909, moreover, moreover, Beresford Beresford was was elected elected member member for for Portsmouth, Portsmouth, aa seat seat he he held held until until his his elevation elevation to to the the peerage peerage in in 1916. 1916. Relations Relations between between Fisher Fisher and and Beresford Beresford were were outwardly outwardly cordial cordial when when the the latter latter took took command command of of the the Channel Channel Squadron Squadron in in April April 1907. 1907. If If “Charlie “Charlie B” B” was was truly truly smoldering smoldering over over Fisher’s Fisher’s promotion promotion to to admiral admiral of of the the fleet fleet he he had had succeeded succeeded in in keeping keeping his his envy envy under under control control for for more more than eighteen eighteen months. months. Although Although during during the the preceding preceding winter winter there there had had than been been some some antagonism antagonism between between them, them, this this was was nothing nothing more more than than aa symptom symptom of of their their tumultuous tumultuous relationship.I76 relationship.’ Similarly, Similarly, although although Fisher Fisher certainly flirted certainly flirted with with the the idea, idea, he he did did not not try try to to cancel cancel Beresford’s Beresford’s appointappointment ment to to command command the the Channel Channel Fleet.‘77 Fleet.'” In In fact, fact, it it had had been been Jacky Jacky who who had had first first recommended recommended that that Beresford Beresford succeed succeed the the eminent eminent Sir Sir Arthur Arthur Wilson Wilson as as commander commander in in chief, chief, despite despite gnawing gnawing doubts doubts over over his his judgement judgement and and knowing knowing him him “to “to be be ambitious, ambitious, self-advertising self-advertising and and gassy gassy in in his his talk.”178 talk.”'” As As Bacon Bacon implied, implied, the the root root of of the the Fisher-Beresford Fisher-Beresford dispute dispute seems seems to to have have been been a a serious serious disagreement disagreement over over British British naval naval strategy. strategy. Shortly Shortly after after Beresford Beresford hoisted hoisted his his flag flag as as commander commander in in chief, chief, he he informed informed the the first first lord lord (and (and shortly shortly afterwards afterwards most most of of London) London) that that he he thought thought the the Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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the to the danger to and aa danger fraud and “a fraud be “a to be fleet to the fleet of the existing distribution of existing distribution for plan for navy’s plan the navy’s clarify the to clarify Admiralty to the Admiralty petitioned the also petitioned Empire.”'”? He also Empire.””9 He been already been had already he had that he notified that was notified he was return he By return war Germany. By against Germany. war against objectives. strategic objectives. navy’s strategic the navys outlining the orders outlining war orders given of war set of given aa set was he was chief he in chief commander in the commander as the that as reminded that further reminded was further Beresford Beresford was himself he himself thus he and thus fleet and the fleet of the control of operational control the operational responsible for the responsible for Admiralty the Admiralty to the submit itit to and submit campaign and of campaign plan of own plan his own should propose his should propose war written war the written that the understand that to understand here to important here for approval. ItIt isis important for approval. the of the summary of vague summary only aa vague provided only admiral provided the admiral to the orders handed to orders handed communicatwere communicatdetails were the details secrecy the of secrecy reasons of For reasons Admiralty’s views. For Admiralty’s views. Fortunately, remain.180 Fortunately, meetings remain.’ the meetings of the records of formal records ed No formal verbally. No ed verbally. in CID in the CID to the testimony to his testimony and his correspondence and Beresford’s official correspondence Beresford’s official at briefing at his briefing during his told during was told he was what he about what clues about several clues 1909, yield several 1909, yield him told him Fisher told that Fisher appear that would appear sources itit would these sources From these the Admiralty.181 From the Admiralty.'*' in craft, in torpedo craft, German torpedo numerous German the numerous from the danger from the danger that, of the because of that, because Fleet Home Fleet the Home only the deploy only to deploy intended to Admiralty intended the Admiralty war the of war the event of the event bat(Channel) batmain (Channel) Beresford’s main Sea. Beresford’s North Sea. the North in the flotilla) in the flotilla) (including (including the reserve. in reserve. stay in would stay fleet would tle fleet tle he Fundamentally, he ideas. Fundamentally, different ideas. very different held very chief held in chief The commander in The commander toroff torward off to ward fleet to battle fleet of aa battle ability of the ability in the confident in more confident was much more was much On defense. On flotilla defense. of flotilla necessity of the necessity see the not see could not thus could and thus pedo attack and pedo attack Whitehall. to Whitehall. campaign” to of campaign” “plan of his “plan forwarded his Beresford forwarded 13 1907, Beresford May 1907, 13 May involvoffensive, involvnaval offensive, orthodox naval strictly orthodox prescribed aa strictly surprisingly, itit prescribed Not Not surprisingly, ing ing an an observational observational force force of of destroyers destroyers positioned positioned off off the the German German ports. ports, hoslarge hosany large intercept any to intercept ready to fleet ready battle fleet the battle with the backed cruisers, with by cruisers, backed by operSubmarine opersquadron.182 Submarine inshore squadron.’ the inshore attack the to attack tile dared to that dared force that tile force clearly plan clearly The plan Dover.183 The of Dover.'® Straits of the Straits defending the to defending ations limited to were limited ations were purbe purto be objectives to strategic objectives the strategic on the ideas on own ideas embodied Beresford’s own embodied Beresford’s his with his Along with lord. Along sea lord. first sea the first by the him by given him than-those sued those given rather than sued rather his Admiralty his the Admiralty sent the also sent chief also in chief commander in the commander plan campaign, the of campaign, plan of denounced Beresford denounced paper Beresford this paper In this Plans.”184 In “War Plans.”'* 1907 “War critique the 1907 of the critique of “radically as “radically blockade as commercial blockade distant commercial the of aa distant idea of entire idea the entire nothattempting nothNavy attempting Royal Navy the Royal to the objected to he objected Specifically, he unsound.”'® unsound.”185 Specifically, shipmerchant shipGerman merchant of German destruction of “the destruction than “the ambitious than more ambitious ing ing more be would be cruisers would no cruisers complained, no he complained, plan, he this plan, to this ping.”'®* According to ping.”186 According from fleets from German fleets other German or other fleet or battle fleet German battle the German deployed prevent the “to prevent deployed “to into aa entering into west, entering the west, to the Skaw to the Skaw round the canal round going Kiel canal the Kiel through the going through the of the rear of the rear to the getting to of getting chance of with aa chance unwatched, with large totally unwatched, space, totally large space, would fleet would battle fleet the battle that the course, that of course, (Assuming, of fleet.”187 (Assuming, battle fleet.”’®’ British British battle was strategy was this strategy Even ifif this Sea.) Even North Sea.) the North of the half of be southern half the southern in the be in

which itit isis for which object for the object fail inin the must fail cordon must “the cordon adopted, observed, “the he observed, adopted, he estiBeresford estibases.” Beresford German bases.” the German from the far from too far “it isis too created” because, “it created” because, Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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mated mated that that even even with with “double” “double” the the number number of of cruisers cruisers presently presently at at his his disposal, the the fleet fleet “could “could not not make make aa complete complete cordon cordon in in the the North North disposal, Sea.”188 As As Captain Captain Ballard Ballard pointed pointed out: out: “It “It isis evident evident that that he he [Beresford] [Beresford] Sea.”'® entirely entirely fails fails to to grasp grasp the the main main ideas. ideas. These These cruisers cruisers are are not not watching watching

cruisers cruisers in in any any sense sense of of the the word word as as regards regards watching watching for for the the exit exit of of the the enemy’s to enemy's fleet, fleet, but but placed placed solely solely to to intercept intercept trade trade .. .. .. Our Our object object is is to force force them them to to proceed proceed aa distance distance of of more more than than 300 300 miles miles from from their their own own sheltered sheltered base base to to defend defend their their trade trade and and then then fall fall on on them them when when outside, outside, or or cut cut off off their their retreat.”189 retreat.”'® In In June June 1907 1907 Fisher Fisher responded responded to to Beresford’s Beresford’s patently patently “absurd” “absurd” plan plan of of campaign campaign by by asking asking Lord Lord Tweedmouth Tweedmouth to to endorse endorse aa new new set set of of war war orders orders to to the the commander commander in in chief chief specially specially composed composed “with “with the the object of disabusing him that that his his isis object of disabusing him him of of the the idea idea that that now now possesses possesses him the the sole sole responsibility responsibility for for the the conduct conduct of of aa naval naval war.”190 war.”'® Several Several weeks weeks later, later, the the Admiralty Admiralty asked asked Beresford Beresford to to submit submit a a new new plan plan of of campaign campaign based upon upon these these amended amended war war orders. orders. They They defined defined his his duties duties as: as: first, first, based to watch watch all all enemy enemy forces forces in in the the vicinity vicinity of of the the United United Kingdom; Kingdom; second, second, to interdict interdict enemy enemy sea sea borne borne trade; trade; and and last, last, prevent prevent invasion. invasion. They They concontained tained not not aa word word about about aa close close observational observational blockade!“ blockade.’ Fisher Fisher was was exasperated after after Beresford Beresford wrote wrote back back complaining complaining that that he he did did not not have have exasperated adequate forces forces at at his his disposal disposal to to achieve achieve these these objectives objectives and and thus thus adequate could could not not draw draw up up a a plan. plan. On On 55 July, July, the the first first lord lord summoned summoned both both admiadmirals to to his his rooms rooms in in an an effort effort to to negotiate negotiate aa rapprochement rapprochement between between rals commander the commander because the largely because failed largely mediation failed at mediation attempt at The attempt them.‘92 The them.'” in chief chief either either could could not not or or would would not not articulate articulate his his complaints.'® complaints.‘93 Fisher Fisher in subsequently subsequently lost lost all all patience patience with with the the argumentative argumentative fleet fleet commander commander and and began began demanding demanding his his dismissal dismissal on on the the grounds grounds of of insubordination.194 insubordination.'™ Initially Tweedmouth Tweedmouth refused. refused. By By the the end end of of 1907, 1907, however, however, he he too too was was Initially looking to to rid rid himself himself of of the the tiresome tiresome Charlie Charlie B. B. looking the of the lord of first lord as first over as took over McKenna took Reginald McKenna 1908, Reginald May 1908, In May In Admiralty. Soon Soon thereafter, thereafter, Fisher Fisher persuaded persuaded him him that that Beresford’s Beresford’s Admiralty. insubordination had had become become intolerable intolerable and and that that the the admiral admiral should should insubordination lord sea lord first sea the first year, the than aa year, more than For more ashore. For come ashore. and come flag and his flag strike his strike of plan of his plan submitted his not submitted still not had still chief had commander inin chief the commander complained, the complained,

campaign—ostensibly because because he he was was too too busy. busy. Meanwhile Meanwhile he he abused abused campaign—ostensibly that McKenna that to McKenna suggested to Fisher suggested impunity. Fisher with impunity. public with in public Admiralty in the Admiralty the he wished wished to to allow allow Beresford Beresford to to save save face, face, he he could could plausibly plausibly say say that that ifif he the commander commander in in chief's chiefs resignation resignation was was compelled compelled by by the the need need to to merge merge the following The following reasons.‘95 The strategic reasons.'* for strategic Fleets for Channel Fleets the Channel and the Home and the Home the month, Fisher’s Fisher’s personal personal assistant, assistant, Cmdr. Cmdr. Thomas Thomas Crease, Crease, asked asked the the month, prominent naval naval correspondent correspondent Arnold Arnold White White to to quiet quiet raging raging speculation speculation prominent in in the the press press about about the the feud. feud. “The “The end end is is in in sight, sight, so so do do use use your your influence influence Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Although weeks.”'96 Although two weeks.”'® next two the next to for the background for the background subject inin the the subject keep the to keep to refused to Asquith refused however, Asquith dismay, however, McKenna Fisher’s dismay, to Fisher’s persuaded, to was persuaded, McKenna was was minister was prime minister new prime The new time.‘97 The sanction this time.'*’ at this dismissal at Beresford’s dismissal sanction Beresford’s minhis mininto his early into so early storm so political storm probably major political up aa major stirring up of stirring wary of probably wary And remote. And was remote. Germany was with Germany istry. conflict with of conflict likelihood of the likelihood Besides, the istry. Besides, Sir recall Sir to recall conflict to of aa conflict Fisher event of the event in the intent in his intent of his secret of no secret made no Fisher made was incidentally, was Beresford, incidentally, Arthur anyway.‘98 Beresford, commander anyway.'® fleet commander as fleet Wilson as Arthur Wilson 1908.199 late 1908.'” formally in late fact in this fact of this notified of formally notified they Beresford they with Beresford “stuck” with were “stuck” Once they were realized they Admiralty realized the Admiralty Once the in issued in orders issued war orders sent The war instructions.200 The revised instructions.2”° of revised set of another set him another sent him an prescribed an They prescribed liking. They his liking. to his July more to much more been much have been must have 1908 must July 1908 the across the and across ports and German ports observational main German the main off the blockade off observational blockade with accord with in accord much in entrance so much were so they were Indeed, they Baltic. Indeed, the Baltic. to the entrance to Beresford’s Beresford’s personal personal views, views, and and so so contradicted contradicted the the previous previous orders orders issued issued to to him, him, that that there there must must be be doubts doubts that that they they truly truly represented represented the the specially were specially they were likely they than likely Admiralty’s more than views. ItIt isis more strategic views. Admiralty’s strategic Fisher earlier Fisher months earlier written some months that some known that quiet. ItIt isis known him quiet. keep him to keep written to in commander the with had allowed representatives of the NID to meet with the commander in meet to had allowed representatives of the MD contempequally was who was equally contempSlade, who chief plan. Slade, war plan. new war out”——a new to—“fog out”—a chief to—“fog “disto “disagreed to been agreed had been that itit had tuous diary that his diary in his recorded in Beresford, recorded of Beresford, tuous of cuss aa plan plan with with him him [Beresford] [Beresford] and and let let him him perhaps perhaps imagine imagine it it was was cuss indications other indications are other this There are adopted.”2°‘ There be adopted.”*°' to be going to was going that was plan that this plan comfleet comthe fleet with the straight with that playing straight longer playing no longer was no Admiralty was the Admiralty that the remindof remindpoint of made aa point lord made sea lord mander. first sea the first 1908, the November 1908, In November mander. In ing McKenna McKenna to to be be evasive evasive when when answering answering queries queries from from Beresford Beresford on on ing Strategic strategic matters. matters. [T]he [T]he War War Orders Orders were were intended intended to to convey convey to to him him “the “the general general intentions intentions consider“that considerparagraph “that same paragraph the same of in the added in was added and itit was Admiralty" and the Admiralty” of the able departures departures from from them them maybe maybe necessary necessary to to suit suit the the exigencies exigencies of of the the able moment.” And And consequently consequently and and manifestly manifestly the the detailed detailed statement statement he he moment.” requires as as to to the the exact exact places places from from which which the the battle battle fleet, fleet, cruiser cruiser requires squadrons and and destroyers destroyers will will proceed proceed to to act act cannot cannot be be given?”— given!2> squadrons

Perhaps the the strongest strongest evidence evidence that that the the 1908 1908 War War Orders Orders were were “fake” “fake” isis Perhaps that Beresford Beresford himself himself believed believed so. so. One One of of his his loudest loudest complaints complaints he he made made that him taken him never taken had never Admiralty had the Admiralty to that the was that 1909 was in 1909 minister in prime minister the prime to the fully into into their their confidence confidence over over strategic strategic matters.203 matters.2° And And it it is is highly highly sugsugfully chief in chief commander in as commander gestive dismissed as finally dismissed was finally Beresford was after Beresford that after gestive that in in March March 1909, 1909, these these orders orders were were immediately immediately withdrawn. withdrawn. At the the opening opening of of the the Beresford Beresford Enquiry Enquiry in in May May 1909, 1909, the the plaintiff plaintiff At intimated to to the the prime prime minister minister that that two two years years earlier earlier the the Admiralty Admiralty had had intimated Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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told told him him that that in in event event of of war war with with Germany Germany aa distant distant blockade blockade strategy strategy would would be be employed.204 employed.*“ Beresford Beresford lectured lectured Asquith Asquith that that the the distant distant blockblockade ade strategy—this strategy—this “pedagogue “pedagogue plan” plan” as as he he called called it—was it—was “a “a defensive defensive policy policy that that we we cannot cannot afford afford to to adopt.”205 adopt.”?© It It would would “be “be like like playing playing footfootball ball when when you you have have got got the the football football always always at at your your goal.”206 goal.” Instead, Instead, he he advised, advised, “we “we have have got got to to have have an an attacking attacking policy policy .. .. .. [w]e [w]e have have got got to to watch watch the the enemy’s enemy’s coast coast with with watching watching cruisers; cruisers; they they have have only only two two egresses, egresses, and and when when they they come come out out the the Admiral Admiral should should know know they they have have come come out.”207 out.’*” Incidentally, Incidentally, during during cross-examination, cross-examination, Beresford Beresford sursurprised prised his his audience audience by by admitting admitting that that he he “did “did get get things things which which called called themselves themselves plans, plans, but but which which [he] [he] did did not not regard regard worthy worthy of of name.”208 name.” Yet, Yet, he he refused refused to to concede concede that that his his original original letter letter of of complaint complaint to to the the prime prime

minister minister had had been been misleading, misleading, his his admission admission notwithstanding. notwithstanding. The The former former commander commander in in chief chief went went on on to to berate berate the the Fisher Fisher adminadministration istration for for having having scrapped scrapped over over one one hundred hundred small small cruisers cruisers without without building building replacements. replacements. Ever Ever since, since, he he complained, complained, the the Royal Royal Navy Navy had had been been chronically chronically short short of of vessels vessels suitable suitable for for blockade blockade duties duties off off enemy enemy ports.209 ports.” In In reply, reply, the the first first lord lord explained explained to to the the assembly assembly that that the the develdevelopment opment of of fast fast armored armored cruisers cruisers had had rendered rendered all all these these old old cruisers cruisers obsolete. obsolete. Besides, Besides, he he added, added, replacements replacements had had been been built. built. The The Admiralty Admiralty believed believed that that submarines submarines had had taken taken over over this this function function of of the the small small cruiscruiser.210 er.”!? Several Several weeks weeks later later McKenna McKenna was was to to let let slip slip in in the the House House of of Commons Commons that that the the Admiralty Admiralty thought thought submarines submarines could could be be used used “for “for blockading blockading the the enemy’s enemy's ports?“1 ports.”’'' Testifying Testifying before before the the Beresford Beresford Enquiry, Enquiry, however, however, McKenna McKenna could could have have been been more more explicit. explicit. He He did did not not say, say, for for example, example, that that the the Admiralty Admiralty believed believed an an observational observational blockade blockade of of the the North North Sea Sea German German coast coast to to be be impossible, impossible, chiefly chiefly because because the the navy navy could could not not maintain maintain its its battle battle fleet fleet in in aa position position to to support support the the inshore inshore squadrons squadrons without without prohibitive prohibitive risk risk of of torpedo torpedo attack. attack. Very Very little little was was said said during during the the committee committee meetings meetings about about the the ability ability of of torpedo torpedo craft craft to to make make attack attack on on the the battle battle fleet. fleet. Admittedly Admittedly this this subject subject did did not not properly properly fall fall within within the the terms terms of of reference reference of of the the enquiry, enquiry, but but underunderstanding standing the the positions positions of of Fisher Fisher and and Beresford Beresford on on this this subject subject is is essential essential to to understanding understanding their their differences differences of of opinion opinion on on strategic strategic matters. matters. During During cross-examination cross-examination Beresford Beresford publicly publicly confessed confessed that that he he “attached “attached no no importance importance to to submarines.”212 submarines.”*? His His reasoning reasoning was was not not easy easy to to follow: follow: A A propos propos [sic] [sic] of of what what II said said with with regard regard to to shortage shortage [of [of cruisers], cruisers], if if the the submariners are are to to take take their their place, place, I| want want to to point point out out that that all all submarine submarine submariners warfare warfare is is entirely entirely theoretical. theoretical. II will will not not say say they they will will not not “put “put down” down” ships, ships,

but but they they will wil! not not revolutionise revolutionise [naval] [naval] warfare warfare unless unless the the Admirals Admirals are are

afraid afraid of of them. them. It It is is like like mining mining the the Channel Channel and and the the Straits. Straits. We We must must go go to to Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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submarine isis the submarine Now the with. Now grapple with. to grapple got to have got we have anything we fight anything and fight sea and sea water the water of the top of the top on the seaman on beats aa seaman that beats thing that one thing The one fog. The always always inin aa fog. theoretical.“3 entirely theoretical.*” is entirely So itit is fog. So isis aa fog.

statethe stateby the meant by he meant what he explain what to explain lord to first lord the first by the asked by being asked On being On fog,” in fog,” ship in navigating aa ship like navigating submarine isis like “navigating aa submarine that “navigating ment that ment to trusting to “fancy trusting was “fancy say was would say he would All he incoherent.214 All became incoherent.” Beresford became Beresford 30 submarines—with 30 with submarines—with coasts with our coasts all our covered all have covered You have submarines! You submarines! cruissmall cruisthe small got the not got have not we have [consequently] we submarines—and [consequently] 40 submarines—and or 40 or war.” in war.” depend in shall depend we shall which we upon which [destroyers] upon catchers [destroyers] and catchers ers and ers [subthem [subto them trust to country trust the country “let the advised—don’t “let he advised—don't Asquith he to Asquith Turning to Turning

inwar.”215 defend itit in to defend marines] to marines] war.”?" arguhis arguof his support of in support CID in the CID to the Beresford to by Beresford submitted by Documents submitted Documents one In one defense.” In “flotilla defense.” of “flotilla heard of least heard at least had at he had that he confirm that ments confirm ments consist to consist defense isis to “our defense that “our idea that the idea dismissed the he dismissed memorandum he memorandum the“entirely theas “entirely waters” as home waters” in home craft in torpedo craft and torpedo submarines and of submarines chiefly of chiefly McKenna cross-examination McKenna his cross-examination During his speculative?”6 During and speculative.”?'* oretical and oretical class— and DD classmodern CC and “the modern that “the aware that was aware he was blank ifif he point blank him point asked him asked Beresford “Yes,” Beresford work.”217 “Yes,” offensive work.”?'"’ for offensive designed for are designed submarines are of submarines es of es down put down be put will be ship will German ship every German that every idea isis that the idea know the replied, “I“I know replied, little funny little of funny lot of heard aa lot have heard declared. II have war isis declared. after war day after the day [sunk] the [sunk] subseen aa subnever seen had never he had that he admitted that he admitted Later he that.”(!)218 Later like that.”(!)?'® things like things in aa dive in fatal dive nearly fatal single nearly was aa single experience was only experience His only sea!219 His at sea!?'®? marine at marine some submarine~boat some experimental submarine-boat primitive experimental aboard aa primitive dock aboard London dock London considerconfession, considerextraordinary confession, an extraordinary was an This was earlier.220 This years earlier.?” twenty years twenty the of the command of in command been in had been Beresford had years Beresford two years past two the past for the that for ing that ing validthe validon the doubts on serious doubts cast serious also cast must also fleet. ItIt must battle fleet. premier battle navy’s premier navy'’s ity ity of of his his assessment assessment on on the the military military value value of of submarines. submarines. no there isis no submarines, there against submarines, prejudice against clear. prejudice Beresford’s clear Despite Beresford’s Despite commander As commander ships. As surface ships. of surface commander of able commander most able was aa most he was denying he denying in in chief, chief, he he had had contributed contributed towards towards the the development development of of long long range range gungunnery nery in in the the navy. navy. He He stood stood as as one one of of the the chief chief sponsors sponsors for for the the Pollen Pollen firefireexperiments difficult experiments of difficult number of out aa number carried out had carried also had He also system. He control system. control with with his his battle battle fleet fleet to to test test the the possibility possibility of of aa battle battle squadron squadron concenconcentrating trating their their fire fire against against aa single single target?” target.””' Undoubtedly Undoubtedly his his experiences experiences as as aa fleet fleet commander commander encouraged encouraged him him to to believe believe that that the the torpedo torpedo threat threat was was based be based still be should still strategy should Sea strategy North Sea that North consequently that and consequently overrated and overrated upon upon the the use use of of a a predominant predominant battle battle fleet. fleet. Many Many officers officers believed believed that that aa battle squadron squadron properly properly trained trained in in tactics tactics of of fire fire and and maneuver maneuver could could battle easily easily ward ward off off torpedo-boat torpedo-boat attacks: attacks: at at least least in in conditions conditions of of good good light light

and and weather. weather. Beresford Beresford was was not not completely completely blind blind to to the the dangers dangers associassociated ated with with operating operating armored armored squadrons squadrons close close to to the the German German coast. coast. His His Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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experiences experiences in in maneuvers maneuvers had had taught taught him him that that if if German German torpedo torpedo boats boats could could one one night night put put to to sea sea undetected undetected his his “the “the battle battle fleet fleet w[ould] w[ould] not not be be safe Safe within within two two hundred hundred miles miles of of the the German German coast.”222 coast.”?” Back Back in in October October 1907 1907 Beresford Beresford had had conducted conducted aa series series of of exercisexercises es to to test test his his arrangements arrangements for for the the blockade blockade of of Heligoland Heligoland Bight. Bight. These These maneuvers Maneuvers had had convinced convinced him him that that the the Royal Royal Navy Navy did did not not possess possess enough enough small small craft craft to to maintain maintain an an effective effective watch watch of of German German ports ports at at night.223 night.” Rather Rather than than keep keep his his battleships battleships well well away away from from the the German German coast coast as as Fisher Fisher suggested, suggested, however, however, Beresford Beresford chose chose to to interpret interpret the the results results as as justification justification for for his his demand demand that that the the Royal Royal Navy Navy must must build build more more destroyers destroyers and and small small cruisers. cruisers. Exercises Exercises conducted conducted the the following following year year by by elements elements of of Vice Vice Adm. Adm. Sir Sir Francis Francis Bridgeman’s Bridgeman’s Home Home Fleet Fleet reconfirmed reconfirmed the the conclusions conclusions of of the the Irish Irish Sea Sea maneuvers maneuvers held held three three years years earlier, earlier, that that to to maintain maintain an an effective effective observation observation “the “the blockers blockers should should be be to the blockaded as three is to the blockaded as three is to to one.”224 one.”?** To To implement implement Beresford’s Beresford’s plan, plan, therefore, therefore, the the Royal Royal Navy Navy would would have have required required aa force force of of about about three three hundred small craft. The cost of building hundred small craft. The cost of building and and especially especially maintaining maintaining such such aa force force in in peace peace (both (both in in terms terms of of money money and and men) men) was, was, of of course, course, proprohibitive. hibitive. One One can can thus thus sympathize sympathize with with Fisher’s Fisher’s inability inability to to comprehend comprehend why why Cabinet Cabinet ministers ministers courted courted Beresford. Beresford. The The “chief “chief plank” plank” of of his his alteralternate nate policy, policy, the the first first sea sea lord lord often often used used to to protest, protest, “is “is the the immediate immediate additional additional expenditure expenditure of of millions millions in in small small cruisers cruisers and and destroyers.”225 destroyers.”° In In August August 1909, 1909, one one of of the the assistant assistant secretaries secretaries at at the the CID CID surrepsurreptitiously titiously handed handed Arthur Arthur Balfour Balfour copies copies of of the the voluminous voluminous minutes-taken minutes taken during during the the Beresford Beresford Enquiry. Enquiry. Burdened Burdened with with parliamentary parliamentary work work the the

Conservative Conservative leader leader passed passed these these on on to to his his secretary, secretary, Jack Jack Sandars, Sandars, to to

précis précis for for him. him. Shortly Shortly afterwards afterwards Sandars Sandars wrote wrote to to Lord Lord Esher Esher with with his his impressions. impressions. “I “I thought thought Charlie Charlie B’s B’s evidence evidence extraordinarily extraordinarily ineffective,” ineffective,” he he began: began: he did did not not know know his his case case in in detail—he detail—he was was pushed pushed from from one one point point to to another: another: he had had he he been been before before aa court court of of law law the the ordinary ordinary cross cross examiner examiner would would have have brobroken ken him him in in one one afternoon. afternoon. Reading Reading the the evidence evidence one one never never knew knew what what he he was was

driving at, at, such such as as preparations preparations for for war, war, organization organization for for war. war. I1 think think Charlie, Charlie, driving with every every possible possible indulgence indulgence given given him, him, failed failed and and failed failed badly. badly. He He could could with have been been made made to to fail fail [even] [even] worse. worse. Now Now II am am not not sure sure whether whether Asquith Asquith and and have Haldane were were wise wise in in fooling fooling him him into into the the belief belief that that he he was was doing doing well well before before Haldane he which he conversation which the conversation from the plain from him isis plain fool him did fool they did that they committee; that the committee; the held with with outsiders outsiders like like myself. myself. held II think think McKenna’s McKenna’s presentation presentation of of Jackie’s Jackie’s case case was was admirable. admirable. it It seemed seemed

to to me me to to be be well well balanced balanced in in argument, argument, and and particularly particularly moderate moderate in in form; form; and and Charlie BB made made no no resistance resistance to to itit that that was was worth worth aa moment's moment’s consideration.*” consideration.226 Charlie Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, httpsz/lhd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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was proceedings” was whole proceedings” the whole in the thing in interesting thing most interesting “the most found “the Sandars Sandars found

the At the Wilson.227 At Arthur Wilson.” Sir Arthur Fleet Sir the Fleet of the Admiral of by Admiral given by the evidence given the evidence notorihis notoricoax his to coax tried to had tried Beresford had committee, Beresford the committee, of the final gathering of final gathering “dangerwas “dangernavy was the navy that the him that with him agree with to agree predecessor to ously reticent predecessor ously reticent When refused. When had refused. He had cruisers. He small cruisers. and small destroyers and of destroyers ously short” of ously short” point “my point Beresford “my at Beresford back at snapped back Wilson snapped not, Wilson why not, explain why to explain pestered to pestered want not want do not coast, II do German coast, the German on the over on work over to work want to not want do not as II do that, as isis that, Wilson that Wilson mean that to mean this to interpreted this (correctly) interpreted Sandars (correctly) so many.”228 Sandars so many.”

over going over believe inin going not believe does not strategy—he does Charlie’s strategy—he believe inin Charlie’s “does not believe “does not Sandars, To Sandars, night.”229 To and night.””” day and there day watching there and watching coast and German coast the German to the to offinaval offiBritish naval some British that some idea that the idea matters, the naval matters, in naval layman in was aa layman who was who of something of was something coast was enemy coast the enemy off the operating off of operating intention of no intention had no cers had cers Balfour.230 to Balfour.*”° seems, to not, itit seems, revelation—although not, aa revelation—although Lord of Lord criticisms of many criticisms surprise, many his surprise, not his but not disgust, but Fisher’s disgust, To Fisher’s To report draft report committee’s draft the committee’s in the contained in originally contained Beresford originally Charles Beresford Charles wanted, had wanted, committee had the committee version.231 IfIf the published version." the published from the deleted from were deleted were proved and proved report and their report in their Beresford in “smashed Beresford have “smashed could have they could wrote, they he wrote, he of ignorance of his ignorance in his imbecile in and imbecile liar and blatant liar mouth aa blatant own mouth his own of his out of him out him committee, the committee, of the meeting of third meeting the third only the After only situation.”232 After naval situation.” the naval the Fisher chief. Fisher was was complaining complaining to to Sir Sir William William May, May, the the new new commander commander in in chief, point—but single point—but every single on every out on flattened out been flattened has been “Beresford has far “Beresford so far that so that The bit.”233 The one bit.”* other one the other or the way or one way matters one evidence matters the evidence think the don’t think II don’t and Fisher and convinced Fisher inquiry convinced the inquiry throughout the Asquith” throughout by Asquith” shown by “bias shown “bias force to force excuse to an excuse for an looking for was looking minister was prime minister the prime that the McKenna that McKenna office.234 of office.” out of both out them both them politiin politiknown in well known was well report, itit was final report, the final of the publication of the publication After the After Beresford’s protect Beresford’s to protect way to his way of his out of gone out had gone Asquith had that Asquith circles that cal circles cal that felt that who felt officer who naval officer only naval the only not the was not lord was sea lord first sea The first reputation. The reputation. the of the ignorance” of much ignorance” “shewed much had “shewed Beresford had proceedings Beresford the proceedings during the during to wrote to Esher wrote Lord Esher August Lord in August warfare.235 In naval warfare.?* modern naval of modern parameters of parameters been had been report had the report of the version of original version the original that the confirming that Sandars confirming Jack Sandars Jack “middle the “middle blamed the Esher blamed published. Esher finally published. one finally the one from the different from quite different quite influence” social influence” to social “open to be “open to be themselves to allowing themselves for allowing ministers” for class ministers” class that possible that quite possible also quite Yet itit isis also friends.”6 Yet aristocratic friends.” Beresford’s aristocratic from Beresford’s from and Fisher and between Fisher dispute between the dispute realized the Balfour, realized Arthur Balfour, like Arthur Asquith, like Asquith, difrepresented aa difEach represented appeared.237 Each than itit appeared.” complex than more complex was more Beresford was Beresford the or the man or one man Condemning one navy. Condemning the navy. within the thought within of thought school of ferent school ferent technihighly technisides inin aa highly taking sides to taking amounted to have amounted would have therefore would other therefore other continued be continued will be story will This story sea.238 This at sea.” war at of war conduct of the conduct over the debate over cal debate cal in in the the next next chapter. chapter.

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Flotilla Defense: Defense: aa Postscript Postscript Flotilla

ln In mid-1910 mid-1910 Reginald Reginald McKenna, McKenna, still still the the first first lord lord of of the the Admiralty, Admiralty, in battleships in commissioned battleships tried fully commissioned all fully for all approval for Cabinet approval obtain Cabinet to obtain tried to sent He sent maneuvers. He combined maneuvers. the for combined Portugal for off Portugal gather off to gather Navy to Royal Navy the Royal at quotation at merit quotation which merit of which two both of colleagues both Cabinet colleagues senior Cabinet to senior letters to two letters Grey: Edward Grey: Sir Edward secretary, Sir length. foreign secretary, the foreign to the went to first went The first length. The prowe prothat we see that will see AA paper you will which you in which Office in Foreign Office the Foreign to the gone to has gone paper has Atlantic the Atlantic Fleet, the Home Fleet, the Home of the pose divisions of Second divisions and Second First and the First send the to send pose to exerjoint exerfor joint Spain] for Fleet, [off Spain] Bay [off Aroso Bay to Aroso Fleet to Mediterranean Fleet the Mediterranean and the Fleet, and

North the North denuding the be denuding shall be we shall that we cises alarm that excite alarm may excite month. ItIt may next month. cises next be could be fleet could our fleet that our Sea remembered that be remembered must be but itit must battleships, but of battleships, Sea of submarine and submarine recalled destroyers and our destroyers that our and that days, and two days, within two W/l‘ within by W/T recalled by on stationed on be stationed will be flotillas, invasion will against invasion defense against true defense the true are the which are flotillas, which the East East Coast.”9 Coast.” [my [my italics] italics] the

minister: prime minister: The the prime to the addressed to was addressed second was The second Our danger. Our slightest danger. the slightest not the II need there isis not that there you that assure you hardly assure need hardly constitute aa to constitute as to disposed as so disposed be so destroyers will be flotillas will submarine flotillas and submarine destroyers and moment any moment at any can at complete battleships can the battleships and the coasts, and our coasts, for our defense for complete defense to advantage to an advantage be an fact be in fact would in be orders .. .. .. itit would W/I‘ orders by W/T back by brought back be brought perbattleships pernew battleships our new keeping our acclimatize not keeping of not idea of the idea to the public to the public acclimatize the manently manently tied tied to to the the Home Home Ports.” Ports.240

of foundation of the foundation being the Both defense being flotilla defense to flotilla allude to clearly allude letters clearly Both letters of significance of real significance the real Admiralty perhaps the But perhaps invasion. But against invasion. policy against Admiralty policy the of the head of political head the political by the these written by were written they were that they letters isis that these letters Fisher John Fisher Sir John after Sir months after Admiralty nine months 1910—some nine of 1910—some fall of the fall in the Admiralty in lord. sea lord. first sea had as first retired as had retired

Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, httpszllhdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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PART PART III IIl

Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, httpszllhd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

Downloaded on behalf of Digital Theological Library, Claremont, CA

CHAPTER 77 CHAPTER

Aberration Aberrations:s: The The Grand Grand Fleet Fleet of of Battle, Battle, 1910—1912 1910-1912 in In the the old old days days the the battleship battleship was was the the conception conception of of aa ship ship which which nothnothing ing else else on on these these waters waters could could sink. sink. But But now now the the battleship battleship is is no no longer longer the the ultimate ultimate power power on on the the sea: sea: it it may may be be sunk sunk by by the the smallest smallest vessel vessel afloat. afloat. Therefore Therefore it it has has lost lost its its primary primary function; function; or or one one of of its its primary primary functions. functions, namely namely the the ability ability in in itself itself to to defend defend oversea oversea expeditions expeditions against against anything anything on on water. water. Now Now to to make make up up for for that that inability inability she she must must have have attendant attendant torpedo torpedo craft. craft which which will will keep keep the the other other torpedo torpedo craft craft at at respectful distance distance .. . . .. aa respectful Rear Rear Adm. Adm. Reginald Reginald Bacon. Bacon, March March 1913. 1913.

Sir Sir John John Fisher Fisher was was deeply deeply offended offended by by the the implied implied censure censure insertinserted ed by by the the prime prime minister minister into into the the published published findings findings of of the the Beresford Beresford Enquiry. Enquiry. He He also also felt felt betrayed betrayed by by the the failure failure of of many many of of his his political political allies allies of either either party party to to protest protest at at the the unfairness unfairness of of the the final final report.' report.I “Jack “Jack isis of evidently evidently very very sore sore and and he he has has every every reason reason to to be be so,” so,” observed observed the the King’s King’s private private secretary secretary Lord Lord Knollys.2 Knollys.* More More seriously, seriously, Asquith’s Asquith’s verdict verdict had undermined undermined the the first first sea sea lord’s lord’s personal personal authority authority within within the the service service had and damaged damaged public public confidence confidence in in the the Board Board of of Admiralty. Admiralty. As As aa conseconseand of number of to aa number clear to become clear had become 1909 itit had of 1909 autumn of the autumn by the quence, by quence, longer no longer was no Whitehall was at Whitehall presence at continued presence Fisher’s continued that Fisher’s observers that observers considerbeen considerhad been Fisher had Although Fisher service.3 Although the service.’ of the interests of best interests the best in the in ing ing retirement retirement for for several several months, months, “what “what is is keeping keeping him him back back is is fear fear that that his his policy policy would would be be upset,” upset,” explained explained the the second second sea sea lord, lord, Vice Vice Adm. Adm. Sir Sir Francis Francis Bridgeman.4 Bridgeman.’ In In October, October, however, however, after after having having reflected reflected upon upon his his position position while while vacationing vacationing on on the the Continent, Continent, Fisher Fisher finally finally made made up up his his peerthe peerto the Fisher to elevate Fisher to elevate agreed to Asquith agreed October, Asquith 20 October, On 20 go. On to go. mind to mind age age in in the the king’s king’s birthday birthday honors honors on on the the understanding understanding that that he he would would quit quit the the Board Board at at the the first first opportunity, opportunity, probably probably the the following following April April after after the the Parliament;3 h throu Lambepassagehofhthevnawmestimates passage of the navy estimates through Parliament.’ E-book olumbia: of South Carolina Press, 2002, httpszllhd|.hand|e.net/2027 eb.31569. Downloaded on behalf of Digital Theological Library, Claremont, CA

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major posed aa major Fisher posed John Fisher Sir John for Sir replacement for The finding aa replacement of finding task of The task of rules of the rules followed the he followed lord. IfIf he first lord. the first McKenna, the Reginald McKenna, dilemma for Reginald dilemma for the on the admirals on full admirals twelve full the twelve of the one of choose one to choose bound to was bound convention he was convention he

anything possessed anything them possessed of them none of that none was that problem was active The problem list. The service list. active service

adminisan adminisas an skills as his skills or his matters or technical matters of technical knowledge of like Fisher’s knowledge like Fisher’s ability mediocre of admirals—officers “yellow” were four trator. least four were “yellow” admirals—officers of mediocre ability At least trator. At who but seniority their of virtue by list flag the of top the top of the flag list by virtue of their seniority but who to the risen to who had risen who had of Board the on seat a or fleet a of a fleet or a seat on the Board of command of with command trusted with been trusted never been had had never resoMcKenna’s resoby McKenna’s narrowed by further narrowed was further talent was of talent field of The field Admiralty.® Admiralty.6 The the reverse the to reverse not to agree not must agree Fisher must succeeded Fisher whoever succeeded that whoever lution that lution five the five out the ruled out This ruled years. This five years. preceding five the preceding over the introduced over reforms introduced reforms discontent: of discontent: syndicate of so-called syndicate the so-called to the belong to to belong known to admirals admirals known Arthur and Arthur Beaumont and Lewis Beaumont Custance, Lewis Reginald Custance, Beresford, Reginald Charles Charles Beresford, the Of the cancer. Of of cancer. dying of was dying Curzon-Howe, was Assheton Curzon-Howe, other, Assheton The other, Moore.7 The Moore.’ too was too Drury was Charles Drury lord Charles sea lord second sea former second the former alternatives, the remaining alternatives, remaining only had only May had William May Sir William while Sir regime,8 while Jacky’s regime,® with Jacky’s identified with closely identified closely recently recently been been appointed appointed to to the the post post of of commander commander in in chief, chief, Home Home Fleets.9 Fleets.° canstrongest canthe strongest be the to be appeared to certainly appeared latter certainly the latter paper the on paper Although on Although have would have lord would sea lord first sea as first May as appointed May have appointed to have McKenna to for McKenna didate, for didate, one. no one. satisfying no while satisfying service while the service within the dissent within of dissent storm of provoked aa storm provoked William William May May was was regarded regarded by by his his peers peers as as arrogant, arrogant, vain, vain, opulent, opulent, and generally generally incompetent. incompetent. Indeed Indeed many many naval naval officers officers regarded regarded him him as as and “wholly unfit unfit for for the the great great command command of of the the Home Home Fleet.”'® Fleet.”0 In In August August “wholly 1909, 1909, Jack Jack Sandars Sandars was was reliably reliably informed informed that that be he retained retained the the post post only only after soon after so soon action so taking action from taking shrank from Admiralty shrank of Admiralty Board of the Board because because the the the recent recent controversies. controversies. “They “They say say ‘we ‘we must must let let the the service service settle settle down: down: we cannot cannot afford afford to to have have another another Charlie Charlie BB case.’”"' case.”’“ “It “It isis incredible incredible that that we May should should have have risen risen so so high,” high,” Lord Lord Esher Esher remarked remarked to to Sandars, Sandars, “if “if he he May is is as as bad bad as as some some of of his his professional professional colleagues colleagues seem seem to to think.”12 think.”'* How How justified justified was was the the criticism criticism of of May May is is difficult difficult to to establish; establish; but but what what can can adminthree adminin three served in had served he had decade he preceding decade the preceding over the that over said isis that be said be istrative istrative posts posts at at the the Admiralty Admiralty and and on on each each occasion occasion had had failed failed to to shine. shine. Fisher, who who liked liked May May personally, personally, often often described described him him as as “wood “wood painted painted Fisher, to to look look like like iron.” iron.” And And it it is is suggestive suggestive that that in in 1905, 1905, Fisher Fisher had had been been instrumental in in May's May’s early early departure departure from from the the office office of of controller." controller.13 If, If, instrumental in 1909, 1909, Fisher Fisher had had been been prepared prepared to to consider consider him him as as his his successor successor then then in it it was was only only because because all all the the alternatives alternatives seemed seemed worse.14 worse." But But ultimately ultimately May’s May’s aspirations aspirations were were destroyed destroyed by by Bridgeman’s Bridgeman’s warning warning to to McKenna McKenna that that he he would would sooner sooner resign resign than than serve serve under under this this officer officer for for whom whom he he had had “a “a contempt.”15 contempt.”'? That That effectively effectively settled settled the the matter. matter. And And so, so, when when Fisher’s Fisher's retirement retirement was was formally formally announced, announced, therefore, therefore, the the first first lord lord had had no obvious successor in hand." Wtiwteatabviws n Fishers ova sue evo u Ion. essor in hand.” E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Political Political turmoil turmoil at at the the end end of of 1909, 1909, however, however, forced forced McKenna McKenna to to quickly quickly make make up up his his mind. mind. In In November, November, the the Conservative Conservative peers peers in in the the House House of of Lords Lords rejected rejected Lloyd Lloyd George’s George’s “Peoples “Peoples Budget,” Budget,” prompting prompting the the Liberal Liberal Cabinet Cabinet to to dissolve dissolve Parliament Parliament and and appeal appeal to to the the country country for for a a mandate. mandate. The The general general election election was was scheduled scheduled for for the the third third week week of of January January 1910. 1910. Fisher Fisher greeted greeted the the news news with with horror.‘7 horror.'’ He He feared feared that that if, if, as as expected, expected, the the Liberals Liberals were were returned returned to to power, power, Asquith Asquith would would have have a a golden golden opportunity opportunity to to remove remove the the stalwart stalwart Reginald Reginald McKenna McKenna from from his his new new ministry. ministry. He He could could then, then, without without controversy, controversy, offer offer the the portfolio portfolio of of first first lord lord of of the the Admiralty Admiralty to to someone someone more more sympathetic sympathetic to to demands demands from from the the radical radical wing wing of of the the party party for for reductions reductions in in naval naval expenditure.l8 expenditure." If, If, on on the the other other hand, hand, the the Conservatives Conservatives won won the the election, election, Fisher Fisher was was afraid afraid that that the the Admiralty Admiralty would would be be captured captured by by the the syndicate syndicate of of discontent. discontent. He He had had been been tipped tipped off off by by friends friends inside inside the the party party that that Walter Walter Long Long had had been been nominated nominated for for the the office office of of first first lord lord and and Adm. Adm. Arthur Arthur Moore Moore designated designated to to become become his his first first sea sea lord.l9 lord.'® The The solution, solution, Fisher Fisher concluded, concluded, was was to to announce announce his his retirement retirement before before the the election election in in order order to to allow allow his his successuccessor sor to to be be established established in in Whitehall Whitehall by by 25 25 January January “so “so as as to to avoid avoid any any difdifficulties ficulties in in the the event event of of any any change change in in the the First First Lord Lord of of the the Admiralty.”20 Admiralty.””° He He calculated calculated that that no no government government would would risk risk the the controversy controversy of of sacking sacking aa brand brand new new first first sea sea lord. lord. It It only only remained remained to to select select the the candidate. candidate. More More out out of of desperation desperation than than inspiration, inspiration, Fisher Fisher and and McKenna McKenna turned turned to to the the eminent eminent and and reclusive reclusive Admiral Admiral of of the the Fleet Fleet Sir Sir Arthur Arthur Wilson Wilson VG.” VC.?' At At the the beginning beginning of of 1910, 1910, Wilson Wilson was was universally universally regarded regarded as as the the best best fleet fleet commander commander of of his his generation, generation, and and although although he he had had been been retired retired from from active active service service for for almost almost three three years years it it was was widely widely expected expected that that in in the the event event of of war war he he would would be be offered offered command command of of the the fleet. fleet. Within Within the the service service his his skills skills in in seamanship seamanship and and naval naval tactics tactics were were legendary. legendary. More More recently recently Wilson Wilson had had acquired acquired a a following following within within government government circircles. cles. Having Having remained remained aloof aloof from from service service politics politics since since his his retirement retirement in in 1907, 1907, he he had had not not been been tarnished tarnished by by the the Fisher-Beresford Fisher-Beresford dispute, dispute, and and was, was, as aS a a consequence, consequence, regarded regarded as as something something of of a a paragon. paragon. Largely Largely because because of of Wilson’s Wilson’s reputation reputation as as a a nonpartisan nonpartisan yet yet competent competent officer, officer, in in April April 1909 1909 Asquith Asquith had had appointed appointed him him special special advisor advisor to to the the Committee Committee of of lmperial Imperial Defence Defence for for the the Beresford Beresford Enquiry. Enquiry. That That summer summer his his “clear “clear and and straight straight forward forward manner” manner” had had impressed impressed the the senior senior cabicabinet net ministers ministers present.22 present.” One One of of the the committee committee members, members, Lord Lord Morley, Morley, noted noted that that while while Fisher Fisher and and Beresford Beresford each each had had their their good good qualities, qualities, “Sir “Sir A. Wilson strikes me, and A. Wilson strikes me, and II think think the the others others of of us, us, as as much much the the best— bestbalanced balanced sort sort of of man, man, to to say say nothing nothing of of his his having having proved proved himself himself as as a a first first rate rate commander.”23 commander.”* Despite Despite all all Wilson’s Wilson’s qualities, qualities, he he was was aa surprissurprismg successor ing successor to to SiEflolrlohn Sir John Fisher Fisher nonetheless.24 nonetheless.”* Recalling Recalling an an officer officer to to Lamber , icolas. Sirjohn Fishers Naval Revo E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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And irregular.25 And most irregular.” was most retirement was in retirement years in three years active after three service after active service return to unwilling initially was Wilson was initially unwilling to return that Wilson reason that this reason itit was for this mainly for was mainly the to the appeal to to appeal recruited to was recruited VII was Edward VII King Edward after King to Only after duty. Only active duty. to active nec“how persuaded “how necfinally persuaded Wilson finally was Wilson duty” was of duty” “sense of admiral’s keen “sense admiral’s keen First become First should become you should that you service that the service of the interests of essary the interests in the essary itit isis in the by the delighted by was delighted Fisher was Fisher."26 Fisher John Fisher.”” Sir John to Sir Sea succession to in succession Lord in Sea Lord after Wilson after displace Wilson now displace can now intrigues can any intrigues think any don’t think confirmation. confirmation. “I“1 don’t his to his gloated to he gloated Election,” he General Election,” the General before the appointed before thus appointed his being thus his being Beresford . the Beresford to the blow to knock-down blow been aa knock-down has been “it has Knollys, “it friend Lord Knollys, friend Lord them.”27 by them.”*’ unexpected by totally unexpected and totally party and party public, itit isis in public, said in have said might have else might anyone else or anyone McKenna or Whatever McKenna Whatever rifts the rifts heal the to heal primarily to resurrected primarily was resurrected Wilson was that Wilson highly unlikely that highly unlikely the by the known by he known as he ‘Art,” as ‘Ard ‘Art,” “Old ‘Ard thing, “Old one thing, For one Navy.28 For Royal Navy.”* the Royal within the within of reputation of the reputation with the personality with abrasive personality notoriously abrasive was aa notoriously deck, was lower deck, lower tended had tended he had career he his career Throughout his “martinet.”29 Throughout of aa “martinet.””* something of being something being advice. or advice. opinions or their opinions ignored their habitually ignored and habitually subordinates and his subordinates bully his to bully to his dreaded his him dreaded with him served with previously served had previously who had Whitehall who at Whitehall Officers at Officers solubest soluthe best Wilson isis the circumstances Wilson the circumstances under the that under say that dare say arrival. “I“I dare arrival. him with him experience with from experience know from “but |I know Bridgeman, “but Francis Bridgeman, sighed Francis tion,” sighed tion,” him! under him! or under him or with him either with serving either in serving found in be found to be joy to no joy there isis no that there that anyconsult anynever consult will never He will know. He you know. as you uncompromising, as and uncompromising, dull and Deadly dull Deadly second The second impossible.”30 The being impossible.”*° to being even to argument, even in argument, impatient in one and isis impatient one and norThe norshared. The was shared. mind was of mind inflexibility of Wilson’s inflexibility at Wilson's concern at lord’s concern sea lord’s sea after declared after have declared to have reported to was reported VI] was Edward VII King Edward imperturbable King mally imperturbable mally obstimost obstithe most of the “one of him “one found him he found that he admiral that the admiral with the interview with an interview an joked officers joked fleet, officers the fleet, in the Meanwhile, in across!!”‘“ Meanwhile, came across!!”*' ever came men I1 ever nate men nate commislords commisother lords the other helm the the helm at the Wilson at with Wilson that with themselves that among themselves among “humvery “humonly aa very occupy only to occupy expected to be expected could be Admiralty could the Admiralty of the sioners of sioners the for the suitability for his suitability of his doubtful of initially doubtful was initially Fisher was Even Fisher position.32 Even ble” position.*? ble” such aa Wilson isis such as Wilson first as at first on itit at sweet on wasn’t sweet lord. “]“I wasn’t sea lord. first sea of first post of post sugfirst sugwas first candidacy was his candidacy after his McKenna after to McKenna confessed to he confessed stonewall,” he stonewall,” saying in saying me in converted me which converted point which good point made aa good you made “however you gested, “however gested, that for for two two years years aa stone stone wall wall was was desirable.”” desirable.”33 that of seat of the seat occupy the to occupy chosen to was chosen Wilson was that Wilson was that meant was Fisher meant What Fisher What March In March emerged.34 In candidate emerged.™* suitable candidate more suitable until aa more only until lord only sea lord first sea first be thus be and thus birthday and seventieth birthday his seventieth reach his would reach Wilson would moreover, Wilson 1912, moreover, 1912, felt conspirators felt The conspirators service. The the service. from the retire from to retire regulations to by regulations compelled by compelled policy Admiralty policy steer Admiralty to steer trusted to be trusted could be he could period he short period such aa short for such that for that along regency. along the the course course charted charted by by his his predecessor.35 predecessor.* Under Under Wilson’s Wilson's regency, makby maksuccession by rightful succession of rightful line of the line prune the would prune McKenna would meanwhile, McKenna meanwhile, to lord to first lord the first empowered the which empowered regulation which another regulation of another use of liberal use ing liberal ing more for more unemployed for been unemployed had been who had admiral who any admiral list any retired list the retired on the place on place Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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than than two two years.36 years.* To To this this end, end, one one of of Jacky’s Jacky’s last last acts acts was was to to fill fill all all flag flag appointments “as far in advance as possible” with officers he considered appointments “as far in advance as possible” with officers he considered to to be be his his allies.37 allies.*’ If If all all went went according according to to plan, plan, then then in in March March 1912 1912 Fisher’s true heir would be installed as first sea lord; or possibly Fisher’s true heir would be installed as first sea lord; or possibly he he himhimself power. As As aa final final precaution, precaution, McKenna self would would be be restored restored to to power. McKenna promised promised Fisher Fisher that that in in the the unlikely unlikely event event of of war war breaking breaking out out within within the the next next two two years years he he would would be be immediately immediately recalled recalled as as first first sea sea lord.38 lord.*® The only only flaw flaw in in this this truly truly Machiavellian Machiavellian (Some (some might might say say charactercharacterThe istically istically “Fishy”) “Fishy’) scheme scheme was was that that the the chosen chosen puppet puppet did did not not prove prove to to be be as as malleable malleable as as Fisher Fisher and and McKenna McKenna had had first first hoped. hoped. In In addition, addition, the the first first lord lord soon soon found found that that Wilson’s Wilson’s abrasive abrasive personality personality was was far far worse worse than quickly produced within the the than he he had had realised realised and and very very quickly produced discord discord within Admiralty.39 On On 44 January January 1910 1910 McKenna McKenna confided confided to to his his friends friends that that Admiralty.*® already already he he was was beginning beginning to to have have second second thoughts. thoughts. Sir Sir Francis Francis Bridgeman had had been been affronted affronted at at being being publicly publicly told told by by Wilson Wilson that that he he Bridgeman was was “only “only his his second,” second,” and and generally generally treated treated “as “as if if he he were were a a second second lieulieutenant tenant on on board board a a ship.”40 ship.”*° During During their their first first week week of of working working together, together, apparently, apparently, the the second second sea sea lord lord threatened threatened resignation resignation on on no no less less than than three three occasions.“ occasions.*' McKenna’s McKenna’s concerns concerns were were echoed echoed by by Capt. Capt. Ernest Ernest Troubridge, Troubridge, the the naval naval secretary, secretary, who who on on 77 January January noted noted pithily pithily in in his his inabilWilson inabilnew. Wilson nothing new. was nothing This was autocratic.”42 This “Wilson isis autocratic.” that “Wilson diary that diary conAs conserviCe. As the service. within the legendary within almost legendary been almost had been delegate had to delegate ity to ity troller of of the the navy navy between between 1897 1897 and and 1901, 1901, his his methodical methodical work work habits habits troller and tendency tendency to to centralize centralize had had created created administrative administrative chaos chaos within within his his and remembered, none remembered, certainly none and certainly knew, and officers knew, few officers But few department."3 But department.* Wilson dismissed Wilson has dismissed lord, has first lord, then first Selborne, then Lord Selborne, 1901 Lord March 1901 in March that in that better did aa better never did attitude.44 “I“I never dogmatic attitude.“ and dogmatic uncompromising and his uncompromising for his for where Admiralty where the Admiralty from the him from removed him when II removed than when life than my life in my work in days work days later Selborne later too,” Selborne failure too,” mischievous failure and aa mischievous failure and utter failure an utter was an he was he melnot melhad not successor had his successor that his acknowledged that Fisher acknowledged 1910, Fisher In 1910, recalled.“ In recalled.* problems. create problems. might create manner might overbearing manner his overbearing that his and that age and with age lowed with lowed wrecks Wilson wrecks unless Wilson under unless go under won’t go He won't fighter! He splendid fighter! “McKenna isis aa splendid “McKenna him—l must must work work there there like like hell!” hell!” he he half half joked joked with with Esher.* Esher.46 him—TI Wilson’s Strategy Strategy Wilson’s

succeshis succesthat his known that had known he had Wilson he to Wilson over to handed over Fisher handed When Fisher When Fisher 1908, Fisher In 1908, own. In his own. mirror his not mirror did not war did of war conduct of the conduct on the views on sor’s views sor’s “variance” at “variance” were at Wilson were and Wilson he and that he Tweedmouth that Lord Tweedmouth to Lord admitted to had admitted had over over several several details details of of the the navy’s navy’s plan plan for for war war against against Germany."7 Germany.” At At the the economic an economic of an effectiveness of the effectiveness of the skeptical of was skeptical Wilson was level, Wilson strategic level, strategic to Germany to bringing Germany of bringing way of sure way only sure the only that the thought that He thought blockade.48 He blockade.*® terms terms was was for for the the Royal Royal Navy’s Navy's battleships battleships to to engage engage and and decisively decisively beat beat Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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the the High High Sea Sea Fleet. Fleet. Surprisingly, Surprisingly, though, though, their their views views on on tactical tactical and and operational operational policy policy were were broadly broadly similar. similar. Wilson Wilson shared shared Fisher’s Fisher's concern concern at the dangers posed posed by craft to to large large ships narrow at the dangers by torpedo torpedo craft ships cruising cruising the the narrow seas fleet seas and and agreed agreed that that in in the the event event of of war war with with Germany Germany the the battle battle fleet must renmust ordinarily ordinarily be be kept kept out out of of the the North North Sea. Sea. He He accepted accepted that that “the “the rendezvous for dezvous would would be be in in the the Orkneys, Orkneys, and and there there the the fleet fleet would would lie, lie, ready ready for battle, only battle, only only cruisers cruisers and and destroyers destroyers in in the the North North Sea.”49 Sea.”® There There was was only one main one point point of of divergence. divergence. Whereas Whereas Fisher Fisher would would have have preferred preferred the the main fleet under fleet always always to to remain remain in in northern northern waters, waters, seeking seeking battle battle only only under exceptionally exceptionally favorable favorable tactical tactical conditions conditions near near to to the the British British coast, coast, Wilson periodic Wilson was was prepared prepared to to risk risk sending sending the the fleet fleet southward southward on on periodic “sweeps” was “sweeps” in in the the hope hope of of catching catching enemy enemy warships warships at at sea.50 sea. The The plan plan was not not unreasonable unreasonable and and several several of of Fisher Fisher disciples, disciples, including including Jellicoe, Jellicoe, approved. the approved. Otherwise Otherwise Wilson Wilson and and Fisher Fisher were were in in total total agreement agreement over over the operational operational deployment deployment of of the the fleet fleet in in aa war war against against Germany. Germany. Or Or so so itit seemed seemed to to Fisher Fisher when when he he finally finally relinquished relinquished the the reigns reigns of of power power on on 25 25 January January 1910. 1910. On On the the afternoon afternoon of of 23 23 August August 1911, 1911, at at a a special special meeting meeting of of politipolitical to discal and and military military leaders leaders convened convened by by the the secretary secretary of of state state for for war war to discuss war with with cuss British British action action in in case case the the “Agadir “Agadir crisis” crisis” escalated escalated into into war Germany,5| Germany,” Wilson Wilson demonstrated demonstrated that that he he held held a a fundamentally fundamentally different different view to the the view of of North North Sea Sea strategy strategy from from his his predecessor.52 predecessor.” The The background background to crisis to aa crisis will will be be examined examined properly properly in in the the next next chapter. chapter. Responding Responding to request in request from from Prime Prime Minister Minister Asquith Asquith to to explain explain the the navy’s navy’s intentions intentions in the an the event event of of war war with with Germany, Germany, the the first first sea sea lord lord proceeded proceeded to to outline outline an extraordinary “the whole whole extraordinary war war plan plan involving involving the the close close blockade blockade of of “the German supGerman North North Sea Sea coast,” coast,” backed backed by by units units of of the the main main fleet fleet in in close close sup._port.** port.53 While that While Reginald Reginald McKenna McKenna listened listened in in horror, horror, Wilson Wilson explained explained that the the Royal Royal Navy Navy “had “had no no wish wish to to prevent prevent the the German German Fleet Fleet from from coming coming out and out [but] [but] unfortunately, unfortunately, if if we we left left them them free free to to do do so, so, their their destroyers destroyers and submarines to prepresubmarines could could get get out out also, also, and and their their exit exit it it was was essential essential to vent.”54 vent.” Anticipating Anticipating likely likely objections, objections, the the first first sea sea lord lord went went on on to to explain flotilla explain that that the the navy navy lacked lacked sufficient sufficient destroyers destroyers to to employ employ aa flotilla strategy the only only Strategy or or an an observational observational blockade, blockade, and and consequently consequently the way way of of keeping keeping an an effective effective watch watch over over German German ports ports was was to to impose impose aa

close close blockade. blockade. To To alleviate alleviate some some of of the the obvious obvious logistical logistical difficulties difficulties inin operating proposed operating destroyers destroyers so so far far from from the the British British coast, coast, Wilson Wilson proposed immediately immediately to to dispatch dispatch the the Royal Royal Marines Marines supported supported by by up up to to a a division division of as an of regular regular troops troops to to seize seize the the German German island island of of Heligoland Heligoland for for use use as an advanced advanced refueling refueling base base by by the the inshore inshore squadron. squadron. He He closed closed his his presenpresentation tation by by observing observing that that he he “did “did not not anticipate anticipate any any difficulty” difficulty” with with such such an operation.” operation.55 an Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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miliand milipolitical and senior political of senior audience of his audience left his presentation left Wilson’s presentation Wilson’s tary leaders leaders incredulous. incredulous. ItIt was was not not so so much much the the patent patent absurdity absurdity of of the the tary plan plan that that shocked shocked the the politicians politicians so so much much as as Wilson’s Wilson’s insistence insistence on on the the need need for for absolute absolute secrecy.56 secrecy. (The (The often often remarked remarked impracticability impracticability of of his his scheme scheme has has become become much much more more glaring glaring with with hindsight.) hindsight.) The The prime prime minminister ister could could hardly hardly believe believe his his ears ears when when the the first first sea sea lord lord declared declared that that his his plan plan of of operations operations “was “was not not even even known known to to the the fleet.”57 fleet.”*” Yet Yet it it was was true. true. According According to to Vice Vice Adm. Adm. Prince Prince Louis Louis of of Battenberg, Battenberg, who who then then comcommanded manded the the third third and and forth forth divisions divisions of of the the Home Home Fleet, Fleet, and and who who shortshortly afterwards joined the Board of Admiralty as second ly afterwards joined the Board of Admiralty as second sea sea lord, lord, no no one, one, not not even even the the “First “First Lord Lord [McKenna] [McKenna] nor nor War War Minister Minister [Haldane] [Haldane] (both (both present) present) [had] [had] heard heard a a word word of of this this scheme, scheme, which which Wilson Wilson had had worked worked out in minute detail.”58 Even Charles Ottley, the former DNl and out in minute detail.”*® Even Charles Ottley, the former DNI and now now seesecretary retary to to the the CID, CID, was was dumbstruck. dumbstruck. He He too too he he had had never never heard heard about about this this “lunatic” “lunatic” plan plan before.59 before.*® This This being being so, so, it it is is more more than than likely likely the the scheme scheme had had not not even even been been appraised appraised by by the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s own own Naval Naval Intelligence Intelligence Department;60 Ottley still had many Department;® Ottley still had many friends friends inside inside the the Admiralty Admiralty includincluding ing the the current current DNl, DNI, Rear Rear Adm. Adm. Alexander Alexander Bethell, Bethell, with with whom whom he he reguregularly larly discussed discussed strategical strategical questions. questions. Six Six weeks weeks after after the the meeting meeting Ottley Ottley wrote wrote to to Winston Winston Churchill, Churchill, the the home home secretary, secretary, who who had had also also been been present present at at the the meeting“ meeting:®' When When iI was was BM DNI (in (in 1906)—a 1906)—a special special committee committee of of officers officers of of which which Captain Captain Ballard Ballard was was one, one, of of which which Captain Captain [Maurice] [Maurice] Hankey Hankey was was secresecretary, sat, sat, by by Sir Sir John John Fisher's Fisher’s orders orders to to investigate investigate the the plan plan of of campaign campaign tary, for for a a war war with with Germany. Germany. We We then then came came to to the the conclusion conclusion that—much that—much as as we we should should have have liked liked to to take take Heligoland—the Heligoland—the scheme scheme was was utterly utterly impracimpractical. Itit could could not not be be done. done. .. .. .. Now, Now, Ii don’t don’t say say we we were were right right or or wrong. wrong. tical. But But II will will wager wager any any money money that that the the committee’s committee’s work work was was never never considconsidered by by Sir Sir A. A. K. K. Wilson Wilson when when he he decided, decided, off off his his own own bat, bat, in in aa contrary contrary ered sense.62 sense.”

Without Without exception, exception, historians historians who who have have read read the the minutes minutes of of this this meeting meeting have subsequently condemned Sir Arthur Wilson as dangerously have subsequently condemned Sir Arthur Wilson as dangerously poor poor strategist who who was was blind blind to to the the impact impact of of technological technological change change upon upon the the Strategist conduct of of war war at at sea. sea. How How was was itit possible, possible, they they cry, cry, that that one one of of the the most most conduct respected respected admirals admirals in in the the Royal Royal Navy Navy could could have have proposed, proposed, in in 1911, 1911, in in the the age age of of mines mines and and submarines, submarines, aa return return to to the the close close blockade blockade stratestrategy? gy? Yet Yet none none have have ever ever seriously seriously attempted attempted to to answer answer this this question. question. It It was was simpler, simpler, they they found, found, to to tar tar all all other other naval naval planners planners of of this this period period with with the the same same brush.63 brush.® But But what what these these historians historians have have failed failed to to realize realize is is that, that, after after being being appraised appraised of of their their nature, nature, the the majority majority of of senior senior naval naval officers officers in in the the fleet fleet roundly roundly condemned condemned Wilson’s Wilson’s anachronistic anachronistic strategic strategic Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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blockclose blockof aa close idea of any idea against any strongly against so strongly was so plans. opinion was Naval opinion plans. Naval blockade Wilson’s that doubtful highly is it that it is highly doubtful that Wilson’s blockade indeed, that ade Germany, indeed, of Germany, ade of event the event in the executed in been executed have been would have scheme would strategy Heligoland scheme his Heligoland or his strategy or Wilson Arthur when that show documents show that when Arthur Wilson Admiralty documents of Internal Admiralty war. Internal of war. war appropriate war the appropriate 1911, the August 1911, in August CID in the CID to the plan to announced his plan announced his they later, weeks several When, up.64 When, several weeks later, they drawn up.“ been drawn yet been orders not yet had not orders had February in February Bridgeman—who in Francis Bridgeman—who fleet, Francis the fleet, to the were issued to finally issued were finally protested chief—immediately protested in chief—immediately commander in appointed commander 1911 been appointed had been 1911 had Adm. Vice Adm. command, Vice in command, second in His second unworkable.65 His was unworkable.® the therein was plan therein the plan operatof suggestion of operatany suggestion to any opposed to equally opposed was equally Sir Callaghan, was George Callaghan, Sir George base, advanced base, an advanced capture an to capture trying to or trying coast or German coast the German off the fleet off the fleet ing the ing behind logic behind the logic see the could see admirals could The admirals Battenberg.66 The as Adm. Battenberg.® Vice Adm. was Vice as was force maintain aa force to maintain destroyers to sufficient destroyers lacked sufficient navy lacked the navy plan; the Wilson’s Wilson’s plan; doubtthey doubtBut they base. But advanced base. an advanced without an position without exposed position an exposed in such an in such purthe purfor the Heligoland for of Heligoland Island of the Island capturing the of capturing practicability of ed the practicability ed the pointrefused pointCallaghan refused and Callaghan Bridgeman and September, Bridgeman early September, In early pose.67 In pose.” (T) Commodore (T) the Commodore for the prepared for Orders prepared War Orders draft War the draft endorse the blank to endorse blank to over dispute over the dispute Before the squadron. Before inshore squadron. the inshore command the to command designated designated to Wilson however, Wilson resolved, however, be resolved, could be strategy could blockade strategy close blockade the proposed close the proposed Bridgeman Francis Bridgeman Sir Francis Admiralty. Sir the Admiralty. from the expelled from were expelled and McKenna were and McKenna lord. first lord. new first the new Churchill the S. Churchill Winston S. and Winston lord and sea lord first sea became became first consein conseand in idea, and the idea, at the laughed at “Churchill laughed Bridgeman, “Churchill to Bridgeman, According to According board.”68 the board.” by the went by scheme went the scheme quence the quence on Wilson on by Wilson expressed by opinions expressed the opinions question: ifif the one question: leaves one This still leaves This still perbeen perhave been possibly have Fisher possibly could Fisher how could genuine, how were genuine, 1911 were 23 August 1911 23 August against war against in aa war policy in strategic policy naval strategic on naval opinions on their opinions that their suaded that suaded seemed and seemed claimed and undeniably claimed he undeniably similar—as he broadly similar—as were broadly Germany were Germany as resigned as Fisher resigned When Fisher simple. When explanation isis simple. The explanation believe? The to believe? genuinely to genuinely utterwas uttersuccessor was his successor that his believe that to believe right to every right had every he had lord, he sea lord, first sea first Sir 1909, Sir and 1909, 1906 and Between 1906 strategies. Between blockade strategies. close blockade all close to all opposed to Iy opposed ly close believed aa close he believed that he stated that consistently stated and consistently explicitly and Wilson explicitly Arthur Wilson Arthur declared he declared 1907, he In 1907, impracticable. In be impracticable. to be coast to German coast the German of the blockade of blockade lead not lead would not effective itit would were effective strategy were such aa strategy even ifif such that even opinion that his opinion his will sea will at sea vessels at their vessels of their capture of actual capture “The actual results.69 “The decisive results.” any decisive to any to their in their inactive in them inactive rendering them merely rendering than merely harm than more harm much more them much do them do conthe conto the come to they come eventually they “and ifif eventually paper, “and one paper, on one argued on he argued ports,” he ports,” at arrived at have arrived shall have we shall out, we venture out, to venture great to too great risk isis too the risk that the clusion that clusion loss and loss risk and less risk much less with much in, with them in, blockaded them we blockaded as ifif we result as same result the same the when convictions when his convictions reaffirmed his Wilson reaffirmed 1909, Wilson In 1909, ourselves.”70 In to ourselves.” to he conclusion,” he the conclusion,” to the came to enquiry. “I“I came Beresford enquiry. the Beresford before the testifying before testifying close really close keep aa really not keep could not you could “that you minister, “that prime minister, the prime to the explained to explained the poladopt the must adopt you must therefore you that therefore and that ports, and German ports, the German off the watch off watch Lambert, Nicolas. 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icy icy of of giving giving the the enemy enemy every every possible possible opportunity opportunity of of getting getting to to sea sea in in the the hope hope you you will will catch catch him him when when he he is is at at sea.”" sea.”” Towards Towards the the end end of of his his cross-examination, moreover, Wilson openly castigated castigated Beresford cross-examination, moreover, Wilson openly Beresford for for proposing proposing to to deploy deploy British British destroyers destroyers right right up up to to the the German German coast.72 coast.” When When Asquith Asquith had had asked asked him him to to clarify clarify his his views views on on the the best best strategic strategic disposition of of the the fleet fleet against against Germany Germany he he had had replied replied that: disposition that: after aa great great deal deal of of consideration consideration Ii decided decided that that you you could could not not keep keep aa realrealafter ly ly effective effective watch watch off off the the German German ports, ports, because because of of the the risk. risk. If If you you send send a a small small! force force of of destroyers destroyers there, there, they they are are liable liable to to be be overwhelmed overwhelmed by by the the _' larger larger force force of of German German destroyers. destroyers. If, If, on on the the other other hand, hand, you you send send a a large large force force of of destroyers, destroyers, you you will will get get such such an an awful awful confusion confusion . . . besides besides that, that, there isis the the impossibility impossibility of of keeping keeping aa large large force force over over there.” there.73 there

At At no no time time did did Wilson Wilson give give the the slightest slightest hint hint of of being being interested interested in in close blockade strategies or close blockade strategies or plans plans to to capture capture advanced advanced bases bases on on the the German German coast. coast. Furthermore, Furthermore, when when pressed pressed by by Beresford Beresford to to give give an an estimate estimate of of how how many many destroyers destroyers the the Royal Royal Navy Navy would would need need if if it it ever ever he he wanted wanted to to impose impose an an effective effective close close blockade blockade of of the the German German ports, ports, Wilson Wilson reply reply had had been been as as uncompromising uncompromising as as it it was was emphatic. emphatic. “As “As I| do do not not want want to to work work on on the the German German coast,” coast,” he he had had retorted, retorted, “i “I do do not not want want so so many.”74 many.”” Unlikely Unlikely as as it it may may seem seem for for a a man man so so renowned renowned for for his his inflexibility, inflexibility, it it would would seem seem that that between between 1909 1909 and and 1911 1911 Wilson Wilson completely completely changed changed his his mind mind about about the the desirability desirability of of close close blockade. blockade. It It is is impossible impossible to to say say what what exactly exactly triggered triggered this this dramatic dramatic reversal. reversal. Unless Unless his his private private papers papers and and diary diary are are recovered recovered we we shall shall never never fully fully understand understand his his motives.75 motives.” Yet major Yet it it does does seem seem that that the the growing growing submarine submarine menace menace had had been been a a major consideration. consideration. According According to to Capt. Capt. Roger Roger Keyes Keyes (inspecting (inspecting captain captain of of submarines, submarines, 1910—15) 1910-15) the the “enterprising “enterprising exploits” exploits” of of HMS HMS D1 D/ during during the the summer maneuvers maneuvers of of 1910, 1910, “opened “opened the the eyes eyes of of the the First First Sea Sea Lord, Lord, Summer Admiral Sir Sir Arthur Arthur Wilson, Wilson, to to the the offensive offensive possibilities possibilities of of submarines, submarines, Admiral which he he had had hitherto hitherto regarded regarded as as defensive defensive vessels.””* vessels.”16 Operating Operating 600 600 which miles from Portsmouth, D] had successfully “torpedoed” two hostile miles from Portsmouth, D1 had successfully “torpedoed” two hostile armored cruisers cruisers before before returning returning to to base. base. Although Although aa decade decade earlier earlier armored Wilson had had stood stood out out against against the the Royal Royal Navy Navy developing developing the the submarine, submarine, Wilson will be be recalled, recalled, at at the the same same time time he he had had accepted accepted that that in in time time the the itit will submarine would would evolve evolve into into aa formidable formidable threat threat to to British British naval naval submarine supremacy. To To most most people people these these two two opinions opinions were were contradictory: contradictory: but but supremacy. not not to to Sir Sir Arthur Arthur Wilson. Wilson. As As illogical illogical as as it it may may sound sound today, today, it it was was preprecisely cisely because because “his “his eyes eyes had had been been opened” opened” to to the the offensive offensive possibilities possibilities of of submarines submarines that that in in 1911 1911 he he began began advocating advocating a a close close blockade blockade of of l Germany! Lambtg,gag! @53a Fisher'5 Naval Revolution. E-book C,o|umbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|. handle. net/2027/heb.31569. Downloaded on behalf of Digital Theological Library, Claremont, CA

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shows 191] shows August 1911 23 August on 23 taken on minutes taken the minutes AA close of the examination of close examination close why close for why CID for the CID to the provided to Wilson provided that explanation Wilson the explanation was the this was that this safety “the safety that: “the Opinion that: his opinion stated his blockade clearly stated He clearly “essential.”77 He was “essential.””’ blockade was getfrom getdestroyers from German destroyers the German of preventing the upon preventing depended upon fleet depended our fleet of our of position of the position knew the destroyers knew “if destroyers ting that: “if explained that: further explained He further out.”78 He ting out.” night. at night. success at with success meet with to meet certain to almost certain aa fleet were almost they were accurately they fleet accurately sink could sink night itit could at night battleship at of aa battleship IfIf aa destroyer yards of 3,000 yards within 3,000 got within destroyer got manoeuvres recent manoeuvres of recent experience of the experience it.””? “all the that “all insisted that he insisted Finally, he it.”79 Finally, policy other policy “[a]ny other because “[{a]ny necessary” because showed was necessary” blockade was close blockade that close showed that require aa would require defense] would flotilla defense] or flotilla blockade or observation blockade [such an observation as an [such as Wilson way, Wilson another way, Put another greatly destroyers.”80 Put of destroyers.”*° number of increased number greatly increased net” “flotilla net” cast aa “flotilla to cast destroyers to the destroyers lacked the Navy lacked Royal Navy the Royal believed that the believed that the ambush the to ambush seeking to flotillas seeking German flotillas catching German of catching sure of be sure fine to be enough to fine enough of half of southern half the southern of the “sweeps” of periodic “sweeps” its periodic of its one of on one fleet on British battle fleet British battle in aa not in were not moreover, were duties, moreover, observation duties, on observation Warships on the Sea. Warships North Sea. the North position position to to prevent prevent hostile hostile submarines submarines from from putting putting to to sea sea or or getting getting into into Royal the Royal place the only place The only fleet. The British fleet. the British at the torpedoes at shoot torpedoes positions to shoot positions to Navy could could be be certain certain of of intercepting intercepting German German torpedo torpedo craft, craft, therefore, therefore, Navy reasonthe reasonwas the then was This then ports. This own ports. was their own off their waters off shallow waters the shallow in the was in ing behind behind Wilson’s Wilson’s close close blockade blockade strategy; strategy; his his object object was was to to safeguard safeguard ing North the North in the cruising in was cruising while itit was submarines while the from submarines fleet from battle fleet British battle the British Sea Sea looking looking for for an an opportunity opportunity to to fulfill fulfill the the Royal Royal Navy's Navy’s primary primary stratestratefleet. main fleet. enemy’s main the enemy's of the gic destruction of the destruction objective, the gic objective, When When in in 1913 1913 Sir Sir Arthur Arthur Wilson Wilson again again appeared appeared before before the the CID cm to to discuss North North Sea Sea strategy, strategy, he he reaffirmed reaffirmed his discuss his conviction conviction that that he he thought thought itit imperative imperative for for the the Royal Royal Navy Navy to to maintain maintain aa close close blockade blockade of of German German ports ports in in order order to to prevent prevent their their submarines submarines escaping escaping to to the the open open seas. seas. “!“1 shoal in shoal them in catching them see “except catching said, “except he said, this,” he stopping this,” of stopping way of no way see no water at at the the mouths mouths of of their their own own rivers?“ rivers.”®' water II think think that that the the advent advent of of the the submarine submarine isis the the reason reason which which makes makes the the

wits its wits put its must put close Admiralty must the Admiralty and the necessary, and absolutely necessary, blockade absolutely close blockade subthe else or together to see how they will keep that close blockade or else the subtogether to see how they will keep that close blockade marines marines will will get get out. out. The The principal principal danger danger [to [to the the British British battle battle fleet] fleet] is is the the submarine which which will will get get out.32 out.” submarine

apprecorrectly appreWilson correctly To Arthur Wilson Sir Arthur hand Sir one hand the one on the while on summarize: while To summarize: that realized that and realized craft and ciated torpedo craft from torpedo fleet from British fleet the British to the danger to the danger ciated the itit was was not not practicable practicable for for the the British British battle battle fleet fleet constantly constantly to to patrol patrol the the North North Sea Sea ready ready to to intercept intercept the the High High Sea Sea Fleet, Fleet, on on the the other other he he refused refused to to accept accept that that battleships battleships were were redundant redundant in in narrow narrow seas seas and and remained remained determined determined to to employ employ the the battle battle fleet fleet in in the the North North Sea. Sea. Although Although Wilson Wilson far far better better understood understood the the submarine’s submarine’s potential potential than than the the majority majority of of Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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senior naval naval officers, officers, he he simply simply would would not not accept accept the the view view that that subsubsenior marines made made close close blockade blockade impossible. impossible. He He believed believed that that by by blockadblockadmarines ing ing the the enemy’s enemy’s ports, ports, hostile hostile submarines submarines could could be be prevented prevented from from getgetting to to sea—thus sea—thus neutralizing neutralizing the the torpedo torpedo danger danger in in the the North North Sea. Sea. To To ting most most people people this this reasoning reasoning was was illogical—but illogical—but not not to to Wilson. Wilson. A A clue clue to to understanding understanding how how Wilson Wilson developed developed his his paradoxical paradoxical reareasoning soning lies lies in in the the report report he he submitted submitted to to the the Admiralty Admiralty in in March March 1904 1904 on on the series series of of exercises exercises he he arranged arranged off off Portsmouth Portsmouth between between the the early early the Holland Holland submarine submarine boats boats and and the the Channel Channel Fleet.83 Fleet.” While While observing observing the the maneuvers, maneuvers, Wilson Wilson developed developed very very definite definite ideas ideas on on the the capabilities capabilities and and weaknesses weaknesses of of submarines. submarines. He He noted, noted, for for instance, instance, that that the the underwater underwater craft craft had had experienced experienced difficulties difficulties in in attacking attacking smaller smaller targets targets such such as as torpedo torpedo boats boats and and steam steam pinnaces, pinnaces, and and appeared appeared to to be be handicapped handicapped when when operating operating in in shallow shallow water.84 water. In In the the process, process, he he turned turned aa deaf deaf ear ear to submarines had had been the flotilla to claims claims that that the the submarines been ignoring ignoring the flotilla craft craft in in order order to to save save their their torpedoes torpedoes for for more more valuable valuable targets. targets. After After the the Irish Irish Sea Sea maneuvers maneuvers of of August August 1904, 1904, Wilson Wilson again again ignored ignored the the contrary contrary opinions opinions expressed expressed by by the the majority majority of of his his subordinates subordinates and and reported reported to to the the Admiralty Admiralty that that his his efforts efforts to to protect protect his his fleet fleet against against submarine submarine attack attack with with small small craft craft had had been been “on “on the the whole whole successful.”85 successful.”® Thereafter Thereafter Wilson Wilson never never wavered wavered in in his his belief belief that that submarines submarines could could be be deterred deterred from from putting putting to to sea sea by by the the threat threat of of being being rammed rammed in in shallow shallow water water by by small small surface surface craft craft which which he he believed believed were were immune immune to to torpedo torpedo attack.86 attack.” When six six years years later later Wilson Wilson was was placed placed in in charge charge at at the the Admiralty, Admiralty, When he was was still still blind blind to to the the true true capabilities capabilities of of the the submarine. submarine. One One of of his his he first to forbid forbid the the removal removal of of cumbersome pickfirst acts acts as as first first sea sea lord lord was was to cumbersome picket et boats boats (fifty-foot-long (fifty-foot-long steam steam pinnaces) pinnaces) which which cluttered cluttered the the decks decks of of battleships, that they they would would be be required required “for defence battleships, on on the the grounds grounds that “for defence against against submarines.”87 submarines.”*’ He He simply simply would would not not listen listen to to warnings warnings from from two two Roger and Roger Hall and Sydney Hall submarines, Sydney of submarines, captains of inspecting captains successive inspecting successive pinnaces, and pinnaces, destroyers and patrolling destroyers the patrolling vigilant the however vigilant that however Keyes, that Keyes, sea to sea submarines to of submarines number of getting aa number in getting difficulty in no difficulty be no should be “there should “there past past an an inshore inshore blockading blockading squadron squadron of of light light craft.”88 craft.”** After After trials trials by led by Flotilla led Destroyer Flotilla First Destroyer the First and the flotilla and submarine flotilla between aa submarine between of summer of the summer during the conducted during Arbuthnot conducted Robert Arbuthnot (T) Robert Commodore (T) Commodore 1911, Keyes Keyes reemphasized reemphasized his his conviction conviction that that ifif the the navy navy deployed deployed 1911, submarines, itit possessing submarines, enemy possessing an enemy of an coast of the coast “off the inshore “off destroyers inshore destroyers using [submarines] using craft [submarines] older craft the older of the Any of disaster. Any certain disaster. court certain would court would the the oldest oldest type type of of torpedo torpedo we we possess possess could could not not have have failed failed to to successsuccessfully fully torpedo torpedo such such an an easy easy prey.”89 prey.”*” Wilson Wilson remained remained unmoved. unmoved. Another Another step step Sir Sir Arthur Arthur took took shortly shortly after after joining joining the the Admiralty Admiralty was was b totdiexpajndF/FisNheg’sl secret anti-submarine anti-submarine committee.” committee.9n InIn March March 1910, expand Fisher’s secret

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Rear of Rear command of the command under the footing under firmer footing on aa firmer the placed on was placed body was new body the new authority the authority given the were given They were Tupper. They Adms. Reginald Tupper. and Reginald Burney and Cecil Burney Adms. Cecil of methods of conceivable methods all conceivable investigate all to investigate budget) to (and considerable budget) (and aa considerable

posas posrealistic as as realistic trials as make trials To make submarines. To detecting attacking submarines. and attacking detecting and One targets. One as targets. submarines as old submarines several old use several to use sible allowed to were allowed they were sible they to enabled itit to which enabled device which mechanical device with aa mechanical fitted with vessel, was fitted Al, was HMS A17/, vessel, HMS autosurface autothen surface and then maneuver, and dive, maneuver, could dive, run crew.91 ItIt could without aa crew.” run without resultbreakage resultmechanical breakage 1911 aa mechanical February 1911 in February matically. Unfortunately in matically. Unfortunately purthe purbefore the and before surfacing, and after surfacing, disengage after ed to disengage failing to motors failing the motors in the ed in to Attempts to disappeared. Attempts A1 disappeared. the A? her, the catch her, suing could catch boats could motor boats suing motor use the use involved the experiments involved Other experiments unsuccessful. Other locate were unsuccessful. vessel were the vessel locate the intriguing an intriguing 1912 an And inin 1912 submarines. And bomb submarines. of and bomb find and to find aircraft to of aircraft subof aa subpresence of the presence of the indication of an indication obtain an “to obtain attempt made “to was made attempt was of idea of “The idea apparatus.”92 “The magnetic apparatus.”” or magnetic electric or an electric merged by an submarine by merged submarine recalled purposes,” recalled locating purposes,” and locating signalling and for signalling waves for using ultrasonic waves using ultrasonic the during the (Sonar) during ASDIC (Sonar) of ASDIC development of the development with the involved with one scientist involved one scientist 1912.93 in 1912.” disaster in Titanic disaster the Titanic of the time of the time from the dated from First War, dated World War, First World survived. not survived. have not experiments have these experiments of these details of the details Sadly, the Sadly, Royal the Royal to the danger to the danger recognized the clearly recognized Wilson clearly Arthur Wilson Sir Arthur While Sir While was and was submarines and “oversea” submarines of “oversea” development of the development by the posed by Navy Navy posed becomafter becomcraft, after these craft, for these budget for German budget the German of the size of alarmed the size at the alarmed at to predecessor to his predecessor by his up by drawn up plans drawn shelved plans he shelved lord he sea lord first sea ing first ing 1910 Between 1910 budget. Between construction budget. submarine construction own submarine Britain’s own increase Britain’s increase eight ordering eight of ordering Instead of fell.94 Instead actually fell.” craft actually new craft on new spending on 1912, spending and 1912, and had predecessor had his predecessor as his estimates, as 1910 estimates, the 1910 under the submariners under class) submariners (D class) (D his of his remainder of the remainder for the that for decreed that and decreed two and deleted two Wilson deleted intended, Wilson intended, He year.95 He craft aa year.® six craft than six more than no more build no would build navy would the navy administration administration the reafinancial reapressing financial no pressing certainly no was certainly There was explanation. There no explanation. provided no provided prompted decision prompted the decision of the shortsightedness of The shortsightedness decision. The the decision. for the son for son fear his fear Jellicoe his Admiral Jellicoe Rear Admiral in Rear confide in to confide afterwards to shortly afterwards Fisher shortly Fisher tacboth tacin both alteration in immense alteration “the immense realize “the to realize seem to not seem did not Wilson did that Wilson that

causes,” now causes,” submarine now the submarine of the development of the development which the strategy which and strategy tics and tics his that his himself that satisfied himself had satisfied who had man who for aa man remark for curious remark which was aa curious which was successor understood understood the the conditions conditions of of modern modern naval naval warfare.* warfare.96 successor thirty-eight the thirty-eight that the directed that arbitrarily directed Wilson arbitrarily 1910, Wilson February 1910, In February In with cooperate with to cooperate detailed to been detailed had been which had boats which torpedo boats and torpedo destroyers and destroyers

were Sea were North Sea the North operations inin the for operations sections for submarine sections seagoing submarine the seagoing the (commandNeville (commandGeorge Neville Adm. George Vice Adm. flotillas.97 Vice destroyer flotillas.*” to destroyer reassigned to reassigned to explained to privately explained Fleet) privately Home Fleet) the Home of the divisions of crew divisions nucleus crew the nucleus ing the ing hear won’t hear W. won't K. W. A. K. “Sir A. submarines: “Sir of submarines: captain of inspecting captain the distraught inspecting the distraught be should be latter should the latter says the he says submarines, he with submarines, working with destroyers working of destroyers of destroyers torpedo-boat destroyers the torpedo-boat vessels, the parent vessels, own parent their own by their attended on by L b rt N_ lattehngedNonR E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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being being wanted wanted for for other other work.”98 work.”® The The first first sea sea lord lord insisted insisted that that British British submarines Submarines must must be be restricted restricted to to local local defense defense duties. duties. In In wartime, wartime, the the flotillas flotillas were were to to be be broken broken up up and and reorganized reorganized into into what what can can best best be be described described as as “fire “fire brigades” brigades” comprised comprised of of “three “three boats boats plus plus a a parent parent ship ship or or tender,” tender,” distributed distributed “at “at various various strategic strategic points points on on the the [east] [east] coast coast ready In “their ready at at short short notice notice to to go go anywhere anywhere they they may may be be required.”99 required.”®” In “their Lordships in the the Lordships opinion,” opinion,” Admiral Admiral May May noted noted acidly, acidly, submarine submarine “patrol “patrol in sense of a continuous watch at sea will only be required in the Pentland sense of a continuous watch at sea will only be required in the Pentland Firth Firth [between [between Scotland Scotland and and the the Orkneys] Orkneys] and and at at the the approaches approaches to to the the Thames and in the Straits of Dover.”‘°° Even then, they be postThames and in the Straits of Dover.”' Even then, they were were to to be posted ed no no more more than than ten ten to to twelve twelve miles miles offshore; offshore; aa distance distance of of twenty-eight twenty-eight miles was considered the miles was considered to to be. be. too too far."" far.’"' Most Most flag flag officers officers thought thought the change change in in deployment deployment was was a a mistake mistake and and frequent frequent representations representations were were made made to to the the Admiralty Admiralty for for the the decision decision to to be be reversed.102 reversed.'” Wilson’s Wilson’s efforts efforts to to diminish diminish the the role role of of the the submarine submarine in in British British naval naval strategy strategy provoked provoked strong strong criticism criticism from from the the admirals admirals afloat. afloat. Although Although there there were were flag flag officers officers serving serving in in the the Home Home Fleet Fleet in in 1910 1910 who who believed believed that that submarines submarines were were a a waste waste of of money, money, such such as as Rear Rear Adm. Adm. Doveton Doveton Sturdee, Sturdee, they they were were exceptions exceptions to to the the rule.103 rule.'” The The fleet fleet comcommander mander in in chief, chief, by by contrast, contrast, Adm. Adm. Sir Sir William William May, May, fully fully appreciated appreciated the the utility utility of of the the submarine. submarine. ln In mid-1910, mid-1910, he he decreed decreed that that “admirals “admirals and and captains captains should should be be more more conversant conversant with with submarines submarines and and their their methmethods, ods, and and that that more more exercises exercises should should take take place place in in conjunction conjunction with with the the fleet.”'04 fleet.”'* To To this this end end he he circulated circulated aa memorandum memorandum to to all all officers officers comcommanding manding warships warships in in his his fleet fleet outlining outlining the the capabilities capabilities and and tactics tactics of of submarines.105 submarines.'® Admiral Admiral May May further further demonstrated demonstrated his his appreciation appreciation of of the the submarine submarine by by informing informing the the Admiralty Admiralty of of his his wish wish to to deploy deploy them them in in large large numbers numbers to to support support any any surface surface squadrons squadrons operating operating near near the the German coast.'® coast.”6 Papers Papers written written by by the the Mobilization Mobilization Department Department conconGerman firm firm that that in in November November 1910, 1910, two two of of the the navy’s navy’s seven seven submarine submarine flotillas flotillas were were redesignated redesignated “offensive” “offensive” sections sections “for “for use use oversea oversea under under the the orders orders of of C-in-C, C-in-C, Home Home Fleets.”'07 Fleets.”'*’ Wilson’s Wilson’s thoughts thoughts on on this this matter matter are are not not recorded. recorded. Complexity Complexity and and Confusion: Confusion: 0n On the the Problems Problems of of Using Using a a Battle Battle Fleet Fleet in in the the North North Sea Sea By By 1910, 1910, most most British British admirals admirals had had been been convinced convinced that that “the “the German German Fleet Fleet is is recognised recognised as as practically practically our our only only likely likely opponent opponent (and (and aa formidable formidable one one too) too) for for some some time time to to come.”'08 come.”'® A A large large (and (and increasing) increasing) proportion of of the the fleet fleet was was based, based, trained trained and and exercised exercised in in home home waters. waters. proportion From From the the commander commander in in chief chief downwards, downwards, every every British British naval naval officer officer broad a was there while Yet Trafalgar. second the for d eagerly prepared for the second Trafalgar. Yet while there was a broad LambemgggsesrrljynpsrgpNar, va evolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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the at the objective, at ultimate objective, their ultimate to their as to officers as senior officers among senior consensus among consensus that sword the forge could they before that realized many realized that before they could forge the sword that time many same time same Sea High Sea the High of the battleships of sixteen battleships the sixteen over the victory over them victory give them would give would operating with problems several to solutions find to find solutions to several problems with operating had to first had they first Fleet, they Fleet, Put Sea. Put North Sea. the North of the waters of misty waters usually misty the usually in the fleet in battleship fleet large battleship aa large goal their that believed unanimously admirals although admirals unanimously believed that their goal way, although another way, another serious was serious there was battle, there in battle, Fleet in Sea Fleet High Sea the High of the destruction of the destruction was the was offiSome accomplished. be should this exactly this should be accomplished. Some offihow exactly over how disagreement over disagreement rapier—— the of precision fleet—the precision of the rapier— capable fleet—the highly capable small highly favored aa small cers favored cers possible—the battleships possible—the of battleships number of largest number the largest employ the to employ wanted to others wanted others had tactics had fleet tactics years, fleet twenty years, least twenty at least For at cutlass. For the cutlass. of the force of brute force brute aspect only aspect the only About the Navy.109 About Royal Navy.'*? the Royal in the subject in controversial subject been aa controversial been its engage its would engage navy would the navy that the was that agree was could agree admirals could which admirals upon which upon three or three two or than two more than no more of no consisting of fleet” consisting “battle fleet” with aa “battle adversary with adversary comsquadron comeach squadron line, each single line, in aa single deployed in battleships deployed of battleships squadrons of squadrons conlittle conwas little there was that there Beyond that units. Beyond eight units. and eight four and between four prising between prising sensus. sensus. comof comproblem of the problem was the fleet was battle fleet large battle to aa large obstacle to largest obstacle The largest The had warships had of warships speed of and speed range and firepower, range the firepower, While the control. While and control. mand and mand comto comships to of ships ability of the ability sail, the of sail, age of the age since the tremendously since advanced tremendously advanced Royal The Royal underdeveloped. The relatively underdeveloped. was relatively another was one another with one municate with municate at ships at its ships control its to control signals to lamp signals or lamp flag or visual flag upon visual relied upon still relied Navy still Navy had years had many years for many who for Bradford, who Edward Bradford, Adm. Edward Rear Adm. 1909, Rear In 1909, sea. In sea. no that no declared that Wilson, declared Arthur Wilson, Sir Arthur eminent Sir the eminent to the captain to flag captain as flag served as served than more than of more line of control aa line to contro! hope to reasonably hope could reasonably commander could fleet commander fleet be would be number would this number even this thought even officers thought Many officers battleships.“° Many twenty battleships.''? twenty for Lambton, for Hedworth Lambton, Adm. Hedworth tactician Adm. respected tactician The respected however. The unwieldy, however. unwieldy, battle of battle line of control aa line to control impracticable to was impracticable that itit was believed that instance, believed instance, admiral the and number that than that number and the admiral more than Any more units.m Any ten units.'"’ than ten longer than longer control— thus control— see—and thus to see—and able to be able not be would not ship would lead ship the lead in the commanding in commanding not would not ship would rear ship the rear accurately, the more accurately, or more line; or his line; in his ship in rearmost ship the rearmost the be able able to to see see the the flagship’s flagship’s signals. signals. be debate. the debate. confused the further confused technique further gunnery technique in gunnery advances in Rapid advances Rapid of experts of gunnery experts leading gunnery the leading firing, the long-range firing, adopted long-range navy adopted the navy After the After They academic. They was academic. discussion was tactical discussion such tactical all such that all insisted that day insisted the day the to warships to of warships line of long line for aa long impractical for simply impractical was simply that itit was contended that contended in conducted in experiments conducted firing experiments Live firing fleet. Live enemy fleet. an enemy at an effectively at shoot effectively shoot ships yards, ships 8,000 yards, as 8,000 short as as short ranges as at ranges even at that even shown that had shown 1908 had 1908 towards the the end end of of aa line line simply simply could could not not see see their their targets targets through through the the towards

of ahead of battleships ahead the battleships of the guns of and guns funnels and the funnels from the emanating from smoke emanating smoke them. Furthermore, Furthermore, the the Japanese Japanese navy navy had had experienced experienced exactly exactly the the same same them. problem problem in in fleet fleet actions actions against against Russian Russian squadrons squadrons in in 1904 1904 and and 1905.”2 1905.'” Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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of consist of battle consist of battle line of that aa line Gunnery recommended that therefore recommended experts therefore Gunnery experts no no more more than than six six to to eight eight units. units. But But few few senior senior officers officers listened listened to to them; them; about navy about the navy within the subject within gunnery controversial subject also aa controversial was also tactics was gunnery tactics always could always “experts” could which Other “experts” consensus.“3 Other little consensus.''® equally little was equally there was which there be be found found refute refute any any argument. argument. Some Some gunnery gunnery officers, officers, for for instance. instance, be would be line would of aa line end of the end at the ships at argued for ships problem for visibility problem the visibility that the argued that eliminated after after the the perfection perfection of of Adm. Adm. Percy Percy Scott’s Scott's “director” “director” gunlay— gunlayeliminated or more or was, more director was, Scott director The Scott ing development. The under development. then under system, then ing system, high tower high control tower ship’s control the ship’s atop the less, positioned atop gunsight positioned master gunsight less, aa master not was not but itit was helped, but smoke. ItIt helped, above and smoke. spray and sea spray from sea interference from above interference finally adopted adopted by by the the Royal Royal Navy Navy until until 1913.'" 1913.”4 finally There There was was an an alternative alternative solution solution to to the the problem problem of of commanding commanding aa of divisions of into divisions fleet into the fleet split the could split large chief could in chief commander in The commander force. The large force. four battleships battleships each each and and allow allow them them in in battle battle to to maneuver maneuver indepenindepenfour dently dently of of one one another. another. These These tactics tactics had had first first been been tested tested back back in in the the his of his result of as aa result 1893, as in 1893, death in his death 1890s after his But after Tryon. But George Tryon. Sir George by Sir 18903 by flagship flagship being being rammed rammed and and sunk sunk by by another another battleship battleship during during an an exerexerrevived tactics revived divisional tactics in divisional Interest in cise, abandoned.“5 Interest quickly abandoned.'" were quickly they were cise, they at them at employed them had employed Togo had after Admiral Togo that Admiral learned that officers learned British officers after British Royal the Royal years the six years next six the next For the the 1905.”6 For May 1905.''® in May Tsushima in of Tsushima Battle of the Battle Navy spasmodically spasmodically attempted attempted to to perfect perfect divisional divisional tactics tactics but but with with little little Navy energy. Again Again and and again again it it was was found found that that existing existing communications communications energy. battle, of battle, confusion of the confusion equipment Amidst the task. Amidst the task. to the up to not up simply not was simply equipment was In astray. In went astray. visual messages went wireless messages and wireless missed and often missed were often signals were visual signals the within the doctrine within tactical doctrine agreed tactical addition, an agreed of an lack of the lack of the because of addition, because subordinates his subordinates upon his Royal rely upon not rely could not chief could in chief commander in the commander Navy, the Royal Navy, experienced had experienced Togo had Admiral Togo to correctly. Admiral movements correctly. his movements anticipate his to anticipate to subordinates to the allowing subordinates of allowing perils of The perils Tsushima.“7 The at Tsushima.'” problem at same problem the same commanders fleet commanders ~‘ act British fleet to British demonstrated to been demonstrated had been independently had act independently maneuvers. 1909 maneuvers. the 1909 by during the Evan-Thomas during Hugh Evan-Thomas Comm. Hugh (acting) Comm. by (acting) at forward at proceeded forward Flushed had proceeded he had victories, he minor victories, of minor couple of with aa couple Flushed with fleet main fleet enemy main the enemy of the path of the path top into the straight into division straight his division with his speed with top speed single in single formed in fleet formed least aa fleet At least and annihilated.“8 At promptly annihilated.''® been promptly had been and had

detail. line defeated inin detail. be defeated not be could not line could mixture the mixture was the Another tactics was on tactics consensus on of consensus lack of the lack for the reason for Another reason Fleet. Home Fleet. the Home in the battleships in type battleships of predreadnought type and predreadnought dreadnought and of dreadnought all-big—gun enough all-big-gun possess enough Navy possess Not Royal Navy the Royal did the 1911 did of 1911 end of the end until the Not until would and itit would squadron, and ships “dreadnought” squadron, homogenous “dreadnought” first homogenous its first form its to form ships to combeen comhad been ships had take all-big—gun ships sufficient all-big-gun before sufficient years before two years another two take another commanfleet commanpleted meantime, fleet the meantime, In the Fleet. In Home Fleet. entire Home the entire equip the to equip pleted to deployed When deployed ders squadrons. When harlequin squadrons. form harlequin to form compelled to were compelled ders were modern more modern the more together handicapped the types handicapped older types the older battle, the of battle, line of in line together in Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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batpowerful batwith powerful armed with predreadnoughts, armed whereas predreadnoughts, addition, whereas In addition, ships. In ships. ranges, shorter ranges, at shorter best at fought best guns, fought quick-firing guns, caliber quick-firing medium caliber of medium teries of teries deliberate fire deliberate to fire designed to purposely designed been purposely had been ships had all-big-gun ships the all-big-gun the chief in chief commander in the commander Whether the ranges. Whether longer ranges. relatively longer at relatively only at salvoes only salvoes half least half at least therefore, at range, therefore, short range, or short long or at long enemy at the enemy engage the to engage chose chose to disadvantage. at aa disadvantage. fight at to fight compelled to be compelled his would be line would his line Not all all the the flag flag officers officers holding holding appointments appointments in in the the Home Home Fleet Fleet in in Not all-big—gun fast, all-big-gun of fast, advantages of the advantages to the over to won over been won yet been had yet 1910 had 1910 Rear revealed Rear reason,” revealed with reason,” obviously with and obviously said, and “It isis said, ships. “It armored ships. armored Admiral Admiral Sturdee Sturdee to to one one correspondent: correspondent: yards 10,000 yards at 10,000 that at and that range, and her range, choose her can choose [Dreadnought] can she [Dreadnought] that she that of aa stage of opening stage the opening in the opponents, in her opponents, on her damage on such damage inflict such can inflict she can she fight that that the the opponent opponent will will not not care care about about itit and and the the matter matter will will be be settled settled fight there and and then: then: i.e. i.e. the the opponent opponent will will be be demoralised. demoralised. .. .. .. Those Those who who there favour and consequently consequently cheaper cheaper type type [of [of battleship] battleship] argue, argue, favour a a smaller smaller and

are, there are, round there year round whole year the whole taking the that taking truth, that considerable truth, with considerable again with again in in the the North North Sea, Sea, on on average, average, twenty-five twenty-five days days out out of of every every thirty thirty on on which which you cannot cannot see see 10,000 10,000 yards, yards, and and that that about about 6,000 6,000 yards yards isis the the distance distance you at be opened, at which which fire fire will will be opened, and and such such being being the the case case one one of of the the great great once.“9 at once.'" disappears at Dreadnought disappears the Dreadnought of the advantages of advantages

to prepared to was prepared he was though he view; though latter view; the latter to the subscribed to Sturdee subscribed Sturdee

admit admit that that “the “the last last word word has has not not been been said said in in 12-inch 12-inch gun gun laying, laying, and and there there is is every every reason reason to to hope hope that that the the rate rate of of hitting hitting with with this this gun gun will will be improved improved presently.”'?° presently.”120 But But there there were were no no guarantees. guarantees. Before Before then, then, be overand overgear, and fire-control gear, new fire-control perfect new and perfect develop and to develop had to navy had the navy the come reluctance reluctance to to pay pay for for all all units units of of the the battle battle fleet fleet to to be be fitted fitted with with come up-to-date up-to-date instruments.”‘ instruments.'*' In In the the meantime, meantime, even even Sir Sir William William May May found found himself himself bound bound to to confess confess that that be he anticipated anticipated the the weather weather would would probaprobably restrict restrict battle battle ranges ranges in in the the North North Sea Sea to to no no more more than than 6,000 6,000 bly yards.‘22 at yards.'”? The The supposition supposition that that battle battle would would most most likely likely take take place place at shorter shorter ranges ranges was was greatly greatly strengthened strengthened by by intelligence intelligence assessments assessments that the the High High Sea Sea Fleet Fleet was was determined determined to to fight fight at at ranges ranges considerably considerably that less less than than 8,000 8,000 meters, meters, and and probably probably less less than than 5,000 5,000 meters meters where where they they could could employ employ their their quick-fire quick-fire secondary secondary batteries.123 batteries.’ By By 1910, 1910, British British naval naval intelligence intelligence had had established established that that the the Germans Germans had had recentrecently at ly given given up up practicing practicing long-range long-range gunnery gunnery in in favor favor of of seeking seeking battle battle at close close range. range. This, This, as as it it happened, happened, suited suited the the Royal Royal Navy. Navy. Development Development problems problems with with the the highly highly sophisticated sophisticated helm-free helm-free Pollen Pollen fire-control fire-control system, to system, not not to to mention mention escalating escalating costs, costs, encouraged encouraged the the Admiralty Admiralty to abandon abandon its its five five year year effort effort to to develop-a develop-a mechanized mechanized system system of of gunnery gunnery fire-control.‘24 fire-control.'* The The decision decision in in 1909—10 1909-10 to to prepare prepare for for fleet fleet action action at at Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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ranges ranges of of 6,000 6,000 to to 8,000 8,000 yards yards had had implications implications which which extended extended far far beyond beyond battle battle tactics tactics and and gunnery gunnery policy.‘25 policy.'* Another Another major major problem problem in in operating operating aa battle battle fleet fleet in in the the North North Sea Sea was was the the danger danger from from torpedoes. torpedoes. Between Between 1909 1909 and and 1911, 1911, more more and and more more officers officers came came to to accept accept that that the the steadily steadily increasing increasing range range and and power power of of the the torpedo torpedo posed posed an an undeniable undeniable threat threat to to battleships battleships cruising cruising narrow narrow seas. Seas. The The Admiralty Admiralty picked picked a a bad bad time time to to abandon abandon the the “quest “quest for for reach” reach” in in gunnery. gunnery. In In December December 1908, 1908, aa 21-inch 21-inch “heater” “heater” torpedo torpedo (mark (mark 1) 1) had had run run 7,500 7,500 yards yards at at thirty thirty knots. knots. By By late late 1909, 1909, these these new new weapons weapons were were beginning beginning to to reach reach the the fleet fleet and and the the commander commander in in chief chief was was anxanxious ious for for deliveries deliveries to to be be accelerated.126 accelerated.'” In In June June 1910, 1910, the the DNl, DNI, Rear Rear Adm. Adm. Alexander Alexander Bethell, Bethell, confidentially confidentially noted noted that that “the “the range range and and speed speed of of the the Whitehead Whitehead torpedo torpedo has has enormously enormously increased increased in in the the last last few few years, years, and and there there is is every every probability probability of of its its being being still still further further developed. developed. It It is is likely likely therefore therefore that that a a range range exceeding exceeding that that of of the the gun gun will will be be obtained, obtained, and and that that fleet fleet actions actions may may have have to to be be fought fought Within within torpedo torpedo range—that range—that has has already already been been nearly nearly arrived arrived at.”127 at.”'*’ [my [my italics] italics] Bethell, Bethell, whose whose previous previous job job had had been been director director of of torpedoes torpedoes in in the the Ordnance Ordnance Department, Department, was was one one of of the the few few officers officers in in the the service service who who knew knew that that the the navy navy was was already already developing developing an an improved improved model model designed designed to to run run 12,000 12,000 yards yards at at full full speed: speed: aa distance distance well well beyond beyond the the then then effective effective range range of of naval naval gunfire.128 gunfire.'” The The officer officer now now responsible responsible for for development development of of torpedoes torpedoes was was Rear Rear Adm. Adm. Reginald Reginald Bacon. Bacon. In In March March 1910, 1910, shortly shortly after after quitting quitting the the post post of of direcdirector tor of of Naval Naval Ordnance Ordnance for for a a job job in in the the private private sector, sector, Bacon Bacon informed informed an an audience audience of of senior senior officers officers that: that: the introduction introduction of of the the torpedo torpedo has has brought brought about about aa very very considerable considerable limlimthe itation in in the the powers powers of of the the battleship. battleship. Not Not only only isis the the battleship battleship itself itself open open itation to attack attack by by small small craft craft which which it cannot engage engage on on equal to it cannot equal terms, terms, but but it it is is powerless to to protect protect any any form form of of vessel vessel against against the the attacks attacks of of such such craft. craft. powerless Whereas Whereas forty forty years years ago ago the the battleship battleship was was practically practically supreme, supreme, it it can can now now only be be looked looked upon upon as as supreme supreme against against vessels vessels of of more more or or less less correcorreonly sponding class. class. .. .. .. [T]hese [Tlhese days, days, the the battleship battleship has has developed developed merely merely into into sponding aa vessel vessel for for fighting fighting other other battleships, battleships, and and it it shuns, shuns, as as far far as as possible, possible, encounters with with most most other other classes classes of of vessels. vessels. ItIt is is this this defencelessness defencelessness encounters against the the torpedo torpedo which which has has changed, changed, to to aa certain certain extent, extent, the the tactical tactical and and against strategical uses uses of of battleships. battleships.129 strategical '*°

The The development development of of the the long long range range torpedo torpedo had had significant significant implications implications for North Sea strategy and a host for North Sea strategy and a host of of related related issues issues such such as as warship warship conconstruction struction policy, policy, battle battle tactics, tactics, gunnery gunnery policy policy and—as and—as will will be be shown-— shown— submarine submarine design. design. Among Among the the questions questions that that most most worried worried officers officers was: was: how could the R0 al Navy deploy a line of battle in how could the Royal Navy deploy a line of battle in the North Sea if the the North Sea if the Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Rev lution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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the Wilson, the Arthur Wilson, Sir Arthur Under Sir torpedo? Under the torpedo? by the outranged by became outranged big-gun became big-gun of This, of problem. This, the problem. at the concern at official concern no official expressed no Admiralty expressed of Admiralty Board Board of own their own have their not have did not lords did sea lords other sea the other that the mean that not mean did not course, course, did (respectiveMadden (respectiveCharles Madden Adm. Charles Rear Adm. and Rear Jellieoe, and Bridgeman, Jellicoe, ideas. ideas. Bridgeman, careful question careful this question gave this all gave lords) all sea lords) fourth sea and fourth third and second, third the second, ly the ly consideration.130 consideration.’ except that except believed that admiral believed British admiral senior British every senior nearly every 1910, nearly Before 1910, Before alone battleships alone the battleships duties, the signaling duties, for signaling cruisers for small cruisers of small couple of for aa couple for had felt, had they felt, destroyers, they and destroyers, Cruisers and actions. Cruisers fleet actions. in fleet participate in would participate would Adm. Rear Adm. notably Rear officers, notably flag officers, Some flag actions. Some fleet actions. in fleet play in to play role to no role no battleships.131 attacking battleships."*! ever attacking from ever banned from destroyers banned wanted destroyers Bayly, wanted Lewis Bayly, Lewis integratan integratis, an that is, Fleet”; that “Grand Fleet”; of aa “Grand notion of no notion had no commanders had Fleet commanders Fleet and cruisers, and and cruisers, battleships, and of battleships, squadrons of comprising squadrons fleet comprising fighting fleet ed fighting ed was Navy was Royal Navy the Royal formation the cumbersome formation destroyers—the cumbersome of destroyers—the divisions of divisions batof batfleet of “grand fleet of “grand concept of The concept War. The World War. First World the First during the employ during to employ to 1910—14. period 1910-14. the period until the evolve until to evolve begin to not begin did not known, did was known, as itit was tle,” as tle,” such considered such Mediterranean, considered the Mediterranean, in the time in his time during his Fisher, during even Fisher, Not even Not destroyadded destroyhad added Togo had Admiral Togo under Admiral Japanese under the Japanese Although the tactics.132 Although tactics.’ Russothe Russothrough the midway through 1904, midway August 1904, in August fleet in main fleet their main to their ers to ers fleet British fleet any British before any pass before to pass were to years were six years another six War, another Japanese War, Japanese

discussion Serious discussion suit.133 Serious following suit.'* considered following seriously considered commander seriously commander battle" of battle” fleet of “grand fleet of aa “grand concept of the concept on the officers on flag officers Navy flag Royal Navy among Royal among occurred this occurred that this coincidence that no coincidence was no and itit was 1910, and until 1910, emerge until not emerge did not did service.‘34 entered service.’ torpedoes entered long-range torpedoes new long-range the new after the shortly after shortly Admiralty the Admiralty informed the May informed William May Sir William Adm. Sir 1910, Adm. of 1910, spring of the spring In the In ramifications what ramifications contemplating what been contemplating had been officers had flag officers his flag and his he and that he that the since the ever since tactics, ever fleet tactics, for fleet have for would have torpedoes would new torpedoes the new the to propose to Germans propose “the Germans that “the them that informed them had informed Division had Intelligence Division Intelligence Sea High Sea the High with the number) with in number) (twenty-two in flotillas (twenty-two their flotillas of their two of use two use destroyers hostile destroyers that hostile conviction that his conviction report his to report on to went on May went Fleet?”5 May Fleet.”' his of his range of torpedo range effective torpedo within effective getting within succeed” getting likely succeed” very likely “would very “would imaghe imagbattleships, he of battleships, line of battle. AA line of battle. confusion of the confusion during the battleships during battleships the that the thought that May thought torpedoes. May for torpedoes. target for marvelous target offer aa marvelous would offer ined, would ined, either be either would be threat would this threat from this line from battle line the battle protecting the of protecting method of best method best to destroyers to and destroyers cruisers and scout cruisers attach scout to attach or to tactics or divisional tactics employ divisional to employ to 0f craft.”6 Of torpedo craft.’ hostile torpedo off hostile ward off to ward them to employ them and employ Fleet and Home Fleet the Home the stressed be stressed must be 1910, itit must In 1910, latter. In the latter. preferred the May preferred options May two options the two the majoroverwhelming majorThe overwhelming idea. The controversial idea. and controversial novel and was aa novel this was again, this again, seeing of seeing idea of the idea to the opposed to were opposed indeed, were officers, indeed, flag officers, May’s flag of May’s ity of ity squadrons Squadrons “hampered “hampered by by having having destroyers destroyers in in company.” company.” When When faced faced with an an enemy enemy torpedo torpedo attack, attack, squadron squadron commanders commanders wanted wanted to to have have with the sea room to maneuver their battleships immediately out of harm’s the sea room to maneuver their battleships immediately out of Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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way way without without danger danger of of ramming ramming friendly friendly destroyers. destroyers. Only Only Vice Vice Adm. Adm. Louis Louis Battenberg Battenberg (commanding (commanding the the Atlantic Atlantic battle battle squadron) squadron) was was prepared prepared to to “advocate “advocate their their use.”‘37 use.”'*’ And And even even he he was was only only aa recent recent convert.138 convert.'® Nevertheless, Nevertheless, all all conceded conceded that that something something had had to to be be done done to to better better proprotect tect the the battle battle fleet fleet from from torpedo torpedo craft. craft. A A better better solution, solution, in in the the opinion opinion of of May’s May's flag flag officers, officers, was was to to proprovide vide battleships battleships with with more more guns. guns. They They complained complained that that the the new new dreaddreadnoughts noughts lacked lacked an an auxiliary auxiliary battery battery of of quick-firing quick-firing guns guns capable capable of of warding warding off Off aa hostile hostile torpedo torpedo attack attack in in the the middle middle of of aa fleet fleet action. action. Besides Besides their their 12—inch 12-inch main main armament, armament, the the new new type type of of capital capital ship ship was was armed armed with with nothing nothing larger larger than than 4-inch 4-inch guns guns mounted mounted in in the the open open on on the the upper upper deck. deck. At At ranges ranges beyond beyond 5000 5000 yards yards these these weapons weapons would would be be of of little little use use against against larger larger destroyers, destroyers, and and in in fleet fleet action action their their crews crews would would probably probably find find their their positions positions untenable untenable owing owing to to shell-splinters shell-splinters from from the the enemy’s enemy’s big-guns. big-guns. “It “It might might be be most most unpleasant,” unpleasant,” noted noted one one officer, officer, if if during during aa fleet fleet action action the the enemy enemy “forced “forced you you to to take take your your 1212in. in. guns guns off off your your Opponent opponent in in order order to to fire fire at at destroyers?“ destroyers.”'*® There There was was another another objection objection to to deck deck mounted mounted anti-torpedo-boat anti-torpedo-boat guns. guns. Practical Practical experiments experiments indicated indicated that that in in fleet fleet actions actions gun gun crews crews in in the the open open might might be be concussed concussed by by the the blast blast from from their their own own big big turret turret guns.140 guns.'*° The The solusolution, tion, argued argued the the flag flag officers, officers, was was to to incorporate incorporate into into future future dreaddreadnought nought designs designs a a well well shielded shielded battery battery of of 6-inch 6-inch guns guns with with which which to to fend fend off off hostile hostile torpedo torpedo craft. craft. Six-inch Six-inch guns guns could could not not only only shoot shoot farther, farther, but but practical practical trials trials had had shown shown that that aa single single 6—inch 6-inch shell shell would would effectively effectively wreck wreck aa modern modern destroyerfl“ destroyer.'’ Thus, Thus, believed believed the the flag flag officers, officers, aa battle battle fleet fleet armed armed with with aa battery battery of of quick-firing quick-firing 6-inch 6-inch guns, guns, and and without without attendant attendant destroyers destroyers to to hamper hamper them, them, would would have have the the firepower firepower to to sink sink any any threatening threatening destroyers destroyers and and the the maneuverability maneuverability to to avoid avoid their their tortorpedoes.”2 Faced Faced with with virtual virtual unanimity unanimity among among his his subordinate subordinate comcompedoes.'” manders, Admiral Admiral May May reversed reversed his his opinion opinion and and endorsed endorsed the the call call to to manders, reintroduce the the 6-inch 6-inch gun gun in in future future battleship battleship designs.'® designs.'43 reintroduce The The request request from from the the Home Home Fleet Fleet was was not not well well received received by by officers officers furrequired furidea required the idea implementing the thing, implementing one thing, For one Whitehall. For in Whitehall. serving in serving ther ther increases increases in in the the size size and and cost cost of of future future capital capital ships ships which which the the first first lord was was reluctant reluctant to to endorse.'* endorse.144 For For another, another, neither neither Bridgeman, Bridgeman, lord Jellicoe, nor nor Bethell Bethell thought thought that that fitting fitting larger larger anti-torpedo-boat anti-torpedo-boat guns guns Jellicoe, would be be either either an an appropriate appropriate or or effective effective response response to to enemy enemy flotilla flotilla would the instead the preferred instead three preferred All three torpedoes.I45 All long-range torpedoes.'® carrying long-range craft carrying craft idea of of attaching attaching destroyers destroyers to to the the fleet fleet to to perform perform this this task. task. Bridgeman Bridgeman idea thought better thought that that any any additional additional weight weight added added to to capital capital ships ships could could be be better allocated allocated to to improving improving underwater underwater protection. protection. Jellicoe Jellicoe agreed—but agreed—but for for different different reasons. reasons. After After considering considering the the complex complex gunnery gunnery problems problems assoassoLambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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the to the came to he came tactics, he manoeuvre” tactics, and manoeuvre’ “fire and proposed “fire the proposed with the ciated with ciated the in the himself in find himself might find admiral might an admiral action an fleet action in fleet that, in conclusion that, conclusion effecmaintaining between maintaining effecchoose between to choose having to of having position of uncomfortable uncomfortable position or armament, or main armament, his main with his battle with of battle line of enemy line the enemy on the tive gunfire on tive gunfire to and quick-firers his quick-firers and to with his craft with torpedo craft hostile torpedo engage hostile to engage maneuvering maneuvering to equipment aa control equipment fire control existing fire With existing water.'46 With the water.'® in the avoid torpedoes in avoid torpedoes

agreed strongly,” agreed most strongly,” object most “We object both.147 “We do both.’ not do could not admiral could British admiral British Bacon: Reginald Bacon: Reginald guns smaller guns of smaller use of the use by the with by interfered with being interfered guns being big guns the big of the fire of the fire to the to

by engendered by are engendered that are mess that and mess smoke and the smoke all the with all time with same time the same at the at sight isis their sight distracted; their Officers isis distracted; Observing Officers the Observing of the attention of The attention them. The them. small the small of the result of theoretical result the theoretical even the and even obliterated, and extent obliterated, to greater extent to aa greater battleship in aa battleship gun in six-inch gun ordinary six-inch The ordinary candle .. .. .. The the candle worth the guns not worth guns isis not an to an stick isis to as a a Stick use as much use as much just as of just attack, of torpedo-boat attack, regards torpedo-boat as regards is, as is, respectat aa respectenemy at his enemy keeps his snow-balled: itit keeps being snow-balled: is being who is gentleman who old gentleman old

these In these torpedo. In the torpedo. of the range of vulnerable range the vulnerable within the still within but still distance but ful distance ful absoluteis absolutewhich itit is at which ranges at at ranges fired at be fired can be torpedo can locomotive torpedo the locomotive days the days the fires the which fires Destroyer which the Destroyer hitting the of hitting think of or think hope or to hope even to impossible even ly impossible ly well, Very well, useless. Very quite useless. is quite but itit is it, but do it, to do try to may try You may you. You at you. torpedoes at torpedoes

than range than longer range at aa longer Destroyer at the Destroyer keep the does keep gun does six-inch gun the six-inch then; the then;

all.148 that’s all.'* but that’s there, but not there, were not gun were six-inch gun the six-inch case ifif the the case be the would be would

auxiliary the auxiliary in the gun isis in 6-in. gun the 6-in. for the place for better place “the better that “the thought that Bacon thought Bacon not But not unit.”“‘9 But battleship unit.”'* the battleship of the part of integral part an integral form an should form that should vessel that vessel which vessels: which such vessels: built such to built start to Navy start Royal Navy the Royal did the 1912 did late 1912 until late until cruisers. light cruisers. as light known as became known became left Jellicoe left and Jellicoe Bridgeman and Admirals Bridgeman after Admirals only after that only significant that is significant ItIt is respecFleet respecAtlantic Fleet and Atlantic Fleet and Home Fleet the Home of the command of take command to take Whitehall to Whitehall 6of 6battery of add aa battery minute add last minute the last at the Admiralty at of Admiralty Board of the Board did the tively, did tively, program.150 1911—12 program.’ the 1911-12 under the down under laid down battleships laid the battleships to the guns to inch guns inch to desire to the desire that the possible that clear. ItIt isis possible not clear. still not done isis still was done this was Why this Why been have been not have may not defenses may anti-torpedo-boat defenses battleships’ anti-torpedo-boat the battleships’ improve the improve actuofficers actunaval officers senior naval of senior number of addition. AA number their addition. for their motive for only motive the only the where yards) where (6,000 yards) ranges (6,000 shorter ranges the shorter at the enemy at the enemy fight the to fight wanted to ally wanted ally from shot from of shot “hail” of constant “hail” battleships. AA constant hurt battleships. could hurt projectiles could 6-inch projectiles 6-inch believed, still believed, officers still many officers guns, many quick-firing guns, of quick-firing battery” of “secondary battery” the “secondary the than enemy than the enemy to the demoralizing to and demoralizing destructive and more destructive prove more would prove would gun 13.5-inch gun or 13.5-inch 12-inch or main 12-inch firing main slower firing the slower from the hits from occasional hits occasional successors Jellicoe’s successors and Jellicoe’s Bacon and that Bacon significant that also significant battery.““ ItIt isis also battery.’ battlethe battleby the carried by projectiles carried 6-inch projectiles the 6-inch of the percent of 25 percent that 25 insisted that insisted against use against “for use piercing “for armor piercing be armor must be program must 1911-12 program the 1911-12 of the ships of ships little difference was little there was eye there the eye to the Although to vessels.”152 Although armoured vessels.”' armoured Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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between between an an Iron Iron Duke Duke class class “dreadnought” “dreadnought” fitted fitted with with 6-inch 6-inch guns guns and and the the original original all-big-gun all-big-gun HMS HMS Dreadnought, Dreadnought, if if the the 6-inch 6-inch guns guns were were intended intended to to serve serve as as a a “secondary “secondary battery” battery” then then conceptually conceptually the the two two were were totally totally different types types of of battleships.'® battleships.‘53 Fisher Fisher certainly certainly feared feared this this might might be be the the different case.154 case.' It It is, is, however, however, difficult difficult to to say say with with any any certainty certainty why why the the 6-inch 6-inch guns guns were were added added because because the the Admiralty Admiralty dockets dockets on on the the subject subject have have been been destroyed, destroyed, as as have have the the private private papers papers of of Sir Sir Arthur Arthur Wilson. Wilson. Similarly, Similarly, litlittle tle is is known known about about the the views views of of Vice Vice Adm. Adm. Sir Sir George George Egerton Egerton (who (who replaced replaced Bridgeman) Bridgeman) or or even even more more importantly importantly Rear Rear Adm. Adm. Charles Charles Briggs Briggs (who (who succeeded succeeded Jellicoe Jellicoe as as controller controller at at the the end end of of 1910). 1910). Opinion Opinion among among officers officers serving serving in in the the fleet fleet was was as as usual usual confused.155 confused.’ The The only only other other officer officer to to read read all all the the submissions submissions on on “the “the employemployment ment of of destroyers destroyers in in fleet fleet action” action” by by the the various various admirals admirals commanding commanding squadrons squadrons in in the the Home Home Fleet, Fleet, was was Herbert Herbert Richmond, Richmond, Admiral Admiral May’s May's flag flag captain. captain. Richmond Richmond was was widely widely acknowledged acknowledged as as one one of of the the most most gifted— gifted— and and intellectually intellectually arrogant—officers arrogant—officers of of his his generation. generation. In In one one charactercharacteristically istically scathing scathing letter letter to to his his chief chief dated dated May May 1910, 1910, Richmond Richmond observed observed “a “a certain certain lack lack of of consistency consistency in in some some reports, reports, which which while while saying saying that that the the attack attack has has every every prospect prospect of of success success in in thick thick weather weather and and good good prospects prospects if if delivered delivered late late enough enough in in fine fine weather, weather, yet yet also also say say that that destroyers destroyers should should not not accompany accompany aa fleet: fleet: and and thus thus recommend recommend denying denying ourselves ourselves aa weapon weapon which which is is admitted admitted to to be be a a most most valuable valuable one.”156 one.”'® Richmond Richmond found found it it incredible incredible that that not not one one admiral admiral in in the the Home Home Fleet Fleet had had been been prepared prepared to to endorse endorse an an “offensive” “offensive” plan plan calling calling for for British British destroydestroyers ers to to be be thrown thrown against against the the enemy’s enemy's line line of of battle battle during during a a fleet fleet action.157 Only Only one, one, Milne, Milne, had had been been prepared prepared even even to to consider consider the the idea: idea: action.'*’ but but he he had had concluded concluded that that even even in in thick thick weather weather “although “although they they might might do do sunk.”158 be sunk.” would be majority would the majority damage, the of damage, amount of certain amount aa certain Richmond Richmond was was not not the the only only senior senior captain captain in in the the fleet fleet to to criticize criticize his his superiors’ lack lack of of imagination imagination on on this this point. point. Capt. Capt. Walter Walter Cowan, Cowan, aa forforsuperiors’ mer destroyer destroyer officer, officer, was was also also “strongly “strongly of of the the opinion opinion that that aa battle battle fleet fleet mer He flotilla.” He attendant flotilla.” its attendant have its always have should always fight should to fight likely to and likely sea and at sea at would as would damage as such damage inflicting such them inflicting stop them would stop “nothing would that “nothing believed that believed thick or thick clear or in clear either in suffer, either might suffer, themselves might they themselves losses they any losses justify any justify the on the discussions on informal discussions various informal recent various 1911 recent Recalling inin 1911 weather." Recalling weather.”

that: noted that: Cowan noted subject, Cowan subject, some flag flag officers officers and and captains captains who who have have only only served served inin armoured armoured ships ships some will will perhaps perhaps disagree disagree with with this, this, and and have have said said whilst whilst discussing discussing the the manoeuvres manoeuvres of of last last December December [1910] [1910] that that destroyers destroyers acting acting as as lI have have described would would be be annihilated annihilated by by gunfire gunfire before before ever ever getting getting within within strikstrikdescribed ing distance; distance; but but II cannot cannot think think it, it, as as no no system system of of [fire] [fire] control control in in the the Navy Navy ing Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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on] at [head on] perother [head at pereach other closing each vessels closing with vessels cope with to cope enough to quick enough isis quick d_is9 Spee ts’ speed.’ kno fifty knots’ rly fifty nea haps nearly haps

to saw to who saw Bridgeman who Admiral Bridgeman by Admiral endorsed by warmly endorsed were warmly views were Cowan’s views Cowan's Whitehall.‘60 round circulated round Whitehall.'” was circulated paper was his paper that his itit that officers those officers force, those carried force, have carried may have observations may their observations While their While in fleet in enemy the attack to destroyers use destroyers to attack the enemy fleet to use Navy to Royal Navy the Royal for the calling for calling in difficulties immense the overlooked fleet overlooked the immense difficulties in battle fleet its battle with its conjunction with conjunction relativethe relativeWith the battle.” With of battle.” fleet of “grand fleet such aa “grand of such control of and control command and command 1910, in navy the to available equipment available to the navy in 1910, communication equipment primitive communication ly primitive ly sixof line a controlling a line of sixin controlling difficulties in experiencing difficulties already experiencing were already admirals were admirals to having to of having thought of the thought at the shuddered at admirals shuddered Most admirals battleshipsf‘“ Most teen battleships.'*' teen those Even those battle.‘62 Even in battle.'*? craft in smaller craft forty smaller or forty thirty or additional thirty an additional control an control defensive for defensive fleet for battle fleet the battle to the destroyers to attaching destroyers favored attaching who favored officers who officers them use them to use trying to of trying idea of the idea like the not like did not Jellicoe, did as Jellicoe, such as purposes, such purposes, the doubted the commanders doubted squadron commanders All squadron boats.‘63 All torpedo boats.'® as torpedo offensively as offensively the all the amidst all and amidst battle and of battle heat of the heat in the crews, in gun crews, battleship gun of battleship ability of ability easiThe easifoe.164 The or foe.’ friend or as friend destroyer as approaching destroyer an approaching identify an to identify smoke, to smoke, from destroyers from friendly destroyers ban friendly to ban be to would be agreed, would was agreed, solution, itit was est solution, est any sight any on sight shoot on and shoot fleet and battle fleet the battle of the yards of 10,000 yards within 10,000 approaching within approaching second May’s second Admiral May's Milne, Admiral Berkeley Milne, closer. Berkeley steam closer. to steam tried to that tried vessel that vessel to increased to be increased should be distance should this distance night this at night that at suggested that command, suggested in command, in fifteen fifteen miles.‘65 miles.'* This This was was adopted.'66 adopted.'® probcontrol proband control command and the command on the views on personal views May’s personal William May's Sir William Sir thirtyin thirtynow in had now have had experience II have “recent experience The “recent ambiguous. The were ambiguous. lem were lem “tends 1910, “tends early 1910, in early Admiralty in the Admiralty informed the he informed exercises,” he tactical exercises,” four tactical four on through, on signal through, get aa signal to get impossible to almost impossible be almost would be that itit would prove that to prove to sugwithout sugBut, without guns.”167 But, the guns.”'*’ and the funnels and the funnels from the smoke from the smoke of the account of account difficontrol diffiand control command and the command that the assert that to assert on to went on he went how, he gesting how, gesting “question the “question added, the he added, Besides, he overcome. Besides, be overcome. eventually be would eventually culties would culties accompanied be accompanied should be waters should home waters in home operating in fleet operating whether aa fleet to whether as to as us for us solved for practically solved destroyers isis practically of destroyers flotilla of by a a flotilla daytime by the daytime during the during tactical out tactical carry out to carry known to nation isis known foreign nation one foreign least one at least that at fact that the fact by the by exercises exercises with with destroyers destroyers taking taking part.”'68 part.”'*® The The Royal Royal Navy Navy was was compelled. compelled, he modhe thus thus concluded, concluded, to to attach attach “at “at least” least” six six cruisers cruisers and and twenty-four twenty-four modern ern destroyers destroyers to to the the battle battle fleet. fleet. This seemingly seemingly modest modest demand demand was was not not so so easily easily granted, granted, however. however. This In In 1910, 1910, the the Royal Royal Navy Navy had had only only eighty-six eighty-six destroyers destroyers built built or or building building that “may “may be be counted counted on on as as capable capable of of working working on on [or [or up up to] to] the the German German that coast number coast in in any any weather, weather, from from aa distant distant base.”‘69 base.”'® And And allocating allocating this this number of of destroyers destroyers to to cruise cruise with with the the Home Home Fleet Fleet would would leave leave the the British British flotilflotillas las on on observation observation duties duties in in the the southern southern half half of of the the North North Sea Sea outnumoutnumLambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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bered bered and and incapable incapable of of maintaining maintaining an an effective effective watch. watch. Notwithstanding Notwithstanding the the shortage, shortage, however, however, Sir Sir Arthur Arthur Wilson Wilson directed directed that that two two flotillas flotillas of of destroyers destroyers be be attached attached to to Admiral Admiral May’s May’s fleet.I70 fleet.'” Readers Readers will will see see that that Wilson’s Wilson’s decision decision to to endorse endorse the the tactics tactics of of “grand “grand fleet fleet of of battle” battle” and and his his subsequent Subsequent proposal proposal for for aa strategy strategy of of close close blockade blockade because because of of the the shortage Shortage of of modern modern destroyers, destroyers, were were related. related. The The former, former, to to aa very very large large extent, extent, determined determined the the latter. latter.

The The Fleet Fleet Submarine Submarine Project Project As As we we have have seen, seen, while while most most flag flag officers officers serving serving in in the the Home Home Fleet Fleet in in 1910 1910 recognized recognized the the potential potential of of the the new new long-range long-range torpedoes, torpedoes, for for aa variety variety of of reasons reasons they they did did not not much much like like the the idea idea of of using using destroyers destroyers to to attack attack the the enemy enemy battle battle line.I71 line.'”” More More interest interest was was shown shown in in the the possibilpossibility ity of of shooting shooting long-range long-range torpedoes torpedoes from from the the submerged submerged torpedo torpedo tubes tubes fitted fitted to to most most battleships.I72 battleships.'” There There was was of of course course another another type type of of small small craft that could carry torpedoes to within firing range of an enemy craft that could carry torpedoes to within firing range of an enemy batbattle tle fleet: fleet: namely namely the the submarine submarine torpedo torpedo boat. boat. Submarines, Submarines, of of course, course, would would not not only only be be invisible invisible to to the the enemy enemy but but also also immune immune to to their their gungunfire. ln addition, the very fact that they operated fire. In addition, the very fact that they operated underwater underwater meant meant that that they they would would not not obstruct obstruct the the battle battle fleet fleet in in action. action. It It is is not not too too much much to to say say that that from from the the moment moment naval naval officers officers appreciated appreciated the the tactical tactical capacapabilities bilities of of the the submarine, submarine, they they immediately immediately began began to to investigate investigate the the pospossibilities of Sibilities of adding adding them them to to the the “grand “grand fleet fleet of of battle.”'73 battle.”'” The The biggest biggest drawback drawback to to the the idea idea was was the the lack lack of of sufficient sufficient progress progress in in the the development development of of the the internal internal combustion combustion engine. engine. Existing Existing subsubmarines marines were were all all far far too too slow slow to to keep keep pace pace with with battle battle squadrons squadrons searchsearching ing for for the the enemy enemy in in the the blue blue water—though water—though this this had had not not stopped stopped Vice Vice Adm. Adm. Sir Sir Francis Francis Bridgeman Bridgeman in in 1907 1907 from from trying trying to to cruise cruise submarines submarines in in company with his battleships during fleet maneuvers. During the first company with his battleships during fleet maneuvers. During the first ten ten years years of of the the twentieth twentieth century century it it was was simply simply not not possible possible to to build build submarines submarines of of battleship battleship speed speed because because suitably suitably powerful powerful engines engines did did not not yet yet exist.”" exist.'” But But there there was was every every reason reason to to hope hope that that the the situation situation would would improve improve before before another another decade decade passed. passed. It It is is interesting interesting to to note note that those officers who favored attaching flotillas of destroyers to that those officers who favored attaching flotillas of destroyers to the the Home Home Fleet, Fleet, i.e., i.e., Battenberg, Battenberg, Bridgeman, Bridgeman, Jellicoe, Jellicoe, and and Bethell, Bethell, were were also also among among the the first first to to envisage envisage submarines submarines being being deployed deployed in in an an auxiliary auxiliary “torpedo” squadron to the main battleship fleet.175 Discussion “torpedo” squadron to the main battleship fleet.'® Discussion on on the the real real practicability practicability with with “fleet “fleet submarines” submarines” was was encouraged encouraged in in late late 1909, 1909, by by information information gathered gathered by by the the Intelligence Intelligence Department Department that that several several European European navies navies were were working working in in this this direction. direction. The The MD NID had had long long sussuspected pected that that submersibles submersibles already already in in service service with with the the French French navy navy were were Lambersigggifigaptlykfpsggrmand significantly faster and more more seaworthy seaworthy than than British British submarines; submarines; but E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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about maintained about still maintained is still security is closest security “The closest they it. “The prove it. never prove could never they could offiintelligence one as submarines,” French everything connected with French submarines,” as one intelligence offiwith connected everything other only the are they imagine [they] cer noted—“like other nations [they] imagine they are the only other nations other noted—“like cer them.”'76 have them.”'” that have navy navy that of Scott of Messrs. Scott of Messrs. firm of shipbuilding firm Then in late 1909, Scottish shipbuilding the Scottish 1909, the late in Then the from licence a purchased had it that Greenock notified the Admiralty that it had purchased a licence from the Admiralty Greenock notified the speed surface speed high surface patented high their patented build their to build Italian FIAT-Laurenti to of FIAT-Laurenti firm of Italian firm

grantwere grantScott were of Scott directors of senior directors the senior submersibles. November, the On 44 November, submersibles. On

directhe direcand the navy and the navy of the controller of the controller with the ed London with in London interview in an interview ed an Watts Philip Sir Philip Watts and Sir Jellicoe and John Jellicoe Adm. John Rear Adm. tor construction.177 Rear naval construction.'” of naval tor of purconsider purto consider presentation to Scott’s presentation the Scott’s by the were impressed by sufficiently impressed were sufficiently complicalegal complicapotential legal however, potential were, however, chasing There were, submarine. There their submarine. chasing their Messrs. with Messrs. agreed with had agreed Admiralty had the Admiralty previously the tions. months previously Eight months tions. Eight the for the return for in return agreement in “monopoly” agreement so-called “monopoly” Vickers their so-called renew their to renew Vickers to Royal the Royal built inin the submarines built on submarines royalties on all royalties manufacturers waiving all manufacturers waiving could agreement could the agreement claimed the lawyers claimed navy’s lawyers the navy’s Dockyards.'” Although the Dockyards.I78 Although the by the attempt by any attempt contract, any the contract, in the loophole in be using aa loophole by using circumvented by be circumvented accusations with accusations Vickers with by Vickers resisted by be resisted to be certain to Admiralty was certain so was do so to do Admiralty to per— so peryet so as yet not as was not department was of controller’s department The controller's practice.'79 The sharp practice.'” of sharp antago— worth antagowas worth design was submarine design Italian submarine suaded the Italian acquiring the that acquiring suaded that change. soon change. would soon opinion would that opinion But that supplier. But nizing principal supplier. navy’s principal the navy’s nizing the of captain of inspecting captain the inspecting to the forwarded to were forwarded In papers were the papers meantime the the meantime In the subject. the subject. on the thoughts on his thoughts for his Hall, for submarines, Sydney Hall, submarines, Sydney to file to the file deliver the to deliver managed to Before administration managed Admiralty administration the Admiralty Before the to delivery to for delivery Stockholm for to Stockholm route to en route Hall, submersible en FIAT submersible however, aa FIAT Hall, however, Navy Royal Navy and Royal Plymouth and at Plymouth over at the stop over to stop “happened” to navy “happened” Swedish navy the Swedish 250-ton the 250-ton Although the her. Although inspect her. officers to inspect board to on board allowed on were allowed officers were latest the latest with the fitted with nor fitted design nor Hvalen modern design particularly modern not aa particularly was not Hvalen was fitted vessel fitted larger vessel much larger Admiralty aa much the Admiralty engines offering the was offering (Scott was engines (Scott steam nevertheless steam could nevertheless she could diesels), she with two-stroke diesels), power two-stroke high power new high with new equivalent the equivalent than the faster than knots faster two knots fourteen surface—or two the surface—or on the knots on fourteen knots Department Intelligence Department Naval Intelligence the Naval of the British officers of the officers To the boat. To class boat. British CC class positive proof positive last proof at last was at England was to England the Italy to from Italy Hvalen from the Hvalen of the voyage of the voyage subNavy subRoyal Navy the Royal than the craft than that better craft were better submersibles were foreign submersibles that foreign the when the reinforced when was reinforced impression was marines. this impression later this days later Several days marines. Several 1,200 the 1,200 steamed the recently steamed had recently boat had French boat department the French that the learned that department learned “not performance “not days; aa performance five days; inside five Oran inside miles to Oran Rochfort to from Rochfort miles from Capt. DNI Capt. assistant DNI the assistant noted the submarine,” noted approached British submarine,” any British by any approached by Thomas Thomas Jackson Jackson in in an an accusing accusing tone.180 tone.'® “There “There is is no no doubt,” doubt,” he he declared. declared, capable inin boat capable torpedo boat submersible torpedo “that presents aa submersible type presents Italian type the Italian “that the most most circumstances, circumstances, of of rendering rendering valuable valuable service.”181 service.”'®

to managed to always managed Captain Hall was had always he had 1909, he Until 1909, skeptical. Until was skeptical. Lambem mm, 5,,johflantainRnail, E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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bamboozle bamboozle fleet fleet submarine submarine enthusiasts enthusiasts with with technical technical data data to to show show that that building building such such vessels vessels was was not not practicable. practicable. But But faced faced with with Hvalen Hvalen moored moored in in Plymouth Plymouth Sound, Sound, and and an an offer offer to to build build an an improved improved submersible submersible already already on on the the table, table, Hall Hall was was thrown thrown on on to to the the defensive. defensive. After After personpersonally ally inspecting inspecting the the vessel, vessel, his his first first response response was was to to barrage barrage the the officers officers of of the the MD NID with with facts facts and and figures. figures. Hall Hall insisted insisted that that their their analysis analysis based based upon upon the the comparisons comparisons between between the the “paper” “paper” performance performance of of the the Italian Italian and British British submarines submarines was was flawed. flawed. The The Hvalen, Hvalen, he he began, began, had had been been and especially especially designed designed for for surface surface navigation.I82 navigation.’ Her Her impressive impressive surface surface speed speed was was due due entirely entirely to to the the hull hull form form favored favored by by Italian Italian designers designers which which offered offered less less resistance resistance to to water water at at higher higher surface surface speeds. speeds. “As “As 1| have have so so often often pointed pointed out,” out,” he he added, added, aa gain gain in in speed speed of of aa knot knot or or two two on on the the surface surface or or submerged submerged sinks sinks into into insignificance insignificance compared compared with with the the many many qualities qualities that that do do not not appear appear in in concontract tract trials. trials. Where Where such such a a gain gain is is obtained obtained at at the the expense expense of of the the other other qualqualities, ities, as as in in the the case case of of the the FIAT FIAT submarine, submarine, where where undoubtedly undoubtedly submerged submerged qualities qualities suffer suffer for for exaggerated exaggerated surface surface performance, performance, 1| do do not not consider consider that that they they are are at at all all desirable desirable and and 1I see see no no reason reason to to justify justify the the claim claim of of these these FIAT FIAT submarines submarines to to superiority superiority over over other other designs designs of of equal equal displacement.‘83 displacement.'”

Hall Hall also also disputed disputed the the assertion assertion that that submersibles submersibles were were better better seaseaboats, and and to to demonstrate demonstrate the the fact fact he he sent sent aa BB class class (1903 (1903 vintage) vintage) subsubboats, marine on on aa continuous continuous run run of of 1,420 1,420 miles.'* miles.‘84 He He also also pointed pointed out out that that marine the proven proven underwater underwater performance performance of of the the British British CC class class was was markedmarkedthe ly superior superior to to even even the the paper paper figures figures claimed claimed for for the the Italian Italian craft; craft; our our ly “endurance at at five five knots knots is is about about twenty twenty hours, hours, aa result result the the Hvalen Hvalen cancan“endurance not '® approach.”‘85 not approach.” Hall’s Hall's arguments arguments in in favor favor of of the the Royal Royal Navy Navy continuing continuing to to deveIOp develop “a “a of expense of the expense at the exaggerated at quality exaggerated one quality no one sound with no vessel with reliable vessel sound reliable argument bitter argument and aa bitter however, and Whitehall, however, at Whitehall, any ears at deaf ears on deaf fell on other” fell any other” ensued ensued over over the the direction direction of of British British submarine submarine policy. policy. “It “It seems seems to to me,” me,” IntelliNaval Intelliof Naval director of the director Bethell, the Alexander Bethell, observed Adm. Alexander Rear Adm. observed Rear gence, that gence,that The submarines. The in submarines. important in all important are all speed are surface speed and surface sea—worthiness and sea-worthiness first first consideration consideration is is that that they they should should be be able able with with certainty certainty and and rapidity rapidity to to great surface. AA great the surface. on the done on be done must be this must and this action, and of action, scene of their scene reach their reach radius of of action action when when submerged, submerged, isis not not essential essential .. .. .. nor nor isis itit desirable desirable that that radius

this.‘86 obtain this.'® to obtain sacrificed to be sacrificed should be speed should surface speed or surface seaworthiness or any any seaworthiness

speed surface speed to surface adding to of adding principle of the principle “that the retorted, “that Hall retorted, submit,” Hall “T“1 submit,” to capability to The capability unsound.”187 The qualities isis unsound.”'*’ submerged qualities of submerged expense of the expense at at the fight when when action action developed, developed, rather rather than than obtaining obtaining speed speed to to get get into into fight Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, httpszllhdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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action, action, should should be be the the governing governing consideration consideration in in submarine submarine design, design, Hall Hall insisted. insisted. “The “The amount amount of of endurance endurance the the DN1 DNI advocates, advocates, is, is, in in my my opinion, opinion, dangerously dangerously small, small, and and no no officer officer of of experience experience in in submarine submarine attacks attacks would would be be found found to to support support it.”188 it.”'* A A submarine submarine with with the the Hvalen’s Hvalen’s battery battery power, power, he he protested, protested, would would have have barely barely sufficient sufficient endurance endurance to to approach approach her her target target within within torpedo torpedo range range let let alone alone escape escape over over the the horizon horizon afterafterwards. wards. Without Without electrical electrical power power she she would would be be forced forced to to the the surface surface and and “if “if she isis harassed harassed by by any any enemy enemy she she will will be be captured,” captured,” he he advised. advised. Providing Providing She submarines Submarines with with inadequate inadequate underwater underwater endurance, endurance, Hall Hall concluded, concluded, was was analogous analogous to to “sending “sending aa ship ship into into action action short short of of coal.”‘89 coal.”'® In In February February 1910, 1910, the the inspecting inspecting captain captain of of submarines submarines was was forced forced to to respond respond to to a a petition petition from from the the NID NID for for the the Admiralty Admiralty to to abrogate abrogate the the Vickers Vickers agreement agreement and and award award aa contract contract to to Scott. Scott. In In addition addition to to reiterreiterating ating the the weaknesses weaknesses of of the the Italian Italian design, design, Hall Hall drew drew up up a a long long list list of of reasons reasons why why the the Admiralty Admiralty should should not not break break with with Vickers.‘90 Vickers.'® Most Most imporimportantly, tantly, he he pointed pointed out, out, the the navy navy had had forged forged a a close close working working relationship relationship with with the the design design team team at at Barrow-in-Furness. Barrow-in-Furness. Vickers Vickers also also possessed possessed a a unique unique capacity capacity to to design design and and build build new new models models of of submarine submarine within within a a very very short short period. period. Hall Hall was was not not opposed opposed to to seeing seeing Vickers Vickers lose lose its its monopoly monopoly when when the the contract contract lapsed, lapsed, but but he he did did not not want want to to see see the the comcompany pany upset upset before before then then through through Whitehall Whitehall high—handedness.‘9‘ high-handedness."' He He had had his his reasons. reasons. Shortly Shortly before before the the agitation agitation for for “fleet “fleet submarines” submarines” began, began, Hall Hall had had petitioned petitioned the the Admiralty Admiralty for for money money to to build build an an 800-ton 800-ton experimenexperimental tal submarine submarine of of his his own own design.‘92 design.'” In In addition, addition, Hall Hall was was anxious anxious to to equip equip the the new new vessel vessel with with beam beam firing firing torpedo torpedo tubes.‘93 tubes.'** The The results results of of recent recent experiments experiments with with “beam “beam discharges discharges for for torpedoes torpedoes from from submarines,” submarines,” he he explained explained to to Jellicoe, Jellicoe, “are “are so so far far reaching reaching and and important important [that] [that] II do do not not think think at at this this stage stage that that any any [submarine] [submarine] design design without without them them is is worth worth consideration.”194 consideration.”'** Hall Hall knew knew that that the the quickest quickest way way of of acquiring acquiring the the craft craft would would be be through through cooperation cooperation with with Vickers Vickers in in modifying modifying the the design design of of the the existing existing D D type type submarine,195 submarine,'’* hence hence his his anxiety anxiety not not to to see see the the waters waters muddied muddied by by ill-judged ill-judged talk talk of of building building fleet fleet submarines submarines and and breaking breaking the the Vickers '| Vickers monopoly. monopoly. In In March March 1910, 1910, Jellicoe Jellicoe promised promised Hall Hall that that one one possibly possibly two two of of the the GOO-ton 600-ton D D type type “patrol” “patrol” submarines submarines projected projected under under the the 1910—11 1910-11 conconstruction Struction program program would would be be modified modified to to incorporate incorporate beam beam torpedo torpedo tubes tubes as as he he had had requested.‘96 requested.'* The The enlarged enlarged (and (and more more expensive) expensive) 800-ton 800-ton verversion, Sion, known known originally originally as as “D-mod “D-mod x,” x,” was was later later designated designated the the type type E E subsubmarine marine and and was was to to form form the the backbone backbone of of the the British British submarine submarine service service during during World World War War One. One. Three Three months months later later the the controller controller resolved resolved to to go go even even further. further. At At a a meeting meeting of of the the Admiralty Admiralty Submarine Submarine Design Design Committee Committee held held in in June June 1910, 1910, Jellicoe Jellicoe announced announced that, that, subject subject to to Board Board Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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approval, approval, no no fewer fewer than than six six of of the the seven seven vessels vessels to to be be ordered ordered that that finanfinancial cial year year would would be be built built to to “D-mod “D-mod x” x” design.‘97 design.'*’ Hall Hall must must have have been been delighted. delighted. But But there there was was more: more: Jellicoe Jellicoe went went on on to to reveal reveal that that the the sevseventh enth submarine submarine to to be be ordered ordered that that year year would would be be aa fleet fleet submarine—or submarine—or a a “diving “diving destroyer” destroyer” as as he he preferred preferred to to call call it.‘98 it. Unbeknownst Unbeknownst to to the the inspecting inspecting captain captain of of submarines, submarines, the the controller controller had had ordered ordered the the Constructors Constructors Department Department to to sketch sketch a a design design for for an an experimental experimental craft craft capable capable of of attaining attaining a a surface surface speed speed of of twenty twenty knots knots and and displacing displacing 1,000 1,000 tons. tons. To To an an extent, extent, Hall Hall was was mollified mollified by by an an assurance assurance that that this this leviathan leviathan would would be be ordered ordered from from Vickers. Vickers. The The projected projected craft craft was was essenessentially tially a a still still larger larger version version of of the the original original D" D type type submarine submarine and and hence hence classified Classified as as the the “D-mod “D-mod y” y” design. design. In In addition, addition, Jellicoe Jellicoe had had deferred deferred to to Hall’s Hall's tactical tactical expertise expertise by by stipulating stipulating the the vessel vessel must must also also have have beam beam torpedo torpedo tubes, tubes, a a requirement requirement that that complicated complicated the the design.199 design.'*® Even Even so, so, Hall Hall was was sufficiently sufficiently upset upset at at being being so so blatantly blatantly ignored ignored that that be he seriousseriously ly considered considered quitting quitting the the navy navy for for private private industry. industry. Several Several weeks weeks later, later, he he secretly secretly entered entered negotiations negotiations with with Alfred Alfred Yarrow Yarrow to to spearhead spearhead Yarrow Yarrow Shipbuilding’s Shipbuilding’s efforts efforts to to break break into into the the submarine submarine construction construction business.200 the business.”° In In the the meantime meantime Jellicoe Jellicoe went went on on to to explain explain to to the Submarine Submarine Committee Committee that that he he had had felt felt compelled compelled to to order order a a “diving “diving destroyer” destroyer” because because the the Naval Naval Intelligence Intelligence Department Department had had informed informed him him that that the the French French navy navy had had laid laid down down a a class class of of high high speed speed submersibles. submersibles. “It “It is is understood,” understood,” he he had had been been told, told, “they “they will will be be fully fully sea-going sea-going ships ships capable capable of of keeping keeping the the sea sea with with the the fleet.”201 fleet.””"' The The department department had had further further uncovered uncovered that that the the French French craft craft would would be be propelled propelled by by two two enormous enormous diesel diesel engines, engines, each each weighing weighing over over fifty fifty tons tons and and rated rated at at 2,400 2,400 horsehorsepower, twopower, to to be be built built by by the the Franco-Belgian Franco-Belgian firm firm of of Carrels. Carrels. These These twostroke stroke diesels, diesels, moreover, moreover, would would generate generate more more than than three three times times the the power power of of the the Vickers Vickers four-stroke four-stroke engine engine intended intended for for the the E E class. class. Jellicoe Jellicoe was the was so so disquieted disquieted by by the the huge huge disparity disparity between between the the rated rated output output of of the French French and and British British diesels diesels that that he he asked asked the the director director of of Naval Naval Construction to to approach approach Carrels Carrels to to see see ifif they they would would be be willing willing to to sell sell Construction engines engines to to the the Royal Royal Navyin Navyin the the event event that that Vickers Vickers were were found found unable unable to to supply supply such such powerful powerful units.202 units.” He He also also directed directed further further enquiries enquiries to to be be made made in in Germany.203 Germany.”” Jellicoe’s Jellicoe’s hopes hopes for for the the fast fast submarine submarine project project were were soon soon deflated. deflated. On On 27 27 June, June, Edward Edward Froude, Froude, the the superintendent superintendent of of the the Admiralty Admiralty Research Research Establishment, Establishment, advised advised the the controller controller that that experiments experiments conconducted ducted with with models models of of the the “D-mod “D-mod y” y” hull-form hull-form in in the the testing testing tank tank at at Haslar Haslar had had yielded yielded unexpectedly unexpectedly discouraging discouraging results. results. Based Based on on the the prepreliminary liminary figures, figures, Froude Froude predicted predicted that that when when propelled propelled by by 4,800 4,800 horsehorseL b powerjhenhgirkesmthe power. engines the projected projected submarine submarine might might just just attain attain a a surface surface E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, httpszllhd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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hundred two hundred to two lengthened to was lengthened hull was the hull only ifif the but only knots, but twenty knots, of twenty speed of speed redesubstantially redebe substantially to be had to y” had “D-mod y” the “D-mod meant the This meant feet. This thirty feet. and thirty and signed.204 But But in in August, August, Froude Froude reported reported that that further further experiments experiments signed. with with new new lengthened lengthened models models had had demonstrated demonstrated that that the the consequent consequent improvement in in speed speed was was “practically “practically nil.”? nil."205 Furthermore, Furthermore, the the longer longer improvement vessel to vessel was was found found to to be be dangerously dangerously unstable unstable with with a a marked marked “tendency “tendency to dive” at at higher higher speeds: speeds: “a “a little little roughness roughness of of water, water, or or aa slight slight accidenaccidendive” tal of tal excess excess of of trim trim by by the the bow bow would would probably probably turn turn the the scale scale in in favour favour of diving.”206 How How exactly exactly the the Submarine Submarine Design Design Committee Committee reacted reacted to to this this diving.”**° news isis uncertain uncertain because because the the Admiralty Admiralty copies copies of of the the reports reports and and news remarks remarks thereon thereon have have not not survived. survived. Jellicoe Jellicoe must must have have been been disappointdisappointed: ed: but but not not Hall. Hall. He He was was quite quite content content with with aa more more moderate moderate speed. speed. “I“I cannot cannot see see what what is is the the virtue virtue of of twenty twenty knots knots as as opposed opposed to to sixteen sixteen or or seventeen seventeen knots knots for for aa submarine,” submarine,” he he thought.207 thought.”” In In any any case, case, before before the the final final sketch sketch designs designs of of “D-mod “D-mod y” y” were were sent sent 'toto Vickers Vickers at at the the end end of of October October 1910 1910 they they were were amended. amended. The The proposed proposed craft craft was was now now fitted fitted with with smaller smaller engines engines and and given given an an enhanced enhanced underunderwater water endurance. endurance. The The reworked reworked design, design, in in fact, fact, was was remarkably remarkably similar similar to was probto the the L L type type submarine submarine ordered ordered by by the the Admiralty Admiralty in in 1916. 1916. It It was probably ably Hall Hall who who was was responsible responsible for for the the changes changes because because he he subsequentsubsequently Just ly became became much much more more enthusiastic enthusiastic about about the the “D-mod “D-mod y” y” project.208 project.” Just days for days before before the the Board Board of of Admiralty Admiralty was was due due to to award award the the contracts contracts for the the submarines submarines of of the the 1910—11 1910-11 program, program, Hall Hall was was prodded prodded by by Admiral Admiral Fisher, Fisher, his his old old mentor, mentor, to to submit submit a a last last minute minute plea plea for for his his own own “D “D mod mod x” x” (E (E type) type) design design to to be be set set aside aside in in favor favor of of the the amended amended Admiralty Admiralty “D“Dmod give mod y” y’ plans. plans. “I “I do do not not think think the the 800 800 ton ton design design is is large large enough enough to to give sufficient sufficient comfort comfort for for the the vessel vessel to to fully fully realise realise the the sea sea keeping keeping qualities qualities she she otherwise otherwise possesses,” possesses,” he he now now thought, thought, “but “but the the 1000 1000 ton ton design design with with four four beam beam tubes tubes should should do do so.” so.” In In aa remarkable remarkable turn turn around, around, Hall Hall advised advised that that “I “I think think she she would would be be better better value.”209 value.””°° Ironically, Ironically, however, however, Hall’s Hall's new new appeal appeal was was ignored. ignored. On On 2 2 February February 1911, 1911, the the Admiralty Admiralty placed placed contracts contracts for for six six E E type type submarines, submarines, plus plus another another two two on on behalf behalf of of the the Australian Australian government, government, at at a a price price of of £105,415 £105,415 per per boat. boat. The The tender tender for for “D-mod “D-mod y” y” was was rejected rejected by by the the Admiralty Admiralty ostensibly ostensibly because because the the price price Vickers Vickers was was asking—almost asking—almost £200,000—was £200,000—was considered considered too too much.“ much.?" In In fact, fact, the the decision decision not not to to order order the earlithe experimental experimental craft craft that that year year had had been been taken taken several several months months earlier.“ er.*'' In In December, December, someone someone at at the the Admiralty Admiralty had had instructed instructed the the DNC DNC to to put put the the plans plans for for “D-mod “D-mod y” y” in in aa drawer drawer for for reconsideration reconsideration in in six six months.212 months.*” That That someone someone was was almost almost certainly certainly Rear Rear Adm. Adm. Charles Charles Briggs Briggs who his who at at the the end end of of 1910 1910 had had succeeded succeeded Jellicoe Jellicoe as as controller controller upon upon his appointment appointment to to command command the the Atlantic Atlantic Fleet.213 Fleet.?’* The The colorless colorless Briggs Briggs had had Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. 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aa reputation reputation for for being being a a timid timid and and ponderous ponderous administrator?” administrator.’'* No No one one had had informed informed Hall Hall of of the the decision decision to to suspend suspend the the project project because because in in December December 1910 1910 he he had had been been fired fired as as inspecting inspecting captain captain of of submarines. submarines. The The decision decision to to sack sack Hall Hall probably probably had had much much to to do do with with the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s discovery discovery of of his his flirtation flirtation with with Yarrow.215 Yarrow.’ Sir Sir Arthur Arthur Wilson, Wilson, who who had had long long regarded regarded Hall Hall as as “too “too damned damned pertinacious,” pertinacious,” was was reportreportedly furious furious at at what what he he regarded regarded as as an an attempt attempt by by an an officer officer to to sell sell naval naval edly secrets secrets to to private private industry industry for for personal personal gain.”6 gain.?'* The The measure measure of of the the first first sea sea lord’s lord’s displeasure displeasure is is illustrated illustrated by by Hall’s Hall’s subsequent subsequent fate. fate. He He was was effectively effectively banished banished from from England: England: his his next next command command was was aa dilapidated dilapidated third-class third-class cruiser cruiser detached detached from from the the Mediterranean Mediterranean Fleet Fleet for for police police duties duties off off Crete. Crete. He He was was accompanied accompanied into into exile exile by by aa commander commander and and four four lieutenants lieutenants who who had had all all recently recently served served in in submarines.217 submarines.2" It It says says something something of of Hall’s Hall's character character that that his his ship, ship, HMS HMS Diana, Diana, soon soon acquired acquired “a reputation for being a pirate and for avoiding rather than conforming “a reputation for being a pirate and for avoiding rather than conforming to to the the customs customs of of the the service.”218 service.”’’® The The new new inspecting inspecting captain captain of of subsubmarines, Roger Keyes, was an officer of a very different kidney. Dashing, marines, Roger Keyes, was an officer of a very different kidney. Dashing, flamboyant, flamboyant, and and well-connected well-connected socially, socially, he he was was more more at at home home on on the the polo field than in “the trade.” More importantly he was neither a qualipolo field than in “the trade.” More importantly he was neither a qualified fied torpedo torpedo officer officer nor nor a a submariner. submariner. He He was, was, in in his his own own words, words, “a “a mere mere Salt Horse.”219 Until then it had been the custom of the outgoing outgoing inspectinspectSalt Horse.’*'® Until then it had been the custom of the ing captain captain to to choose choose his his own own successor. successor. Hall, Hall, for for instance, instance, had had nominomiing nated Capt. Frank Brandt as his heir. In his memoirs, Keyes claimed nated Capt. Frank Brandt as his heir. In his memoirs, Keyes claimed that that Wilson Wilson appointed appointed him him to to the the post post especially especially to to break break the the “closed “closed shop” shop” and “to “to bring bring the the submarine submarine service service into into close close touch touch and and co-operation co-operation and with with the the fleet.”220 fleet.”?”°

Had Had the the post post of of inspecting inspecting captain captain of of submarines submarines not not still still carried carried with itit the the responsibility responsibility for for the the development development of of matériel, materiel, Wilson’s Wilson’s decideciwith sion to appoint a nonspecialist officer would have been an inspiration. Sion to appoint a nonspecialist officer would have been an inspiration. When Keyes Keyes first first accepted accepted his his new new commission, commission, he he had had been been conscious conscious When of creation of the creation to the attached to being attached of being stigma of “awful stigma an “awful existed an still existed there still there Bacon Bacon and and Fisher.”221 Fisher.”””' A A significant significant number number of of captains captains and and commanders commanders serving serving in in the the fleet fleet remained remained prejudiced prejudiced against against submarines submarines and and subsubwith identified with closely identified so closely were so they were because they largely because generally, largely mariners generally, mariners the appointment, the his appointment, of his end of the end By the jack.” By “radical jack.” and “radical one” and streaky one” “the streaky “the by understood better much become had submarine the of “potentiality” “potentiality” of the submarine had become much better understood by these middle-ranking officers, and the submarine service had become these middle-ranking officers, and the submarine service had become “very “very much much recognised recognised as as part part of of the the sea-going sea-going fleet.”222 fleet.” When When Keyes Keyes proproclaimed claimed in in 191] 1911 that that the the new new D D class class “oversea” “oversea” vessels vessels “would “would be be able able to to remain remain self self supporting supporting in in an an enemy enemy coast coast for for some some days,” days,” previously previously skeptical skeptical officers officers sat sat up up and and took took notice.223 notice.?” With With justification, justification, therefore, therefore, Keyes believed believed that that his his personal personal popularity popularity and and well-known well-known indepenindepenKeyes Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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willingness new willingness the new to the contributed to had contributed influence had Fisher’s influence from Fisher’s dence from dence seriously. submarines seriously. take submarines to take fleet to the fleet within the within (comcaptain (cominspecting captain as inspecting term as Keyes’ term however, Keyes’ balance, however, On balance, On Subsequent sUccess. Subsequent not aa success. was not submarines was of submarines 1912) of May 1912) from May modore from modore temthe temnor the qualifications nor the qualifications neither the had neither he had that he show that to show were to events were events designof actions the actions of designcoordinate the to coordinate him to required him that required job that for aa job perament for perament sound required aa sound also required which also and which manufacturers, and and manufacturers, engineers and ers, engineers ers, not did not he did that he agreed that friends agreed best friends his best Even his detail. Even technical detail. of technical grasp of srasp confessed, himself confessed, Keyes himself me,” Keyes “To me,” intellect.224 “To outstanding intellect.2 an outstanding have an have compenhelp compenTo help book.”225 To closed book.”*” were aa closed detail were materiel detail and materiel “machinery and “machinery around gathered around captain gathered inspecting captain new inspecting the new deficiencies, the his deficiencies, for his sate for sate his officers, his young officers, lnexperienced young advisors. Inexperienced of advisors. committee of small committee him aa small him ultimate the ultimate judge the to judge position to in aa position “not in were “not who were chided, who predecessor chided, predecessor effect of of their their recommendations recommendations and and just just the the people people likely likely to to be be influinflueffect More submarines.”226 More of submarines.” types of rival types of rival quacks of advertising quacks the advertising by the enced by enced seriously, seriously, during during discussions discussions in in the the Submarine Submarine Design Design Committee, Committee, Keyes Keyes habitually habitually deferred deferred to to the the DNC’s DNC’s department. department. As As we we shall shall see, see, the the inabilinability ity or or unwillingness unwillingness of of the the head head of of the the submarine submarine service service to to stand stand up up to to the the constructors constructors was was to to have have aa profound profound impact impact upon upon the the efficiency efficiency and and capability of of the the British British submarine submarine arm arm before before 1914. 1914. capability agiWhitehall agiin Whitehall desk in his desk vacated his Hall vacated as Hall soon as as soon significantly, as Most significantly, Most been have been to have seems to who seems Keyes, who revived. Keyes, submarine revived. fleet submarine the fleet for the tation for tation Philip Sir Philip by Sir informed by immediately informed was immediately idea, was the idea, favor the to favor predisposed to predisposed Watts Watts that that the the first first priority priority of of the the design design committee committee was was to to reconsider reconsider the fleet fleet submarine submarine project. project. The The DNC DNC informed informed Keyes Keyes that that the the Vickers Vickers the latthe latwith the Armed with development.”227 Armed further development.’**’ to further itself to lend itself not lend “did not design “did design explain to explain on to went on he went facilities, he tank facilities, testing tank Haslar testing the Haslar from the reports from est reports est that the the only only way way of of achieving achieving aa higher higher surface surface speed speed was was by by adopting adopting aa that more more streamlined streamlined hull hull form form to to reduce reduce resistance resistance to to water, water, and and increasincreasing the the surface surface buoyancy buoyancy thereby thereby counteracting counteracting the the tendency tendency to to dive dive ing involuntarily involuntarily in in choppy choppy seas.228 seas.’”° These These two two requirements, requirements, Watts Watts advised. advised, could only only be be met met by by adopting adopting aa double double hull hull design. design. IfIf “the “the circular circular secseccould tion tion of of pressure pressure resisting resisting hull hull would would be be given given up up as as in in the the Italian Italian boats, boats, and aa torpedo torpedo boat boat shape shape adopted,” adopted,” he he explained explained further, further, “the “the hull hull form form and is is made made more more favourable favourable for for surface surface propulsion.”229 propulsion. ”?2° models submarine models more submarine test more to test Haslar to asked Haslar Keyes asked 1911, Keyes May 1911, In May In incorporating incorporating radically radically different different hull hull forms.230 forms.” The The new new hulls, hulls, apparently, apparently, were taken taken from from stolen stolen copies copies of of plans plans for for Italian ltalian and and French French double double huil hull were submersibles submersibles “which “which got got into into Sir Sir Philip Philip Watt’s Watt’s hands hands in in an an illicit illicit way!”231 way!”?”’ The The consequences consequences of of the the decision decision to to adopt adopt the the Italian Italian hull hull form form were were important, important, and and Keyes Keyes recalled recalled the the discussions discussions when when drafting drafting his his memmemoirs. “The “The definitely definitely limited limited speed speed of of the the EE type,” type,” he he recorded, recorded, “made “made it it oirs. 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desirable desirable to to build build submersible submersible rather rather than than submarine submarine vessels, vessels, for for work work with the fleet.”232 More specifically, “I was advised by the technical with the fleet.””? More specifically, “I was advised by the technical experts experts that that an an extension extension of of the the E E design design [the [the ‘D ‘D mod mod y’] y] could could not not be be dridriven ven at at a a higher higher speed speed than than about about fifteen fifteen knots knots without without considerable considerable risk risk of of diving diving while while running running on on the the surface, surface, but but the the French French and and Italian Italian designs designs could be be driven driven safely safely at at considerably considerably higher higher speeds.”233 could speeds. ’?” At At aa subsequent subsequent meeting meeting of of the the Submarine Submarine Design Design Committee Committee attended attended by by Briggs, Briggs, Keyes Keyes and and Watts, Watts, and and their their principal principal assistants, assistants, Cmdr. Cmdr. Percy Percy Addison Addison and and Constructor Constructor Harris Harris Williams, Williams, it it was was unaniunanimously mously agreed agreed that that the the most most important important feature feature of of the the next next class class of of subsubmarines marines would would be be aa high high surface surface speed.234 speed.”** Although Although the the minutes minutes of of the the meeting meeting have have not not survived, survived, Keyes Keyes recorded recorded most most of of what what was was said said in in a a letter letter he he wrote wrote to to his his predecessor. predecessor. Sir Sir Philip Philip Watts, Watts, Keyes Keyes informed informed Hall, Hall, insisted not insisted “the “the saddle saddle tank tank monstrosity” monstrosity” (alias (alias the the “D-mod “D-mod y”) y”) could could not possibly was possibly fulfil fulfil the the navy’s navy’s requirement requirement for for aa fast fast submarine submarine and and thus thus was immediately immediately “wiped “wiped out” out” from from consideration.235 consideration.”” The The DNC DNC and and his his assisassistant had had then then gone gone on on to to extol extol the the virtues virtues of of Italian Italian submersibles. submersibles. But But tant when when asked asked to to design design one one they they had had “funked,” “funked,” according according to to Keyes. Keyes. “They “They said itit was was very very doubtful doubtful whether whether they they could could build build them them satisfactorily satisfactorily in in said England without without any any experience, experience, owing owing to to the the very very confined confined spaces spaces England between between the the inner inner and and outer outer plating.”236 plating.”“* Matters Matters had had not not been been helped helped by by the As aa the refusal refusal of of the the submarine submarine design design team team at at Vickers Vickers Ltd. Ltd. to to assist. assist. As consequence, consequence, Keyes Keyes reported, reported, the the assembly assembly resolved resolved that that the the only only remaining option option was was to to acquire acquire an an Italian Italian designed designed vessel vessel “for “for the the sake sake remaining of of experiment experiment and and comparison,” comparison,” from from either either Scott’s Scott’s of of Greenock Greenock or or direct direct from the the FIAT FlAT company.*’ company.237 Hall Hall replied replied that that having having seen seen the the Hvalen, Hvalen, he he from considered the the purchase purchase would would yield yield “doubtful “doubtful advantage.”** advantage."238 considered The The decision decision in in the the summer summer of of 1911 1911 to to buy buy an an Italian Italian designed designed subsubmersible from from Scott’s Scott’s set set the the Admiralty Admiralty firmly firmly on on aa collision collision course course with with mersible Messrs. Messrs. Vickers Vickers Ltd. Ltd. Relations Relations between between the the two two were were already already in in aa poor poor state. Earlier Earlier in in the the year year the the company company had had discovered discovered the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s state. negotiations with with foreign foreign firms firms to to supply supply the the Royal Royal Navy Navy with with high high powpownegotiations their that their claiming that action claiming legal action threatened legal promptly threatened and promptly diesels and ered diesels ered long-standing “monopoly” “monopoly” agreement agreement extended to all fixtures and and fittings fittings long-standing extended to all fixtures in in the the boats. boats. The The firm’s firm’s submarine submarine business business was was highly highly profitable profitable and and worth worth fighting fighting for.239 for.”° According According to to Vickers’s Vickers’s internal internal papers, papers, the the firm’s firm’s on profits on overall profits of overall third of than aa third more than yielded more engines yielded diesel engines on diesel mark-up on mark-up that counterclaim that Admiralty counterclaim an Admiralty with an Faced with construction.240 Faced submarine construction.*” submarine the company company was “failing to the was “failing to meet meet the the Navy’s Navy's requirements,” requirements,” the the directors directors powerful suitably powerful develop aa suitably to develop offering to by offering responded by had responded Vickers had of Vickers of diesel diesel engine engine of of their their own. own. But But the the Admiralty Admiralty had had not not been been impressed. impressed. \Lickesrshprlodycgdlonly heavy four-stroke four-stroke diesel diesel cylinders cylinders whereas whereas the the Vickers produced only heavy

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theoretiand theoretipowerful and more powerful the more submarines the fleet submarines its fleet for its required for navy required navy There engine. There the engine. of the version of lightweight version two-stroke lightweight advanced two-stroke more advanced cally more cally

engine of engine type of new type develop aa new could develop firm could British firm the British that the chance that little chance was little was development began development nevertheless, began Vickers, nevertheless, years. Vickers, two years. within two cylinder within cylinder cylinder. new cylinder. the new on the work on work They success. They of success. doubtful of start doubtful the start from the were from engineers were Vickers engineers The Vickers The diesel German diesel even German and even Italian, and French, Italian, the French, that the managers that their managers advised their advised perfectin perfectdifficulties in the difficulties underestimated the greatly underestimated all greatly had all manufacturers had manufacturers show, would show, events would subsequent events as subsequent And as engine. And diesel engine. two-stroke diesel the two-stroke ing the ing suffiyet suffinot yet metallurgy not of metallurgy science of the science was the only was Not only correct. Not were correct. they were they experimental with experimental problems with technical problems of technical host of but aa host advanced, but ciently advanced, ciently for vibration, for Torsional vibration, identified. Torsional correctly identified. been correctly not been had not engines had engines the when consequence, a As understood. properly not still was instance, instance, was still not properly understood. As a consequence, when the two tested two were tested 1911 were in 1911 development in under development engines under designed engines foreign designed foreign Although mountings?“ their on disintegrated literally they literally disintegrated on their mountings.”' Although later, they years later, years they either, they vibration either, torsional vibration understood torsional not understood had not personnel had Vickers personnel the Vickers the partial a found a partial accidentally found had accidentally and had existed and problem existed recognized aa problem had recognized had subon subthem on mounting them and mounting engines and heavy engines deliberately heavy Building deliberately remedy. Building remedy. what with what Navy with Royal Navy the Royal supply the to supply Vickers to enabled Vickers foundations enabled stantial foundations stantial submarine for submarine built for diesel built crude diesel albeit crude reliable albeit most reliable the most certainly the was certainly was not did not this did all this But all War.242 But World War.*” First World the First before the developed before propulsion developed propulsion listhan lisrather than 1911, rather in 1911, Meanwhile, in later. Meanwhile, much later. until much apparent until become apparent become made be made not be could not engines could two-stroke engines that two-stroke Vickers that from Vickers warnings from to warnings ten to ten to chose to Admiralty chose the Admiralty development, the more development, considerably more without considerably reliable without reliable their with compared backward were engineers British that believe that British engineers were backward compared with their believe 1914 in 1914 that in note that to note interesting to Parenthetically itit isis interesting rivals?“ Parenthetically Continental rivals.2 Continental diesel submarine two-stroke Krupp-made the dropped navy German the the German navy dropped the Krupp-made two-stroke submarine diesel diesel.244 MAN diesel.” four-cycle MAN reliable four-cycle more reliable the more of the favor of in favor in Vickers the Vickers to the Committee to Design Submarine the of reaction The The reaction of the Submarine Design Committee cancel to Admiralty of Board the petition to once at was challenge was at once to petition the Board of Admiralty to cancel legal challenge legal agreement special agreement the special that the pleaded that Keyes pleaded agreement. Keyes monopoly agreement. the monopoly the development to development hindrance to fact aa hindrance in fact and isis in uses, and its uses, “outlived its had “outlived clearly had clearly

other from other engines from ordering engines from ordering us from debars us stated, itit debars been stated, has been as has if, as if, which report which inflammatory report an inflammatory composed an Watts composed support, Watts In support, firms.”245 In firms.”?* been had been firm had the firm years the few years past few the past for the that for prove, that to prove, failed to but failed claimed, but claimed, so In so percent.246 In 25 percent.” as 25 much as as much by as navy by the navy “overcharging” the consistently “overcharging” consistently been had been lords had sea lords the sea earlier the month earlier that aa month aware that was aware DNC was the DNC doing, the doing, subclass subnew EE class the new of the each of for each £106,768 for pay £106,768 to pay having to at having unhappy at most unhappy most class each DD class for each £80,000 for some £80,000 paying some been paying only been had only they had when they marines when marines vessel.247 Watts’s Watts’s report, report, in in other other words, words, was was probably probably written written to to underundervessel.”*7 mine the the last last remaining remaining goodwill goodwill towards towards Messrs. Messrs. Vickers. Vickers. ItIt worked. worked. On On mine 31 March 1911,,nthe Admiralty had served notice on Vickers of its inten31 March 1911, the Admiralty had served notice on Vickers of its intenLambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolutlo . E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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tion tion to to cancel cancel the the monopoly monopoly agreement, agreement, though though a a clause clause in in the the contract contract meant meant that that links links could could not not be be finally finally severed severed for for another another two two years.248 years.” Whether, Whether, at at this this stage, stage, the the Admiralty Admiralty had had truly truly decided decided to to part part with with Vickers Vickers or or was was merely merely posturing posturing in in order order to to secure secure a a better better standard standard of of service service and and lower lower prices prices (as (as the the Fisher Fisher administration administration had had done done back back in in 1906) 1906) is is not not clear.249 clear.*” By By September, September, however, however, after after Vickers Vickers had had refused refused to to develop develop a a double-hull double-hull submarine submarine for for the the navy navy without without financial financial guarguarantees, antees, the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s demeanor demeanor towards towards the the company company noticeably noticeably hardhardened. ened. Egged Egged on on by by an an adamant adamant Roger Roger Keyes, Keyes, the the Board Board resolved resolved “to “to adhere adhere to to the the cancellation cancellation of of the the agreement" agreement” using using the the excuse excuse that that “the “the firm firm has has not not met met the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s requirements” requirements” by by failing failing to to deliver deliver the the new new D D class class submarines submarines on on time.250 time.”” The The Vickers Vickers directors directors responded responded by by again again threatening threatening legal legal action, action, but but ultimately ultimately withdrew withdrew their their claim claim after after “the “the First First Lord Lord saw saw Sir Sir Trevor Trevor Dawson Dawson [of [of Vickers], Vickers], and and told told him him very very plainly plainly that that relations relations with with his his firm firm would would become become strained strained if if the the firm firm endeavoured endeavoured to to stop stop other other firms firms from from building building for for us.”25' us.””*' In In short, short, Vickers Vickers made made much much more more money money from from capital capital ship ship contracts. contracts. In In the the summer summer of of 1911, 1911, the the Submarine Submarine Design Design Committee Committee had had no no intention intention of of obeying obeying the the spirit spirit of of the the now now defunct defunct Vickers Vickers agreement agreement by by waiting waiting two two years years before before procuring procuring a a FIAT FIAT submersible. submersible. Readers Readers will will recall recall that that in in 1909 1909 the the Admiralty Admiralty legal legal department department claimed claimed it it had had identiidentified fied a a loophole loophole in in the the Vickers Vickers contract. contract. According According to to the the “sea-lawyers,” “sea-lawyers,” the the terms terms did did “not “not preclude preclude us us [the [the navy] navy] from from obtaining obtaining submarine submarine vesvessels sels by by competition competition provided provided they they are are not not to to a a specification specification prepared prepared by by the the Admiralty Admiralty i.e. i.e. the the design design and and requirements requirements must must be be left left entirely entirely to to the the tenders.”252 tenders.”?” This This meant meant that that the the submersible submersible could could be be purchased purchased providprovided ed members members of of the the Submarine Submarine Design Design Committee Committee did did not not collaborate collaborate in in the the design design of of the the craft.253 craft.*° To To do do so so would would clearly clearly violate violate the the letter letter of of the the agreement.254 The The drawback drawback to “buying off the shelf’ shell" was was that that standard standard agreement.*™* to “buying off the equipment equipment used used in in British British submarines submarines covered covered by by joint joint Vickers-Admiralty Vickers-Admiralty patents, as beam beam firing firing torpedo torpedo tubes, tubes, could could not not be be fitted fitted to to the the patents, such such as craft. craft. But But as as the the officers officers of of the the Submarine Submarine Committee Committee were were mainly mainly interinterested ested in in the the Italian [talian hull hull form form this this was was not not seen seen as as a a major major problem. problem. By By coincidence, coincidence, Keyes Keyes had had previously previously served served as as British British naval naval attache attaché in Rome. Rome. Through Through his his contacts contacts in in Italy Italy he he was was thus thus able able to to arrange arrange for for in FIAT FIAT to to send send the the Admiralty Admiralty a a supposedly supposedly unsolicited unsolicited invitation invitation for for Royal Royal Navyofficers to visit visit their their yards yards and and inspect inspect their their submarines.” submarines.255 In In Navy officers to September 1911, 1911, aa team team of of submariners submariners led led by by Cmdr. Cmdr. Percy Percy Addison Addison was was September sent sent to to inspect inspect the the FIAT FIAT works works at at La La Spezia.256 Spezia.” Their Their report report was was full full of of lavish lavish praise. praise. Doubts Doubts over over the the reliability reliability of of the the diesel diesel engines engines raised raised by by Engineer Engineer Cmdr. Cmdr. Hugh Hugh Garwood Garwood were were brushed brushed aside: aside: a a fact fact which which tends tends to strengthen the argument that the principal object was to acquire the to strengthen the argument that the principal object was to acquire the Lambert, Nicolas Sir hn Fisher's Naval Revolug E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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become had become design had hull design Italian hull streamlined Italian the streamlined hull Acquiring the form.257 Acquiring hull form.” Carrels that Carrels August that in August learned in had learned Admiralty had the Admiralty still after the urgent after more urgent still more on 66 80, on percent.258 So, thirty percent.” by thirty diesels by high-power diesels their high-power had derated their had derated recomurgently recomhe urgently that he lord that sea lord first sea the first to the reported to September, Keyes reported September, Keyes the for the Scott” for Messrs Scott” through Messrs craft through these craft of these one of of one purchase of mended “the purchase mended “the powers—to foreign powers—to with foreign pace with “keep pace to “keep and to purpose experimentation and of experimentation purpose of On approved. On Board approved. The Board submersible.”259 The sea-going submersible.”** evolve fast sea-going of fast type of evolve aa type one for one Scott’s for with Scott’s contract with signed aa contract Admiralty signed the Admiralty 23 1912, the January 1912, 23 January 81.260 HMS S1/.?° as HMS commissioned as was commissioned later was which later submersible submersible which of lord of first lord the first by the instructed by was instructed Keyes was 1912, Keyes February 1912, in February Finally, in Finally, recommendefinite forward put “to committee a form to the Admiralty to form a committee “to put forward definite recommenthe Admiralty perhis peronly his selected only Keyes selected task Keyes this task For this design/’2‘“ For dations future design.””*' to future as to dations as such field the in experts in the field such other experts consult other to consult effort to no effort making no sonal advisors, making sonal advisors, unhesitat— Keyes unhesitatweek, Keyes only aa week, After only Brandt. After or Brandt. Bacon or Hall, Bacon Captains Hall, as Captains as with aa built with be built should be submarines should future submarines all future that all recommended that ingly recommended ingly report The report performance.262 The surface performance.*” improved surface facilitate improved to facilitate bull to double hull double “a First, “a craft. First, of craft. types of two types require two would require navy would the navy future the in future that in stated that stated high buoyancy buoyancy ship-shaped ship-shaped vessel vessel of of sufficient sufficient speed speed to to accompany accompany aa high operations. extended operations. for extended sea for the sea keeping the of keeping capable of and . .. .. capable battle-fleet, battle-fleet, and. at be at should be submarine should ‘fleet’ submarine of ‘fleet’ role of the role out the carry out to carry required to speed required The speed The secand secknots”263 and twenty knots”? about twenty present about fleet—at present the fleet—at of the speed of the speed least the least “to duties “to defense duties coastal defense for coastal tons for 350 tons about 350 of about model of smaller model ond, aa smaller ond, replace the the submarines submarines which which have have become become non-effective.” non-effective.” Both Both designs. designs, replace the But the plans.264 But FlAT plans.*** from FIAT copied” from frankly copied” “very frankly were “very admitted, were Keyes admitted, Keyes commithenceforth commitwas henceforth Navy was Royal Navy the Royal that the was that result was significant result most significant most program. development program. submarine development fleet submarine long-term fleet to aa long-term ted to ted Epflogue Epilogue

had he had discover he would discover Keyes would years, Keyes two-and-a-half years, next two-and-a-half the next Over the Over Submarine the Submarine 1911 the in 1911 When in miscalculations. When of miscalculations. number of made aa number made Committee resolved resolved to to cancel cancel the the Vickers Vickers monopoly, monopoly, they they had had forgotten forgotten Committee design submarine design own submarine its own have its yet have not yet did not department did DNC’s department the DNC’s that the that team. team. At At most most only only two two or or three three naval naval constructors constructors knew knew anything anything about about Vickers upon Vickers dependent upon totally dependent was totally Navy was Royal Navy the Royal Also, the submarines. Also, Submarines. draftsmen draftsmen to to produce produce working working sets sets of of blueprints blueprints for for any any new new design. design. Until Until! barred was barred Admiralty was the Admiralty moreover, the lapsed, moreover, finally lapsed, contract finally monopoly contract the monopoly the thereVickers, thereto Vickers, was to firms. ItIt was other firms. at other engineers at with engineers collaborating with from collaborating from Nautilus— the Nautilus— design the to design 1912 to June 1912 in June turn in to turn forced to was forced Keyes was that Keyes fore, that fore, had form had hull form submarine—whose hull fleet submarine—whose full-sized fleet first full-sized Navy’s first Royal Navy's the Royal the illeKeyes illethat Keyes probable that highly probable plans.265 ItIt isis highly FlAT plans.” the FIAT from the copied from been copied been gally tried tried to to evade evade this this restriction restriction by by secretly secretly sending sending specifications specifications of of gally the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s ideal ideal submarine submarine to to foreign foreign designers.*” designers.266 Later Later in in 1912 1912 he he the Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Fortunately designers.267 Fortunately French designers.”’ to French information to such information passing such caught passing was Caught was for the the Admiralty Admiralty the the directors directors at at Vickers Vickers did did not not find find out. out. for other had other program had development program submarine development fleet submarine the fleet of the adoption of The adoption The repercussions. Most Most importantly, importantly, Keyes Keyes was was alarmed alarmed to to find find that that delivdelivrepercussions. eries from from Vickers Vickers slowed slowed after after the the monopoly monopoly finally finally lapsed. lapsed. He He had had eries anticipated that that increased increased competition competition would would have have the the opposite opposite effect. effect. anticipated There were were several several reasons reasons why why itit did did not: not: first, first, after after March March 1913 1913 the the There company was no longer bound to give priority to submarine building for company was no longer bound to give priority to submarine building for the Royal Navy and was now free to sell its latest designs for export.268 the Royal Navy and was now free to sell its latest designs for export.’ In In 1913, 1913, for for instance, instance, Vickers Vickers won won competitions competitions to to supply supply submarines submarines (Admiralty (Admiralty E E type!) type!) for for the the navies navies of of both both Turkey Turkey and and Greece. Greece. Second, Second, Vickers Vickers found found their their output output disrupted disrupted by by the the new new firms firms in in the the industry industry poaching probpoaching their their skilled skilled workmen workmen and and experienced experienced draftsmen. draftsmen. This This problem directors responded responded by by offering offering lem became became so so serious serious that that in in 1913 1913 the the directors all members members of of their their submarine submarine design design team team an an unheard-of unheard-of five five year year perperall the from the suffered from also suffered incidentally, also Admiralty, incidentally, The Admiralty, contract.269 The sonal contract.” sonal effects of of head-hunting. head-hunting. At At the the end end of of 1912, 1912, Constructor Constructor Harris Harris Williams, Williams, effects Engineer and Engineer Armstrong and to Armstrong lured to was lured designer, was submarine designer, top submarine navy’s top the navy's the not had not Keyes had Third, Keyes Vickers. Third, by Vickers. recruited by was recruited Garwood was Hugh Garwood Cmdr. Hugh Cmdr. fully appreciated appreciated just just how how reliant reliant upon upon Vickers Vickers the the entire entire British British subsubfully marine industry industry would would be be for for aa variety variety of of key key components. components. This This was was marine German and German Italian and “superior” Italian the “superior” after the 1913 after in 1913 him in to him home to brought home brought we As we unreliable. As totally unreliable. be totally to be proved to purchased proved had purchased he had engines he diesel engines diesel built, heavily built, and heavily crudely and been crudely have been may have diesels may Vickers diesels the Vickers seen, the have seen, have availelse availanything else than anything better than was better performance was and performance reliability and their reliability but their but the 1913 the in 1913 embarrassment, in Keyes’ embarrassment, to Keyes’ Much to war.270 Much the war.?” before the able before able improved new improved their new designing their to designing back to forced back was forced Committee was Submarine Committee Submarine at rate at The rate diesel.271 The Vickers diesel.*” the Vickers around the submarine around coastal submarine type) coastal (F type) (F again once again fleet once the fleet to the submarines to add submarines could add Navy could Royal Navy the Royal which the which plant.272 engine plant.?” diesel engine theVickers from the. output from the output by the governed by became governed became Vickers diesel Another Another consequence consequence of of the the decision decision to to cancel cancel the the Vickers Vickers monopmonopsubpatrol subNavy patrol Royal Navy of Royal capabilities of performance capabilities the performance that the was that oly was oly more was more this was for this reason for The reason years. The three years. for three improve for not improve did not marines did marines agreement monopoly agreement Vickers monopoly the Vickers as the long as so long Essentially, so complex. Essentially, complex. ownership joint ownership claim joint to claim entitled to was entitled company was the company force the in force remained in remained submarines. to submarines. relating to Admiralty relating the Admiralty by the out by taken out patents taken new patents any new over any over feaimproved feaor improved navy or the navy by the developed by equipment developed new equipment all new included all This included This Royal the Royal in the built in submarines built of submarines design of the design into the incorporated into tures incorporated tures some be some thus be would thus “There would noted: “There lawyer noted: Admiralty lawyer one Admiralty As one Dockyards.273 As Dockyards.”* with either with Admiralty either the Admiralty by the made by really made inventions really or inventions designs or that designs risk that risk the by the patented by be patented might be Vickers might Messrs: Vickers of Messrs: assistance of the assistance without the or without or contractors, and and royalties royalties afterwards afterwards claimed claimed against against the the Admiralty Admiralty or or contractors, Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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their their contractors.”274 contractors.”* And And as as Sir Sir Philip Philip Watts Watts had had observed observed several several years years previously, previously, “the “the first first result result of of [a [a contractor] contractor] being being requested requested by by the the Admiralty Admiralty to to submit submit a a design design . . .. would would probably probably be be that that they they would would take take out out patents patents for for all all possible possible arrangements arrangements they they could could think think of."275 of.”?% Naturally, the the Admiralty Admiralty did did not not want want Vickers Vickers to to be be able able to to claim claim ownerownerNaturally, ship of of any any more more patents patents than than was was necessary. necessary. So 80 itit was was probably probably for for this this ship reason reason that that the the Royal Royal Navy Navy stuck stuck with with the the basic basic type type E E design design for for over over four four years, years, at at a a time time when when the the submarine submarine was was evolving evolving rapidly rapidly on on the the Continent, Continent, and and why why the the Admiralty Admiralty ignored ignored repeated repeated requests requests from from the the submarine service service for for improvements improvements in in design. design. submarine The The most most important important consequence consequence resulting resulting from from the the fleet fleet submarine submarine development development program program was was the the cost cost of of persuading persuading other other firms firms to to enter enter the the submarine submarine industry industry in in competition competition with with Vickers. Vickers. Originally, Originally, the the Admiralty Admiralty expected expected Messrs. Messrs. Scott Scott to to jump jump at at the the chance chance of of building building a a submersible submersible for for the the Royal Royal Navy. Navy. When When approached, approached, however, however, Scotts Scotts refused refused to to make make the the necessary necessary investment investment in in plant plant and and labor labor unless unless they they were were guaranteed guaranteed contracts contracts for for six six such such boats boats over over the the next next three three years.276 years.” The The Admiralty Admiralty had had no no alternative alternative but but to to agree agree to to this this demand. demand. In In July July 1912, 1912, the the Admiralty Admiralty encouraged encouraged Armstrong Armstrong Ltd. Ltd. to to enter enter the the indus4 industry try “as “as aa rival rival to to Scott’s.”277 Scott’s.”?” This This firm firm subsequently subsequently purchased purchased a a license license from from the the French French company company of of Schneiders Schneiders after after they they were were guaranteed guaranteed concontracts tracts for for four four boats boats within within two two years. years. In In 1913, 1913, six six other other British British shipshipbuilders builders were were enticed enticed to to build build submarines submarines for for the the navy. navy. They They too too had had to to be be promised promised a a minimum minimum number number of of contracts contracts and and given given a a relatively relatively simsimple ple design design to to build build in in order order they they might might gain gain experience. experience. At At the the end end of of that that year, year, therefore, therefore, the the Admiralty Admiralty awarded awarded contracts contracts for for seven seven new new 350-ton 350-ton submarines submarines which which the the submarine submarine service service really really did did not not want.278 want.?” The The net net result result of of the the decision decision to to obtain obtain the the Italian Italian hull hull form form was was that that between between 1912 1912 and and 1914 1914 the the navy navy ordered ordered a a total total of of twenty-six twenty-six subsubmarines marines of of eight eight different different designs designs of of which which more more than than half half were were known known to to be be either either “obsolete” “obsolete” or or “unsuitable” “unsuitable” for for operational operational purposes.279 purposes.” Over Over the the same same period period the the production production of of submarines submarines designed designed for for operational operational purposes purposes slowed slowed to to aa trickle. trickle. “It “It is is tragic,” tragic,” lamented lamented the the former former inspectinspecting ing captain captain of of submarines, submarines, Captain Captain Hall, Hall, in in a a letter letter addressed addressed to to Fisher Fisher dated dated April April 1914, 1914, that that over over the the previous previous four four years years “our “our vote vote for for subsubmarines marines should should be be frittered frittered away away on on freaks freaks and and coastals.”280 coastals.””° During During this this period Keyes added just ten E class “patrol” submarines to the eight period Keyes added just ten E class “patrol” submarines to the eight ordered ordered by by Hall Hall under under the the 1910—11 1910-11 program. program. As As aa consequence, consequence, when when war war with with Germany Germany commenced commenced in in August August 1914, 1914, the the Royal Royal Navy Navy found found

itself itself chronically chronically short short of of modern modern patrol patrol submarines submarines and and unable unable to to implement implement the the strategy strategy of of flotilla flotilla defense defense in in the the North North Sea. Sea. Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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CHAPTER CHAPTER 8 8

The The Churchill Churchill Administration, Administration, 191 1—1913 1911-1913 The Tie [naval] [naval] estimates estimates for for the the forthcoming forthcoming year year should should show show some some reducreduction from from the the abnormal abnormal level level at at which which they they now now stand. stand. tion Winston Winston Churchill Churchill (first (first lord lord of of the the Admiralty), Admiralty), 10 10 November November 1911 1911

Readers Readers will will recall recall that that when when Mr. Mr. Asquith Asquith became became prime prime minister minister in in April April 1908, 1908, one one of of his his first first acts acts had had been been to to dismiss dismiss Lord Lord Tweedmouth Tweedmouth as as first first lord lord of of the the admiralty admiralty for for failing failing to to keep keep aa tight tight reign reign on on expendiexpenditure. ture. Before Before his his elevation elevation to to the the premiership, premiership, it it will will also also be be recalled, recalled, Asquith Asquith had had served served two two years years as as chancellor chancellor of of the the Exchequer. Exchequer. During During that that period period his his inability inability to to control control naval naval spending spending had had more more than than once once threatened threatened to to embarrass embarrass the the government’s government's fiscal fiscal policy. policy. Although Although Asquith Asquith had had suspected suspected that that the the Admiralty Admiralty was was manufacturing manufacturing arguments arguments to to support support their their case case for for more more funds funds than than the the Treasury Treasury considered considered necnecessary, essary, lacking lacking any any expertise expertise in in naval naval affairs affairs he he had had been been unable unable to to prove his his suspicions. suspicions. But But an an energetic energetic “economist” “economist” minded minded minister minister prove planted planted inside inside the the Admiralty, Admiralty, he he had had hoped, hoped, might might have have more more success.‘ success. ' Asquith’s Asquith’s first first choice choice for for this this mission mission was was the the young young Winston Winston Churchill—— Churchill— but but he he unexpectedly unexpectedly refused refused the the portfolio portfolio of of first first lord lord and and it it had had been been taken taken instead instead by by Reginald Reginald McKenna. McKenna. Since Since the the beginning beginning of of the the Liberal Liberal administration administration in in 1905, 1905, the the little-known littke-known McKenna McKenna had had earned earned himself himself the the reputation reputation for for being being an an excellent excellent administrator. administrator. His His first first post post in in the the government government had had been been that that of of chief chief secretary secretary to to the the Treasury, Treasury, aa position position that that bought bought him him into into close close contact contact with with Asquith Asquith who who was was quickly quickly impressed impressed by by his his first-rate first-rate mathematical mathematical brain brain and and sound sound grasp grasp of of finance.2 finance.” In In early early 1907, 1907, accordingly, accordingly, McKenna McKenna had had been been promoted promoted to to the the Cabinet as as president president of of the the Board Board of of Education Education and and charged charged with with the the task task Cabinet of of salvaging salvaging the the government’s government’s education education policy policy after after the the House House of of Lords Lords rejected rejected its its nonconformist nonconformist inspired inspired reform reform bill.3 bill.” he 1908, he April 1908, in April Admiralty in the Admiralty to the McKenna to moved McKenna Asquith moved When Asquith When had believed believed his his disciple disciple to to be be aa confirmed confirmed “economist.” “economist.” The The prime prime minminhad Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, httpszllhd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Sir obstinate Sir the obstinate dismissing the of dismissing Instead of mistake. Instead his mistake. learned his soon learned ister soon ister do— would do— he would expected he had expected many had Board—as many the Board—as from the Fisher from John Fisher John lord.4 sea lord.‘ first sea the first with the rapport with unexpected rapport an unexpected developed an had developed McKenna had McKenna adminformidable adminbecame aa formidable together became and together friends and became friends quickly became two quickly The two The Their supremacy.5 Their naval supremacy.° Britain’s naval upholding Britain’s to upholding committed to team, committed istrative team, istrative swallow to swallow 1909 to early 1909 in early Cabinet in the Cabinet force the to force was to achievement was greatest achievement greatest percent 10 percent in aa 10 resulted in that resulted program that construction program ship construction capital ship eight capital the eight the his risked his had risked McKenna had summer McKenna That summer estimates. That navy estimates. the navy in the increase in increase administrative lord’s administrative sea lord’s first sea the first defending the vigorously defending by vigorously career by political career political that proudly that boasted proudly often boasted Fisher often Enquiry. Fisher Beresford Enquiry. the Beresford before the record before record his his friend friend had had “pretty “pretty near near wrecked wrecked himself himself for for the the Navy’s Navy's good.”6 good.”* Despite Despite reputation lord’s reputation sea lord’s first sea the first though, the Beresford, though, against Beresford, case against the case winning the winning after Even after retired. Even he retired. 1910 he January 1910 in January and in damaged and badly damaged too badly been too had been had chamto chamcontinued to McKenna continued Reginald McKenna Admiralty, Reginald of Admiralty, Board of the Board left the Fisher left Fisher had minister had prime minister the prime than the effectively than more effectively much more cause much navy’s cause the navy’s pion the pion at practiced at had practiced (he had advocate (he an advocate as an skills as His skills possible. His or possible. likely or thought likely thought resist to resist him to enabled him had enabled Commons) had of Commons) House of the House entering the before entering bar before the bar the panic after panic expenditure after naval expenditure on naval cuts on impose cuts to impose Cabinet to the Cabinet by the attempts by attempts of of 1909 1909 subsided.7 subsided.’ David David Lloyd Lloyd George, George, the the chancellor chancellor of of the the Exchequer. Exchequer, more more than than once once remarked remarked with with rueful rueful admiration admiration that that “McKenna “McKenna could could make make the the best best departmental departmental ‘defence ‘defence speech’ speech’ [sic] [sic] of of any any man man in in the the effectiveness McKenna’s effectiveness that McKenna’s seem that does seem Though itit does Commons.”8 Though of Commons.”® House of House owed owed much much to to the the fact fact that that for for many many months months after after his his official official retirement. retirement, Fisher Fisher continued continued to to prepare prepare the the first first lord’s lord’s brief.9 brief.? McKenna, McKenna, it it seems, seems, not not to confidence to or confidence initiative or the initiative either the lacked either professional, lacked naval professional, being aa naval being the lay the Herein lay Wilson.10 Herein Arthur Wilson.’® of Arthur approval of the approval without the reform without implement reform implement seeds seeds of of his his eventual eventual downfall. downfall. grip his grip loose his to loose began to McKenna began Reginald McKenna 1910, Reginald of 1910, end of the end Towards the Towards direction. administrative direction. of administrative sense of his sense and his bureaucracy and Admiralty bureaucracy the Admiralty on the on In In part part this this was was due due to to recurrent recurrent bouts bouts of of poor poor health.“ health." In In January January 1911, 1911, for action for of action out of him out kept him operation kept major operation in aa major resulting in illness resulting serious illness serious But recovered.12 But fully recovered.’? was fully he was before he months before many months was many and itit was weeks and six weeks six upon rested upon policy rested naval policy in naval confusion in growing confusion the growing for the blame for the blame of the most of most failed only failed not only had not Wilson had Arthur Wilson Sir Arthur lord. Sir sea lord. first sea the first of the shoulders of the shoulders the has as has but, as support, but, or support, guidance or adequate guidance with adequate lord with first lord the first provide the to provide to disharserious dishargenerated serious tendencies” generated “autocratic tendencies” his “autocratic mentioned, his been mentioned, been mony inside inside and and outside outside Whitehall. Whitehall. During During Wilson’s Wilson’s term term as as first first sea sea lord lord mony of departments of other departments the other among the reputation among the reputation earned the Admiralty earned the Admiralty the being “difficult” “difficult” to to deal deal with with and and slow slow to to reply reply to to official official corresponcorresponbeing dence.13 This This certainly certainly was was not not McKenna’s McKenna’s fault. fault. He He was dence.” was renowned renowned for for being being able able to to state state his his case case “lucidly “lucidly and and logically,” logically,” and and it it was was well well known known that teldvealt with “all that he dealt with “all his his official official papers papers the the moment moment they they arrived.”14 arrived.”’* Both

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Asquith Asquith and and Lloyd Lloyd George George spoke spoke often often of of his his “characteristic “characteristic efficiency.”15 efficiency.’ Yet Yet despite despite his his reputation reputation as as a a gifted gifted administrator, administrator, McKenna McKenna proved proved incapable incapable of of dispelling dispelling the the growing growing impression impression within within the the Cabinet Cabinet that that his his Board Board of of Admiralty Admiralty seemed seemed to to have have no no definite definite policy policy before before it—except it—except to to expendinaval expendiof naval levels of the levels defy deflate the to deflate Treasury to the Treasury by the attempts by all attempts defy all ture.'® McKenna’s McKenna’s stock stock with with his his colleagues colleagues had had never never been been high. high. He He had had ture.16 always depended depended heavily heavily upon upon the the prime prime minister’s patronage. By By the the always minister’s patronage. number that aa number low that so low fallen so had fallen popularity had his popularity spring however, his 1911, however, of 1911, spring of of of Cabinet Cabinet ministers ministers believed believed the the time time had had come come to to replace replace him him as as first first lord of of the the Admiralty. Admiralty. lord Prominent among among the the first first lord’s lord’s detractors detractors was was the the recently recently ennoennoProminent bled bled Viscount Viscount Haldane. Haldane. Since Since the the Liberals Liberals took took power power in in December December 1905, 1905, of miracle of performing aa miracle been performing had been war, had for war, state for Haldane, of state secretary of as secretary Haldane, as reorganization at at Pall Pall Mall Mall by by transforming transforming the the army army into into an an efficient efficient reorganization restructurand restructurStaff and General Staff the General up the setting up to setting fighting addition to In addition force. In fighting force. ing ing the the regular regular battalions, battalions, he he had had successfully successfully reformed reformed the the militia militia and and his Undoubtedly his Army.17 Undoubtedly Territorial Army.'’ so-called Territorial volunteer the so-called into the reserves into volunteer reserves most most notable notable achievement achievement was was the the creation creation of of aa much much needed needed rapid rapid reacreacin BEF) in (or BEF) Force (or Expeditionary Force British Expeditionary the British tion conceived the Haldane conceived force. Haldane tion force. force striking force well-equipped striking and well-equipped January “highly-organised and as aa “highly-organised 1906 as January 1906 the of the part of any part to any delay, to possible delay, least possible the least with the which transported, with be transported, can be which can historimany historiof many assertions of the assertions to the Contrary to world required.”18 Contrary where itit isis required.”'® world where ans, ans, the the size size and and composition composition of of the the BEF BEF were were not not determined determined by by dictated was dictated character was its character Continental rather its considerations;‘9 rather strategic considerations;'® Continental strategic constraints the constraints estimates, the army estimates, by the army on the placed on ceiling” placed financial ceiling” “rigid financial by aa “rigid of number of the number and the recruiting, and military recruiting, of military imposed system of voluntary system by aa voluntary imposed by of words of the words In the duties.20 In garrison duties.” battalions imperial garrison for imperial required for battalions required the or the role or strategic role the strategic about the Haldane’s speculation about “any speculation biographer, “any Haldane’s biographer, rationalise aa to rationalise attempt to an attempt merely an was merely military force was the force of the capability of military capability restrictions the restrictions by the determined by body, was determined size was whose size war, whose for war, earmarked for body, earmarked did Office did War Office the War however, the said, however, of being said, That being criteria?“ That peacetime criteria.”*' of peacetime event the event in the Continent in the Continent on the operate on to operate make BEF to the BEF for the preparations for make preparations play to play small to too small was too that itit was of realised that but realised France, but of France, invasion of German invasion of aa German

France.22 of France.” defense of aa major the defense role inin the major role his saw his He saw strategist. He Haldane military strategist. be aa military to be pretensions to no pretensions had no Haldane had leave to leave content to was content and was machine and role administrative machine the administrative of the reformer of as aa reformer role as the the details details of of military military policy policy to to his his new new general general staff.23 staff.* That That being being said, said, forGermany forof Germany aggressiveness of the aggressiveness at the however, concerned at deeply concerned was deeply he was however, he this at this government at the government in the serving in eign officials serving other officials many other Like many policy. Like eign policy. not could not Britain could that Britain belief that time, the belief by the driven by been driven have been to have seems to he seems time, he in hegemony in military hegemony or military afford political or establish aa political to establish Germany to allow Germany to allow afford to British direct British of direct idea of the idea to the committed to was committed Europe.” Haldane was short, Haldane In short, Euro e?“ In Lambert, Nico as. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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ReaGermany.25 Reaand Germany.” France and between France war between of war event of the event in the intervention in intervention from army German army from the German stop the to stop little to do little could do Navy could Royal Navy the Royal that the soning that soning option Viable option politically viable only politically the only that the believed that Haldane believed Paris, Haldane reaching Paris, reaching was Germany was with Germany war with of war event of the event in the government in British government the British to the open to open encourthus encourHaldane thus Continent. Haldane the Continent. to the force to expeditionary force the expeditionary send the to send to

preto preNicholson, to William Nicholson, Sir William Gen. Sir Staff, Gen. General Staff, the General of the chief of the chief aged the aged expethe expeof the dispatch of the dispatch for the plans for contingency plans aforementioned contingency the aforementioned pare the pare realhave realto have seem to not seem does not he does continent—though he the continent—though to the force to ditionary force ditionary his allowed his also allowed He also incomplete. He were incomplete. plans were these plans mid-1911 these before mid-1911 ized before ized to counterparts to French counterparts their French with their talks with secret talks continue secret to continue officers to staff officers staff to preparations to authorized preparations further authorized He further details. He logistical details. out logistical hammer out hammer minwar minThe war Dominions. The self-governing Dominions. the self-governing from the reinforcements from draw reinforcements draw all overrode all situation overrode the situation of the urgency of the urgency that the himself that convinced himself ister convinced ister departmental departmental or or broader broader imperial imperial defense defense considerations—though considerations—though not. not, ones.26 financial ones.” apparently, financial apparently, Treasury the Treasury persuading the of persuading chance of no chance had no he had well he full well knew full Haldane knew Haldane and develop and to develop necessary to funds necessary additional funds the additional with the army with the army provide the to provide to realalso realhe also point, he the point, argue the to argue Trying to force. Trying expeditionary force. the expeditionary expand the expand not were not colleagues were Cabinet colleagues his Cabinet of his majority of the majority because the futile because was futile ized, was ized, tapping on tapping attention on his attention fixed his be fixed instead he So instead affairs. So military affairs. in military interested in interested question not question did not he did claimed he Haldane claimed While Haldane budget. While navy’s budget. the navy’s of the some of some the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s claim claim for for primacy primacy in in the the allocation allocation of of defense defense resources, resources, recognized He recognized Army. He the Army. on the spent on more spent see more to see wanted to undoubtedly wanted he undoubtedly he an impose an than impose more than no more do no could do Navy could Royal Navy the Royal Germany, the against Germany, that against that fleet the fleet of the strength of the strength that the suspected that further suspected and further blockade and economic blockade economic was larger larger than than necessary necessary for for that that purpose.?’ purpose.27 Meanwhile, Meanwhile, in in Whitehall, Whitehall, was Office isis War Office whole War “the whole that “the aware that well aware were well Admiralty were of Admiralty Board of the Board the the with the collusion with in collusion being in our being of our idea of the idea with the saturated with and saturated permeated and permeated conscious also conscious were also They were ground.”28 They own ground.” their own on their armies on Continental armies Continental [maritime] Vital [maritime] the vital undermine the “to undermine conspiring “to were conspiring generals were the generals that the that principles based.”29 principles on on which which the the Defence Defence of. of the the Empire Empire is is at at present present based.”” Haldane that Haldane secret that open secret an open been an had been 1910, itit had of 1910, beginning of the beginning Since the Since lord.30 first lord.” as first McKenna as succeed McKenna to succeed claim to his claim pressing his quietly pressing been quietly had been had crethe crefavored the minister favored war minister the war that the known that well known was well also was was also And itit was And canideal canthe ideal as the himself as saw himself and saw defense and of defense ministry of unified ministry of aa unified ation of ation that hoped that lobby hoped defense lobby imperial defense and imperial navalists and The navalists job.31 The the job.*' for the didate for didate suppublic supwhile public and while Admiralty, and the Admiralty, at the remained at McKenna remained as McKenna long as so long for so for greater for aa greater bid for army’s bid the army’s strong, the remained strong, Navy remained Royal Navy the Royal for the port for port share share of of the the defense defense budget budget would would fail. fail. By 1911, 1911, the the secretary secretary of of state state for for war war was was no no longer longer the the only only memmemBy ber For ber of of the the Cabinet Cabinet keen keen to to see see stronger stronger leadership leadership at at Whitehall. Whitehall. For the Liberal within the dissatisfaction within growing dissatisfaction been growing had been there had months there some months some Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Party McKenna’s inability increased dreadnought dreadnought Party at at McKenna’s inability to to offset offset the the costs costs of of increased construction with with economies economies in in other other areas areas of of naval naval expenditure, expenditure, or or to to construction “era long-promised “era the long-promised enter the finally enter would finally Estimates would Navy Estimates the Navy when the Say say when of reduction.” reduction.”32 In in February February that that year, year, during during the the preparations preparations for for the the of upcoming budget, budget, aa group group of of ministers ministers led led by by David David Lloyd Lloyd George George (chan(chanupcoming cellor of of the the Exchequer) Exchequer) and and Winston Winston Churchill Churchill (home (home secretary) secretary) voiced voiced cellor their concerns concerns at at naval naval expenditure expenditure breaking breaking the the £44 £44 million million barrier: barrier: aa their figure figure that that had had been been considered considered “the “the utmost” utmost” the the 1909 1909 “Peoples “Peoples Budget” Budget” could be be “expected “expected to to sustain.”** sustain.”33 In in addition, addition, having having to to provide provide for for highhighcould er-than-expected naval naval spending, spending, the the chancellor chancellor also also had had to to cope cope with with er-than-expected the the unexpectedly unexpectedly high high costs costs associated associated with with the the implementation implementation of of the the government’s government's new new welfare welfare programs. programs. Thus Thus far, far, the the chancellor chancellor had had been been able able to to meet meet demands demands upon upon the the Treasury Treasury without without recourse recourse to to higher higher taxtaxation ation because because a a boom boom in in economic economic activity activity had had produced produced greater-thangreater-thanexpected expected revenues. revenues. But But Lloyd Lloyd George George believed believed that that this this bounty bounty would would not not last last for for long. long. And And he he saw saw that that further further raising raising taxation taxation to to cover cover prospecprospective tive fiscal fiscal deficits deficits was was politically politically impossible. impossible. Hence Hence he he insisted insisted in in the the spring of of 1911 1911 that that both both social social and, and, especially, especially, naval naval expenditure expenditure must must spring be brought brought under under control control at at once. once. Lloyd Lloyd George, George, with with Churchill's Churchill’s help, help, be was was able able to to persuade persuade the the Cabinet Cabinet that that aa fiscal fiscal crisis crisis was was looming. looming. As As aa result, result, the the Cabinet Cabinet overruled overruled the the first first lord’s lord’s objections objections to to the the formation formation of of a a special special Cabinet Cabinet subcommittee subcommittee to to scrutinize scrutinize the the navy navy estimates. estimates. Although Although Lloyd Lloyd George George and and Churchill Churchill were were subsequently subsequently authorized authorized by by the the prime prime minister minister to to audit audit the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s accounts, accounts, as as one one senior senior civil civil servant recalled recalled in in his his memoirs, memoirs, “the “the emissaries emissaries had had been been [deliberately] [deliberately] servant so snowed snowed under under by by the the mass mass of of figures figures presented presented to to them them that that they they had had so been quite quite unable unable to to arrive arrive at at the the true true facts.”** facts.”4 McKenna’s McKenna’s refusal refusal to to been cooperate cooperate with with them them succeeded succeeded in in protecting protecting the the naval naval budget budget from from sigsignificant cuts cuts in in 1911, 1911, but but only only at at the the price price of of further further antagonizing antagonizing the the nificant powerful “economist” “economist” wing wing of of the the Liberal Liberal Party.” Party.35 powerful In aa letter letter to to one one of of his his journalist journalist friends friends dated dated 15 15 April April 1911, 1911, Fisher Fisher In complained complained that that politicians politicians from from across across the the spectrum spectrum were were lining lining up up “to “to get McKenna McKenna ‘knocked ‘knocked out.’ out.”36 The The following following month month he he wrote wrote to to get McKenna’s wife wife with with the the latest latest gossip gossip and and intelligence: intelligence: McKenna’s Esher writes writes a a whole whole lot lot about about the the military military conspiracy conspiracy to to raise raise the the Army Army Esher Estimates, Estimates, and and the the Generals Generals on on the the Committee Committee of of imperial Imperial Defence Defence all all

being being banded banded to to depreciate depreciate the the Navy, Navy, but but he he adds adds quite quite conclusively, conclusively, “the “the country will will never never stand stand it,” it,” but but “Lord “Lord Viscount Viscount Napoleon Napoleon B.” B.” [Haldane] [Haldane] is is country so so extremely extremely artful artful .. .. .. that that one one does does not not know know what what mischief mischief might might not not be be done, done, when when you you consider consider how how glad glad both both L[loyd] L{loyd] G[eorge] G[eorge] and and Winston Winston fall!37 Reggie aa fall!*’ dear Reggie your dear give your to give be to might be [Churchill] might [Churchill] Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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The The Agadir Agadir Crisis Crisis

the was the dismissal was his dismissal for his pretext for The pretext 1911. The October 1911. in October fell in McKenna fell McKenna crisis. Agadir crisis. so-called Agadir the so-called during the summer during that summer showing that poor showing Admiralty’s poor Admiralty’s the during the badly during that badly performed that not performed had not leadership had navy’s leadership the navy’s Actually the Actually crisis. one could step. crisis. After After the the war war scare scare subsided, subsided, no no one could point point to to one one false false step. Nevertheless caught Nevertheless there there was was an an impression impression that that the the navy navy had had been been caught unprepared, and and that that was was used used by by McKenna’s McKenna’s enemies enemies to to collapse collapse conficonfiunprepared, dence the height on 27 27 dence in in his his administration. administration. At' At the height of of the the crisis, crisis, for for instance, instance, on July, July, Winston Winston Churchill Churchill phoned phoned the the Admiralty Admiralty to to recommend recommend the the dispatch dispatch of Royal Royal Marines Marines to to guard guard the the armament armament depots depots in in the the east east end end of of London London of from Charles from German German fifth fifth columnists. columnists. His His call call was was taken taken by by Rear Rear Adm. Adm. Charles Madden, naval offioffiMadden, the the fourth fourth sea sea lord.38 lord.** After After the the confused confused (or (or bemused) bemused) naval cer refused refused to to take take the the proferred proferred advice, advice, the the latter latter rang rang off off and and on on his his own own cer authority after authority arranged arranged for for some some armed armed policemen policemen to to do do the the job: job: minutes minutes after they on the the they arrived arrived a a company company of of guardsmen, guardsmen, sent sent by by Haldane, Haldane, appeared appeared on scene. corscene. “By “By the the next next day,” day,” Churchill Churchill proclaimed proclaimed in in his his memoirs, memoirs, “the “the cordite was that the dite reserves reserves of of the the navy navy were were safe"!39 safe”!*> But But what what be he omitted omitted was that the admiral of the the admiral had had in in fact fact been been quite quite right; right; responsibility responsibility for for the the security security of depots depots had had belonged belonged to to the the War War Office. Office. Whether Whether or or not not the the armament armament depots depots had had been been truly truly in in danger danger was was not not the the point, point, however. however. Madden’s Madden’s response This response was was used used to to fuel fuel the the rumors rumors of of laxity laxity at at the the Admiralty. Admiralty. This impression to impression was was reinforced reinforced the the following following week week by by McKenna’s McKenna’s decision decision to allow allow the the majority majority of of Whitehall Whitehall officials officials to to go go ahead ahead with with their their planned planned summer summer vacations. vacations. While While the the admirals admirals went went on on holiday, holiday, representatives representatives from of from the the General General Staff Staff were were sent sent across across to to Paris Paris to to finalize finalize the the details details of their their Continental Continental plan. plan. On On 15 15 August, August, Capt. Capt. Maurice Maurice Hankey Hankey (the (the naval naval representative representative attached attached to to the the secretariat secretariat of of the the CID) CID) tipped tipped off off McKenna McKenna that that the the War War Office Office was was plotting plotting to to exploit exploit the the situation. situation. He He reported reported that that the the generals generals wanted wanted to to force force the the Cabinet Cabinet into into making making an an instant instant decision decision as as to to whether whether or of war war or not not to to dispatch dispatch the the expeditionary expeditionary force force to to France France in in the the event event of with with Germany. Germany. “It “It is is of of course course notorious,” notorious,” Hankey Hankey informed informed the the first first lord, lord,

“that to the the “that the the D.M.O., D.M.O., General General Wilson, Wilson, who who has has bought bought this this question question to

front, front, has has a a perfect perfect obsession obsession for for military military operations operations on on the the continent.” continent.” He He holds holds the the view, view, not not only only that that military military action action is is indispensable indispensable in in order order to to preserve preserve the the balance balance of of power power in in Europe, Europe, but but that that we we require require a a concon-

script army army for for the the purpose. purpose. IfIf he he can can get get aa decision decision at at this this juncture juncture in in script favour favour of of military military action action he he will will endeavor endeavor to to commit commit us us up up to to the the hilt; hilt; and and

in in aa few few months months time time he he will will prove prove that that with with our our existing existing forces forces we we could could not not have have rendered rendered France France proper proper assistance, assistance, and and will will seek seek to to show show that that without without conscription conscription we we cannot cannot fulfil fulfil our our obligations.40 obligations.” Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Hankey Hankey went went on on to to suggest suggest that that if if the the prime prime minister minister agreed agreed to to refer refer the the matter to the CID the Admiralty could frustrate the War Office’s matter to the CID the Admiralty could frustrate the War Office's efforts efforts by by refusing refusing “to “to say say how how long long it it will will be be before before the the transport transport of of troops troops will will be feasible.” Alternatively, he recommended, the Admiralty “can be feasible.” Alternatively, he recommended, the Admiralty “can stick stick to to the the line line they they took took in in 1908 1908 that that the the policy policy of of sending sending an an expedition expedition is is altoaltogether gether aa wrong wrong one.”‘“ one.”*' Five Five days days later, later, McKenna McKenna received received another another letter letter (this time from Fisher) echoing the warning of a War Office (this time from Fisher) echoing the warning of a War Office plot plot to to introintroduce duce “compulsory “compulsory service service and and an an increase increase of of the the Army Army estimates estimates and and military influence.”42 The former first sea lord advised military influence.”*” The former first sea lord advised his his friend friend “to “to trust trust in ”“3 in Hankey Hankey implicitly. implicitly.”* The promised gathering The promised gathering at at the the cm CID was was convened convened much much earlier earlier than than the Admiralty had expected. Wilson the Admiralty had expected. Wilson and and Bethell Bethell (DNl) (DNI) were were hurriedly hurriedly recalled recalled from from vacation vacation to to attend attend the the meeting meeting scheduled scheduled for for 23 23 August August 1911. 1911. Indeed Indeed the the DN1 DNI arrived arrived late late and and missed missed the the morning morning session. session. Haldane, Haldane, who who was was responsible responsible for for the the invitations, invitations, deliberately deliberately excluded excluded from from his his list list anyone anyone he he thought thought might might be be opposed opposed to to his his military military policy. policy. Among Among this this group group were were several several supposedly supposedly “permanent “permanent members” members” of of the the cm CID including including Lords Lords Morley, Morley, Crewe, Crewe, and and Fisher. Fisher. The The most most notable—and notable—and inexcusable—absentee inexcusable—absentee was was Viscount Viscount Esher.44 EKsher.** Once Once the the meeting meeting began, began, Gen. Sir Sir Henry Henry Wilson Wilson subjected subjected his his audience audience to to aa barrage barrage of of facts, facts, figfigGen. ures, ures, and and charts, charts, showing showing the the War War Office’s Office’s reasoning reasoning for for sending sending the the entire entire expeditionary expeditionary force force to to the the Continent. Continent. It It was was aa thoroughly thoroughly “profes“professional” sional” presentation.45 presentation.* He He successfully successfully concealed concealed from from the the politicians politicians the the full full details details of of Anglo-French Anglo-French cooperation, cooperation, the the recent recent changes changes in in the the French French command command and and war war policy, policy, and and most most importantly importantly the the resource resource implications implications for for adoptn adopting such such aa strategy. strategy. By By juggling juggling the the number number of of dividivisions sions available available to to each each power power at at the the beginning beginning of of aa war, war, and and by by assumassuming ing that that Germany Germany would would not not infringe infringe upon upon Belgian Belgian territory territory north north of of the the River Meuse, General Wilson claimed River Meuse, General Wilson claimed that that the the immediate immediate dispatch dispatch of of the the entire entire BEF BEF to to the the town town of of Mauberge Mauberge would would provide provide the the French French with with a a numerical numerical superiority superiority at at the the key key point point in in their their line.46 line.** Of Of course course the the idea idea the to the contribution to decisive contribution provide aa decisive could provide divisions could British divisions six British just six that just that resergrave harboring despite Yet far-fetched.47 was France of defense defense of France was far-fetched.” Yet despite harboring grave reservations vations as as to to the the military military value value of of the the six six divisions,48 divisions,** Haldane Haldane endorsed endorsed the argument and laid great stress on the necessity to the argument and laid great stress on the necessity to land land the the expediexpeditionary tionary force force on on the the Continent Continent as as quickly quickly as as possible.“9 possible.” The The logic logic appealed appealed to to the the civilians civilians present. present. In reply, reply, McKenna McKenna took took Hankey’s Hankey’s advice advice and and “pleaded “pleaded ignorance ignorance of of In the the whole whole scheme” scheme” to to transport transport aa military military expeditionary expeditionary force force across across the the Channel.50 Channel. This This proved proved to to be be aa bad bad mistake mistake and and one one that that McKenna McKenna regretregretted ted for for the the rest rest of of his his life.“ life.°' After After the the meeting, meeting, Haldane Haldane skillfully skillfully exploitexploited ed the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s reply reply and and the the refusal refusal to to provide provide transports transports for for the the BEF BEF Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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service two service the two between the cooperation between to of cooperation lack of endemic lack the endemic dramatize the to dramatize surprisingnot surprisingallegations, not These allegations, departments planning.52 These strategic planning.” over strategic departments over in was in Whitehall was that Whitehall rumors that ly, widespread rumors now widespread the now fuel the to fuel served to ly, served Arthur Sir Arthur by Sir performance by inept performance administrative particularly inept chaos. AA particularly administrative chaos. the that the impression that the impression reinforced the further reinforced Wilson meeting further CID meeting the CID at the Wilson at 25 On 25 crisis.53 On Agadir crisis.” the Agadir during the war during for war Admiralty unprepared for been unprepared had been Admiralty had Haldane Whitehall, Haldane on Whitehall, pressure on maintain pressure August, to maintain calculated to move calculated in aa move August, in transport revised transport army’s revised the army's of the forwarded details of Admiralty details the Admiralty 'to the forwarded ‘to three after three When after reply. When immediate reply. an immediate requirements demanded an and demanded requirements and Transports Naval Transports of Naval director of the director (because the heard (because weeks been heard had been nothing had weeks nothing that Minister that Prime Minister the Prime to the “intimated to was Haldane “intimated vacation),54 Haldane on vacation), away on was away unless aa Office unless War Office the War for the he responsible for be responsible to be continue to not continue would not he would harfull harin full work in would work which would being which into being called into Board was called Admiralty was of Admiralty Board of of aa organisation of the organisation begin the would begin and would mony plans, and Office plans, War Office the War with the mony with himput himminister put war minister the war week the following week The following proper Staff. ”55 The War Staff.” Naval War proper Naval the with the “equipped with suitably “equipped party suitably the party in the self man in only man the only as the forward as self forward highly fashioning aa highly for fashioning essential for were essential that were knowledge experience that and experience knowledge and navy.56 the navy. for the complicated organisation” for complicated organisation” persuaded finally persuaded Haldane finally Lord Haldane the Lord October, the of October, At beginning of the beginning At the Admiralty the Admiralty of the control of lost control had lost lord had the first lord the first that the minister that prime minister the prime fairly done fairly has done “McKenna has overdue. “McKenna was overdue. reform was and administrative reform that administrative and that to confided to Asquith confided Parliament,” Asquith in Parliament,” policy in Admiralty policy well of Admiralty defender of as defender well as Wilby Wil(b) by Jackie (b) (a) Jackie by (a) dominated by entirely dominated been entirely has been Lord he has “but he Esher, “but Lord Esher, the reorganise the to reorganise able to or able inclined or be inclined never be son, would never he would that he and that son, and might minister might prime minister The prime department.”57 The the department.”*’ of the internal policy of naval policy internal naval the at the leadership at of leadership change of wanting aa change have for wanting reasons for other reasons had other have had the since the that since noted that has noted commentator has one commentator than one Admiralty. More than Admiralty. More “economist” radical “economist” the radical towards the leaning towards autumn been leaning again been had again he had autumn he Treasury-endorsed endorse Treasury-endorsed to endorse prepared to now prepared wing was now and was party, and his party, of his wing of navy’s the navy's normally the Grey, normally Edward Grey, Sir Edward Even Sir cuts navy.58 Even the navy.® on the cuts on retrenchment.59 naval retrenchment.” for naval calls for oppose calls to oppose unwilling to staunchest was unwilling ally, was staunchest ally, Asquith therefore, Asquith Clearly, therefore, about.60 Clearly, worry about.® He to worry problems to own problems his own had his He had But elsewhere?“ But “promoted elsewhere.’® McKenna “promoted see McKenna to see motive to had one motive than one more than had more Asquith to Asquith intimated to had intimated McKenna had outright impossible; McKenna was impossible; dismissal was outright dismissal true the true Parliament the to Parliament reveal to would reveal he would Cabinet he the Cabinet that of the out of forced out that ifif forced

to commitments to military commitments and military diplomatic and secret diplomatic extent Britain’s secret of Britain's extent of bilsuitable bilhim aa suitable finding him that finding recognized that minister recognized prime minister The prime France.62 The France.”

b

make would make Who would easy.63 Who be easy.“ to be going to not going was not let government was the government within the let within Haldane’s of Haldane’s wary of both wary was both Asquith was place? Asquith his place? take his would take who would and who way and way taralready tarnavy’s already the navy’s on the damage on more damage inflict more to inflict afraid to and afraid ambition and ambition nished nished reputation reputation by by sending sending the the War War Office Office minister minister directly directly across across to to I the/7Adhmiralty.64 the Admiralty.

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The The solution solution to to this this dilemma dilemma came came with with a a request request from from Winston Winston Churchill Churchill at at the the end end of of September September to to be be transferred transferred from from the the Home Home Office Office to to the the Admiralty.65 Admiralty.* His His candidacy candidacy was was strongly strongly backed backed by by Lloyd Lloyd George.66 George.® While While Haldane Haldane may may have have been been primarily primarily responsible responsible for for undermining undermining McKenna’s McKenna’s defenses, defenses, it it was was Lloyd Lloyd George George and and Churchill Churchill who who successfully successfully exploited exploited the the weakness. weakness. Churchill Churchill was was keen keen to to find find a a more more exciting exciting and and less less tedious tedious post post within within the the government. government. “I’m “I’m sick sick of of the the Home Home Office,” Office,” he he is is reported reported as as having having told told the the king king in in late late August August 1911, 1911, “These “These women women (suf(suffragettes) fragettes) will will be be the the death death of of me”!67 me”!®’ After After a a short short deliberation, deliberation, the the prime prime minister minister finally finally resolved resolved that that Churchill Churchill and and McKenna McKenna should should exchange exchange offices. offices. On On 10 10 October October Asquith Asquith wrote wrote to to the the incumbent incumbent first first lord lord offering offering him him promotion promotion to to the the Home Home Office.68 Office.® At At the the same same time time the the impression impression put put about about was was that that Churchill Churchill was was in in fact fact being being demoted demoted “for “for his his indiscreet indiscreet conconduct duct as as Home Home Secretary.”69 Secretary.”® Rumors Rumors circulated circulated London London society society that that the the brash brash young young minister minister was was lucky lucky not not to to be be banished banished to to the the Irish Irish Office.70 Office.” McKenna, McKenna, however, however, was was not not deceived deceived by by Asquith’s Asquith’s invitation invitation and and immediimmediately ately declined, declined, only only to to be be ordered, ordered, three three days days later, later, to to accept accept or or leave leave the the government.71 government.”’ McKenna, McKenna, it it should should be be noted, noted, never never forgave forgave Churchill Churchill for for his his part part in in what what he he justifiably justifiably regarded regarded as as aa conspiracy conspiracy to to remove remove him him from from the the job he he loved. loved. This This animosity animosity soon soon developed developed into into hatred.” hatred.72 job A A Heaven Heaven Sent Sent Strategist! Strategist!

Winston Winston S. S. Churchill Churchill took took office office as as first first lord lord of of the the Admiralty Admiralty on on 25 25 October October 1911, 1911, with with the the reputation reputation of of being being an an uncompromising uncompromising “econo“economist.” mist.” Back Back in in 1909, 1909, despite despite being being the the most most junior junior member member in in the the Cabinet, Cabinet, Churchill Churchill had had led led the the radical radical wing wing of of the the party party that that had had stood stood against against proposed proposed increases increases in in naval naval spending spending on on the the grounds grounds that that they they were were unnecessary unnecessary and and would would interfere interfere with with concurrent concurrent plans plans to to further further extend extend the the welfare welfare system. system. He He was was deeply deeply committed committed to to the the party's party’s social social reform reform program program for for both both moral moral and and pragmatic pragmatic reasons." reasons.” He He professed, professed, for instance, instance, to to be be in in favor favor of of land land reform reform and and the the imposition imposition of of aa nationnationfor al al minimum minimum wage wage for for agricultural agricultural laborers.” laborers.74 After After being being promoted promoted home home secretary secretary in in 1910, 1910, Churchill Churchill had had continued continued to to agitate agitate for for aa substantial substantial cut in in naval naval expenditure.” expenditure.75 The The following following year year he he had had served served on on the the cut Cabinet subcommittee subcommittee appointed appointed to to review review the the navy navy estimates, estimates, and and had had Cabinet been been mainly mainly responsible responsible for for the the demand demand for for the the Admiralty Admiralty to to revise revise the the costly costly plan plan to to reestablish reestablish a a fleet fleet in in the the Pacific.76 Pacific.”” Despite Despite what what he he later later claimed claimed in in his his memoirs, memoirs, when when Churchill Churchill arrived arrived at at Whitehall Whitehall he he was was still still bent on on imposing imposing large large cuts cuts in in the the naval naval. budget.”” budget.77 While While he he may may have have bent experienced experienced a a “metamorphosis” “metamorphosis” in in his his “attitude” “attitude” towards towards Germany Germany and and

the the “alleged “alleged German German threat,”78 threat,”” he he still still nevertheless nevertheless believed believed that that signifisignifib cant cant cuths cuts lIhl in naval naval expenditure expenditure were were both both desirable desirable and and practicable. practicable. In In aa Lam ert, Nico as. Sirjo nFis er's Nova Revo ution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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November on 99 November Banquet on Guildhall Banquet the Guildhall to the delivered to speech delivered political speech major political major esti[naval] “the that audience his assured Churchill instance, for 1911, 1911, for instance, Churchill assured his audience that “the [naval] estithe from reduction some show should year forthcoming the for mates mates for the forthcoming year should show some reduction from the any at mark, high-water the . . . stand now they which at level abnormal level at which they now stand. abnormal the high-water mark, at any reached.”79 been reached.”” has been rate, has rate, as lord as sea lord first sea new first appoint aa new to appoint determined to office determined took office Churchill took Churchill shocked had August 23 on display Wilson’s Arthur Sir possible. as possible. Sir Arthur Wilson’s display on 23 August had shocked soon as soon “c[oul]d Asquith, “c{oul]d told Asquith, afterwards told had afterwards he had power,” he real power,” of real man of “No man him. “No him. offisenior the of most interviewing After foolishly.”80 so answered have have answered so foolishly.”® After interviewing most of the senior offiof Louis Prince Adm. Vice chose lord first new the list, flag the on cers cers on the flag list, the new first lord chose Vice Adm. Prince Louis of he that felt Churchill councillor.”81 “principal his become to Battenberg Battenberg to become his “principal councillor.”*' Churchill felt that he important every important “nearly every on “nearly agreement” on cordial agreement” “in cordial were “in admiral were the admiral and the and Asquith when pleased all at not thus was He policy.”82 naval of question question of naval policy.”*? He was thus not at all pleased when Asquith at disapproval public of fear of out appointment out of fear of public disapproval at Battenberg’s appointment blocked Battenberg’s blocked Navy.83 Royal the of head as officer born “German” born officer as head of the Royal Navy.® of aa “German” appointment of the appointment the In the In addition, addition, the the prime prime minister minister was was still still anxious anxious to to subdue subdue rumors rumors of of the insisted thus He crisis. recent the during performance during the recent crisis. He thus insisted poor performance Admiralty’s poor Admiralty’s age for age retirement for compulsory retirement his compulsory until his office until in office remain in must remain Wilson must that Wilson that off.85 put easily so not was however, was not so easily put off.® Churchill, however, March.84 Churchill, following March.* the following the Churchill 1911 Churchill November 1911 on 55 November excuse: on his excuse: found his he found fortnight he Within aa fortnight Within blocking stubbornly was lord sea first the that Asquith to complained complained to Asquith that the first sea lord was stubbornly blocking conhad Haldane which reform a system, staff naval a introduce to plans plans to introduce a naval staff system, a reform which Haldane had convinced the prime minister was vital.86 By the end of the month, therefore, vinced the prime minister was vital.® By the end of the month, therefore, with Wilson with replacing Wilson to replacing consent to grudging consent his grudging gave his minister gave prime minister the prime the of Louis Prince Bridgeman. Francis Sir malleable supposedly the the supposedly malleable Sir Francis Bridgeman. Prince Louis of Battenberg was appointed second sea lord after Vice Adm. George Battenberg was appointed second sea lord after Vice Adm. George warning “less warning with “less post with the post vacate the to vacate ordered to summarily ordered was summarily Egerton was Kgerton than a footman gets.”87 than a footman gets.”® reporthe reportAdmiralty he the Admiralty at the duty at for duty arrived for Bridgeman arrived after Bridgeman Shortly after Shortly econé the on strongly is “Churchill that Fisher, Lord mentor, old his to ed ed to his old mentor, Lord Fisher, that “Churchill is strongly on the economy drive” and was “full of new schemes of strategy which are almost omy drive” and was “full of new schemes of strategy which are almost too bold hold to to be be believed!” believed!"88 What What the the first first sea sea lord lord had had not not yet yet realized, realized, too however, was that the inspiration for Churchill’s radical strategic however, was that the inspiration for Churchill's radical strategic theotheories Winston and and ries was was none none other other than than Admiral Admiral of of the the Fleet Fleet Lord Lord Fisher! Fisher! Winston Jacky were were old old friends. friends. They They had had first first met met in in April April 1907 1907 while while visiting visiting Jacky mutual mutual friends friends in in Biarritz. Biarritz. Looking Looking back back on on that that occasion occasion in in the 1920s, the 19208, Churchill Churchill recalled: recalled: “we “we talked talked all all day day long long and and far far into into the the nights. nights. He He told told me me wonderful wonderful stories stories of of the the Navy Navy and and of of his his plans—all plans—all about about dreaddreadnoughts, noughts, all all about about submarines.” submarines.” Churchill Churchill confessed confessed to to being being captivated captivated by by the the admiral. admiral. “When “When II returned returned to to my my duties duties at at the the Colonial Colonial Office Office |I could could have have passed passed an an examination examination on on the the policy policy of of the the then then Board Board of of Admiralty,” Admiralty,” he he wrote.89 wrote.” For For the the next next eighteen eighteen months months the the two two were were close close Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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friends friends and and dined dined together together regularly.90 regularly. Although Although during during the the passage passage of of the the 1909 1909 navy navy estimates estimates the the two two had had ceased ceased communicating—Fisher communicating—Fisher accused accused Churchill Churchill of of betraying betraying the the navy navy by by opposing opposing his his demands demands for for an an eight eight dreadnought dreadnought construction construction program—the program—the spat spat had had been been short-lived short-lived and and within within twelve twelve months months they they were were again again on on speaking speaking terms. terms. Thus Thus “[als “[a]s soon soon as as I| knew knew for for certain certain that that l[ was was to to go go to to the the Admiralty Admiralty II sent sent for for Fisher: Fisher: he he was was [then] [then] abroad abroad in in sunshine,” sunshine,” Churchill Churchill recalled recalled in in his his memories.9 memories.*'1 0n On sitting sitting down down at at his his new new desk desk the the new new first first lord lord immediately immediately wrote wrote to to Jacky Jacky at at his his hotel hotel in in italy Italy begging begging an an audience.92 audience.” Three Three days days later later the the pair pair were were closeted closeted for for a a long long weekend weekend at at Reigate Reigate Priory Priory in in Surrey.93 Surrey.” Churchill Churchill later later claimed claimed that that by by the the end end of of their their meeting meeting he he had had “almost “almost

made made up up his his mind” mind” to to place place Fisher Fisher again again as as head head of of the the naval naval service.94 service.” Political Political expediency, expediency, however, however, compelled compelled him him to to rely rely upon upon “Radical “Radical Jack” Jack” in in no no more more than than an an unofficial unofficial capacity. capacity. Except Except for for one one more more secret secret rendezvous rendezvous at at Plymouth Plymouth Dockyard Dockyard (18—20 (18-20 November), November), Fisher Fisher deliberdeliberately ately remained remained in in italy Italy to to dampen dampen speculation speculation about about the the existence existence of of links links between between them.95 them.” Even Even so, so, Churchill Churchill continued continued to to send send him him numernumerous ous confidential confidential Admiralty Admiralty documents documents carried carried by by diplomatic diplomatic courier courier to to the the British British consulate consulate in in Naples.96 Naples. During During the the winter winter of of 1911—12, 1911-12, Fisher Fisher and and Churchill Churchill corresponded corresponded on on an an almost almost daily daily basis. basis. Fisher Fisher relished relished the the opportunity opportunity to to exercise exercise influence influence without without responsibility. responsibility. This This extraordiextraordinary nary clandestine clandestine relationship relationship operated operated until until Churchill Churchill “shocked” “shocked” Fisher Fisher the the following following spring spring by by giving giving appointments appointments to to three three senior senior admirals admirals who who he he considered considered incompetent.97 incompetent.” The The admiral admiral was was informed informed by by the the equally equally disapproving disapproving Rear Rear Adm. Adm. Ernest Ernest Troubridge Troubridge that that the the first first lord lord had had “truck“truckled” led” to to court court influence; influence; the the new new King King George George V—himself V—himself a a former former naval naval officer—had into employing employing the the three three admirals, admirals, all all officer—had pressured pressured Churchill Churchill into of of whom whom were were personal personal friends.98 friends.” During During the the winter winter of of 1911, 1911, Fisher Fisher managed managed to to persuade persuade his his disciple disciple that that he he could could achieve achieve his his goal goal of of finding finding significant significant savings savings in in naval naval expenditure without without endangering endangering British British naval naval supremacy supremacy by by embracing embracing expenditure the the battle battle cruiser cruiser concept concept and and the the strategy strategy of of “flotilla “flotilla defence.”99 defence.”** Rough Rough notes notes taken taken by by Churchill Churchill at at Reigate Reigate Priory Priory in in October October show show that that he he was was given given a a very very frank frank explanation explanation of of Fisher’s Fisher’s radical radical vision vision of of naval naval war. war. The The Admiral Admiral revealed revealed when when he he had had been been first first sea sea lord lord he he had had visualized visualized the the entire entire southern southern half half of of the the North North Sea Sea being being saturated saturated with with submarines, submarines, into into the the Heligoland Heligoland Bight Bight and and the the Skaggerak, Skaggerak, and and that that he he had had planned planned to to send send a a force force of of submarines submarines into into the the Baltic Baltic to to help help the the Russian Russian navy navy proprotect tect St. St. Petersburg Petersburg from from bombardment bombardment by by the the German German High High Sea Sea Fleet.100 Fleet.'” Several Several days days after after the the interview interview Fisher Fisher wrote wrote a a triumphant triumphant letter letter to to a a close friend claiming that he had put the question of expanding the subclose friend claiming that he had put the question of expanding the subLambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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also was also Churchill was him.”101 Churchill “converted him.”'®' had “converted and had Winston and to Winston service to marine service marine least aa at least Sea—or at North Sea—or the North defense inin the flotilla defense reinstigate flotilla to reinstigate persuaded to persuaded

command the command for the arranged for he arranged months he six months Within six strategy. Within that strategy. of that version of version be to be Britain to of Britain coast of east coast the east on the stationed on craft stationed flotilla craft all flotilla of all control of and control and Admiralty the Admiralty to the reporting to officer reporting flag officer single flag of aa single control of the control to the returned to returned noted, be noted, will be scheme, itit will new scheme, The new chief. The in chief. commander in the commander than the rather than rather the organization the Fleet” organization “Home Fleet” original “Home the original to the similarity to marked similarity bore aa marked bore 1906.102 in 1906.'” back in proposed back had proposed lord had sea lord first sea former first former projected battleships projected the battleships cancel the to cancel Churchill to persuaded Churchill also persuaded Fisher also Fisher batmodel batnew model for aa new “plunge” for instead “plunge” and instead program and 1912/13 program the 1912/13 under the under sketch pupil sketch his pupil forwarded his admiral forwarded the admiral 1911, the November 1911, In November cruiser. In tle cruiser. tle fired oil fired with oil fitted with guns, fitted 15-inch guns, eight 15-inch with eight armed with warship armed of aa warship plans of plans relied which relied and which knots and thirty knots at thirty ship at the ship propelling the of propelling capable of boilers capable boilers profor proarmor for heavy armor than heavy rather than subdivision rather internal subdivision extensive internal upon extensive upon be ships be these ships would these only would not only that not Churchill that promised Churchill He promised tection.103 He tection.'* all force all would force they would but they afloat but then afloat anything then to anything superior to qualitatively superior qualitatively result, as aa result, which, as designs: which, ship designs: own ship their own reconsider their to reconsider navies to other navies other calculatFisher calculatprograms. Fisher building programs. their building recast their to recast them to compel them would compel would possible last possible the last until the change until the change concealed the Admiralty concealed the Admiralty that ifif the ed that ed for program for ship program capital ship own capital her own relax her to relax afford to could afford Britain could moment, Britain moment, at at least least one one year. year. The The “whole “whole secret” secret” of of successful successful naval naval administration. administration, Fisher preached, preached, “is “is ‘plunging’—it ‘plunging’—it stupefies stupefies foreign foreign Admiralties.”'™ Admiralties.”'°4 Fisher put off off to to the the very very last last hour hour the the ship ship (big (big or or little) little) that that you you mean mean to to build build (or (or put perhaps not build her at all!). You see all your rival's plans fully developed. perhaps not build her at all!). You see all your rival's plans fully developed, their vessels vessels started started beyond beyond recall, recall, and and then then in in each each individual individual answer answer to to their knowing better! cent. per 50 design a with PLUNGE you vessel rival such each each such rival vessel you PLUNGE with a design 50 per cent. better! knowing have to have you to enable you will enable money will of money command of and command shipbuilding and rapid shipbuilding your rapid that your that

vessel.105 rival vessel.'® the rival than the sooner than not sooner soon ifif not as soon light as to fight fit to vessel fit your vessel your Initially Initially Churchill Churchill took took steps steps in in the the directions directions indicated. indicated. He He began began by by construction 1912 construction the 1912 reconsider the to reconsider advisors to Whitehall advisors senior Whitehall his senior asking his asking program. Previously, Previously, McKenna McKenna had had planned planned to to ask ask Parliament Parliament for for money money program. and destroyers and twenty destroyers cruisers, twenty light cruisers, five light battleships, five four battleships, down four lay down to lay to six new liabilities six submarines. submarines. Altogether Altogether the the Admiralty Admiralty planned planned to to incur incur new liabilities four the four by the taken by be taken would be million would £8.4 million which £8.4 of which million, of 211.3 million, totaling £11.3 totaling had (who had Battenberg (who informed Battenberg Churchill informed November Churchill 10 November On 10 ships. On capital ships. capital ordering of ordering instead of that instead Board) that the Board) to the appointed to officially appointed been officially yet been not yet not battle improved battle four improved down four laying down “contemplated” laying he “contemplated” battleships he the battleships the be to be craft” to torpedo craft” of torpedo multiplication of “a multiplication anticipated “a also anticipated He also cruisers.‘06 He cruisers.’ financed by by savings savings resulting resulting from from the the paying paying off off and and disposal disposal of of old old financed ships.”7 “You “You will will see see that that the the more more we we can can reduce reduce expense expense of of the the ships.'”” upkeep of of our our obsolescent obsolescent tail,” tail,” Churchill Churchill explained, explained, “the “the more more we we shall shall upkeep Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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of combination of The combination claws.”108 The and claws.”'® teeth and new teeth of new development of the development for the have have for pace the pace in the deceleration in anticipated deceleration the anticipated and the policy and scrapping policy ruthless scrapping aa ruthless would hoped, would he hoped, years, he three years, next three the next over the construction over dreadnought construction of of dreadnought the at the economists at the economists satisfy the to satisfy able to be able to be “easily to Admiralty “easily the Admiralty allow the allow fleet.””’9 the strengthen we as time same same time as we strengthen the fleet.”'” Battenberg was was initially initially doubtful. doubtful. He He advised advised that that many many of of the the Battenberg difficult be practice in would paper on feasible appeared feasible on paper would in practice be difficult that appeared economies that economies he lords, he sea lords, The sea appearances. The by appearances. concerned by also concerned was also He was achieve. He to achieve. to after soon after so soon down” so “cutting down” seen “cutting be seen to be reluctant to most reluctant be most would be warned, would warned, Wilson’s departure. departure. But But later later he he suggested suggested that that “the “the withdrawal withdrawal of of six six Wilson’s offers waters home to Mediterranean the from battleships from the Mediterranean to home waters offers manned battleships fully manned fully great possibilities.”''° possibilities.”“0 This, This, Battenberg Battenberg calculated, calculated, would would release release aa modmodgreat alteran alterwith an up with came up who came Fisher who again Fisher was again pounds. Itit was half-million pounds. est half-million est the of the view of in view think in program. “I“I think flotilla program. increased flotilla an increased funding an of funding way of native way native Churchill to wrote he ships,” he wrote to Churchill new ships,” your new in your power in gun power of gun increase of immense increase immense under vessels under armoured vessels four armoured ordering four of ordering instead of that instead November, that 20 November, on 20 on for 4‘“ for the 4" for the money for the money take the have 33 && take only have might only “you might program, “you 1912 program, the 1912 the stanFisher’s stanby Fisher's Even by destroyers.””‘ Even more destroyers.”''' few more submarines—chieflyL-8z aa few submarines—chiefly—& first new first the new required the bold—it required too bold—it Possibly too scheme. Possibly bold scheme. was aa bold this was dards this dards naval of leaf” “fig remaining last remaining “fig leaf’ of naval Party’s last Liberal Party's the Liberal sacrifice the to sacrifice lord to lord political considerable political display considerable to display lords to sea lords the sea for the and for respectability and respectability program building program declared building the declared from the ship from one ship even one of even deletion of The deletion nerve.“2 The nerve.''’? endangering were endangering they were accusations they to accusations Admiralty to the Admiralty expose the to expose bound to was bound was “plunge” the “plunge” take the to take resolved to Churchill resolved Nevertheless Churchill supremacy. Nevertheless naval supremacy. naval Liberal the Liberal protect the to protect way to found aa way had found he had that he himself that assuring himself after assuring after reached agreement the on renege to was solution His modesty. His solution was to renege on the agreement reached Party’s modesty. Party's the in the squadron in cruiser squadron battle cruiser establish aa battle to establish 1909 to in 1909 Dominions in the Dominions with the with Board: the to explained Churchill December Churchill explained to the Board: In December Pacific. In Pacific. capital in capital Germany in over Germany preponderance over cent preponderance per cent 60 per maintain 60 to maintain order to in order In ships ships in in home home waters waters four four should should be be laid laid down down this this financial financial year. year. But But this this in China in to China sent to be sent should be Indomitable should the /ndomitable that the assumption that the assumption on the isis on completed. when completed. follow when should follow Zealand should New Zealand the New that the and that [1912], and January [1912], January numerithe numerithat the clear that waters itit isis clear home waters in home retained in be retained Indomitable be the Indomitable Ifif the

ships capital ships three capital of three construction of by aa construction satisfied by be satisfied will be requirements will cal cal requirements in in the the 12—13 12-13 programme programme ... . .. II therefore therefore propose propose as as an an alternative alternative to to the the

programme programme submitted submitted that that we we should should build build three three new new capital capital ships ships and and £2,100,000!” saving £2,100,000.'" thus saving lndomitable, thus the Indomitable, retain the retain

in sixteen in (making sixteen submarines (making additional submarines ten additional for ten pay for would pay money would This money This all).“4 in all).'% thirty in (making thirty destroyers (making boat destroyers torpedo boat all) more torpedo ten more and ten all) and amendan amendfor an lobbying for was lobbying Tirpitz was Admiral Tirpitz Grand Admiral that Grand Although aware that Although aware to have to might have Navy might Royal Navy the Royal which the to which law to navy law ment German navy the German to the ment to Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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money finding money with finding concerned with more concerned was more react, Churchill was stage Churchill this stage at this react, at Germans the “IF craft. flotilla craft. “IF the Germans more flotilla for more pay for to pay within budget to existing budget his existing within his conhe concruiser,” he [battle] cruiser,” extra [battle] an extra down an increase laying down by laying law by navy law their navy increase their to cruisers to battle cruisers two battle adding two by adding jectured, reply by immediately reply could immediately “we could jectured, “we our programme.”“5 programme.”'” our he when he steps when his steps retraced his rapidly retraced At Churchill rapidly 1911 Churchill of 1911 end of the end At the prepared were Admiralty the Admiralty were prepared at the advisors at found official advisors his official of his none of that none found that “The program.“6 “The construction program.''® the construction to the changes to to radical changes such radical support such to support his is—in his he is—in more he what isis more and what hurry and new in aa hurry man in young man lord isis aa young first lord new first one reported one naval,” reported and naval,” military and both military opinion—a strategist both born strategist heaven born opinion—a heaven his all his “whether all service; “whether distant service; on distant junior friend on to aa friend officer to staff officer junior staff senior three senior The three .”“7 The . . .”''’ say. .. to say. like to shouldn’t like schemes sound II shouldn't quite sound are quite schemes are Bridgeman, especially Bridgeman, and especially Battenberg and members Board—Briggs, Battenberg the Board—Briggs, of the members of cruisbattle cruisthe battle of the favor of in favor battleships in up battleships giving up to giving opposed to were equally opposed were equally er concept.“8 concept.'"® Indeed, Indeed, the the first first sea sea lord lord wanted wanted “to “to get get rid rid of of the the battle battle er heavthe heavof the development of the development cruiser championed the He championed altogether.“9 He type” altogether.''® cruiser type” ily armored armored (and (and considerably considerably more more expensive) expensive) fast fast battleship battleship type type ily learning On learning class.120 On Elizabeth class.’ Queen Elizabeth which the Queen as the known as became known later became which later handwritbold handwritln bold irate. In became irate. Fisher became down Fisher that backed down had backed Churchill had that Churchill condemning experts,” condemning “effete experts,” his “effete to his ing listening to for listening pupil for his pupil rebuked his he rebuked ing he even became even Fisher became hybrid.”121 Fisher “damned hybrid.”'?' as aa “damned design as the fast-battleship design the fast-battleship reallocate to reallocate refused to had refused Board had the Board that the learned that he learned when he more angry when more angry your regret your deeply regret submarines. “I“I deeply Other additional submarines. for additional pay for to pay monies to other monies halting steps,” steps,” Fisher Fisher wrote wrote Churchill Churchill on on 30 30 December. December. “You “You say say ‘but ‘but II halting was less was got £400,000’—still less additional £400,000’—still the additional spend the to spend encouragement to no encouragement got no however, there outsiders, however, To outsiders, million.”122 To spend aa million.”'” to spend years to past years those past in those there in conhe constep he “Every step Fisher hesitation. “Every Churchill’s hesitation. defend Churchill's to defend careful to was careful Fisher was in Fiennes in templates Gerald Fiennes publicist Gerald naval publicist the naval assured the he assured good,” he templates isis good,” February February 1912. 1912. Unfortunately Unfortunately the the first first lord lord “can’t “can’t go go quite quite as as far far as as |I urge urge him, him, as as his his instruments instruments [a [a reference reference to to the the sea sea lords] lords] are are inadeinadecan’t He plunge. quate. They shiver on the brink and won't take the great plunge. He can't great the take won’t and brink the on quate. They shiver well well plunge plunge alone!”23 alone.”'” the and the policy and The substitution policy the substitution of the rejection of emphatic rejection lord’s emphatic sea lord’s The sea for enthusiasm for battle Churchill’s enthusiasm dampened Churchill's quickly dampened concept quickly cruiser concept battle cruiser Fisher’s radical radical strategic strategic ideas. ideas. While While he he did did not not entirely entirely repudiate repudiate his Fisher’s his orthodox more orthodox naval adopted aa more subsequently adopted he subsequently theories, he mentor’s theories, naval mentor’s official his official Appeasing his approach price. Appeasing was aa price. there was But there strategy. But naval strategy. to naval approach to advisors advisors antagonized antagonized Fisher Fisher and and more more importantly importantly left left him him with with little little room room for for fiscal fiscal maneuver. maneuver. To To achieve achieve his his primary primary objective objective of of cutting cutting the the

navy estimates, estimates, Churchill Churchill was was thrown thrown back back onto onto his his original original idea idea of of “tack“tacknavy

ling ling the the number number of of old old ships ships to to be be kept kept in in commission.”124 commission.”'** He He was was fortufortunate nate that that a a closer closer inspection inspection of of the the Navy Navy List List revealed revealed that that the the Wilson Wilson Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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administration administration had had built built up up a a substantial substantial hoard hoard of of “miser’s “miser’s junk” junk” in in the the reserve fleet. A policy of ruthless scrapping, Churchill calculated, would reserve fleet. A policy of ruthless scrapping, Churchill calculated, would produce produce considerable considerable savings savings in in the the maintenance maintenance budget budget which which when when added to the sums already found by the second sea lord added to the sums already found by the second sea lord (principally (principally resulting resulting from from the the paying paying off off the the six six battleships battleships stationed stationed at at Malta) Malta) would would yield almost two million.125 On 20 January 1912, the first lord yield almost two million.'® On 20 January 1912, the first lord indicated indicated he he planned planned to to surrender surrender about about 1.4 1.4 million million to to the the Exchequer Exchequer in in 1912—, 1912-, with further more modest reductions in the navy with further more modest reductions in the navy estimates estimates in in the the two two subsubsequent sequent financial financial years.126 years.’ Obstacles Obstacles raised raised by by Rear Rear Adm. Adm. Alexander Alexander Bethell, Bethell, the the long-serving long-serving director director of of Naval Naval Intelligence, Intelligence, were were swept swept aside aside by transferring by transferring him him out out of of Whitehall Whitehall to to the the East East Indies Indies station.127 station.'”’ The The net net result result of of Churchill’s Churchill’s proposals proposals would would have have been been to to transform transform the the character character of of the the Royal Royal Navy’s Navy's fighting fighting fleets. fleets. The The main main battle battle fleet fleet would would have have been been reduced reduced to to just just sixteen sixteen fully fully manned manned dreadnoughts dreadnoughts in in home home waters, waters, plus plus aa harlequin harlequin squadron squadron of of six six battleships battleships at at Gibraltar.128 Gibraltar.'”° (A (A total total of of twenty-two twenty-two battleships.) battleships.) Within Within two two years years the the last last of of the the prepredreadnoughts dreadnoughts would would have have been been finally finally displaced, displaced, and and most most of of the the oldest oldest vessels vessels scrapped. scrapped. Both Both Bridgeman Bridgeman and and Battenberg Battenberg supported supported the the crecreation ation of of aa homogenous homogenous all all big-gun big-gun line line of of battle. battle. The The tactical tactical advantages advantages (already (already explained) explained) were were obvious. obvious. In In addition, addition, Churchill Churchill intended intended that that the the 4,500-odd 4,500-odd trained trained men men released released from from the the Mediterranean Mediterranean battleships battleships

would would be be reallocated reallocated to to the the 50-odd 50-odd flotilla flotilla craft craft then then under under construcconstruction.129 tion.'? These These additional additional men men would would allow allow the the navy navy to to man man the the new new vesvessels sels without without having having to to pay pay off off older older craft. craft. The The net net result result would would be be two two more more flotillas flotillas in in full full commission commission which which could could be be attached attached either either to to the the

admiral admiral of of patrols patrols or or the the grand grand fleet fleet of of battle._ battle. The Novelle: Novelle: New New German German Naval Naval Law Law The

In In January January 1912, 1912, Churchill Churchill took took lateral lateral steps steps to to reduce reduce the the level level of of naval naval construction. construction. With With the the blessing blessing of of Sir Sir Edward Edward Grey, Grey, the the foreign foreign secretary, secretary, he he quietly quietly approached approached the the German German government government with with the the offer offer of of a a “naval “naval holiday.” holiday.” His His idea idea was was for for both both powers powers to to suspend suspend battleship battleship construction construction for for one one year. year. The The initial initial negotiations negotiations were were conducted conducted through through an an international international financier financier of of Anglo-German Anglo-German ancestry ancestry by by the the name name of of Sir Sir Ernest Ernest Cassel.”0 Cassel.'*° He He was was chosen chosen because because of of his his personal personal links links with with ministers ministers in in both both countries.131 countries.’' Churchill’s Churchill's disarmament disarmament iniinitiative tiative quickly quickly yielded yielded an an unexpected unexpected dividend. dividend. On On 31 31 January January 1912, 1912, Cassel Cassel returned returned to to London London with with an an outline outline of of the the plan plan to to expand expand the the German German navy.132 navy.'” Two Two weeks weeks later later the the Admiralty Admiralty was was supplied supplied with with an an advanced advanced copy copy of of the the “Novelle” “Novelle” (new (new fleet fleet law) law) due due to to be be published published the the following following month. month. Although Although British British naval naval intelligence intelligence had had anticipated anticipated L bsqmlesfurtnerNingrease some further increase in in the the High High Sea Sea Fleet, Fleet, the the Admiralty Admiralty was was left E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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force” striking force” the striking increase inin the “extraordinary increase proposed “extraordinary the proposed by the stunned by stunned was Cabinet, was the Cabinet, to the explained to lord explained first lord the first This, the navy. This, German navy. the German of the of in 66,700 in from 66,700 establishment from the establishment raise the to raise proposal to the proposal of the result of the result the 1920.I33 by 1920." men by 101,500 men to 101,500 1912, to 1912, were they were received they previously received had previously they had which they indications which general indications the general From the From feaserious feamost serious its most be its would be construction would new construction the new that the think that to think inclined to inclined

construction new construction the new while the that while found that they found text they the text examining the on examining But on ture. But ture. the years, the six years, in six ships in capital ships two, capital maybe two, or itit maybe three, or to three, limited to was limited was classes all classes of all vessels of the vessels increases inin the the increases and the personnel and of personnel increase of increase very the very of the development of new development constituted aa new commission constituted full commission in full maintained in maintained have to have Government to German Government the German enable the would enable importance . . . ItIt would highest importance highest available available at at all all seasons seasons of of the the year year twenty-five, twenty-five, or or perhaps perhaps twenty-nine. twenty-nine, British the British time the present time the present at the whereas at battleships; whereas commissioned battleships; fully commissioned fully even twenty-two, even only twenty-two, waters only home waters in home commission in full commission in full have in Government have Government alterany alterfact, any predominant fact, this predominant to this Compared to Fleet. Compared Atlantic Fleet. the Atlantic counting the counting appeared construction appeared new construction additional new proposed additional the proposed of the tempo of the tempo of the ation of ation

thing.‘34 small thing.'* comparatively aa small comparatively

This This news news wrecked wrecked Churchill’s Churchill’s plan plan to to cut cut his his navy navy estimates. estimates. The The most most of rate of the of containment was achieve to hope now could he that that he could now hope to achieve was containment of the rate the cutting of instead that evident was It expenditure. naval in increase increase in naval expenditure. It was evident that instead of cutting the number number battleships battleships in in full full commission commission from from twenty-eight twenty-eight to to twenty-two, twenty-two, necessary.”‘35 is increase some contrary the “on do, to hoped had he as as he had hoped to do, “on the contrary some increase is necessary. ’'** available forty available than forty less than keep less not keep c[oul]d not we c[oul]d battleships we 25 battleships “Ag[ain]st 25 “Ag[ain]st within within twenty-four twenty-four hours,” hours,” was was his his first first estimate.'36 estimate.'* The The preparations preparations to to which warships which old warships result, old As aa result, shelved. As also shelved. were also fleet were reserve fleet the reserve trim the trim three afloat three still afloat were still 1911 were in 1911 heap in scrap heap the scrap for the destined for been destined had been had years later.'° later.137 years Churchill Churchill recognized recognized that that if if the the Germans Germans went went ahead ahead with with their their plans, plans, Mediterranean the Mediterranean strip the to strip but to alternative but no alternative have no would have Navy would Royal Navy the Royal the strength Britain’s strength increase Britain’s to increase battleships to their battleships of their squadrons of Atlantic squadrons and Atlantic and in in the the North North Sea. Sea. 0n On 11 February February 1912, 1912, he he formally formally asked asked the the newly newly this “ with this Troubridge, “with Ernest Troubridge, Adm. Ernest Rear Adm. Staff, Rear War Staff, the War of the chief of appointed chief appointed and position; Mediterranean the examine [to] view in need important important need in view [to] examine the Mediterranean position; and report what what reasons reasons there there are are which which would would justify justify or or prevent prevent the the battlebattlereport Churchill place, their In waters.”138 home to brought being there ships ships there being brought to home waters.”'® In their place, Churchill revealed, revealed, “1 “I contemplate contemplate of of course course flotillas.”'39 flotillas.”'°° in In other other words, words, the the first first relying by Mediterranean the in interests British safeguard to hoped lord lord hoped to safeguard British interests in the Mediterranean by relying upon upon Fisher’s Fisher’s system system of of flotilla flotilla defense. defense. Jacky Jacky was was delighted. delighted. “Let “Let the the French take care of the Mediterranean,” he advised, “and a hot French take care of the Mediterranean,” he advised, “and a hot time time well are well We are lake! We that lake! in that about in poking about submarines poking with submarines of itit with have of they’ll have they'll out of it?”0 Bridgeman too believed that a sizeable force of torpedo craft out of it.”'*° Bridgeman too believed that a sizeable force of torpedo craft Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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would provide provide aa formidable formidable obstacle obstacle to to any any hostile hostile power power trying trying to to exerexerwould cise cise control control of of the the Mediterranean Mediterranean Sea."“ Sea.'*' Troubridge, Troubridge, however, however, demurred.‘42 demurred.'” In In his his opinion, opinion, “flotillas “flotillas of of torpedo torpedo craft craft left left in in the the eastern eastern basin of of the the Mediterranean Mediterranean on on the the withdrawal withdrawal of of our our battle battle fleet fleet would would basin soon soon fall fall easy easy prey prey to to a a Mediterranean Mediterranean enemy” enemy’ with with aa battle battle fleet.I43 fleet.'* “At “At best,” best,” he he thought, thought, they they might might delay delay the the enemy enemy from from seizing seizing the the Royal Royal Navy’s Navy’s principal principal bases; bases; but but they they certainly certainly would would not not be be able able to to protect protect commerce commerce passing passing between between Gibraltar Gibraltar and and Suez. Suez. A A battle battle fleet, fleet, he he insistinsisted, ed, was was the the only only universally universally accepted accepted “symbol “symbol and and measure measure of of British British power.” power.” And And the the Royal Royal Navy Navy could could not not credibly credibly claim claim to to protect protect British British interests interests in in the the Mediterranean Mediterranean without without one.'44 one.'* It It was was probably probably because because of of this this conflicting conflicting advice advice that that the the first first lord lord asked the the Cabinet Cabinet on on 14 14 February February ifif he he could could “defer” “defer” explaining explaining how how asked exactly exactly the the Admiralty Admiralty planned planned to to respond respond to to the the new new German German naval naval law.'45 law.'*® The The following following day day Churchill Churchill curtly curtly informed informed Troubridge Troubridge that that his his appraisal appraisal of of the the Mediterranean Mediterranean situation situation missed missed the the point. point. The The navy’s navy’s first first priority priority was was to to preserve preserve British British dominance dominance in in the the North North Sea Sea and and this this could could only only be be achieved achieved by by bringing bringing home home the the battle battle squadron squadron from from Malta, Malta, because because whatever whatever response response the the Admiralty Admiralty finally finally adopted adopted would would require require more more personnel personnel in in home home waters.I46 waters.'* “It “It is is not not so so much much the the ships ships but but the the men men who who are are wanted.”I47 wanted.”'” After After further further deliberation, deliberation, Churchill Churchill ruled out out the the option option of of relying relying upon upon flotilla flotilla defense defense to to provide provide strategic strategic ruled deterrence in in the the North North Sea Sea and and instead instead adopted adopted an an orthodox orthodox strategy strategy deterrence that that gave gave the the battle battle fleet fleet this this primary primary role. role. His His advisors advisors persuaded persuaded him him that that the the only only credible credible response response to to the the expansion expansion of of the the High High Sea Sea Fleet Fleet was was to to increase increase the the strength strength of of the the Home Home Fleet. Fleet. An An “overwhelming” “overwhelming” numerical numerical superiority, superiority, the the sea sea lords lords considered, considered, would would overawe overawe and and deter deter the the Germans. Germans. Eventually Eventually the the Admiralty Admiralty settled settled upon upon a a fleet fleet of of immediate in immediate more in eight more plus eight commission plus full commission in full battleships in thirty-three battleships thirty-three Mediterthe Mediterdefend the to defend best to how best on how decision on the decision Meanwhile, the reserve. Meanwhile, reserve. deferred. was deferred. ranean was ranean “deterrence” create aa “deterrence” to create decision to the decision unimaginative, the being unimaginative, Besides being Besides undermined seriously undermined Sea seriously North Sea the North for the battleships for thirty-three battleships of thirty-three force of force distant more distant in more power in sea power British sea project British to project Navy to Royal Navy the Royal of the ability of the ability the regions. ItIt also also represented represented aa major major departure departure from from previous previous policy. policy. regions.

During During Fisher’s Fisher’s administration administration the the Admiralty Admiralty had had been been satisfied satisfied with with maintaining sufficient sufficient ships ships in in full full commission commission to to assure assure Britain Britain aa “rea“reamaintaining sonable” sonable” margin margin of of superiority superiority over over Germany; Germany; the the Royal Royal Navy’s Navy’s superior superior strength strength lay lay in in the the better better quality quality of of its its ships ships and and crews, crews, plus plus the the pospossession of a much larger flotilla supported by the fleet reserve. session of a much larger flotilla supported by the fleet reserve. After After Churchill took took the the helm, helm, however, however, the the Admiralty Admiralty proposed proposed to to give give the the Churchill navy the luxury of an “overwhelming” 50 percent superiority in the numnavy the /uxury of an “overwhelming” 50 percent superiority in the numLambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Sea. North Sea. the North in the kept in ships kept capital ships modern capital ber commissioned modern fully commissioned of fully ber of posstill posNavy still Royal Navy the Royal 1912, the In 1912, problem. In no problem. was no Finding bulls was the hulls Finding the in battleships in predreadnought battleships serviceable predreadnought of serviceable sessed stock of large stock sessed aa large were dreadnoughts were new dreadnoughts ten new moreover, ten 1912, moreover, of 1912, reserve. end of the end Before the reserve. Before the form the to form men to the men finding the in finding was in problem was The problem due service. The enter service. to enter due to 33 the 33 get the cannot get and cannot got and not got have not “We have crews. “We required additional crews. required additional which at which rate at “the rate because “the Cabinet, because the Cabinet, to the ships,” explained to Churchill explained ships,” Churchill of number of the number upon the entirely upon depends entirely increased depends our be increased can be margins can our margins earlier, explained earlier, reasons explained For reasons available.”148 For men available.”'* and men trained officers and trained officers of proportion of high proportion by aa high manned by be manned to be designed to were designed British warships were British warships of shortage of recruit, aa shortage train aa recruit, to train years to six years took six As itit took skilled personnel. As skilled personnel. the In recruitment.I49 increasing simply by met be not personnel could not be met by simply increasing recruitment.'® In the could personnel to required to seamen required trained seamen 3,500 trained the 3,500 provide the to provide way to only way short the only run the short run flotilla and cruisers from them reallocate to was to reallocate them from cruisers and flotilla man battleships was the battleships man the older manning older personnel manning skilled personnel of skilled proportion of the proportion craft, diluting the by diluting and by craft, and polin reversals major constituted major reversals in polmeasures constituted these measures battleships. Although these battleships. Although in craft flotilla of number of flotilla craft in the number reduce the to reduce decision to the decision icy, particularly the icy, particularly did.150 Admiralty did.'°° the Admiralty what the exactly what this isis exactly commission, commission, this clearly show clearly fleet show the fleet by the conducted by exercises conducted practical exercises Subsequent Subsequent practical of implications of tactical implications the tactical to the thought to little thought given little had given that Board had the Board that the twentyfrom twentyFleet from Home Fleet the Home of the strength of the strength increase the to increase their decision to their decision seen have seen we have As we forty-one. As possibly forty-one. and possibly battleships and two thirty-three battleships to thirty-three two to shorttactical shortthe tactical for the compensate for to compensate attempt to an attempt in an chapter, in last chapter, in the last in the the adopted the had adopted Navy had Royal Navy the Royal fleet, the battleship fleet, comings traditional battleship of aa traditional comings of the units, capital units, the his capital to his addition to In. addition battle.” In. of battle.” concept fleet of “grand fleet of “grand concept of dozen two some control some two dozen to control expected to already expected commander was already chief was in chief commander in fleetof fleetflotillas of ultimately, flotillas and, ultimately, destroyers, and, forty destroyers, light least forty at least cruisers, at light cruisers, controlling in problems experiencing already submarines. were already experiencing problems in controlling Admirals were submarines. Admirals and battleships and twenty-two battleships of twenty-two comprised of fleet” comprised aa more “grand fleet” modest “grand more modest lord first the to confessed Battenberg confessed to the first lord 1912, Battenberg May 1912, In May auxiliaries. In fifty-odd fifty—odd auxiliaries. any has any no-one has moment no-one this moment at this that at say that truthfully say may truthfully that think II may that “I“I think line, the line, in the maybe in he maybe wherever he Commander-in-Chief, wherever the Commander-in-Chief, how the clear idea how clear idea is is to to effectively effectively command command such such a a fleet” fleet” of of battleships.151 battleships.'*' The The maneuvers maneuvers of of 1912 1912 and and 1913 1913 served served only only to to accentuate accentuate the the debate debate over over this this probproblem, lem, which which will will be be considered considered further further in in the the next next chapter. chapter. The The Mediterranean Mediterranean Fiasco Fiasco

Churchill Churchill announced announced the the redistribution redistribution of of the the fleet fleet in in his his introducintroducMarch, 18 March, on 18 Commons on of Commons House of the House to the estimates to navy estimates the navy of the tion of tion 1912.152 The The plan plan was was to to shuffle shuffle the the Atlantic Atlantic Fleet Fleet from from Gibraltar Gibraltar to to 1912.'** Portland and and slide slide the the Mediterranean Mediterranean battle battle squadron squadron over over to to Gibraltar Gibraltar Portland of squadron of solitary squadron with aa solitary westward,” with or westward,” “eastward or act “eastward could act where where itit could Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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four four old old armored armored cruisers cruisers to to be be retained retained at at Malta.153 Malta.'* In In the the same same speech, speech, the first first lord lord formally formally revised revised the the battleship battleship standard. standard. Henceforth, Henceforth, the instead instead of of being being guided guided by by the the two-power two-power standard, standard, he he explained, explained, the the Admiralty Admiralty would would maintain maintain a a 60 60 percent percent superiority superiority in in dreadnought dreadnought capicapital tal ships ships over over the the German German fleet. fleet. The The new new rule rule was was to to hold hold valid valid only only so so long long as as the the Royal Royal Navy’s Navy’s late late predreadnought predreadnought battleships, battleships, of of which which the the Germans Germans had had nothing nothing equivalent, equivalent, could could be be counted counted as as effective. effective. Thereafter, Thereafter, Churchill Churchill stated, stated, from from about about 1917, 1917, the the percentage percentage would would be be increased.‘54 increased.'* What What he he could could not not say say was was how how much much this this would would cost cost the the British British taxpayer; taxpayer; so so much much depended depended on on the the actions actions of of Germany. Germany. Unable Unable to to reveal reveal the the government’s government's knowledge knowledge of of the the Novelle, Novelle, Churchill Churchill deliberdeliberately ately made made no no direct direct reference reference to to the the expansion expansion of of the the High High Sea Sea Fleet.155 Fleet.'* Instead Instead he he issued issued aa veiled veiled warning warning to to the the kaiser kaiser that that the the Admiralty Admiralty would would respond to any increase in the hitherto published German building respond to any increase in the hitherto published German building tempo tempo by by laying laying two two keels keels to to one. one. With With the the other other hand, hand, he he again again held held out out the offer of a “naval holiday.”156 the offer of a “naval holiday.”!* Like Like the the Earl Earl of of Tweedmouth, Tweedmouth, Churchill Churchill soon soon discovered discovered that that it it was was not such an easy matter for the Admiralty to redistribute old battlenot such an easy matter for the Admiralty to redistribute old battleships ships without without provoking provoking heavy heavy criticism. criticism. Churchill’s Churchill's announcement announcement was interpreted as a decision by the Royal was interpreted as a decision by the Royal Navy Navy to to “withdraw” “withdraw” from from the the Mediterranean, Mediterranean, which which raised raised aa storm storm of of protest protest from from interested interested diplomatic, diplomatic, political political and and military military parties.157 parties.'*’ Such Such aa shift shift in in policy, policy, these these argued, had far reaching non-naval implications argued, had far reaching non-naval implications that that deserved deserved consideration alongside alongside those those of of the the Admiralty.'* Admiralty.158 The The army’s army’s General General consideration Staff, for instance, complained that without British Staff, for instance, complained that without British command command of of the the Mediterranean Mediterranean the the garrisons garrisons at at Malta Malta and and in in Egypt Egypt would would have have to to be be increased increased by by as aS many many as as three three divisions.159 divisions.'*? No No less less serious serious criticism criticism came came from from the the imperial imperial federation federation lobby lobby led led by by Lord Lord Esher, Esher, which which envisenvisaged the British empire evolving into a global superpower. aged the British empire evolving into a global superpower. He He objected objected strongly strongly to to the the Admiralty Admiralty narrowing narrowing their their “strategic “strategic outlook” outlook” to to focus focus exclusively on the German threat.160 Such a step, he protested, would be exclusively on the German threat.'® Such a step, he protested, would be tantamount to to surrendering surrendering the the principle principle of of British British global global naval naval tantamount supremacy.161 supremacy.'®' Esher Esher consoled consoled himself himself with with the the conviction conviction that that the the British British public would not tolerate the abandonment of naval supremacy, public would not tolerate the abandonment of naval supremacy, and and began began lobbying lobbying his his contacts contacts in in the the press.162 press.’” “These “These people people who who want want to to concentrate concentrate every every ship ship in in the the North North Sea Sea are are mad,” mad,” he he exclaimed exclaimed to to the the editor editor of of The The Westminster Westminster Gazette. Gazette. Remember Remember that that it it must must be be followed followed by by demands demands for for large large expenditure expenditure on on the east east coast, coast, and and then then the the kaleidoscope kaleidoscope changes changes politically politically and and our our the relations relations with with Foreign Foreign Powers Powers change, change, and and all all the the money money is is wasted. wasted. Whereas Whereas the the history history of of Europe Europe as as well well as as of of Great Great Britain Britain shows shows that that the the Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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centre the centre permanently the Mediterranean isis permanently Mediterranean been has always and is it because Europe because it is and always has been Europe trade.163 trade.'®

L b

in gravity in strategic gravity naval strategic of naval of seaborne of artery main the the main artery of seaborne

the of the withdrawal of the withdrawal to the object to not object did not Esher did that Esher note that to note interesting to is interesting ItIt is that him persuaded had Fisher with association close association with Fisher had persuaded him that His close battleships. His battleships. informed Esher informed happier,” Esher far happier,” be far should be obsolete. “I“I should were obsolete. fleets were battle fleets battle measured strength [our] of standard the see could I “if Balfour, “if I could see the standard of [our] strength measured Arthur Balfour, Arthur armoured large armoured (4) large destroyers; (4) (3) destroyers; submarines; (3) (2) submarines; personnel; (2) (1) personnel; by (1) by that battleships—in (6) cruisers; armoured cruisers; (6) battleships—in that (5) armoured cruisers; (5) [battle] cruisers; [battle] naval the of inadequacy the was rather, complaint, rather, was the inadequacy of the naval Esher’s complaint, order.”164 Esher’s order.”'* in interests in British interests defend British to defend behind to leave behind to leave proposed to Churchill proposed force Churchill force preparalso was lord first the that suspected that the first lord was also preparalso suspected He also Mediterranean. He the Mediterranean. the justification. With justification. fleets. With station fleets. other station the other of the strength of the strength reduce the to reduce ing to ing systematic of policy a such recommended such a policy of systematic Churchill recommended had Churchill only had Not only Not discovered, Esher ominously, Esher discovered, more ominously, but more 1911965 but in 1911,'® back in retrenchment back retrenchment made promises made from promises itself from extricate itself to extricate trying to already trying was already Admiralty was the Admiralty the reestablish aa to reestablish conferences to defense conferences imperial defense 1911 imperial and 1911 1909 and the 1909 at the at self-governing the self-governing with the conjunction with in conjunction Pacific in the Pacific in the fleet in modern fleet modern Esher way,” Esher their way,” have their could have Admiralty could of Admiralty Board of the Board “If the Dominions.166 “If Dominions.'® they (when they fleets (when Dominion fleets the Dominion of the whole of “the whole correspondent, “the one correspondent, warned one warned Admiral to Admiral Talk to madness. Talk Sea. ItIt isis madness. North Sea. the North in the be in will be being) will into being) come into come force such aa force of such value’ of ‘fighting value’ the ‘fighting about the says about he says what he see what and see Troubridge and Troubridge the that feared rightly Esher rightly feared that the war.”167 Esher of war.”'®’ theatre of one theatre in one concentrated in concentrated he as concentration,” as he “force concentration,” of “force policy of new policy “unimaginative” new Admiraltyfs “unimaginative” Admiralty’s British of defense the for repercussions significant repercussions for the defense of British have significant would have it, would termed it, termed imperial interests interests elsewhere elsewhere around around the the globe.'® globe.168 imperial was supremacy was Sea supremacy North Sea retorted, ifif North strategists retorted, Whitehall strategists the Whitehall Yet, the Yet, instrument decisive the was battleship the and priority, and the battleship was the decisive instrument first priority, navy’s first the navy’s the the to the open to were open alternatives were other alternatives what other then what warfare, then naval warfare, of naval of on Haldane on 66 Lord Haldane unhappy Lord the unhappy to the clear to made clear Churchill made As Churchill Admiralty? As Admiralty? build to build like to Commons like of Commons House of the House Cabinet && the the Cabinet course ifif the “of course May, “of May, the attitude‘of the attitude Mediter[ranea]n the the Mediter[ranea]n for the dreadnoughts for of dreadnoughts fleet of another fleet another of the w[oul]d “it w[oul]d But “it cream.” But of cream.” dish of fresh dish nice fresh to aa nice cat to of aa cat that of be that will be Adm’y will Adm’y Italy Austria && Italy against Austria head against make head to make extra to year extra millions aa year or 44 millions you 33 or cost you cost North the North in the preponderance in 60% preponderance keep aa 60% still keep Mediter[ranea]n && still the Mediter[ranea]n in the in politics.”169 practical politics.” as practical this as upon this look upon not look do not therefore “I“I do and therefore Sea” and Sea” consididea, considthe idea, of the irony of the irony to the oblivious to suggest, oblivious to suggest, on to went on Churchill went Churchill of dismantling of his dismantling over his Zealand over New Zealand and New Australia and of Australia treatment of his treatment ering his ering could Dominions could self-governing Dominions the self-governing only the that only Fleet, that Pacific Fleet, Imperial Pacific the Imperial the Mediterranean.‘70 the Mediterranean.'” for the squadron for battle squadron additional battle an additional for an pay for to pay afford to afford could be government could Canadian government the Canadian that the believed, that he believed, N. I'I‘lieILeFv/vasV There was aachla'nce, chance, he

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induced induced to to pay pay for for two two or or three three dreadnoughts.‘“ dreadnoughts.'” This This possibility possibility he he saw saw could not be relied upon—but there were no other options. could not be relied upon—but there were no other options. The The first first lord lord did did not not need need to to belabor belabor the the point. point. The The situation situation was was pretty well understood. In a private letter to the British ambassador pretty well understood. In a private letter to the British ambassador in in Paris, Paris, Sir Sir Arthur Arthur Nicholson Nicholson (permanent (permanent undersecretary undersecretary to to the the Foreign Foreign Office) Office) reflected reflected that: that: There There seem seem to to me me only only two two courses courses to to take take if if the the naval naval people people insist insist upon upon evacuating the the Mediterranean, Mediterranean, and and this this is, is, first, first, either either to to add add aa very very conconevacuating siderable siderable sum sum to to our our naval naval budget budget so so as as to to enable enable us us to to organise organise aa fleet fleet specially specially for for the the Mediterranean, Mediterranean, but but as as this this would would mean mean a a large large addition addition

to to the the 245,000,000 £45,000,000 already already voted voted for for the the Naval Naval Budget, Budget, iI imagine imagine the the Government Government would would hardly hardly be be disposed disposed to to put put forward forward such such a a proposal. proposal. The The other other alternative alternative is is to to come come to to an an understanding understanding with with France France on on the the subsubject ject which which would, would, II do do not not deny, deny, be be very very much much in in the the character character of of a a naval naval alliance. alliance. II think think certain certain members members of of the the Cabinet Cabinet see see this this very very clearly clearly and and would would be be disposed disposed to to agree agree to to it, it, but but iI do do not not know know if if they they would would be be able able to to carry carry all all their their colleagues colleagues with with them. them. in In fact fact I| doubt doubt such such would would be be the the case.'72 case.'”

Privately Privately Nicholson Nicholson believed believed that that aa formal formal “understanding” “understanding” with with France France “offers “offers the the cheapest, cheapest, simplest simplest and and safest safest solution.”173 solution.”' He He favored favored the the signing signing of of a a formal formal alliance.174 alliance.'” At the the end end of of April April 1912, 1912, Asquith Asquith agreed agreed to to accompany accompany Churchill Churchill At aboard the the Admiralty Admiralty yacht yacht on on what what was was described described to to the the press press as as “an “an aboard inspection inspection of of the the Mediterranean Mediterranean station.”175 station.”'” In In reality, reality, they they were were headed headed for naval “evacuation” “evacuation” raised raised by by the for Malta Malta to to hear hear objections objections against against the the naval the consul-general of of Egypt, Egypt, Field Field Marshal Marshal Lord Lord Kitchener, Kitchener, who who was was an an consul-general acknowledged acknowledged expert expert on on Eastern Eastern affairs.‘76 affairs.'” The The party party also also planned planned to to stop stop over over in in Naples Naples to to discuss discuss the the matter matter with with Lord Lord Fisher.177 Fisher.'” Also Also on on the the Esher) with Esher) conjunction with in conjunction Hankey in by Hankey up by (drawn up discussion (drawn for discussion agenda for agenda were “the “the scale scale of of defences defences and and the the garrison garrison required required at at Malta,” Malta,” and and “the “the were effect of the new naval dispositions on India and the dominions and effect of the new naval dispositions on India and the dominions and the the number considerable number Originally, aa considerable Mediterranean.”178 Originally, the Mediterranean.”'” of the east of colonies east colonies of senior senior government government advisors advisors from from various various departments departments were were supposed supposed of to have have attended attended the the Malta Malta conference. conference. But But pressure pressure from from the the many many to Cabinet Cabinet members members who who had had been been left left out, out, including including Lords Lords Morley Morley and and Haldane, Haldane, obliged obliged Asquith Asquith to to withdraw withdraw most most of of the the invitations. invitations. In In the the end, end, the the prime prime minister minister and and first first lord lord were were accompanied accompanied only only by by Battenberg Battenberg (second (second sea sea lord), lord), Rear Rear Adm. Adm. David David Beatty Beatty (naval (naval secretary), secretary), and and Gen. Gen. Sir Sir John John French French (chief (chief of of the the Imperial Imperial General General Staff).179 Staff).'”° Curiously, Curiously, neineither Bridgeman Bridgeman nor nor Troubridge—supposedly Troubridge—supposedly the the two two naval naval officers officers with with ther official official responsibility responsibility for for strategic strategic matters—were matters—were included. included. The The first first sea Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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the before the Just before cut.180 Just been cut.'® having been at having furious at be furious to be reported to was reported lord was lord “please to Churchill upon impressed Bridgeman mid-May, in off set party party set off in mid-May, Bridgeman impressed upon Churchill to “please their with their together with destroyers together and destroyers submarines and about submarines talk about and talk think and think let and necessity their of convinced am 1 Mediterranean. the in bases bases in the Mediterranean. I am convinced of their necessity and let hand!”‘8‘ meagre no with out doled be them them be doled out with no meagre hand!""*' the against the case against formidable case presented aa formidable Kitchener presented Lord Kitchener May, Lord 31 May, On 31 On Malta at present All fleet. battle Mediterranean the withdraw to plan plan to withdraw the Mediterranean battle fleet. All present at Malta argument marshal’s argument field marshal’s The field speech.182 The his speech.'’” by his impressed by deeply impressed were deeply were prestige British upholding of importance paramount the upon based was was based upon the paramount importance of upholding British prestige the by the accomplished be only could insisted, he This, East.183 Near the in in the Near East.'* This, he insisted, could only be accomplished by however craft, Small Malta. at squadron battle a of presence continued continued presence of a battle squadron at Malta. Small craft, however powerof powerweight of diplomatic weight the diplomatic counterbalance the never counterbalance could never numerous, could numerous, situadiplomatic the of assessment Kitchener’s battleships. Kitchener’s assessment of the diplomatic situaful-looking battleships. ful-looking holding to addition In Office. Foreign Office. In addition to holding the Foreign by the echoed by loudly echoed was loudly tion was tion presence naval presence British naval strong British advised, aa strong diplomats advised, the diplomats check, the in check, Turkey in Turkey possibly and possibly Italy and against Italy deterrent against best deterrent the best was the Mediterranean was the Mediterranean in the in the that the Realizing that Alliance.184 Realizing Triple Alliance.’ the Triple towards the gravitating towards Spain gravitating also Spain also the assured the Churchill assured overturned, Churchill be overturned, to be about to was about policy was Admiralty’s policy Admiralty’s “should dispositions “should naval dispositions “anxious” naval was “anxious” Admiralty was the Admiralty that the assembly that assembly offered he offered moment he the moment of the spur of the spur On the agreement.“85 On general agreement.”’® command general command Mediterranean, the Mediterranean, in the cruisers in battle cruisers class battle Invincible class two Invincible station two to station to be to be cruisers to armored cruisers four armored the four upgrade the and upgrade Gibraltar, and on Gibraltar, based on albeit based albeit smaller any smaller outfight any could outfight claimed, could he claimed, force, he Such aa force, Malta. Such at Malta. retained at retained stronger.186 anything stronger.'* outrun anything and outrun force and force the of the essence of the essence cabled the lord cabled first lord the first June, the of 11 June, morning of the morning On the On “Malta Compromise” to Sir Francis Bridgeman, who was most indignant “Malta Compromise” to Sir Francis Bridgeman, who was most indignant at at not not having having being being first first consulted. consulted. On On his his return, return, Churchill Churchill was was greeted greeted cruisers battle modern if that insisting lord sea first the from letter a by by a letter from the first sea lord insisting that if modern battle cruisers were sent sent to to the the Mediterranean Mediterranean “we “we must must have have something something to to replace replace were them at home.” But after reflecting on the personnel dimension, them at home.” But after reflecting on the personnel dimension, Bridgeman expressed expressed himself himself “bound “bound to to confess confess that that ifif the the policy policy of of Bridgeman battwo these with satisfied be can home battleships [six] the bringing bringing the [six] battleships home can be satisfied with these two batcheaply.”187 very cheaply. difficulty very serious difficulty of aa serious out of got out have got shall have cruisers—we shall tle cruisers—we tle ”'*’

As As Churchill Churchill had had put put it it in in his his telegram, telegram, “we “we gain gain 44 battleship battleship crews crews on on balance.”188 In In aa further further memorandum memorandum on on the the subject subject dated dated 99 June, June, balance.”'® Bridgeman Bridgeman confessed confessed that that “the “the question question of of prestige prestige (about (about which which Lord Lord Kitchener makes makes aa strong strong point) point) has has aa great great deal deal in in it.”’® it.”"i’9 For For this this reareaKitchener son son he he agreed agreed to to the the dispatch dispatch of of the the battle battle cruisers cruisers to to Gibraltar, Gibraltar, but but only only “on “on the the understanding understanding that that their their places places must must be be filled filled in in the the Home Home Fleets Fleets by by two two others others of of new new construction.”'90 construction.”'® Nevertheless, Nevertheless, Bridgeman Bridgeman continued continued to to insist, insist, “in “in addition addition to to these these two two battle-cruisers, battle-cruisers, it it is is unundoubtedly doubtedly important important that that the the destroyer destroyer and and submarine submarine force force should should be Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.3l 569.

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increased?“ increased.”'*' Rough Rough figures figures at at the the end end of of his his paper paper suggest suggest that that he he envisaged more than doubling the flotilla stationed at Malta, and envisaged more than doubling the flotilla stationed at Malta, and disdispatching patching additional additional craft craft to to Alexandria.192 Alexandria.'” The The first first lord lord gave gave his his qualified qualified approval.'93 approval.'%° Churchill Churchill had had left left Malta Malta under under the the impression impression that that the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s critics had been placated. On arriving back home he soon critics had been placated. On arriving back home he soon found found this this was was not so. Kitchener, it transpired, had been left with the impression not so. Kitchener, it transpired, had been left with the impression that that the the Admiralty Admiralty could could be be persuaded persuaded to to station station more more battle battle cruisers cruisers at at Malta.194 “i think if you insist they will Malta.' “I think if you insist they will find find three three of of these,” these,” he he advised advised Sir Sir Edward Edward Grey, Grey, the the foreign foreign secretary.195 secretary.'® The The prime prime minister, minister, he he added, added, was was already half persuaded. already half persuaded. Meanwhile Meanwhile Sir Sir Arthur Arthur Nicholson, Nicholson, the the permanent permanent undersecretary undersecretary at at the the Foreign Foreign Office, Office, informed informed Grey Grey that that he he was was equally equally unimpressed unimpressed with with “the “the Malta Malta Compromise” Compromise” and and warned warned him him that that he he would would voice voice his his concerns concerns if if asked, asked, even even if if it it meant meant contradicting contradicting his his minminister.196 ister.'© Churchill Churchill encountered encountered yet yet more more opposition opposition from from within within Cabinet. Cabinet. Egged Egged on on by by Reginald Reginald McKenna, McKenna, who who was was relishing relishing his his successors successors disdiscomfort, comfort, the the rump rump of of ministers ministers insisted insisted upon upon the the provision provision of of aa full full batbattle tle squadron squadron for for the the Mediterranean. Mediterranean. On On 24 24 June, June, the the ex-first ex-first lord lord provocatively provocatively suggested suggested that that if if the the six six battleships battleships of of the the Mediterranean Mediterranean fleet fleet were were too too old old they they could could be be replaced replaced by by the the eight eight newer newer King King Edward Edward class class earmarked earmarked for for the the nucleus nucleus crew crew reserve.‘97 reserve.'” Churchill Churchill could could not not perpersuade suade his his colleagues colleagues that that if if the the Royal Royal Navy Navy tried tried to to deploy deploy predreadpredreadnought nought battleships battleships against against the the modern modern dreadnoughts dreadnoughts now now being being built built by by ltaly Italy and and Austria Austria “they “they would would only only be be aa cheap cheap and and certain certain spoil.”'98 spoil.”'*® Nor Nor would would they they accept accept his his contention contention that that because because of of the the shortage shortage of of trained trained personnel personnel “we “we cannot cannot afford afford to to keep keep 6 6 battleships battleships in in the the Mediterranean Mediterranean in in full full commission.”199 commission.”!%? After two two weeks weeks of of bickering bickering with with his his colleagues, colleagues, Churchill Churchill finally finally After accepted that that he he was was not not going going to to persuade persuade the the Cabinet Cabinet to accepted to accept accept the the

Malta compromise. compromise. Yet Yet he he could could hardly hardly ignore ignore the the advice advice from from the the sea sea Malta lords lords that that keeping keeping more more than than two two capital capital units units at at Malta Malta was was simply simply impossible because of the personnel shortage. Churchill, accordingly, impossible because of the personnel shortage. Churchill, accordingly, had had no no alternative alternative but but to to overrule overrule the the War War Staff’s Staff's objections objections to to flotilla flotilla defense. On On 15 15 June, June, the the first first lord lord cautiously cautiously suggested suggested in in Cabinet Cabinet that that defense. “arrangements” “arrangements” could could “be “be made made which which will will enable enable us, us, without without undue undue expense, to to provide provide for for the the protection protection of of our our special special interests interests in in the the expense, Mediterranean.”200 Mediterranean.”?” But, But, he he hastened hastened to to add, add, “it “it must must be be plainly plainly recogrecognised nised that that we we must must adopt adopt the the role réd/e in in this this minor minor theatre theatre appropriate appropriate to to the weaker weaker naval naval power, power, and and while while in in the the North North Sea Sea we we rely rely upon upon the the gun gun the as as our our first first weapon, weapon, we we must must in in the the Mediterranean Mediterranean fall fall back back mainly mainly on on the the torpedo.”2°‘ torpedo.””' By By transforming transforming Malta Malta into into “a “a nest nest of of submarines submarines and and torpedo torpedo craft” craft” and and stationing stationing an an additional additional flotilla flotilla of of oversea oversea submarines Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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be could be bases could naval bases Britain’s naval lord, Britain's first lord, the first at claimed the Alexandria, claimed at Alexandria, after Later, after war.202 Later, of aa war.” beginning of the beginning at the “safeguarded capture” at from capture” “safeguarded from discould disAdmiralty could the Admiralty secured, the been secured, had been Sea had North Sea command the North of the command of flotillas. defense flotillas. port defense the port relieve the to relieve fleet to surface fleet patch powerful surface patch aa powerful hesiChurchill hesicolleagues Churchill political colleagues his political to his that to note that Readers take note should take Readers should of command of the command contest the to contest able to be able would be craft would flotilla craft tated suggest flotilla to suggest tated to prevent could prevent they could that they only that claimed only He claimed the Mediterranean.203 He the Mediterranean.”” in the sea in the sea amphibious by amphibious captured by being captured from being sea from that sea in that the bases in naval bases main naval the main and understand, and to understand, McKenna to for McKenna enough for said enough lord said assault. first lord the first But the assault. But the of the rest of The rest envisaged.204 The actually envisaged.2“ was actually what was of what privately approve, of privately approve, swallow. to swallow. difficult to more difficult idea more the idea found the though, found Cabinet, though, Cabinet, were Mediterranean were the Mediterranean in the defense in flotilla defense for flotilla Churchill’s proposals for Churchill’s proposals had who had Admiral, who the Admiral, June the 21 June On 21 Fisher. On Lord Fisher. by Lord vigorously supported by vigorously supported of supply of the supply on the commission on royal commission chair aa royal to chair Italy to from Italy recently returned from recently returned Haldane, Lord Haldane, Grey, Lord E. Grey, Sir E. interview Sir “to interview plans “to made plans navy, made oil the navy, for the fuel for oil fuel Robert Sir Robert and Sir Nicholson, and Arthur Nicholson, Sir Arthur [sic], Sir M’Kenna [sic], George, M’Kenna Lloyd Lloyd George, Foreign the Foreign to the was to call was first call Fisher’s first Treasury].”205 Fisher’s the Treasury].”’” Chalmers [of the Chalmers [of Office. “The “The object object of of his his visit,” visit,” Nicholson Nicholson reported reported to to the the absent absent Grey, Grey. Office. the in the C-in-C in was C-in-C he was since he that since confidentially that us confidentially tell us to tell “was “was to subour subupon our rely upon to rely have to should have we should that we foresaw that he foresaw Mediterranean he Mediterranean the in the interests in our interests of our defence of the defence for the craft for torpedo craft and torpedo marines marines and to entrance to the entrance and the Alexandria and defend Alexandria could defend “we could Also, “we Mediterranean.” Mediterranean.” Also, could Malta could craft—and Malta torpedo craft—and and torpedo submarines and with submarines Canal with the Suez Canal the Suez haughtily Nicholson haughtily course,” Nicholson “Of course,” easily”!206 “Of months easily’!? hold three months for three out for hold out strictthan strictother than consideration other into consideration taken into not taken has not added, apparently has “he apparently added, “he diplomatof diplomatmatter of the matter meant the probably meant he probably which he by which questions,” by ly naval questions,” ly naval ic prestige. prestige. Grey's Grey’s reply reply has has not not survived.*”’ survived.207 ic and officials and of officials council of general council convened aa general Asquith convened 1912, Asquith On July 1912, On 44 July offices the offices at the situation at Mediterranean situation the Mediterranean discuss the to discuss parties to interested interested parties Lord and Lord Wilson and Arthur Wilson Sir Arthur were Sir present were those present of Among those CID.208 Among the CID.2% of the until morning until the morning eleven inin the from eleven lasting from discussion lasting heated discussion Fisher. After aa heated Fisher. After the on the rejected on finally rejected was finally Compromise” was “Malta Compromise” six the “Malta night,209 the at night,?° six at protection sufficient protection provide sufficient not provide could not cruisers could battle cruisers two battle that two grounds grounds that the through the passing through trade passing and trade interests and commercial interests to British commercial to British alternative forward alternative put forward to put instructed to was instructed Admiralty was The Admiralty Mediterranean. Mediterranean. The the and the meeting and the meeting at the said at Churchill said what Churchill of what much of While much proposals.?'° proposals.”0 While little very little detail, very minute detail, in minute analyzed in been analyzed have been reached have conclusions conclusions reached While Fisher. While Lord Fisher. by Lord made by remarks made the remarks to the given to been given has been attention has attention battle Mediterranean battle the Mediterranean of the recall of the recall endorsed the certainly endorsed Jacky Jacky certainly to desire to by aa desire motivated by suggested, motivated been suggested, has been as has not, as was not, he was squadron, squadron, he only minutes only the minutes Although the waters?“ Although home waters.”'' in home fleet in main fleet the main Strengthen strengthen the employ aa not employ did not cm did (the CID meeting (the the meeting at the said at was said what was summarized summarized what Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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proper proper stenographer), stenographer), the the substance substance of of Fisher’s Fisher's thoughts thoughts have have been been recorded recorded with with remarkable remarkable clarity.212 clarity.’"? When When asked asked by by Asquith Asquith for for his his opinopinion ion Radical Radical Jack Jack told told the the assembly: assembly:

He He had had absolute absolute confidence confidence in in the the power power of of the the submarine submarine and and did did not not believe believe that that any any heavy heavy ship ship was was safe safe from from them them in in narrow narrow waters. waters. Therefore Therefore if if we we had had an an adequate adequate flotilla flotilla of of submarines submarines and and destroyers, destroyers, at at Malta, Malta, Gibraltar Gibraltar and and Alexandria, Alexandria, no no battleship battleship could could move move in in the the

Mediterranean. Mediterranean. He He did did not not believe believe that that any any trade trade could could pass pass through through the the Mediterranean Mediterranean in in time time of of war.“3 war.?”

Whereupon Whereupon Reginald Reginald McKenna McKenna chipped chipped in in with with an an observation observation “that “that if if this this estimate estimate of of the the power power of of the the submarine submarine was was correct correct then then surely surely the the North North Sea Sea was was equally equally unsuitable unsuitable for for battleships.” battleships.” Replying Replying to to his his friend’s friend’s prompt, prompt, Fisher Fisher went went on on to to explain explain that that he he believed believed in in wartime wartime “our “our battle battle fleet fleet would would not not be be in in the the North North Sea. Sea. It It would would be be off off the the north north coast of Scotland, or outside the Straits of Dover. if the German coast of Scotland, or outside the Straits of Dover. If the German Fleet Fleet came came out out it it would would be be attacked attacked by by submarines submarines and and destroyers destroyers [only], [only], if if it it came out far enough would it have to fight our battle fleet.”2M These came out far enough would it have to fight our battle fleet.”?'’ These remarks remarks provoked provoked Churchill Churchill to to reply: reply: “that “that the the Board Board of of Admiralty Admiralty did did not not exactly accept Fisher’s views on exactly accept Fisher's views on submarines. submarines. They They did did not not think think they they could could deny deny open open water water in in the the Mediterranean Mediterranean to to battleships, battleships, but but they they did did agree that the Mediterranean might become a agree that the Mediterranean might become a very very precarious precarious route.”215 route.”?!° Churchill’s Churchill’s dismissal dismissal of of Fisher’s Fisher’s opinion opinion sparked sparked aa major major row row between the the first first lord lord and and McKenna, McKenna, his his predecessor, predecessor, during during which which much much between was was said said about about naval naval strategic strategic thinking thinking during during the the Fisher—McKenna Fisher—McKenna regime. regime. Though Though the the argument argument was was not not recorded recorded in in the the minutes, minutes, the the inciincident was remembered by several witnesses.216 Fisher reported to dent was remembered by several witnesses.*'* Fisher reported to his his son son that that throughout throughout the the day day “McKenna “McKenna and and Winston Winston were were tearing tearing each each other’s other’s eyes eyes out?“7 out.”*"’ According According to to Maj. Maj. Adrian Adrian Grant-Duff, Grant-Duff, assistant assistant secsecretary to the CID and the officer responsible for taking retary to the CID and the officer responsible for taking the the minutes, minutes, “Winston “Winston was was very very flushed flushed after after lunch lunch and and lashed lashed out out more more than than once once at at McKenna?“8 McKenna.”*'® Although Although details details are are vague, vague, it it seems seems that that the the two two argued argued over over the the practicability practicability of of adopting adopting flotilla flotilla defense defense for for the the North North Sea— Sea— McKenna for, and Churchill against.219 The former contended McKenna for, and Churchill against.?’° The former contended that that the the latter’s latter’s policy policy of of “overwhelming” “overwhelming” superiority superiority in in the the decisive decisive theater theater was was ill-conceived ill-conceived and and endangered endangered Britain’s Britain's maritime maritime position position elsewhere elsewhere around around the the globe. globe. On On this this point point McKenna McKenna received received support support from from Loulou Loulou Harcourt, Harcourt, the the colonial colonial secretary, secretary, and and Lord Lord Esher. Esher. But But no no one one else, else, it it seems, seems, was was prepared prepared to to consider consider flotilla flotilla defense defense strategy. strategy. Indeed, Indeed, this this rather rather technical technical debate debate was was probably probably over over the the heads heads of of most most of of those those present. present. The The minutes minutes indicate indicate that that after after tempers tempers were were calmed, calmed, the the conconversation versation returned returned to to the the discussion discussion on on the the number number of of battleships battleships that that Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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immethat immenoted that Grant-Duff noted ought Mediterranean. Grant-Duff the Mediterranean. in the retained in be retained to be ought to

his ‘kink’ inin his has aa ‘kink’ “Fisher has remarked: “Fisher diately Asquith remarked: meeting Asquith the meeting after the diately after

submarines.220 brain” about submarines.” brain” about this of this purpose of the purpose for the CID, for the CID, The at the debate at the debate of the significance of The significance in confident sufficiently confident in yet sufficiently not yet was not study, Churchill was shows Churchill that itit shows study, isis that conventional the all the conventional overboard all throw overboard Fisher’s to throw warfare to naval warfare of naval theory of Fisher’s theory prenot prewas not be was simply, he More simply, “strategic warfare. More naval warfare. of naval principles” of “strategic principles” British of British basis of the basis become the should become pared defense should flotilla defense that flotilla suggest that to suggest pared to Sea. North Sea. the North alone the Mediterranean—let alone naval the Mediterranean—let for the policy for strategic policy naval strategic lord first lord the first fortnight, the previous fortnight, the previous over the Having opinion over Cabinet opinion probed Cabinet Having probed to ready to yet ready not yet was not government was seems the government that the concluded that have concluded to have seems to meaultimate meathe ultimate as the standard as accept battleship standard the battleship from the departure from any departure accept any conpersonal conhis personal whatever his Furthermore, whatever sure supremacy. Furthermore, maritime supremacy. of maritime sure of the within the authority within his authority that his knew that victions Churchill knew been, Churchill have been, might have victions might change. such aa change. upon such insist upon to insist strong to Admiralty sufficiently strong yet sufficiently not yet was not Admiralty was the endorse the to endorse ready to certainly ready was certainly Although Bridgeman was Francis Bridgeman Sir Francis Although Sir the at the silent at remained silent he remained that he significant that strategy (it isis significant defense (it flotilla defense of flotilla strategy of certainly most certainly present) most (also present) CID) Troubridge (also and Troubridge Battenberg and Admirals Battenberg CID) Admirals sent Louis sent Prince Louis moreover, Prince meeting, moreover, were the meeting, after the days after Three days not.221 Three were not.”' the of the principles of novel principles “quite novel the “quite disparaging the Churchill memorandum disparaging Churchill aa memorandum assumed,” was assumed,” “It was CID.222 “It the CID.?” at the recently at art forward” recently put forward” sea put at sea war at of war art of from peril from the peril face the never face would never fleet would main fleet he German main the German “that the sneered, “that he sneered, become aa only become would only action would “fleet action that “fleet the and that shores” and our shores” near our torpedo near the torpedo “To Sea?” “To North Sea.” the North in the feature war” in the war” of the development of later development the later in the feature in be would be out” would come out” to come daring to count not daring Fleet not Sea Fleet High Sea German High the German on the count on “unthinkable” equally “unthinkable” found itit equally “absolutely Battenberg found insisted. Battenberg he insisted. fatal,” he “absolutely fatal,” inactivcowardly inactivin cowardly to away in rust away should rust units should splendid units its splendid “that its imagine “that to imagine craft torpedo craft its torpedo whilst its ity batteries, whilst coast batteries, the coast of the protection of the protection under the ity under wealth the wealth and the by and close by and fighting close fierce fighting in fierce engaged in are engaged cruisers are light cruisers and light British of British prey of of easy prey the easy becomes the ships becomes merchant ships its merchant in its nation in the nation of the resented Battenberg resented cruisers” (!).24 Other that Battenberg noticed that commentators noticed Other commentators cruisers”(!).224 Fisher’s Fisher’s influence influence over over Churchill.?” Churchill.225 had itit nor had Actually, nothing, nor settled nothing, July settled on 44 July CID on the CID of the meeting of the meeting Actually, the On Cabinet. On the Cabinet. with the been remained with always remained vote always final vote The final to. The expected to. been expected the for the calling for 16 resolution calling for aa resolution voted for ministers voted accordingly, ministers July, accordingly, 16 July, next the next to the Admiralty equal to Mediterranean equal the Mediterranean in the fleet” in battle fleet” “a battle keep “a to keep Admiralty to an was an France. ItIt was excluding France. strongest though excluding region, though the region, in the power in naval power strongest naval extracted concession extracted essentially only concession The only arrangement.226 The conventional arrangement.”% essentially conventional to compelled to be compelled by not be would not navy would the navy that the agreement that an agreement was an Churchill was by Churchill sufficient after sufficient dispatch until after units until heavy units first-class heavy four first-class than four more than dispatch more

havBut havrequirements.227 But Sea requirements.” dreadnoughts North Sea meet North to meet built to been built had been dreadnoughts had ing to station even even four considerable posed aa considerable Malta posed at Malta cruisers at battle cruisers four battle L b tN. ingjtoFstation E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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manpower manpower problem. problem. The The Board Board of of Admiralty Admiralty agreed agreed to to these these terms terms only only after Churchill Churchill revealed revealed the the Canadian Canadian prime prime minister minister had had promised promised him him after during during an an informal informal conversation conversation at at the the recent recent Spithead Spithead review, review, that that the the Dominion would would pay pay for for the the construction construction of of three three additional additional dreaddreadDominion noughts for for the the Royal Royal Navy.” Navy.228 Notwithstanding Notwithstanding the the confusion confusion over over the the noughts exact composition composition of of the the Mediterranean Mediterranean Squadron, Squadron, on on 17 17 July July the the exact Admiralty Admiralty notified notified the the French French naval naval attache attaché of of their their new new one-power one-power Mediterranean Mediterranean standard. standard. This This communication, communication, which which had had sometimes sometimes been interpreted interpreted as as signifying signifying the the start start of of formal formal “naval “naval conversations” conversations” been between between Britain Britain and and France, France, was was intended intended by by the the Admiralty Admiralty as as no no more more than an an act act of of courtesy courtesy to to aa friendly friendly power power intended intended to to avoid avoid any any misunmisunthan derstanding.229 derstanding.”” Whether Whether this this gesture gesture in in fact fact had had diplomatic diplomatic implications implications is is more more open open to to question. question. in In October October 1912, 1912, Sir Sir Francis Francis Bridgeman Bridgeman assessed assessed the the recent recent events events with with his his friend friend Jack Jack Sandars. Sandars. Privately, Privately, the the first first sea sea lord lord thought thought that that Churchill Churchill had had made made a a complete complete “mess” “mess” of of the the Mediterranean Mediterranean arrangearrangements.230 ments.*° Besides Besides repeatedly repeatedly failing failing to to consult consult his his senior senior advisor advisor (i.e., (i.e., Bridgeman) Bridgeman) the the first first lord, lord, he he had had allowed allowed the the Admiralty Admiralty to to be be pushed pushed by by the the government government from from pillar pillar to to post post over over the the distribution distribution of of its its ships ships and, and, perhaps perhaps more more importantly, importantly, its its limited limited manpower. manpower. in In addition, addition, as as we we shall shall see see in in the the next next chapter, chapter, Churchill Churchill had had not not fully fully appreciated appreciated the the financial financial costs attached attached to to his his supreme supreme North North Sea Sea battle battle fleet fleet policy. policy. costs

War War Plans Plans 1912—The 1912—The North North Sea Sea Problem Problem The The aforementioned aforementioned review review of of North North Sea Sea strategy strategy undertaken undertaken by by the the Admiralty Admiralty during during the the first first half half of of 1912, 1912, exposed exposed substantial substantial disagreedisagreement ment within within the the leadership leadership of of the the Royal Royal Navy. Navy. Outside Outside the the Admiralty, Admiralty, the the chief, in chief, commander in new commander the new was the story was this story in this most character in important character most important of office of the office to the promotion to Bridgeman’s promotion Francis Bridgeman’s Sir Francis Upon Sir Fleet. Upon Home Fleet. Home first sea sea lord lord in in December December 1911, 1911, Vice Vice Adm. Adm. Sir Sir George George Callaghan, Callaghan, the the first second second in in command, command, had had been been appointed appointed to to this this post. post. Callaghan, Callaghan, whose whose until then then had had been been unremarkable, unremarkable, had had been been elevated elevated to to comcom‘career career until mand mand the the fleet fleet because because Churchill Churchill had had feared feared controversy controversy at at appointing appointing any of of the the better better known known flag flag officers, officers, such such as as Berkeley Berkeley Milne.?*! Milne?“ any Originally Originally Callaghan’s Callaghan’s appointment appointment was was only only temporary. temporary. But But after after provproving ing himself himself more more than than competent competent at at the the job, job, he he was was invited invited to to stay stay until until the the end end of of 1914. 1914. Callaghan Callaghan was was aa naturally naturally cautious cautious officer officer who who not not only only questioned questioned the the prevailing prevailing dogma dogma on on the the importance importance of of “offensive” “offensive” warwarfare, fare, but but also also possessed possessed aa realistic realistic understanding understanding of of difficulties difficulties aa batbattle tle fleet fleet would would face face when when operating operating in in the the North North Sea. Sea. By By consistently consistently objecting objecting to to the the more more aggressive aggressive war war plans plans put put forward forward by by various various Whitehall Whitehall strategists, strategists, this this obscure obscure officer officer served served as as perhaps perhaps the the most most Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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the during the planning during strategic planning naval strategic British naval upon British influence upon important influence important administration. Churchill entire entire Churchill administration.

Admiralty the Admiralty informed the Callaghan informed 1912, Callaghan January 1912, dated 99 January letter dated In aa letter In he documents he The documents incomprehensible. The be incomprehensible. to be orders to war orders his war found his he found that he that previthe drafted been had that those were course, of to, referring was was referring to, of course, were those that had been drafted the previblockade close blockade prescribed aa close which prescribed and which Wilson and Arthur Wilson Sir Arthur by Sir August by ous August ous detail in detail confused in they confused were they only were Not only coast.232 Not Sea coast.” North Sea German North the German of the of certain but complained, Callaghan inconsistencies, with riddled and and riddled with inconsistencies, Callaghan complained, but certain employment “The employment astonishing. “The were astonishing. prescribed were they prescribed plan they the plan of the aspects of aspects recas recdefences, land against operations in Fleet Main the of portion of the Main Fleet in operations against land defences, as of aa portion of to open be to me to “appears instance, for notes,” these in ommended in these notes,” for instance, “appears to me to be open to ommended the of question whole “the that requested also He objection.”233 He also requested that “the whole question of the grave objection.”** grave with policy with the policy on the largely on so largely depends so which depends blockade, which Bight blockade, Heligoland Bight Heligoland his like his Callaghan, like reviewed.”234 Callaghan, be reviewed.””* may be [island], may Heligoland [island], to Heligoland regard to regard madness. was madness. plan was the plan that the personally that thought personally Bridgeman, thought predecessor, Bridgeman, predecessor, acquired, was acquired, flotilla was the flotilla for the base for advanced base an advanced unless an that unless saw that he saw But he But margin present margin “our present still “our because still impossible because was impossible blockade was close blockade then aa close then the on the watch on establish aa watch to establish insufficient to seems insufficient destroyers seems in destroyers superiority in of superiority of 1912, April 1912, in April suggested.” In manner suggested.” the manner in the rivers in [German] rivers the [German] of the mouths of mouths calplan calthe plan that the formally that notified formally last notified at last was at Callaghan was George Callaghan Adm. George Adm. on coast on German coast whole German the whole of the fleet of British fleet the British by the blockade by “the blockade for “the ling for ling the however, the curiously, however, Most curiously, discontinued.”235 Most be discontinued.”** to be Sea isis to North Sea the North the iniThe iniinstructions.236 The fresh instructions.”*° with fresh accompanied with not accompanied was not reply was Admiralty’s reply Admiralty’s insisChurchill’s insisto Churchill's due to was due letter was Callaghan’s letter to Callaghan’s replying to in replying delay in tial delay tial “war considered “war up considered draw up must draw Staff must War Staff constituted War newly constituted the newly that the tence that tence plans.” This This took took time.”’ time.237 Not Not until until 88 March March 1912, 1912, did did Troubridge Troubridge report report plans.” that new new plans plans and and war war orders orders would would “very “very shortly shortly be be ready ready for for issue.”*”8 issue.”238 that The The 1912 1912 war war plans plans represented represented the the first first attempt attempt by by the the Admiralty Admiralty to set down on paper the Royal Navy’s real plan of campaign in the the event event to set down on paper the Royal Navy's real plan of campaign in the Sea North Sea the the North and the enemy and the enemy be the to be assumed to was assumed Germany was war. Germany of war. of stratethe see the strateto see wanted to Churchill wanted plans, Churchill these plans, In these operations. In of operations. theater of theater objecthese objecachieving these for achieving policy for operational policy the operational identified, the objectives identified, gic objectives gic fleet the fleet in the ship in every ship of every deployments of initial deployments and initial prescribed, and tives prescribed, tives agreed. agreed. The The experiment experiment proved proved aa failure; failure; partly partly because because there there was was seriserious ous disagreement disagreement within within the the War War Staff Staff on on the the plan plan to to adopt, adopt, and and partly partly princiwrong princithe wrong on the constituted on was constituted committee was planning committee the planning because the because from representatives from any representatives include any not include did not committee did plans committee war plans The war ples. The ples. the staff staff of of the the commander commander in in chief, chief, and and because because the the first first sea sea lord lord was was the not aa member member itit also also lacked lacked executive executive authority. authority. While While Troubridge, Troubridge, the the not chairman, had had many many friends friends within within the the service, service, he he was was never never admired admired for for chairman, four least four at least for at command for sea-going command held aa sea-going having held not having Also, not intellect. Also, his intellect. his years, and and never never having having commanded commanded so so much much as as aa cruiser cruiser squadron, squadron, his his years, Lambert,NicoImmgsifigsrfimugfldfidfllfimlenfigmfl'gfiéé)m E-book, Colum opinions commanded little respect from SCHiOI‘ senior admira admiralsls afloat. afloat. Downloaded on behalf of Digital Theological Library, Claremont, CA

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The The strategy strategy outlined outlined in in the the 1912 1912 war war plans plans is is usually usually described described by by historians as an intermediate historians as an intermediate blockade.239 blockade.” The The general general idea idea was was for for the the battle battle fleet fleet to to cruise cruise the the relatively relatively safe safe waters waters off off the the coast coast of of Scotland. Scotland. Meanwhile large numbers Meanwhile large numbers of of scouts scouts would would be be stretched stretched along along the the line line from from the the southwest southwest tip tip of of Norway Norway to to the the Dutch Dutch coast, coast, to to search search for for hoshostile tile ships ships at at sea. sea. When When contact contact had had been been made made and and the the enemy’s enemy’s position position reported, the Grand reported, the Grand Fleet Fleet was was supposed supposed to to proceed proceed to to intercept intercept and and sink Sink the the enemy enemy fleet. fleet. Even Even at at the the time time the the weaknesses weaknesses of of this this plan plan were were regarded regarded as as transparent.240 transparent.*” Other Other officers officers protested protested that that Troubridge Troubridge had had ignored ignored all all the the evidence evidence of of recent recent maneuvers. maneuvers. Practical Practical exercises exercises conconducted ducted by by Admiral Admiral Bridgeman Bridgeman and and the the Home Home Fleets Fleets during during 1911, 1911, it it was was pointed pointed out, out, had had conclusively conclusively shown shown that that the the navy’s navy's entire entire “force “force of of 48 48 modern modern destroyers, destroyers, supported supported by by 8 8 light light cruisers, cruisers, were were unable unable to to watch watch effectively effectively aa patrol patrol line line of of 60 60 miles miles in in length?” length.”**' Germany’s Germany's North North Sea Sea coast coast was was 150 150 miles miles long; long; while while Troubridge’s Troubridge’s proposed proposed blockade blockade line line was was closer closer to to three three hundred hundred miles miles in in length. length. Furthermore, Furthermore, with with the the number number of of modern modern flotilla flotilla craft craft then then available available there there was was a a high high degree degree of of probability probability that that aa raiding raiding force force might might slip slip past past the the observation observation line line undetected undetected (especially (especially in in misty misty weather); weather); more more seriously seriously the the patrolling patrolling British British light light cruisers cruisers would would be be vulnerable vulnerable to to counterattack counterattack by by enemy enemy submarines submarines or or battle battle cruisers. cruisers. Effective Effective support support by by heavier heavier warships warships could could not not be be provided provided to to the the observation observation line line while while the the Grand Grand Fleet Fleet remained remained concentrated concentrated in in the the north. north. Yet Yet detaching detaching aa battle battle squadron squadron for for this this purpose purpose was was seen seen as as even even more more dangerous dangerous as as it it risked risked defeat defeat in in detail. detail. Towards Towards the the end end of of March March 1912, 1912, the the first first lord lord mentioned mentioned in in a a letter letter to to his his wife wife that that “the “the war war plans plans put put forward forward by by the the staff staff have have several several stupid Stupid features features about about them them wh[ich] whlich] have have caused caused me me some some worry. worry. II am am gradually gradually purging purging them them of of foolishness.” foolishness.” He He further further remarked: remarked: “it “it is is extraextraordinary ordinary how how little little some some of of these these officers officers have have really really thought thought upon upon war war on on the the largest largest scale.”242 scale.”’” In In his his memoirs memoirs Churchill Churchill recalled: recalled: In In 1912 1912 the the War War Staff, Staff, under under the the guidance guidance of of the the then then first first sea sea lord, lord, Sir Sir Francis Francis Bridgeman, Bridgeman, proposed proposed as as an an experiment, experiment, aa plan plan for for an an immense immense cordon cordon of of submarines submarines and and destroyers, destroyers, supported supported by by the the battle battle fleet, fleet, from from the coast of Norway to a point on the east coast of England. To a military the coast of Norway to a point on the east coast of England. To a military eye eye this this scathing scathing

system system appeared appeared comment comment in in 1809: 1809:

unsound. unsound. l| quoted quoted repeatedly repeatedly Napoleon’s Napoleon's “these long thin cordons “these long thin cordons of of troops troops are are good good

enough enough to to stop stop smuggling, smuggling, but but after after fourteen fourteen years years of of war war one one does does not not expect expect to to see see such such follies.”243 follies.”**

If, If, as as it it appears, appears, Troubridge Troubridge not not Bridgeman Bridgeman drew drew up up the the plan, plan, then then

Churchill’s Churchill’s public public indictment indictment of of the the latter latter in in his his memoirs memoirs is is unfair. unfair. But But

Lambert, Ngcilas. Sirjohn Fishers Naval Revolution. E-book, Downloa e

otherwise the matter isgfiglligfileerezalesignif of little real significance. icance. omwgitMgggggfiggmg

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stratblockade stratintermediate blockade this intermediate Thanks Callaghan, this and Callaghan, Churchill, and to Churchill, Thanks to Bridgeman what in May, 25 May, in what Bridgeman egy On 25 adopted.244 On formally adopted.“ never formally was never egy was suddenly lord suddenly first lord the first telegram,” the described Winstonian telegram,” “truly Winstonian as aa “truly described as practicalthe until orders war new war orders until the practicalinstructed the new suspend the to suspend advisors to his advisors instructed his was Troubridge was maneuvers.245 Troubridge in maneuvers.** ity tested in been tested had been system had cordon system the cordon of the ity of of opinion of collective opinion the collective could the outraged. Bridgeman, could to Bridgeman, protested to he protested How, he outraged. How, aside” “set aside” be “set Staff” be War Staff” the War of the the officers of superior officers the superior and the Lords and “Sea Lords the “Sea and limitations and tactical limitations their tactical and their by fleets and of fleets knowledge of “whose knowledge civilian “whose by aa civilian experismallest experithe smallest even the upon even possibilities founded upon not founded and not theoretical and possibilities isis theoretical lord first lord civilian first Fora a civilian ence Lieutenant”?2"6 For even aa Lieutenant”?’* of even expected of be expected may be that may ence that operational an operational on an officers on naval officers of professional naval overrule professional to overrule Admiralty to the Admiralty of the was Churchill was Nonetheless Churchill question unprecedented. Nonetheless almost unprecedented. was almost question was the “outside the that “outside claiming that by claiming unabashed.” actions by his actions justified his He justified unabashed.247 He By opinion.”248 By naval opinion.”** by naval condemned by Admiralty generally condemned was generally plan] was [the plan] Admiralty itit [the sevAfter sevCallaghan. After George Callaghan. Adm. George “naval meant Adm. have meant to have seems to he seems opinion” he “naval opinion” convinced been convinced had been lord had first lord eral the first subject, the the subject, on the him on with him talks with long talks eral long Bridgeman strategy.249 Bridgeman naval strategy.*” on naval that views on “sensible” views very “sensible” held very admiral held the admiral that the judgement. his judgement. too respected his too respected system cordon system Troubridge’s cordon 1912, Troubridge’s During of 1912, maneuvers of summer maneuvers the summer During the reputation.250 his reputation.” was his as was “was down,” as broken down,” and broken exposed and completely exposed “was completely demonhad demonexercises had Practical exercises Churchill, vindicated. Practical was vindicated. contrast, was by contrast, Churchill, by cruisers few cruisers too few had too Navy had Royal Navy the Royal strated that the doubt that reasonable doubt beyond reasonable strated beyond North the North across the line across observation line and effective observation an effective sustain an to sustain destroyers to and destroyers employ to employ resolved to Churchill resolved Sea. plans Churchill war plans the war rewriting the of rewriting task of the task For the Sea. For to wrote to he wrote bravely, ” he begun bravely,” has begun Staff has more War Staff “The War officers?“ “The competent officers.” more competent brain more brain requires more “but itit requires the maneuvers, “but the maneuvers, after the shortly after minister shortly prime minister the prime have to have arranged to be arranged Accordingly he and top.”252 Accordingly the top.” at the power at organising power more organising and more be place, he his place, In his year.253 In the year.”” of the end of Troubridge the end at the post at his post of his relieved of Troubridge relieved serving (then serving Jackson (then Henry Jackson Adm. Henry selected Vice Adm. irascible Vice and irascible volatile and the volatile selected the lord first lord the first time, the this time, as about this At about College). At War College). Naval War the Naval of the president of as president was who was Bridgeman who Francis Bridgeman Sir Francis of Sir also himself of rid himself to rid plotting to began plotting also began strategic during strategic becoming circumvented during being circumvented at being resentful at increasingly resentful becoming increasingly to lord to sea lord first sea the first allow the not allow discussions. could not he could that he decided that Churchill decided discussions. Churchill thus and thus do, and to do, threatening to was threatening resign he was as he publicity, as of publicity, blaze of in aa blaze resign in

blackwas blackBridgeman was November, Bridgeman resolved of November, end of the end At the first. At strike first. to strike resolved to of Louis of Prince Louis ill-health.254 Prince of ill-health.2* mailed grounds of the grounds on the resigning on into resigning mailed into on seat on his seat and his lord, and sea lord, Battenberg first sea to first promoted to subsequently promoted was subsequently Battenberg was the the Board Board taken taken by by Sir Sir John John Jellicoe.?™ Jellicoe.255 the In the plans. In war plans. the war rethink the to rethink ItIt took 1912 to of 1912 rest of the rest Staff the War Staff the War took the gave which gave orders which war orders temporary war interim, received temporary and received for and asked for Callaghan asked interim, Callaghan and Cruisers, and Light Cruisers, Cruisers, Light Cruisers, Cruisers, Battle Cruisers, all Battle him of all control of “absolute control him “absolute his prepare his “to prepare him “to allowed him and allowed Destroyer Sea” and North Sea” the North in the movements in Destroyer movements Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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own plan plan of of operations.” Operations.”256 This, This, of of course, course, had had been been the the practice practice that that own the given the was given Callaghan was After Callaghan Staff. After War Staff. the War of the formation of the formation before the existed before existed freedom freedom to to adopt adopt the the operational operational policy policy he he thought thought best, best, he he proved proved most most corresponSurviving corresponAdmiralty. Surviving the Admiralty. to the back to control back surrender control to surrender reluctant to reluctant dence dence between between the the Admiralty Admiralty and and the the commander commander in in chief chief shows shows that that there there of deployment of operational deployment the operational over the them over between them squabbles between frequent squabbles were frequent were Callaghan them. Callaghan between them. responsibilities between of responsibilities demarcation of the demarcation and the fleet and the fleet the insisted insisted on on maintaining maintaining what what might might be be termed termed the the traditional traditional prerogatives prerogatives for responsible for officer responsible the officer that the contended that He contended chief. He in chief. commander in the commander of the of executing executing operational operational policy policy must must be be allowed allowed the the dominant dominant voice voice in in the the forformulation mulation of of war war plans. plans. Callaghan, Callaghan, in in addition, addition, had had little little respect respect for for the the opinopinions ions of of Whitehall Whitehall planners, planners, and and battled battled constantly constantly to to have have various various aspects aspects of the the war war plans plans revised. revised. As As late late as as August August 1913, 1913, he he was was still still complaining complaining of about the the lack lack of of “a “a solid solid basis basis of of understanding understanding between between the the War War Staff Staff and and about chagrin, Churchill’s chagrin, to Churchill’s Much to strategy.257 Much Sea strategy.”*’” North Sea over North afloat” over service afloat” the service the some officers officers at at the the Admiralty Admiralty were were sympathetic sympathetic to to Callaghan’s Callaghan’s interpretainterpretasome tion tion of of his his privileges. privileges. Prominent Prominent among among them them was was one one George George Ballard. Ballard, Division.258 Operations Division.?* Staffs Operations War Staff's the War of the director of director Captain George George A. A. Ballard Ballard was was one one of of the the most most powerful powerful “naval “naval intelintelCaptain as him as rated him Ottley rated Charles Ottley Sir Charles 1911, Sir In 1911, generation. In his generation. of his lectuals” of lectuals” “100% “100% the the ablest ablest officer officer of of his his rank rank and and standing standing now now in in the the service.”259 service.”*” Maurice Fisher. Maurice Hankey Hankey shared shared this this opinion.260 opinion.” Other Other admirers admirers included included Fisher, Beresford, Callaghan, Callaghan, Esher Esher and and Battenberg.” Battenberg?“ Ballard’s Ballard’s career career was was Beresford, relonly aa relstill only while still Whitehall while at Whitehall years at many years served many he served that he in that unusual in unusual atively junior junior officer. officer. After After four four years years as as an an assistant assistant to to the the director director of of atively Naval Naval Intelligence Intelligence (under (under Battenberg Battenberg and and then then Ottley), Ottley), Ballard Ballard was was Owen the Owen to the representative to naval representative as naval appointed as and appointed captain and promoted captain promoted coastal of coastal state of the state inspecting the of inspecting task of the task with the charged with commission charged commission to return to his return On his empire. On the empire. throughout the ports throughout defended ports at defended defenses at defenses secret chair aa secret to chair Ballard to selected Ballard Fisher selected 1906, Fisher of 1906, end of the end at the England at England operaamphibious operaof amphibious practicability of the practicability investigate the to investigate up to set up committee set committee was Ballard was 1910, Ballard and 1910, 1907 and Between 1907 coast. Between German coast. the German against the tions against tions remain might remain he might that he so that fleet so reserve fleet the reserve commands inin the successive commands given successive given Sir During Sir needed. During when needed. consultation when for consultation Admiralty for the Admiralty to the available to available comto comaside to shunted aside briefly shunted was briefly he was administration, he Wilson’s administration, Arthur Wilson's Arthur was he was But he Squadron. But Battle Squadron. Second Battle Callaghan’s Second battleship inin Callaghan’s mand aa battleship mand Rear succeed Rear to succeed in to pencilled in him pencilled had him McKenna had 1911, McKenna in 1911, forgotten. [In not forgotten. not Intelligence.262 Naval Intelligence.” of Naval director of as director Bethell as Alexander Bethell Adm. Alexander Adm. After After the the change change of of leadership leadership at at the the Admiralty Admiralty in in October October 1911, 1911, Fisher pressed pressed Churchill Churchill hard hard to to endorse endorse Ballard’s Ballard’s selection selection as as the the next next Fisher head of of the the intelligence intelligence department.*® department.263 Although Although the the new new first first lord lord head accepted the the recommendation recommendation to to recall recall this this officer officer to to Whitehall, Whitehall, he he accepted Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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wanted wanted a a more more senior senior officer officer for for the the top top job job in in the the reconstituted reconstituted NID NID (the (the War War Staff). Staff). So So instead, instead, Ballard Ballard was was appointed appointed director director of of the the Operations Operations Division Division (DOD). (DOD). Being Being able able to to write write coherently coherently and and expressively, expressively, Ballard Ballard easily outshone Rear Adm. Troubridge—~who Churchill had hand-picked easily outshone Rear Adm. Troubridge—who Churchill had hand-picked to to head head the the War War Staff.264 Staff.*** Troubridge, Troubridge, incidentally, incidentally, was was also also a a golfing golfing friend of the prime minister.265 But according to Major Grant-Duff friend of the prime minister.”° But according to Major Grant-Duff of of the the imperial defense secretariat (who dealt with both men on a regular imperial defense secretariat (who dealt with both men on a regular basis), basis), “Ballard,” “Ballard,” who who “has “has more more brains brains in in his his little little finger finger than than Troubridge has in his great woolly head, [found] himself ignored Troubridge has in his great woolly head, [found] himself ignored and and practically practically aa cipher.”266 cipher.”* It [t seems seems that that Churchill Churchill himself himself was was as as much much responsible responsible for for this this state state of of affairs affairs as as the the apparently apparently jealous jealous Ernest Ernest Troubridge. In October 1912, Grant-Duff heard that Churchill Troubridge. In October 1912, Grant-Duff heard that Churchill “is “is said said to to refuse refuse to to Speak speak to to Ballard Ballard because because he he won’t won't compromise compromise his his opinions.”267 opinions.”?° This This rumor rumor seems seems to to have have had had foundation. foundation. Dockets Dockets in in the the Admiralty Admiralty archives testify to the DOD’s frequent criticisms of the first archives testify to the DOD's frequent criticisms of the first lord’s lord’s stratestrategic gic ideas. ideas. More More conclusively, conclusively, the the first first lord lord confessed confessed his his dislike dislike of of Ballard Ballard in in aa private private letter letter addressed addressed to to Battenberg Battenberg discussing discussing future future changes changes in in personnel personnel in in the the War War Staff. Staff. “I “I cannot cannot feel feel that that he he sees sees deeply deeply into the great problems with into the great problems with which which he he deals,” deals,” Churchill Churchill observed observed in in September september 1913.268 1913.7 Although Although Ballard Ballard was was due due to to be be made made rear rear admiral admiral within within twelve twelve months months (in (in these these days days promotion promotion to to flag flag rank rank for for senior senior captains captains was was automatic) automatic) the the first first lord lord proposed proposed to to transfer transfer him him out out of of Whitehall Whitehall by by giving giving him him command command of of aa battleship battleship until until his his promotion. promotion. As As Churchill Churchill did did not not regard regard Ballard Ballard as as suitable suitable flag flag officer officer material, material, he he thus thus seemed destined to be remain on the beach seemed destined to be remain on the beach until until compulsory compulsory retirement retirement two two years years later.269 later.2° Fortunately Fortunately for for Ballard Ballard subsequent subsequent events events did did not not run run to plan. His friends at the Admiralty persuaded the first lord to keep to plan. His friends at the Admiralty persuaded the first lord to keep him him on on as as DOD DOD for for another another seven seven months. months. Then, Then, instead instead of of being being passed passed over over for a flag appointment, he was given an accelerated promotion! for a flag appointment, he was given an accelerated promotion! Despite Despite not not yet yet having having reached reached the the rank rank of of rear rear admiral, admiral, in in May May 1914 1914 Ballard Ballard was appointed admiral of patrols with responsibility for the was appointed admiral of patrols with responsibility for the defense defense of of the the entire entire east east coast coast of of Britain Britain from from invasions invasions and and raids.270 raids.?” For For reasons reasons that that will will become become clear clear below, below, in in 1914 1914 this this was was perhaps perhaps one one of of the the most most important important posts posts in in the the navy. navy. Returning Returning to to Admiralty Admiralty war war planning planning in in 1912. 1912. At At the the end end of of November November draft draft copies copies of of the the new new plans plans were were forwarded forwarded to to the the commancommander der in in chief chief for for his his approval.271 approval.” “You “You will will observe observe that that the the general general idea idea of of these these plans plans is is to to exercise exercise economic economic pressure pressure upon upon Germany Germany by by cutting cutting off off German German shipping shipping from from Oceanic Oceanic trade,” trade,” Callaghan Callaghan was was informed.272 informed.?”

It It is is believed believed that that the the prolongation prolongation of of a a distant distant blockade blockade will will inflict inflict injury injury upon upon German German interests, interests, credit credit and and prestige prestige sufficient sufficient to to cause cause serious serious ecoecoLambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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nomic nomic consequences consequences to to Germany. Germany. Provided Provided that that the the entrances entrances to to the the North North Sea Sea from from the the westward westward and and the the northward northward are are closed closed to to all all shipping shipping under under the German German flag, flag, aa close close commercial commercial blockade blockade isis unnecessary. unnecessary. . . . To To relieve relieve the such aa situation, situation, Germanywould be tempted tempted to to send send into into the the North such Germany would be North Sea Sea a a force force sufficient sufficient not not only only to to break break up up the the lines lines of of lighter lighter vessels vessels actually actually

employed employed upon upon the the blockade blockade but but to to offer offer a a general general action. action. Such Such an an action action or or actions actions would would take take place place far far from from the the German German coast coast and and close close to to our our own.273 own.?”

As As Callaghan Callaghan had had previously previously requested, requested, all all instructions instructions to to maintain maintain a a fixed fixed line line of of observation observation across across the the North North Sea Sea had had been been deleted; deleted; a a decidecision sion which which left left “the “the British British coasts coasts themselves themselves [as] [as] the the only only true true and and cercertain tain line line of of observation.”274 observation.”*"* Based Based on on the the Firth Firth of of Forth, Forth, the the commander commander in of the in chief chief was was still still expected expected to to “sweep “sweep and and patrol” patrol” the the southern southern half half of the North North Sea Sea with with his his fleet, fleet, but but details details of of how how frequently frequently or or how how far far south south were were not not specified specified except except that that his his cruiser cruiser squadrons squadrons were were “not “not to to pass pass east of [the] 4"1 Meridian” (roughly halfway across the North east of [the] 4" Meridian” (roughly halfway across the North Sea).275 Sea).?” Given Given the the latitude latitude he he wanted, wanted, Callaghan Callaghan approved.276 approved.?” The idea of a strictly defensive The idea of a strictly defensive commercial commercial blockade blockade did did not not sit sit well well with everyone in the Admiralty. Just before be vacated the post of naval with everyone in the Admiralty. Just before he vacated the post of naval secretary in in January January 1913 1913 before before taking taking up up command command of of the the First First secretary (Battle) Cruiser Squadron, Rear Adm. David Beatty sent a memorandum (Battle) Cruiser Squadron, Rear Adm. David Beatty sent a memorandum to Churchill Churchill protesting protesting at at the the vagueness Callaghan’s war orders and and to vagueness of of Callaghan’s war orders the lack lack of of what what might might be be termed termed “offensive “offensive spirit.” spirit.” He He thought thought itit ridicuridicuthe lous that that “no “no indication indication isis given given the the Commander-in-Chief Commander-in-Chief of of how how Their Their lous Lordships expect expect him him to to so so dispose dispose of of the the forces forces under under his his command: Lordships command: or !!! or force !!! invasion force an invasion of an landing of enemy’s landing the enemy’s of the frustration of the frustration beyond the beyond disalso was Beatty blockade.”"-77 distant of lines the of up breaking the the breaking up of the lines of distant blockade.”?”’ Beatty was also disturbed turbed at at the the lack lack of of arrangements arrangements for for coordinating coordinating movements movements of of the the main fleet with the coast patrol flotillas.278 These complaints appear to main fleet with the coast patrol flotillas.2” These complaints appear to have reignited doubts in Churchill’s own mind. There can be little doubt have reignited doubts in Churchill's own mind. There can be little doubt “historthe “historignoring the of ignoring idea of the idea at the uncomfortable at was uncomfortable lord was first lord the first that the that posture assume aa posture to assume navy to the navy ordering the by ordering service by the service of the traditions of ical” traditions ical” the from the dismissed from was dismissed he was before he Just before defence.”279 Just passive defence.”’” “purely passive of “purely of in “not was lord first the that noted had Bridgeman Francis Sir Board, Board, Sir Francis Bridgeman had noted that the first lord was “not in agreement” with the revised 1912 war plans.280 agreement’ with the revised 1912 war plans.” Churchill Churchill was was worried worried that that with with the the bulk bulk of of the the fleet fleet stationed stationed in in the the north, the Royal Navy could do little to prevent German warships north, the Royal Navy could do little to prevent German warships from from interfering interfering with with the the transport transport of of the the British British Expeditionary Expeditionary Force Force across across apparent the apparent at the concerned at justifiably concerned and justifiably especially and was especially He was Channel. He the Channel. the no was no There was raids. There enemy raids. to enemy Britain to of Britain coast of east coast the east of the vulnerability of vulnerability annihiof annihicapable of than capable more than was more battle was of battle Fleet of Grand Fleet the Grand that the question that question lating lating any any German German force force it it encountered. encountered. But But at at the the same same time time it it was was Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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to north to far north too far was too fleet was the fleet that the others) that (and others) him (and to him clear to becoming clear becoming react react against against German German strikes strikes further further south. south. Without Without any any warning warning that that the the amphibismall amphibistop small to stop powerless to was powerless Fleet was Grand Fleet the Grand sea, the at sea, was at enemy was enemy the and the Forth and the Forth between the towns between of towns bombardments of or bombardments landings or ous landings ous Thames. Thames. Even Even trying trying to to intercept intercept the the enemy enemy ships ships returning returning to to their their base base would would require require aa considerable considerable amount amount of of luck. luck. The The new new chief chief of of the the War War Staff, Staff, Vice Vice Adm. Adm. Henry Henry Jackson, Jackson, admitted admitted as as much much when when he he noted noted we we must much damage damage to to must “trust “trust to to our our flotillas flotillas and and shore shore batteries batteries to to inflict inflict much them during during the the raid.”*"' raid.”281 The The only only consolation, consolation, he he added, added, was was that that such such them eccentric eccentric attacks attacks would would probably probably not not achieve achieve any any significant significant military military results. results. Churchill, Churchill, as as the the politician politician who who would would be be held held responsible responsible for for failfailing ing to to prevent prevent such such an an insult, insult, did did not not find find this this to to be be much much consolation. consolation. Despite Despite the the navy’s navy’s growing growing confidence confidence in in the the power power of of the the torpedo torpedo armed armed flotilla, flotilla, the the idea idea that that the the local local patrol patrol flotillas flotillas and and coastal coastal batterbatteries ies could could drive drive off off aa raiding raiding force force before before it it could could do do any any serious serious damage damage was was open open to to doubt. doubt. Although Although by by 1913 1913 the the Royal Royal Navy Navy possessed possessed over over two two hundred surface surface torpedo torpedo craft craft and and almost almost seventy seventy submarines, submarines, nothing nothing hundred like like this this number number were were available available for for coastal coastal “flotilla” “flotilla” defense defense duties. duties. A A large large number number of of modern modern destroyers destroyers and and light light cruisers cruisers had had been been sucked sucked into into the the Grand Grand Fleet Fleet to to meet meet the the insatiable insatiable demands demands from from the the commancommander in in chief chief for for more more escorts. escorts. The The remainder remainder had had been been organized organized into into an an der independent independent scouting scouting force force for for the the main main fleet, fleet, known known as as Force Force T. T. After After deducting deducting the the vessels vessels allocated allocated to to the the Dover Dover Straits Straits patrol patrol and and the the overoversea sea submarine submarine flotillas, flotillas, the the admiral admiral of of patrols patrols (Rear (Rear Adm. Adm. John John de de Robeck—later Robeck—later Captain Captain Ballard), Ballard), who who was was charged charged with with the the responsibiliresponsibility ty for for the the east east coast, coast, was was left left with with only only sixty-eight sixty-eight obsolescent obsolescent destroydestroyers ers and and forty forty submarines submarines with with which which to to defend defend six six hundred hundred miles miles of of coastline?”coastline.** For For the the next next couple couple of of years, years, moreover, moreover, all all new new destroyers destroyers would would be be replacing replacing worn-out worn-out craft. craft. There There would would not, not, therefore, therefore, be be any any net net addition addition to to the the flotilla. flotilla. Projected Projected deliveries deliveries of of new new submarines submarines were were even even worse. worse. As As was was explained explained in in the the previous previous chapter, chapter, after after Keyes Keyes comcommitted the the navy navy to to aa fleet fleet submarine submarine development development program program the the building building mitted of of new new patrol patrol submarines submarines had had almost almost ceased. ceased. At At the the beginning beginning of of January January 1913, 1913, Churchill Churchill ordered ordered aa complete complete review of of the the war war plans plans in in light light of of the the vulnerability vulnerability of of the the east east coast coast to to review attack. attack. He He saw saw that that even even if if aa German German raid raid would would not not achieve achieve any any signifisignificant military military result, result, the the political political cost cost to to the the government government of of the the day day might might cant be ruinous. ruinous. Better Better protection, protection, he he insisted, insisted, would would have have to to be be provided. provided. The The be War War Staff Staff were were undoubtedly undoubtedly spurred spurred into into taking taking this this question question seriously seriously after after the the prime prime minister minister announced announced on on 13 13 January January that that once once again again the the CID CID would would examine examine the the possibility possibility of of serious serious invasion invasion at at length.283 length.2” The The enquiry enquiry was was established established at at the the request request of of the the new new secretary secretary of of state state for for Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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war, war, Jack Jack Seely, Seely, after after he he somehow somehow learned learned that that the the Admiralty Admiralty was was no no longer so sure that the navy could prevent German raids on the east longer so sure that the navy could prevent German raids on the east coast coast of of Britain.284 Britain.” In In the the meantime meantime Churchill Churchill drafted drafted aa scheme scheme of of his his own own to to disdiscourage German raids. “Whatever maybe said in favour of distant courage German raids. “Whatever maybe said in favour of distant blockblockade ade as as the the guiding guiding policy policy of of aa long long war,” war,” he he postulated postulated in in a a letter letter to to his his new first new first sea sea lord lord (Battenberg) (Battenberg) on on 17 17 February, February, “and “and II agree agree with with what what is is said, Said, such such aa policy policy can can only only be be effectively effectively maintained maintained on on a a basis basis of of moral moral superiority.” superiority.” Although Although the the Royal Royal Navy Navy possessed possessed a a battle battle fleet fleet capable capable of of annihilating annihilating the the High High Sea Sea Fleet, Fleet, it it was was incapable incapable of of deterring deterring individual individual German German squadrons squadrons from from roaming roaming the the southern southern half half of of the the North North Sea. Sea. “Until “Until our our enemy enemy has has felt felt and and learned learned to to fear fear our our teeth,” teeth,” Churchill Churchill reareasoned, soned, aa distant distant blockade blockade strategy strategy was was thus thus “impracticable.” “impracticable.” He He therefore therefore called called for for the the Royal Royal Navy Navy to to adopt adopt “an “an offensive offensive at at the the outset outset and and aa recurrecurrence rence to to it it from from time time to to time time throughout throughout the the war.”285 war.”*” “We “We must must conduct conduct so so ourselves ourselves that that the the sea sea is is full full of of nameless nameless terrors” terrors” for for the the German German fleet. fleet. This This could could most most easily easily be be accomplished, accomplished, he he argued, argued, by by imposing imposing aa close close blockade blockade of of German German ports ports during during the the first first week week of of the the war war and and periodiperiodically cally thereafter. thereafter. Churchill Churchill believed believed that that for for one one week week the the Royal Royal Navy Navy could could achieve achieve aa temporary temporary “flotilla ‘flotilla superiority” superiority” in in the the Heligoland Heligoland Bight, Bight, because because “the “the whole whole flotilla flotilla fleet fleet can can be be used used together together for for the the duration duration of of aa week, week, and not not merely merely one one relief relief of of aa third third at at aa time.”?* time.”286 and When When the the first first lord’s lord’s letter letter was was passed passed on on to to the the War War Staff Staff for for comcomment, ment, every every officer officer who who saw saw it it ridiculed ridiculed the the ideas. ideas. The The key key flaw flaw in in Churchill’s Churchill's reasoning, reasoning, Jackson Jackson pointed pointed out, out, was was his his assumption assumption that that all all the the navy’s navy’s flotilla flotilla craft craft were were suitable suitable for for operations operations off off the the German German coast. coast. Most Most destroyers destroyers then then in in service service did did not not carry carry sufficient sufficient coal coal for for sustained sustained operations.287 And And ifif only only the the newer newer oil oil fueled fueled craft craft were were sent sent over over (which (which operations.” could could be be refueled refueled at at sea) sea) they they would would find find themselves themselves outnumbered outnumbered by by at at least least two two to to one. one. Finally, Finally, “on “on the the principle principle that that it it is is unwise unwise to to underrate underrate your your enemy, enemy, may may we we not not credit credit the the German German flotillas flotillas as as being being as as efficient efficient as our our own, own, especially especially when when they they are are acting acting in in their their own own waters” waters” he he aS asked.288 Ballard Ballard developed developed this this point point further. further. He He pointed pointed out out that that aa temtemasked.” porary porary close close blockade blockade with with destroyers destroyers could could only only be be maintained maintained in in the the face face of of superior superior numbers numbers by by accepting accepting a a potentially potentially crippling crippling rate rate of of attrition.289 attrition.”° Captain Captain Herbert Herbert Richmond, Richmond, his his assistant, assistant, was was even even more more forthright forthright in in his his condemnation. condemnation. Punctuating Punctuating his his assessment assessment with with stinging stinging historical historical examples examples (Churchill (Churchill professed professed to to be be aa historian) historian) Richmond Richmond tore tore into into the the “fantastic “fantastic measures” measures” put put forward forward by by the the first first lord lord and and predicted predicted that that his his scheme scheme would would “result “result in in appalling appalling disaster.”290 disaster.”’” Fisher Fisher was was equalequally ly “unhappy” “unhappy” with with Churchill’s Churchill's scheme, scheme, but but for for another another reason. reason. He He feared feared that that admissions admissions that that the the navy navy could could not not protect protect the the country country from from raids raids would inevitably be exploited by the War Office. “It means ruin to the Navy would inevitably be exploited by the War Office. “It means ruin to the Navy Lambert, Nicolas. 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the submarines—that’s the more submarines—that’s “Build more warned. “Build and Fisher warned. Army,” Fisher Flemish Army,” and aa Flemish [soldiers].”291 lobsters [soldiers].”*”' remedy—not more lobsters remedy—not more blockdistant blockthe distant to the alternative to an alternative find an to find Churchill’s determination to Churchill’s determination Admiral reconsider Admiral to reconsider willingness to his willingness ade from his gauged from be gauged may be strategy may ade strategy

early In early coast. In German coast. the German off the base off advanced base Wilson’s an advanced capture an to capture plan to Wilson’s plan and investigate and “to investigate Bayly “to Lewis Bayly Adm. Lewis Rear Adm. 1913, instructed Rear lord instructed first lord the first 1913, the Danish German, Danish Dutch, German, the Dutch, on the base on report seizing aa base of seizing question of the question on the report on war of war outbreak of the outbreak on the flotillas on of flotillas or operations of for operations coasts for Scandinavian coasts or Scandinavian majority of majority defiance of in defiance stressed, in be stressed, must be so, itit must with did so, He did Germany.”292 He with Germany.””” and assistant, and former assistant, his former Beatty, his Only Beatty, opinion Admiralty.293 Only the Admiralty. at the opinion at no was no operations.294 ItIt was such operations.’ favored such CID, favored the CID, Hankey, to the secretary to the secretary Hankey, the that aa postulated that which postulated report, which favorable report, Bayly’s favorable that Bayly’s surprise therefore that surprise therefore the to the close to base close capture aa base to capture able to be able should be force troops should 12,000 troops of 12,000 force of Ballard projects,” Ballard “These projects,” Staff. “These the Staff. by the Heligoland condemned by was condemned Bight, was Heligoland Bight, war in war Gambles in gamble. Gambles of aa gamble. nature of the nature in the “are in 1913, “are commented July 1913, in July commented in Jackson’s case.”295 Jackson's the case.”*® be the to be appear to not appear does not are that does here that but here justified, but are justified, understood,” is understood,” “It is Callaghan’s. “It were Callaghan’s. As were scathing. As equally scathing. were equally remarks were remarks considered seriously considered was seriously blockade was close blockade of close policy of “this policy noted, “this latter noted, the latter the to appears to As itit appears impracticable. As being impracticable. as being abandoned as and abandoned ago and years ago few years aa few be reconsider it.”296 it.” But But be still still more more impractical impractical now, now, itit isis useless useless to to reconsider he 1914 he June 1914 as June late as As late idea.297 As the idea.?” Churchill abandon the to abandon refused to Churchill refused remained expeditions were remained deaf deaf to to warnings warnings that that such such expeditions were “not “not worth worth the the cost in in ships ships and and men.”2% men.”298 cost The War War Staffs Staff’s solution solution to to problem problem was was to to lay lay aa huge huge minefield minefield off off The Heligoland Heligoland Bight. Bight. This This scheme scheme had had first first been been put put forward forward by by Capt. Capt. George George Ballard Ballard the the previous previous September.299 September.” He He had had argued argued that that not not only only would would the the threat threat of of mines mines inhibit inhibit the the enemy enemy from from making making hostile hostile movemovements to ments into into the the North North Sea, Sea, but but if if the the German German battle battle fleet fleet ever ever did did put put to sea it it would would have have to to be be accompanied accompanied by by slow slow minesweepers minesweepers which which would would sea hinder hinder its its mobility, mobility, and and thus thus give give the the Grand Grand Fleet Fleet more more chance chance to to interintercept.°° In In addition, addition, he he had had cryptically cryptically noted, noted, “the “the mines mines would would probably probably cept.300 provide mineprovide aa useful useful auxiliary auxiliary to to our our commercial commercial blockade.” blockade.” The The giant giant minefield field idea idea was was certainly certainly more more practicable practicable than than Churchill’s Churchill’s close close blockblockade, the ade, but but it it did did not not appeal appeal to to Troubridge Troubridge who who immediately immediately shelved shelved the idea. Ballard, Ballard, however, however, was was not not easily easily discouraged. discouraged. Shortly Shortly after after Vice Vice idea. Adm. Adm. Henry Henry Jackson Jackson succeeded succeeded Troubridge Troubridge as as chief chief of of the the War War Staff, Staff, in in February February 1913, 1913, the the DOD DOD resubmitted resubmitted his his plan?“ plan.**' The revised revised paper paper is is a a remarkable remarkable document. document. In In it, it, Ballard Ballard stressed stressed The the the value value of of mines mines as as a a deterrent deterrent to to neutral neutral vessels vessels trying trying to to run run the the blockade German ports. deliberate. blockade into into German ports. The The switch switch in in emphasis emphasis was was deliberate. Ballard Ballard knew knew that that the the CID CID was was currently currently discussing discussing the the practicability practicability of of the the navys navy's blockade blockade strategy. strategy. 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Lloyd pressing Asquith Lloyd George, George, were were pressing Asquith to to endorse endorse aa more more comprehensive comprehensive wartime blockade blockade of of Germany by imposing imposing rationing rationing upon upon all all imports imports wartime Germany by into contiguous contiguous neutral neutral countries.*” countries.302 Even Even the the War War Office Office was was in in favor.°” favor.303 into After developing developing this this theme theme in in his his paper, paper, Ballard Ballard went went on on to to explain explain that that After because of of the the impossibility impossibility of of stationing stationing an an inshore inshore squadron squadron off off the the because German German coast, coast, nothing nothing could could prevent prevent neutral neutral merchant merchant ships ships from from floutflouting the the British British commercial commercial blockade blockade by by sailing sailing from from neutral neutral Dutch Dutch territerriing torial torial waters waters to to German German ports. ports. As As aa consequence, consequence, he he reasoned, reasoned, “the “the actual effect effect of of our our naval naval pressure pressure upon upon Germany Germany in in war war isis likely likely therethereactual fore fore to to be be greatly greatly minimised minimised by by neutral neutral action.” action.” There There was was only only one one way way of advised, “and “and that that of “overcoming “overcoming this this unsatisfactory unsatisfactory state state of of affairs,” affairs,” he he advised, is estimated that is by by resorting resorting to to the the use use of of mines.” mines.” Ballard Ballard estimated that aa minefield minefield extending extending from from the the coast coast of of Belgium Belgium to to Denmark, Denmark, would would “produce “produce aa paralysing paralysing moral moral effect effect on on trade trade in in the the east east part part of of the the North North Sea Sea includincluding ing the the approaches approaches to to Dutch Dutch and and Belgian Belgian ports.”304 ports.” He He displayed displayed no no qualms in in suggesting suggesting that that “if “if aa [neutral] [neutral] steamer steamer or or two two on on the the way way from from qualms Rotterdam to to Hamburg Hamburg were were blown blown up up off off the the Texel, the traffic to Rotterdam Texel, the traffic to German ports ports would would almost almost certainly certainly cease cease at at once.”*” once.”305 Ballard Ballard justified justified German this this ruthlessness ruthlessness by by pointing pointing out out that: that: At At the the last last Hague Hague Conference, Conference, Great Great Britain Britain on on behalf behalf of of neutral neutral interests interests proposed proposed as as a a general general principle principle that that no no mine-laying mine-laying should should be be permitted permitted The states. The other states. by other down by voted down was voted proposal was this proposal but this seas, but high seas, the high on the on

was which was and which mine-laying, and with mine-laying, deals with which deals Vlll) which (No. VIII) convention (No. actual convention actual whatevrestriction whatevno restriction imposes no part, imposes taking part, States taking 44 States of 44 out of 37 out by 37 signed by signed er er as as to to the the localities localities wherein wherein moored moored mines mines may may be be laid. laid.... . .. By By adopting adopting in acting in be acting would be Britain would Great Britain that Great true that mine-laying, itit isis true of mine-laying, policy of aa policy British the by enunciated as principle above-mentioned principle as enunciated by the British the above-mentioned to the opposition to opposition representatives at at the the Hague. Hague. But But only only for for aa very very sufficient sufficient reason. reason. Finding Finding representatives their by evidenced powers—as other of intention palpable the is it that that it is the palpable intention of other powers—as evidenced by their votes—to use use mines mines at at their their own own discretion, discretion, the the British British Government Government cancanvotes—to which advantage which strategical advantage undoubted strategical the undoubted itself the deny itself to deny expected to be expected not be not to chosen to having chosen . . .. having States .. other States The other affords. The mines affords. of mines use of judicious use aa judicious consequences the by abide must Hague, the at warnings British ignore ignore British warnings at the Hague, must abide by the consequences

thank.306 to thank.*”° themselves to have themselves only have will only [and] will [and]

minBallard’s min1913 Ballard’s April 1913 in April backing, in his backing, With his enthusiastic. With was enthusiastic. Jackson was Jackson The Admiralty. The of Admiralty. Board of the Board by the approved by provisionally approved was provisionally strategy was ing strategy ing and Callaghan and were Callaghan decision were this decision of this aware of were aware who were officers who other officers only other only directed Board directed the Board Subsequently, the Staff. Subsequently, War Staff. the War of the members of senior members the senior the and increased, and stocks increased, developed, stocks be developed, mine be of mine type of powerful type more powerful that aa more that capto capdistribution to for distribution printed for mariners” printed to mariners” “notice to the “notice of the copies of 14,500 copies 14,500 “Churchill that “Churchill Claims that war.307 Claims of war.°” outbreak of the outbreak on the ships on merchant ships of merchant tains of tains Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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cost the cost for the figure for the figure got the he got scheme—until he the scheme—until in the interested in was interested alone alone was policy mining policy no mining had no Britain had came, Britain war came, “when war that “when or that mines” or 50,000 mines” of 50,000 of documents.308 the documents.*® by the supported by not supported are not mines” are few mines” very few consequently very and consequently and order. on order. were on mines were the mines and the place and in place was in policy was The policy The W = aaa

impossible to to say say with with any any authority authority what what Britain’s Britain’s naval naval policy policy ItIt isis impossible would have have been been in in the the event event of of war war with with Germany Germany between between 1910 1910 and and would 1913. 1913. Certainly Certainly the the documents documents called called the the 1912 1912 war war plans plans cannot cannot be be regarded regarded as as a a definitive definitive statement statement of of Admiralty Admiralty strategic strategic policy. policy. Opinions Opinions varied: varied: so so much much depended depended upon upon the the beliefs beliefs of of individual individual officers officers serving serving at the the Admiralty Admiralty at at any any particular particular moment moment and and the the balance balance of of opinion opinion at within within Whitehall. Whitehall. For For instance instance Churchill Churchill insisted insisted in in his his memoirs memoirs that that The The policy policy of of distant distant blockade blockade was was not not adopted adopted from from choice, choice, but but necessity. necessity. It It implied implied no no repudiation repudiation on on the the part part of of the the Admiralty Admiralty of of their their fundamental fundamental principle principle of of aggressive aggressive naval naval strategy, strategy, but but only only a a temporary temporary abandonment abandonment of of it it in in the the face face of of unsolved unsolved practical practical difficulties; difficulties; and and it it was was intended intended that that every every effort effort should should be be made, made, both both before before and and after after aa declaration declaration of of war, war, to to

overcome overcome those those difficulties?” difficulties.°°

Most Most officers officers involved involved in in the the preparation preparation of of the the navy’s navy’s 1912 1912 war war plans plans acknowledged acknowledged the the distant distant blockade blockade strategy strategy was was not not ideal. ideal. But But they they could could see see no no other other way way of of keeping keeping the the battle battle fleet fleet safe safe from from attrition attrition and and ready ready to to inflict inflict the the decisive decisive blow blow on on the the enemy enemy fleet. fleet. In In other other words words the the Grand Grand Fleet Fleet had had to to stay stay out out of of “the “the torpedo-infested torpedo-infested waters” waters” and and remain remain in in northern northern waters.310 waters.*"° Naval Naval planners planners accepted accepted that that the the price price of of keeping keeping the the battle battle fleet fleet safe safe was was an an acceptance acceptance that that the the Royal Royal Navy Navy had had abdicated abdicated control control of of the the North North Sea Sea which which left left the the east east coast coast exposed exposed to to the the possipossibility bility of of attack. attack. In In the the opinion opinion of of first first lord lord the the degree degree of of risk risk was was unacunacceptably ceptably high. high. In In mid-1913, mid-1913, Churchill Churchill became became so so fearful fearful for for the the defense defense of of the the east east coast coast that that he he admitted admitted to to the the CID CID that that the the navy navy could could not not guarguarantee antee the the protection protection of of key key ports ports and and towns towns from from raids raids and and suggested. suggested, accordingly, accordingly, that that the the army army strengthen strengthen their their coast coast defense defense batteries batteries and and always always retain retain aa mobile mobile field field army army in in the the country.“ country.*'' Before Before the the conseconsequences quences of of this this admission admission became became apparent, apparent, however, however, war war intervened. intervened. Historians Historians must must also also recognize recognize that that throughout throughout Churchill’s Churchill’s adminisadministration tration Britain’s Britain’s naval naval leaders leaders were were divided divided over over a a range range of of important important strategic Strategic issues. issues. The The frequent frequent arguments arguments between between the the commander commander in in chief chief and and the the Whitehall Whitehall strategists strategists have have already already been been alluded alluded to, to, and and will will

be be examined examined more more closely closely in in the the next next chapter. chapter. Perhaps Perhaps more more serious, serious, L b W however, however, Awere/the were the divisions divisions that that existed existed amongst amongst the the flag flag officers officers holding holding E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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style” in style” “conflict in serious “conflict was aa serious There was Fleets. There Home Fleets. the Home in the appointments in appointments overto big-guns upon relying favored officers Some tactics. battle over over battle tactics. Some officers favored relying upon big-guns to overtorpedo and gun of combination a on others fleet: enemy the whelm whelm the enemy fleet: others on a combination of gun and torpedo of importance of the importance ranges, the battle ranges, on battle consensus on real consensus no real was no There was attacks. There attacks. or destroyers, of role the or attacks, torpedo repel to maneuvering maneuvering to repel torpedo attacks, or the role of destroyers, or whether whether the the fleet fleet should should risk risk battle battle in in misty misty weather. weather. More More fundamentalfundamentally there were still major doubts as to whether a Grand ly there were still major doubts as to whether a Grand Fleet Fleet formation formation comprising comprising of of thirty-three thirty-three battleships battleships plus plus up up to to one one hundred hundred smaller smaller craft craft could could be be effectively effectively controlled controlled in in battle. battle. Many Many officers officers felt felt that that the the task task was was too too great great for for one one man man and and advocated advocated giving giving individual individual squadron squadron commanders commanders freedom freedom of of action action in in battle. battle. Others Others predicted predicted that that such such “rad“radical” ical” tactics tactics would would create create confusion confusion and and result result in in disaster. disaster. Because Because there there was was no no agreed agreed doctrine doctrine within within the the Royal Royal Navy Navy aa commander commander in in chief chief could could not not depend depend upon upon his his subordinate subordinate commanders commanders correctly correctly anticipating anticipating his his wishes. wishes. In In short, short, British British naval naval opinion opinion was was totally totally fragmented. fragmented.

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CHAPTER 99 CHAPTER

3-1914 Revolution, 191 The Revolution, The 1913-1914 of reversal of like aa reversal looks like what looks for what himself for prepare himself now prepare must now reader must The reader The sooner No sooner throughout. No policy throughout. real policy the real been the had been indeed had which indeed but which policy; but policy; superfour superthe four order the to order authority to the authority Cabinet the the Cabinet from the won from had II won had for plans for my plans resumed my immediately resumed than |I immediately 1914 than year 1914 the year of the dreadnoughts of dreadnoughts converting two two of of these these ships ships into into aa much much larger larger number number of of smaller smaller vesvesconverting as but as Ships but Capital Ships as Capital not as dreadnoughts not these dreadnoughts treat these to treat proposed to sels. |I proposed sels. units of of power... power . . . units Winston Winston 8. S. Churchill, Churchill, first first draft draft of of "The “The World World Crisis Crisis” ” manuscript manuscript

L b

Commons of Commons House of the House promised the Churchill promised Winston Churchill 1912, Winston March 1912, In March In dreadnought of dreadnought fleet of battle fleet maintain aa battle would maintain Navy would Royal Navy the Royal henceforth the that henceforth that established the established than the numerous than more numerous percent more 60 percent least 60 at least ships at capital ships capital battleship extra battleship every extra for every addition, for In addition, Fleet. In Sea Fleet. High Sea the High of the strength of strength would Britain would Great Britain program Great building program published building her published to her added to Germany added Germany “naval Churchill “naval the Churchill of the rejection of German rejection The German two.I The down two.' laying down by laying respond by respond later, weeks later, two weeks novelle two Tirpitz novelle the Tirpitz of the publication of the publication and the initiative and holiday” initiative holiday” 1913—14 their increase to Admiralty of Board the committed the Board of Admiralty to increase their 1913-14 accordingly committed accordingly capital capital ship ship program program from from three three to to five five ships. ships. In In October, October, however, however, “he that “he declaring that suddenly declaring by suddenly advisors by naval advisors senior naval his senior shocked his Churchill shocked Churchill should not fulfil his pledge.”2 Instead, he proposed to order just four batshould not fulfil his pledge.” Instead, he proposed to order just four batfor £1,000,000 for additional £1,000,000 an additional navy an the navy give the to give Parliament to ask Parliament and ask tleships and tleships submarines.“ This This amounted amounted in in effect effect to to aa repudiation repudiation of of “two “two keels keels to to one.” one.” submarines.’ “startling this “startling greeted this advisors, greeted senior advisors, his senior Battenberg, his and Battenberg, Bridgeman and Bridgeman had lord had first lord the first summer, the that summer, Earlier that incredulity. Earlier with incredulity. policy” with of policy” change of change publicly publicly ridiculed ridiculed before before the the Committee Committee of of Imperial Imperial Defence Defence all all suggestions suggestions that that the the Royal Royal Navy Navy could could rely rely upon upon submarines submarines in in place place of of capital capital ships.4 ships.* Both sea sea lords lords thought thought that that such such aa turn turn about about would would be be “difficult “difiicult to to defend” defend” Both before Parliament Parliament and and the the navy. navy. Winston Winston was was reported reported to to have have replied: replied: before “leave itit to to me. me. II will will manage manage the the H[ouse] H[ouse] of of Commons.” Commons.”5 This This was was no no flipfiip“leave pant remark. remark. Minutes Minutes written written by by the the first first lord lord aa fortnight fortnight later later on on the the draft draft pant report of of the the naval naval estimates estimates committee committee show show that that he he was was still still “inclined” “inclined” to to report favor the the substitution.© substitution.“ To To comprehend comprehend Churchill's Churchill’s attempt attempt to to reverse reverse his his favor 1912. of 1912. beginning of the beginning to the return to we must N_ I owa/oligy,’ own policy, we must return

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had constraints had financial constraints tightening financial that tightening doubt that little doubt be little can be There can There intelreceived intelfirst received Cabinet first the Cabinet After the tack. After change tack. to change Churchill to induced Churchill induced ligence ligence on on the the German German novelle novelle in in January January 1912, 1912, the the first first lord lord had had into taking into after taking even after that, even Exchequer that, the Exchequer of the chancellor of the chancellor assured the assured Fleet, Sea Fleet, High Sea the High of the expansion of to expansion respond to to respond need to the need consideration the consideration “modest” only aa “modest” require only would require Admiralty would the Admiralty years the five years next five the next over the over increase in in funds. funds. By By the the summer summer of of 1912 1912 itit had had become become clear clear that that this this increase forecast had had been been wildly wildly optimistic. optimistic. The The original original figures figures had had not not taken taken forecast into account account the the decision, decision, for for instance, instance, to to upgrade upgrade the the four four battleships battleships into to be be ordered ordered under under the the 1912-13 1912—13 program program into into oil-fired oil-fired “super “super dreaddreadto noughts.” Ships Ships of of the the Queen Queen Elizabeth Elizabeth class class each each cost cost £600,000 £600,000 more more noughts.” switch The switch battleships.7 The class battleships.’ Duke class Iron Duke burning /ron coal burning the coal than the build than to build to in fuel fuel also also committed committed the the navy navy to to increasing increasing its its strategic strategic reserve reserve of of oil. oil. in Accordingly, Accordingly, expenditure expenditure on on oil oil fuel fuel was was projected projected to to rise rise by by at at least least £500,000 years.8 There There were were further £500,000 a a year year for for the the next next four four years.’ further causes causes for for financial presfinancial worry. worry. inflation Inflation within within the the economy economy was was exerting exerting upward upward pressure up sure on on the the naval naval budget. budget. Prices Prices for for “shipbuilding “shipbuilding material material [were] [were] up more more than than 5%, 5%, and and gun gun machinery machinery between between 10% 10% and and 12%.”9 12%.”° This This added added another half half aa million million to to the the cost cost of of the the capital capital ship ship program. program. There There was was another beginning the beginning at the this, at all this, of all top of On top coal. On of coal. price of the price in the rise in sharp rise also aa Sharp also legitihad a a legitimen had enlisted men the enlisted that the resolved that had resolved Board had the Board year the the year of the of five preceding five the preceding over the risen over not risen had not which had pay, which over pay, grievance over mate grievance mate insistlords insistsea lords The sea living).'0 The of living).'° cost of the cost in the increases in of increases spite of (in spite years (in years unwillingness Churchill’s unwillingness year.‘1 Churchill's that year.'' rise that must rise pensions must and pensions pay and that pay ed that ed policy naval policy British naval of British basis of the basis as the defense as flotilla defense adopt flotilla to adopt inability to or inability or offset to offset economies to no economies were no there were that there meant that Mediterranean meant the Mediterranean in the in costs. higher costs. these higher these department’s his department's of his magnitude of the magnitude recognize the to recognize slow to was slow Churchill was Churchill consequent own consequent his own recognize his to recognize slower to even slower but even difficulties but financial difficulties financial 16 on 16 conducted on policy conducted naval policy of naval review of Cabinet review During aa Cabinet vulnerability. During vulnerability. next the next over the that over anticipated that now anticipated department now his department that his revealed that he revealed July, he July, than more than to more £44 to from £44 rise from to rise have to would have expenditure would naval expenditure years naval five years five been have been must have But itit must received.13 But well received.'® not well was not news was The news million.12 The £49 million.'’* £49 German the German that the (considering that lord (considering first lord the first to the surprise to of aa surprise something of something Lloyd David Lloyd presentation David his presentation during his when during fault) when his fault) not his was not increase was increase that: remonstrating that: table remonstrating the table across the note across private note him aa private passed him George passed George such afford such not afford could not Treasury could The Treasury face”!"‘ The the face’!"* in the me in stares me “Bankruptcy stares “Bankruptcy remained had remained Churchill had Outwardly Churchill taxation. Outwardly raising taxation. without raising increase without an increase an comwas comCabinet was the Cabinet that the insist that to insist continued to had continued He had unimpressed.‘5 He unimpressed.'’? marpercent mar60 percent the 60 uphold the to uphold ships to capital ships enough capital providing enough to providing mitted to mitted Mediterranean, the Mediterranean, in the standard in power standard one power the one and the Sea and North Sea the North in the gin in gin expenditure. “Your naval expenditure. of naval level of the level determined the policies determined these policies that these and that and Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. ‘ E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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to retorted to he retorted year,” he next year,” only £5,000,000 next extra] £5,000,000 [an extra] get [an to get chance isis to only chance me.”16 on blame the put the chancellor of the Exchequer, “and put the blame on me.””® “and the chancellor of the Exchequer, that was that admit was to admit on to What go on dare go not dare did not evidently did lord evidently first lord the first What the Royal the Royal that the assumption that his the assumption upon the based upon were based figures were million figures £49 million his £49 selfthe selffrom the assistance from Navy financial assistance substantial financial receiving substantial be receiving would be Navy would

minister’s prime minister's Canadian prime governing the Canadian of the strength of the strength On the Dominions. On governing Dominions.

had Churchill had battleships, Churchill three battleships, of three promise construction of the construction finance the to finance promise to calcularevised calculaAdmiralty's revised the Admiralty’s deleted from the million) from (nine million) cost (nine their cost deleted their that signals that to signals eye to blind eye turned aa blind tions.” deliberately turned had deliberately he had doing, he so doing, In so tions.‘7 In possibility this possibility to this clinging to Borden’s Yet clinging one.18 Yet easy one." an easy be an not be would not task would Borden’s task the of the chancellor of the chancellor telln the must than telling easier than been easier have been surely have must surely governthe governall the out all carry out to carry that to Exchequer Cabinet that the Cabinet of the rest of the rest and the Exchequer and spending naval spending annual naval ment’s 1915 annual by 1915 that by mean that would mean policy would naval policy ment’s naval would (Which would might million.19 (Which £53 million.'’? of £53 sum of staggering sum the staggering to the rise to might rise implethe implefor the pay for to pay inevitably had to alone had treasury alone British treasury the British happen ifif the inevitably happen Sea North Sea percent North 60 percent the 60 mentation arrangement, the Mediterranean arrangement, the Mediterranean of the mentation of been have been would have This would one.”) This to one.”) standard, “two-keels to of “two-keels policy of the policy and the standard, and within aa estimates within navy estimates equivalent the navy in the percent in 25 percent of 25 increase of an increase to an equivalent to this of this rise of that aa rise accepted that three-year Churchill accepted even Churchill Privately, even period. Privately, three-year period. magnitude “would “would place place an an undue undue strain strain on on the the taxpayer” taxpayer” and and would would magnitude borrowing.20 by borrowing.” met by probably be met to be have to probably have Parenthetically, oppothe oppoof the leaders of the leaders that the note that to note interesting to Parenthetically, itit isis interesting policy naval policy Churchill’s naval sition that Churchill's suspected that also suspected Party also Conservative Party sition Conservative publicly they publicly Although they uphold.” Although might to uphold.?' expensive to ruinously expensive prove ruinously might prove approved and and voted voted for for Churchill’s Churchill's policy policy in in 1912, 1912, the the Unionist Unionist leaders leaders approved or percent or 60 percent the 60 either the avoided upholding either to upholding themselves to committing themselves avoided committing Lord power. Lord assume power. “two they assume should they standards should one” standards to one” keels to “two keels Lansdowne, for for instance instance (who (who had had served served as as foreign foreign secretary secretary in in the Lansdowne, the Balfour administration), administration), was was especially especially keen keen “to “to avoid avoid tying tying ourselves ourselves to Balfour to by determined by be determined will be aa programme which will of which extent of the extent construction the of construction programme of the rate rate at at which which other other Powers Powers may may think think proper proper to to build.”22 build.”” the investigation Cabinet investigation Churchill any Cabinet that any aware that been aware have been also have would also Churchill would estinavy estithe navy on the pressure on upward pressure of the upward that the reveal that would reveal policy would naval policy of naval the in the earlier in taken earlier had taken he had mates decisions he by decisions exacerbated by been exacerbated had been mates had which to which and to program) and year super-dreadnought program) the super-dreadnought initiating the as initiating (such as year (such sitthe sittherefore, the extent, therefore, large extent, the To aa large committed. To now committed. was now Admiralty was the Admiralty vulnerpolitically vulnerhim politically made him fact made uation that fact and that making and own making his own of his was of uation was the as the himself as clothe himself to clothe year, to the year, able. in the earlier in moves, earlier Churchill’s moves, able. Churchill’s champion champion of of naval naval supremacy supremacy compounded compounded his his difficulties. difficulties. During During his his first six six months months in in office, office, Churchill Churchill had had delivered delivered numerous numerous speeches speeches first pledging himself himself unequivocally unequivocally to to uphold uphold Britain’s Britain’s naval naval position.23 position.” This, pledging This, maintaining by maintaining accomplished by be accomplished he would be Parliament, would to Parliament, announced to had announced he had Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. 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a a 60 60 percent percent dreadnought dreadnought standard—augmented standard—augmented by by the the policy policy of of two two keels keels to to one—instead one—instead of of the the old old two-power two-power standard. standard. It It is is clear clear that that when when he he did did so so he he had had not not fully fully appreciated appreciated the the costs costs such such a a change change in in policy policy entailed. entailed. Churchill’s Churchill’s position position in in July July 1912 1912 may may be be summed summed up up as as thus: thus: unless unless he he could could abandon abandon either either his his 60 60 percent percent standard standard or or the the polpolicy icy of of two two keels keels to to one one to to which which he he had had committed committed the the government government in in the the spring spring of of 1912, 1912, then then without without Canadian Canadian assistance assistance the the Admiralty Admiralty could could not not implement implement the the Cabinet’s Cabinet’s Mediterranean Mediterranean policy policy unless unless taxes taxes were were raised raised to to politically politically unacceptable unacceptable levels. levels. At At the the same same time, time, Churchill Churchill could could not not admit admit this this situation situation without without attracting attracting charges charges of of mismanagemismanagement. ment. Yet, Yet, neither neither could could he he ignore ignore the the warning warning he he had had received received from from Lloyd Lloyd George. George. The The chancellor’s chancellor’s note note had had impressed impressed upon upon the the first first lord lord the the necessity necessity to to trim trim the the navy navy estimates estimates before before resubmitting resubmitting them them to to the the Cabinet Cabinet after after the the summer summer vacation.24 vacation.”* Hence Hence his his suggestion suggestion in in October October to to repudiate repudiate the the policy policy of of two two keels keels to to one one and and instead instead ask ask for for just just an an addiadditional tional £1 £1 million million for for submarines. submarines. The initial response The initial response by by the the sea sea lords lords to to the the “substitution “substitution policy,” policy,” as as it it was called inside the Admiralty, made it clear was called inside the Admiralty, made it clear to to Churchill Churchill that that he he was was proposing proposing aa politically politically dangerous dangerous course. course. Before Before the the policy policy could could be be proproclaimed, the Board of Admiralty had first to persuade claimed, the Board of Admiralty had first to persuade the the service service that that recent recent improvements improvements in in the the capabilities capabilities of of the the submarine submarine had had reduced reduced the the need need for for such such aa large large battle battle fleet. fleet. Then Then the the first first lord lord had had to to convince convince the the Cabinet leave the Cabinet that that aa dilution dilution of of the the “dreadnought “dreadnought standard” standard” would would not not leave the government government vulnerable vulnerable to to criticism criticism that that it it was was endangering endangering British British naval naval supremacy. Actually, Churchill had ample justification for making supremacy. Actually, Churchill had ample justification for making such such aa case. case. The The performance performance of of the the D D class class submarines submarines which which had had participated participated in the maneuvers that summer had been outstanding. There in the maneuvers that summer had been outstanding. There is is no no doubt doubt that writthat Churchill—for Churchill—for once—paid once—paid careful careful attention attention to to aa memorandum memorandum written ten in in September September 1912, 1912, by by Capt. Capt. George George Ballard Ballard drawing drawing attention attention to to their their recent recent successes. successes. Speculating Speculating on on the the implications implications for for North North Sea Sea strategy, strategy, the the DOD DOD had had argued argued that that any any attempt attempt by by the the Royal Royal Navy Navy to to operoperate ate aa squadron Squadron of of large large armored armored warships warships or or to to maintain maintain aa line line of of obserobservation vation across across the the North North Sea Sea in in the the face face of of modern modern submarines submarines was was clearclearly ly impracticable. impracticable. “An “An effective effective watch watch [in {in the the North North Sea] Sea] is is virtually virtually imposimpossible,” sible,” he he concluded, concluded, “unless “unless by by aa very very large large force force of of submarines submarines able able to to keep the sea for at least ten days in any weather.”25 Ballard had keep the sea for at least ten days in any weather.” Ballard had closed closed his his report report with with a a request request for for the the Board Board to to endorse endorse “an “an immediate immediate change change in the war orders for our D in the war orders for our D class class submarines” submarines” and and redeploy redeploy them them “to “to occupy occupy positions positions as as an an advanced advanced force force on on the the German German coast.”26 coast.””* He He further further pointed pointed out out that that the the Royal Royal Navy Navy needed needed many many more more submarines. submarines. When When Churchill Churchill first first proposed proposed his his substitution substitution policy policy he he must must have have been been confident confident that that he he could could count count on on the the first first sea sea lord’s lord’s support. support. Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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his to his admitted to Bridgeman admitted audacity, Bridgeman Although Churchill’s audacity, at Churchill's aback at taken aback Although taken attractive.27 scheme the find indeed did old he did indeed find the scheme attractive.” that he Sandars that Jack Sandars friend Jack old friend in is in “Bridgeman is that “Bridgeman Balfour that Arthur Balfour to Arthur Sandars reported to subsequently reported Sandars subsequently greatly been having submarines,” on favour million on submarines,” having been greatly this million out this laying out of laying favour of understand maneuvers. “I“I understand recent maneuvers. the recent in the impressed performance in their performance by their impressed by enemy’s the of blockade of work the on the submarines on the work of blockade of the enemy's employ submarines to employ idea isis to the idea corassertion This warfare.”28 naval warfare.”* This assertion isis corof naval ports theory of Mahan’s theory of Mahan’s spite of in spite ports in admithe to Staff War the of chief the from the chief of the War Staff to the admiroborated letter from private letter by aa private roborated by Robeck de Robeck informed de Troubridge informed 1912, Troubridge ral September 1912, 20 September On 20 patrols. On of patrols. ral of of number a remove to proposal a that considering a proposal to remove a number of was considering Admiralty was the Admiralty that the in work offensive for them redeploy and submarines command and redeploy them for offensive work in his command from his submarines from in change significant a of indication the another indication of a significant change in There isis another Sea.29 There North Sea.”® the North again Fisher again time Fisher this time about this At about time. At stance this time. at this Admiralty at the Admiralty by the stance by submathe with saturated with the submasoul isis saturated “whole soul began Churchill’s “whole that Churchill’s crow that to crow began to the with the influence with his influence use his to use promised to rine.”*° admiral promised the admiral Delighted, the rine.”30 Delighted, Parliament in backlash in Parliament political backlash the political Conservative minimize the to minimize Party to Conservative Party stance.31 of stance.” change of sudden change the sudden against against the the reconsider the to reconsider encouraged to further encouraged The was further Admiralty was of Admiralty Board of The Board planwas planAustria was that Austria warnings that by warnings November by substitution in November later in policy later substitution policy Naval The Naval program.32 The dreadnought program.” her dreadnought ning in her increase in another increase yet another ning yet Austrian the Austrian of the head of the head that the learned that Intelligence had learned Department had intelligence Department construction the construction finance the to finance masters to political masters his political navy asked his had asked recently had navy recently diswas disChurchill was battleships.33 Churchill of dreadnought battleships.** of dreadnought division of second division of aa second built and ahead went Austrians went ahead and built the Austrians that ifif the mayed saw that He saw news.34 He the news.* by the mayed by one-power Cabinet’s one-power the Cabinet's meet the to meet order to in order four then in dreadnoughts, then more dreadnoughts, four more but alternative no have would Navy Royal the Mediterranean standard, the Royal Navy would have no alternative but Mediterranean standard, failed Borden likely, increasingly appearing to follow suit. And if, as was appearing increasingly likely, Borden failed was as if, to follow suit. And three next three the next within the then within dreadnoughts, then to Canadian dreadnoughts, three Canadian the three deliver the to deliver fewer no of building the finance to have would years treasury would have to finance the building of no fewer British treasury the British years the the pushing the Fleet, pushing Mediterranean Fleet, the Mediterranean for the than ships for capital ships extra capital seven extra than seven me with vexed being use no is “It level. fantastic a navy to a fantastic level. “It is no use being vexed with me up to estimates up navy estimates

Nov18 Novon 18 George on Lloyd George to Lloyd pleaded to and Churchill pleaded me,” Churchill reproaching me,” and reproaching

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have shall have We shall can. We you can. than you facts than these facts control these ember, more control no more can no ember, “I“I can equal an equal but an say; but now say; cannot now measures I1 cannot What measures to measures. What further measures. take further to take provision provision in in some some form form or or another another will will be be necessary.”35 necessary.”* memoAdmiralty memoan Admiralty by an clarified by is clarified remark is last remark this last The of this meaning of The meaning the to the as to “Considerations as entitled: “Considerations Ballard entitled: randum Captain Ballard by Captain written by randum written Nov20 NovDated 20 1915.” Dated in 1915.” Fleet in Mediterranean Fleet the Mediterranean Best of the Composition of Best Composition Lloyd to Lloyd letter to Churchill’s letter after Churchill’s days after two days only two ember written only (thus written ember (thus numericalmatching aa numericalof matching possibility of the possibility George) reviews the document reviews this document George) this squadron armored squadron British armored smaller British with aa smaller ly fleet with battle fleet Austrian battle stronger Austrian ly stronger Ballard submarines.36 Ballard and submarines.* destroyers and of destroyers flotilla of large flotilla by aa large supported by but supported I but

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concluded concluded that that because because the the mouth mouth to to the the Adriatic Adriatic was was only only forty forty miles miles wide, relied upon wide, a a flotilla flotilla force force guarding guarding the the straits straits could could be be relied upon to to weaken weaken any any Austrian Austrian squadron squadron that that tried tried to to break break into into the the Mediterranean. Mediterranean. “To “To what what extent extent it it would would actually actually suffer suffer must, must, of of course, course, remain remain a a matter matter of of conjecture,” conjecture,” he he noted, noted, “but “but even even if if only only two two first first class class units units were were put put out out of of action action the the gain gain would would be be appreciable appreciable and and aa similar similar danger danger would would await await the the Austrians Austrians on on every every occasion occasion of of return return to to their their bases bases and and every every subsequent subsequent venture venture into into Mediterranean Mediterranean waters. waters. In In time time they they would would almost almost certainly certainly suffer suffer serious serious reduction.”37 reduction.”*’ A A force force of of twenty twenty destroyers destroyers and and twenty twenty submarines submarines plus plus depot depot ships, ships, he he calculated, calculated, would would cost cost less less to to build build than than two two modern modern dreadnoughts. dreadnoughts. In In addition, addition, the the flotillas flotillas would would absorb absorb fewer fewer personnel personnel (an (an important important consideration) consideration) and and would would also also be be cheaper cheaper to to maintain. maintain. Although Although the the War War Staff Staff was was generally generally in in favor favor of of Churchill’s Churchill's idea, idea, Ballard Ballard warned warned that that large large armored armored vessels vessels were were more more mobile mobile than than submarines submarines and and thus thus better better suited suited for for imperial imperial defense defense purposes. And And so, so, he he cautioned, cautioned, “the “the substitution substitution of of submarines submarines for for purposes. battleships should should be be kept kept within within strict strict limits limits until until the the development development of of battleships submarines submarines has has proceeded proceeded much much further further than than it it has has as as yet.”38 yet.”* Two Two weeks weeks after after the the sketch sketch navy navy estimates estimates had had been been submitted submitted for for Treasury Treasury approval, approval, the the Board Board of of Admiralty Admiralty were were still still toying toying with with the the idea idea of of financing financing an an expansion expansion of of the the flotilla flotilla by by dropping dropping aa battleship battleship from from the the 1913—14 1913-14 building building program.39 program.” In In aa memorandum memorandum dated dated 8 8 December, December, Churchill explained explained to to the the sea sea lords lords that that itit was was neither neither desirable desirable nor nor Churchill necessary necessary to to “complicate” “complicate” negotiations negotiations with with the the Treasury Treasury by by talk talk of of “substituting for for aa battleship battleship or battleships increased increased programmes programmes of “substituting or battleships of smaller smaller vessels.” vessels.” The The Admiralty’s Admiralty’s first first priority priority was was to to secure secure money money from from the the Treasury, Treasury, or or to to use use his his words, words, “alternatives “alternatives for for the the application application of of money money available available can can be be considered considered after after the the main main number number has has been been established established and and agreed.”40 agreed.’” Then, Then, “it “it will will always always be be possible possible at at any any time time programme isis the programme in the battleships in two battleships last two the last of the construction of the construction before the before substitute to substitute and to policy and of policy change of on aa change decide on to decide commenced to actually commenced actually for them them greatly greatly increased increased programmes programmes of of submarines submarines and and destroyers destroyers for most “it isis most that “it out that pointed out further pointed lord further first lord The first cruisers.”‘“ The small cruisers.’*' or small or the and the Canadians and the Canadians while the now while question now such aa question raise such to raise undesirable to undesirable construction the construction to the themselves to committing themselves are committing States are Malay States Federated Malay Federated

darken only darken would only idea would new idea such aa new of such adumbration of The adumbration ships. The great ships. of great of our on our working on are working who are those who embarrass those greatly embarrass and greatly [sic] and council [sic] council behalf.”42 behalf.”” Churchill Churchill knew knew full full well well that that he he could could not not implement implement the the substitution substitution

policy on on his his own own authority authority or or successfully successfully “force “force his his views views on on the the policy Board”—-though some some of of his his critics critics believed believed he he could.* could.43 To To execute execute what what Board”’—though amounted to aa fundamental shift in British naval policy required the amounted to fundamental shift in British naval policy required Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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unanimous unanimous and and unequivocal unequivocal support support of of the the Board Board of of Admiralty. Admiralty. Considering the confusion within Whitehall over naval strategy Considering the confusion within Whitehall over naval strategy generalgenerally to ly during during the the winter winter of of 1912—13, 1912-13, the the willingness willingness of of all all the the sea sea lords lords to endorse such a step must have been doubtful. Churchill nevertheless endorse such a step must have been doubtful. Churchill nevertheless tried. for tried. Jellicoe, Jellicoe, who who had had only only just just been been appointed appointed to to the the Board, Board, asked asked for time to consider such a radical proposal.44 And the other sea lords time to consider such a radical proposal.** And the other sea lords showed had showed signs signs of of hesitation. hesitation. Everyone Everyone realized realized that that once once the the decision decision had been taken, there was no turning back. The Board would only be able to been taken, there was no turning back. The Board would only be able to maintain public confidence by insisting that technology had fundamenmaintain public confidence by insisting that technology had fundamentally tally changed changed the the conditions conditions of of naval naval warfare warfare and and by by arguing arguing that that battlebattleships were no longer “the final arbiters of naval power.” This, ships were no longer “the final arbiters of naval power.” This, of of course, course, would would have have delivered delivered a a shattering shattering blow blow to to the the axiom axiom that that battleships battleships were the very symbols of Britain’s naval were the very symbols of Britain’s naval supremacy. supremacy. A A naval naval administraadministration to fall fall tion which which allowed allowed the the number number of of battleships battleships in in commission commission to slightly below the declared numerical standard slightly below the declared numerical standard could could still still justifiably justifiably claim had claim to to be be upholding upholding that that standard standard if if sufficient sufficient additional additional ships ships had been ordered or were under up been ordered or were under construction. construction. A A Board Board that that did did not not build build up to to the the standard standard and and at at the the same same time time consciously consciously deleted deleted a a ship ship from from the the building building program program could could not. not. Early in 1913, Karly in 1913, Churchill Churchill suddenly suddenly dropped dropped his his substitution substitution policy. policy. He He did did so so for for three three reasons. reasons. First, First, the the Austrian Austrian parliament parliament had had postponed postponed their their decision decision on on whether whether or or not not to to finance finance a a second second dreadnought dreadnought squadron.45 squadron.* Second, Second, the the Federated Federated States States of of Malaya Malaya paid paid for for the the addition addition of thus of aa fifth fifth super-dreadnought super-dreadnought to to the the 1912—13 1912-13 construction construction program program thus fulfilling the fulfilling the the declared declared policy policy of of “two “two keels keels to to one.” one.” Although Although officially officially the Admiralty Admiralty was was not not supposed supposed to to include include either either this this vessel vessel or or the the recently recently completed naval completed battle battle cruiser cruiser New New Zealand Zealand in in their their calculations calculations of of British British naval strength, they certainly did so when the first lord found it to be convestrength, they certainly did so when the first lord found it to be convenient.46 had nient.* And And third, third, higher higher than than expected expected yields yields from from existing existing taxation taxation had enabled the chancellor to swallow his objections to the inflated 1913—14 enabled the chancellor to swallow his objections to the inflated 1913-14 navy navy estimates estimates and and meet meet the the cost cost of of the the Admiraltyfs Admiralty’s four four capital capital ship ship proprogram without recourse to higher taxes. gram without recourse to higher taxes. In In return, return, Churchill Churchill had had pledged pledged himself himself to to support support Lloyd Lloyd George’s George’s controversial controversial Land Land Reform Reform Bill.47 Bill.” A A Summer Summer of of Discontent Discontent

On On 10 10 June June 1913, 1913, Churchill Churchill asked asked the the third third sea sea lord, lord, Rear Rear Adm. Adm. Archibald Archibald Moore, Moore, to to provide provide him him with with “details “details of of maximum maximum submarine submarine output.”48 rapid output.”** Two Two days days later later the the first first lord lord was was informed informed that that any any rapid expansion expansion of of the the submarine submarine fieet fleet would would be be handicapped handicapped by by the the shortage shortage of of firms firms in in the the country country engaged engaged in in their their construction. construction. Moore Moore explained explained that that presently presently only only Vickers, Vickers, Armstrong, Armstrong, and and the the small small Clydeside Clydeside firm firm of of Messrs. Messrs. Scott Scott were were set set up up to to build build submarines. submarines. The The only only way way to to expand expand Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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building building capacity capacity in in the the industry industry sufficiently sufficiently to to meet meet the the navy’s navy’s future future material material requirements, requirements, he he advised, advised, while while at at the the same same time time ensuring ensuring sufsufficient ficient competition competition within within the the industry industry to to keep keep aa check check on on prices, prices, was was to to encourage encourage new new firms firms to to tender tender for for submarine submarine contracts.49 contracts.* if If other other firms firms could could be be persuaded persuaded to to enter enter the the industry industry then then within within aa year year the the building building capacity Capacity in in the the country country might might be be doubled doubled to to approximately approximately thirty thirty new new hulls hulls per per year.50 year.” The The limiting limiting factor factor at at this this point, point, apparently, apparently, was was the the supply supply of of diesel diesel engines engines from from Vickers Vickers Ltd.“ Ltd.*' Assuming Assuming that that steps steps were were taken taken to to bring bring new new firms firms into into the the industry, industry, Moore Moore estimated, estimated, the the Admiralty Admiralty could could order order twenty-five twenty-five new new submarines submarines of of the the new new FF class class designed designed by by Commodore Commodore Roger Roger Keyes Keyes and and his his committee, committee, plus plus two two improved improved Nautilus Nautilus type type experimental experimental fleet fleet submarines.52 submarines.” This This would would reprepresent resent aa capital Capital investment investment of of approximately approximately £4.25 £4.25 million, million, payable payable over over aa period period of of about about two two years. years. But, But, Moore Moore added, added, for for the the navy navy to to embark embark upon upon a a large large submarine submarine building building program program next next year year it it would would be be “neces“necessary sary at at once once to to give give the the new new firms firms definite definite promises promises for for orders” orders” so so as as to to give give them them time time enough enough to to retool.53 retool.™ The The following following day day (13 (13 June) June) the the first first lord lord instructed instructed Moore Moore “to “to make make plans plans for for spending spending the the maximum maximum sums sums outlined.” outlined.” Over Over the the next next three three weeks weeks the the first first and and second second sea sea lords lords added added their their endorsements.54 endorsements.* The The Board Board of of Admiralty Admiralty also also resolved resolved that that the the enlarged enlarged submarine submarine program program must must be be kept kept secret secret until until construction construction was was under under way. way. It It was was agreed agreed that that to to minimize minimize the the chance chance of of a a leak leak not not even even the the Treasury Treasury would would be be told.55 told. Churchill Churchill declared declared that that the the magnitude magnitude of of the the change change in in policy policy justified justified such such extraordinary extraordinary secrecy. secrecy. On On 8 8 July, July, accordingly, accordingly, Moore Moore opened opened secret secret negotiations with with eight eight private private shipbuilders shipbuilders with with the the object object of of enticing enticing negotiations them them to to switch switch from from the the construction construction of of destroyers destroyers to to building building subsubmarines.56 marines.” in In return, return, the the firms firms were were probably probably guaranteed guaranteed contracts contracts for for half half aa dozen dozen vessels vessels spread spread over over aa period period of of years.57 years.*’ Meanwhile, Meanwhile, Churchill Churchill asked asked the the Operations Operations Division Division of of the the War War Staff Staff to to consider consider the the proposals proposals “in “in light light of of the the War War Plans.” Plans.” Two Two weeks weeks later later Captain Captain Ballard Ballard replied replied that that he he and and his his staff staff thoroughly thoroughly approved approved of of an an expansion expansion of of the the submarine submarine program and and agreed agreed “that “that every every encouragement encouragement should should be be given given to to pripriprogram vate vate building building firms firms to to lay lay down down aa submarine submarine construction construction plant.”58 plant.’** They They advised that that the the additional additional vessels vessels could could be be paid paid for for by by reducing reducing the the numnumadvised ber of of destroyers destroyers ordered ordered in in future future programs. programs.59 Thus Thus far, far, the the degree degree of of ber unanimity within within the the Admiralty Admiralty was was remarkable. remarkable. But But itit was was not not to to last. last. unanimity By By mid-July mid-July 1913, 1913, naval naval opinions opinions began began to to diverge. diverge. While While everyone everyone at at the the Admiralty Admiralty generally generally agreed agreed that that building building more more submarines submarines was was desirable, desirable, when when it it came came to to placing placing contracts contracts they they began began to to squabble squabble over over the the exact exact role role and and function function of of the the new new craft. craft. In In addition, addition, questions questions began began to to be be asked asked about about the the suitability suitability of of the the designs designs being being considered. considered. This, This, Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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subof subcaptain of inspecting captain the inspecting of the responsibility of the responsibility was the course, was of course, of been had been post had this post 1910, this of 1910, end of the end since the that since recalled that be recalled will be marines. ItIt will marines. fleetof fleetdevelopment of the development championed the who championed Keyes who Roger Keyes Capt. Roger by Capt. held by held appointed been appointed had been Keyes had 1912, Keyes February 1912, In February submarines. In keeping submarines. keeping Navy’s Royal Navy's the Royal consider the to consider up to set up committee set Admiralty committee an Admiralty of an chairman of chairman had committee had design committee submarine design The submarine requirement. The materiel requirement. future materiel future submaof submatypes of two types needed two henceforth needed Navy henceforth Royal Navy “the Royal that “the reported that reported an and an duties and patrol duties coastal patrol for coastal displacement” for small displacement” of small vessel of rine; aa vessel rine; considered was considered “it was latter, “it the latter, of the design of the design considering the In considering type. In “oversea” type. “oversea” sea to sea fleet to modern fleet accompanying aa modern of accompanying capable of be capable should be type should this type that this that reasons.”60 strategic reasons.”™ for strategic speed for possible speed highest possible the highest possess the should possess and should and to designed to been designed yet been not yet had not power had sufficient power of sufficient engines of diesel engines Although diesel Although measure interim measure an interim as an surface, as the surface, on the knots on twenty knots at twenty vessel at drive aa vessel drive craft experimental craft large experimental of aa large construction of the construction recommended the had recommended Keyes had Keyes to expected to was expected and was tons and 1,500 tons displaced 1,500 which displaced Nautilus which the Nautilus named the named subfleet subexperimental fleet this experimental to this addition to In addition surface. In the surface. on the knots on 18 knots attain 18 attain desigcoastal”—later desig“Admiralty coastal”’—later the “Admiralty designed the also designed had also Keyes had marine, Keyes marine, was and was tons and 350 tons than 350 less than displaced less craft displaced small craft This small class. This the FF class. nated the nated only the only were the These were action. These of action. radius of limited radius only aa limited possess only to possess expected to expected 1913. in 1913. Admiralty in the Admiralty to the available to designs available “official” designs “official” program flotilla program revised flotilla the revised of the appraisal of preliminary appraisal Staffs preliminary War Staff's The War The submarines additional submarines the additional that the concluded that 1913, concluded July 1913, in July early in written early written harenemy harof enemy approaches of the approaches patrol the to patrol employed to be employed usefully be most usefully could most could (DOD) Ballard (DOD) blockade?“ Ballard close blockade.”* of close strategy of the strategy “reviving the thus “reviving bors thus bors to habitability to good habitability possess good would possess submarine would patrol submarine ideal patrol the ideal imagined the imagined underwater superior underwater and superior week and over aa week for over station for on station remain on to remain enable itit to enable surface high surface waters. AA high hostile waters. in hostile effectively in operate effectively to operate performance to performance feaessential fea“an essential not “an was not desirable,” was “though desirable,” considered, “though he considered, speed, he speed, Ballard, 1913, Ballard, July 1913, 20 July dated 20 subject dated the subject on the paper on further paper In aa further ture.”62 In ture.” be to be priority to for priority appeal for direct appeal issued aa direct chief, issued his chief, Jackson, his by Jackson, supported by supported estiDivision estiOperations Division staff Operations The staff types.63 The patrol types.® of patrol building of the building to the given to given could coast could German coast Sea German North Sea the North of the blockade of effective blockade an effective that an mated that mated Royal the Royal Presently the vessels. Presently thirty-six vessels. than thirty-six less than with less attempted with be attempted not be not that building—and that or building—and built or craft built such craft twenty such than twenty less than possessed less Navy possessed Navy that worried that was worried Ballard was vessels. Ballard class vessels. prototype DD class the prototype included the figure included figure to appeared to class appeared “coastal” FF class the “coastal” nor the design nor Nautilus design “fleet” Nautilus the “fleet” neither the neither John Sir John by Sir shared by was shared concern was This concern duties. This blockade duties. for blockade suitable for be suitable be Nautilus, the Nautilus, for the enthusiastic for was enthusiastic lord was sea lord second sea the second While the Jellicoe.64 While Jellicoe.** offensive for offensive small for too small be too would be submarine would type submarine the FF type considered the he considered he offiStaff offiWar Staff the War and the Jellicoe and Both Jellicoe coast.65 Both German coast. the German off the operations off operations the of the more of building more continue building should continue navy should the navy instead the that instead thought that cers thought cers proven E type (800 ton) craft. proven E type (800 ton) craft. Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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only policy only construction policy his construction defend his to defend attempt to subsequent attempt Keyes’ subsequent Keyes’ served to to confuse confuse matters. matters. On On 15 15 August, August, he he replied replied that that his his FF design design served in But in coast.”66 But enemy’s coast.’® the enemy's on the operating on of operating “capable of perfectly “capable be perfectly should be should the same same paper paper he he went went on on to to admit admit that that they they would would be be “on “on the the small small the side for for this this work work in in severe severe weather weather and and have have not not the the offensive offensive value of side value of the EE class.”®’ class.”67 His His ambivalence ambivalence created, created, not not surprisingly, surprisingly, aa great great deal deal of of the confusion at at the the Admiralty Admiralty over over whether whether or or not not the the FF class class was was really really confusion telling one telling landed one Keyes landed Nevertheless Keyes duties. Nevertheless blockade duties. for blockade suitable for Suitable blow—one blow—one which which was was calculated calculated to to be be noticed noticed by by the the first first lord. lord. At At aa price price of only only £55,000 £55,000 per per boat, boat, FF class class submarines submarines cost cost less less than than half half that that of of of the EE type type vessels.® vessels.68 To To replace replace the the twenty-five twenty-five FF class class submarines submarines proprothe iected in in the the third third sea sea lord’s lord’s proposed proposed “maximum” “maximum” submarine submarine program program jected with with the the larger larger E E type type vessels vessels would would push push up up the the price price from from £4 £4 to to £6 £6 milmillion, lion, an an unacceptable unacceptable increase. increase. Any Any increase increase in in the the navy navy estimates, estimates, of of course, was was politically politically out out of of the the question. question. But But the the War War Staff's Staff's opposition opposition course, to seeing seeing money money “diverted “diverted from from the the building building of of battleships battleships and and other other to ocean going going vessels vessels towards towards increasing increasing the the submarine submarine program” program” kept kept ocean this door door shut.” shut.69 Yet Yet even even ifif all all the the funds funds presently presently earmarked earmarked for for this destroyers were were switched switched to to the the submarine submarine program, program, as as Churchill Churchill concondestroyers sidered doing, doing, there there still still would would not not be be enough enough money money to to build build twenty-five twenty-five sidered patrol propatrol submarines. submarines. Clearly Clearly the the number number of of vessels vessels in in the the submarine submarine program had had to to be be cut: cut: the the question question was was whether whether to to build build fewer fewer patrol patrol types types gram or delete delete the the experimental experimental fleet fleet submarines? submarines? or Churchill Churchill hesitated hesitated to to choose. choose. He He recognized recognized that that the the navy navy required required immediits immedifor its submarines for patrol submarines of patrol number of large number possible aa large as possible soon as as soon as ate operational operational requirements. requirements. AA submarine submarine blockade, blockade, he he realized, realized, also also ate on Whitehall on within Whitehall consensus within creating aa consensus of creating chance of best chance the best offered the offered North the North Sea Sea strategy strategy for for the the first first time time in in many many years. years. According According to to the most most conservative conservative estimates, estimates, “to “to maintain maintain aa continuous continuous blockade blockade of of the the submarines. patrol submarines. forty-eight patrol require forty-eight would require navy would the navy rivers” the German rivers’ German Still Still more more craft craft would would be be needed needed for for the the Mediterranean.70 Mediterranean.” Such Such a a force. force, the of the expense of the expense at the largely at created largely be created “could be accepted, “could Churchill accepted, Churchill “improved EE of “improved construction of the construction to the priority to top priority giving top Yet giving destroyers?" Yet destroyers.’"' developsubmarine developfleet submarine the fleet suspending the even suspending or even slowing or meant slowing boats” meant boats” ment ment program—something program—something he he was was loath loath to to do do because because in in this this type type he he expendinaval expendiin naval cuts in overall cuts of overall goal of long-term goal his long-term towards his path towards saw aa path saw ture.72 As As we we shall shall see, see, Churchill Churchill believed believed that that ifif the the Royal Royal Navy Navy could could ture.” develop aa submarine submarine “with “with sufficient sufficient speed speed to to overhaul overhaul aa battle battle fleet fleet so so develop as to to be be able able to to anticipate anticipate itit at at any any point, point, or or get get ahead ahead of of itit in in order order to to as dive and and attack,” attack,” then then these these vessels vessels could could serve serve as as “a “a decisive decisive weapon weapon dive of of battle battle [and] [and] as as such such must must count count in in partial partial substitution substitution of of battleship battleship strength.”73 In In aa memorandum memorandum on on the the subject subject dated dated 20 20 July July 1913, 1913, he strength.”” Lambert, Nicolas. 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submarines ocean submarines or 44 ocean “3 or of “3 comprised of speculated group” comprised “battle group” that aa “battle speculated that fitted knots” 30—31 of cruisers light 2 of 24 knots speed [supported by] 2 light cruisers of 30-31 knots” fitted by] of 24 knots speed [supported fighting decisive a as equal to carry sea planes, “should be considered equal as a decisive fighting considered be “should to carry sea planes, squadron, Such aa squadron, cruiser.”“ Such battle cruiser.”"* unit or battle battleship or class battleship first class to aa first unit to The battleship. a than maintain and moreover, would be cheaper to build and maintain than a battleship. The build to moreover, would be cheaper substanrequired however, vision, realization of this “fleet submarine” vision, however, required substansubmarine” “fleet this realization of could simply could Navy simply Royal Navy the Royal 1913 the in 1913 But in tial investment. But immediate investment. and immediate tial and at and program, development submarine not afford to continue the fleet submarine development program, and at fleet the not afford to continue meet to submarines patrol of numbers the same time produce sufficient numbers of patrol submarines to meet sufficient the same time produce to decided to Churchill decided August, Churchill of August, end of the end its At the requirements. At operational requirements. its operational await developments. await developments.

continued strategists continued Admiralty strategists the Admiralty ItIt is that the background that this background against this is against maneu1912 maneuthe 1912 after the seen, after have seen, we have As we to strategy. As Sea strategy. North Sea discuss North to discuss chance best chance the best that the Whitehall that within Whitehall vers conviction within growing conviction was aa growing there was vers there making Navy making Royal Navy the Royal with the rested with of problem” rested Sea problem” “North Sea the “North resolving the of resolving first the first Throughout the another.75 Throughout or another.” role or one role greater in one submarines in of submarines use of greater use to strategy to exact strategy the exact on the divided on half remained divided Admiralty remained the Admiralty 1913 the of 1913 half of between correspondence between Angry correspondence adopt Germany. Angry with Germany. war with of war event of the event in the adopt in demon1913 demonof 1913 weeks of early weeks the early the during the Staff during War Staff the War and the lord and first lord the first plans war plans the war in the prescribed in blockade prescribed strate distant blockade of distant strategy of the strategy that the strate that over concerned over gravely concerned had still gravely was still Churchill was set. Churchill definitely set. been definitely yet been not yet had not indeed, so, indeed, much so, So much raids. So the enemy raids. to enemy coast to east coast the east of the vulnerability of the vulnerability other several other to several that indicated to lord indicated first lord the first 1913 the of 1913 beginning of the beginning at the that at to prepared to now prepared was now he was that he members committee that invasion committee CID invasion the CID of the members of all for all training for military training consider compulsory military of compulsory form of some form for some need for the need consider the inflatthe inflatslide the to slide ploy to just aa ploy male been just have been could have this could Though this adults.76 Though male adults.”* the 1913 the February 1913 of February end of ed the end At the Cabinet. At through Cabinet. estimates through navy estimates ed navy after until after abeyance until in abeyance Admiralty question in Sea question North Sea the North leave the to leave agreed to Admiralty agreed tested.77 been tested.” had been raids” had the against raids” defence against and defence fleet and our fleet of our “dispositions of the “dispositions July of July end of the end The for the scheduled for maneuvers scheduled the maneuvers hoped the strategists hoped naval strategists The naval would exercises would would Practical exercises all. Practical for all. and for once and argument once the argument settle the would settle show or show either summer, or last summer, fleet last red fleet the red by the obtained by results obtained “the results confirm “the either confirm that that the the apparently apparently successful successful raid raid on on the the east east coast coast was was illusory.”” illusory.”78

in (commander in Callaghan (commander For George Callaghan Sir George Adm. Sir maneuvers, Adm. 1913 maneuvers, the 1913 For the Adm. Rear Adm. and Rear chief) fleet and (blue) fleet British (blue) main British the main of the control of retained control chief) retained

Command flotillas. Command patrol flotillas. John blue patrol the blue patrols) the of patrols) (admiral of Robeck (admiral de Robeck John de Adm. Vice Adm. lord, Vice sea lord, of second sea the second to the given to was given fleet was (red) fleet opposition (red) the opposition of the De victory. De decisive victory. claimed aa decisive red claimed Sir days red ten days After ten Jellicoe. After John Jellicoe. Sir John Jellicoe’s of Jellicoe’s location of the location Robeck’s detect the to detect failed to entirely failed flotillas entirely atrol flotillas Robeck’s patrol

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fleet fleet or or prevent prevent the the red red invasion invasion force force from from landing landing 3,500 3,500 marines marines at at lmmingham Immingham harbour. harbour. Though Though it it should should be be noted noted that that just just before before the the landings landings aa questionable questionable umpiring umpiring decision decision ruled ruled the the entire entire blue blue submarine submarine flotilla flotilla guarding guarding the the Humber Humber estuary estuary out out of of action.79 action.” This This led led several several officers officers to to believe believe that that the the result result had had been been fixed fixed for for “political “political reasons.”80 reasons.”® Nevertheless, Nevertheless, in in his his official official report report Callaghan Callaghan conceded conceded defeat. defeat. He He advised advised that that aa fleet fleet stationed stationed in in the the North North of of Scotland Scotland could could not not properly properly defend defend the the east east coast coast of of Britain. Britain. The The best best solution, solution, he he agreed agreed with with Churchill, Churchill, was was to to ask ask the the army army to to strengthen strengthen their their coast coast defense defense batteries.“ batteries.*' If If the the Admiralty Admiralty continued continued to to insist insist on on assuming assuming full full responsibility responsibility for for the the defense defense of of the the British British Isles Isles against against invasion invasion and and raids, raids, warned warned the the commander commander in in chief, chief, “the “the battle battle fleet fleet must must cruise cruise furfurther ther south south than than would would otherwise otherwise be be the the case, case, and, and, in in consequence, consequence, will will be be more more exposed exposed to to the the attack attack of of torpedo torpedo craft.”82 craft.”® Such Such a a deployment, deployment, he he prophesied, prophesied, would would result result in in heavy—possibly heavy—possibly disastrous—losses. disastrous—losses. Callaghan’s Callaghan’s certitude certitude is is unquestionable. unquestionable. In In aa follow-up follow-up report report on on this this subject subject he he reemphasized reemphasized that that “unless “unless steps steps can can be be taken taken to to prevent prevent syssystematic tematic mining mining in in the the North North Sea, Sea, the the Grand Grand Fleet Fleet should should not not come come south south to to play play any any part part in in preventing preventing invasion.”83 invasion.”® Mines, Mines, torpedoes torpedoes and and “the “the submarine” submarine” rendered rendered these these waters waters too too dangerous dangerous for for battleships.84 battleships.* The The failure failure of of the the blue blue fleet fleet to to locate locate and and bring bring the the red red fleet fleet to to action action during the maneuvers arguably had an even greater impact during the maneuvers arguably had an even greater impact upon upon Britain’s Britain's naval naval planners. planners. After After two two weeks weeks at at sea, sea, Callaghan’s Callaghan’s large large scouting scouting force force did did not not catch catch even even aa glimpse glimpse of of Jellicoe’s Jellicoe’s fleet; fleet; and and de de Robeck’s coastal patrol flotillas were no more successful at vectoring Robeck’'s coastal patrol flotillas were no more successful at vectoring the the blue blue fleet fleet towards towards its its objective. objective. The The Whitehall Whitehall strategists strategists were were so so dismayed at these failures in their war plan that their first reaction dismayed at these failures in their war plan that their first reaction was was to consider consider an an updated updated version version of of the the discredited discredited Troubridge Troubridge scheme scheme to to to scatter scatter observation observation squadrons squadrons across across the the North North Sea. Sea. The The commander commander in in chief did did not not agree. agree. Callaghan Callaghan expressed expressed his his opposition opposition to to the the deploydeploychief ment of of independent independent warships warships for for observation observation duties duties so so forcibly forcibly indeed, indeed, ment that he he was was accused accused by by Churchill Churchill of of carrying carrying “arrangements “arrangements for for the the safesafethat ty of of the the cruisers cruisers almost almost to to the the point point of of neglecting neglecting the the safety safety of of the the councounty try.”85 But But Callaghan Callaghan refused refused to to be be intimidated. intimidated. “As “As II have have stated,” stated,” he he try.”® retorted, “it is necessary to abandon the plan of stationing cruiser obserretorted, “it is necessary to abandon the plan of stationing cruiser observation vation squadrons squadrons across across the the North North Sea.”86 Sea.”® He He insisted insisted that that all all available available modern light cruisers were needed as scouts for the battle fleet.87 modern light cruisers were needed as scouts for the battle fleet.® Callaghan Callaghan was was equally equally scathing scathing of of an an alternate alternate plan plan suggested suggested by by the the War War Staff Staff which which called called for for the the flotillas flotillas and and light light cruiser cruiser squadrons squadrons periperiodically odically to to sweep sweep “intermediate “intermediate areas” areas” between between the the British British and and German German coasts. coasts. He He condemned condemned this this idea idea as as “a “a compromise compromise which which is is unsound unsound in in principle principle and and dangerous dangerous in in practice. practice. Unsound Unsound because because it it would would only only be be Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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might they might because they dangerous because and dangerous met, and be met, would be they would that they chance that off chance an an off Callaghan support.”88 Callaghan effective support.”* from effective far from too far force too superior force encounter encounter aa superior follows: as follows: reasoning as his reasoning out his spelled out spelled combine which combine ships which of ships introduction of the introduction and the submarines and of submarines advent of The advent The necessitate which necessitate factors which introduced factors have introduced gun-power have great gun-power and great speed and high speed high the as the area as same area the same in the flotillas in and flotillas cruisers and [our] cruisers of [our] concentration of the concentration the ships, heavy ships, the heavy from the separated from widely separated are widely craft are torpedo craft our torpedo fleet. IfIf our battle fleet. battle destroyed be destroyed to be liable to are liable but are required, but when required, absent when be absent they be will they only will not only not meet to meet expect to may expect they may that they craft that torpedo craft enemy’s torpedo the enemy’s not the detail. Itlt isis not in detail. in they as they fast as as fast steam as can steam which can cruisers which battle cruisers even battle and even cruisers and his cruisers but his but weather.89 ordinary weather.” in ordinary can in can

proposed the proposed that the Callaghan that with Callaghan concurrence with expressed concurrence Jellicoe expressed After Jellicoe After North the North into the “vaguely into squadrons “vaguely cruiser squadrons or cruiser flotillas or sending flotillas of sending strategy of strategy the use,” the little use,” “of little be “of would be ships” would hostile ships” meeting hostile of meeting anticipation of in anticipation Sea in Sea missome miswith some though with resolved, though board resolved, Churchill’s board dropped.90 Churchill's was dropped.” idea was idea distant the distant retain the and retain waters and northern waters in northern fleet in battle fleet the battle keep the to keep givings, to givings, litpoint litthe point on the intransigence on Callaghan’s intransigence of Callaghan’s view of In view strategy. In blockade strategy. blockade tle else was immediately possible. tle else was immediately possible. Instead Instead of of tampering tampering with with the the deployment deployment of of the the Grand Grand Fleet, Fleet, the the organisation” “different a devise to Staff War the instructed Admiralty Admiralty instructed the War Staff to devise a “different organisation” restricted their restricted to their suitable to “more suitable flotillas—one “more patrol flotillas—one coast patrol east coast the east for the for they directed, they Battenberg directed, Henceforward, Battenberg action.” Henceforward, of action.” spheres of local spheres and local and (to mobile’ (to ‘défenses mobile’ but ‘defenses flotillas’ but ‘patrol flotillas’ longer ‘patrol “no longer regarded “no be regarded would be would in change in flotillas?“ AA change defence flotillas.”*' coast defence simply coast or simply term), or French term), the French use the use de Admiral de Rear Admiral 1914, Rear in 1914, Early in necessary. Early be necessary. to be felt to also felt was also leadership was leadership post key post this key in this replaced in and replaced patrols and of patrols admiral of as admiral dismissed as was dismissed Robeck was Robeck George Capt. George scheme, Capt. defense scheme, new defense the new drafted the had drafted who had man who the man by the by Ballard.92 Ballard.” Although Although the the entire entire system system was was not not in in place place before before the the outoutStaff War Staff the War that the show that documents show draft documents 1914, draft August 1914, in August war in of war break of break contemplated contemplated giving giving aa major major role role to to the the embryonic embryonic Royal Royal Naval Naval Air Air Service. service. In In addition addition to to his his old old destroyers destroyers and and submarines, submarines, the the admiral admiral of of patrols was to be given fifty new airplanes fitted with wireless telegrapatrols was to be given fifty new airplanes fitted with wireless telegraphy phy (W/T) (W/T) capable capable of of searching searching at at distances distances up up to to one one hundred hundred miles miles from their bases.93 Recent trials had demonstrated that an from their bases.*? Recent trials had demonstrated that an airplane airplane could could “be “be relied relied on on to to carry carry 55 hours hours fuel, fuel, pilot pilot and and WA“ W/T operator operator with with outfit.”94 outfit.” Another advantage of using aircraft for reconnaissance Another advantage of using aircraft for reconnaissance was was that that they they were were less less handicapped handicapped than than surface surface ships ships by by the the patches patches of of low low lying lying fog fog than than often often prevailed prevailed in in the the North North Sea.95 Sea. With With an an eye eye on on the the future, future, over over the the next next two two years years the the Admiralty Admiralty anticipated anticipated spending spending almost almost £1 £1 million million on setting on setting up up the the ground ground infrastructure infrastructure (such (Such as as aerodromes) aerodromes) needed needed to to support support naval naval air air power.96 power. Far Far from from buttressing buttressing “the “the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s fear fear of of Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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aa successful successful! raid,” raid,” therefore, therefore, the the development development of of aviation aviation was was seen seen by by naval naval strategists strategists as as a a major major part part of of the the solution solution to to the the navy’s navy's difficulties difficulties in in protecting protecting the the east east coast coast from from attack.97 attack.’ Callaghan’s Callaghan’s failure failure to to intercept intercept and and engage engage the the enemy enemy fleet fleet during during the the 1913 1913 maneuvers maneuvers not not only only fueled fueled concerns concerns over over the the adoption adoption of of the the distant distant blockade blockade strategy, strategy, but but also also revived revived doubts doubts over over the the practicabilipracticability ty of of the the Grand Grand Fleet Fleet tactical tactical system. system. A A growing growing number number of of “thinking” “thinking” officers officers were were concerned concerned that that if if the the concentrated concentrated might might of of the the Royal Royal Navy Navy ever ever stumbled stumbled to to within within striking striking range range of of the the High High Sea Sea Fleet, Fleet, the the comcommander mander in in chief chief would would be be unable unable to to control control such such aa cumbersome cumbersome armada armada with with the the existing existing visual visual signaling signaling equipment. equipment. Prominent Prominent among among the the decentralizers decentralizers was was Rear Rear Adm. Adm. David David Beatty, Beatty, who who recently recently had had taken taken command command of of the the Battle Battle Cruiser Cruiser Squadron.98 Squadron.” But But he he was was by by no no means means the the only only flag flag officer officer in in the the Home Home Fleets Fleets thinking thinking along along these these lines lines at at this this time.99 time.” During During the the 1913 1913 maneuvers maneuvers Callaghan Callaghan and and Jellicoe Jellicoe had had both both “kept use of “kept their their destroyers destroyers with with their their battleships battleships in in order order to to make make use of them them in in fleet fleet actions.” actions.” Each, Each, it it should should be be noted, noted, commanded commanded aa much much smaller smaller force force than than the the “Grand “Grand Fleet Fleet of of battle” battle” the the Royal Royal Navy Navy proposed proposed to to deploy deploy in in aa war war against against Germany. Germany. Jellicoe, Jellicoe, for for instance, instance, was was given given just just fourteen fourteen battleships, battleships, two two battle battle cruisers, cruisers, ten ten cruisers cruisers and and forty forty destroydestroyers.‘00 he found ers.'” Yet Yet when when at at sea sea with with even even this this relatively relatively modest modest armada, armada, he found that that contact contact “between “between the the flotillas flotillas and and the the Commander-in-Chief Commander-in-Chief is is very very quickly quickly lost.” lost.” Jellicoe Jellicoe reported reported that that experience experience had had taught taught him him that that an an admiral admiral could could “neither “neither signal signal his his orders orders by by wireless wireless to to the the flotilla, flotilla, nor nor can can the the flotilla flotilla give give him him information information obtained.” obtained.” Without Without adequate adequate means means of his flotilof communication communication the the admiral’s admiral’s power power “to “to organise organise and and control control his flotilla la is is [therefore] [therefore] very very much much reduced.”"" reduced.”' Echoing Echoing Jellicoe’s Jellicoe’s remarks, remarks, Callaghan admitted admitted he he had had found found using using destroyers destroyers at at night night to to be be virtualvirtualCallaghan ly ly impossible impossible because because “no-one “no-one knew knew where where to to send send them.” them.” He He blamed blamed their their lack lack of of success success upon upon “the “the fact fact that that it it is is only only recently recently a a systematic systematic start start has has been been made made to to train train them them to to work work with with aa battle battle fleet,” fleet,” concludconcluding, ing, “it “it is is evident evident that that they they require require much much more more practice.”102 practice.”'” Sir George George Callaghan’s Callaghan’s attempts attempts to to improve improve the the Grand Grand Fleet Fleet system system Sir by by incorporating incorporating more more and and more more warships warships into into the the formation formation predictably predictably exacerbated exacerbated the the strain strain on on existing existing methods methods of of command command and and control. control. Since Since his his appointment appointment as as commander commander in in chief chief at at the the end end of of 1911, 1911, the the size size of of the the Grand Grand Fleet Fleet of of battle battle had had grown grown into into forty-one forty-one battleships battleships and and tactics tactics had had become become more more complex. complex. “A “A line line formed formed of of these these 41 41 ships ships at at the the new new close close order order intervals intervals of of 2V2 2'2 cables cables would would measure measure exactly exactly ten ten nautical nautical miles miles or or 20,000 20,000 yeards.”103 yeards.”'® The The roles roles of of destroyers, destroyers, for for instance, instance, were were no no longer longer limited limited to to scouting scouting and and warding warding off off attacks attacks on on the the battle battle squadrons Squadrons by by enemy enemy torpedo torpedo craft. craft. Under Under Callaghan Callaghan they they were were regarded regarded Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, httpszl/hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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capability.104 strike capability.’ Fleet’s strike Grand Fleet's the Grand of the component of integral component an integral as an as the upon the reliance upon more reliance place more to place encouraged to been encouraged have been may have Callaghan may Callaghan fleet’s the fleet’s of the standard of the standard over the doubts over serious doubts by serious particular by in particular torpedo in torpedo chief in chief commander in the commander 1913 the October 1913 early October in early case, in any case, In any gunnery.105 In gunnery.'® the of the introduction of “the introduction since “the that since Whitehall that in Whitehall serving in officers serving reminded officers reminded previbeen previhave been may have decided itit may however decided opinion, however torpedo, opinion, range torpedo, long long range destroyers our destroyers using our towards using disposed towards favourably disposed more favourably now more ously, isis now ously, only the only not the was not he was And he ships.”‘06 And capital ships.”'** enemy’s capital the enemy's against the offensively against offensively even torpedoes, even more torpedoes, carry more to carry fitted to being fitted destroyers being see destroyers to see keen to officer keen officer gun-power.107 sacrificing gun-power.'” meant sacrificing this meant ifif this tactical his tactical to his as to doubts as no doubts in no Admiralty in the Admiralty left the report left Callaghan’s report Callaghan’s cannot itself cannot by itself attack by gun attack “that gun lectured, “that he lectured, evident,” he “It isis evident,” intentions. “It intentions. and itit isis attack, and torpedo attack, and torpedo gun and combined gun as combined effect as same effect the same have the have torpefleet, torpeof aa fleet, gunfire of the gunfire with the combination with in combination that, in true that, undoubtedly true undoubtedly battle which aa battle danger which destroyers isis aa danger of destroyers numbers of large numbers by large attacks by do attacks do to impossible to almost impossible find itit almost would find engaged, would heavily engaged, already heavily fleet, already fleet, to proposed to he proposed how he was how however, was explain, however, not explain, did not he did What he resist.”108 What resist.”'° there that there acknowledged that Staff acknowledged War Staff the War While the attack. While an attack. such an coordinate such coordinate was “no “no doubt doubt much much to to be be said said in in favour favour of of their their [destroyers] [destroyers] use use as as aa was far.” too far.” carried too be carried might be “this might cautioned “this they cautioned fleet,” they to aa fleet,” support to battle support battle could destroyers could that destroyers chief that in chief commander in the commander reminded the officers reminded staff officers The staff The ourselves “We ourselves night. “We at night. independently at acting independently employed acting be employed profitably be also profitably also know know that that the the proximity proximity of of destroyers destroyers is is aa source source of of perpetual perpetual appreappreof role of The role darkness.109 The of darkness.’ hours of the hours during the fleets” during battle fleets” to battle hension to hension destroyers, they they agreed, agreed, deserved deserved careful careful consideration. consideration. destroyers, Two months months later, later, in in December December 1913, 1913, Callaghan Callaghan again again demonstratdemonstratTwo ed ed his his faith faith in in the the torpedo torpedo by by asking asking the the Admiralty Admiralty to to authorize authorize destroydestroytorpedo each torpedo for each torpedo for spare torpedo one spare carry one to carry fleet to his fleet to his attached to ers attached ers Callaghan Again Callaghan reloads. Again any reloads. carry any not carry did not destroyers did time, destroyers that time, At that tube. At tube. took took the the opportunity opportunity to to advise advise the the Admiralty Admiralty “that, “that, in in the the past past few few years, years, the the torpedo torpedo has has improved improved to to an an unprecedented unprecedented extent extent in in power, power, range, range, favourable for favourable positions for reach positions “could reach Destroyers “could accuracy.” Destroyers and accuracy.” speed, and speed, torpedo fire fire with with little little risk risk to to themselves” themselves” and and thus thus ought ought to to carry carry more more torpedo than than one one salvo salvo of of long-range long-range torpedoes.“0 torpedoes.''® At At the the Admiralty, Admiralty, only only the the on assessment on chiefs assessment in chief's commander in the commander with the disagreed with lord disagreed sea lord junior sea junior the the efficacy efficacy of of long-range long-range torpedoes. torpedoes. More More serious serious objections objections were were voiced at at “the “the C. C. in in C.’s C.’s proposals proposals to to load load up up the the decks decks of of TDB’s TDB’s with with voiced spare spare torpedoes torpedoes to to the the detriment detriment of of the the vessels vessels proper proper role role as as torpedo torpedo boat boat destroyers.” destroyers.” Stowing Stowing an an estimated estimated three three and and aa half half tons tons of of equipequipment ment on on the the upper upper deck deck of of aa destroyer, destroyer, it it was was feared, feared, would would compromise compromise their their stability stability as as gun gun platforms. platforms. “1 “I would would rather rather see see the the sea-going sea-going [fleet] [fleet] submarine developed,” noted the third sea lord. Battenberg agreed that submarine developed,” noted the third sea lord. Battenberg agreed that Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. 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“loading up up aa destroyer destroyer with with torpedoes torpedoes of of great great weight weight is is undesirable.”‘“ undesirable.”'"' “loading For For this this reason, reason, Callaghan’s Callaghan’s request request was was refused. refused. One of of the the few few facts facts upon upon which which Britain’s Britain’s naval naval leadership leadership was was unanunanOne imously imously agreed agreed after after the the maneuvers maneuvers was was the the stunning stunning success success of of the the big big “oversea” submarines. submarines. By By the the end end of of the the first first week week Callaghan Callaghan was was judged judged “oversea” to have have lost lost no no less less than than 40 40 percent percent of of his his capital capital ships ships to to submarine submarine to attack. In In his his report report he he acknowledged acknowledged that that submarines submarines posed posed “a “a far far attack. greater greater menace menace than than the the fleet fleet had had given given them them credit credit for.”“2 for.”"'’? He He was was so so much much shaken shaken by by the the experience experience that that he he subsequently subsequently determined determined that that the the battle fleet fleet should should never never under under any any circumstances circumstances put put to to sea sea without without aa battle strong strong escort escort of of destroyers destroyers and and cruisers. cruisers. Jellicoe Jellicoe was was equally equally impressed. impressed. “So “So far far as as the the North North Sea Sea and and Great Great Britain Britain and and Germany Germany are are concerned,” concerned,” he he reported. reported, “these “these vessels vessels [submarines] [Submarines] can can remain remain in in positions positions off off any any hostile port port for for aa week week or or more, more, and and they they go go far far to to deny deny the the use use of of German German hostile ports to to German German ships British ports ports to to British British ships, ships, except except ports ships and and similarly similarly British at carry out out 3a at great great risk risk to to the the surface surface vessel. vessel. They They can can undoubtedly undoubtedly carry blockade blockade of of an an enemy’s enemy’s coast coast in in the the old old sense sense of of the the word.”“3 word.”'" Attempts by by aa few few senior senior officers officers to to belittle belittle the the achievements achievements of of the the Attempts submarines submarines were were resisted resisted by by the the officers officers serving serving at at the the Admiralty. Admiralty. For For instance, at at the the end end of of the the maneuvers maneuvers Churchill Churchill invited invited Adm. Adm. Reginald Reginald instance, Custance (now (now retired) retired) to to comment comment on on reports reports submitted submitted by by the the umpires umpires Custance of one of been one had been recall, had will recall, readers will and Custance, readers commanders.“ Custance, fleet commanders.''* and fleet Fisher's Fisher’s most most implacable implacable opponents. opponents. As As second second in in command command to to Lord Lord view the view encouraged the had encouraged he had 1908, he Charles and 1908, 1906 and between 1906 Beresford between Charles Beresford practicable. still practicable. was still Germany was that against Germany blockade against close blockade of close strategy of the strategy that the He continued continued to to believe believe this this as as late late as as 1915. 1915. Custance, Custance, moreover, moreover, was was He torthe torthat the and that “untried” and were “untried” notorious submarines were that submarines view that his view for his notorious for opinhis opinvalued his pedo Churchill valued so, Churchill Even so, weapon.”5 Even “overrated” weapon.' an “overrated” was an pedo was first the first 1913 the ions. September 1913 in September that in indeed, that him, indeed, rate him, he rate did he highly did So highly ions. So the of the place of in place Staff in War Staff lord the War of the chief of Custance chief appointing Custance considered appointing lord considered the of the told of when told disappointing horrified when was horrified Battenberg was Jackson.116 Battenberg Henry Jackson.''® disappointing Henry the illustrate the to illustrate war to idea. Russo-Japanese war the Russo-Japanese to the back to going back use going no use “It isis no idea. “It the “both the lord, “both sea lord, failings first sea the first protested the craft,” protested torpedo craft,” the torpedo of the failings of their and their then, and since then, strides since weapon immense strides made immense have made carrier have its carrier and its weapon and of he isis of submarine he the submarine On the effect lightly. On so lightly. aside so brushed aside be brushed cannot be effect cannot “Sir that “Sir conceded that Churchill conceded taken. Churchill course was taken. point was The point wrong.””7 The quite wrong.”''’ course quite altogether,” submarine altogether,” the submarine Reginald underrates the opinion underrates my opinion in my Custance in Reginald Custance Jackson.“8 Henry Jackson.'"® to Henry successor to and for aa successor elsewhere for looking elsewhere began looking and began Views Views expressed expressed by by men men like like Battenberg, Battenberg, Jackson, Jackson, Jellicoe, Jellicoe, Moore Moore leadership. Navy’s leadership. Royal Navy’s the Royal of the and opinion of the opinion represented the Callaghan represented and Callaghan other each other with each correspondence with Their private correspondence in private recorded in are recorded thoughts are Their thoughts serving officers serving naval officers What naval and Whitehall. What circulated Whitehall. that circulated dockets that the dockets in the and in Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. 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in in the the fleet fleet thought thought about about submarines submarines and and torpedo torpedo warfare warfare at at this this time time is is much much more more difficult difficult to to discern. discern. Because Because the the Admiralty Admiralty rarely rarely surveyed surveyed the the opinion opinion of of fleet fleet officers officers on on any any question, question, there there is is very very little little written written evievidence with with which which to to form form any any definitive definitive conclusions. conclusions. In In addition, addition, fleet fleet offioffidence cers cers were were far far more more likely likely to to discuss discuss their their theories theories in in conversation conversation rather rather than than communicate communicate them them in in writing. writing. Sufficient Sufficient evidence evidence has has survived, survived, howhowever, ever, to to contradict contradict widespread widespread assertions assertions of of myopia myopia among among British British naval naval officers with regard regard to to the the submarine. submarine. ItIt isis quite quite wrong wrong to to assert, assert, aS as most most officers with historians historians have have done, done, that that “[d]own “[d]own to to 1914 1914 the the Fleet, Fleet, generally generally speaking, speaking, regarded regarded submarines submarines as as merely merely local local defence defence vessels vessels whose whose officers officers and and men men dressed dressed like like North North Sea Sea fisherman, fisherman, were were almost almost a a service service apart.”“9 apart.”!!° In In 1913, 1913, one one of of the the most most articulate articulate and and respected respected officers officers in in the the fleet fleet was was the the recently recently promoted promoted Rear Rear Adm. Adm. Mark Mark Kerr. Kerr. Related Related to to the the former former senior senior naval naval lord lord and and aa close close personal personal friend friend of of the the current current first first sea sea lord, lord,

Kerr Kerr was was also also highly highly regarded regarded by by Fisher.120 Fisher.'”° In In June June 1913, 1913, Kerr Kerr was was asked asked to to head head the the new new British British naval naval mission mission to to Greece. Greece. In In recommending recommending him him to to his his opposite opposite number number in in Athens, Athens, Churchill Churchill described described Kerr Kerr as as “one “one of of the the most most gifted gifted and and brilliant brilliant officers officers in in our our service, service, of of whom whom we we fully fully expect expect in in the the future future that that he he will will rise rise at at an an early early age age to to the the most most imporimportant tant commands.”'2‘ commands.”'”' Arriving Arriving in in Athens Athens at at the the end end of of the the summer, summer, Kerr’s Kerr’s first first job job was was to to formulate formulate an an affordable affordable construction construction program. program. Accordingly, Accordingly, in in September, September, he he advised advised the the minister minister of of marine marine that that Greek Greek

interests interests in in the the Aegean Aegean could could best best be be protected protected by by a a large large force force of of destroyers, destroyers, submarines, submarines, and and aircraft, aircraft, supported supported by by a a squadron squadron of of spespecially cially designed designed fast fast heavy heavy cruisers cruisers and and a a small small aircraft aircraft carrier carrier (!). ('). Forwarding Forwarding his his recommendations, recommendations, Kerr Kerr explained explained that: that: Experience Experience has has shown shown that that capital capital ships, ships, viz., viz., Dreadnoughts Dreadnoughts and and Dreadnought Dreadnought cruisers, cruisers, in in narrow narrow waters, waters, cannot cannot live live long long against against aa modern modern flotilla flotilla well well handled. handled. Air-craft Air-craft can can cover cover such such an an area area by by sea, sea, sending sending the the information information by by wireless wireless to to the the flotilla, flotilla, that that in in ordinary ordinary weather weather it it is is imposimpos-

sible sible that that the the capital capital ships ships can can escape escape the the attack attack of of the the flotilla flotilla either either by by day day or or night. night. It It is is apparent, apparent, therefore, therefore, that that capital capital ships ships are are only only of of value value in in the the open open sea sea out out of of the the radius radius of of action action of of the the flotilla, flotilla, and and it it follows, follows, therefore. therefore,

that that Greece, Greece, having having no no colonies, colonies, can can protect protect herself herself and and attack attack (in (in the the best best and and most most economical economical method) method) her her enemy enemy by by means means of of flotilla flotilla warfare.122 warfare.'”

The The scheme scheme was was not not well well received. received. Kerr Kerr was was “startled” “startled” to to learn learn that that Greek Greek officers officers had had no no confidence confidence in in flotilla flotilla craft craft against against dreadnoughts. dreadnoughts. “They “They say say that that they they have have been been brought brought up up to to believe believe only only in in the the big big ship, ship,

and and that, that, although although some some of of them them have have been been almost almost persuaded persuaded that that the the day day of of the the big big ship ship in in narrow narrow waters waters is is over, over, yet yet the the moral moral effect effect of of not not having having the the name name dreadnought dreadnought behind behind them them will will be be so so bad bad that that they they will will Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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go go into into action action with with such such a a feeling feeling of of depression depression as as to to risk risk defeat.”‘23 defeat.”'?° “In “In the the British British Navy,” Navy,” Kerr Kerr assured assured the the minister minister in in reply, reply, “we “we have have come come to to believe believe in in the the destroyer destroyer and and submarine submarine far far more more than than in in the the large large ship; ship; it it therefore therefore never never occurred occurred to to me me that that the the effect effect could could be be so so opposite opposite [sic] [sic] among among the the officers officers of of the the Royal Royal Hellenic Hellenic Navy.”124 Navy.”'* Kerr Kerr went went on on to to warn warn that that a a dreadnought dreadnought would would add add an an unnecessary unnecessary and and costly costly burden burden to to the the construction construction budget. budget. But But if if this this “depression “depression of of morale” morale” could could be be “done “done away away with” with” by by the the purchase purchase of of a a battleship, battleship, he he conceded, conceded, “it “it may may be be well well worth worth Your Your Excellency’s Excellency’s consideration consideration to to expend expend this this money money as as an an investment investment against against the the great great expense expense of of aa war.”'25 war.”'* The The Greek Greek navy navy subsequently subsequently placed placed an an order order with with a a German German firm firm for for one one dreadnought dreadnought battleship. battleship. Parenthetically, Parenthetically, it it is is interesting interesting to to note note that that both both Ballard Ballard and and Churchill Churchill at at the the Admiralty Admiralty in in London London fully fully endorsed endorsed Kerr’s Kerr’s advice advice for for Greece happy Greece to to establish establish a a fleet fleet of of flotilla flotilla craft, craft, though though they they were were less less happy about about the the proposed proposed fast fast heavy heavy cruisers cruisers which which they they regarded regarded as as potenpotentially tially dangerous dangerous to to British British interests.126 interests.'”° Just Just how how far far Kerr’s Kerr’s views views reflected reflected the the opinion opinion of of senior senior British British naval naval officers officers outside outside Whitehall Whitehall is is difficult difficult to to say. say. Yet Yet it it is is worth worth noting noting that that a a letter letter written written by by Sydney Sydney Hall Hall (the (the former former inspecting inspecting captain captain of of submarines) submarines) to to Fisher Fisher in in April April 1914, 1914, claimed claimed that that among among those those senior senior captains to be captains attending attending the the War War College College with with him him “there “there does does not not seem seem to be any any lack lack of of appreciation appreciation of of the the potentiality potentiality of of the the submarine.“27 submarine.”'” This This seems seems equally equally true true of of the the flag flag officers. officers. in In May May 1914, 1914, the the Admiralty Admiralty asked asked all all squadron squadron commanders commanders in in the the Home Home Fleets Fleets to to submit submit topics topics for for disdiscussion cussion at at the the forthcoming forthcoming joint joint conference conference to to be be held held at at the the end end of of July.128 July.'** Their Their replies replies indicate, indicate, with with just just one one exception, exception, that that every every admiral admiral in in the the fleet fleet (including (including Beatty, Beatty, Pakenham, Pakenham, Warrender, Warrender, Madden Madden and and Burney) Burney) took took it it for for granted granted that that flotilla flotilla craft craft would would pose pose a a “formidable” “formidable” danger danger to to squadrons squadrons operating operating in in the the North North Sea, Sea, and and especially especially when when returning felt returning to to base base for for coal. coal. Vice Vice Adm. Adm. Charles Charles Briggs, Briggs, for for instance, instance, felt that that unless unless provided provided with with aa large large escort escort his his (Fourth) (Fourth) battle battle squadron squadron would would be be “at “at the the mercy mercy of of any any small small craft craft which which may may sight sight it.”129 it.”'”® if If histohistorians that rians must must make make generalizations, generalizations, it it would would be be more more accurate accurate to to say say that most most senior senior officers officers seemed seemed to to recognize recognize the the submarine submarine menace—but menace—but few few properly properly understood understood the the implications. implications. Whichwas Which was understandable. understandable. More More importantly, importantly, no no one one seemed seemed able able to to suggest suggest any any practicable practicable counter counter measures measures except except to to screen screen the the movement movement of of big big ships ships with with ever ever greater greater numbers numbers of of destroyers.‘30 destroyers.'”° The Fleet Fleet Submarine Submarine The

Since Since the the middle middle of of 1912, 1912, Admiral Admiral Lord Lord Fisher Fisher had had been been engaged engaged as as chairman of the royal]. commission set up to investigate the supply of fuel chairman of the royal commission set up to investigate the supply of fuel Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Reva E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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how show how to show oil: to the oil: find the “to find charged “to been charged had been He had Navy.131 He Royal Navy.'*' the Royal for the oil for oil cheaply and cheaply regularly and purchased regularly be purchased can be how itit can cheaply: how stored cheaply: be stored can be itit can experienced the experienced Like the war.”132 Like in war.”'” certainty in absolute certainty with absolute and with peace; and in peace; in friends with friends committee with the committee packed the once packed at once Jacky at was, Jacky he was, chairman he chairman former (the former Hall (the Captain Hall were Captain them were Among them views. Among similar views. hold similar to hold known to known cur— (the curJellicoe (the John Jellicoe Sir John Adm. Sir Vice Adm. and Vice service), and submarine service), the submarine of the head of head enthusiand enthusienergy and unmatched energy Fisher’s unmatched by Fisher’s Driven by lord). Driven sea lord). second sea rent second rent of beginning of the beginning by the work by its work finished its virtually finished had virtually commission had the commission asm, the asm, disto disallow itit to not allow would not Churchill would reasons Churchill political reasons for political lQlB—though for 1913—though Fisher interim, Fisher the interim, In the year.133 In following year.'* the following of the beginning of the beginning until the band until band the on the information on acquire information to acquire first to authority first of authority position of his position used his used campaign wage aa campaign to wage platform to as aa platform then as and then policy and submarine policy Admiralty’s submarine Admiralty’s Hall encouraged Hall he encouraged end he this end To this budget. To submarine budget. the submarine in the increase in an increase for an for Review, Naval Review, The Naval officers, The for officers, journal for established journal newly established the newly in the publish in to publish to polinaval poliupon naval submarine upon the submarine of the influence of “the influence on “the articles on of articles series of aa series cy.”'3“ cy.”'*4 The The articles articles were were of of course course published published anonymously.I35 anonymously.'® Although Although itit is is impossible impossible to to say say precisely precisely what what impact impact they they had had upon upon service service opinion. opinion, the At the fleet. At the fleet. within the subject within the subject on the discussions on initiate discussions to initiate serve to did serve they did they end end of of March March 1913, 1913, Fisher Fisher began began circulating circulating to to selected selected commentators commentators drafts of of aa paper paper outlining outlining his his own own views views on on the the importance importance of of subsubdrafts marines marines in in future future naval naval wars.”6 wars.'*® His His main main argument argument was was simple: simple: it it was was construction submarine construction double submarine least double at least Navy at Royal Navy the Royal that the essential that essential form any form maintaining any of maintaining capable of vessel capable of vessel type of only type “the only was “the because itit was because of of blockade” blockade” on on the the enemy enemy coast.137 coast.'*’ He He also also asked asked his his readers readers to to considconsider the the possibility possibility of of submarines submarines attacking attacking and and sinking sinking merchant merchant ships.' ships.138 er In May May 1913, 1913, Fisher Fisher began began to to recast recast his his paper paper after after hearing hearing rumors rumors In that that in in an an effort effort to to accelerate accelerate the the fleet fleet submarine submarine development development program program in plants in power plants steam power of steam adoption of the adoption contemplating the was contemplating Admiralty was the Admiralty the place place of of diesels.”9 diesels.'? Quite Quite independently independently from from Keyes Keyes and and his his committee, committee, the taken the new new director director of of naval naval construction, construction, Tennyson Tennyson d’Eyncourt, d’Eyncourt, had had taken

an interest interest inin the the fleet fleet submarine submarine concept.'” concept.MO With With the the. encouragement encouragement an

of Churchill Churchill and and the the third third sea sea lord, lord, the the DNC DNC believed believed he he could could build build aa of vessel capable capable of of steaming steaming at at 24 24 knots knots on on the the surface. surface. Designed Designed to to be be vessel propelled tons. propelled by by steam steam turbines, turbines, 338 338 feet feet long long and and displacing displacing 2,260 2,260 tons, submarine other submarine any other of any size of the size twice the than twice more than was more craft was d’Eyncourt’s craft d’Eyncourt’s that submarines that class submarines of KK class prototype of the prototype was the design was This design afloat.““ This then afloat.'*! then would would be be ordered ordered in in 1915.142 1915.'? Fisher Fisher was was quickly quickly persuaded persuaded by by Captain Captain Hall Hall that that the the technical technical difficulties difficulties of of using using steam steam would would be be insurmountinsurmountable.143 Hall Hall also also took took the the opportunity opportunity to to complain complain more more generally generally that that able.'* his his successor’s successor’s single-minded single-minded pursuit pursuit of of his his fleet fleet submarine submarine program program had had resulted resulted in in disaster disaster for for the the submarine submarine service. service. In In June, June, Fisher Fisher conconfided in Jellicoe: fided in Jellicoe: Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolutl‘on. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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II am am extremely extremely anxious anxious about about the the Admiralty Admiralty development development of of the the submasubmarine. rine. The The more more I| hear, hear, the the more more d—d d—d fools fools they they seem seem to to be! be! I’ve I’ve written written a a memorandum memorandum on on the the subject, subject, but but if if I| sent sent it it to to Winston, Winston, it it would would mean mean open open war war with with the the Admiralty, Admiralty, so so II withhold withhold it. it. The The most most fatal fatal error error imagimag-

inable inable would would be be to to put put steam steam engines engines in in aa submarine!“ submarine.'“ In In October, October, Jacky Jacky proved proved unable unable to to contain contain himself himself when when he he learned learned that that the Admiralty, with the approval of Keyes, were about to place the Admiralty, with the approval of Keyes, were about to place aa contract contract with powwith Messrs. Messrs. Scott Scott of of Greenock Greenock for for a a smaller smaller experimental experimental steam steam powered submarine to be christened Swordfish. Fisher swiftly despatched ered submarine to be christened Swordfish. Fisher swiftly despatched the the first first lord lord aa note note telling telling him him “whatever “whatever you you do do don’t don't go go for for steam steam in in a a submarine! Simply fatal!“5 Clearly annoyed at being lectured in such submarine! Simply fatal!”'* Clearly annoyed at being lectured in such peremptory peremptory tones, tones, Churchill Churchill reposted: reposted: “if “if the the submarine submarine is is to to be be a a subsubstitute for battleship strength or battleship preponderance, not merely Stitute for battleship strength or battleship preponderance, not merely a a substitute for for destroyers, destroyers, itit mustpossess strategic speed speed which which will will substitute must possess strategic enable enable it it effectively effectively to to overhaul overhaul or or circumvent circumvent aa battle battle fleet.” fleet.” Only Only fleetfleetkeeping submarines, keeping submarines, he he believed, believed, could could be be regarded regarded as as instruments instruments of of strategic deterrence. deterrence. “If “If this this speed speed can can be be attained attained at at the the present present time time strategic or in in the the immediate immediate future future by by any any other other path path except except by by those those of of size size and and or steam steam II should should be be delighted delighted to to learn learn it.”146 it.”'** The The first first lord lord closed closed his his letter letter with with aa request request to to see see a a copy copy of of “The “The Oil Oil Engine Engine and and the the Submarine.” Submarine.” Apparently Fisher Fisher had had not not allowed allowed him him to to see see one one of of the the six six early early draft draft Apparently copy.148 sent aa copy.'® lord sent first lord the first was the November was until November not until But not copies.I47 But copies.'*’ What paper What has has always always most most impressed impressed historians historians about about this this famous famous paper was merchant was Fisher’s Fisher's prediction prediction that that submarines submarines would would sink sink unarmed unarmed merchant ships without without warning, warning, an an assertion assertion that that at at the the time time was was regarded regarded as as ships of amount of the amount by the prophetic by more prophetic the more all the seem all to seem made to was made but was fantastic, but fantastic, Churchill nor Keyes Battenberg, Neither greeted. was it which it was greeted. Neither Battenberg, Keyes nor Churchill with which scorn with scorn however, This, however, power!”49 This, civilised power.”'*® by aa civilised done by be done ever be would ever “this would believed “this believed the and the Engine Oil “The paper.‘50 the of message central the not was was not the central message of the paper.'® “The Oil Engine and prosubmarine fleet the on attack an as written fact in was Submarine” was in fact written as an attack on the fleet submarine proSubmarine” gram.“” dissipation of of the the inadinaderam.'*' On On the the first first page page Fisher Fisher condemned condemned the the dissipation point to on went He vessels. experimental on budget submarine equate equate submarine budget on experimental vessels. He went on to point capital alongside capital submarines alongside fast submarines working fast of working practicality of the practicality that the out that out steam with fitted be to had they if that and proved been yet not yet been proved and that if they had to be fitted with steam had not ships had ships value the value Whereas the craft. Whereas such craft. build such to build desirable to not desirable was not then itit was engines then engines coherand aa coherexercises and proved inin exercises been proved already been had already submarines had patrol submarines of patrol of the and the Staff and War Staff the War by the agreed by been agreed had been use had their use for their doctrine for ent doctrine ent Admiralty. In In short, short, the the experimental experimental fleet fleet submarine submarine program program was was crecreAdmiralty. ating ating an an acute acute shortage shortage of of modern modern patrol patrol submarines submarines needed needed for for immeimmediate operational operational requirements. requirements. Fisher Fisher insisted insisted that that more more submarines submarines diate suitable for for blockading blockading the the German German coast coast had had to to be be built built at at once once because suitable Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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of form of any form maintaining any of maintaining capable of vessel capable of vessel type of only type “the only were “the they were they would submarines would patrol submarines of patrol numbers of adequate numbers Building adequate blockade.”152 Building blockade.”' knew, he knew, which, he submarine which, fleet submarine the fleet of the development of the development halting the mean halting mean do. to do. reluctant to was reluctant Churchill was Churchill tried Fisher tried area, Fisher sensitive area, clearly aa sensitive was clearly what was at what probing at of probing Wary of Wary the of the encouragement of his encouragement attacking his by attacking Churchill by hurting Churchill avoid hurting to avoid hard to hard had who had men who the men at the criticism at his criticism directed his he directed Instead, he submarine. Instead, fleet submarine. fleet practical: was practical: propulsion was steam propulsion that steam him that advised him advised dependent and dependent based and entirely based been entirely has been submarine has the submarine of the development of the development the that on that and engine, and on combustion engine, internal combustion the internal of the development of the development upon the upon patiently must submarine must patiently the submarine of the advance of great advance future great the future development the development could advantage could and advantage qualities and surface qualities in surface increase in an increase Although an wait. .. .. .. Although wait. naturthe naturfor the turbines for steam turbines of steam substitution of the substitution by the them by given them been given have been have in considered in been considered even been never even have never these have engine, these combustion engine, internal combustion al internal al advanimportant advanthe important all the thereby all so—because thereby rightly so—because quite rightly and quite past and the past the impaired‘53 been impaired’* have been would have submarines would as aa submarines tages as tages

avoid to avoid gestures, to convincing gestures, very convincing not very other, not contained other, paper contained Fisher’s paper Fisher’s His itself.‘5“ His submarine itself.’ fleet submarine the fleet of the concept of the concept over the confrontation over confrontation (and submarine (and fleet submarine the fleet of the idea of the idea not the and not “steam” and attack “steam” to attack attempts to attempts passage: following passage: the following in the seen in be seen can be Churchill) can thus Churchill) thus say, at say, proceeding at submarine proceeding steam submarine whether aa steam doubts whether grave doubts to grave open to is open itit is minutes. three minutes. of three period of within aa period dive within and dive down and shut down could shut knots could twenty knots twenty the save the to save quality to essential quality an essential being an work being surface work from surface diving from in diving Rapidity in Rapidity be hardly be need hardly surface, itit need the surface, on the destroyed on easily destroyed and easily caught and being caught vessel being vessel to difficulties to These difficulties be. ... . .. These would be. disadvantage would this disadvantage grave this how grave out how pointed out pointed subfor subdesire for natural desire very natural the very of the present of the present for the dispose for extent dispose some extent some marines marines to to accompany accompany battle battle fleets.155 fleets.'*

studnever studAdmiralty never of Admiralty Board of the Board that the thought that always thought have always Historians have Historians ied “The “The Oil Oil Engine Engine and and the the Submarine.”'® Submarine.”156 This This isis not not correct. correct. There There is is ied clear evidence evidence that that itit was was discussed discussed fully fully and and provoked provoked “no “no small small comcomclear motion” when when itit was was presented presented at at an an Admiralty Admiralty conference conference held held on on 99 motion” December December 1913 1913 to to discuss discuss submarine submarine construction construction policy.”7 policy.'*’ Those Those prepreKeyes. and Keyes. d’Eyncourt and Moore, Jackson, Jellicoe, Moore, Churchill, Jellicoe, included Churchill, sent included sent Jackson, d’Eyncourt At the the assembly assembly itit was was agreed agreed that that “the “the policy policy to to be be worked worked for for isis the the At revival of the blockade of German ports.”‘58 Initially, the Board thought revival of the blockade of German ports.”'® Initially, the Board thought that the the FF class class submarine submarine would would be be “suitable “suitable for for aa blockade” blockade” of of the the that German German coast.159 coast.’ Until Until Keyes Keyes (belatedly) (belatedly) admitted admitted “this “this was was not not the the case.” In In the the process process he he torpedoed torpedoed Churchill’s Churchill’s last last hope hope that that the the navy navy case.” could afford afford to to build build adequate adequate numbers numbers of of patrol! patrol submarines submarines and and mainmaincould tain tain the the pace pace of of development development for for the the fleet fleet submarine submarine project.160 project.'® Keyes, Keyes, Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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however, however, refused refused to to allow allow the the Admiralty Admiralty to to order order more more E E class class subsubmarines. marines. He He insisted insisted that that because because the the type type did did not not possess possess aa double-hull double-hull it it was was now now regarded regarded by by his his experts experts as as obsolete.161 obsolete.'*' Instead, Instead, he he proposed proposed that that aa brand brand new new type type should should be be designed designed incorporating incorporating “the “the best best feafeatures” tures” of of the the E E and and F F types. types. Accordingly, Accordingly, the the following following day, day, instructions instructions were were sent sent to to the the naval naval constructors constructors department department to to produce produce aa sketch sketch design design immediately. immediately. The The result result was was aa double-hulled double-hulled Admiralty Admiralty “improved “improved E Ff; type” type” submarine.‘62 submarine.'” But But because because Moore Moore had had already already placed placed contracts contracts for for seven seven F F class class vessels, vessels, there there was was only only enough enough money money left left in in the the budbudget get for for just just two two “improved” “improved” E E class class patrol patrol submarines submarines that that year. year. The The concontracts tracts could could not not be be canceled canceled without without breaking breaking faith faith with with the the companies companies that that Moore Moore had had enticed enticed into into the the submarine submarine construction construction business.‘63 business.'™ The The meeting meeting then then moved moved on on to to discuss discuss whether whether or or not not to to order order aa 24 24 knot, knot, “K” “K” type type fleet fleet submarine. submarine. Given Given the the affirmation affirmation that that priority priority was was to to be be given given to to the the production production of of patrol patrol submarines, submarines, it it does does seem seem curious curious to to find find recorded recorded in in the the minutes minutes of of this this meeting meeting that that “no “no serious serious objection objection was was raised raised by by anyone anyone present present to to the the laying laying down down of of one one experimental experimental vessel vessel except except that that the the money money might might be be better better spent.”164 spent.”'* Four Four E E class class patrol patrol submarines submarines could could be be built built for for the the price price of of one one “K” “K” boat. boat. Although Although Keyes Keyes expressed expressed reservations reservations at at proceeding proceeding “too “too fast” fast” with with the the pace pace of of development, development, his his warnings warnings were were discounted. discounted. Churchill, Churchill, Moore, Moore, and and Battenberg Battenberg were were all all enthusiastic enthusiastic to to acquire acquire fleet fleet submarines submarines as as soon soon as as possible. It was resolved that the question of ordering the new fleet possible. It was resolved that the question of ordering the new fleet subsubmarine marine “should “should be be further further considered considered towards towards the the end end of of 1914, 1914, with with aa view view to to including including the the type type in in the the 1914/15 1914/15 programme.”165 programme.”'® The The ambivalence ambivalence of of the the resolutions resolutions passed passed at at the the meeting meeting reflected reflected exactly exactly the the state state of of Churchill’s Churchill's own own mind. mind. From From aa strategical strategical point point of of view view he he knew knew that that unless unless he he were were to to “put-off “put-off for for another another year year at at least least the the means means for for re-establishing re-establishing any any effective effective blockade blockade of of the the German German ports,” ports,” he must must give give priority priority to to the the production production of of patrol patrol submarines. submarines. But But he he still still he hankered after after the the fleet fleet submarine.’ submarine.166 On On Christmas Christmas day day Churchill Churchill finalfinalhankered ly ly made made up up his his mind. mind. Since Since the the submarine submarine blockade blockade of of the the German German ports ports is is one one of of the the tactical tactical objects we we have have in in view, view, we we must must build build aa suitable suitable class class of of vessel vessel for for that that objects purpose. Since the proposed new programmes, both ordinary and extraorpurpose. Since the proposed new programmes, both ordinary and extraordinary dinary were were put put forward forward by by the the Third Third Sea Sea Lord Lord on on [document [document number] number]

80367, $0367, coastal coastal

grave grave doubts doubts have have been been thrown thrown [F] design for oversea work. ... . . [F] design for oversea work.

upon upon the the The type type The

value value of of the the on which we on which we

Admiralty Admiralty must now now must

concentrate isis aa vessel vessel big big enough enough to to maintain maintain itself itself effectively effectively on on the the concentrate German German coasts coasts and and yet yet small small enough enough to to dive dive in in German German coastal coastal waters. waters. I| assume assume the the double-hulled double-hulled E E is is the the best best design design we we have have at at present present for for this this Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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1914/15 of 1914/15 programme of ordinary programme the ordinary purpose. recast the must] recast we must] [Therefore we purpose. [Therefore elimiand elimiE’s and double-hulled E’s of double-hulled number of so maximum number the maximum for the provide for to provide as to so as seven the seven of the many of as many and as submarine] and nate fleet submarine] [steam fleet Swordfish [steam new Swordfish the new nate the

possible.‘67 as possible.'®’ [F] coastals as admiralty coastals [F] admiralty

continued: he continued: On hand, he other hand, the other On the will approval, will board approval, receives board We which, ifif itit receives design which, upon aa design work upon at work now at are now We are sea-going and sea-going speed and required speed the required of the supply submarines of ocean submarines with ocean us with supply us for substitute for be aa substitute must be they must qualities, constructed they be constructed to be are to these are and ifif these qualities, and would that would money that the money of the out of for out paid for the and paid preponderance and battleship preponderance the battleship

least at least months at six months another six have another otherwise We have battleships. We into battleships. gone into have gone otherwise have required.168 before decision isis required.'® before aa decision

the out the work out to work Moore to ordering Moore by ordering Churchill memorandum by his memorandum concluded his Churchill concluded discussed verbally as programme costs of the “extraordinary substitution programme as verbally discussed substitution “extraordinary costs of the by clarified by instruction isis clarified last instruction at this last of this meaning of The meaning meeting.”169 The last meeting.”'* our last at our “secret” apparently “secret” an apparently on an later on aa minute weeks later three weeks wrote three lord wrote first lord the first minute the not strangely isis not that strangely program that construction program docket 1914/15 construction the 1914/15 to the relating to docket relating 14 On correspondence.170 On 14 of correspondence.'” listed registers of official registers Admiralty’s official the Admiralty’s in the listed in submany subhow many calculate how to calculate January, lord to sea lord third sea the third asked the Churchill asked January, Churchill On battleshipm On class battleship.'”' Revenge class one Revenge of one marines price of the price for the built for be built could be marines could dates latest dates the latest be the will be “what will Moore: “what from Moore: 22 enquired from further enquired he further January he 22 January or forth or the forth for the substituted for submarines substituted at type] submarines [E type] fourteen [E the fourteen which the at which the that order in begun be to have would Plymouth [Resistance] would have to be begun in order that the battleship [Resistance] Plymouth battleship ship isis this ship when this date when the date Le, the 1917, i.e., June 1917, by June whole ready by be ready might be batch might whole batch required”? required”? At At the the bottom bottom of of the the page page the the first first lord lord directed directed that: that: “Extreme “Extreme paper.”172 this paper.”'” handling this in handling secrecy observed in be observed must be secrecy must The 1914 1914 Estimates Estimates Crisis Crisis The Back Back at at the the beginning beginning of of 1913, 1913, readers readers will will recall, recall, Churchill Churchill had had approached, then then shied shied away away from, from, the the idea idea of of substituting substituting submarines submarines approached, for for battleships. battleships. He He had had recognized recognized that that proposing proposing such such aa radical radical shift shift in in British British naval naval policy policy would would be be highly highly controversial controversial both both within within and and outoutall from all support from of support assured of been assured not been had not he had side addition, he ln addition, service. In the service. side the the the sea sea lords. lords. And And furthermore, furthermore, the the fiscal fiscal situation situation did did not not appear appear to to jus[ustify tify such such aa desperate desperate political political gamble. gamble. At At the the last last minute, minute, higher-thanhigher-thanexpected expected tax tax revenues revenues had had enabled enabled Lloyd Lloyd George George to to accept accept higher higher navy navy building continue building to continue Churchill to allowed Churchill had allowed estimates turn had in turn which in estimates which standard. percent standard. 60 percent the 60 maintain the to maintain numbers to dreadnoughts sufficient numbers in sufficient dreadnoughts in For For these these reasons reasons the the battleship battleship substitution substitution policy policy had had been been shelved. shelved. By the the end end of of 1913, 1913, however, however, the the financial financial outlook outlook for for the the Admiralty Admiralty had had By again clouded.'” When on on 5 5 December, December, Churchill Churchill notified notified the the Cabinet Cabinet Lamb”,Nkoagamnegugoegmfinhen E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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that that naval naval expenditure expenditure for for next next year year would would have have to to rise rise by by another another £3 £3 million million to to over over £50 £50 million, million, his his sketch sketch estimates estimates were were thrown thrown out.174 out.'% A A chorus chorus of of more more than than one one hundred hundred Liberal Liberal back back bench bench MP’s MP’s added added their their voices voices in in protest protest at at the the magnitude magnitude of of the the sum sum requested.175 requested.’ Churchill Churchill also also came came under under fierce fierce attack attack from from the the Liberal Liberal press.176 press.'* Even Even Asquith Asquith regardregarded ed the the sum sum as as excessive. excessive. “lf “If one one can’t can’t be be aa little little economical economical when when all all forforeign eign countries countries are are peaceful peaceful II don’t don’t know know when when we we can,” can,” he he remarked remarked to to the the chancellor.177 chancellor.'” Surprisingly, Surprisingly, however, however, Lloyd Lloyd George George was was not not among among the the malcontentsI78 malcontents'” Earlier Earlier in in the the year, year, he he had had struck struck a a bargain bargain with with Churchill: Churchill: in in return return for for supporting supporting his his controversial controversial land land reform reform bill, bill, he he had had promised promised the the first first lord lord more more money money for for the the navy.179 navy.'” On On 8 8 December, December, the the Cabinet Cabinet suggested suggested that that instead instead of of laying laying down down four four capital capital ships ships in in 1914—15, 1914-15, thenavy the navy should should build build just just two. two. Churchill Churchill replied “only replied that that was was impossible. impossible. The The construction construction of of four four battleships battleships “only just just maintains maintains the the 60 60 per per cent cent standard.”"’° standard.”'® It It was was therefore therefore the the minimum minimum number number that that could could be be built. built. He He did did not not need need to to add add that that he he had had mortgaged mortgaged his his political political reputation reputation to to the the implementation implementation of of a a four four ship ship capital capital proprogram. gram. On On 17 17 December, December, Sir Sir Francis Francis Hopwood, Hopwood, a a senior senior civil civil servant servant at at the the Admiralty, Admiralty, explained explained the the recent recent events events to to the the king’s king’s private private secretary: secretary:

The The Cabinet Cabinet has has become become thoroughly thoroughly scared scared by by the the Radicals Radicals who who are are for for a a smaller prosmaller navy, navy, and and is is putting putting pressure pressure upon upon Churchill Churchill to to reduce reduce the the programme. gramme. This This he he cannot cannot do do for for the the simple simple reason reason that that he he was was fool fool enough enough

to tell tell the the world world what what his his programme programme was was going going to to be be for for about about half half aa to dozen dozen years years ahead. ahead. it It is is said said that that practically practically all all the the Cabinet Cabinet is is for for a a reducreduction. tion. What What they they mean mean by by it it iI cannot cannot imagine imagine for for the the numbers numbers are are deeply deeply committed. committed. Not Not only only did did they they not not dissent dissent when when Churchill Churchil! made made his his speech speech about about building building 4.5.4.4.4.4. 4.5.4.4.4.4. battleships battleships each each year year but but they they made made themthemselves selves party party to to the the despatch despatch laid laid on on the the table table of of the the Canadian Canadian Parliament Parliament in which which the the coming coming programme programme isis set set forth.'®' forth.‘81 in

What What Hopwood Hopwood could could not not understand understand was was why why the the Cabinet Cabinet appeared appeared so so keen keen to to pick pick a a fight fight with with the the Admiralty Admiralty on on such such a a weak weak pretext. pretext. “Is “Is it it pospossible they they are are riding riding for for aa fall fall or or do do they they merely merely want want to to shed shed Winston,” Winston,” sible he he speculated)”speculated.'” ln In the the opinion opinion of of Lord Lord Riddle, Riddle, the the second second possibility possibility was was closer to to the the truth. truth. His His contacts contacts told told him him that that the the junior junior members members of of the the closer Cabinet, “[Herbert] “[Herbert] Samuel, Samuel, [John] [John] Simon, Simon, and and [Walter] [Walter] Runciman, Runciman, are are Cabinet, doing their their utmost utmost to to force force [Churchill] [Churchill] out out of of the the Cabinet.” Cabinet.” There There was was aa doing strong strong feeling feeling within within the the Cabinet, Cabinet, even even among among his his admirers, admirers, that that Winston Winston had had “lost “lost touch touch with with liberalism” liberalism” and and since since joining joining the the Admiralty Admiralty had had

become “a “a man man of of one one idea.”'* idea.”'83 Some Some ministers ministers feared feared that that such such aa large large become increase increase in in naval naval spending spending might might provoke provoke the the defection defection of of the the Labour Labour

b members members of of the, the coalition coalition and and several several Liberal Liberal backbenchers.184 backbenchers.'* Lam ert, Nico as. Sirjo nFis er’s Nava Revo ution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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had Cabinet had in Cabinet Churchill in against Churchill outcry against the outcry week, the another week, Alter another After volume. its volume. at its aback at taken aback was taken George was Lloyd George even Lloyd that even deafening that so deafening become become so Chancellor the Chancellor moreover, the intensified, moreover, estimates intensified, navy estimates the navy over the row over the row As the As and back and stand back to stand having to at having Cabinet at in Cabinet uncomfortable in increasingly uncomfortable became increasingly became ministers— junior ministers— his junior dubbed his minister dubbed prime minister the prime “beagles”——as the the “beagles”—as watch the watch douwas dousight was The sight armaments. The in armaments. economies in make economies government make the government demand the demand as regarded’himself long regarded had long he had because he George because Lloyd George to Lloyd irritating to bly irritating bly himself as radi“junior radithe “junior of the leader of the leader also the and also cause and particular cause this particular of this champion of champion 16 By 16 party. By the party. of the wing of progressive” wing “social progressive” the “social comprised the who comprised cals” who cals” cabinet during aa cabinet afternoon, during That afternoon, longer. That no longer. stand itit no could stand he could December he December with pledge with his pledge on his renege on to renege intention to his intention signaled his Chancellor signaled the Chancellor meeting, the meeting, reconsider to reconsider lord to first lord the first imploring the openly imploring by openly sides by switch sides and switch Churchill and Churchill his to his estimates.185 estimates.'® The The latter, latter, enraged, enraged, refused. refused. At At that that point, point, according according to Charles Hobhouse, Hobhouse, the the postmaster postmaster general, general, Winston Winston “protested “protested his his inabiliinabiliCharles ty ty to to carry carry on on and and went went off off characteristically characteristically banging banging the the dispatch dispatch box box and and the door door as as he he went went out out as as loud loud as as he he could... could . . . "'* ”‘86 the Worse news news was was to to follow. follow. On On 19 19 December December Churchill Churchill telegraphed telegraphed Worse Borden to to inquire inquire whether whether aa cut cut in in the the British British capital capital ship ship program program Borden would affect affect the the willingness willingness of of the the Canadian Canadian parliament parliament to to finance finance the the would three three dreadnoughts dreadnoughts promised promised for for the the Mediterranean Mediterranean Fleet. Fleet. Borden Borden was was emphatic: emphatic: if if that that occurred occurred “it “it would would be be quite quite impossible impossible for for us us to to persepersevere in in proposals proposals which which were were based based upon upon considerations considerations of of an an urgency urgency vere which which were were vigorously vigorously proclaimed.”'87 proclaimed.”'®’ Anticipating Anticipating Borden’s Borden’s reply, reply, howhowever, Churchill Churchill had had already already taken taken the the precaution precaution of of assuring assuring the the prime prime ever, minister in minister that that if if necessary necessary he he could could shore-up shore-up Britain’s Britain’s naval naval position position in the Mediterranean Mediterranean without without having having to to demand demand additional additional sums sums from from Lloyd Lloyd the George. George. “Borden “Borden will will act,” act,” he he explained. explained. “If “If he he succeeds. succeeds, the the Cabinet Cabinet polpolicy months icy in in the the Medit[erranea]n Medit{erranea]n can can be be carried carried out. out. If If he he fails—then fails—then 6 6 months from sea from now now II can can develop develop an an argument argument ab[ou]t abjoujt submarines submarines in in that that sea wh[ich] wh{ich] will will obviate obviate aa further further constr[uctio]n constr[uctio]n of of battleships battleships for for this this 2dary 2dary [secondary] theatre. theatre. Either Either way way we we can can get get through.”'® through.”188 Churchill Churchill now now [secondary] turned turned to to meet meet his his critics critics within within the the Cabinet. Cabinet. In January January 1914, 1914, Churchill's Churchill’s task task was was made made aa good good deal deal harder harder after alter In he he was was forced forced to to raise raise his his demand demand to to no no less less than than £53 £53 million, million, in in order order to to pay pay for for the the delivery delivery of of ships ships that that had had been been delayed delayed by by earlier earlier labor labor unrest unrest in the the shipyards.’ shipyards.189 Lloyd Lloyd George, George, taken taken aback aback at at this this sum, sum, promptly promptly in replied that that the the naval naval budget budget could could no no longer longer be be financed financed without without raising raising replied fresh taxes. taxes. For For aa number number of of reasons reasons this this was was something something he he was was loath loath to to fresh do. As As part part of of the the Liberal’s Liberal’s strategy strategy for for reelection reelection in in 1916, 1916, Lloyd Lloyd George George do. had had been been preparing preparing to to overhaul overhaul the the system system of of local local government government finances.190 finances.'® The The essence essence of of the the plan plan was was to to subsidize subsidize town town hall hall expendiexpenditure with with “exchequer “exchequer grants” grants” from from central central government government funds; funds; in in other ture other Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, httpszllhd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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words words income income tax tax would would be be raised raised to to pay pay for for cuts cuts in in property property taxes. taxes. Unfortunately, Unfortunately, it it was was administratively administratively impossible impossible to to introduce introduce the the proproposed posed reforms reforms aa year year early, early, thereby thereby allowing allowing aa single single increase increase in in taxation taxation to to pay pay for for both both his his land land reform reform and and aa larger larger navy navy budget—a budget—a strategy strategy which which had had succeeded succeeded in in 1909. 1909. For For obvious obvious political political reasons reasons the the Liberals Liberals —‘ did did not not want want to to raise raise taxes taxes in in consecutive consecutive years. years. All All this this time time Reginald Reginald McKenna McKenna had had been been keeping keeping aa close close watch watch on on proceedings, proceedings, quietly quietly waiting waiting for for his his chance chance to to revenge revenge himself himself on on Churchill. Churchill. The The astute astute McKenna McKenna was was the the first first to to suspect suspect that that the the chancellor chancellor would would be be the the first first to to back back down down and and that that Churchill Churchill would would win win his his battle battle over over the the size size of of the the capital-ship capital-ship program. program. On On 16 16 January January 1914, 1914, he he disdiscussed cussed recent recent events events with with his his friend friend Lord Lord Riddle. Riddle. The The latter latter recorded recorded in in this this diary diary that that night, night, that that according according to to McKenna, McKenna, “Winston “Winston has has shown shown his his fangs fangs and and they they are are pretty pretty big big fangs. fangs. He He has has cornered cornered the the PM PM who who is is comcommitted mitted up up to to the the hilt hilt to to all all Winston Winston has has done. done. He He has has it it all all down down chapter chapter and and verse. verse. McKenna McKenna fears fears that that L[loyd] L[loyd] G[eorge] G[eorge] will will have have to to change change his his attitude attitude as as he he also also is is committed.”‘-‘" committed.”'*' By By 23 23 January, January, sure sure enough, enough, the the chanchancellor cellor was was visibly visibly wavering.192 wavering.' Ultimately, Ultimately, on on the the 28th, 28th, to to the the dismay dismay of of his his radical radical friends, friends, Lloyd Lloyd George George announced announced in in Cabinet Cabinet that that he he was was now now preprepared pared to to allow allow the the 1914—15 1914-15 navy navy estimates estimates to to reach reach £53 £53 million.193 million.'” Churchill Churchill had had promised promised in in return return that that naval naval expenditure expenditure would would fall fall back back to to “under “under 250 £50 millions” millions” in in 1915-—16.194 1915-16.'* Lloyd Lloyd George George went went on on to to explain explain that that he could could balance balance the the books books by by raising raising new new taxation taxation in in 1914-15 1914—1 5 and and using using he it it to to pay pay for for the the increase increase in in the the navy. navy. The The following following year year (1915—16) (1915-16) these these new new revenues revenues would would be be reallocated reallocated to to fund fund his his scheme scheme of of exchequer exchequer grants grants to local authorities.‘95 The of course, course, upon materialto local authorities.'*® The plan plan depended, depended, of upon the the materialization ization of of the the promised promised reduction reduction in in the the 1915 1915 navy navy estimates.196 estimates.'* Hitherto, Hitherto, no historian historian has has ever could have have ever ever no ever seriously seriously considered considered how how Churchill Churchill could have have kept kept his his “pledge” “pledge” without without sacrificing sacrificing the the battleship battleship standard.197 standard.'” The The answer, answer, of of course, course, is is that that he he was was prepared prepared to to do do so. so. He He planned planned to to adopt adopt aa new new naval naval standard standard which which included included submarines. submarines. The The details details were were kept kept secret from from the the Cabinet Cabinet and and were were known known only only to to members members of of the the Board Board of of secret Admiralty, Admiralty, Asquith Asquith and and Lloyd Lloyd George.198 George.'® Drafting Drafting his his memoirs memoirs after after the the First First World World War, War, Churchill Churchill recalled recalled the the drama drama surrounding surrounding the the negotiations negotiations over over the the 1914—1 1914-15 5 estimates estimates and and explained explained his his motives. motives. in In the the first first draft draft of of his his manuscript, manuscript, Churchill Churchill wrote wrote that that he he proposed proposed to to treat treat the the four four dreadnoughts dreadnoughts “not “not as as capital capital ships ships but but as as units units of of power power which which could, could, if if desirable, desirable, be be expressed expressed in in any any other other form."199 form.”'’? He He explained explained that that “the “the finance finance of of the the transformation transformation was was most most complicated.” complicated.” Battleship Battleship took took three three years years to to build build “whereas “whereas the the kind kind of of craft craft we we were were contemplating contemplating could could be be completed completed in in from from fifteen fifteen LambetpNicggghtgweigermagnt s." This to eighteen months.” This meant meant “the “the contractors contractors would would therefore therefore be be evo utIon. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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the half the in half battleship in the battleship of the value of able money value the money of the whole of the whole earn the to earn able to the order the would order Admiralty would the Admiralty that the time.” agreed that was agreed Accordingly itit was time.” Accordingly the to the due to payments due the payments out the space out small would space as would dates as such dates “at such craft “at small craft

Alternatively year.”2°0 Alternatively each year.” in each fell in contractors amount fell similar amount that aa similar so that contractors so

the intended), the really intended), was really have been'what (and been what was to have seems to fact seems in fact this in (and this 1914—15 the 1914-15 under the projected under Admiralty battleship(s) projected the battleship(s) cancel the could cancel Admiralty could subreplacement subthe replacement for the contracts for the contracts estimates placing the delay placing and delay estimates and to relief" to “substantial relief’ affording “substantial thereby affording marines 1915, thereby of 1915, end of the end until the marines until year).201 election year).”' (the election 1915—16 (the for 1915-16 the budget for construction budget naval construction the naval comwere comsubmarines were additional submarines the additional Churchill as the long as so long that so believed that Churchill believed naval Britain’s naval maintain Britain’s plete simultaneously maintain could simultaneously he could 1917, he June 1917, by June plete by naval in naval reduction in the aa reduction with the chancellor with supremacy the chancellor provide the and provide supremacy and referall referexpunged all Churchill expunged However, Churchill year. However, expenditure election year. the election in the expenditure in memoirs. his memoirs. of his version of published version the published in the ences policy in substitution policy the substitution to the ences to clear. not clear. still not so isis still Why did so he did Why he == Sa w

Admiralty of Admiralty Board of the Board left the Jellicoe left John Jellicoe Sir John In Adm. Sir Vice Adm. 1914, Vice June 1914, In June in commander in of commander post of the post up the taking up for before taking “rest-cure” before month “rest-cure” six month for aa six lord sea second as replaced was He chief, Home Fleets, in December.”” He was replaced as second sea lord December.202 in Fleets, Home chief, Hamilton.203 Tower Hamilton.” Frederick Tower Sir Frederick Adm. Sir Vice Adm. by favorite, Vice court favorite, another court by another perChurchill perappointment, Churchill the appointment, offered the Before formally offered was formally latter was the latter Before the program. substitution program. proposed substitution the proposed sonally with the him with acquainted him sonally acquainted substitute to substitute plans to the plans that the impression that clear impression the clear Hamilton given the was given Hamilton was of end of the end at the out at carried out be carried definitely be would definitely submarines battleships would for battleships submarines for them in them nothing in “there isis nothing lord “there first lord the first the assured the he assured Afterwards, he year.204 Afterwards, the year.2“% heartily which |I heartily of which much of and much antagonistic and be antagonistic to to be myself to feel myself which II feel to which sent Moore sent and Moore Jellicoe and job, Jellicoe the job, accepted the had accepted agree.” he had Once he agree.”205 Once the of the details of the details with the him with familiarize him to familiarize intended to Hamilton notes intended of notes set of Hamilton aa set submarines fourteen submarines substituting fourteen to substituting addition to in addition plan.” that in reveal that These reveal plan.206 These capital second capital cancel aa second to cancel wanted to also wanted for Churchill also Resistance, Churchill the Resistance, for the Queen the Queen of the version of cruiser version battle cruiser special battle (a special ship, Agineourt (a the Agincourt ship, the radically of aa radically craft of torpedo craft six torpedo build six place build its place in its Elizabeth and in class), and Elizabeth class), that explain that to explain Suffice to “Polyphemus.”207 Suffice as “Polyphemus.””” to as referred to type referred new type new designed torpedo-boat designed semi-submersible torpedo-boat “Polyphemus” armored semi-submersible an armored was an “Polyphemus” was battle.208 of battle.”” line of enemy line an enemy at an torpedoes at long-range torpedoes eight long-range or eight six or launch six to launch to professional the professional that the show that papers show Hamilton papers the Hamilton More significantly, the More significantly, principles the principles accepted the entirely accepted Admiralty entirely of Admiralty members Board of the Board of the members of underlying underlying Churchill’s Churchill’s policy. policy. Summarizing Summarizing the the information information given given to to him. him, Hamilton Hamilton noted noted that: that: Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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The time time has has come come when when the the proportion proportion of of torpedo torpedo craft craft (especially (especially subsubThe marines) marines) to to battleships battleships should should be be increased—it increased—It is is understood understood that that it it is is proposed proposed to to commence commence this this process process this this year year by by substituting substituting for for some some of of

the the approved approved programme programme certain certain extra extra torpedo torpedo craft. craft. The The alternatives alternatives to to follows: as follows: be as to be understood to are understood discussed are be discussed be

(a) (a) To To drop drop one one battleship battleship and and substitute substitute 6 6 of of the the proposed proposed “Polyphemus” “Polyphemus” class. class. (D) (b) To To drop drop a a second second battleship battleship and and substitute substitute about about 16 16 submarines submarines of of the the latest latest pattern. pattern. (0) (c) To To drop drop all all the the programme programme of of destroyers destroyers in in the the programme programme except except 2 2

or or 33 large large ones ones designated designated for for leaders leaders of of divisions divisions of of flotillas, flotillas, and and subsubstitute submarines.”” submarines.209 stitute

The The sea sea lords lords all all realized realized that that Churchill’s Churchill's motives motives were were predominantly predominantly financial. financial. Jellicoe Jellicoe emphasized emphasized to to his his successor successor that that “he “he wishes wishes to to save save money by by the the change, change, and and this this substitution substitution programme programme isis designed designed to to do do money this this i.e. i.e. the the cost cost of of the the substitutes substitutes is is less Jess than than the the cost cost of of the the battlebattleships?“O Moore Moore estimated estimated “the “the effect effect of of the the proposed proposed changes changes isis aa savsavships.”’'° ing on on materiel materiel varying varying in in amounts amounts up up to to £900,000."*"' 2900,0007” Nevertheless, Nevertheless, the the ing admirals agreed agreed that that the the change change would would be be justifiable justifiable on on naval naval and and well well admirals as financial financial grounds. grounds. Contemporary Contemporary documents documents support support Churchill’s Churchill’s later later as claim that that “the “the First First Sea Sea Lord, Lord, like like myself, myself, was was convinced convinced that that the the claim change proposed proposed would would add add to to our our naval naval power. power. We We should should get get better better change value value for for money money out out of of the the small small craft.”212 craft.”*’? Indeed Indeed he he does does not not appear appear to to have been been exaggerating exaggerating when when he he wrote wrote “it “it was was with with very very great great pleasure pleasure have and even even excitement excitement that that we we [the [the Board] Board] now now addressed addressed ourselves ourselves to to the the and agreeable task task of of planning planning this this enormous enormous addition addition to to the the torpedo torpedo vessels vessels agreeable fleet?“3 the fleet.”?" of the of The The sea sea lords lords disagreed disagreed only only about about the the pace pace at at which which the the battleship battleship the at the concerned at particularly concerned was particularly Moore was abandoned. Moore be abandoned. should be standard should standard Churchill Even Churchill policy. Even in policy. change in dramatic change such aa dramatic to such reaction to public reaction public explain to explain easy to be easy not be will not view will of view change of “the change that “the uneasiness that expressed uneasiness expressed the on the reflecting on extent reflecting some extent to some without to service without the service to the or to public or the public to the to Admiralty Admiralty policy policy of of former former years.”214 years.”*"* He He recognized recognized that that “the “the public public understood understood dreadnoughts dreadnoughts and and the the House House of of Commons Commons was was deeply deeply versed versed in in the the controversy controversy about about the the standard standard of of supremacy supremacy in in dreadnoughts.”215 dreadnoughts.”?"° Jellicoe, Jellicoe, on on the the other other hand, hand, predicted predicted that that the the strongest strongest resistance resistance would come come from from the the Cabinet. Cabinet. He He reflected reflected that that in in his his experience experience “it “it isis would perfectly perfectly easy easy to to devise devise aa new new standard standard and and almost almost impossible impossible to to get get aa government to to adopt adopt it.” it.” Previous Previous attempts attempts by by the the Royal Royal Navy Navy to to move move government

away from from the the battleship battleship standard standard inin 1906 1906 and and 1912-had 1912had been been opposed opposed away by by the the same same Liberal Liberal government. government. Hamilton, Hamilton, Jellicoe’s Jellicoe’s successor. successor, Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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past be past not be certainly not should certainly “it should sure “it felt sure He felt reservations. He fewer reservations. expressed expressed fewer

although which, although comparison which, of comparison standard of new standard conceive aa new to conceive man to of man the wit of the wit be will be standard, will arithmetical standard, present arithmetical the present of the simplicity of the simplicity itit may lack the may lack public.”216 the public.”?"° of the comprehension of the comprehension beyond the not beyond and not valuable and really more valuable really more in was in “Battenberg was that “Battenberg Fisher that to Fisher reported to Churchill reported 1914, Churchill May 1914, In May In was Jellicoe that but battleship,” a for submarines substituting of favour of substituting submarines for a battleship,” but that Jellicoe was favour not was not Jellicoe was misleading. Jellicoe was misleading. however, was report, however, This report, idea?17 This the idea.?"” against the against see to wanted he rather, submarines; more of building of more submarines; rather, he wanted to see the building to the opposed to opposed dreadCanadian-funded dreadof aa Canadian-funded place of in place Canada in in Canada built in be built could be they could first ifif they first extracting of chance greater far a was there thought Jellico nought. nought. Jellico thought there was a far greater chance of extracting aa subbuild subto build them to asking them by asking defense by imperial defense to imperial contribution to Canadian contribution Canadian batfor paying of instead yards own their in Navy Royal the for marines marines for the Royal Navy in their own yards instead of paying for batthe thought “never Jellicoe Britain. in constructed in Britain. Jellicoe “never thought the be constructed to be tleships to tleships revealing without Churchill, fact In sound.”218 Canada to Canada sound.”?'® In fact Churchill, without revealing advice to Admiralty advice Admiralty he 1914 he March 1914 In March direction. In this direction. in this steps in taken steps already taken had already secrets, had any secrets, any maybe “It offer. Canadian offer. “It maybe the Canadian amend the to amend Borden to encouraged Borden quietly encouraged had quietly had Royal the Royal offer the to offer suggested, to had suggested, Churchill had you,” Churchill for you,” convenient for more convenient more craft” other craft” or other cruisers or into cruisers third into the third convert the and convert ships and capital ships “two capital Navy “two Navy such approve such certainly approve would certainly Admiralty would the Admiralty so, the “if so, Canada: “if in Canada: built in be built to be to visit to visit Jellicoe to for Jellicoe made for were made arrangements were July arrangements In July decision.”219 In aa decision.”?’° contribution?20 naval contribution.’ Canadian naval the Canadian for the formula for new formula discuss aa new to discuss Canada to Canada More in the More revealing revealing was was the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s reaction reaction to to the the publication publication in the Times Times of of aa letter letter by by Adm. Adm. Sir Sir Percy Percy Scott, Scott, in in which which he he claimed claimed that that batbathistorians Previously, historians submarines?21 Previously, of submarines.”' age of the age in the obsolete in were obsolete tleships were tleships have used Scott’s letter as evidence to support the argument that have used Scott’s letter as evidence to support the argument that prior prior to to conservative, with filled been had Admiralty the war, of outbreak the the outbreak of war, the Admiralty had been fiiled with conservative, given not given had not who had Scott) who maverick Scott) the maverick (unlike the officers (unlike unimaginative officers unimaginative story true The submarines?22 of potential the to consideration proper proper consideration to the potential of submarines.’ The true story isis quite different. different. The The Admiralty Admiralty were were quietly quietly furious furious with with Scott Scott for for having having quite given rival powers any hint of current thinking in Britain on this subject. given rival powers any hint of current thinking in Britain on this subject. They They had had hoped hoped that that the the suddenness suddenness and and unexpectedness unexpectedness of of the the sudden sudden change in in policy policy would would “paralyse” “paralyse” Britain’s Britain’s naval naval rivals. rivals. AS As Churchill Churchill put put change it: it: “[I] “{I] intended intended to to let let the the Germans Germans lay lay down down and and be be thoroughly thoroughly commitcommitted ted to to their their whole whole dreadnought dreadnought programme programme for for the the year, year, so so that that we we should should be given given the the advantage advantage of of the the change change at at any any rate rate for for aa year year before before be them.”223 “Percy “Percy Scott Scott has has banged banged the the door door on on Borden Borden II fear!” fear!” complained complained them.””?. Fisher Fisher in in a a letter letter to to Churchill Churchill dated dated 7 7 June; June; “it “it is is a a great great pity pity that that this this subsubmarine marine scare scare has has prematured prematured [sic] [sic] before before a a bit bit more more Austrian Austrian and and Italian Italian dreadnoughts dreadnoughts were were laid laid down.”224 down.” Several Several days days later, later, however, however, Fisher Fisher appeared appeared slightly slightly less less annoyed annoyed when when he he reported reported to to Julian Julian Corbett: Corbett:

conversation three three days days ago ago with with Winston Winston Churchill Churchill as as to to Percy Percy Scott's Scott’s aa conversation effusion. He angry, but I told him providence has helped and helped along and come along has come gitlilil‘téemtpbiit.lantuldlhimeuaeaidence tiaziietifr‘lttfteiittii

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England England as as usual. usual. The The effect effect of of Percy Percy Scott’s Scott’s diatribe diatribe has has been been to to besmirch besmirch unjustly the the submarine submarine .. .. .. so so the the Triple Triple alliance alliance will will lavish lavish their their money money on on unjustly vessels vessels that that will will be be securely securely blockaded blockaded by by our our submarines, submarines, as as the the Mediterranean Mediterranean and and the the North North Sea Sea will will be be securely securely locked locked up.225 up.2”

On On 12 12 July, July, Churchill Churchill sent sent the the sea sea lords lords aa memorandum memorandum for for discussion discussion at the next meeting of the Board of Admiralty to be convened the followfollowat the next meeting of the Board of Admiralty to be convened the ing ing Wednesday. Wednesday. “I “I am am convinced convinced the the time time has has come come for for action,” action,” he he wrote wrote in in a a covering covering letter letter sent sent to to Battenberg, Battenberg, “the “the steps steps are are serious serious but but II do do not not feel feel any any anxiety anxiety about about taking taking them. them. They They will will add add greatly greatly to to the the power power of of the the fleet fleet and and bring bring great great credit credit to to all all associated associated with with them.”226 them.” The The enclosed enclosed paper paper set set out out in in detail detail the the amended amended 1914—1 1914-155 construction construction proprogram. gram. Gone Gone was was the the Resistance Resistance and and gone gone was was the the Agincourt Agincourt :: in in their their places places were were twenty twenty submarines. submarines. On On 29 29 July, July, the the Admiralty Admiralty placed placed concontracts tracts with with Armstrong Armstrong and and Coventry Coventry Ordnance Ordnance to to supply supply big-gun big-gun mountmountings ings for for just just two two capital capital ships.227 ships.””’ This This evidence evidence is is conclusive. conclusive. Big-gun Big-gun mounting mounting had had to to be be ordered ordered at at least least nine nine months months before before the the ship ship that that was was intended intended to to receive receive them them was was laid laid down. down. There There was was no no time time for for the the revolution revolution in in British British naval naval policy policy to to become become apparent apparent to to all. all. On On 4 4 August August 1914, 1914, Britain Britain declared declared war war on on Germany. Germany.

Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, httpszl/hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

Downloaded on behalf of Digital Theological Library, Claremont, CA

Appendix 11 Appendix Expenditure, 1889-1914 Naval Expenditure, Naval 1889-1914 Years Years

Naval Naval

Estimates Estimates (Net (Net Naval Naval Spending) Spending)

Gross Gross Naval Naval %Age %Age Spending Spending on on %Age %Age Spending Spending on on %Age %Age Spending Spending %Age %Age of Shipbuilding, of Naval oi" Personnel of of Shipbuilding, of Naval Works Works of Personnel of Add’l Vote Gross Add’! Repairs, Repairs, and and Gross Gross Vote 19+ 10+ Gross Votes Votes 1,2, 1,2, Gross Gross Maintenance NBA 7, 1 3, 114° 4‘ Maintenance NDA 7,13, Votes 8+9? 8+92 Votes

Expenditure' Expenditure'

1889—1890 1889-1890

13,643,968 13,643,968

15,588,502 15,588,502

14 14

6,460,001 6,460,001

41 41

437,316 437,316

3 3

6,374,311 6,374,311

41 41

1890—1891 1890-1891

13,910,732 13,910,732

18,061,816 18,061,816

30 30

6,676,628 6,676,628

37 37

411,563 411,563

2 2

6,640,375 6,640,375

37 37

1891-1892 1891-1892

14,278,049 14,278,049

18,150,638 18,.150.638

27 27

6,746,216 6,746,216

37 37

385,762 385,762

2 2

6,912,539 6,912,539

38 38

1892-1893 1892-1893

14,325,948 14,325,948

17,402,741 17,402,741

21, 21

6,635,612 6,635,612

38 38

413,739 413,739

2 2

7,116,460 7,116,460

41 41

1893-1894 1893-1894

14,306,546 14,306,546

16,327,641 16,327,641

14 14

6,357,457 6,357,457

39 39

397,149 397,149

2 2

7,343,120 7,343,120

45 45

1894-1895 1894-1895

17,642,424 17,642,424

18,595,685 18,595,685

5 9

9,113,968 9,113,968

49 49

654.675 654.675

4 4

7,588,186 7,588,186

41 41

1895—1896 1895-1896

19,637,238 19,637,238

21,264,377 21,264,377

8 8 10,934,554 10,934,554

51 51

1,176,501 1,176,501

6 6

7,934,887 7,934,887

37 37

1896—1897 1896-1897

22,271,901 22,271,901

23,886,177 23,886,177

7 7 13,215,564 13,215,564

55 55

1,177,890 1,177,890

5 5

8,234,668 8,234,668

34 34

1897—1898 1897-1898

20,848,863 20,848,863

22,547,844 22,547,844

88 11,239,225 11,239,225

50 50

1,337,863 1,337,863

6 6

8,594,869 8,594,869 38 38

1898-1899 1898-1899

23,880,875 23,880,875

26,145,598 26,145,598

9 9 13,462,803 13,462,803

51 51

1,958,581 1,958,581

7 7

9,355,440 9,355,440

1899—1900 1899-1900

25,731,220 25,731,220

28,478,842 28,478,842

11 11

15,043,853 15,043,853

53 53

2,265,471 2,265,471

8 8

9,771,314 9,771,314

34 34

1900—1901 1900-1901

29,998,529 29,998,529

33,302,260 33,302,260

11 11

18,411,543 18,411,543

55 55

3,021,126 3,021,126

9 9 10,147,182 10,147,182

30 30

36 36

1901-1902 1901-1902

30,981,315 30,981,315

34,994,553 34,994,553

13 13

19,114,676 19,114,676

55 55

3,627,696 3,627,696

10 10 10,511,508 10,511,508

30 30

1902—1903 1902-1903

31,003,977 31,003,977

35,525,731 35,525,731

15 15 18,573,040 18,573,040

52 52

3,988,937 3,988,937

11 11

31 31

10,971,611 10,971,611

1903—1904 1903-1904

35,709,577 35,709.577

40,503,873 40,503,873

13 13 22,360,630 22,360,630

55 55

4,230,042 4,230,042

10 10 11,683,599 11,683,599 29 29

1904—1905 1904-1905

36,859,681 36,859,681

41,696,313 41,696,313

13 13 22,575,297 22,575,297

54 54

4,353,334 4,353,334

10 10 12,275,095 12,275,095

29 29

1905—1906 1905-1906

33,151,841 33,151,841

38,175,045 38,175,045

15 15

50 50

4,127,064 4,127,064

11 11 12,012,387 12,012,387

31 31

19,059,433 19,059,433

1906—1907 1906-1907

31,472,087 31,472,087

35,693,850 35,693,850

13 13 17,658,932 17,658,932

49 49

3,133,789 3,133,789

9 9 12,047,839 12,047,839

34 34

1907—1908 1907-1908

31,251,156 31,251,156

33,950,169 33,950,169

9 9 16,368,536 16,368,536

48 48

2,377,186 2,377,186

7 7 12,247,174 12,247,174

36 36

1908—1909 1908-1909

32,181,309 32,181,309

34,775,752 34,775,752

8 8 16,974,653 16,974,653

49 49

1,899,237 1,899,237

5 9 12,043,061 12,043,061

37 37

1909-1910 1909-1910

35,734,015 35,734,015

37,385,460 37,385,460

5 5 19,784,032 19,784,032

53 53

1,388,643 1,388,643

4 4 13,055,683 13,055,683

35 35

1910-1911 1910-1911

40,419,336 40,419,336

43,903,499 43,903,499

9 9 24,064,361 24,064,361

55 55

1,716,113 1,716,113

4 4 13,414,318 13,414,318

31 31

1911-1912 1911-1912

42,414,257 42,414,257

46,793,789 46,793,789

10 25,242,570 25,242,570 10

54 54

1,917,669 1,917,669

13,903,589 44 13,903,589

30 30

1912-1913 1912-1913

44,933,169 44,933,169

48,742,182 48,742,182

8 8 27,419,414 27,419,414

56 56

1,699,545 1,699,545

3 3 14,390,697 14,390,697

30 30

1913—1914 1913-1914

48,732,621 48,732,621

52,920,960 92,920,960

29,792,872 99 29,792,872

56 56

2,241,338 2,241,338

15,235,171 44 15,235,171

29 29

Source: Source: Jon Jon Sumida, Sumida, ln In Defence Defence of of Naval Naval Supremacy Supremacy (London, (London, 1989): 1989): appendix, appendix, tables tables 3, 3, 6, 6, 7, 7, 13 13

‘includes ‘Includes navy navy estimates, estimates, appropriations appropriations in in aid, aid, and and naval naval loans; loans; see see Sumida, Sumida, table table 3. 3. 2includes Includes vote vote 8 8 (shipbuilding, (shipbuilding, repairs, repairs, and and maintenance), maintenance), and and vote vote 9 9 (naval (naval armaments). armaments). 3includes 3Includes navy navy estimates, estimates, vote vote 10 10 (works); (works); appropriations appropriations in in aid; aid; Naval Naval Works Works Act Act see see

table 7.7. Sumida, table Sumida, 13 vote 13 reserve), vote (naval reserve), vote 77 (naval (victuals), vote vote 22 (victuals), (pay), vote vote 11 (pay), 4includes vote ‘Includes

(half-pay), (half-pay), and and vote vote 14 14 (pensions) (pensions) see see Sumida Sumida tables tables 12 12 and and 13. 13.

Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

Downloaded on behalf of Digital Theological Library, Claremont, CA

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Appendix Appendix 33 Royal Royal Navy Navy Personnel Personnel

Quarter Each Quarter Reserve Each and Reserve Commission and In Commission Crews in Crews Year Year

A A Numbers Numbers

B B Allocated Allocated

C C Col. BB Col.

D D RN Manning RN Manning

F G EKE F G All Manning All All Manning Manning All Manning Manning Manning

Borne Borne

to Ships Ships to

as %% as

Shlps in in Ships

RN Ships Shlps RN

Shlps at at Ships

Ships Ships

Active Active

in Comm’n Comm’n in

Col. AA Col.

Comm’n Comm’n

ln Reserve Reserve in

llome Home

Overseas Overseas

Service Service

or in In or

RN RN Personnel Personnel

1897/1 1897/1 1897/2 1897/2

88,792 88,792 94,467 94,467

57,542 65 54,980 97,042 65 04,980 60,431 64 57,767 60,431 64 07,767 1897/3 94,467 62,411 66 60,923 1897/3 94,467 62,411 66 60,923 60,219 67 63,413 94,467 1897/4 1897/4 94,467 63,413 67 60,219 60,814 68 64,070 94,467 1898/1 1898/1 94,467 64,070 68 60,814 61,533 65 65,008 99,999 1898/2 1898/2 99,999 65,008 65 61,533 1898/3 99,999 66,934 67 63,724 1898/3 99,999 66,934 67 63,724 63,394 67 66,750 99,999 1898/4 1898/4 99,999 66,750 67 63,394 1899/1 99,999 67,628 68 63,826 1899/1 99,999 67,628 68 63,826 66,011 66 69,591 105,924 1899/2 1899/2 105,924 69,991 66 66,011 1899/3 105,924 71,160 67 67,774 1899/3 105,924 71,160 67 67,774 65,567 65 69,176 105,924 1899/4 1899/4 105,924 69,176 65 65,567 1900/1 105,924 70,130 66 67,058 1900/1 105,924 70,130 66 67,058 1900/2 110,978 72,552 65 69,650 1900/2 110,978 72,052 65 69,650 1900/3 110,978 73,133 66 70,364 1900/3 110,978 73,133 66 70,364 72,683 68 75,676 110,978 1900/4 1900/4 110,978 79,676 68 72,683 1901/1 110,978 76,421 69 73,714 1901/1 110,978 76,421 69 73,714 76,066 69 78,724 113,589 1901/2 1901/2 113,589 78,724 69 76,066 76,762 69 78,897 113,589 1901/3 1901/3 113,589 78,897 69 76,762 76,008 69 78,112 113,589 1901/4 113,589 78,112 69 76,008 1901/4 77,474 70 79,041 113,589 1902/1 113,589 79,041 70 17,474 1902/1 77,843 67 79,604 1 18,884 1902/2 1902/2 118,884 79,604 67 17,843 78,707 67 80,245 118,884 1902/3 1902/3 118,884 80,245 67 18,707 78,319 67 80,041 118,884 1902/4 1902/4 118,884 80,041 67 78,319 78,574 68 80,282 118,884 1903/1 118,884 80,282 68 18,574 1903/1 79,056 65 81,229 124,413 1903/2 1903/2 124,413 81,229 65 79,056 79,600 65 80,603 124,413 1903/3 1903/3 124,413 80,603 65 79,600 80,024 65 81,439 124,413 1903/4 =124,413 81,439 65 80,024 1903/4 82,209 67 83,940 124,413 1904/1 1904/1 124,413 83,940 67 82,209 84,534 67 85,929 128,270 1904/2 128,270 85,929 67 84,534 1904/2 84,797 68 86,737 128,270 1904/3 128,270 86,737 68 84,797 1904/3 84,074 67 86,431 128,270 1904/4 1904/4 128,270 86,431 67 84,074 78,278 67 85,326 128,270 1905/1 1905/1 128,270 85,326 67 78,278 75,074 64 83,855 130,078 1905/2 130,078 83,859 64 75,074 1905/2 76,390 66 85,891 130,078 1905/3 1905/3 130,078 85,891 66 76,390 76,282 68 88,789 130,078 1905/4 1905/4 130,078 88,789 68 76,282 77,221 68 88,380 130,078 1906/1 1906/1 130,078 88,380 68 77,221 79,029 71 90,922 127,366 1906/2 1906/2 127,366 90,922 71 79,029 74, 846 68 87, 238 127, 366 1906/3 127,366 87,238 68 74,846 1906/3 Eagnbekrl,QGWASliJrjofhsflgflégfifiJ/PRevolugaég,00 1906/4 127,366 88,001 69 t/2027/74,633 DoxfiloiébWieha‘if013273118313???$4,211,121T869 13???? 1907/1 127,366 87,600 69 73,245

2,562 2,062 2,664 2,664

27,606 27,606 26,217 26,217

29,303 29,303 30,130 30,130

1,488 1,488 3,194 3,194 3,256 3,256 3,475 3,475 3,210 3,210 3,356 3,356 3,802 3,802 3,580 3,080 3,386 3,386 3,609 3,609 3,072 3,072 2,902 2,902 2,769 2,769 2,993 2,993 2,707 2,107 2,658 2,658 2,135 2,135 2,104 2,104 1,567 1,067 1,761 1,761 1,538 1,538 1,722 1,722 1,708 1,708 2,173 2,173 1,003 1,003 1,415 1,415 1,731 1,731 1,395 1,395 1,940 1,940 2,357 2,307

28,998 28,998 28,238 28,238 27,079 27,079 27,488 27,488 27,144 27,144 29,161 29,161 28,972 28,972 29,687 29,687 29,764 29,764 29,224 29,224 28,592 28,592 31,610 31,610 32,903 32,903 33,652 33,652 32,755 32,755 32,971 32,971 34,273 34,273 33,913 33,913 35,218 35,218 36,033 36,033 36,322 36,322 36,277 36,277 37,086 37,086 37,447 37,447 37,621 37,621 38,013 38,013 39,487 39,487 40,813 40,813 41,550 41,550 42,915 42,915

29,228 29,228 30,703 30,703 30,962 30,962 31,779 31,779 33,455 33,455 33,597 33,997 34,176 34,176 34,397 34,397 33,941 33,941 35,121 35,121 35,451 35,451 35,352 35,352 36,383 36,383 38,482 38,482 39,245 39,245 39,992 39,992 39,641 39,641 39,879 39,879 40,764 40,764 40,294 40,294 41,973 41,973 41,417 41,417 41,328 41,328 40,980 40,980 39,909 39,909 39,160 39,160 40,806 40,806 40,948 40,948 41,802 41,802 40,838 40,838

7,048 7,048 8,781 8,781 9,501 9,501 12,507 12,507 11,159 11,159 11,893 11,893 12,392 12,392

34,760 34,760 39,742 39,742

44,693 44,693 41,908 41,908

40,620 40,620 42,001 42,001 43,013 43,013 45,017 45,017 46,348 46,348

40,581 40,981 42,459 42,459 40,966 40,966 40,055 40,055 38,364 38,364

13,368 13,368

47,477 47,477

38,881 38,881

14,355 14,355

49,154 49,154

37,109 37,109

308 308

Appendixes Appendixes

Quarter" Each Quarter* Reserve Each and Reserve Crews Commission and in Commission Crews in Year Year

AA BB to Allocated to Borne _ Allocated Numbers Borne Numbers

CC Col. BB Col.

Active Service Active Service

Warships Warships

of as %% of as

Personnel Personnel

Comm’n In Comm'n in

Col. AA Col.

DD EE Ships Manning Ships Ships Manning Manning Ships Manning

Home at Home at

Overseas Overseas

55,670 59,670 58,816 08,816 58,660 08,660 56,823 06,823 57,325 07,320 57,601 57,601 57,162 07,162 57,354 57,354 56,015 06,015 56.224 06,224 56,240 06,240 56,522 06,022 56,775 06,775 57,813 07,813 58,312 08,312 58,384 08,384 57,970 07,970 58,412 08,412 58,747 08,747 59,361 09,361 57,957 07,997

34,079 34,079 33,695 33,695 33,552 33,552 33,647 33,647 33,349 33,349 33,070 33,070 32,915 32,915 32,876 32,876 33,484 33,484 33,738 33,738 34,923 34,923 34,935 34,935 34,320 34,320 33,975 33,975 33,294 33,294 33,790 33,790 33,720 33,720 34,074 34,074 33,787 33,787 33,791 33,791 34,102 34,102

Reserve in Reserve or in or

1907/2 1907/2 1907/3 1907/3 1907/4 1907/4 1908/1 1908/1 1908/2 1908/2 1908/3 1908/3 1908/4 1908/4 1909/1 1909/1 1909/2 1909/2 1909/3 1909/3 1909/4 1909/4 1910/1 1910/1 1910/2 1910/2 1910/3 1910/3 1910/4 1910/4 1911/1 1911/1 1911/2 1911/2 1911/3 1911/3 1911/4 1911/4 1912/1 1912/1 1912/2 1912/2

127,028 127,028 127,028 127,028 127,028 127,028 127,028 127,028 127,534 127,534 127,534 127,534 127,534 127,534 127,534 127,534 126,935 126,935 126,935 126,935 126,935 126,935 126,935 126,935 128,871 128,871 128,871 128,871 128,871 128,871 128,871 128,871 131,871 131,871 131,871 131,871 131,871 131,871 131,871 131,871 133,698 133,698

92,532 92,532 93,262 93,262 93,436 93,436 92,451 92,451 93,165 93,165 92,351 92,351 91,787 91,787 92,174 92,174 93,983 93,983 93,751 93,751 92,873 92,873 93,206 93,206 93,750 93,750 93,593 93,593 94,989 94,989 94,645 94,645 94,174 94,174 94,469 94,469 94,693 94,693 96,124 96,124 94,732 94,732

73 73 73 13 74 74 73 73 73 73 72 72 72 72 72 72 74 74 74 74 73 73 73 73 73 73 73 73 74 74 73 73 71 71 72 72 72 72 73 73 71 71

*After *After the the 1907 1907 Home Home Fleet Fleet reforms, reforms, for for statistical statistical purposes purposes the the distinction distinction between between warships in in commission commission and and warships warships in in reserve reserve was was abolished. abolished. warships

Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Appendix 44 Appendix Royal Navy Navy Personnel Personnel Royal Distribution Distribution by by Ship Ship Type Type Year Year

A A Men Men In in Ships Ships

B B Men Men Forming Forming Crews Crews for for ShIps Ships In in Conun'n Comm’n

C C Men Men Formlng Forming Crews Crews for for Ships Ships In in Reserve Reserve

D D Crews Crews for for BattleBattleships ships In in Comm’n Comm’n

E F E F Crews Crews Crews Crews for [or all for BB BB forall In BB in BB as as 96 % Reserve of CoI.A Keserve of Col.A

G G Crews Crews for for Cruisers Cruisers In in Comm'n Comm'n

II II JJ K L H K L Crews Crews Crews Crews Crews Crews Crews Crews Crews Crews for for for for for for CC CC for all all for for FF FF for all all In CC In l-‘F in CC as as 96 % Flotilla Flotilla in FF as as Reserve of CoI.A In Reserve '16 Reserve of Col.A in Reserve % oi of Comm'n CoI.A Comm'n CoLA

1897/1 1897/1

57.542 57,542

54.980 54,980

2.562 2,062

16.428 16,428

768 768

30 30

22.191 22,191

1.475 1.475

41 41

6.154 6.154

319 319

1897/2 1897/2

60.431 60,431

57.767 57,767

2.664 2,664

16.107 16,107

818 818

28 28

23.959 1.452 23,959 1,452

42 42

6.137 6,137

394 394

11 11

1897/3 1897/3

62.411 62.411

60.923 60,923

1.488 1,488

19.236 19,236 . 662 662

32 32

24.587 24,587

613 613

40 40

5.985 5,985

213 213

10 10

11 11

1897/4 1897/4

63.413 63,413

60.219 60,219

3.194 3,194

19.759 19,759

738 738

32 32

24.427 2.059 24,427 2,059

42 42

6.564 6,564

397 397

11 11

1898/1 1898/1

64.070 64,070

60.814 60,814

3.256 3,256

19.260 19,260

861 861

31 31

24.617 1.928 24,617 1,928

41 41

6.367 6,367

467 467

11 11

1898/2 1898/2

65.008 65,008

61.533 61,533

3.475 3,475

19.538 19,538

920 920

31 31

24.892 2.052 24,892 2.052

41 41

6.350 6,350

503 503

1111

1898/3 1898/3

66.934 66,934

63.724 63,724

3.210 3.210

21.069 21,069

925 925

33 33

25.738 1.740 25,738 1,740

41 41

6.080 6,080

545 545

10 10

1898/4 1898/4

66.750 66.750

63.394 63,394

3.356 3,356

21.084 21.084

904 904

33 33

25.257 1.854 25,257 1,854

41 41

6.166 6,166

598 598

10 10

1899/1 1899/1

67.628 67628

63.826 63,826

3.802 3,802

20.576 20.576

909 909

32 32

24.872 2.332 24.872 2,332

40 40

6.534 6534

561 561

10 10

1899/2 1899/2

69.591 69,591

66.011 66,011

3.580 3,580

21.523 21,523

882 882

32 32

26.934 2.183 26,934 2,183

42 42

6.689 6,689

515 515

10 10

1899/3 1899/3

71.160 71,160

67.774 67,774

3.386 3,386

21.473 21,473

905 905

31 31

28.580 1.965 28,580 1.965

43 43

6.840 6,840

516 516

10 10

1899/4 1899/4

69.176 69.176

65.567 65,567

3.609 3,609

20.907 20,907

945 945

32 32

26.821 26,821

2.1 15 2,115

42 42

6.851 6,851

549 549

111 1

1900/1 1900/1

70.130 70,130

67.058 67,058

3.072 3,072

21.823 21,823

886 886

32 32

27.432 1.691 27,432 1,691

42 42

6.897 6,897

495 495

1111

1900/2 1900/2

72.552 72,552

69.650 69,650

2.902 2,902

23.707 23,707

809 809

34 34

27.526 1.668 27,526 1,668

40 40

7.383 7,383

425 425

1111

1900/3 1900/3

73.133 73,133

70.364 70,364

2.769 2,769

23.453 23,453

805 805

33 33

27.854 1.576 27,854 1,576

40 40

7.806 7,806

388 388

1111

1900/4 1900/4

75.676 75.676

72.683 72,683

2.993 2,993

25.105 25,105

694 694

34 34

27.545 1.956 27,945 1,956

39 39 = 8.138 8.188

343 3343

1111

1901/1 1901/1

76.421 76,421

73.714 73,714

2.707 2,707

25.398 25,398

670 670

34 34

28.526 1.671 28,526 1,671

40 40

8.138 8,138

366 366

11 11

1901/2 1901/2

78.724 78,724

76.066 76,066

2.658 2,658

24.908 24,908

869 869

33 33

30.435 1.476 30,435 1,476

41 41

7.993 7,993

313 313

111 1

1901/3 1901/3.

78.897 78,897

76.762 76,762

2.135 2,135

25.949 25,949

637 637

34 34

30.175 30,175

1.175 1,175

40 40

7.874 7,874

323 323

10 10

1901/4 1901/4

78.112 78,112

76.008 76,008

2.104 2,104

26.130 26,130

567 567

34 34

29.302 29,302

1.173 1,173

39 39

«= 7.566 7,566

364 364

10 10

1902/1 1902/1

79.041 79,041

77.474 77,474

1.567 1,567

26.100 26,100

191 191

33 33

30.666 1.037 30,666 1,037

40 40

7.734 7,734

339 339

10 10

1902/2 1902/2

79.604 79.604

77.843 77.843

1.761 1,761

27.078 27,078

294 294

34 34

29.847 29,847

1.157 1,157

39 39»

7.710 7.710

310 =—310

10 10

1902/3 1902/3

80.245 80,245

78.707 78,707

1.538 1,538

27,161 27,161

220 220

34 34

30.788 30,788

954 954

40 40

7.553 7,553

364 364

10 10

1902/4 1902/4

80.041 80,041

78.319 78,319

1.722 1,722

27.1 16 27,116

296 296

34 34

30.448 1.063 30,448 1,063

39 39 = 7.499 7.499 = 363 3363

10 10

1903/1 1903/1

80.282 80,282

78.574 78,574

1.708 1,708

26.953 26,953

212 212

34 34

30.975 1.103 30,975 1,103

40 40

7.138 7,138

39 39

.9 9

1903/2 1903/2

81.229 81,229

79.056 79,056

2.173 2,173

27.521 27,521

221 221

34 34

30.467 30,467

1.456 1,456

39 39

7.388 §=67,.388

496 §=69496

10 10

1903/3 1903/3

80.603 80,603

79.600 79,600

1.003 1,003

26.662 26,662

151 151

33 33

32.192 32,192

615 615

41 41

7.287 7,287

237 237

99

1903/4 1903/4

81.439 81,439

80.024 80,024

1.415 1,415

26.528 26,528

377 377

33 33

33.143 33,143

815 815

42 42

6.925 6,925

223 223

9 9 9 9

1904/1 1904/1

83.940 83,940

82.209 82,209

1.731 1,731

26.330 26,330

383 383

32 32

35.515 1.026 35,015 1,026

44 44

7.042 7,042

322 322

1904/2 1904/2

85.919 85,919

84.534 84,534

1.385 1,385

26.808 26,808

223 223

31 31

37.054 37,054

819 819

44 44

7.240 7,240

343 343

99

1904/3 1904/3

86.737 86,737

84.797 84,797

1.940 1,940

26.653 26,653

503 503

31 31

37.423 37,423

950 950

44 44

7.378 7,378

487 487

9 9

1904/4 1904/4

86.431 86,431

84,074 84,074

2.357 2,357

27.801 27,801

421 421

33 33

35.023 1.465 35,023 1,465

42 42

7.593 7,593

471 471

9 9

1905/1 1905/1

85.320 85,320

78.278 78,278

7.042 7,042

26.618 2.011 26,618 2,011

34 34

32.351 32.351

3.468 3,468

42 42

7.069 1.563 7,069 1,563

10 10

1905/2 1905/2

83.855 83.855

75.074 75,074

8.781 8,781

24.631 24,631

2.246 2,246

32 32

31.348 5.015 31,348 5,015

43 43

6,832 1.520 6,832 1,520

10 10

1905/3 1905/3

86.283 86,283

76.390 76,390

9.893 9,893

26.141 26,141

2.600 2,600

33 33

31.014 5.010 31,014 5,010

42 42

6.968 6,968 2.283 2,283

11 11

1905/4 1905/4

88.789 88,789

76.282 76,282

12.507 12,507

24.173 3.111 24,173 3,111

31 31

32.793 6.067 32,793 6,067

44 44

7.125 7,125 3.329 3,329

12 12

1906/1 1906/1

88.380 88,380

77.221 77,221

11.159 11,159

.24.128 3.111 24,128 3,111

31 31

34.358 5.498 34,358 5,498

45 45

7.825 7,825 2.550 2,550

12 12

1906/2 1906/2

90.922 90,922

79.029 79,029

11.893 11,893

24.865 3.102 24,865 3,102

31 31

35.904 6.051 35,904 6,051

46 46

7.531 2.740 7,531 2,740

.11 .11

1906/3 1906/3

87.238 87,238

74.846 74,846

12.392 12,392

23.490 2.618 ,23,490 2,618

30 30

32.987 7.163 32,987 7,163

46 46

7.640 7,640 2.61 2,611 1

.12 ,12

1906/4 88,001 74,633 13,368 24,443 3,149 31 32,468 7,408 3221331614.?!EffifiiiQfi’fé’iiimp’tfifléghttps.24d443d|3.4e43027me341569. 32.468 7.408 WWW??? 3319 33 30.641 8.117 1907/1 0” b33366Digi93T59i§°gici'4i§r§§/' 87,600 73,245 14,355 “3633354? 20,247 3,319 33 30,641 8,117

45 45 44 44

7,504 2.811 2,811 12 7.504 .12 7.536 12 17,536 2.919 2,919 12

310 310

Appendixes Appendixes

Reform Fleet Reform Home Fleet Post Home Type: Post Ship Type: by Ship Distribution by Distribution Year Year

AA BB Forming Service Forming Active Service Active Crews Personnel Crews Naval Personnel Naval for to Allocated to Allocated for in Ships in Ships

BattleBattle-

Comm’n Comm’n or or

ships ships

CC as %% BB as of AA of

DD Forming Forming Crews Crews for for

EE as %% DD as of AA of

FF Forming Forming for Crews for Crews Flotilla Flotilla

GG as FF as of %% of AA

45 45 46 46 45 45 45 45 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 47 47 47 47 46 46 46 46 46 46 45 45 46 46 46 46 47 47 47 47 46 46 46 46

12,486 12,486 12,058 12,058 12,187 12,187 12,148 12,148 12,119 12,119 12,197 12,197 12,345 12,345 12,126 12,126 12,518 12,518 12,417 12,417 12,593 12,593 12,570 12,570 12,719 12,719 12,618 12,618 12,575 12,575 13,703 13,703 13,887 13,887 13,742 13,742 13,696 13,696 13,872 13,872 14,916 14,916

13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 14 14 13 13 14 14 13 13 13 13 14 14 15 15 15 15 14 14 14 14 16 16

Cruisers Cruisers

Reserve Reserve

1907/2 1907/2 1907/3 1907/3 1907/4 1907/4 1908/1 1908/1 1908/2 1908/2 1908/3 1908/3 1908/4 1908/4 1909/1 1909/1 1909/2 1909/2 1909/3 1909/3 1909/4 1909/4 1910/1 1910/1 1910/2 1910/2 1910/3 1910/3 1910/4 1910/4 1911/1 1911/1 1911/2 1911/2 1911/3 1911/3 1911/4 1911/4 1912/1 1912/1 1912/2 1912/2

92,532 92,532 93,262 93,262 93,436 93,436 92,451 92,451 93,165 93,165 92,351 92,351 91,787 91,787 92,174 92,174 93,983 93,983 93,751 93,751 92,873 92,873 93,206 93,206 93,750 93,750 93,593 93,593 94,989 94,989 94,645 94,645 94,174 94,174 94,469 94,469 94,693 94,693 96,124 96,124 94,732 94,732

28,624 28,624 28,095 28,095 28,485 28,485 28,485 28,485 28,483 28,483 27,692 27,692 27,315 27,315 27,239 27,239 27,819 27,819 26,938 26,938 26,776 26,776 26,892 26,892 27,024 27,024 27,818 27,818 27,740 27,740 26,957 26,957 26,795 26,795 26,806 26,806 26,868 26,868 26,973 26,973 25,921 25,921

31 31 30 30 30 30 31 31 31 31 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 29 29 29 29 29 29 29 29 30 30 29 29 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 27 27

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41,267 41,267 42,800 42,800 42,428 42,428 41,732 41,732 42,476 42,476 42,379 42,379 42,014 42,014 42,638 42,638 42,936 42,936 43,815 43,815 43,389 43,389 43,029 43,029 43,526 43,526 42,736 42,736 43,107 43,107 43,544 43,544 43,665 43.665 44.000 44,000 44,118 44,118 44,537 44,537 43,625 43,625

Appendix Appendix 59 Personnel Navy Personnel Royal Navy Royal

Summary Summary of of Recruitment, Recruitment, 18.96 1896 1914* 1914* Year Year

Natural Natural Wastage Wastage

Total Total Recruitment Recruitment over over

Number Authorized Number Authorized of of Personnel Personnel (Vote (Vote A) A)

of Numbers of Numbers Personnel Personnel Borne at Borne at End End

or Increase or Increase (Decrease) (Decrease) over over

1896/97 1896/97 1897/98 1897/98 1898/99 1898/99 1899/00 1899/00 1900/01 1900/01 1901/02 1901/02 1902/03 1902/03 1903/04 1903/04 1904/05 1904/05 1905/06 1905/06

93,750 93,750 100,050 100,050 106,390 106,390 110,640 110,640 114,890 114,890 118,625 118,625 122,500 122,500 127,100 127,100 131,100 131,100 129,000 129,000

of of the the Fiscal Year Year Fiscal 94,467 94,467 99,999 99,999 105,924 105,924 1 10,978 110,978 113,589 113,589 118,884 118,884 124,413 124,413 128,270 128,270 130,078 130,078 127,366 127,366

Previous Previous Year Year_ —— — 5,532 5,032 5,925 9,925 5,054 9,054 2,611 2,611 5,295 9,295 5,529 9,029 3,857 3,857 1,808 1,808 (-2,712) (-2,712)

— — —— — 5.959 9,959 7,644 7,644 8,485 8,485 8,971 8,971 7,496 7,496 7,588 7,088 7,252 7,202 10,724 10,724

— — -— — 11,884 11,884 12,698 12,698 11,096 11,096 14,266 14,266 13,025 13,025 11,445 11,445 9,060 9,060 8,012 8,012

1906/07 1906/07 1907/08 1907/08 1908/09 1908/09 1909/10 1909/10 1910/11 1910/11 1911/12 1911/12 1912/13 1912/13 1913/14 1913/14

129,000 129,000 128,000 128,000 128,000 128,000 128,000 128,000 131,000 131,000 134,000 134,000 136,000 136,000 146,000 146,000

127,028 127,028 127,534 127,534 126,935 126,935 128,871 128,871 131,871 131,871 133,698 133,698 139,408 139,408 145,574 145,574

(-338) (-338) 506 506 (-599) (-599) 1,936 1,936 3,000 3,000 1,827 1,827 5,710 9,710 6,166 6,166

8,664 8,664 9,072 9,072 9,105 9,105 9,167 9,167 10,110 10,110 11,305 11,305 12,258 12,258 10,507 10,507

8,326 8,326 9,578 9,578 8,506 8,906 11,103 11,103 13,110 13,110 13,132 13,132 17,968 17,968 16,673 16,673

the the Year Year

1914." March, 1914,” 3lst March, Ending 31st Year Ending the Year for the Report for Recruiting Report RM Recruiting "RN && RM Admiralty. “RN Source: Admiralty, Source:

1906." March. 1906,” 31st March, Ending 31st Year Ending the Year for the Report for Recruiting Report RM Recruiting and“RN && RM and“RN both both P822K. P822K, [N.L.M.D.l [N.L.M.D.]

many as many year as specific year discharged inin aa specific or discharged recruited or been recruited had been men had many men how many over how mind over its mind change its could change Admiralty could *The Admiralty *The revision. to revision. subject to always subject were always borne were numbers borne the numbers result the As aa result later. As years later. five years as five as

Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

Downloaded on behalf of Digital Theological Library, Claremont, CA

31 1

311

.

Appendix Appendix 6 6 Royal Navy Navy Personnel Personnel Royal Station by Station Distribution by Distribution Year Year

AA

BB

CcC

DD

EE

Numbers Numbers Bonnie Bourne

for Crews for Crews at Ships at Ships In Home in Home

for Crews for Crews at Ships at Ships In Home in Home

as Col. B8 as Col. of %91) of Col. AA Col.

[or Crews for Crews Shlps Ships Overseas Overseas

Cm.“

Reserve 32°12

Comm’n 1897/1 88.792 25.044 1897/1 88,792 25,044 1897/2 94.507 23.553 1897/2 94,507 23,553 1897/3 94.507 27.510 1897/3 94,507 27,510 1897/4 94.507 25.044 1897/4 94,507 25.044 1898/1 94.507 23.823 1898/1 94,507 23,823 1898/2 99.999 24.013 1898/2 99,999 24,013 189813 99.999 23.934 1898/3 99,999 23,934 1898/4 99.999 25.805 1898/4 99,999 25,805 1899/1 99.999 25.170 1899/1 99,999 25.170 1899/2 105.924 26.107 1899/2 105,924 26,107 1899/3 105.924 26.378 1899/3 105,924 26,378 1899/4 105.924 25.615 1899/4 105,924 25.615 1900/1 105.924 25.520 1900/1 105,924 25,520 1900/2 1110,978 10.978 28.708 1900/2 28,708 1900/3 1110,978 10.978 30.134 1900/3 30.134 1900/4 1110,978 10.978 30.659 1900/4 30,659 1901/1 1 10.978 30.048 1901/1 110.978 30.048 1901/2 113.589 30.313 1901/2 113.589 30,313 1901/3 113.589 32.138 19013 113,589 32,138 1901/4 1113,589 13.589 31.809 1901/4 31,809 190% 113.589 33.651 1902/1 113,589 33,651 190m 1118,884 18.884 34.272 1902/2 34,272 190% 1118,884 18.884 34.784 1902/3 34,784 1902/4 1118,884 18.884 34.555 1902/4 34,555 1903/1 118.884 35.378 1903/1 118,884 35,378 1903/2 124.413 35.274 1903/2 124,413 35,274 1903/3 124.413 36.618 1903/3 124,413 36.618 1903/4 124.413 36.598 1903/4 124,413 36,598 1904/1 124.413 37.756 1904/1 124,413 37,756 190412 128.270 39.418 1904/2 128,270 39.418 1904/3 128.270 39.610 1904/3 128.270 39,610 1904/4 128.270 40.558 1904/4 128,270 40,558 1905/1 128.270 27.712 1905/1 128,270 27,712 1905/2 130.139 30.961 1905/2 130.139 30.961 1905/3 130.139 31.119 1905/3 130.139 31,119 1905/4 130.139 29.494 1905/4 130,139 29,494 1906/1 130.139 31.854 1906/1 130,139 31,854 1906/2 127.469 33.124 1906/2 127,469 33,124 1906/3 127.469 33.956 1906/3 127,469 33,956 1906/4 127.469 34.109 1906/4 127,469 34,109 1907/1 127.469 34.799 1907/1 127,469 34,799 1907/2 127.147 1907/2 127,147 1907/3 127.147 1907/3 127,147 1907/4 127.147 1907/4 127,147 1908/1 127.147 1908/1 127,147 1908/2 127.534 1908/2 127,534 1908/3 127.534 1908/3 127,534 1908/4 127.534 1908/4 127.534 1909/1 127.534 1909/1 127,534 1909/2 126.935 1909/2 126,935 1909/3 126.935 1909/3 126,935 1909/4 126.935 1909/4 126,935 1910/1 126.935 1910/1 126,935 1910/2 128.871 1910/2 128,871 1910/3 128.871 1910/3 128,871 1910/4 128.871 1910/4 128.871 191 1/1 128.871 1911/1 128,871 191 1/2 131.920 1911/2 131.920 1911/3 131.920 1911/3 131,920 191 1/4 131.920 1911/4 131,920 1912/1 131.920 1912/1 131,920 Lambert, Nicolas. 5919”) Fisheq'gglgod 1912/2 135,000 Revolution. E-book, Columbia.

,

,

2.562 2,562 2.664 2,664 11,488 .488 3.194 3,194 3.256 3.256 3.475 3.475 3.210 3,210 3.356 3,356 3.802 3,802 3.580 3,580 3.386 3,386 3.609 3,609 3.072 3,072 2.902 2.902 2.769 2.769 2.993 2,993 2.707 2.707 2.658 2.658 2.135 2,135 2.104 2,104 1.567 1.567 1.761 1,761 1.538 1.538 1.722 t,722 1.708 1,708 2.173 2.173 1.003 1,003 1.415 1,415 1.731 1,731 1.395 1.395 1.940 1.940 2.357 2,357 7.048 7,048 8.781 8.781 9.501 9,501 12.507 12,507 111.159 1.159 111,893 1.893 12.392 12,392 13.368 13.368 14.355 14,355

55.670 55,670 58.816 58.816 58.660 38,660 56.823 56,823 57.325 57,325 57.601 57,601 57.162 57.162 57.354 57,354 56.015 56.015 56.224 56,224 56.240 56,240 56.522 56,522 56.775 56,775 57.813 57.813 58.312 58,312 58.384 58,384 57.970 57,970 58.412 58,412 58.747 58.747 59.361 59,361 557,957 '9 .

Downloaded on behalf of Digital Theological Library, Claremont, CA

28 28 25 25 29 29 26 26 25 25 24 24 24 24 26 26 25 25 25 25 25 25 24 24 24 24 26 26 27 27 28 28 27 27 27 27 28 28 28 28 30 30 29 29 29 29 29 29 30 30 28 28 29 29 29 29 30 30 31 31 31 31 32 32 22 22 24 24 24 24 23 23 24 24 26 26 27 27 27 27 27 27 44 44 46 46 46 46 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 44 44 44 44 44 44 45 45 44 44 45 45 45 45 45 45 44 44 44 44 45 45 45 45 43 q

29.303 29,303 30.130 30,130 29.228 29,228 30.703 30.703 30.962 30,962 31.779 31,779 33.455 33,455 33.597 33,597 34.176 34,176 34.397 34,397 33.941 33,941 35.121 35,121 35.451 35,451 35.352 35.352 36.383 36,383 38.482 38,482 39.245 39,245 39.992 39,992 39.641 39,641 39.879 39,879 40.764 40,764 40.294 40,294 41.973 41,973 41.417 41,417 41.328 41,328 40.980 40.980 39.909 39.909 39.160 39,160 40.806 40,806 40.948 40.948 41.802 41,802 40.838 40,838 44.693 44,693 41.908 41,908 40.803 40,803 42.793 42,793 41.325 41,325 40.263 40,263 38.390 38,390 39.036 39,036 37.264 37,264 34.267 34,267 33.897 33,897 33.754 33,754 33.849 33,849 33.551 33,551 33.304 33.304 33.149 33.149 33.068 33.068 33.676 33,676 33.944 33,944 35.129 35,129 35.155 35,155 34.554 34,554 34.224 34,224 33.543 33.543 34.038 34,038 33.968 33,968 34.322 34,322 34.035 34,035 34.040 34,040 34.35] 34,351

FF

GC

01 East of as East Col. E Eas Col. Suez or %91. of Suez Col. AA Col.

33 33 32 32 31 31 32 32 33 33 32 32 33 33 34 34 34 34 32 32 32 32 33 33 33 33 32 32 33 33 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 36 36 34 34 35 35 35 35 35 35 33 33 32 32 31 31 33 33 32 32 33 33 32 32 35 35 32 32 31 31 33 33 32 32 32 32 30 30 31 31 29 29 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 27 27 27 27 28 28 28 28 27 27 27 27 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 25 25

10.987 10,987 10.931 10.931 10.896 10,896 111,363 1.363 12.322 12,322 12.335 12,335 13.817 13,817 13.837 13,837 13.877 13.877 13.770 13,770 13.892 13,892 14.123 14.123 14.133 14,133 14.176 14.176 14.255 14,255 16.851 16,851 17.819 17,819 18.515 18.515 17.513 17,513 17.632 17,632 17.813 17,813 16.950 16.950 16.534 16,534 15.693 15,693 15.663 15,663 15.379 15.379 15.436 15.436 15.489 15,489 16.359 16,359 16.443 16.443 16.240 16,240 16.375 16.375 13.966 13,966 13.903 13,903 12.103 12,103 10.591 10.591 10.644 10,644 10.097 10,097 10.386 10.386 10.409 10,409 10.242 10,242 10.474 10.474 10.581 10.581 10.581 10,581 10.476 10,476 10.476 10,476 10.376 10,376 10.230 10,230 10.230 10,230 10.31 10,311 1 10.530 10,530 10.530 10,530 10.530 10,530 10.650 10.650 10.576 10,576 9.895 9,895 10.384 10.384 10.301 10,301 10.229 10.229 10.229 10,229 10.313 10.313 10.518 10,518

HII

II

Med’n Med’n Fleet Fleet

Atlantic Atlantic Fleet Fleet

111,307 1.307 12.129 12,129 111,588 1.588 111,957 1 .957 111,482 1.482 12.242 12,242 12.397 12,397 12.349 12,349 13.153 13,153 13.211 13,211 12.735 12,735 13.673 13.673 14.147 14,147 14.246 14,246 14.942 14,942 14.195 14,195 14.407 14,407 14.358 14,358 15.056 15,056 15.444 15,444 16.283 16,283 16.726 16,726 18.905 18,905 18.963 18,963 18.841 18,841 18.977 18,977 18.067 18,067 17.265 17,265 18.001 18,001 18.059 18,059 19.128 19,128 18.029 18,029 17.075 17,075 12.817 12,817 12.455 12,455 13.385 13,385 12.662 12,662 12.937 12,937 111,565 1.565 12.307 12,307 12.171 12.171 10.389 10,389 10.449 10,449 10.449 10,449 10.429 10,429 10.189 10,189 10.183 10,183 10.183 10,183 10.151 10,151 10.137 10,137 10.135 10,135 10.873 10,873 10.872 10,872 10.133 10,133 10.058 10,058 10.058 10,058 10.069 10,069 10.078 10,078 10.081 10,081 10.081 10,081 9.360 9,360 10.126 10,126

— _— — _— —_— — _— — — — _— — _ — _ — — — _ — _ — _— — — — _— — — — _— — —_ —— _— — — -— _— — _— — _ — _— — — — _ — —_ —— _— — — — — — _— — — — —_ 10,294 10,294 10.81 10.811 1 11.531 11,531 13.351 13,351 12.413 12,413 12.041 12,041 111,929 1.929 12.016 12,016 10.822 10,822 9.665 9,665 8.922 8,922 8.779 8,779 8.779 8,779 8.615 8,615 8.661 8.661 8.652 8,652 8,648 8.648 9.219 9,219 9.233 9,233 9.221 9,221 9.234 9,234 9.228 9,228 9.042 9,042 9.042 9,042 9.034 9,034 9.038 9,038 9,414 9.414 9,127 9.127 9,038 9.038 9.101 9,101

Notes Notes Introduction Introduction 1. 1. Arthur Arthur J. J. Marder, Marder, A A History History of of British British Naval Naval Policy Policy in in the the PrePreDreadnought Dreadnought Era, Era, 1880—1905 1880-1905 (London, (London, 1940; 1940; reprint, reprint, Hamdon, Hamdon, CT: CT: Archon Archon Press, Press, 1964; 1964; hereafter hereafter cited cited as as Anatomy); Anatomy); Arthur Arthur J. J. Marder, Marder, From From the the Dreadnought Dreadnought to to Scapa Scapa Flow: Flow: The The Road Road to to War, War, first first of of 5 5 vols. vols. (Oxford. (Oxford, 1961-1970; 1961-1970; hereafter hereafter cited cited as as FDSF). FDSF). See See also also commentaries commentaries in in Arthur Arthur J. J. Marder, Marder, Fear Fear God God and and Dread Dread Nought: Nought: The The Correspondence Correspondence of of Admiral Admiral of of the the Fleet Fleet Lord Lord Fisher Fisher of of Kilverstone, Kilverstone, 3 3 vols. vols. (London, (London, 1952—1959; 1952-1959; hereafter hereafter cited cited as as FGDN). FGDN). 2. 2. George George Monger, Monger, The The End End of of Isolation: Isolation: British British Foreign Foreign Policy, Policy, 1900—1907 1900-1907 (London, (London, 1963); 1963); Zara Zara Steiner, Steiner, Britain Britain and and the the Origins Origins of of the the First First World World War War (London, (London, 1977); 1977); Samuel Samuel Williamson, Williamson, The The Politics Politics of of Grand Grand Strategy,Strategy; Britain Britain and and France France Prepare Prepare for for War, War, 1994—1914 1994-1914 (pbk. (pbk. ed., ed., 1990; 1990; first first pub. pub. Cambridge, Cambridge, Mass., 1969); 1969); Paul Paul Kennedy, Kennedy, The The Rise Rise of of the the Anglo-German Anglo-German Antagonism, Antagonism, Mass, 1860—1914 1860-1914 (London, (London, 1980). 1980). 3. 3. Paul Paul Kennedy, Kennedy, The The Rise Rise and and Fall Fall of of British British Naval Naval Mastery Mastery (London. (London, 1976); Paul Paul Kennedy, Kennedy, The The Rise Rise and and Fall Fall of of the the Great Great Powers 1976); Powers (London, (London, 1980); 1980); Paul Kennedy, Kennedy, “Strategy “Strategy versus versus Finance Finance in in Twentieth Twentieth Century Century Great Great Britain,” Britain,” Paul International International History History Review, Review, 33 (1981): (1981): 45-52; 45—52; Aaron Aaron Friedberg, Friedberg, The The Weary Weary Titan: Titan: Britain Britain and and the the Experience Experience of of Relative Relative Decline Decline (New (New Jersey, Jersey, 1988); 1988); Paul Paul J. J. Cain Cain and and Anthony Anthony G. G. Hopkins, Hopkins, British British Imperialism.Imperialism: Innovation Innovation and and Expansion, Expansion, 1688-1914 1688—1914 (New (New York, York, 1993), 1993), 450-52. 450—52. Britain,” Great Britain,” Century Great 4. Twentieth Century in Twentieth Finance in versus Finance “Strategy versus Kennedy, “Strategy 4. Kennedy, 46. 46. Oo. 5. Kennedy, Kennedy, British British Naval Naval Mastery, Mastery, 245. 245. and Technology and Finance, Technology 6. Supremacy: Finance, Naval Supremacy: of Naval Defence of In Defence Sumida, In Jon T.T. Sumida, 6. Jon

Naval Naval Policy, Policy, 1889-1914 1889-1914 (London, (London, 1989). 1989). 7.7. See See Appendix, Appendix, table table 1.1. questhe quesand the 1907, and of 1907, 8. Conference of Hague Conference “The Hague Mahan, “The Alfred Mahan, Captain Alfred 8. Captain tion tion of of immunity immunity for for belligerent belligerent merchant merchant shipping,” shipping,” National National Review Review July July 1907. 1907, 49. 49. Ii am am indebted indebted to to Professor Professor Jon Jon Sumida Sumida for for rediscovering rediscovering this this quote quote for for me. me.

9. Friedberg, Friedberg, Weary Weary Titan, Titan, 168—74; 168-74; Marder, Marder, FDSF, FDSF, 1,I, 5—6, 5-6, 11—12, 11-12, 25—26, 25-26, 9. 254—72. 105-10; Mastery, 254-72. Naval Mastery, British Naval Kennedy, British 105—10; Kennedy, 10. Marder, Marder, Anatomy, Anatomy, 456—14. 456-14. 10.

11. Arthur Arthur Marder Marder first first coined coined this this phrase phrase in in 1952. 1952. See See FGDN, FGDN, l,I, 147. 147. He He 11. used it again in 1962 in FDSF, 6. FDSF, I,l, 6. Lambusedaitiegainemawzuin E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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313

3.13

314 314

Notes Notes to to Pages Pages 6—21 6-21

12. 12. Marder, Marder, FDSF, FDSF, l, IJ, 367. 367. 13. 13. Nicholas Nicholas Lambert, Lambert, “Economy “Economy or or Empire; Empire; the the Quest Quest for for Collective Collective Security Security in in the the Pacific, Pacific, 1909—1914,” 1909-1914,” in in Keith Keith Neilson Neilson and and Greg Greg Kennedy Kennedy eds., eds., Far Far Flung Flung Lines.Lines: Essays Essays in in Honour Honour of of Donald Donald Mackenzie Mackenzie Shurman Shurman (London, (London, 1996), 1996), 55—83. 55-83. 14. 14. Further Further details details of of Fisher’s Fisher’s radical radical tactical tactical theory theory can can be be found found in in Lambert, Lambert, “Economy “Economy or or Empire." Empire.” 15. 15. Jon Jon Sumida, Sumida, “Sir “Sir John John Fisher Fisher and and the the Dreadnought: Dreadnought: The The Sources Sources of of Naval Naval Mythology,” Mythology,” The The Journal Journal of of Military Military History, History, 59 59 (October (October 1995): 1995): 619-38; 619-38: and and Nicholas Nicholas Lambert, Lambert, “Admiral “Admiral Sir Sir John John Fisher Fisher and and the the Concept Concept of of Flotilla Flotilla Defence. Defence, 1904-1910,” 1904-1910,” The The Journal Journal of of Military Military History, History, 59 59 (October (October 1995): 1995): 639-60. 639-60. 16. 16. Keith Keith Neilson, Neilson, Britain Britain and and the the Last Last Tsar: Tsar: British British Policy Policy and and Russia, Russia, 1894—1917 1894-1917 (Oxford, (Oxford, 1996). 1996). 17. 17. Jon Jon Sumida Sumida and and David David Rosenberg, Rosenberg, “Machines, “Machines, Men, Men, Manufacturing, Manufacturing, Management Management and and Money: Money: The The Study Study of of Navies Navies as as Complex Complex Organisations Organisations and and the the Transformatio Transformationn of of Twentieth Twentieth Century Century Naval Naval History,” History,” in in John John Hattendorf Hattendorf ed., ed.. Doing Doing Naval Naval History: History: Essays Essays Towards Towards Improvement Improvement (Newport, (Newport, 1995), 1995), 25—39. 25-39. 18. 18. Sumida, Sumida, In /n Defence, Defence, chapters chapters 2—4. 2—4. ,| 19. 19. Charles Charles H. H. Fairbanks, Fairbanks, “The “The Origins Origins of of the the Dreadnought Dreadnought Revolution: Revolution: A A Historiographic Historiographicalal Essay, Essay,” ” International International History History Review, Review, 13/2 13/2 (May (May 1991 1991):): 246—72. 246-72.

Chapter Chapter One: One: The The Price Price of of Naval Naval Supremacy Supremacy 1. 1. Parliamentary Parliamentary Debates, Debates, vol. vol. 333 333 (1889) (1889) Hamilton, Hamilton, 7 7 Mar Mar 1889. 1889. 2. 2. Paul Paul Kennedy, Kennedy, British British Naval Naval Mastery, Mastery, 1—11, 1-11, 183—84, 183-84, 201—7, 201-7, 209-11, 209-11, 227-28. 227-28. 3. 106. 88, 106. Anatomy, 88, Marder, Anatomy, 3. Marder, 4. 6. Defence, 6. In Defence, Sumida, In 4. Sumida, 5. oO. Sir Sir Thomas Thomas Brassey, Brassey, The The British British Navy: Navy: Its Its Strength, Strength, Resources, Resources, and and Administratio Administrationn (London, (London, 1882) 1882) five five parts parts in in 5 5 volumes, volumes, Ill, III, 7. 7. 6. 6. Ruddock Ruddock Mackay, Mackay, Fisher Fisher of of Kilverstone Kilverstone (Oxford, (Oxford, 1973), 1973), 179-82. 179-82. 7. 7. Donald Donald Schurman, Schurman, The The Education Education of of a a Navy: Navy: The The Development Development of of British British

Naval Naval Strategic Strategic Thought, Thought, 1867-1914 1867-1914 (London, (London, 1965), 1965), 3. 3.

8. 8. Parliamentar Parliamentaryy Debates, Debates, vol. vol. 333 333 ‘( 1889) (1889) Hamilton, Hamilton, 77 Mar Mar 1889. 1889. 9. Ibid. 9. lbid.

10. 10. Edward Edward Woodward, Woodward, Great Great Britain Britain and and the the German German Navy Navy (Oxford, (Oxford, 1935), 1935),

455—73; 105-7. Anatomy, 105—7. Marder, Anatomy, 455-73; Marder,

11. 11. Parliamenta Parliamentaryry Debates, Debates, vol. vol. 333 333 (1889) (1889) Hamilton, Hamilton, 1171—85, 1171-85, cited cited in in

Sumida, 15. Defence, 15. In Defence, sumida, In 12. Ibid. 12. lbid. 13. 13. Minute Minute (15 (15 Oct Oct 1898) 1898) by by Richards Richards in in “Mediterrane “Mediterranean: an: Protection Protection of of Trade Trade Route,” Route,” ADM ADM 1/73763 1/7376B [Admiralty [Admiralty Papers, Papers, Public Public Record Record Office, Office, Kew]. Kew]. 14. Ibid. 14. lbid.

15. 10. Command Commanderer Stephen Stephen King-Hall, King-Hall, “The “The Evolution Evolution of of the the Cruiser,” Cruiser,” 1928, 1928,

ADM 1/8724/93. . ADM 1/8724/93

16. 16. For For acknowledg acknowledgmen ment t that that 66 inches inches of of Harvey Harvey armor armor could could resist resist 6-inch 6-inch

Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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21—24 Pages 21-24 to Pages Notes to Notes

315 315

AP AP projectiles projectiles see: see: Minute Minute (22 (22 Jan Jan 97) 97) by by White White (DNC), (DNC), “Type “Type of of Battleship Battleship to to be be Contemplated Contemplated in in 1897—98,” 1897-98,” ADM ADM 116/878. 116/878. 17. 17. Marder, Marder, Anatomy, Anatomy, 283. 283. 18. 18. Goschen Goschen to to Hicks-Beech, Hicks-Beech, 23 23 Jul Jul 97, 97, PCC/83, PCC/83, Hicks-Beech Hicks-Beech Mss Mss [Gloucester [Gloucester

Record Record Office]; Office]; permission permission to to lay lay down down a a fifth fifth and and sixth sixth Cressywas Cressy was not not requested requested until until May May 1898: 1898: see see minute minute (2 (2 May May 1898) 1898) by by Richards Richards to to Goschen, Goschen, “Provisional “Provisional

Programme Programme for for New New Construction, Construction, 1898—99, 1898-99,” ” ADM ADM 116/878. 116/878. But But according according to to the the appropriations appropriations accounts accounts they they were were paid paid for for under under the the 1897 1897 estimates: estimates: Sumida, Sumida, In In Defence, Defence, table table 17 17. 19. 19. Marder, Marder, Anatomy, Anatomy, 282-85. 282-85. 20. 20. Minute Minute (11 (11 Jan Jan 98) 98) by by Richards, Richards, “Type “Type of of Battleship Battleship to to be be Contemplated Contemplated in in 1897—98,” 1897-98,” ADM ADM 116/878. 116/878. 21. 21. Admiral Admiral Hopkins Hopkins (C-in-C (C-in-C Mediterranean) Mediterranean) to to Admiralty, Admiralty, 27 27 Feb Feb 1898, 1898, in in “Mediterranean: Protection “Mediterranean: Protection of of Trade Trade Routes,” Routes,” ADM ADM 1/73768. 1/7376B. See See also also minutes minutes thereon thereon (19 (19 Mar Mar 98) 98) by by Richards Richards and and (4 (4 Apr Apr 98) 98) by by Goschen. Goschen. 22. 22. Goschen, Goschen, “Navy “Navy Estimates Estimates and and Shipbuilding Shipbuilding programme, programme, 1898—99,” 1898-99,” 17 17 Feb Feb 98, 98, CAB CAB 37/46/20. 37/46/20. 23. 23. Marder, Marder, Anatomy, Anatomy, 285; 285; Sumida, Sumida, In In Defence, Defence, 19. 19. 24. 24. Minute Minute (7 (7 Oct Oct 98) 98) by by Wilson, Wilson, “Design “Design for for New New Cruisers—Supplemental Cruisers—Supplemental Programme, by Programme, 1898—99” 1898-99” (copy) (copy) in in [’74, f.74, ADM ADM 1/8724/93; 1/8724/93; Minute Minute (6 (6 Apr Apr 1898) 1898) by Moore, on on memorandum memorandum by by Wilson Wilson entitled, entitled, “Tactics “Tactics of of New New Armoured Armoured Cruisers Cruisers Moore, as as Affecting Affecting their their Design,” Design,” ADM ADM 1/7377. 1/7377. 25. Marder, Marder, Anatomy, Anatomy, 286-287. 286-287. 25. 26. 26. Sumida, Sumida, In In Defence, Defence, appendix, appendix, tables tables 16 16 & & 17. 17. 27. Minute Minute (4 (4 Feb Feb 1898) 1898) by by Richards Richards (print) (print) “Shipbuilding “Shipbuilding Programme Programme 27.

1898—99,” 1898-99,” printed printed 11 11 Jun Jun 1898, 1898, p. p. 39, 39, ADM ADM 116/878. 116/878. 28. Minute Minute (27 (27 Jan Jan 1898) 1898) by by Goschen, Goschen, ibid; ibid; see see also also Marder, Marder, Anatomy, Anatomy, 287. 287. 28. 29. Hicks-Beech Mss; 29. Goschen Goschen to to Hicks-Beech, Hicks-Beech, 26 26 Nov Nov 97, 97, FCC/83, PCC/83, Hicks-Beech Mss; Minute Minute (7 (7 Oct Oct 98) 98) by by Wilson, Wilson, “Design “Design for for New New Cruisers—Supplemental Cruisers—Supplemental Programme, Programme, 1898—99” (copy) (copy) inin f.68, £68, ADM ADM 1/8724/93. 1/8724/93. 1898-99” 30. 30. Goschen, Goschen, “Russian “Russian Naval Naval Construction,” Construction,” 6 6 Jun Jun 1898, 1898, CAB CAB 37/47/39; 37/47/39; Mss. Hicks-Beech Mss. PCC/83, Hicks-Beech 98, PCC/83, Jun 98, Hicks-Beech, 66 Jun to Hicks-Beech, Goschen to Goschen 117. Tsar, 117. Last Tsar, The Last Neilson, The 308; Neilson, Anatomy, 308; Marder, Anatomy, 31. Marder, 31. Feb 17 Feb 1898—99,” 17 Policy, 1898-99,” Shipbuilding Policy, and Shipbuilding Estimates and “Navy Estimates Goschen, “Navy 32. Goschen, 32. CA837/46/20. 98, CAB37/46/20. 98, Hicks-Beech FCC/83, Hicks-Beech letter) PCC/83, (second letter) 98 (second Jul 98 21 Jul Hicks-Beech, 21 to Hicks-Beech, Goschen to 33. Goschen 33. Mss. Mss. Russia, in Russia, Rearmament in and Rearmament Industry, and Government, Industry, Gatrell, Government, Peter Gatrell, 34. Peter 34. 20—24. 1994), 20-24. (Cambridge, 1994), 1900-1914 (Cambridge, 1900-1914 37/47/39. CAB 37/47/39. 1898, CAB Jun 1898, Construction," 66 Jun Naval Construction,” “Russian Naval Goschen, “Russian 35. Goschen, 35. Mss. Hicks-Beech Mss. PCC/83, Hicks-Beech 98, PCC/83, Jul 98, 20 Jul Hicks-Beech, 20 to Hicks-Beech, Goschen to 36. Goschen 36. ibid. PCC/83, ibid. letter) PCC/83, (first letter) 98 (first Jul 98 21 Jul Hicks-Beech, 21 to Hicks-Beech, Goschen to 37. Goschen 37. ibid. PCC/83, letter) (second 98 Jul 21 Hicks-Beech, to Goschen 38. 38. Goschen to Hicks-Beech, 21 Jul 98 (second letter) PCC/83, ibid. 39. Minutes Minutes (7 (7 Oct Oct 98) 98) Wilson Wilson (17 (17 Oct Oct 98) 98) Bedford Bedford (19 (19 Oct Oct 98) 98) Moore, Moore, and and 39.

(22 (22 Oct) Oct) Richards, Richards, all all “Design “Design for for New New Cruisers—Supplemental Cruisers—Supplemental Programme, Programme, 1898—99” (copy) (copy) in in f.74, f.74, ADM ADM 1/8724/93; 1/8724/93; Minute Minute 27 27 Jan Jan 1898) 1898) by by Goschen 1898-99” Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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316 316

2429 Pages 24-29 to Pages Notes to Notes

ADM 33, ADM p. 33, 1898, p. Jun 1898, 11 Jun printed 11 1898—99,” printed Programme 1898-99,” “Shipbuilding Programme (print) “Shipbuilding (print) 116/878. 116/878. Navy,” Royal Navy,” the Royal of the Cruisers of Class Cruisers County Class First County “The First McBride, “The Keith McBride, 40. Keith 40. Warship bring these these Warship 46 46 (April (April 1988): 1988): 19—27. 19-27. II am am indebted indebted to to Jon Jon Sumida Sumida for for bring attention. my attention. to my articles to articles Mss. Hicks-Beech Mss. PCC/83, Hicks-Beech 98, PCC/83, Dec 98, 24 Dec Hicks-Beech, 11 && 24 to Hicks-Beech, Goschen to 41. Goschen 41. 42. Goschen, Goschen, “Navy “Navy Estimates, Estimates, 1899-1900,” 1899—1900,” 31 31 Jan Jan 99, 99, p. p. 8, 8, CAB CAB 37/49/7. 37/49/7. 42. Mss. Hicks-Beech Mss. FCC/83, Hicks-Beech 99, PCC/83, Feb 99, Hicks-Beech, 44 Feb to Hicks-Beech, Goschen to 43. Goschen 43. Naval French Naval Navy: French Modern Navy: of aa Modern Development of The Development Ropp, The Theodore Ropp, 44. Theodore 44. 162—65. 1987), 162-65. Annapolis, 1987), (N.l.P.: Annapolis, 1871—1904 (N.1.P.: Policy, 1871-1904 Policy,

45. 45. The The idea idea was was set set out out in: in: Francois Francois Fournier, Fournier, La La Flotte Flotte Necessaire, Necessaire, ses ses docalso docsee also 1896); see (Paris, 1896); économiques (Paris, et économiques tactiques, et stratégiques, tactiques, advantages stratégiques, advantages Naval upon Naval Submarine upon the Submarine of the influence of “The Influence Lambert, “The Nicholas Lambert, in Nicholas cited in uments cited uments

Strategic Thought, Thought, 1896-1914,” 1896—1914,” D.Phil. D.Phil. diss. diss. (Oxford, (Oxford, 1992). 1992). Fournier's Fournier’s clearest clearest Strategic explanations of of his his theory theory are are in in the the Procés Proces Verbal Verbal and and papers papers considered considered by by the the explanations

Naval French Naval 2424, French BB8 2424, [catalogued inin BB8 Marine [catalogued de lala Marine Superiérure de Conséil Superiérure Conséil Archives, Vincennes]; Vincennes]; see see especially, especially, Fournier Fournier to to Ministre, Ministre, “Program “Program naval naval aa Archives, adopter dans dans J’ordre l’ordre d’urgence,” d’urgence,” 10 10 May May 05, 05, and and “Note “Note sur sur l’importance l'importance du du role role adopter des flottilles flottilles sousmarines sousmarines dans dans la la guerre guerre navale navale et et sur sur les les consequéces consequéces de de ce ce des role,” role,” 8 8 May May 05, 05, dossier dossier 3, 3, BB8 BB8 2424(6). 2424(6). 46. 46. Ropp, Ropp, Development Development of of a a Modern Modern Navy, Navy, 165—78; 165-78; Henri Henri Le Le Masson. Masson, Histoire du du Torpilleur Torpilleur (Paris, (Paris, 1967), 1967), chapters chapters 1-4. 1-4. Histoire 47. Walser, Walser, “France’s “France’s Battlefleet,” Battlefleet,” 64-68. 64—68. 47. 48. Ropp, Ropp, Development Development of ofa Modern Navy, Navy, 288, 288, 296-98. 296—98. 48. a Modern 49. 49. Edouard Edouard Lockroy, Lockroy, La La Defense Défense Navale Navale (Paris, (Paris, 1900); 1900); idem, idem, La La Marine Marine de de 1897). (Paris, 1897). royale (Paris, rue royale de rue mois de six mois guerre; six guerre; 50. For For an an account account of of French French submarine submarine policy policy see see chapters chapters on on the the French French 00. navy in in Lambert, Lambert, “The “The Influence influence of of the the Submarine Submarine upon upon Naval Naval Strategic Strategic navy Thought,” chapters chapters 22 && 3. 3. Thought,” 51. 91. Vice Vice Admiral Admiral de de la la Saille Saille (prefect (prefect 5eme 5eme arr., arr., Toulon) Toulon) to to EMG2 EMG2 (second (second section, section, naval naval staff), staff), 15 15 Dec Dec 1898, 1898, enclosing enclosing copy copy of of report report submitted submitted by by Lt. Lt.

Mottez Mottez to to Commandant Commandant Defence Défence Mobiles, Mobiles, Toulon, Toulon, 99 Dec Dec 1898, 1898, GG2 GG2 76/3. 76/3. [Service [Service Historique Historique de de la la Marine—Vincennes]. Marine—Vincennes]. 52. 092. Vice Vice Admiral Admiral de de la la Saille Saille au au Minister. Minister. 15 15 Dec Dec 1898, 1898, ibid. ibid. 53. O03. Brassey’s, Brassey's, Naval Naval Annual, Annual, 1899, 1899, 37; 37; for for a a confused confused analysis analysis see: see: Marder, Marder, Anatomy, Anatomy, 357—62. 357-62. 54. to 04. Mottez Mottez to to his his wife, wife, 9 9 Jan Jan 1899, 1899, in in Mottez Mottez Papers Papers (I (I am am indebted indebted to Capitaine Capitaine de de Vasseau Vasseau Claude Claude Huan Huan for for providing providing me me with with a a copy copy of of this this document.) document.)

55. Journal Journal Officiel, Officiel, Chambre Chambre des des Députés, Deputés, débats débats parlementaires, parlementaires, seance seance oo. du du 17 17 Mar Mar 1899, 1899, M. M. le le Ministre Ministre de de la la Marine, Marine, 938—39. 938-39. 56. 06. Admiral Admiral Hopkins Hopkins (0. (c. in in 0., c., Mediterranean) Mediterranean) to to Admiralty, Admiralty, 55 Apr Apr 1898, 1898, 8, 8, and and minutes minutes thereon thereon by by Custance Custance (DNl) (DNI) and and Richards Richards (SNL) (SNL) in in “Mediterranean: “Mediterranean: Protection Protection of of Trade Trade Routes,” Routes,” ADM ADM 1/7376B 1/7376B 57. of. Selborne, Selborne, “Navy “Navy Estimates, Estimates, 1901—1902,” 1901-1902,” 17 17 Jan Jan 01, 01, 5—6, 5-6, CAB CAB 37/56/8. 37/56/8. 58. 08. Selborne, Selborne, “The “The Navy Navy Estimates Estimates and and the the Chancellor Chancellor of of the the Exchequer’s Exchequer’s Memorandum Memorandum on on the the Growth Growth of of Expenditure,” Expenditure,” 16 16 Nov Nov 01, 01, CAB CAB 37/59/118. Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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29—34 Pages 29-34 to Pages Notes to Notes

317 317

59. 09. Sumida, Sumida, In In Defence, Defence, 12-13. 12-13.

60. 60. lbid. Ibid. 61. Mallet, Mallet, British British Budgets, Budgets, 474. 474. 61. 62. 62. Salisbury Salisbury to to Hicks-Beech, Hicks-Beech, 2 2 Jan Jan 1896, 1896, f.111, f.111, FCC/69, PCC/69, Hicks-Beech Hicks-Beech Mss. Mss.

63. 63. 64. 64. 65. 65. 66. 66.

Hicks-Beech Hicks-Beech to to Salisbury, Salisbury, 12 12 Oct Oct 98, 98, FCC/34, PCC/34, ibid. ibid. Mallet, Mallet, British British Budgets, Budgets, Appendix. Appendix. Hicks-Beech Hicks-Beech to to Salisbury, Salisbury, 21 21 Jan Jan 99, 99, FCC/34, PCC/34, Hicks-Beech Hicks-Beech Mss. Mss. lbid. Ibid.

67. 67. Salisbury Salisbury to to Hicks-Beech, Hicks-Beech, 24 24 Jan Jan 1899, 1899, £166, f.166, FCC/69, PCC/69, ibid. ibid. 68. 68. A. A. N. N. Porter, Porter, “Lord “Lord Salisbury, Salisbury, Foreign Foreign Policy Policy and and Domestic Domestic Finance, Finance, 1860—1900,” 1860-1900,” in in Lord Lord Blake Blake and and Hugh Hugh Cecil, Cecil, eds., eds., Salisbury.Salisbury: The The Man Man and and his his Policies Policies (Macmillan: (Macmillan: London, London, 1987), 1987), 148—84. 148-84. 69. 69. Hicks-Beech Hicks-Beech to to Salisbury, Salisbury, 30 30 Jan Jan 1899, 1899, 3M/E, 3M/E, Salisbury Salisbury Mss, Mss, cited cited in in Friedberg, Friedberg, Weary Weary Titan, Titan, 105. 105. 70. 70. Hicks-Beech Hicks-Beech to to Salisbury, Salisbury, 30 30 Jan Jan 99, 99, FCC/34, PCC/34, Hicks-Beech Hicks-Beech Mss. Mss. 71. 71. Salisbury Salisbury to to Hicks-Beech, Hicks-Beech, 24 24 Jan Jan 1899, 1899, f.166, f.166, FCC/69, PCC/69, ibid. ibid.

72. 72. Mallett, Mallett, British British Budgets, Budgets, 497, 497, table table 16, 16, col. col. 11. 11. 73. 73. Sumida, Sumida, In In Defence, Defence, table table 15. 15. 74. 74. Goschen Goschen to to Hicks-Beech, Hicks-Beech, 26 26 Jan Jan 1900, 1900, FCC/83, PCC/83, Hicks-Beech Hicks-Beech Mss. Mss. 75. 75. Hicks-Beech Hicks-Beech to to Salisbury, Salisbury, 24 24 Jan Jan 1900, 1900, FCC/34, PCC/34, ibid. ibid. 76. 76. All All figures figures taken taken from from Sumida, Sumida, In In Defence, Defence, 20—23. 20-23. 77. 77. Hicks-Beech Hicks-Beech to to Salisbury, Salisbury, 21 21 Oct Oct 00, 00, FCC/34, PCC/34, Hicks-Beech Hicks-Beech Mss; Mss; see see also also minute minute (22 (22 Oct Oct 00) 00) by by Kerr Kerr on on warship warship construction construction program, program, f.11—23, f.11-23, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 158 158 [Bodleian [Bodleian Library, Library, Oxford]. Oxford]. 78. 78. Salisbury Salisbury to to Hicks-Beech, Hicks-Beech, 29 29 Oct Oct 00, 00, f.185, f.185, FCC/69, PCC/69, Hicks-Beech Hicks-Beech Mss. Mss. 79. 79. Hicks-Beech Hicks-Beech to to Selborne, Selborne, 23 23 & & 28 28 Nov Nov 00, 00, f.181—184, f.181-184, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 26. 26. 80. 80. Minutes Minutes (22 (22 Oct Oct 00) 00) and and (27 (27 Oct Oct 00) 00) by by Kerr Kerr on on “Shipbuilding “Shipbuilding Programme,” Programme,” 19 19 Oct Oct 1900, 1900, f.11—23, f.11-23, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 158. 158. 81. 81. Goschen Goschen to to Hicks-Beech, Hicks-Beech, 4 4 Feb Feb 99, 99, FCC/83, PCC/83, Hicks-Beech Hicks-Beech Mss. Mss. 82. 82. Minute Minute (27 (27 Dec Dec 00) 00) by by Kerr Kerr to to Selborne, Selborne, “Shipbuilding “Shipbuilding Programme," Programme,” f.11—23, f.11-23, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 158. 158. 83. 83. Selborne Selborne acknowledged acknowledged Kerr’s Kerr's persuasiveness persuasiveness on on this this issue issue in: in: Selborne Selborne to to Kerr, Kerr, 12 12 Sep Sep 01, 01, f.145, f.145, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 27. 27. 84. 84. Selborne Selborne to to Hicks-Beech, Hicks-Beech, 29 29 Dec Dec 00, 00, FCC/83, PCC/83, Hicks-Beech Hicks-Beech Mss. Mss. 85. Hicks-Beech Hicks-Beech to to Selborne, Selborne, 22 Jan Jan 01, 01, f.186, f.186, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 26. 26. 85. 86. 86. Selborne, Selborne, “Navy “Navy Estimates, Estimates, 1901—1902,” 1901-1902,” 17 17 Jan Jan 01, 01, CAB CAB 37/56/8. 37/56/8. 87. 87. lbid., Ibid., p. p. 8. 8. 88. 88. Kerr Kerr to to Selborne, Selborne, 14 14 Feb Feb 01, 01, f.30, f.30, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 27. 27. 89. 89. Capt. Capt. [later [later Adm. Adm. Sir] Sir] George George King-Hall, King-Hall, diary, diary, reporting reporting conversation conversation with Kerr Kerr at at Malta, Malta, 16 16 Mar Mar 01, 01, King-Hall King-Hall Mss. Mss. At At the the time, time, King-Hall King-Hall was was chief chief of of with staff staff to to the the commander commander in in chief, chief, Mediterranean, Mediterranean, Sir Sir John John Fisher. Fisher.

90. 90. Unfunded Unfunded debt debt rose rose during during fiscal fiscal year year 1901—02 1901-02 from from £16 £16 million million to to £78 £78 million, million, for for which which see see Mallet, Mallet, British British Budgets, Budgets, 494, 494, table table 15, 15, column column 3. 3. 91. 91. Hick Hick Beach, Beach, “Financial “Financial Difficulties: Difficulties: Appeal Appeal for for Economy Economy in in Estimates,” Estimates,” Oct 01, CAB 37/58/109. La m beg Quit-.0951. Sirgié [Sh9357A/Gélfiéllogtgfi. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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34—40 Pages 34-40 to Pages Notes to Notes

23. Defence, 23. In Defence, Sumida, In in Sumida, Cited in 92. 92. Cited 27. Mss 27. Selborne Mss f.188, Selborne 01, f.188, Oct 01, Selborne, 55 Oct to Selborne, Kerr to 93. 93. Kerr

Exohequer’s the Exchequer’s of the Chancellor of the Chancellor and the Estimates and Navy Estimates “The Navy 94. Selborne, “The 94. Selborne,

37/59/118. CAB 37/59/1 01, 7,7, CAB Nov 01, 16 Nov Expenditure,” 16 of Expenditure,” Growth of the Growth Memorandum 18. on the Memorandum on 128—29. Boyce, 128-29. cited inin Boyce, 01, cited Oct 01, 31 Oct Salisbury, 31 to Salisbury, 95. Selborne to 95. Selborne Mss. Hicks-Beech Mss. FCC/69, Hicks-Beech f.191, PCC/69, 01, f.191, Sep 01, 14 Sep Hicks-Beech, 14 to Hicks-Beech, 96. Salisbury to 96. Salisbury by 01) by Sep 01) (24 Sep Minute (24 27; Minute Selborne 27; £145, Selborne 01, f.145, Sep 01, 12 Sep Kerr, 12 to Kerr, Selborne to 97. Selborne 97. Kerr, f.24, f.24, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 158. 158. Kerr,

Selborne both Selborne (f.42), both 02 (f.42), Apr 02 and 66 Apr (f.34) and 02 (f.34) Mar 02 11 Mar Selborne, 11 to Selborne, Kerr to 98. Kerr 98. Mss 31. 31. Mss 99. Kerr Kerr to to Selborne, Selborne, 28 28 Apr Apr 02, 02, f.68, f.68, ibid. ibid. 99. 100. 100. Selborne Selborne to to Balfour, Balfour, 12 12 Jul Jul 02, 02, Sanders Sanders Mss Mss 736 736 [Bodleian [Bodleian Library, Library, Oxford]. Oxford]. Balfour, to Balfour, Beach to Hick Beach FCC/88; Hick 02, PCC/88; Jul 02, 11 Jul Hicks-Beech, 11 to Hicks-Beech, Balfour to 101. Balfour 101. FCC/12, Hicks-Beech Hicks-Beech Mss. Mss. PCC/12, 102. 102. Selborne Selborne to to Curzon, Curzon, 17 17 Jul Jul 02, 02, box box 22 part part 2, 2, Curzon Curzon Mss Mss (cited (cited in in Monger, Monger, 76). 76). 103. Sumida, Sumida, In In Defence, Defence, 24-26. 24—26. 103. 104. 104. Aaron Aaron Friedberg, Friedberg, The The Weary Weary Titan, Titan, 101—34. 101-34. 105. Richard Rempel, Unionists Divided: Joseph 105. Richard Rempel, Unionists Divided: Arthur Arthur Balfour, Balfour, Joseph Chamberlain Chamberlain and and the the Unionist Unionist Free Free Traders Traders (Newton (Newton Abbot, Abbot, 1972); 1972); Alan Alan Sykes, Sykes, Tariff Tariff Reform Reform in in British British Politics, Politics, 1903—1913 1903-1913 (London, (London, 1979). 1979). 106. 106. Balfour Balfour to to Arnold Arnold Forster, Forster, 16 16 Dec Dec 02, 02, f.23, f.23, Add Add Mss Mss 50289, 50289, and and 28 28 Oct Oct Library, British Library, Series, British Manuscripts Series, [Additional Manuscripts 49706 [Additional Mss 49706 Add Mss f.36, Add 03, £.36, 03, London) London]. 107. 107. Selborne Selborne to to the the Admiralty Admiralty Permanent Permanent Secretary, Secretary, 16 16 Feb Feb 03, 03, in in In Sumida, In in Sumida, cited in 1/7737, cited ADM 1/7737, 04), ADM Dec 04), (31 Dec 1904” (31 Business, 1904” of Business, “Distribution of “Distribution Defence, Defence, 26. 26. 108. 108. Nicholas Nicholas d’Ombrain, d’Ombrain, War War Machinery Machinery and and High High Policy Policy (Oxford, (Oxford, 1973), 1973), 1—6. 1-6, 27—29. 27-29. 109. 109. For For the the only only coherent coherent explanation explanation of of this this relationship, relationship, see see Sumida, Sumida, In In

Defence, Defence, chapters chapters 22 & & 3. 3. 110. 110. Friedberg, Friedberg, Weary Weary Titan, Titan, 167—68, 167-68, 172—80, 172-80, 207. 207.

Chapter Chapter Two: Two: Complexity Complexity and and Duplicity Duplicity 1. 1. Sir Sir Thomas Thomas Brassey, Brassey, The The British British Navy, Navy, iii, iii, 3—8. 3-8. 2. Cited Cited in in Arthur Arthur Marder, Marder, Anatomy, Anatomy, 351; 351; see see also also Alex Alex Rowland, Rowland, UnderUnder2. water water Warfare Warfare in in the the Age Age of of Sail Sail (Indiana (Indiana U.P.: U.P.: Bloomington, Bloomington, 1978), 1978), 112, 112, notes notes 14—15. 14-15. 3. 3. Michael Michael W. W. Dash, Dash, “British “British Submarines Submarines Policy, Policy, 1853—1918," 1853-1918,” Unpublished Unpublished Ph.D. Ph.D. diss. diss. (London (London University, University, 1990), 1990), 36—46, 36-46, 61—80. 61-80. 4. Ibid. lbid. 4. 5. Oo. Memorandum Memorandum (21 (21 Jan Jan 01) 01) by by A.K. A.K. Wilson, Wilson, on on docket docket “New “New Docket Docket —— — Submarine-boats,” Submarine-boats,” ADM ADM 1/7515. 1/7515. 6. Report by Capt. Lambert,NicolamjohnFigérgvg‘ggertlupy Capt. William William Arthur Arthur RN, RN, naval naval attaché attaché report report No. No. 90, 90, 22 Aug Aug E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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319 319

1881, 1881, F0 FO 115/673, 115/673, cited cited by by Dash, Dash, “Submarine “Submarine Policy," Policy,” 73, 73, nt. nt. 171; 171; I| am am also also indebted indebted to to Dr. Dr. Douglas Douglas Furgol Furgol of of the the naval naval museum, museum, Washington Washington Navy Navy Yard, Yard, for for information information that that British British naval naval officers officers also a4lso examined examined Intelligent Intelligent Whale. Whale. Minute (6 (6 Mar Mar 1899) 1899) by by White, White, on on Jackson Jackson to to Admiralty Admiralty (report (report No. No. 14) 14) ,, 22 22 7.7. Minute Jan Jan 1899, 1899, in in “Trials “Trials of of French French submarine submarine boat boat Gustave-Zédé Gustave-Zédé and and other other submarines,” submarines,” (F0 (FO 26 26 Jan Jan 1899) 1899) ADM ADM 1/7422A. 1/7422A. N.B. N.B. reference reference to to five five reports reports dated dated 1885—1887. 1885-1887. 8. 8. Various Various reports reports in in docket docket “French “French Navy Navy and and Coast Coast Defences,” Defences,” (F0 (FO 26 26 Feb -| Feb 00) 00) ADM ADM 1/7471. 1/7471. 9. 9. Capt. Capt. Henry Henry Jackson, Jackson, “Report “Report on on French French Coast Coast Defences, Defences, Torpedo-boats Torpedo-boats and and submarine submarine boat boat Le Le Goubet,” Goubet,” 22 Apr Apr 98, 98, ADM ADM 1/7471; 1/7471; Admiralty, Admiralty, “Submarine “Submarine boats,” boats,” MD NID 577, 577, May May 1900, 1900, pp. pp. 46-49, 46-49, HMS HMS Dolphin Dolphin Submarine Submarine Museum. Museum. 10. 10. Minute Minute (20 (20 Apr Apr 98) 98) by by Beaumont, Beaumont, on on Jackson’s Jackson's Report, Report, ADM ADM 1/7471; 1/7471; for for White’s White’s reputation reputation see see Fisher Fisher to to Selborne, Selborne, 55 Jan Jan 01, 01, FGDN, FGDN, l, |, 178; 178; Frederick Frederick Manning, Manning, The The Life Life of of Sir Sir William William White White (London, (London, 1923). 1923). 11. 11. Minute Minute (5 (5 May May 98) 98) by by White, White, on on Jackson’s Jackson’s Report, Report, ADM ADM 1/7471. 1/7471. 12. 12. Minute Minute (22 (22 Jan Jan 1899)) 1899)) by by Monson, Monson, on on Jackson Jackson to to Admiralty Admiralty (report (report No.14), No.14), 22 22 Jan Jan 1899, 1899, in in “Trials “Trials of of French French submarine submarine boat boat Gustave-Zédé Gustave-Zédé and and other other submarines submarines ““ (F0 (FO 26 26 Jan Jan 1899) 1899) ADM ADM /7422A. /7422A. 13. 13. Minutes Minutes (15 (15 Mar Mar 1899) 1899) by by Egerton Egerton and and (16 (16 Mar Mar 1899) 1899) by by Captain Captain Jeffreys, Jeffreys, on on report report No.14, No.14, ibid. ibid. 14. 14. lbid. Ibid. 15. 15. Minute Minute (25 (25 May May 00) 00) by by Goschen, Goschen, on on “Submarine “Submarine boats boats Considered Considered by by the the USA USA House House Committee” Committee” (ADM (ADM 18 18 May May 00) 00) ADM ADM 1/7462; 1/7462; minute minute (16 (16 Mar Mar 1899) 1899) by by Wilson, Wilson, on on Jackson Jackson to to Admiralty Admiralty (report (report No. No. 14), 14), 22 22 Jan Jan 1899, 1899, in in “Trials “Trials of of French French submarine submarine boat boat Gustave-Zéde Gustave-Zédé and and other other submarines,” submarines,” (F0 (FO 26 26 Jan Jan 1899) 1899) ADM 1/7422A. 1/7422A. ADM 16. 16. “Reliable “Reliable Information Information Concerning Concerning the the French French Submarine Submarine boat boat GustaveGustaveZédé,” Zédé,” May May 1899, 1899, ibid. ibid. 17. 17. Minute Minute (2 (2 May May 99) 99) by by Custance, Custance, on on “Reliable “Reliable information Information Concerning Concerning the the French Submarine Submarine boat boat Gustave-Zédé,” Gustave-Zédé,” ibid. ibid. French 18. 18. lbid. Ibid. 19. 19. Journal Journal Officiel, Officiel, Chambre Chambre des des Deputés, Députés, débats débats parlementaires, parlementaires, seance seance du du 17 17 Mar Mar 1899, 1899, 938—39, 938-39, m. m. le le ministre ministre de de la la marine, marine, 938—39. 938-39. 20. Minutes Minutes (2 (2 May May 1899) 1899) by by Custance Custance and and (15 (15 May May 1899) 1899) by by White White (FO (F0 26 26 20. Jan Jan 1899) 1899) ADM ADM 1/7422A. 1/7422A. 21. Report Report by by Captain Captain Charles Charles Ottley, 0ttley, on on “U.S. “US. Submarine-boat Submarine-boat Holland,” Holland,” 18 18 21. Dec 1899 1899 (FO (F0 33 Jan Jan 00) 00) ADM ADM 1/7471. 1/7471. Dec 22. Attaché Attache Report Report by by Douglas Douglas Gamble, Gamble, 22 22 Jan Jan 00, 00, “France—submarine “France—submarine 22. boats—latest boats—latest trials trials and and experiments,” experiments,” ADM ADM 1/7482. 1/7482. 23. Minute Minute (20 (20 Feb Feb 00) 00) by by Kerr, Kerr, in in docket docket “Report “Report No.51: No.51: Probable Probable adoption adoption of of 23. Government Government Proposals Proposals respecting respecting shipbuilding shipbuilding programme,” programme,’ 22 22 Jan Jan 00, 00, ADM ADM 1/7482. 1/7482. 24. 24. Minute Minute (5 (5 Feb Feb 00) 00) by by Sturdee Sturdee (a/DNO), (a/DNO), on on “Submarines” “Submarines” (F0 (FO 16 16 Jan Jan 00) 00) ADM ADM 1/7471; 1/7471; Custance, Custance, “Proposal “Proposal to to Print Print aa Report Report on on Submarine Submarine Boats,” Boats,” 21 21 Apr Apr 00, 00, ADM ADM 1/7461B; 1/7461B; Admiralty Admiralty Print, Print, “Submarine-boats” “Submarine-boats” (NlD (NID report report 577) 577) May 1900, 1900, HMS HMS Dolphin Dolphin Submarine Submarine Museum. Museum. May Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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43—47 Pages 43-47 Notes to Pages Notes to

25. 25. “Blockade “Blockade Mines—Use Mines—Use of, of, for for defence defence against against submarine submarine boats” boats” (G2778/00), (G2778/00), extract extract from from report report by by captain captain of of HMS HMS Vulcan, Vulcan, 5 5 Feb Feb 00, 00, and and extract extract

from submission submission from from c.c. inin c., c., Mediterranean, Mediterranean, 26 26 Feb Feb 00, 00, both both inin “Principle “Principle from Questions Questions Dealt Dealt with with by by the the Director Director of of Naval Naval Ordnance,” Ordnance,” 1900 1900 (Hereafter (Hereafter cited cited as PO), PQ), pp. pp. 105—8, 105-8, ADM256/39. ADM256/39. as 26. Minute Minute (14 (14 Apr Apr 00) 00) by by Capt. Capt. Charles Charles Robinson Robinson (Vernon), (Vernon), p.105, p.105. PQ PO 26. 1900, ibid. ibid. 1900,

27. 27. Minute Minute (14 (14 Apr Apr 00) 00) by by Jeffreys, Jeffreys, p.106, p.106, ibid. ibid. 28. 28. ibid; ibid; see see also also minute minute (25 (25 Apr Apr 00) 00) by by Jeffreys Jeffreys on on “Submarine “Submarine boats-— boats— Methods of of resisting resisting attack attack by by towing towing torpedoes,” torpedoes,” p. p. 110, 110, ibid. ibid. Methods 29. 29. Minutes Minutes (24 (24 Apr Apr 00) 00) by by Kerr Kerr (23 (23 Apr Apr 00) 00) by by Custance, Custance, and and (18 (18 Apr Apr 00) 00) by Wilson, Wilson, ibid. ibid. by 30. 30. Minute Minute (30 (30 Apr Apr 00) 00) by by Kerr, Kerr, ibid. ibid. 31. 31. Minute Minute (4 (4 May May 00) 00) by by Kerr, Kerr, p. p. 112, 112, ibid. ibid. 32. 32. Admiralty Admiralty to to C. C. in in C.’s C.’s Devonport Devonport and and Portsmouth, Portsmouth, 17 17 May May 00, 00, ibid. ibid. 33. 33. Minute Minute (18 (18 May May 00) 00) by by Sturdee Sturdee (a/D.N.O.) (a/D.N.O.) on on “Submarine-boats “Submarine-boats considconsidered ered by by USA USA House House Committee” Committee” (ADM (ADM 18 18 May May 00) 00) ADM ADM 1/7462. 1/7462. 34. 34. Beresford Beresford to to Fisher, Fisher, 21 21 Jun Jun 00, 00, £104, f.104, enclosed enclosed in in Beresford Beresford to to Balfour, Balfour, 21 21 June June 00, 00, f.96, f.96, Add Add Mss Mss 49713. 49713. 35. 35. Minute Minute (22 (22 May May 00) 00) by by Walter Walter Kerr Kerr (ADM (ADM 18 18 May May 00) 00) ADM ADM 1/7462. 1/7462. 36. 36. Minutes Minutes (3 (3 May May 00) 00) by by Wilson Wilson (4 (4 May May 00) 00) by by Kerr, Kerr, and and (6 (6 May May 00) 00) by by Goschen, Goschen, on on “Submarine “Submarine boats—method boats—method of of resisting resisting attack attack by by towed towed torpedoes,” torpedoes,” 111, 111, P.O.1900, P.Q.1900, ADM ADM 256/39. 256/39. 37. 37. Minute Minute (3 (3 Aug Aug 00) 00) by by Wilson, Wilson, “Submarine “Submarine boats boats considered considered by by the the USA USA House House Committee,” Committee,” (ADM (ADM 18 18 May May 00) 00) ADM ADM 1/7462. 1/7462. 38. 38. Minute Minute (3 (3 Aug Aug 00) 00) by by Wilson Wilson (ADM (ADM 18 18 May May 00) 00) ADM ADM 1/7462. 1/7462. 39. 39. Minute Minute (May (May 00) 00) by by Goschen, Goschen, ibid. ibid. 40. 40. See See Rice Rice to to Goschen, Goschen, 17 17 Sep Sep 00; 00; Rice Rice to to Rothschilds, Rothschilds, 13 13 Jul Jul 00; 00; and and Rothschilds Rothschilds to to Goschen, Goschen, 23 23 Jul Jul 00, 00, enclosed enclosed in in docket docket “Holland “Holland Type Type Submarines” Submarines” (ADM (ADM 15 15 Jan Jan 01) 01) ADM ADM 1/7515. 1/7515. 41. 41. lbid. Ibid. 42. 42. Minute Minute (19 (19 Sep Sep 00) 00) by by White White (DNC), (DNC), “Submarine “Submarine boats,” boats,” ADM ADM 1/7515. 1/7515. 43. 43. Notes Notes on on interview interview between between Rice, Rice, Wilson Wilson and and White, White, 16 16 Oct Oct 00 00

(Approval (Approval of of arrangement arrangement with with Vickers, Vickers, 18 18 Oct Oct 00), 00), ibid. ibid.

44. 44. 45. 45. 46. 46. 47. 47. Nov Nov 00, 00, 48. 48.

Minute Minute (17 (17 Sep Sep 00) 00) by by Wilson, Wilson, “Submarine “Submarine boats,” boats,” ADM ADM 1/7515. 1/7515. First First draft draft of of letter letter from from Wilson Wilson to to the the Treasury, Treasury, 23 23 Oct Oct 00, 00, ibid. ibid. Minute Minute (24 (24 Oct Oct 00) 00) by by Goschen, Goschen, ibid. ibid. Minute Minute (26 (26 Oct Oct 00) 00) by by Kerr, Kerr, and and final final draft draft of of Admiralty Admiralty to to Treasury, Treasury, 6 6 ibid. ibid. Minute Minute (30 (30 Jan Jan 01) 01) by by Kerr Kerr on on “Holland “Holland submarine submarine boats,” boats,” ADM ADM 1/7515. 1/7515.

49. 49. Salisbury Salisbury to to Selborne, Selborne, 27 27 Oct Oct 00, 00, in in D. D. G. G. Boyce, Boyce, The The Crisis Crisis of of British British Power: Power: The The Imperial Imperial and and Naval Naval Papers Papers of of the the Second Second Earl Earl of of Selborne, Selborne,

1895—1910 1895-1910 (Historians (Historians Press: Press: London, London, 1990), 1990), 103. 103. 50. 00. Parliamentary Parliamentary Debates, Debates, 4th 4th Series, Series, 86, 86, 333, 333, 17 17 Jul Jul 00, 00, Goschen Goschen speakspeakmg. ing. 01. 51. Ibid. lbid. Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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321 321

52. o2. Lt. Lt. F. F. D. D. Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster diary, diary, entry entry 13 13 Jan Jan 01, 01, F. F. D. D. Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster Mss, Mss, HMS HMS Dolphin Dolphin Submarine Submarine Museum. Museum. 53. 03. Selborne Selborne to to Hicks-Beech, Hicks-Beech, 29 29 Dec Dec 00, 00, in in Boyce, Boyce, Selborne. Selborne, 106. 106. 54. 04. Selborne, Selborne, “Naval “Naval Estimates Estimates 1901—1902,” 1901-1902,” 11, 11, 17 17 Jan Jan 01, 01, CAB CAB 37/56/8. 37/56/8. 55. 00. Minute Minute (15 (15 Jan Jan 01) 01) by by Selborne, Selborne, on on docket docket “Holland “Holland Type Type Submarine,” Submarine,” (ADM (ADM 15 15 Jan Jan 01) 01) ADM ADM 1/7515. 1/7515. 56. 06. Capt. Capt. Lewis Lewis Bayly, Bayly, “United “United States, States, [attache] [attaché] report report No.9,” No.9,” 3 3 (ADM (ADM 22 22 Dec Dec 00) 00) ADM ADM 1/7465C. 1/7465C. 57. O7/. Various Various minutes minutes on on “Submarine “Submarine boats boats designed designed by by Captain Captain Hovgaard Hovgaard of of the the Danish Danish Navy,” Navy,” (Admiralty (Admiralty 25 25 Jan Jan 01) 01) ADM ADM 1/7516; 1/7516; N.B. N.B. Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster to to Selborne, Selborne, 10 10 Jan Jan 01, 01, 1’4, f.4, Add Add Mss Mss 50294. 50294. 58. 08. [bid Ibid. 59. O09. Minute Minute (15 (15 Jan Jan 01) 01) Selborne, Selborne, “Holland “Holland Type Type Submarine,” Submarine,” ADM ADM 1/7515. 1/7515.

60. 60. 61. 61. 62. 62.

Minute Minute (28 (28 Jan Jan 01) 01) by by Admiral Admiral Douglas, Douglas, ibid. ibid. Minute (19 (19 Feb Feb 01) 01) by by McGriggor, McGriggor, ibid. ibid. Minute Marder, Marder, Anatomy, Anatomy, 359. 359.

63. 63. lbid; Ibid; most most recently recently expressed expressed by by Dan Dan Van Van der der Vat, Vat, Stealth Stealth at at Sea: Sea: The The History History of of the the Submarine Submarine (London, (London, 1994), 1994), 33-34. 33-34. 64. 64. Minute Minute (21 (21 Jan Jan 01) 01) by by Wilson, Wilson, on on “New “New docket—Submarine docket—Submarine Boats,” Boats,” ADM ADM 1/7515. 1/7515. 65. 65. Minute Minute (30 (30 Jan Jan 01) 01) by by Kerr, Kerr, ibid. ibid. 66. 66. Nicholas Nicholas Lambert, Lambert, “Admiral “Admiral of of the the Fleet Fleet Sir Sir Arthur Arthur Wilson Wilson VC," VC,” in in Malcolm Malcolm Murfett Murfett ed., ed., The The First First Sea Sea Lords: Lords: From From Fisher Fisher to to Mountbatten Mountbatten (Praegers: (Praegers: Westport, Westport, 1995); 1995); and and Selborne Selborne to to Wilson, Wilson, 19 19 Mar Mar 01, 01, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 28; Mss 49707. 28; Selborne Selborne to to Balfour, Balfour, 20 20 May May 15, 15, £251, f.251, Add Add Mss 49707. 67. 67. Undated Undated note note from from Atkinson Atkinson to to McKecknie McKecknie (both (both executives executives at at Vickers) Vickers) enclosing enclosing extract extract for for the the Glasgow Glasgow Herald Herald f.8, f.8, Vickers Vickers Mss Mss 632; 632; also also telegram, telegram, 25 [Cambridge University University Library]. Library]. 25 Feb Feb 01, 01, f.18, f.18, Vickers Vickers Mss Mss 1003 1003 [Cambridge 68. 68. For For Arnold-Forster’s Arnold-Forster’s character: character: see see Rhodri Rhodri Williams, Williams, Defending Defending the the Empire Empire (Yale: (Yale: New New Haven, Haven, 1992), 1992), 41—45, 41-45, 68; 68; For For his his habit habit of of pressing pressing his his views views see: see: Kerr Kerr to to Selborne, Selborne, 4 4 Nov Nov 03, 03, f.3, f.3, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 34. 34. 69. Minute Minute (19 (19 Mar Mar 01) 01) by by Arnold-Forster, Arnold-Forster, ADM ADM 1/7515. 1/7515. 69. 70. 70. Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster to to Selborne, Selborne, 3 3 Jun Jun 02, 02, f.179, f.179, Add Add Mss Mss 50280; 50280; also also Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster to to May, May, 11 Jul Jul 02, 02, £132, f.132, Add Add Mss Mss 50281. 50281. 71. 71. “Value “Value of of Submarines Submarines in in War,” War,” enclosed enclosed in in Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster to to Selborne, Selborne, 50294. Mss 50294. Add Mss f.13, Add 01, f.13, Aug 01, 88 Aug 72. 72. Selborne, Selborne, “The “The Navy Navy Estimates Estimates and and the the Chancellor Chancellor of of the the Exchequer’s Exchequer’s Memorandum on on the the Growth Growth of of Expenditure,” Expenditure,” 16 16 Nov Nov 01, 01, p. p. 15, 15, CAB CAB 37/59/118. 37/59/118. Memorandum (Three (Three submarines—A2, submarines—A2, A3 A3 and and A4—were A4—were laid laid down down under under the the 1902/03 1902/03 pro— program.) gram.) 73. Ibid., lbid., p. p. 15. 15. 73. 74. Ibid., lbid., p. p. 18. 18. 7A. 75. Selborne Selborne to to Arnold-Forster, Arnold-Forster, 33 Oct Oct 01, 01, £.58, 1’58, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 28. 28. 75. 76. 76. Adm. Adm. Sir Sir Reginald Reginald Bacon, Bacon, From From 1900 1900 Onwards Onwards (Hutchinson: (Hutchinson: London, London, 1940), 1940), 50—65. 50-65. 77. Lt. F. Qdmgvmnpld-Forster D. Arnold-Forster (nephew (nephew of of parliamentary parliamentary secretary secretary to to the the Lambert, Nicol-£57517jolfi‘nt’Fishg's N E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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51—53 Pages 51-53 to Pages Notes to Notes

ArnoldD. Arnold02, F.F. D. Apr 02, dated 66 Apr both dated father both his father to his letter to and letter entry and diary entry Admiralty) diary Admiralty) Dolphin. HMS Dolphin. Mss, HMS Forster Mss, Forster 37/56/8. CAB 37/56/8. 11, CAB p. 11, 01, p. Jan 01, 17 Jan 1901/02,” 17 Estimates 1901/02,” “Navy Estimates Selborne, “Navy 78. Selborne, 78. 61. Onwards, 61. 1900 Onwards, From 1900 Bacon, From 79. Bacon, 79. gaugin gaugweather in of weather importance of the importance on the Selborne, on by Selborne, 02) by Jan 02) (18 Jan Minute (18 80. Minute 80.

trials boats—Latest trials “France—Submarine boats—Latest submarines, “France—Submarine of submarines, efficiency of true efficiency the true ing the ing 1/7482. ADM 1/7482. G119/1900, ADM CAP G119/1900, experiments,” CAP and experiments,” and ADM 00,” ADM May 00,” 18 May “Admiralty 18 in “Admiralty 01, in May 01, 13 May (controller), 13 May (controller), to May Bacon to 81. Bacon 81. 1/7462. 1/7462. 82. 82. Minute Minute (n/d) (n/d) by by H. H. G. G. Deadman, Deadman, on on Bacon Bacon to to White White (DNC), (DNC), 30 30 Jul Jul 01, 01, f6. f.6,

National Foundry, National Brass Foundry, series: Brass 138 series: ADM 138 as ADM known as [also known 185 [also Covers 185 Ships Covers Ships Museum]. Maritime Museum]. Maritime 290. Covers 290. Ships Covers 4, Ships cut 4, 05, cut Aug 05, 26 Aug memorandum, 26 Bacon memorandum, See Bacon 83. See 83. Ships f.19, Ships submarines, f.19, of submarines, launch of and launch commencement and of commencement Schedule of 84. Schedule 84. 185. Covers 185. Covers out set out A1 isis set and A1 Holland and of Holland qualities of seagoing qualities the seagoing between the contrast between The contrast 85. The 85. Portsmouth,”” to Portsmouth, Barrow to from Barrow passage from on passage ICS on of ICS report of A1, report “Submarine A1, Bacon, “Submarine in Bacon, in ADM1/7644. A730/03, ADM1/7644. 03, A730/03, Aug 03, 33 Aug 86. Admiralty Admiralty to to C. C. in in C.’s C.’s Devonport Devonport and and Portsmouth, Portsmouth, 17 17 May May 00, 00, p. p. 112, 112. 86. P.O.1900, P.Q.1900, ADM ADM 256/39. 256/39. 87. 87. ART ART 1901, 1901, Appendix Appendix C, C, 171—73. 171-73. HMS 57, HMS Notebook," 57, Bacon’s Notebook,” “Captain Bacon’s entitled “Captain book entitled Handwritten book 88. Handwritten 88. Museum. Submarine Museum. Dolphin Submarine Dolphin 89. Ibid., lbid., 57-59. 57—59. 89. 57. lbid., 57. 90. Ibid., 90. lbid. 91. Ibid. 91. Submarine of Submarine Running of the Running on the “Report on Bacon, “Report also Bacon, see also 187—89.; see lbid., 187-89.; 92. Ibid., 92. 1/7795. ADM 1/7795. 03. ADM May 03, 31 May boats,” 31 boats,” 93. 93. ART ART 1903, 1903, 82: 82; and and HMS HMS Vernon Vernon to to C. C. in in C. C. Portsmouth, Portsmouth, 15 15 Sep Sep 03, 03, f.26. f.26, Ships Ships Covers Covers 185. 185. by 01) by Jan O01) (5 Jan minute (5 in, minute trials in, anti-submarine trials to anti-submarine references to lbid; references 94. Ibid; 94. Admiral Admiral May, May, ADM ADM 1/7717. 1/7717. C. by C. “Remarks by on “Remarks Kerr, on by Kerr, 04) by Jul 04) and (1(1 Jul May and by May 04) by Jun 04) (30 Jun Minutes (30 95. Minutes 95. on Report on Thames: Report “H.M.S. Thames: docket: “H.M.S. in docket: enclosed in Fisher), enclosed (John Fisher), Portsmouth” (John C. Portsmouth” in C. in division one division and one boats and submarine boats between submarine out between carried out recently carried Manoeuvres recently the Manoeuvres the of the the Portsmouth Portsmouth Destroyer Destroyer flotilla,” flotilla,” by by Captain Captain Bacon Bacon and and Captain Captain Chariton, Charlton. of of volumes of 1904 volumes to 1904 1901 to the 1901 in the found in be found can be details can Further details 1/7719. Further ADM 1/7719. ADM Defence of Defence (Ministry of ART) (Ministry as ART) (cited as School” (cited Torpedo School” the Torpedo of the Report of “Annual Report “Annual Admiralty Admiralty Library). Library). to reference to 03, inin reference Sep 03, 15 Sep Portsmouth, 15 C. Portsmouth, C. inin C. to C. Egerton to George Egerton Capt. George 96. Capt. 96. “H.M.S. “H.M.S. Starfish” Starfish” anti-submarine anti-submarine trials. trials, f.26. f.26, Ships Ships Covers Covers 185. 185. (S) Captain (S) third Captain the third by the 1907, by June 1907, in June briefly in revived briefly were revived Experiments were 97. Experiments 97. SS SS Hall, Hall, ADM ADM 189/99. 189/99. ADM 03, ADM May 03, 31 May submarine-boats,” 31 of submarine-boats,” running of on running “Report on Bacon, “Report 98. Bacon, 98. 1/7795. 1/7795. 99. Ibid.

Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohnal‘gér'! plug/Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Notes to to Pages Pages 53-56 53—56 Notes

323 323

100. 100. Ibid., Ibid., 1—34. 1-34. 101. 101. Ibid., Ibid., 12-16. 12-16. 102. Marder, Marder, Anatomy, Anatomy, 365-67. 365—67. 102. 103. Ibid., Ibid., 365. 365. 103. 104. Custance, Custance, “Memorandum “Memorandum on on Sea Sea Power Power and and the the Principles Principles Involved Involved in in 104. it,” it,” July July 1902, 1902, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 134. 134. 105. 105. Minute Minute (16 (16 Apr Apr 02) 02) by by Selborne Selborne on on paper paper by by Custance, Custance, “Australian “Australian Naval Naval Question,” Question,” Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 133. 133. 106. 106. Bacon, Bacon, “Report “Report on on Running Running of of Submarine Submarine Boats,” Boats,” 31 31 May May 03, 03, p. p. 13, 13, ADM ADM 1/7795. 1/7795. 107. 107. Selborne, Selborne, “Navy “Navy Estimates Estimates 1903/04,” 1903/04,” 17 17 Oct Oct 02, 02, p. p. 11, 11, CAB CAB 37/63/142. 37/63/1 42. 108. 108. In In October October 1902, 1902, Selborne Selborne projected projected 40 40 destroyers, destroyers, 40 40 torpedo-boats torpedo-boats

and and 40 40 submarines, submarines, CAB CAB 37/63/142. 37/63/142. A A year year earlier earlier he he had had envisaged envisaged building building 49 49 destroyers, destroyers, 45 45 Torpedo-boats Torpedo-boats and and 20 20 submarines, submarines, CAB CAB 37/59/118. 37/59/1 18. 109. 109. Minute Minute (20 (20 Jan Jan 03) 03) by by May, May, “Controller, “Controller, 20 20 Jan Jan 03,” 03,” ADM ADM 1/24200. 1/24200. 110. 110. Marder, Marder, Anatomy, Anatomy, 365, 365, citing citing minute minute by by Battenberg Battenberg on on docket docket in in Admiralty Admiralty archives archives since since lost. lost. 111. 111. Admiralty Admiralty Correspondence Correspondence Digests, Digests, cut cut 55, 55, ADM ADM 12/1377 12/1377 (1902) (1902) and and ADM ADM 12/1389 12/1389 (1903). (1903). 112. 112. Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster to to May, May, 11 Jul Jul 02, 02, f.132, f.182, Add Add Mss Mss 50281. 50281. 113. 113. Minutes, Minutes, “France—submarine “France—submarine boats—latest boats—latest trials trials and and experiments,” experiments,” (11 (11 Jan Jan 02) 02) CAP CAP 6119/1900, G119/1900, ADM ADM 1/7482. 1/7482. 114. 114. Rough Rough notes notes attached attached to to a a letter letter from from Selborne Selborne to to Kerr, Kerr, 12 12 Sep Sep 01, 01, suggest Suggest that that the the Board Board agreed agreed the the Royal Royal Navy Navy should should build build a a fleet fleet of of thirty-five thirty-five submarines submarines to to match match the the French, French, f.150, f.150, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 27. 27. 115. 115. Fisher Fisher to to Selborne, Selborne, 25 25 Jul Jul 02, 02, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 198. 198. 116. 116. “Report “Report of of aa Conference Conference between between the the Admiralty Admiralty and and War War Office Office Representatives Representatives to to Consider Consider the the Strategic Strategic Conditions Conditions Governing Governing the the Coast Coast Defence Defence of of the the United United Kingdom Kingdom in in War War as as Effected Effected by by Naval Naval Conditions,” Conditions,” printed printed November November 1903, 1903, 3/1/9A, 3/1/9A, CAB CAB 38/1/4. 38/1/4. 117. 117. Admiralty, Admiralty, “Admiralty “Admiralty Instructions Instructions on on Defence Defence Matters,” Matters,” 10 10 Feb Feb 03. 03, Paragraph Paragraph 17, 17, 3/1/2A, 3/1/2A, CAB CAB 38/2/3. 38/2/83. Re-affirmed Re-affirmed in in May May 1904, 1904, for for which which see see copy, copy, f.12, f.12, Add Add Mss Mss 50308. 50308. 118. Marder, Marder, Anatomy, Anatomy, 378. 378. 118. 119. D'Ombrain, D’Ombrain, War War Machinery, Machinery, 1-30. 1—30. 119. 120. 120. War War Office, Office, “Provision “Provision of of Land Land Forces Forces for for the the Defence Defence of of the the United United Kingdom,” Kingdom,” 14 14 Feb Feb 03, 03, p. p. 2, 2, para. para. 7, 7, 3/1/3A, 3/1/3A, CAB CAB 38/2/5; 38/2/5; and and Admiralty, Admiralty, “Naval “Naval Remarks Remarks on on the the Military Military Paper, Paper, ‘Provision ‘Provision of of Land Land Forces Forces for for the the Defence Defence of of

the the United United Kingdom,’ Kingdom,’ of of the the 14th 14th February, February, 1903.” 1903,” 44 Mar Mar 03, 03, 3/1/8A, 3/1/8A, CAB CAB 38/2/11. 38/2/11. The The Home Home Ports Ports were were the the three three principal principal naval naval bases bases at at Portsmouth, Portsmouth, Devonport, Devonport, and and Chatham. Chatham. 121. 121. Admiralty, Admiralty, “Naval “Naval Remarks Remarks on on the the Military Military Paper, Paper, “Provision ‘Provision of of Land Land Forces Forces for for the the Defence Defence of of the the United United Kingdom,’ Kingdom,’ of of the the 14th 14th February, February, 1903,” 1903,” 4 4 Mar 08, 03, p. p. 1,1, 3/1/8A, 3/1/8A, CAB CAB 38/2/11. 38/2/11. Mar 122. 122. Ibid., Ibid., p. p. 2; 2; and and Admiralty, Admiralty, “Our “Our position position as as regards regards Invasion Invasion on on the the supsupL bgosiltiosnj position IthFaIt that 'oNur/lbalttle our battle fleet fleet in in Home Home Waters Waters has has sustained sustained a a reverse reverse and and is E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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57—59 Pages 57-59 Notes to Pages Notes to

03, Mar 03, 31 Mar strength,” 31 superior strength,” in superior Fleet in Hostile Fleet of aa Hostile face of in face Port in leave Port to leave unable to unable 38/2/19. 3/1/11A, CAB 38/2/19. 3/1/11A, CAB 3/1/16A, 2, 3/1/16A, 03, p. Jul 03, 14 Jul 13A,” 14 p. 2, 123. Paper 13A,” M.I.D. Paper on M.I.D. “Remarks on Admiralty, “Remarks 123. Admiralty, CAB 38/3/60. CAB 38/3/60. Ibid. 124. lbid. 124. ‘Provision of for Forces for Land Forces of Land Paper, ‘Provision Military Paper, the Military on the Remarks on 125. “Naval “Naval Remarks 125. Battenberg, by Battenberg, 1903,” by February, 1903,” 14th February, the 14th of the Kingdom,’ of United Kingdom,’ the United of the Defence of the the Defence 38/2/11. CAB 38/2/11. 3/1/8A, CAB 1, 3/1/8A, p. 1, 03, p. Mar 03, 4 Mar 4 United the United of the Defence of the Defence for the Forces for Land Forces of Land “Provision of Office, “Provision War Office, 126. War 126. 38/2/5. CAB 38/2/5. 3/1/3A, CAB 3, 3/1/3A, p. 3, 03, p. Feb 03, 14 Feb Kingdom,” 14 Kingdom,” “The (Admiralty), “The Selborne (Admiralty), see Selborne garrisons see overseas garrisons of overseas strength of for strength Ibid; for 127. lbid; 127. 37/73/165. CAB 37/73/165. 04, CAB Dec 04, 17 Dec Harbours,” 17 Commercial Harbours,” and Commercial Naval and of Naval Defence of Defence Mss Selborne Mss f.7, Selborne 03, f7, Nov 03, 14 Nov Arnold-Forster, 14 to Arnold-Forster, Selborne to letter Selborne Draft letter 128. Draft 128. Matters.” Defence Matters.” of Defence “Instructions of to “Instructions Reference to 34. Reference 34. Naval the Naval by the Prepared by Memorandum Prepared the Memorandum on the “Remarks on Office, “Remarks War Office, 129. War 129. Invasion of Invasion Possibilities of ‘The Possibilities on ‘The 1903, on 31 1903, March 31 dated March Department, dated Intelligence Department, Intelligence 03, Apr 03, 27 Apr Waters,” 27 Home Waters,”’ in Home Sea in the Sea of the Command of of Command Loss of Temporary Loss the Temporary During the During 38/2/24. CAB 38/2/24. 3/1/13A, CAB 3/1/13A, 04, Nov 04, 24 Nov Balfour, 24 to Balfour, Clarke to in Clarke enclosed in Mines” enclosed Submarine Mines” on Submarine “Notes on 130. “Notes 130. 49700. Mss 49700. Add Mss f.215, Add f.215, ADM 1896, ADM Feb 1896, 29 Feb Defences,” 29 Medway Defences,” and Medway “Thames and Docket, “Thames Admiralty Docket, 131. . Admiralty 131 1949), (London, 1949), Minelaying (London, and Minelaying Minelayers and Mines, Minelayers Cowie, Mines, Paul Cowie, also Paul 1/7642: also 1/7642; 24-26. 24—26. Mss Selborne Mss f.7, Selborne 03, f7, Nov 03, 12 Nov Arnold-Forster, 12 to Arnold-Forster, Selborne to letter Selborne Draft letter 132. Draft 132. 34. 34. Ibid. 133. lbid. 133. 49700. Mss 49700. Add Mss f.220, Add 04, f.220, Nov 04, 25 Nov Balfour, 25 to Balfour, Clarke to George Clarke Sir George 134. Sir 134. Submarine of Submarine removal of “Proposed removal on “Proposed 03, on Jan 03, 15 Jan Admiralty, 15 to Admiralty, Brodrick to 135. Brodrick 135. 1/7717. ADM 1/7717. 03), ADM Jan 03), 15 Jan (WO 15 Sheerness” (W0 to Sheerness” Chatham to from Chatham School from mining School mining Ibid. 136. Ibid. 136. ibid. Egerton, ibid. Captain Egerton, by Captain 03) by Feb 03) (6 Feb Minute (6 137. Minute 137. ibid. Jackson, ibid. Henry Jackson, Capt. Henry by Capt. 03) by Feb 03) (16 Feb Minute (16 138. Minute 138. Ibid. 139. Ibid. 139. ibid. Battenberg, ibid. Captain Battenberg, 03) Captain Feb 03) (26 Feb Minute (26 140. Minute 140. land of land ‘provision of paper, ‘provision military paper, the military on the Remarks on “Naval Remarks Battenberg, “Naval 141. Battenberg, 141.

03, Mar 03, 1903,” 44 Mar February 1903,” 14th February of 14th Kingdom,’ of United Kingdom,’ the United of the defence of the defence for the forces for forces

38/2/11. CAB 38/2/11. 3/1/8A, CAB 2, 3/1/8A, p. 2, p.

37/57/60; CAB 37/57/60; 01, CAB Jun 01, 17 Jun Stations,” 17 Coaling Stations,” of Coaling “Garrisons of Selborne, “Garrisons 142. Selborne, 142.

Jan 20 Jan Admiralty,” 20 the Admiralty,” to the Stations to Coaling Stations of Coaling Transfer of “Proposed Transfer Lansdowne, “Proposed Lansdowne,

Garrison to Garrison Marines to Employ Marines to Employ “Proposal to Lansdowne, “Proposal 37/46/8; Lansdowne, CAB 37/46/8; 1898, CAB 1898,

01 Jan 01 11 Jan Selborne, 11 to Selborne, Brodrick to 37/43/54; Brodrick CAB 37/43/54; 1896, CAB Dec 1896, 11 Dec Stations,” 11 Coaling Stations,” Coaling 26. Mss 26. Selborne Mss f.138, Selborne 01, f.138, Mar 01, 11 Mar and 11 and of Admiralty of to Admiralty Transfer to “Proposed Transfer Custance, “Proposed by Custance, 01) by (Feb 01) Minute (Feb 143. Minute 143. 1/7516. ADM 1/7516. f.11, ADM Stations,” f.11, Coaling Stations,” Certain Coaling Certain f.41, 01, f.41, Mar 01, 11 Mar f.24-30; 11 01, f.24—30; Jan 01, 28 Jan f.2; 28 00, f2; Nov 00, 15 Nov Selborne, 15 to Selborne, Kerr to 144. Kerr 144. 27. Mss 27. Selborne Mss all Selborne all Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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145. 145. 146. 146. 147. 147. 1/7717. 1/7717. 148. 148.

325 325

1/7717. ADM 1/7717. 03), ADM May 03), (W0 22 May Battenberg (WO by Battenberg 03) by Feb 03) (26 Feb Minute (26 Minute ibid. Selborne, ibid. by Selborne, 03) by Mar 03) (4 Mar Minute (4 Minute Committee Committee formed formed 11 11 May May 03, 03, report report 77 Jan Jan 04 04 (W0 (WO 22 May May 03), 03), ADM ADM Bacon, Bacon, “Report “Report on on running running of of submarine submarine boats,” boats,” 31 31 May May 03, 03, p. p. 18, 18,

ADM1/7725; May May to to Selborne Selborne 19 19 Mar Mar 03, 03, f.2, f2, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 36. 36. ADM1/7725; 149. 149. Admiralty, Admiralty, “Memorandum “Memorandum on on Possibility Possibility of of Invasion Invasion During During Temporary Temporary Loss of of Command Command of of the the Sea Sea inin Home Home Waters,” Waters,” 31 31 Mar Mar 03. 03. p2, p2, 3/1/11A, 3/1/11A, CAB CAB Loss 38/2/19. 38/2/19. 150. 150. Custance Custance to to Selborne, Selborne, 31 31 Sep Sep 04, 04, and and Lambton Lambton to to Selborne, Selborne, 28 28 Jan Jan 04, 04, 23. Mss 23. Selborne Mss Selborne 151. 151. Haldane. Haldane, “Memorandum “Memorandum of of Events Events between between 1906-15,” 1906-15,” Apr Apr 1916, 1916, f.29, f.29, 5919. Mss 5919. Haldane Mss Haldane 152. Williams, Williams, Defending Defending the the Empire, Empire, 41. 41. 152. 153. Richard Rempel, Unionists Joseph 153. Richard Rempel, Unionists Divided: Divided: Arthur Arthur Balfour, Balfour, Joseph Chamberlain Chamberlain and and the the Unionist Unionist Free Free Traders Traders (Newton (Newton Abbot, Abbot, 1972). 1972). 154. Cited Cited in in Marder, Marder, Anatomy, Anatomy, 121. 121. 154. 155. Balfour Balfour to to Esher, Esher, 30 30 Jul Jul 04, 04, Add Add Mss Mss 41718; 41718; See See also also Williams, Williams, 155. Defending the the Empire, Empire, 41-43. 41—43. Defending 156. Arnold-Forster, Arnold-Forster, “Needs “Needs for for Organisation Organisation for for War,” War,” Add Add Mss Mss 50289; 50289; for for 156. the of the understanding of for understanding 50335; for Mss 50335; Add Mss f.3, Add diairy, f.3, see diairy, post see the post of the offer of the offer the 50335. Mss 50335. Add Mss f.9, Add diary, f.9, see diary, role see Committee’s role Esher Committee’s Esher his of his account of blow account by blow blow by gives aa blow 1903 gives for 1903 diary for Arnold-Forster’s diary 157. Arnold-Forster’s 157. 50335. Mss 50335. Add Mss f.4—133, Add Office, f.4-133, War Office, the War reform the to reform attempts to attempts 158. Arnold-Forster, Arnold-Forster, “Army “Army Reform Reform Notes,” Notes,” 15 15 Jan Jan 1897, 1897, f.15, f.15, Add Add Mss Mss 158. 49722. 49722. 159. Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster diary, diary, 11 Nov Nov 03, 03, f.70, f.70, Add Add Mss Mss 50335. 50335. 159. 50335. Mss 50335. Add Mss f.68, Add 03, f.68, Oct 03, 30 Oct diary, 30 Arnold-Forster’s diary, 160. Arnold-Forster’s 160. 34. Mss 34. Selborne Mss f3, Selborne 03, f.3, Nov 03, Selborne, 33 Nov to Selborne, Kerr to 161. Kerr 161. 1/7717. ADM 1/7717. 03), ADM Jan 03), 15 Jan Office 15 (War Office Selborne (War by Selborne 03) by Mar 03) (4 Mar Minute (4 162. Minute 162. 163. 163. Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster diary, diary, 11 Nov Nov 03, 03, f.70, f.70, Add Add Mss Mss 50335. 50335. 34. Mss 34. Selborne Mss fl, Selborne 03, f.1, Nov 03, Selborne 22 Nov to Selborne Arnold-Forster to 164. Arnold-Forster 164. Arnoldgiven inin Arnoldcontrol given and control command and confusion inin command of confusion examples of lbid; examples 165. Ibid; 165. 118. Mss 118. Selborne Mss f.155, Selborne 02, f.155, Oct 02, 20 Oct War,” 20 for War,” Forster's “Organisation for Forster’s “Organisation 365. Anatomy, 365. Marder, Anatomy, 166. Marder, 166. lbid. 167. Ibid. 167. 168. 168. Kerr Kerr to to Selborne Selborne 4 4 Nov Nov 03, 03, f3, f.3, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 34. 34. and submarines and of submarines merits of relative merits the relative discussed the having discussed admitted having Kerr admitted 169. Kerr 169. 30 diary, 30 Arnold-Forster diary, also Arnold-Forster ibid; also before, ibid; days before, some days Arnold-Forster some with Arnold-Forster mines with mines 50335. Mss 50335. Add Mss f.68, Add 03, f£.68, Oct 03, Oct More 50308. More Mss 50308. Add Mss f.9, Add 03, f.9, Nov 03, 14 Nov Arnold-Forster, 14 to Arnold-Forster, Selborne to 170. Selborne 170. “forceful” “forceful” drafts drafts can can be be found found in in f.7—12, f.7-12, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss Box Box 34. 34. 171. Kerr Kerr to to Selborne, Selborne, 44 Nov Nov 03, 03, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 34. 34. 171. 370—71. Anatomy, 370-71. Marder, Anatomy, 172. Marder, 172. 173. See: See: Tweedmouth, TWeedmouth, “Memorandum” “Memorandum” [Navy [Navy Estimates Estimates 1907/8], 1907/8], 26 26 Jun Jun 06, 06, 173. CAB 37/83/60. La m bert, gé E. filfiflégg’soNaval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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November Invasion,” November Serious Invasion,” of Serious Possibility of on Possibility Report on “Draft Report Balfour, “Draft 174. Balfour, 174. 38/3/71. CAB 38/3/71. 3/1/18A, CAB 1903, 3/1/18A, 1903, 175. 175. ibid., Ibid., p. p. 7. 7. 176. 176. lbid., Ibid., p. p. 8. 8. 177. 177. lbid., Ibid., pp. pp. 8, 8, 14-15. 14-15. 178. Ibid; lbid; note note the the similarity similarity of of arguments arguments employed employed in: in: Admiralty, Admiralty, “Remarks “Remarks 178. on M.I.D. M.I.D. Paper Paper 13a,” 13a,” 14 14 Jul Jul 03, 03, 3/1/16A, 3/1/16A, CAB CAB 38/3/60. 38/3/60. on

179. 179. Selborne Selborne to to Balfour, Balfour, 16 16 Nov Nov 03, 03, f.148, f.148, Add Add Mss Mss 49707. 49707. 180. 180. Battenberg, Battenberg, “Strategic “Strategic Position Position of of British British Naval Naval Bases Bases in in Western Western Atlantic Atlantic and and West West Indies,” Indies,” 24 24 Nov Nov 03, 03, 5/1/5C, 5/1/5C, CAB CAB 38/3/74. 38/3/74. 181. 181. Minutes Minutes of of 24 24 Meeting Meeting of of cm, CID, 25 25 Nov Nov 03, 03, CAB CAB 38/3/75. 38/3/75. 182. 182. [War [War Office], Office], “Memorandum “Memorandum on on the the Defence Defence of of Bermuda” Bermuda” [December [December 1903], 1903], 5/1/6C, 5/1/6C, CAB CAB 38/3/78. 38/3/78. 183. 183. lbid. Ibid. 184. 184. [Admiralty] [Admiralty] Battenberg, Battenberg, “Garrison “Garrison of of Bermuda,” Bermuda,” 19 19 Mar Mar 04, 04, 5/1/90, 5/1/9C, CAB CAB 38/4/9. 38/4/9. |. 185. 185. Balfour Balfour to to Fisher, Fisher, 3 3 Jan Jan 04, 04, f.71, f.71, Add Add Mss Mss 49710. 49710. 186. 186. Lord Lord Esher, Esher, “National “National Strategy,” Strategy,” 27 27 Mar Mar 04, 04, Add Add Mss Mss 49718. 49718. 187. 187. Fisher Fisher to to Balfour, Balfour, 55 Jan Jan 04, 04, enclosing enclosing letter letter from from Admiral Admiral May May dated dated 33 Jan 04, 04, f.75, f.75, Add Add Mss Mss 49710. 49710. Jan 188. 188. Balfour Balfour to to Selborne, Selborne, 77 Jan Jan 04, 04, fl, f.1, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 39. 39. 189. 189. Minute Minute (14 (14 Dec Dec 03) 03) by by Battenberg, Battenberg, on on docket docket “Submarine “Submarine Defences— Defences— Substitution Substitution of of Submarines Submarines for for existing existing Mine-fields Mine-fields at at certain certain places,” places,” ADM ADM 1/7717. 1/7717. 190. 190. Captain Captain Bacon, Bacon, “Report “Report on on the the suitability suitability of of RE. R.E. submarine submarine mining mining stastations tions at at Portsmouth, Portsmouth, Devonport, Devonport, & & Sheerness Sheerness as as depots depots for for s.m. s.m. boats,” boats,” 13 13 Dec Dec 03, 03, enclosed enclosed in in “Submarine “Submarine Defences,” Defences,” ibid. ibid. 191. 191. Minute Minute (16 (16 Dec Dec 03) 03) by by Kerr Kerr addressed addressed to to Admirals Admirals Drury Drury and and Durnford. Durnford, on on docket docket “Submarine “Submarine Defences,” Defences,” ibid. ibid. 192. 192. Memoranda Memoranda (29 (29 Dec Dec 03) 03) by by Vice Vice Adm. Adm. Charles Charles Drury Drury and and (24 (24 Dec Dec 03) 03) by by Rear Rear Adm. Adm. John John Durnford Durnford (Admiralty (Admiralty 15 15 Jan Jan 03), 03), ADM ADM 1/7717. 1/7717. 193. 193. Memo Memo (24 (24 Dec Dec 03) 03) by by Durnford, Durnford, ibid. ibid. 194. 194. Memo Memo (29 (29 Dec Dec 03) 03) byDrury, by. Drury, ibid. ibid. 195. 195. Memo Memo (24 (24 Dec Dec 03) 03) by by Durnford, Durnford, ibid. ibid. 196. 196. Memo Memo (5 (5 Jan Jan 04) 04) by by May May (controller), (controller), ibid. ibid. 197. 197. Memo Memo (6 (6 Jan Jan 04) 04) by by Kerr, Kerr, ibid. ibid. 198. Ibid. lbid. 198.

199. 199. Minute Minute (7 (7 Jan Jan 04) 04) by by Selborne Selborne on on memorandum memorandum by by Kerr Kerr dated dated 66 Jan'04, Jan 04, ibid. ibid. 200. 200. Correspondence Correspondence between between Balfour Balfour and and Selborne, Selborne, Jan Jan 1904, 1904, Add Add Mss Mss

49707. 4¢°707. 201. 201. Arnold-Forster, Arnold-Forster, “No “No 1. 1. Memorandum,” Memorandum,” 44 Dec Dec 03, 03, f.5—-6, f.5-6, Add Add Mss Mss 50300 50300 and and f.230, f.230, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 120. 120. 202. 202. Arnold-Forster, Arnold-Forster, “No.3. “No.3. Memorandum,” Memorandum,” 8 8 Dec Dec 03, 03, p. p. 6, 6, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 120; 120; Williams, Williams, Defending Defending the the Empire, Empire, 46—47. 46—47. 203. Ibid., p. 6.

Lambert, Nicolas. Sigogna'fshlepsilgilal Bro/gm. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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327 327

204. 204. The The capital capital cost cost of of transferring transferring the the responsibility responsibility for for the the coaling coaling stations stations was was calculated Calculated in in 1901 1901 to to be be £1,286,000. £1,286,000. It It would would also also add add £769,740 £769,740 per per annum annum to to the the naval naval estimates, estimates, for for which which see see Admiralty, Admiralty, “Considerations “Considerations Affecting Affecting the the Proposal Proposal to to Transfer Transfer the the Responsibility Responsibility of of Defence Defence of of Coaling Coaling Stations Stations to to the the

Admiralty,” Admiralty,” Jun Jun 01, 01, f.17, f.17, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 160. 160. 205. 205. Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster to to Lyttleton Lyttleton (ClGS), (CIGS), 19 19 May May 04, 04, f.4, f.4, Add Add Mss Mss 50308; 50308; also also Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster to to Selborne, Selborne, 31 31 Jan Jan 02, 02, enclosing enclosing memo memo on on coaling coaling stations, stations, f.102, f.102, Add Add Mss Mss 50280. 50280. 206. 206. Arnold-Forster, Arnoid-Forster, “Summary “Summary of of Years Years Work Work at at War War Office,” Office,” 31 31 Jan Jan 05, 05, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 120; 120; Arnold—Forster Arnold-Forster to to Lyttleton, Lyttleton, 19 19 May May 04, 04, f.4, f.4, Add Add Mss Mss 50308. 50308. 207. 207. Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster to to Selborne, Selborne, Dec Dec 02, 02, f.23—33, f.23-33, Add Add Mss Mss 50284. 50284. 208. 208. Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster diary, diary, 21 21 Nov Nov 03, 03, 1’97, £.97, Add Add Mss Mss 50335. 50335. Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster frequently frequently complained complained in in his his diary diary about about the the slow slow rate rate at at which which his his reforms reforms were were introduced, introduced, and and recorded recorded his his growing growing impatience impatience with with their their obstruction obstruction by by solsoldiers. diers. 209. 209. Kerr Kerr to to Selborne, Selborne, 6 6 Jan Jan 04, 04, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 41. 41. 210. 210. Minutes Minutes of of Board Board meeting meeting forwarded forwarded by by Selborne Selborne to to Secretary Secretary of of the the Admiralty, Admiralty, 13 13 Jan Jan 04, 04, ADM ADM 1/7717. 1/7717. 211 boats and 211. Bacon, Bacon, “Submarine“Submarine-boats and Bases,” Bases,” 4 4 Feb Feb 04, 04, CAP CAP B127/1904, B127/1904, ADM ADM 1/7739. 1/7739.

212. 212. Draft Draft minutes minutes of of Board Board meeting meeting held held on on 13 13 Jan Jan 04, 04, ADM ADM 1/7717. 1/7717. 213. 213. Minute Minute (7 (7 Jan Jan 04) 04) by by Selborne Selborne on on memorandum memorandum by by Kerr Kerr dated dated 6 6 Jan Jan 04, 04, attached attached to to Board Board minutes, minutes, ibid. ibid. 214. 214. Minute Minute (4 (4 Jun Jun 04) 04) by by Cmdr. Cmdr. George George Ballard, Ballard, on on docket docket “Functions “Functions of of Submarine Submarine Mines Mines in in War,” War,” dated dated 27 27 Feb Feb 04, 04, ADM ADM 1/7717. 1/7717.

215. 215. Draft Draft minutes minutes of of Board Board meeting meeting held held on on 13 13 Jan Jan 04, 04, ADM ADM 1/7717. 1/7717. 216. 216. Lyttleton Lyttleton to to Arnold-Forster, Arnold-Forster, 29 29 Jul Jul 04, 04, f.12, f£.12, Add Add Mss Mss 50308; 50308; Minute Minute (6 (6 Jun Jun 04) 04) by by Cmdr. Cmdr. George George Ballard, Ballard, on on docket docket “Functions “Functions of of Submarine Submarine Mines Mines in in War,” War,” dated dated 27 27 February, February, 1904, 1904, ADM ADM 1/7717. 1/7717. 217. 217. Minutes Minutes (4 (4 Jun Jun 04) 04) by by Cmdr. Cmdr. George George Ballard Ballard (a/DNI) (a/DNI) and and (6 (6 Jun Jun 04) 04) by by Kerr, Kerr, ibid. ibid. 218. 218. Minute Minute (21 (21 Aug Aug 04) 04) by by Selborne Selborne on on docket docket “Submarine “Submarine Mine Mine Defences Defences in in its its Naval Naval Aspects” Aspects” (ex-W0 (ex-WO 22 22 Apr Apr 05) 05) ADM ADM 1/8879. 1/8879. 219. 219. John John McDermott, McDermott, “The “The British British Army’s Army’s Turn Turn to to Europe,” Europe,” in in Paul Paul Kennedy Kennedy ed., ed., The The War War Plans Plans of of the the Great Great Powers Powers (Allen (Allen & & Unwin: Unwin: London, London, 1979; 1979; reprint reprint 1985),105;d’0mbrain, 1985), 105; d’Ombrain, War War Machinery, Machinery, 6. 6.

220. Letter Letter (M.0314) (M. 0314) from from Army Army Council Council to to Admiralty, Admiralty, Feb Feb 1904, 1904, ADM ADM 220. 1/7717. 1/7717. 221. 221. Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster to to Lyttleton Lyttleton (C.I.G.S.), (C.I.G.S.), 19 19 May May 04, 04, f4, f.4, Add Add Mss Mss 50308; 50308; Lyttleton Lyttleton to to Arnold-Forster, Arnold-Forster, 29 29 Jul Jul 04, 04, f.12, f.12, ibid; ibid; Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster to to Lyttleton, Lyttleton, 16 16 Aug Aug 04 04 and and Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster to to Lyttleton, Lyttleton, 3 3 Oct Oct 04, 04, ff.16, ff.16, Add Add Mss Mss 50300. 50300. 222. 222. War War Office, Office, “The “The Strength Strength of of the the Regular Regular Army Army and and Auxiliary Auxiliary Forces, Forces,

having having regard regard to to peace peace and and war war requirements,” requirements,” 11 May May 04, 04, 3/1/22A, 3/1/22A, CAB38/4/40; CAB38/4/40; see see also also d’Ombrain, d’'Ombrain, War War Machinery, Machinery, 54. 54. 223. Williams, Williams, Defending Defending the the Empire, Empire, 47-50. 47—50. 223. 224. Balfour to Esher, 30 Jul 04, f 120, Add 224. Balfour to Esher, 30 Jul 04, f.120, Add Mss Mss 49718. 49718. Lambert, Nicolas. SIrjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolu E-book, Columbia. U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|. handle. net/2027/heb.31569. Downloaded on behalf of Digital Theological Library, Claremont, CA

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appointment; Fisher’s appointment; of Fisher’s aware of be aware to be first to the first of the one of was one Arnold-Forster was 225. Arnold-Forster 225. 50337. Mss 50337. Add Mss f.43, Add 04, f.43, May 04, 16 May diary, 16 Arnold-Forster diary, see Arnold-Forster which see for which for 50339. Mss 50339. Add Mss f.20, Add 04, f.20, Jul 04, diary, 88 Jul Arnold-Forster diary, 226. Arnold-Forster 226.

Chapter Chapter Three: Three: Radical Radical Jack Jack Fisher Fisher 1. 1. The The three three major major biographies biographies are: are: Reginald Reginald Bacon, Bacon, The The Life Life of of Lord Lord Fisher Fisher ofKilverstone of Kilverstone (Hodder (Hodder & & Stoughton: Stoughton: London, London, 1929); 1929); Richard Richard Hough, Hough, First First Sea Sea Lord.Lord: An Authorised Authorised Biography Biography of ofAdmiral Lord Fisher Fisher (London, (London, 1969); 1969); Ruddock Ruddock Mackay, Mackay, An Admiral Lord Fisher of of Kilverstone Kilverstone (Clarendon: (Clarendon: Oxford, Oxford, 1973). 1973). The The minor minor biographies biographies are: are: Ester Ester Fisher Meynell, Meynell, A A Woman Woman Talking Talking (London, (London, 1940) 1940) and and Richard Richard Ollard, Ollard, Fisher Fisher and and Cunningham: Cunningham: A A Study Study of of Personalities Personalities of of the the Churchill Churchill Era Era (Constable (Constable Press: Press: London, London, 1991); 1991); the the caprice caprice (and (and most most successful successful attempt attempt to to capture capture the the character character of of the the man) man) is is Jan Jan Morris, Morris, Fisher’s Fisher’s Face Face (Viking (Viking Press: Press: London, London, 1995). 1995). 2. 2. See See letter letter from from Geoffrey Geoffrey Penn Penn to to the the editor, editor, Naval Naval Review, Review, Jan. Jan. 1996; 1996; biographic biographic note note on on Barry Barry Gough Gough in in the the list list of of contributors, contributors, The The First First Sea Sea Lords: Lords: From From Fisher Fisher to to Mounbatten, Mounbatten, ed. ed. Malcolm Malcolm Murfett Murfett (Praeger: (Praeger: Westport, Westport, 1995). 1995). 3. 3. Bacon, Bacon, Lord Lord Fisher, Fisher, 1, \, 227-28. 227-28. 4. 4. lbid., Ibid., citing citing remarks remarks of of G. G. L. L. Garvin, Garvin, the the long-time long-time editor editor of of the the Observer Observer newspaper. newspaper.. 5. Oo. Marder, Marder, FGDN, FGDN, l,I, 9. 9. 6. 6. Jan Jan Morris, Morris, Fisher’s Fisher's Face, Face, 10. 10. 7. 7. Fisher Fisher to to Arnold Arnold Forster, Forster, 16 16 Jan Jan 01, 01, cited cited in in Mackay, Mackay, Kilverstone, Kilverstone, 247. 247. 8. 8. Fisher Fisher to to Mrs. Mrs. Reginald Reginald Neeld Neeld (his (his daughter), daughter), 23 23 Mar Mar 1899, 1899, FGDN, FGDN, l, I, 139. 139. 9. 9. Fisher Fisher to to Earl Earl Spencer, Spencer, 28 28 Mar Mar 02, 02, FGDN, FGDN, l, I, 238; 238; Lord Lord Hankey, Hankey, The The Supreme Supreme Command, Command, 1914-1918 1914-1918 (2 (2 vols.; vols.; George George Allen Allen and and Unwin: Unwin: London, London, 1961) 1961) I, I, 14—15. 14-15. 10. 10. Fisher, Fisher, Kilverstone, Kilverstone, 224—25. 224-25. 11. 11. Fisher Fisher to to Selborne, Selborne, 25 25 Jul Jul 01, 01, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 198; 198; Fisher Fisher to to Thursfield, Thursfield, 27 27 Apr Apr 00, 00, FGDN, FGDN, I, I, 155; 155; and and Bacon, Bacon, Lord Lord Fisher, Fisher, 1, I, 128. 128. 12. 12. Mackay, Mackay, Kilverstone, Kilverstone, 224—26, 224-26, 230, 230, 233—36; 233-36; Marder, Marder, FDSF, FDSF. l, I, 12; 12: idem, idem, Anatomy, Anatomy, 395. 395. 13. 13. Hankey, Hankey, Supreme Supreme Command, Command, l, |, 19; 19: also also cited cited in in Mackay, Mackay, Kilverstone, Kilverstone, 225 .. 225 14. 14. Fisher Fisher to to Selborne, Selborne, 19 19 Dec Dec 00, 00, FP56, FP56, Fisher Fisher Papers Papers 1/2; 1/2; more more generalgenerally: ly: Sumida, Sumida, In In Defence, Defence, 41—44. 41-44. 15. 15. Fisher, Fisher, Feb Feb 1900, 1900, p. p. 105, 105, P.0.1900, P.0.1900, ADM ADM 256/36; 256/36; p. p. 24, 24, ART ART 1900, 1900, Admiralty Admiralty Library. Library. 16. 16. Beresford Beresford to to Balfour, Balfour, 21 21 Jun Jun 00, 00, f.104, f.104, Add Add Mss Mss 49718; 49718; For For evidence evidence Beresford Beresford took took submarines submarines seriously, seriously, see see Beresford Beresford to to Domville, Domville, 77 Dec Dec 03, 03, “War “War Plans: Plans: Mediterranean Mediterranean and and Channel Channel Fleets,” Fleets,” ADM ADM 116/3111. 116/3111. 17. 17. Fisher Fisher to to Selborne, Selborne, 19 19 Jul Jul 02 02 and and 25 25 Jul Jul 02, 02, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 198; 198; Fisher Fisher to to Admiralty, Admiralty, 16 16 Jul Jul 01, 01, on on “Serious “Serious Disadvantage Disadvantage to to the the Public Public Service Service Caused Caused by by British British Consul Consul being being on on Leave Leave of of Absence Absence during during French French Naval Naval Manoeuvres Manoeuvres off off Ajaccio,” Ajaccio,” ADM ADM 1/7505. 1/7505. Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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329 329

18. See, See, for for example, example, Fisher, Fisher, “Notes “Notes for for Successor,” Successor,” 14 14 May May 02, 02, inin 18. 109—11. Face, 109-11. Fisher’s Face, Morris, Fisher's and Morris, 1/7597; and ADM 1/7597; “Mediterranean,” ADM “Mediterranean,” 26. Mss 26. Selborne Mss 02, Selborne Jul 02, 25 Jul Selborne, 25 to Selborne, Fisher to 19. Fisher 19. 20. 20. Fisher, Fisher, “Mediterranean “Mediterranean Fleet Fleet Lectures,” Lectures,” 75, 75, FP4702, FP4702, Fisher Fisher Papers Papers 8/1. 8/1. 21. 21. Fisher, Fisher, “Purging “Purging the the Navy Navy of of Obsolete Obsolete Vessels” Vessels” in in Kemp, Kemp, FRI, F.P.1, 35. 35. 22. 22. Fisher, Fisher, “Notes “Notes for for Successor,” Successor,” paragraph paragraph 24, 24, 14 14 May May 02, 02, in in “Mediterranean,” “Mediterranean,” ADM ADM 1/7597; 1/7597; Fisher Fisher to to Wilson, Wilson, 12 12 Feb Feb 02, 02, FGDN, FGDN, l, I, 227. 227. 23. 23. Fisher, Fisher, “Notes “Notes on on the the important important necessity necessity of of possessing possessing Powerful Powerful Fast Fast Armoured Armoured Cruisers Cruisers and and their their Qualifications,” Qualifications,” Feb Feb 02, 02, FP4198, FP4198, Fisher Fisher Papers Papers

5/9; 5/9; and and Fisher, Fisher, “Notes “Notes for for Successor,” Successor,” Apr Apr 02, 02, FP4196, FP4196, Fisher Fisher Papers Papers 5/8. 5/8. 24. 24. Selborne Selborne to to Chamberlain, Chamberlain, 30 30 Sep Sep 03, 03, cited sited in in Boyce, Boyce, Selborne, Selborne, 156. 156. 25. 25. Minute Minute (20 (20 Jan Jan 01) 01) by by Custance, Custance, on on Fisher Fisher to to Admiralty, Admiralty, 25 25 Dec Dec 00. 00, enclosing enclosing “Further “Further Report Report on on the the number number of of Destroyers Destroyers Required Required on on the the Mediterranean Station,” Station,” Admiralty Admiralty 24 24 Dec Dec 1900, 1900, ADM ADM 1/7465C. 1/7465C. Mediterranean 26. Fisher Fisher to to Wilson, Wilson, 12 12 Feb Feb 02, 02, FGDN, FGDN, 1,l, 227. 227. 26. 27. 27. Fisher Fisher to to Selborne, Selborne, 25 25 Jul Jul 01, 01, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 198; 198; Fisher, Fisher, Synopsis Synopsis of of first first portion portion of of French French naval naval maneuvers maneuvers in in the the Mediterranean, Mediterranean, 25 25 Jul Jul 01, 01, N807, N807, ADM 1/7507; 1/7507; Admiralty, Admiralty, “France—Naval “France—Naval Manoeuvres Manoeuvres 1900,” 1900,” NID MD Report Report 595, 595, p. p. ADM 7, 7, Noel Noel Mss Mss Box Box 6A 6A [National [National Maritime Maritime Museum]. Museum]. 28. 28. Remarks Remarks by by Captain Captain Egerton, Egerton, “Majestic,” “Majestic,” 13 13 January January 1900, 1900, in in “Report “Report on on Trials Trials of of Gyroscopes Gyroscopes Carried Carried Out Out in in Channel Channel Squadron Squadron and and Remarks Remarks by by Vernon,” 36-39, 36—39, ART ART 1900, 1900, Admiralty Admiralty Library. Library. Vernon,” 29. 29. Fisher Fisher to to Selborne, Selborne, 29 29 Jul Jul 01, 01, f.21, f.21, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 21; 21; Rawson Rawson (c. (c. in in 0., c., Channel Channel Squadron, Squadron, 1901) 1901) to to Admiralty, Admiralty, 15 15 Jan Jan 01, 01, in in “Mediterranean “Mediterranean Fleet Fleet 1/7450B. ADM 1/7450B. Exercises,” ADM Exercises,” 30. Selborne, Selborne, “Naval “Naval Estimates, Estimates, 1901-1902,” 1901-1902,” 17 17 Jan Jan 01, 01, p. p. 8., 8., CAB CAB 37/56/8. 37/56/8. 30. 31. 31. Fisher Fisher to to Selborne, Selborne, 6 6 Oct Oct 01, 01, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 198; 198; see see also also Jon Jon Sumida, Sumida, “The “The Quest Quest for for Reach: Reach: The The Development Development of of Long-range Long-range Gunnery Gunnery in in the the Royal Royal Navy, Navy, 1901—1912,” 1901-1912,” in in Stephen Stephen D. D. Chiabotti, Chiabotti, ed., ed., Tooling Tooling for for War: War: Military Military Transformation Chicago, 1996), 1996), Transformation in in the the Industrial Industrial Age Age (Imprint (Imprint Publications: Publications: Chicago, 49—97. 49-97. 32. Beaumont to Selborne, 55 May May 02, 02, f.41, f.41, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 17. 32. Admiral Admiral Beaumont to Selborne, 17. Squadron. Australia Squadron. C. Australia in C. C. in later C. was later DNl, was former DNI, Beaumont, aa former Beaumont, ART 49-50, ART p. 49-50, Fleet, p. Channel Fleet, in Channel running in Torpedo running on Torpedo Report on Wilson, Report 33. Wilson, 33. Library. Admiralty Library. 1903, Admiralty 1903, 253. FGDN, I,l, 253. 02, FGDN, Jul 02, 19 Jul Selborne, 19 to Selborne, Fisher to 34. Fisher 34. were guns were quick-firing guns that quick-firing evidence that for evidence 226-30; for Kilverstone, 226-30; Mackay, Kilverstone, 35. Mackay, 35. 41—42. Defence, 41-42. In Defence, Sumida, In see Sumida, time see this time at this guns at big guns over big preferred over preferred 3. Reach,” 3. for Reach,” Quest for “The Quest Sumida, “The 36. Sumida, 36. FP4702, 89, FP4702, 1899—1902,” 89, Lectures, 1899-1902,” Fleet Lectures, “Mediterranean Fleet Fisher, “Mediterranean 37. Fisher, 37. Fisher Fisher Papers Papers 8/1: 8/1: Extracts Extracts from from Report Report on on use use of of destroyers destroyers by by Captains Captains Louis Louis ibid. 42—47, ibid. Madden, 42-47, Charles Madden, Briggs, Charles Charles Briggs, Battenberg, Charles Battenberg, 38. 38. Fisher Fisher to to Admiralty, Admiralty, 16 16 Jan Jan 00, 00, enclosed enclosed in in “Mediterranean “Mediterranean Fleet Fleet 1/7450B. ADM 1/7450B. N848/00, ADM Exercises,” N848/00, Exercises,” 39. 39. Fisher Fisher to to Selborne, Selborne, 11 Dec Dec 00, 00, 19 19 Dec Dec 00, 00, 55 Jan Jan 01, 01, and and Fisher Fisher to to Lambefl‘hunsfionJsAmmo-0,29 Jan 01, Thursfield, 27 Apr 00, 29 Jan 01, FGDN, FGDN, I, I, 155—186. 155-186. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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by 00) by Dec 00) (27 Dec Minute (27 see Minute destroyers see 40. of destroyers role of the role on the views on Kerr’s views For Kerr’s 40. For 158. Mss 158. Selborne Mss (f.16—23), Selborne Kerr Programme,” 88 (f.16-23), “Shipbuilding Programme,” on “Shipbuilding Kerr on 27. Mss 27. Selborne Mss f.129, Selborne 01, f.129, Aug 01, 41. 25 Aug Selborne, 25 to Selborne, Kerr to 41. Kerr “Third on “Third Custance, on by Custance, 01) by Jul 01) (23 Jul and (23 42. Kerr and by Kerr 01) by Jul 01) (24 Jul Minutes (24 Ibid; Minutes 42. Ibid; Fisher on Fisher Custance, on by Custance, 01) by Mar 01) (5 Mar Minute (5 Series 1/7450B; Minute ADM 1/7450B; Operations,” ADM of Operations,” Series of

Marder, and Marder, 1/7465C; and ADM 1/7465C; Stations,” ADM to “Mediterranean Stations,” 00, “Mediterranean Dec 00, 25 Dec Admiralty, 25 to Admiralty, Anatomy, 399. 399. Anatomy, Exercises” Fleet Exercises” “Mediterranean Fleet on “Mediterranean 43. Custance, on by Custance, 01) by Aug 01) (2 Aug Minute (2 43. Minute

231/35. ADM 231/35. 639), ADM (between 638 && 639), NID 638 (between NID 31. Mss 31. Selborne Mss f.26, Selborne 02, f.26, Feb 02, 26 Feb Selborne, 26 44. to Selborne, Kerr to 44. Kerr Naval of Naval Director of Custance: Director Reginald Custance: Admiral Reginald “Rear Admiral Allen, “Rear 45. Matthew Allen, 45. Matthew 61—75. 1992): 61-75. (February 1992): 78 (February Mirror, 78 Intelligence, Mariner’s Mirror, The Mariner's 1899-1902,” The Intelligence, 1899-1902,” 46. 46. Fisher, Fisher, “Invasion “Invasion and and Raids,” Raids,” ADM ADM 116/942. 116/942. form to form instructions to 49710; Instructions Mss 49710; Add Mss f.76. Add 04, f.76, Jan 04, 47. Fisher, 33 Jan toFisher, May to 47. May P.O.1904, 229, P.Q.1904, p. 229, 02, p. Feb 02, Fisher, 66 Feb to Fisher, Admiralty to in Admiralty Committee in Torpedo Design Committee Torpedo Design

ADM :256/40. ADM 256/40. cited inin 04, cited Jan 04, dated 66 Jan Arbuthnot dated Robert Arbuthnot Sir Robert Captain Sir by Captain 48. Statement by 48. Statement Bacon, Bacon, Lord Lord Fisher, Fisher, 1, 1, 249—50. 249-50. contorpedoes; confor torpedoes; air for compressed air to compressed Heat to of Heat “Application of 49. Admiralty, “Application 49. Admiralty, sideration of of commercial commercial offer” offer" (13 (13 Mar Mar 03), 03), ADM ADM 1/7657; 1/7657; and and Admiralty, Admiralty, “First “First sideration 132, Superheaters, 132, G. Superheaters, appendix G. 04, appendix Feb 04, Report Committee,” Feb Design Committee,” Torpedo Design of Torpedo Report of ART ART 1904, 1904, Admiralty Admiralty Library. Library.

paragraph 7,7, “Memorandum” paragraph enclosing “Memorandum” 00. 04, enclosing May 04, 14 May Fisher, 14 to Fisher, Selborne to 50. Selborne cited 1, xxi. cited in in Kemp, Kemp, F.P. F.P.1, xxi. 18. Mss 18. Selborne Mss f.16, Selborne 04, f.16, Sep 04, 31 Sep Selborne, 31 to Selborne, 51. Beresford to 51. Beresford 52. Selborne, Selborne, “Naval “Naval Estimates Estimates 1901—1902,” 1901-1902,” 17 17 Jan Jan 01, 01, 8, 8, CAB CAB 37/56/8. 37/56/8. 52. Hulls,” Torpedo-proof Hulls,” 53. with Torpedo-proof “Experiments with May, “Experiments by May, 03) by Dec 03) (2 Dec Minute (2 53. Minute (DNO, (DNO, 11 Aug Aug 03) 03) ADM ADM 1/7687; 1/7687; May May to to Selborne, Selborne, 44 Sep Sep 03, 03. Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 36; 36; p. p. 37, ART ART 1903, 1903, Admiralty Admiralty Library. Library. 37, 04. May May to to Selborne, Selborne, 4 4 Sep Sep 03, 03, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 36. 36. 54. 90. Mackay, Mackay, Kilverstone, Kilverstone, 253—55. 253-55. 55. 06. “Complements “Complements & & Training Training of of crews crews for for submarine submarine boats,” boats,” 88 May 03, 56. May 03,

ADM 1/7644; 1/7644; “Crews “Crews for for submarine-boats,” submarine-boats,” 29 29 May 03, ADM ADM 1/7666. 1/7666. ADM May 03, Fisher, also Fisher, 49710; also O/7. Mss 49710; Add Mss f.2, Add 02, f.2, Dec 02, Balfour, 66 Dec to Balfour, Fisher to 57. Fisher Mediterranean Mediterranean Lectures, Lectures, p. p. 73, 73, FP4702, FP4702, Fisher Fisher Papers Papers 8/1. 8/1. 08. Minute Minute (30 (30 Jan Jan 01) 01) by by Kerr, Kerr, “New “New Docket Docket Submarine-boats,” Submarine-boats,” ADM 58. ADM

1/7515. 1/7515. 59. 99. Bacon, Bacon, From From 1900 1900 Onwards, Onwards, 54. 54. 60. 60. Marder, Marder, Anatomy, Anatomy, 345. 345. Speech 86-90. Speech 11, 86-90. 1919), Il, 61. York, 1919), (New York, Records (New and Records Memoirs and Fisher, Memoirs Lord Fisher, 61. Lord to to Royal Royal Academy Academy banquet, banquet, 14 14 May May 1903. 1903. 62. 62. Roger Roger Keyes, Keyes, Memoirs Memoirs of of Roger Roger Keyes Keyes (London, (London, 1940), 1940), i, I, 28. 28. 63. Fisher Fisher to to Sandars, Sandars, 55 Dec Dec 03, 03, 1’57, f.57, Add Add Mss Mss 49710; 49710; Fisher, Fisher, “invasion “Invasion and 63. and

Submarines,” Submarines,” ibid.; ibid.; Fisher, Fisher, “Notes “Notes on on AJB’s AJB’s Invasion Invasion Paper,” Paper,” £56, f.56, Add Add Mss Mss 49710. 49710. 64. 64. Lt. Lt. F.F. D. D. Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster diary, diary, 12 12 Sep Sep 03, 03, HMS HMS Dolphin Dolphin Submarine Submarine Museum; also Fisher to Lambert,Nicolmr’mREJfimr to Sanders, Sanders, 55 Dec Dec 03, 03, ibid. ibid. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Notes to to Pages Pages 81-84 81—84 Notes

331 331

65. 65. Leaflet Leaflet printed printed from from Admiralty~ Admiralty House House Portsmouth, Portsmouth, “A “A Visit Visit to to Portsmouth Portsmouth and and Osborne Osborne on on 12 12 September September 1903,” 1903,” Esher Esher Mss Mss 17/3. 17/3. 66. 66. Fisher Fisher to to WT. W.T. Stead, Stead, 10 10 Dec Dec 03, 03, Stead Stead Mss Mss 1/27 1/27 [Churchill [Churchill College. College, Cambridg e]. Cambridge]. 67. 67. Mackay, Mackay, Kilverstone, Kilverstone, 297. 297.

68. 68. Bacon, Bacon, “Running “Running of of Submarines Submarines 31 31 June June to to 30 30 December December 1903," 1903,” 16 16 Jan Jan 04, 04, enclosed enclosed in in Portsmouth Portsmouth submission submission 258/45, 258/45, 25 25 Jan Jan 04, 04, ADM ADM 1/7725. 1/7725. 69. 69. Comments Comments by by Reginald Reginald Bacon Bacon on on “Lecture “Lecture on on the the Submarine Submarine by by Mr Mr Alan Alan Burgoyne” Burgoyne” (1904), (1904), Journal Journal of of the the Royal Royal United United Services Services Institute Institute 48: 48: 1288—1305. 1288-1305. 70. 70. lbid. Ibid. 71. 71. Bacon, Bacon, “Report “Report on on Submarines,” Submarines,” 31 31 May May 03, 03, p. p. 28, 28, ADM ADM 1/7795; 1/7795; Bacon, Bacon, “Report “Report on on Suitability Suitability of of RE. R.E. Submarine Submarine Mining Mining Stations," Stations,” 13 13 Dec Dec 03, 03, in in “Submarine “Submarine Defences: Defences: Substitution Substitution of of Submarine Submarine for for existing existing Mine-fields Mine-fields at at cercertain tain places,” places,” ADM ADM 1/7717. 1/7717. 72. 72. Bacon Bacon to to Admiralty, Admiralty, 7 7 Nov Nov 03 03 (830250/03), (S30250/03), “Type “Type of of Submarine Submarine boat boat for for 1904,” 1904,” Ships Ships Covers Covers 185A; 185A; Bacon Bacon to to May, May, 19 19 Dec Dec 03, 03, on on “Staff “Staff for for SubmarineSubmarine-

boat boat Design,” Design,” ADM ADM 1/7745. 1/7745. 73. 73. Minute Minute (29 (29 Jan Jan 04) 04) by by May, May, on on Fisher Fisher to to Admiralty, Admiralty, 25 25 Jan Jan 04, 04, enclosenclosing ing “Tactical “Tactical and and Other Other Exercises Exercises of of Submarine Submarine boats boats 11 June June to to 31 31 December December 1903,” 1903,” ADM ADM 1/7725. 1/7725. 74. 74. Bacon, Bacon, Lord Lord Fisher, Fisher, l, |, 218. 218.

75. 75. Fisher, Fisher, “invasions “Invasions and and Submarines," Submarines,” Dec Dec 1903, 1903, ADM ADM 116/942. 116/942. 76. 76. Bacon, Bacon, “Report “Report on on Running Running of of Submarine,” Submarine,” 31 31 May May 03, 03, p. p. 2, 2, ADM ADM 1/7795. 1/7795. 77. 17. lbid., Ibid., pp. pp. 13—14. 13-14. 78. 78. Fisher Fisher to to Balfour, Balfour, 55 Jan Jan 04, 04, f.75, f.75, Add Add Mss Mss 49710. 49710.

79. 79. Fisher Fisher to to White, White, 12 12 Mar Mar 04, 04, FGDN, FGDN, l, I, 305. 305. 80. 80. Fisher Fisher to to May, May, 20 20 Apr Apr 04, 04, and and Fisher Fisher to to Esher, Esher, 23 23 Apr Apr 04, 04, FGDN, FGDN, l, I, 308. 308. 81. 81. See See reference reference to to Admiralty Admiralty letter letter M01441/03 M01441/03 of of 13 13 January January 1904, 1904, in in Wilson Wilson to to Admiralty, Admiralty, 23 23 Feb Feb 04, 04, paragraph paragraph 28, 28, D53, DS53, ADM ADM 1/7725; 1/7725; but but see see also also Adm. Adm. Sir Sir Edward Edward Bradford, Bradford, The The Life Life of of Admiral Admiral of of the the Fleet Fleet Sir Sir Arthur Arthur Knyvett Knyvett Wilson Wilson (London. (London, 1923), 1923), 190. 190. 82. 82. Minute Minute (29 (29 Dec Dec 03) 03) by by Drury, Drury, on on the the substitution substitution of of mines mines for for subsubmariners, mariners, ADM ADM 1/7717. 1/7717. 83. 83. Admiralty, Admiralty, “Great “Great Britain; Britain; Torpedo Torpedo Craft Craft Manoeuvres Manoeuvres 1904,” 1904,” N.l.D. N.I.D. report report 754, 754, p. p. 5, 5, ADM ADM 231/43. 231/43. 84. 84. Bradford, Bradford, Wilson, Wilson, 190; 190; Admiralty, Admiralty, “Technical “Technical History History 40,” 40,” (1919). (1919), Admiralty Admiralty Library. Library. 85. Wilson Wilson to to Selborne, Selborne, 24 24 Feb Feb 04, 04, f.1, fl, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 21. 85. 21. 86. Evaluations Evaluations of of maneuvers maneuvers (22 (22 Mar Mar 04) 04) by by Admiral Admiral Wilson, Wilson, p. p. 44; 44; and and (24 (24 86.

Mar Mar 03) 03) by by Captain Captain Bacon, Bacon, p. p. 46, 46, in in “Report “Report of of Manoeuvres Manoeuvres between between Home Home Fleet Fleet and Submarines Submarines 8-18th 8—18th March, March, 1904,” 1904,” ADM ADM 1/7795. 1/7795. and 87. 87. Minute Minute (22 (22 Mar Mar 04) 04) by by Wilson, Wilson, p. p. 44, 44, ibid; ibid; Wilson Wilson to to Noel, Noel, 22 22 May May 04, 04, Noel Noel Mss Mss 5. 5.

88 88. Report Report on on “Loss “Loss of of Submarine Submarine A1, A1,” ” A555, A555, ADM ADM 1/7718, 1/7718, and and Report Report of of of Enquiry on loss of A1,” A690/04, 1/7719. Lambert,“Court utoqausrst/rflrhEflfllllWRtlttr-QQSS ()w A690/04 ADM ADM1/7719 E-book, Columbia. U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|. hand.|e net/2027/heb.31569. Downloaded on behalf of Digital Theological Library, Claremont, CA

332 332

84-88 Pages 84-88 to Pages Notes to Notes

89. 89. Fisher Fisher to to Selborne, Selborne, 31 31 Mar Mar 04, 04, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 24; 24; Bradford, Bradford, Wilson, Wilson, 193. 193. 10/41. Mss 10/41. Esher Mss 04, Esher Apr 04, 20 Apr 'Esher, 20 to Esher, Fisher to 90. Fisher 90. 91. Fisher Fisher to to Knollys, Knollys, ?'? Mar Mar 04, 04, Royal Royal Archives, Archives, W56/113. W56/113. 91.

1/7795. ADM 1/7795. 46. ADM 04, p.p. 46, Mar 04, 24 Mar manoeuvres, 24 on manoeuvres, Bacon on by Bacon Report by 92. Report 92. 93. Report Report by by Umpire Umpire inin Chief, Chief, Captain Captain Robert Robert Arbuthnot, Arbuthnot, pp. pp. 50.53, 50.53, ibid. ibid. 93. 94. Marginal Marginal comments, comments, Fisher, Fisher, “Submarines: “Submarines: Second Second Postscript” Postscript” April April 94. 1904, 1904, £139, f.139, Add Add Mss Mss 49710; 49710; Fisher Fisher to to Sandars, Sandars, f.100, f.100, Sandars Sandars Mss Mss 748. 748. 95. 95. Bacon Bacon & & Charlton, Charlton, “H.M.S. “H.M.S. Thames—Report Thames—Report of of Manoeuvres Manoeuvres recently recently carried carried out out between between submarine-boats submarine-boats & & one one division division of of the the Portsmouth Portsmouth Destroyer 719. Destroyer Flotilla,” Flotilla,” 6 6 Jun Jun 04, 04, A1065/04, A1065/04, ADM ADM 1/7 1/7719. 96. Ibid. Ibid. 96. 97. 97. Minute Minute (17 (17 Jun Jun 04) 04) by by Fisher, Fisher, on on docket docket cover, cover, ibid. ibid.

98. 98. Minute Minute (1 (1 Jul Jul 04) 04) by by Kerr, Kerr, ibid. ibid. 99. 99. Minute Minute (30 (30 Jun Jun 04) 04) by by May, May, ibid. ibid. 100. 100. Wilson Wilson to to Admiralty, Admiralty, 23 23 Aug Aug '04, 04, A1065/04, A1065/04, ADM ADM 1/7719. 1/7719. 101. 101. Minute Minute (8 (8 Sep Sep 04) 04) by by Jackson Jackson (D.N.O.) (D.N.O.) on on Wilson Wilson to to Admiralty, Admiralty, 28 28 Aug Aug 04, 04, ADM ADM 1/7719. 1/7719. 102. 102. Esher Esher to to M. M. V. V. Brett, Brett, 14 14 Mar Mar 04, 04, Maurice Maurice Brett, Brett, Journals Journals and and Letters Letters of of Reginald Reginald Viscount Viscount Esher, Esher, 4 4 vols. vols. (London, (London, 1934) 1934) ii, ii, 50. 50.

103. 103. Bacon, Bacon, “Second “Second Annual Annual Report Report of of The The Submarine Submarine Flotilla,” Flotilla,” 1904, 1904, Appendix, ADM Appendix, Irish Irish Sea Sea Manoeuvres; Manoeuvres; “General “General Orders Orders for for Submarine-boats.” Submarine-boats,” ADM 1/7725. 1/7725. 104. Ibid. Ibid. 104. 105. 105. Extracts Extracts from from Chief Chief Umpires Umpires report report (Rear (Rear Admiral Admiral Hugh Hugh Grenfell) Grenfell) in in “Torpedo “Torpedo Craft Craft Manoeuvres,” Manoeuvres,” N.I.D. N.I.D. report report 754, 754, pp. pp. 70—71, 70-71, ADM ADM 231/43. 231/43. 106. 106. N.l.D. N.I.D. report report 754. 754. “GB “GB Torpedo Torpedo Craft Craft Manoeuvres Manoeuvres 1904.” 1904.” Report Report by by Admiral Admiral Charles Charles Robinson Robinson p. p. 77, 77, ADM ADM 231/43 231/43 107. 107. M. M. S. S. Partridge, Partridge, “The “The Royal Royal Navy Navy and and the the End End of of the the Close Close Blockade: Blockade: 1885—1905,” 1885-1905,” Mariner’s Mariner’s Mirror, Mirror, 75 75 (May (May 1989): 1989): 119-30. 119-30.

108. 108. Fisher, Fisher, “Invasion “Invasion and and Submarines,” Submarines,” appendix appendix B, B, Dec Dec 03, 03, ADM ADM 116/942. 116/942. 109. 109. Bacon, Bacon, The The Life Life of of Lord Lord Fisher, Fisher, I, 1, 217—18. 217-18.

110. 110. Fisher Fisher to to Sandars, Sandars, 22 22 Oct Oct 03, 03, and and Fisher Fisher to to Cecil Cecil Fisher, Fisher, 22 22 Oct Oct 03, 03, FGDN, FGDN, 1,I, 288-89; 288-89; Balfour Balfour to to Selborne, Selborne, 22 22 Oct Oct 1903, 1903, f.35, f.35, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 34. 34. 111. 111. Fisher, Fisher, “A “A Brief Brief Précis Précis of of the the Principal Principal Considerations Considerations that that must must Influence Influence our our Future Future Naval Naval and and Military Military Policy,” Policy,” n/d n/d [Sept [Sept. 1903] 1903] f.3, f.3, Add Add Mss Mss 49710. 49710. The The Admiralty Admiralty stationery stationery suggests suggests that that this this was was written written before before Oct Oct 1903. 1903. 1112. 12. 113. 113. 114. 114. 115. 115.

Mackay, Mackay, Kilverstone, Kilverstone, 291 291 See See also also Fisher Fisher to to Sandars, Sandars, 23 23 Jan Jan 04, 04, £108, f.108, Add Add Mss Mss 49710. 49710. Fisher Fisher to to Esher, Esher, 19 19 Nov Nov 03, 03, cited cited in in Brett, Brett, Esher, Esher, ii, ii, 54. 54. Fisher, Fisher, “A “A Brief Brief Précis Précis of of the the Principal Principal Considerations Considerations that that Must Must

Influence Influence our our Future Future Naval Naval and and Military Military Policy,” Policy,” n/d n/d [August [August 1903], 1903], f.6, f.6, Add Add Mss Mss 49710. 49710. 116. 116. Fisher, Fisher, “An “An Addenda” Addenda” [Nov [Nov 1903], 1903], £49, f.49, Add Add Mss Mss 49710. 49710. 117. 117. Fisher, Fisher, “A “A Brief Brief Précis Précis of of the the Principal Principal Considerations Considerations .. .. .” [Aug [Aug 03]. 03], £6, f.6, Add Add Mss Mss 49710. 49710. 118. Ibid.

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Notes Notes to to Pages Pages 88—92 88-92

333 333

119. 119. Mackay, Mackay, Kilverstone, Kilverstone, 285-91. 285-91.

120. 120. Fisher Fisher to to Cecil Cecil Fisher, Fisher, 14 14 Sep Sep 03, 03, cited cited in in Mackay, Mackay, Kilverstone, Kilverstone, 286. 286. 121. 121. Fisher, Fisher, “Invasions “Invasions and and Submarines," Submarines,” appendix appendix a, a, ADM ADM 116/942. 116/942. 122. Arnold-Forster, Arnold-Forster, “Suggested “Suggested War War Office Office Reforms—for 122. Reforms—for the the personal personal inforinfor-

mation mation of of Sir Sir John John Fisher Fisher and and his his colleagues colleagues only,” only,” 77 Dec Dec 03, 03, f5], f.51, Add Add Mss Mss 50305; 90305; Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster to to Selborne, Selborne, 31 31 Jan Jan 02, 02, f.86, f.86, Add Add Mss Mss 50280. 50280. 123. 123. Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster diary, diary, entries entries 5, 5, 6 6 Dec Dec 03, 03, f.116, f.116, Add Add Mss Mss 50335; 50335; Fisher Fisher to to Esher, Esher, 7 7 Dec Dec 03, 03, FGDN, FGDN, l, I, 292. 292. 124. 124. Balfour, Balfour, “The “The Possibility Possibility of of Serious Serious Invasion,” Invasion,” 11 11 Nov Nov 03, 03, 3/1/18A, 3/1/18A, CAB38/3/71. CAB38/3/71.

125. 125. Fisher Fisher to to Balfour, Balfour, notes notes on on “Serious “Serious Invasion” Invasion” Nov Nov 03, 03, f.55, £55, Add Add Mss Mss 49710. 49710. 126. 126. Fisher, Fisher, “Invasion “Invasion and and Submarines,” Submarines,” appendix appendix A, A, Dec Dec 1903, 1903, ADM ADM

116/942. 116/942. 127. 127. Mackay, Mackay, Kilverstone, Kilverstone, 302. 302. 128. 128. Balfour Balfour to to Fisher, Fisher, 3 3 Jan Jan 04, 04, f.71, f.71, Add Add Mss Mss 49710. 49710. 129. 129. Fisher Fisher to to Esher, Esher, 7 7 Dec Dec 03, 03, FGDN, FGDN, l, I, 292. 292. 130. 130. Fisher Fisher to to Sandars, Sandars, 29 29 Dec Dec 03, 03, f.59, f.59, Add Add Mss Mss 49710. 49710. 131. 131. Arnold-Forster, Arnold-Forster, “Number “Number 11 Memorandum,” Memorandum,” 4 4 Dec Dec 03, 03, p. p. 6, 6, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 120; 120; Arnold-Forster’s Arnold-Forster’s diary diary shows shows that that between between 4 4 and and 6 6 December December 1903 1903 he he was was staying staying with with Fisher Fisher at at Portsmouth, Portsmouth, f.115, f.115, Add Add Mss Mss 50335; 50335; Fisher Fisher to to Esher, Esher, 77 Dec Dec 292. FGDN, I,I, 292. 03, FGDN, 03, 132. 132. Fisher Fisher to to Arnold-White, Arnold-White, 12 12 Mar Mar 04, 04, FGDN, FGDN, l, I, 305. 305. 133. 133. Fisher Fisher to to Balfour, Balfour, 55 Jan Jan 04, 04, f.75, f.75, Add Add Mss Mss 49710. 49710. 134. 134. Fisher Fisher to to Bridgeman, Bridgeman, Jan Jan 04, 04, FP112, FP112, Fisher Fisher Papers Papers 1/3. 1/3. 135. Marder, Marder, FGDN, FGDN, I,l, 282; 282; the the only only hint hint that that Fisher Fisher was was lead lead candidate candidate isis in in 135. Selborne to to Balfour, Balfour, 66 May May 03, 03, f.27, f.27, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 34. 34. Selborne 136. Noel Noel to to Selborne, Selborne, 14 14 Jul Jul 04, 04, Noel Noel Mss Mss 5; 5; King-Hall, King-Hall, diary, diary, reporting reporting 136. views views of of Admirals Admirals Seymour Seymour (24 (24 Aug Aug 03) 03) Beaumont Beaumont (15 (15 Oct Oct 03) 03) Noel Noel (9 (9 Dec Dec 03), 03), King-Hall Mss. Mss. King-Hall 137. For For Kerr’s Kerr’s hostility hostility to to Fisher Fisher see see Rear Rear Adm. Adm. [later [later Adm. Adm. Sir] Sir] George George 137.

King-Hall, diary, diary, 22 Oct Oct 02, 02, 99 Dec Dec 03, 03, King-Hall King-Hall Mss; Mss; Kerr Kerr to to Selborne, Selborne, 17 17 Dec Dec 01, 01, King-Hall, cited inin Boyce, Boyce, Se/borne, Selborne, 136-39; 136—39; Kerr Kerr to to Selborne, Selborne, 13 13 Aug Aug 01, 01, f.113, f.113, Selborne Selborne cited Mss 27. 27. Mss 138. Fisher Fisher to to Cecil Cecil Fisher, Fisher, 14 14 Nov Nov 02, 02, FGDN, FGDN, I,l, 266. 266. 138. 139. Sir Sir Charles Charles Walker, Walker, notes notes on on “Recollections “Recollections of of Jackie Jackie Fisher,” Fisher,” cited cited inin 139. FGDN, 1,l, 243. 243. FGDN, 140. King-Hall, King-Hall, diary, diary, 22 Oct Oct 02, 02, King-Hall King-Hall Mss. Mss. 140. 141. Battenberg Battenberg to to Fisher, Fisher, 18 18 May May 04, 04, f.112, f.112, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 198. 198. 141. 17. table 17. appendix, table Defence, appendix, In Defence, Sumida, Jn 142. Sumida, 142. 143. Appendix Appendix 1;1; the the figure figure would would have have been been above above 12 12 million million had had Fisher Fisher not not 143. destroyers. 13 destroyers. canceled 13 canceled 144. Mackay, Mackay, Kilverstone, Kilverstone, 305-8. 305-8. 144. 145. Fisher Fisher to to Balfour, Balfour, 55 Jan Jan 04, 04, f.75, f.75, Add Add Mss Mss 49710. 49710. 145. 146. 146. Statement Statement by by Capt. Capt. Robert Robert Arbuthnot, Arbuthnot, 6 6 Jan Jan 04, 04, cited cited in in Bacon, Bacon, Lord Lord 249. Fisher, 249. Fisher,

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334 334

92-98 Pages 92-98 to Pages Notes to Notes

in enclosed in 7, enclosed War,” 7, of War,” Vessels of of Vessels Characteristics of Fighting Characteristics “The Fighting Fisher, “The 147. Fisher, 147. in cited in also cited 116/942; also ADM 116/942; 1904, ADM May 1904, printed May House—Portsmouth,” printed “Admiralty House—Portsmouth,” “Admiralty

52. Defence, 52. In Defence, Sumida, In and Sumida, 41; and F.P.1, 41; Kemp, F.P.1, Kemp, lbid. 148. Ibid. 148. (DNl) Custance (DNI) Reginald Custance by Reginald 02) by Jun 02) (16 Jun memorandum (16 see memorandum instance, see For instance, 149. For 149. “Memorandum Custance, “Memorandum 158; Custance, Mss 158; Selborne Mss f.68, Selborne Programme,” f.68, French Programme,” “New French on “New on 134. Mss 134. Selborne Mss f.196, Selborne 1902, f.196, it," 1902, involved inin it,” Principles Involved the Principles and the Power and Sea Power on Sea on

150. Kemp, Kemp, F.P.7, ER], 40. 40. 150. 151. Sumida, Sumida, In In Defence, Defence, 53. 53. 151. of “Concept of Lambert, “Concept Nicholas Lambert, see: Nicholas attempts see: later attempts for later 51—61; for lbid., 51-61; 152. Ibid., 152. Flotilla Flotilla Defence,” Defence,” 643—45. 643-45. 49707. Mss 49707. Add Mss f.88, Add 05, f.88, Aug 05, 23 Aug Balfour, 23 to Balfour, Selborne to 153. Selborne 153.

Reforms Necessary Reforms Four: Necessary Chapter Four: Chapter Mackay, Kilverstone, Kilverstone, 313. 313. 1.1. Mackay, 2. 2. Fisher Fisher to to Esher, Esher, 28 28 Jul Jul 04, 04, FGDN, FGDN, I, I, 320; 320; Note Note salutation salutation in in Selborne Selborne to to different three different least three at least are at There are NB: There RR], 5.5. N.B.: Kemp, F.P.1, cited inin Kemp, 04, cited Oct 04, 21 Oct Fisher, 21 Fisher, versions versions of of “Naval “Naval Necessities, Necessities, volume volume 1.” 1.” Wherever Wherever possible possible citations citations will will be be from from But Society. But Records Society. Naval Records the Naval by the published by and published Kemp and Peter Kemp by Peter edited by version edited the version the priSelborne’s priand Selborne’s Fisher's and in Fisher’s only in bound only are bound prints are instructive prints most instructive the most of the many of many Library. Admiralty Library. the Admiralty and the Branch and Historical Branch Naval Historical the Naval by the kept by copies kept vate copies vate 320. FGDN, I,l, 320. 04, FGDN, Jul 04, 28 Jul Esher, 28 to Esher, Fisher to 3. Fisher 3. 4. Fisher Fisher to to Esher, Esher, 21 21 Aug Aug 04, 04, FGDN, FGDN, I,l, 324. 324. 4. 5. 5. Sanders Sanders to to Balfour, Balfour, 14 14 Sep Sep 04, 04, f.120, f.120, Add Add Mss Mss 49762 49762 ,cited , cited in in Williams, Williams, in cited in 5, cited Mss 5, Noel Mss 04, Noel Jun 04, 26 Jun Noel, 26 to Noel, Beaumont to 64; Beaumont Empire, 64; the Empire, Defending the Defending 321. FGDN, I,l, 321. 04, FGDN, Aug 04, Selborne, 22 Aug to Selborne, Fisher to 308; Fisher Kilverstone, 308; Mackay, Kilverstone, Mackay, 330. FGDN, I,l, 330. 04. FGDN, Oct 04, 19 Oct Selborne, 19 to Selborne, Fisher to 6. Fisher 6. 7. 7. Sumida, Sumida, ln In Defence, Defence, 52-54; 52-54; some some arguments arguments Fisher Fisher employed employed may may have have been borrowed borrowed from from papers papers written written by by his his assistants, assistants, for for which which see see Oscar Oscar been Parkes, Parkes, British British Battleships Battleships (London, (London, 1957), 1957), 468—72. 468-72. 8. 8. Kemp, Kemp, ER], F.P.1, 2. 2. 9. Fisher, Fisher, “Organisation “Organisation for for War,” War,” 14 14 May May 04, 04, cited cited inin Kemp, Kemp, F.P.1, F.P.1, 17. 17. 9. 10. 10. Admiralty, Admiralty, “Report “Report on on the the Redistribution Redistribution of of the the Fleet Fleet in in Home Home and and Foreign Foreign Waters,” Waters,” Nov Nov 04, 04, ADM ADM 1/7736. 1/7736. 11. Arnold 11. Lt. Lt. Robert Robert Wigglesworth Wigglesworth (gunnery (gunnery instructor, instructor, Whale Whale Island) Island) to to Arnold White, White, 18 18 Nov Nov 04, 04, White White Mss, Mss, box box 3. 3. Extracts Extracts from from these these documents documents are are cited cited by by Lt. of Fire, Lt. Peter Peter MacNamara MacNamara (gunnery (gunnery instructor, instructor, Whale Whale Island) Island) in in “Concentration “Concentration of Fire, its its Effect Effect and and its its Further: Further: from from experience experience gained gained during during trials trials carried carried out out by by the the different in the the past past and and present. present. The The different modern modern battle battle fleets fleets and and cruiser cruiser squadrons squadrons in uses of of Director Director Firing Firing for for this this purpose purpose and and the the value value of of different different ships ships using using difdifuses ferent ferent coloured coloured shell shell bursts,” bursts,” April April 1909, 1909, in in file file on on “Fleet “Fleet fire fire and and Concentration,” Concentration, ” special special documents documents cabinet, cabinet, HMS HMS Excellent Excellent Mss. Mss. [Whale {Whale Island, Island, Portsmouth]. Portsmouth]. CAB 04, CAB Dec 04, fleet], 66 Dec the fleet], of the [Distribution of “Memorandum” [Distribution Selborne, “Memorandum” 12. Selborne, 12. 37/73/159. 37/73/1359. 13. Ibid. lbid. 13. Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, httpszllhd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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99—102 Notes Pages 99-102 to Pages Notes to

335 335

14. 14. lbid. Ibid. 15. 15. lbid. Ibid. of ships of twelve ships least twelve at least of at consisted of “fleet” consisted 16. 1904. AA “fleet” October 1904. List, October Navy List, 16. Navy the line. line. “Squadrons” “Squadrons” were were formed formed of of four four or or more more ships. ships. the 17. 17. Navy Navy List, List, July July 1904. 1904. 18. Selborne, Selborne, “Memorandum,” “Memorandum,” 66 Dec Dec 04, 04, CAB CAB 37/73/159. 37/73/159. 18. 19. 19. lbid. Ibid. 20. Battenberg Battenberg to to Selborne, Selborne, 66 Apr Apr 04, 04, f.15, f.15, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 44. 44. 20. 21. Minute Minute (2 (2 Apr Apr 02) 02) by by Selborne, Selborne, f.156, f.156, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 158. 158. 21. 22. 22. Selborne, Selborne, “Memorandum,” “Memorandum,” 6 6 Dec Dec 04, 04, CAB CAB 37/73/159. 37/73/1539. 23. Admiralty, Admiralty, “Report “Report on on the the Redistribution Redistribution of of the the Fleet Fleet in in Home Home and and 23. Foreign Waters,” Waters,” forth forth progress progress report, report, 11 Dec Dec 04, 04, ADM ADM 1/7736; 1/7736; also also cited cited in in Foreign “Naval “Naval Necessities, Necessities, volume volume 2,” 2,” 495, 495, Admiralty Admiralty Library. Library. 24. 24. Selborne, Selborne, “Memorandum,” “Memorandum,” 6 6 Dec Dec 04, 04, CAB CAB 37/73/159. 37/73/159. 25. 20. Fisher, Fisher, “Fleet “Fleet Reorganisation,” Reorganisation,” Jan Jan 05, 05, p. p. 458, 458, “Naval “Naval Necessities, Necessities, volvolLibrary. ume |, Admiralty Library. 2,” Admiralty ume 2,” 26. Minutes Minutes (27 (27 Jan Jan 1898) 1898) by by Richards Richards and and (4 (4 Feb Feb 1898) 1898) by by Goschen, Goschen, on on 26. 11 printed 11 1898—99,” printed Programme, 1898-99,” “Shipbuilding Programme, in “Shipbuilding crews cruisers, in armored cruisers, for armored crews for June 1898, 1898, ADM ADM 116/878. 116/878. June 27. 27. Custance Custance to to Selborne, Selborne, 31 31 Aug Aug 04, 04, f.f. 47, 47, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 23. 23. 28. 28. Bacon, Bacon, The The Life Life of of Lord Lord Fisher, Fisher, |,l, 287. 287. 37/73/159. CAB 37/73/1539. 04, CAB Dec 04, “Memorandum,” 66 Dec Selborne, “Memorandum,” 29. 29. Selborne, marginalia Note marginalia 158. Note Selborne 158. f.156, Selborne 02, f.156, Apr 02, 30. Admiralty, 44 Apr to Admiralty, Selborne to 30. Selborne by Selborne Selborne dated dated 21 21 Oct Oct 04; 04; also also Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster diary, diary, November November 1904, 1904, f.89, f.89. by Add Mss Mss 50341. 50341. Add 15 Selborne, 15 to Selborne, Kerr to and Kerr f.62, and 02, f.62, Apr 02, 29 Apr Selborne, 29 to Selborne, Kerr to also Kerr lbid; also 31. 31. Ibid; Oct Oct 02, 02, f.167, f.167, both both Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 31. 31. Selborne by Selborne memorandum by of memorandum copy of on copy Selborne on by Selborne 04) by 32. Oct 04) (21 Oct Minute (21 32. Minute 158. Mss 158. Selborne Mss f.156, Selborne 02, f.156, Apr 02, dated 44 Apr dated 90, FP 90, 02, FP Feb 02, 25 Feb Fleets,” 25 Our Fleets,” of Our Distribution of 33. Strategical Distribution “The Strategical Fisher, “The 33. Fisher, 260—63. Kilverstone, 260-63. Mackay, Kilverstone, in Mackay, cited in also cited 1/2; also Papers 1/2; Fisher Papers Fisher Lord,” First Lord,” for First notes for “Rough notes enclosing “Rough 04, enclosing Dec 04, 34. Selborne, 44 Dec to Selborne, Fisher to 34. Fisher f.59, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 42. 42. f.59, 35. 35. Kemp, Kemp, FF. F.P.17,1, 29. 29. 36. 36. Kerr Kerr to to Selborne, Selborne, 11 11 Dec Dec 04, 04, f.299, f.299, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 41. 41. 34. note 34. 64, note Empire, 64, the Empire, Defending the Williams, Defending 37. 496; Williams, Anatomy, 496; Marder, Anatomy, 37. Marder, 38. 38. Marder, Marder, FDSF, FDSF, I,I, 41-42. 41—42. 39. 39. Marder, Marder, FDSF, FDSF, l, I, 41; 41; see see also also Kennedy, Kennedy, British British Naval Naval Mastery, Mastery, 257—58; 257-58; Policy,” Naval Policy,” British Naval on British War on Russo-Japanese War the Russo-Japanese of the Effect of “The Effect Towle, “The Philip Philip Towle, 383—94. (1974): 383-94. 60 (1974): Mariner's Mirror 60 Mariner’s Mirror 40. 40. Marder, Marder, FDSF, FDSF, I,1, 41-42; 41—42; idem, idem, Anatomy, Anatomy, 489. 489.

41. Kennedy, Kennedy, Anglo-German Anglo-German Antagonism, Antagonism, 1860-1914, 1860—1914, 417-20; 417—20; Monger, Monger, The The 41. End of of Isolation Isolation (London, (London, 1963). 1963). End Antagonism; 42. Anglo-German Antagonism; Kennedy, Anglo-German 42. Kennedy, Steiner, and Foreign Foreign Policy, Policy, Steiner, The The Foreign Foreign Office Office and World First World the First of the Lamberidegp,,Bgitajggfaggtmtgrigins idem, Britain and the Origins of E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Zara Isolation; Zara of Isolation; End of Monger, End Monger, 1898—1914 (Cambridge, 1969); 1969); 1898-1914 (Cambridge, 1977). London, 1977). (Macmillan: London, War (Macmillan: War

336 336

102-107 Pages 102-107 to Pages Notes to Notes

The Wilson, The Keith Wilson, introduction; Keith Tsar, introduction; Last Tsar, The Last Neilson, The generally: Neilson, See generally: 43. See 43. Policy, Foreign Policy, British Foreign of British Determinants of the Determinants on the Essays on Entente: Essays of Entente: Policy Policy of the at the anti-Germanism at of anti-Germanism Question of “The Question idem, “The 1985); idem, (Cambridge, 1985); 1904-191 4 (Cambridge, 1904-1914 History of History Journal of Canadian Journal War,” Canadian World War,” First World the First before the Office before Foreign Office British Foreign British 23-42. (1983): 23-42. 18 (1983): 18 238-64. 118-43, 238-64. xii-xv, 118-43, Tsar, xii-xv, Last Tsar, The Last Neilson, The 44. Neilson, 44. “The idem, “The Empire”; idem, or Empire”; “Economy or Lambert, “Economy Nicholas Lambert, instance, Nicholas for instance, See, for 45. See, 45. Pacific, the Pacific, in the Strategy in French Strategy and French British and Technology; British of Technology; Opportunities Opportunities of (Macmillan, Power (Macmillan, Naval Power of Naval Perimeters of The Perimeters ed., The Rodger ed., Nicholas Rodger 1905-09," inin Nicholas 1905-09,” 1996). 1996). the of the Birth of the Birth and the Tirpitz and Deterrent: Tirpitz Yesterday’s Deterrent: Steinberg, Yesterday's Jonathan Steinberg, 46. Jonathan 46. 5. chapter 5. 1965), chapter Macmillan, 1965), (London: Macmillan, Fleet (London: Battle Fleet German Battle German Report, Progress Report, Second Progress and Second First and on First Selborne, on by Selborne, 04) by Nov 04) (21 Nov Minute (21 47. Minute 47. Home in Home Fleet in the Fleet of the “Redistribution of the “Redistribution consider the to consider appointed to committee appointed the committee of the of

1/7736. ADM 1/7736. Waters," ADM Foreign Waters,” and Foreign and 48. Mackay, Mackay, Kilverstone, Kilverstone, 316. 316. 48.

£34, 04, f.34, Dec 04, 31 Dec Lansdowne, 31 to Lansdowne, Balfour to 238—64; Balfour Tsar, 238-64; Last Tsar, The Last Neilson, The 49. Neilson, 49. 49729. Mss Add Add Mss 49729. 42. Mss 42. Selborne Mss f.33, Selborne 04, f.33, Nov 04, 28 Nov Selborne, 28 to Selborne, Fisher to 50. Fisher 50. the and the Navy, and German Navy, the German Admiralty, the “The Admiralty, Mackay, “The Ruddock Mackay, 51. Ruddock 51. (August 56 (August Mirror 56 Mariner’s Mirror 1904—05,” Mariner’s Fleet, 1904-05,” British Fleet, the British of the Redistribution of Redistribution

1970): 341-46. 341-46. 1970): 313—18. Kilverstone, 313-18. Mackay, Kilverstone, 52. Mackay, 52. 344. Fleet,” 344. British Fleet,” the British of the “Redistribution of Mackay, “Redistribution 53. Mackay, 53. “Memorandum,” 66 Selborne, “Memorandum,” words, Selborne, exact words, for exact 496; for Anatomy, 496; Marder, Anatomy, 54. Marder, 54.

Dec Dec 04, 04, CAB CAB 37/73/159. 37/73/159. Strategical “The Strategical Fisher’s “The on Fisher’s Battenberg on by Battenberg 02) by Jan 02) (29 Jan Minute (29 55. Minute 55. cited also cited 1/2; also Papers 1/2; Fisher Papers FP90, Fisher FP86 && FP90, 02, FP86 Feb 02, Fleets,” Feb our Fleets,” of our Distribution of Distribution in Mackay, Mackay, Kilverstone, Kilverstone, 260-65. 260-65. in 207. especially 207. 4, especially chapter 4, Titan, chapter Weary Titan, Friedberg, Weary Aaron Friedberg, 56. Aaron 06. 57. Ibid., Ibid., 192, 192, note note 201. 201. O7.

58. 08. 59. O9. 60. 60. 61. 61. 62. 62. 63. 63.

Ibid., Ibid., 137. 137. 194. _ lbid., 194. Ibid., Kerr to Kerr to Selborne, Selborne, 11 11 Oct Oct 04, 04, f.282, f.282, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 41. 41. Battenberg Battenberg to to Selborne, Selborne, 16 16 Oct Oct 04, 04, M1, f.41, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 44. 44. Battenberg Battenberg to to Selborne, Selborne, 20 20 Oct Oct 04, 04, M4, f.44, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 44. 44. Memorandum Memorandum (7 (7 Nov Nov 04) 04) by by Battenberg Battenberg (initialed (initialed by by John John Fisher Fisher 77 Nov). Nov),

FP139, FP139, Fisher Fisher Papers Papers 1/4. 1/4.

64. 64. Battenberg Battenberg to to Selborne, Selborne, 16 16 Oct Oct 04, 04, Mi, f.41, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 44. 44. 65. 65. [bid Ibid. 66. 66. Kerr Kerr to to Selborne, Selborne, 14 14 Oct Oct 04, 04, f.284, f.284, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 41. 41. 41. Mss 41. Selborne Mss f.282—284, Selborne Oct‘04, 14 Oct and 14 04, and Oct 04, 11 Oct Selborne, 11 to Selborne, Kerr to 67. Kerr 67. 04, f.282-284, minute also minute see also 41; see Mss 41; Selborne Mss f.284, Selborne 04, f.284, Oct 04, 14 Oct Selborne, 14 to Selborne, Kerr to 68. Kerr 68. (n/d) (n/d) by by Kerr Kerr cited cited in in Marder, Marder, Anatomy, Anatomy, 496. 496.

Fisher FP4702, Fisher 85, FP4702, 1899-1902,” p.p. 85, Fleet, 1899-1902,” “Mediterranean Fleet, Fisher, “Mediterranean 69. Fisher, 69. Lambert, NicolaPW$h&£8qval Papers 1/8. Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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107—1 10 Pages 107-110 to Pages Notes to Notes

337 337

70. 70. Fisher, Fisher, Kilverstone, Kilverstone, 262—63. 262-63. 71. 71. Quoted Quoted in in Sumida, Sumida, In In Defence, Defence, 52—53. 52-53. 72. 72. Ibid., Ibid., 51-61. 51-61. 73. 73. Fisher, Fisher, “The “The Fighting Fighting Characteristics Characteristics of of Vessels Vessels of of War,” War,” May May 04, 04, cited cited in in Kemp, Kemp, F.P.1, F.P.1, 26—27. 26-27.

74. 74. Fisher Fisher to to Selborne, Selborne, 22 Aug Aug 04, 04, and and Selborne Selborne to to Fisher Fisher 44 Aug Aug 04, 04, cited cited in in Boyce, Boyce, Selborne, Selborne, 180—81 180-81. .

75. 75. Selborne Selborne to to Fisher, Fisher, 44 Aug Aug 04, 04, ibid., ibid., 181. 181. 76. 76. Updated Undated minute minute by by Selborne Selborne omitted omitted by by Kemp Kemp in in his his version version of of “Naval “Naval Necessities” Necessities” cited cited by by Sumida, Sumida, In In Defence, Defence, 52. 52. 77. 77. Sumida, Sumida, ibid. ibid. 78. 78. Ibid., Ibid., 58-61. 58-61. 79. 79. Ibid.; Ibid.; The The most most important important document document is: is: “Meeting “Meeting held held at at the the Admiralty Admiralty Saturday, Saturday, 2nd 2nd December December 1905,” 1905,” part part 3, 3, “Fusion “Fusion design design of of battleships battleships and and armoured armoured cruisers,” cruisers,” in in report report of of “Naval “Naval Estimates Estimates Committee Committee 1906/07,” 1906/07,” printed printed 10 10 Jan Jan 06, 06, prints prints box, Defence.” box, Crease Crease Mss Mss [Admiralty [Admiralty Library]; Library]; see see also also Lambert, Lambert, “Concept “Concept of of Flotilla Flotilla Defence.” 80. 80. Battenberg Battenberg to to Selborne, Selborne, 6 6 Apr Apr 04, 04, f.15, f.15, and and Battenberg Battenberg to to Selborne, Selborne, 4 4 Aug Aug 04, 04, f.39, f.39, both both in in Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 44; 44; see see also also minute minute (8 (8 Aug Aug 04) 04) by by Battenberg Battenberg cited cited in in Marder, Marder, Anatomy, Anatomy, 495-96; 495-96; Battenberg Battenberg to to Fisher, Fisher, 7 7 Apr Apr 02, 02, enclosed enclosed in in “Notes “Notes for for Successor,” Successor,” Mediterranean, Mediterranean, 14 14 May May 1902, 1902, ADM ADM 1/7597. 1/7597. 81. Battenberg Battenberg to to Fisher, Fisher, 10 10 May May 04, 04, MB1/T93, MB1/I‘93, Battenberg Battenberg Mss Mss 81. [Southampton [Southampton University University Library]; Library]; see see also also Battenberg Battenberg to to Selborne, Selborne, 14 14 Jul Jul 04, 04, £35, f.35, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 44. 44. 82. First First Progress Progress Report, Report, 10 10 Nov Nov 04, 04, p. p. 3, 3, of of the the committee committee on on 82. “Redistribution “Redistribution of of the the Fleet Fleet in in home home and and Foreign Foreign Waters,” Waters,” ADM ADM 1/7736. 1/7736. 83. 83. Battenberg Battenberg to to Selborne, Selborne, 6 6 Apr Apr 04, 04, f.15, f.15, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 44. 44. 84. 84. Lambert, Lambert, “Economy “Economy or or Empire.” Empire.” 85. 85. For For evidence evidence of of Battenberg’s Battenberg’s viewpoint viewpoint see: see: Battenberg Battenberg to to Selborne, Selborne, 6 6 Apr Apr 04, 04, f.15, f.15, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 44. 44. 86. 86. Robert Robert S. S. Wood, Wood, “Domestic “Domestic Factors, Factors, Regime Regime Characteristics, Characteristics, and and Naval Naval Forces,” Forces,” and and Volker Volker Berghahn, Berghahn, “Navies “Navies and and Domestic Domestic Factors,” Factors,” in in Hattendorf, Hattendorf, ed., ed., Doing Doing Naval Naval History, History, 67. 67. 87. 87. Sumida, Sumida, In In Defence, Defence, 18—28. 18-28. 88. 88. Mackay, Mackay, Kilverstone, Kilverstone, 306-7; 306-7; and and Chamberlain Chamberlain to to Selborne, Selborne, 10 10 May May 04. 04, £137, f.137, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 39. 39. 04, May 04, 14 May Fisher, 14 to Fisher, Selborne to 26-27; Selborne Defence, 26-27; In Defence, Sumida, In in Sumida, Quoted in 89. Quoted 89. quoted quoted in in Kemp, Kemp, F.P.1, F-P. 1, xvii. xvii. 90. Fisher Fisher to to Esher, Esher, 17 17 Jun Jun 04 04 and and 28 28 Jul Jul 04, 04, FGDN, FGDN, I,1, 319-20; 319—20; Fisher Fisher to to 90.

Selborne, Selborne, 22 Aug Aug 04, 04, p. p. 322. 322. 91. Marder, Marder, FDSF, FDSF, 1,I, 23-24; 23—24; idem, idem, Anatomy, Anatomy, 484. 484. 91. 341. Fleet,” 341. British Fleet,” the British of the “Redistribution of Mackay, “Redistribution 92. Mackay, 92. 193. Titan, 193. Weary Titan, Friedberg, Weary 93. Friedberg, 93. 25. F.P.1, 25. Kemp, F.P.1, 94. Kemp, 94. 42. Mss 42. Selborne Mss f3, Selborne 04, f.3, Oct 04, 17 Oct Fisher, 17 to Fisher, Selborne to 95. Selborne 95. 96. 96. lbid; Ibid; also also Chamberlain Chamberlain to to Selborne, Selborne, 3 3 Sep Sep 04, 04, £155, f.155, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 39; 39; also also Mackay, Mackay, Kilverstone, Kilverstone, 307—8 307-8 (especially (especially Beaumont Beaumont to to Noel, Noel, 26 26 Jun Jun 04). 04). Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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338 338

111—113 Pages 111-113 to Pages Notes to Notes

39. Mss 39. Selborne Mss f.157, Selborne 04, f.157, Nov 04, 11 Nov Chamberlain, 11 to Chamberlain, Selborne to 97. Selborne 97. Kemp, cited inin Kemp, 04, cited May 04, 14 May Fisher, 14 to Fisher, Selborne to enclosed inin Selborne Memorandum enclosed 98. Memorandum 98. F.P.1, xviii. F.P.1, xviii. to Fisher to 136; Fisher Selborne, 136; Boyce, Selborne, in Boyce, cited in 01, cited Dec 01, 16 Dec Kerr, 16 to Kerr, Selborne to 99. Selborne 99. 32. Mss 32. Selborne Mss MB, Selborne 02, f.46, Sep 02, 23 Sep Selborne, 23 Selborne, 37/73/159. CAB 37/73/159. 04, CAB Dec 04, Memorandum, 66 Dec Selborne, Memorandum, 100. Selborne, 100. Cawdor 14, Cawdor p. 14, 05, p. Nov 05, 14 Nov proof 14 revised proof Dockyards,” revised and Dockyards,” “Navy and Fisher, “Navy 101. Fisher, 101. Mss, Naval Naval Library. Library. Mss, Beresford see Beresford men, see trained men, of trained shortage of the shortage on the complaint on typical complaint 102..For 102. For aa typical 01, Mar 01, 29 Mar Admiralty, 29 to Admiralty, Fisher to in Fisher enclosed in 01, enclosed Mar 01, 16 Mar Admiralty, 16 to Admiralty, to

of Inspection of on Inspection Beresford on Charles Beresford Lord Charles The Lord Admiral The Rear Admiral of Rear “Observations of “Observations 1/7504. ADM 1/7504. N327/01, ADM Hood,” N327/01, H.M.S. Hood,” H.M.S. 32. Mss 32. Selborne Mss f.72, Selborne 02, f.72, Dec 02, 24 Dec Selborne, 24 to Selborne, Fisher to 103. Fisher 103. memorandum enclosing memorandum W56/147, enclosing RA. W56/147, 04, R.A. Nov 04, 16 Nov Knollys, 16 to Knollys, Selborne to 104. Selborne 104. W56/148. Archives, Wo6/148. Royal Archives, Edward, p.p. 1,1, Royal King Edward, to King addressed to addressed 65,400; at 65,400; stood at vote AA stood 1889, vote In 1889, 22. In table 22. appendix, table Defence, appendix, In Defence, Sumida, In 105. Sumida, 105. 04. Dec 04. “Memorandum,” 66 Dec Selborne, “Memorandum,” and Selborne, and 106. Fisher, Fisher, “The “The Personnel,” Personnel,” Mar Mar 07, 07, p.p. 1,1, FP4824, FP4824, Fisher Fisher Papers Papers 8/23. 8/23. 106. Library. Admiralty Library. Mss, Admiralty Cawdor Mss, 15, Cawdor p. 15, Dockyards,” p. and Dockyards,” “Navy and Fisher, “Navy 107. Fisher, 107. Small of Small Ships of of Ships Sea of From Sea Withdrawal From of Withdrawal Personnel of on Personnel “Effect on 108. “Effect 108. 8/26. Papers 8/26. Fisher Papers FP4942, Fisher 07, FP4942, Jul 07, Fisher, Jul Value,” Fisher, Fighting Value,” Fighting F.P.2, Kemp, F.P.2, 1905, Kemp, Fisher, 1905, out,” Fisher, weed out,” to weed continue to must continue we must “Why we 109. “Why 109.

in 05, p.p. 2,2, in Oct 05, on 88 Oct Admiralty on the Admiralty at the held at meeting held of meeting Report of 9—13; Report 9-13; “Committee “Committee on on Navy Navy Estimates,” Estimates,” Manning Manning the the Fleet Fleet in in War, War, 55 October October 1905, 1905,

ADM 1/7813. 1/7813. ADM

'

110. 110. Fisher Fisher to to Tweedmouth, Tweedmouth, 24 24 Apr Apr 06, 06, FGDN, FGDN, I, I, 79. 79. 111. 111. Fisher, Fisher, “Non-Effective “Non-Effective Charges Charges in in Relation Relation to to Long Long Service Service System,” System,” Jan Jan 05, 05, in in Kemp, Kemp, F.P.2, F.P.2, 47—51; 47-51; for for exact exact figures figures of of the the growth growth in in costs costs see: see: Sumida, Sumida, 13. 12 && 13. tables 12 appendix, tables Defence, appendix, In Defence, In 1 12. Minutes Minutes (n/d) (n/d) by by Selborne, Selborne, and and (13 (13 Jun Jun 01) 01) by by Kerr, Kerr, “Manning “Manning of of the the War War 112.

Fleet inin 1905/06” 1905/06” (Admiralty (Admiralty 66 Jun Jun 01), 01), ADM ADM 1/7522. 1/7522. Fleet 113. Kerr Kerr to to Selborne, Selborne, 22 22 Dec Dec 02, 02, f.174, f.174, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 31; 31; Fisher Fisher to to 113. Selborne, Selborne, 23 23 Sep Sep 02, 02, £46, f.46, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 32. 32. 114. Fisher, Fisher, “Non-Effective “Non-Effective Charges Charges in in Relation Relation to to Long Long Service Service System,” System,” Jan Jan 114.

05, 05, in in Kemp, Kemp, F.P.2, F.P.2, 47. 47.

‘|

115. Minute Minute (March (March 1902) Selborne, f.136, f.136, Add Add Mss Mss 50281. 50281. 115. 1902) by by Selborne, 116. Minute Minute (28 (28 Apr Apr 37) 37) by by DCNS DCNS in in “Distribution “Distribution of of the the Fleet,” Fleet,” ADM ADM 1/9181. 1/9181. 116. In In 1935 1935 the the proportion proportion was was just just 20 20 percent. percent. 117. [1911] 117. Appendix, Appendix, table table 5; 5; Battenberg, Battenberg, “Manning “Manning Summary,” Summary,” [1911] MB1/T14/68, MB1/T14/68, Battenberg Battenberg Mss. Mss. The The number number of of recruits recruits entered entered during during 1901-2 1901-2 alone alone was was 14,266. 14,266. 118. Jon Jon Sumida, Sumida, “British “British Naval Naval Administration Administration and and Policy Policy inin the the Age Age of of Fisher,” Fisher,” 118. The The Journal Journal of of Military Military History History 54 54 (January (January 1990): 1990): 1—26; 1-26; for for a a brief brief survey survey on on the the importance importance of of a a balanced balanced career career structure structure see see Lambert, Lambert, “Economy “Economy or or Empire"; Empire’;

Mackay, Mackay, Kilverstone, Kilverstone, 312; 312; Admiralty, Admiralty, “Proposal “Proposal to to Reduce Reduce the the Commission Commission of of Ships Ships

19—20; Fisher, F.P.1, 19-20; Kemp, F.P.1, 1/7658; Kemp, ADM 1/7658; 03, ADM May 03, 19 May Lambert Nicogofi'rlj‘moisfiavgvsa;:evigudgniralty to Two Years,” Admiralty 19 E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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113—117 Pages 113-117 to Pages Notes to Notes

339 339

“Navy “Navy and and Dockyards,” Dockyards,” unrevised unrevised draft, draft, 14 14 Nov Nov 05, 05, p. p. 5, 5, 13—15, 138-15, prints, prints, Cawdor Cawdor Mss. Mss, Admiralty Admiralty Library. Library. 119. Fisher, Fisher, “Non-Effective “Non-Effective Charges Charges inin Relation Relation to to Long Long Service Service System,” System,” Jan Jan 119. 05, in in Kemp, Kemp, F.P.2, F.P.2, 48. 48. 05, 120. 120. Sumida, Sumida, “Naval “Naval Administration Administration on on the the Age Age of of Fisher,” Fisher,” 10—1 10—11;1; Admiralty, Admiralty, “Manning “Manning the the Fleet Fleet Committee: Committee: remarks remarks on on Mr. Mr. McKenna’s McKenna’s memorandum,” memorandum,” printprinted March March 1907, 1907, FP4826, FP4826, Fisher Fisher Papers Papers 8/23. 8/23. (I(I am am indebted indebted to to Jon Jon Sumida Sumida for for ed bringing this this document document to to my my attention.) attention.) bringing 121. 121. Fisher, Fisher, “Navy “Navy and and Dockyards,” Dockyards,” p. p. 15, 15, 35. 35. 122. 122. Appendix, Appendix, table table 3. 3. 123. 123. Ibid. Ibid. 124. 124. Ibid. Ibid. 125. 125. Appendix, Appendix, table table 43. 4a. 126. Appendix, Appendix, table table 3. 3. 126. 127. 127. Ibid. Ibid. 128. 128. Kemp, Kemp, ER], F.P.1, 99, 99, and and Table Table K, K, 129. 129. 129. 129. Navy Navy List, List, October October 1904 1904 and and 1905; 1905; see see also also memorandum memorandum (4 (4 Apr Apr 02) 02) by by Selborne, f.156, f.156, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 158. 158. Selborne, 130. 130. Kemp, Kemp, F.P.1, F.P.1, 36—38. 36-38. 131. 131. Fisher, Fisher, “Mediterranean “Mediterranean Fleet, Fleet, 1899—1902,” 1899-1902,” p. p. 85, 85, FP4702, FP4702, Fisher Fisher 1/8. Papers 1/8. Papers 132. 132. Marginal Marginal comment comment by by Fisher Fisher on on “First “First and and Second Second Progress Progress Report,” Report,” paragraph paragraph 4, 4, 10 10 Nov Nov 04, 04, by by the the committee committee for for “Redistribution “Redistribution of of the the Fleet Fleet in in

Home Home and and Foreign Foreign Waters,” Waters,” Admiralty Admiralty 66 Dec Dec 1904, 1904, ADM ADM 1/7736. 1/7736. 133. 133. Kemp, Kemp, ER], F.P.1, 99, 99, and and Table Table K, K, 129. 129. 134. 134. First First and and Second Second progress progress Report, Report, p. p. 7, 7, 10 10 Nov Nov 04, 04, of of the the committee committee on on “Redistribution “Redistribution of of the the Fleet Fleet in in Home Home and and Foreign Foreign Waters,” Waters,” ADM ADM 1/7736. 1/7736. To To patrol patrol the the Far Far East, East, the the committee committee recommended: recommended: 3 3 (rather (rather than than 6) 6) armored armored cruisers; cruisers; 2 2 (6) (6) first-class first-class cruisers; cruisers; 9 9 (8) (8) second-class second-class cruisers; cruisers; 7 7 (10) (10) third-class third-class brackets.) in brackets.) recommendations in (Fisher’s recommendations cruisers. (Fisher’s cruisers. 135. 135. Battenberg Battenberg to to Selborne, Selborne, 20 20 Oct Oct 04, 04, f.44, f.44, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 44. 44. 136. 136. Minute Minute (7 (7 Nov Nov 04) 04) by by Battenberg, Battenberg, MB1/T93, MB1/T93, Battenberg Battenberg Mss; Mss; 1/4. Papers 1/4. Fisher Papers FP139, Fisher 04, FP139, Nov 04, Fleet, Nov the Fleet, of the Redistribution of Battenberg, Redistribution Battenberg, 137. 137. Kemp, Kemp, ER], F.P.1, 12, 12, 41, 41, 105—7, 105-7, 128—34; 128-34; and and Fisher Fisher to to Tweedmouth, Tweedmouth, 55 Oct Oct 06, 06, FGDN, FGDN, l, I, 96. 96. 138. 138. Kemp, Kemp, FRI, F.P:1, 13, 13, 67; 67; also also Navy Navy List, List, October October 1905, 1905, 270b. 270b. N.B.; N.B.: In In all. all,

there there were were 25 25 cruisers cruisers in in reserve; reserve; also also Table Table 0 O showing showing the the effect effect on on the the nucle— nuclecommisfull commisin full China in in China battleships in five battleships the five of the retention of the retention of the system of crew system us crew us

sion, sion, in in “Naval “Naval Necessities, Necessities, volume volume 1,” 1,” Admiralty Admiralty Library. Library. 139. 139. Ibid., Ibid., 40-43. 40-43. 140. 140. Fisher, Fisher, “The “The Subsidiary Subsidiary Services Services of of War,” War,” Jun Jun 05, 05, cited cited in in Kemp, Kemp, F.P.2, F.P.2, 6. 6. 141. 141. Selborne Selborne to to Battenberg, Battenberg, 23 23 Nov Nov 04, 04, f.64, f.64, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 44. 44.

142. 142. Balfour, Balfour, “The “The Possibility Possibility of of Serious Serious Invasion: Invasion: Home Home Defence,” Defence,” pp. pp. 14—18, 14-18, 38/3/71. CAB 38/3/71. 3/1/18A, CAB 3/1/18A, 143. 143. Selborne Selborne to to Balfour, Balfour, 16 16 Nov Nov 03, 03, f.148, f£.148, Add Add Mss Mss 49707. 49707. Lambert,M1513431%;]!gsggplgmhggmgrandum, 1904, f.158, £158, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 158. 158. 144. Selborne, Memorandum, 1904, E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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340 340

117—120 Pages 117-120 to Pages Notes to Notes

145. 145. 146. 146. 147. 147. 148. 148.

Library. Admiralty Library. 133. Admiralty p. 133, 1," p. volume 1,” Fisher, Necessities, volume “Naval Necessities, Fisher, “Naval ibid. Selborne, ibid. by Selborne, comment by Marginal Marginal comment 69. ER], 69. Kemp, F.P.1, in Kemp, cited in Arsenals,” cited Naval Arsenals,” of Naval Fisher, “Defence of Fisher, “Defence lbid., p.68. p.68. Ibid.,

Battenberg 44; Battenberg Mss 44; Selborne Mss f.75, Selborne 04, f.75, Dec 04, 19 Dec Selborne, 19 to Selborne, Battenberg to 149. 149. Battenberg 39. Mss 39. Selborne Mss f.41, Selborne 04, f.41, Dec 04, 28 Dec to Selborne, 28 to Selborne, Mss Add Mss f.156—160, Add 1904, f.156-160, Nov 1904, Ports,” Nov Naval Ports,” of Naval Defence of “The Defence Fisher, “The 150. 150. Fisher, p.68—72. F.P.1, p.68-72. Arsenals,” F.P.1, Naval Arsenals,” of Naval “Defence of Fisher, “Defence and Fisher, 49710; 49710; and correspondence related correspondence and related H6, and 04, f.16, Oct 04, C.G.S., 33 Oct to C.G.S., Arnold-Forster to 151. Arnold-Forster 151. f.4—19, f.4-19, Add Add Mss Mss 50308. 50308. Selborne, by Selborne, 04) by Aug 04) (21 Aug minute (21 and minute Battenberg and by Battenberg 04) by Aug 04) (17 Aug Memo (17 152. Memo 152. 1/8879. ADM 1/8879. 05), ADM Apr 05), 22 Apr (ex-W0 22 Aspect” (ex-WO Naval Aspect” its Naval “Submarine Mines inin its “Submarine Mines to regard to with regard Admiralty with the Admiralty to the addressed to Questions addressed Mines: Questions 153. “Submarine Mines: 153. “Submarine Oct 24 Oct ports,” 24 British ports,” in British mines in submarine mines of submarine employment of of employment aspects of the Naval aspects the Naval 38/6/103. CAB 38/6/103. 4/1/40B, CAB 04, 4/1/40B, 04, 38/6/110. CAB 38/6/110. CID, CAB of CID, meeting of 58th meeting and 58th lbid.; and 154. Ibid.; 154. 50341. Mss 50341. Add Mss f.108, Add 04, f.108, Nov 04, 22 Nov diary, 22 Arnold-Forster diary, 155. Arnold-Forster 155. 156. 156. lbid. Ibid. 157. Ibid. Ibid. 157. 4/1/42B, 04, 4/1/42B, Nov 04, 13 Nov Exchequer, 13 the Exchequer, of the Chancellor of the Chancellor by the Memorandum by 158. Memorandum 158. CAB 38/6/106. 38/6/106. CAB 50341. Mss 50341. Add Mss f.108, Add 04, f.108, Nov 04, 22 Nov diary, 22 Arnold—Forster diary, 159. Arnold-Forster 159. Add f 1, Add 05, f.1, Mar 05, and 11 Mar 50341; and Mss 50341; Add Mss 04, Add Nov 04, 23 Nov diary, 23 Arnold—Forster diary, 160. Arnold-Forster 160. Mss Mss 50344. 50344. . 161. 175, Add 161. Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster to to Lyttleton, Lyttleton, 22 22 Nov Nov 04, 04, f. f.175, Add Mss Mss 50318. 50318. 4/1/433, 04, 4/1/43B, Nov 04, 24 Nov Defences,” 24 Mine Defences,” ‘Submarine Mine Office, “Submarine War Office, 162. War 162. CA338/6/1 1 1. CAB38/6/111. 163. Admiralty, Admiralty, 25 25 Nov Nov 04, 04, 4/1/44B, 4/1/44B, CAB38/6/113. CAB38/6/113. 163. 50341. Mss 50341. Add Mss f.125, Add 04, f.125, Nov 04, 25 Nov diary, 25 Arnold-Forster diary, 164. Arnold-Forster 164. Mss Add Mss [213—55, Add 04, f.213-55, Nov 04, 30 Nov to 30 24 to Balfour, 24 to Balfour, Clarke to from Clarke Letters from 165. Letters 165. 49700; see see also also George George Clarke, Clarke, Military Military Fortifications Fortifications (London, (London, 1894). 1894). 49700;

38/6/112. CAB 38/6/112. 04, CAB Nov 04, 25 Nov CID, 25 of CID, meeting of 59th meeting of 59th Minutes of 166. Minutes 166. 167. 167. 168. 168. Balfour, Balfour, 169. 169. 170. 170.

Arnold-Forster to to Balfour, Balfour, 30 30 Nov Nov 04, 04, f.246, f.246, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 39. 39. Arnold-Forster to Selborne to 38/6/117; Selborne CAB 38/6/117; 04, CAB Dec 04, CID, 22 Dec of CID, meeting of 60th meeting of 60th Minutes Minutes of 18 18 Feb Feb 05, 05, f.76, f.76, Add Add Mss Mss 49708. 49708. Selborne Selborne to to Balfour, Balfour, 16 16 Jan Jan 05, 05, f.70, f.70, Add Add Mss Mss 49708. 49708. Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster diary, diary, 22 22 Nov Nov 04, 04, f.108, f.108, Add Add Mss Mss 50341. 50341.

171. 171. Minutes Minutes of of 60th 60th meeting meeting of of CID, CID, 22 Dec Dec 04, 04, CAB CAB 38/6/117. 38/6/117. 172. 172. Conclusions Conclusions of of 64th 64th meeting meeting of of CID, CID, 11 Mar Mar 05, 05, CAB CAB 38/8/19. 38/8/19. 173. 173. Arnold-Forster Arnold-Forster diary, diary, 23 23 Nov Nov 04, 04, f.111, f.111, Add Add Mss Mss 50341. 50341. 174. 174. Selborne Selborne to to Balfour, Balfour, 16 16 Jan Jan 05, 05, f.70, f.70, Add Add Mss Mss 49708. 49708. 175. For For complaints complaints of of War War Office Office procrastination procrastination see see Selborne Selborne to to Balfour Balfour 7, 7, 175. 18 Feb Feb 05, 05, f.73-76, f.73-76, Add Add Mss Mss 49708; 49708; and and undated undated War War Office Office Memorandum, Memorandum, 18 f.258, Add Add Mss Mss 50318. 50318. The The total total value value of of the the property property and and land land transferred transferred to to the the f.258, Navy7amounted 216. See Navy amounted to to £908, £908,216. See also also ADM ADM 1/7860. 1/7860. 0m9rain, War 176.6’D D’Ombrain, War Machinery, Machinery, 59—63. 59-63. Lambert, Nicolas. SIrjohn FIshers Naval Rev uti E-book, Columbia. U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|. handle. net/2027/heb.31 569. Downloaded on behalf of Digital Theological Library, Claremont, CA

120-124 Pages 120-124 to Pages Notes Notes to

341 341

to Clarke to 50345; Clarke Mss 50345; Add Mss f.1—3, Add 05, f.1-3, Mar 05, diary, 11 Mar 177. Arnold-Forster diary, 177. Arnold-Forster

49701. Mss 49701. Add Mss f.103, Add 05, f.103, Apr 05, 26 Apr and 26 05 and Mar 05 23 Mar Balfour, 23 Balfour, the of the Minutes of 50345; Minutes Mss 50345; Add Mss f.1—3, Add 05, f.1-3, Mar 05, diary, 11 Mar 178. Arnold-Forster diary, 178. Arnold-Forster 64th 64th meeting meeting of of CID, CID, CAB CAB 38/8/19. 38/8/19.

49—55. Empire, 49-55. the Empire, Defending the Williams, Defending 179. Williams, 179. 180. 180. lbid. Ibid. 181. D’'Ombrain, D’Ombrain, War War Machinery, Machinery, 61-68. 61-68. 181. Offensively” Used Offensively” “Submarines Used enclosing “Submarines 05, enclosing Jan 05, 24 Jan 182. Balfour, 24 to Balfour, Fisher to 182. Fisher f.165—77, f.165-77, Add Add Mss Mss 49710. 49710. 183. 183. lbid. Ibid. 184. 184. lbid. Ibid. 185. 185. lbid. Ibid.

49708. Mss 49708. Add Mss f.88, Add 05, f.88, Aug 05, 23 Aug Balfour, 23 to Balfour, Selborne to 186. Selborne 186. 187. 187. 188. 188. 189. 189. 190. 190. 191. 191. Jan Jan 04, 04,

37/75/57. CAB 37/75/57. 1905, CAB March 1905, Boats," March “Submarine Boats,” (Fisher?), “Submarine Cawdor (Fisher?), Cawdor Cawdor. Chamberlain, Cawdor. Lansdowne, Chamberlain, Selborne, Lansdowne, Balfour, Arnold-Forster, Selborne, Balfour, Arnold-Forster, 37/75/57. CAB 37/75/57. 05, CAB Mar 05, Boats,” Mar “Submarine Boats,” Admiralty, “Submarine Admiralty, lbid., Ibid., pp. pp. 4—5. 4-5. Balfour, 55 to Balfour, Fisher to 305; Fisher FGDN, I,l, 305; 04, FGDN, Mar 04, 12 Mar Arnold-White, 12 to Arnold-White, Fisher to Fisher f.75, f.75, Add Add Mss Mss 49710. 49710.

54. ll, 54. FGDN, Il, 05, FGDN, Apr 05, 22 Apr Cromer, 22 to Cromer, 192. Fisher to 192. Fisher Dover to Dover Portsmouth to from Portsmouth Distance from 04. Distance Dec 04. 15 Dec Portsmouth, 15 193. C-in-C Portsmouth, to C-in-C Bacon to 193. Bacon 1/7719. ADM 1/7719. A1007/04, ADM 7, A1007/04, to 7, force 44 to weather force hours; weather 11 hours; in 11 Completed in miles. Completed 115 miles. isis 115 Submission Portsmouth Submission in Portsmouth enclosed in Report enclosed 194. “Confidential Report Bacon, “Confidential 194. Bacon, No.258/5, of of 25 25 January January 1904,” 1904,” ADM ADM 1/7795. 1/7795. No.258/5, furthest the furthest 1910, the in 1910, written in minute written in aa minute Hall in SS Hall Captain SS to Captain 195. According to 195. According was uninterrupted was and uninterrupted unassisted and submarine, unassisted type submarine, by aa BB type distance traveled by distance traveled 1,420 1,420 miles, miles, ADM ADM 1/8220. 1/8220. recalled was recalled he was when he attitude when Fisher’s attitude of Fisher’s illustration of best illustration 196. the best Perhaps the 196. Perhaps subforty-six suborder forty-six to order was to priority was first priority his first 1914, his November 1914, in November to Admiralty in the Admiralty to the See later. See week later. more aa week twenty more and twenty office and taking office of taking days of three days marines within three marines within Dept, Contracts Dept., CPD1458/14, Contracts on CPD1458/14, Contracts on of Contracts Director of by Director 14) by Memo Nov 14) (11 Nov Memo (11 Branch Branch 8, 8, Keyes Keyes Mss Mss 4/11. 4/11. 20 Esher, 20 to Esher, Fisher to 1903; Fisher November 1903; Boats,” November 197. Submarine Boats,” of Submarine Effect of “The Effect 197. “The Mss. Esher Mss. 10/41, Esher “Submarines,” 10/41, entitled “Submarines,” memorandum entitled enclosing memorandum 04, enclosing Apr 04, Apr 42. Mss 42. Selborne Mss f.84, Selborne 04, f.84, Dec 04, 29 Dec Selborne, 29 to Selborne, Fisher to 198. Fisher 198. 04, Feb 04, 21 Feb Waters,” 21 Home Waters,” in Home Craft in Torpedo Craft of Torpedo 199. “Organisation of Admiralty; “Organisation 199. Admiralty; D342/O4, D342/04, ADM ADM 1/7725. 1/7725. 200. 200. lbid. Ibid. conthe confor the arrangements for of arrangements “Revision of in “Revision Ottley, in by Ottley, 201. 05) by Mar 05) (8 Mar Minute (8 201. Minute ADM D342/04, ADM War,” D342/04, Flotillas inin War,” Craft Flotillas Torpedo Craft of Torpedo concentration of stitution and concentration stitution and 1/7725. 1/7725. 202. 202. Appendix Appendix 1. 1. 203. 203. lbid. Ibid. Mss. Crease Mss. prints, Crease 06, prints, Jan 06, 10 Jan 1906/07, 10 Committee 1906/07, Estimates Committee Naval Estimates 204. Naval 204. Estimates Naval Estimates on Naval committee on of committee meeting of first meeting the first on the “Memorandum on 205. “Memorandum 205. 49711. Mss 49711. Add Mss f.37—43, Add 05, f.37-43, Jul 05, 20 Jul 1906—07,” 20 1906-07,” Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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124—128 Pages 124-128 to Pages Notes to Notes

1906—07.” for 1906-07.” estimates for “sketch estimates appendix 2,2, “sketch 206. table: appendix lbid., table: 206. Ibid.,

Programme,” p.p. Building Programme,” our Building of our Aspects of Strategic Aspects “The Strategic Fisher, “The and Fisher, Ibid; and 207. 207. Ibid; prints, 05, prints, Nov 05, 16 Nov 1905/06,” 16 Committee 1905/06,” Estimates Committee Navy Estimates of Navy “Report of 14, inin “Report 14, ' Library. Admiralty Library. Mss, Admiralty Cawdor Mss, Cawdor Ships Fighting Ships Jane’s Fighting 1-12.” Jane’s “Torpedo-boats 1-12.” 214, “Torpedo-boats Covers 214, Ships Covers 208. Ships 208. Mar 10 Mar boats,” 10 Torpedo boats,” of Torpedo “Shortage of 3/23, “Shortage Mss, 3/23, Crease Mss, also Crease See also 82. See (1906-7), 82. (1906-7), 09. 09. 82. 1966), 82. (London, 1966), Destroyers (London, British Destroyers March, British Edgar March, 209. Edgar 209. Covers Ships Covers Watts, Ships and Watts, Dunston and by Dunston 04) by Dec 04) (22 Dec CN25464/4 (22 on CN25464/4 Memo on 210. Memo 210. class River class £41,000, aa River cost £41,000, destroyer cost coastal destroyer 1—12). AA coastal Boats 1-12). (Torpedo Boats 214 (Torpedo 214 destroyer about about £75,000. £75,000. destroyer miles 1000 miles or 1000 speed or full speed at full hours at for 88 hours sufficient for oil sufficient carried oil these carried lbid., these 211. Ibid., 211.

speed. economical speed. at economical at Canadian Royal Canadian the Royal of the (late of Cadwallader (late Edward Cadwallader Mr. Edward to Mr. indebted to am indebted 212. II am 212. of file of with a a file me with providing me and providing attention and to .my trials to these trials bringing these for bringing Navy) for Navy) my attention and Naval and the Naval from the note from these isis aa note Among these skepticism. Among my skepticism. overcome my to overcome papers to papers

dated 88 Times dated London Times the London from the extract from an extract and an 1906, and Aug 1906, 16 Aug of 16 Record, of Military Record, Military Aug Aug 1906. 1906. Library, British Library, Papers, British [Keyes Papers, 4/22 [Keyes Mss 4/22 Keyes Mss Oct 11, Keyes, 77 Oct to Keyes, Hall to 213. Hall 213. 11, Keyes LondonL London]. Mss Add Mss f.201, Add Redistribution,” f£.201, Fleet Redistribution,” of Fleet Effects of “Financial Effects Fisher, “Financial 214. Fisher, 214. 49698. 49698. also see also 8/23; see Papers 8/23; Fisher Papers FP4824, Fisher 2, FP4824, 07, p.p. 2, Mar 07, Personnel,” Mar “The Personnel,” Fisher, “The 215. Fisher, 215. Library. Admiralty Library. Mss, Admiralty Cawdor Mss, 05, p.p. 1,1, Cawdor Nov 05, Dockyards,” Nov and Dockyards,” “Navy and Fisher, “Navy Fisher, 23. ll, 23. FGDN, Il, 216. FGDN, 216. 217. 217. Julian Julian Corbett, Corbett, Some Some Principles Principles of of Maritime Maritime Strategy Strategy (London, (London, 1911) 1911) ., 91—106, 114-15. 114-15. 91-106, 218. Lambert, Lambert, “Concept “Concept of of Flotilla Flotilla Defence.” Defence." 218.

Supremacy Naval Supremacy British Naval Defending British Five: Defending Chapter Five: Chapter 1. 1. Williams, Williams, Defending Defending the the Empire, Empire, 79. 79.

2. 2. Enclosure Enclosure of of letter letter from from Clarke Clarke to to Haldane, Haldane, 6 6 Feb Feb 05, 05, f.147-157. f.147-157, Edinburgh]. Scotland, Edinburgh]. of Scotland, Library of [National Library 5906 [National Mss 5906 Haldane Mss Haldane

Williams, Defending Defending the the Empire, Empire, 77-87. 77-87. 3.3. Williams, 4. 4. Bernard Bernard Mallett, Mallett, British British Budgets, Budgets, 148-254. 148-254. in Liberalism in British Liberalism Politics: British Liberal Politics: of Liberal Climax of The Climax Bentley, The Michael Bentley, 5. Michael 5. Theory Theory and and Practice Practice (London, (London, 1987), 1987), 114—16. 114-16.

Mss Haldane Mss f.15, Haldane 1926, f.15, Aug 1926, autobiography, Aug his autobiography, for his Haldane for by Haldane Note by 6.6. Note 5923. 9923. 7. 7. Williams, Williams, Defending Defending the the Empire, Empire, 78. 78. 8. 8. Clarke Clarke to to Haldane, Haldane, 6 6 Feb Feb 05, 05, f.145, f.145, Haldane Haldane Mss Mss 5906. 5906. New the New and the Lancashire and Clarke, Lancashire Peter Clarke, see Peter progressives see the progressives For the 9. For 9. England,” in England,” Movement in Progressive Movement “The Progressive and “The 1971) and (London, 1971) Liberalism (London, Liberalism

Transactions Transactions of of the the Royal Royal Historical Historical Society, Society, 5th 5th series, series, 24 24 (1974): (1974): 159—81; 159-81; (London, Reform (London, Social Reform of Social Ideology of An Ideology Liberalism: An New Liberalism: The New Feeden, The Michaelfegdenn Lambert Nicolas Michael E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Notes to to Pages Pages 129-133 129—133 Notes

343 343

1978). 1978). For For the the radicals radicals see see H. H. Weinroth, Weinroth, “Left “Left Wing Wing opposition opposition to to naval naval armaarmaments ments in in Britain Britain before before 1914,” 1914,” Journal Journal of of Contemporary Contemporary History History 6 6 (1971): (1971): 93—120; 93-120; Gerald Gerald Jordan, Jordan, “Pensions “Pensions not not Dreadnoughts,” Dreadnoughts,” in in Edwardian Edwardian Radicalism, Radicalism, ed. ed. A. A. J. J. A. A. Morris Morris (Routledge: (Routledge: London, London, 1974), 1974), 162-69. 162-69. 10. 10. Fisher Fisher to to Cawdor, Cawdor, 23 23 Jan Jan 06, 06, FGDN, FGDN, ll, II, 67. 67. 11. 11. Haldane Haldane to to Asquith, Asquith, 28 28 Dec Dec 05, 05, £194, f.194, Asquith Asquith Mss Mss 10 10 [Bodleian [Bodleian Library]. Library]. 12. 12. Asquith Asquith to to Tweedmouth, Tweedmouth, 10 10 Jul Jul 06, 06, Tweedmouth Tweedmouth Mss Mss A65 A65 [Admiralty [Admiralty Library]. ,| Library]. 13. 13. Williams, Williams, Defending Defending the the Empire, Empire, 96—99. 96-99. 14. Sumida, Sumida, In In Defence, Defence, 21-25. 21—25. 14. 15. 15. Asquith Asquith to to Weedmouth, Tweedmouth, 23 23 May May 06, 06, Tweedmouth Tweedmouth Mss, Mss, A62. A62. 16. 16. lbid., Ibid., 24 24 May May 06. 06. 17. 17. Admiralty, Admiralty, “Memorandum “Memorandum of of a a meeting meeting of of the the Sea Sea Lords Lords at at the the Admiralty Admiralty on on Saturday, Saturday, 26 26 May May 1906, 1906, to to consider consider future future shipbuilding shipbuilding arrangements arrangements &c.,” &c.,” “Naval Necessities, Necessities, vol. vol. 4,” 4,” Admiralty Admiralty Library. Library. “Naval 18. 18. Tweedmouth Tweedmouth [Navy [Navy Estimates Estimates 1907/8], 1907/8], 26 26 Jun Jun 06, 06, CAB CAB 37/83/60. 37/83/60. 19. 19. For For evidence evidence that that Asquith Asquith was was handed handed aa proof proof copy copy of of Fisher’s Fisher’s “Navy “Navy and and Dockyards,” Dockyards,” dated dated 14 14 Nov Nov 05, 05, see see covering covering note note from from Masterton-Smith Masterton-Smith (first (first lord’s lord’s private private secretary) secretary) to to Tweedmouth, Tweedmouth, n/d, n/d, attached attached to to copy copy of of this this paper paper in in Cawdor Cawdor Mss, Mss, Admiralty Admiralty Library. Library. 20. 20. Tweedmouth, Tweedmouth, [Navy [Navy Estimates Estimates 1907/8]. 1907/8]. 26 26 Jun Jun 06, 06, p. p. 3, 3, CAB CAB 37/83/60. 37/83/60. 21. 21. lbid., Ibid., p. p. 2, 2, & & table table B. B. 22. 22. Asquith, Asquith, “Naval “Naval Expenditure," Expenditure,” 9 9 Jul Jul 06, 06, CAB CAB 37/83/62. 37/83/62. 23. 23. lbid. Ibid. 24. 24. lbid. Ibid. 25. 29. The The Admiralty Admiralty case case was was set set out out in in “The “The Balance Balance of of Naval Naval Power, Power, 1906,” 1906,” printed printed Apr Apr 06, 06, ADM ADM 1/7876; 1/7876; for for the the clearest clearest definition definition of of the the standard standard see: see: “Naval 1905, “Naval Jan 1905, Navy,” Jan British Navy,” the British of the Strength of “Relative Strength Admiralty, “Relative Admiralty, Library. Admiralty Library. 2, Admiralty vol. 2, Necessities.” vol. Necessities,” 37/83/62. CAB 37/83/62. 06, CAB Jul 06, Expenditure,” 99 Jul “Naval Expenditure,” Asquith, “Naval 26. Asquith, 26. 27. 27. lbid. Ibid. 28. 28. lbid.; Ibid.; see see also also Tweedmouth Tweedmouth to to Campbell-Bannerman, Campbell-Bannerman, 21 21 Nov Nov 06, 06, f.134, f.134, 41231. Mss 41231. Add Mss Add 37/83/62. CAB 37/83/62. 06, CAB Jul 06, Expenditure,” 99 Jul “Naval Expenditure,” Asquith, “Naval 29. Asquith, 29. A65. Mss, A65. Tweedmouth Mss, 06, Tweedmouth Jul 06, 10 Jul Tweedmouth, 10 to Tweedmouth, Asquith to 30. Asquith 30. and McKenna and Mr. McKenna Haldane, Mr. Mr. Haldane, between Mr. Conversation between of aa Conversation “Notes of 31. “Notes 31. Haldane’s Mr. Haldane’s at Mr. Times] at the Times] for the correspondent for [military correspondent Repington [military Colonel Repington Colonel 16/12. Mss, 16/12. Esher Mss, 08, Esher May 08, Houses,” 88 May Houses,” for 41218; for Mss 41218; Add Mss f.175, Add 07, f.175, Jul 07, 10 Jul Bannerman, 10 Campbell Bannerman, to Campbell Haldane to 32. Haldane 32. Mar 14 Mar mother, 14 his mother, to his Haldane to see: Haldane estimates see: own estimates his own for his concerns for Haldane’s concerns Haldane’s 5975. Mss 5975. Haldane Mss f.115. Haldane 06, f.115, 06, CAB37/83/62. 06, CAB37/83/62. Jul 06, Expenditure,” 99 Jul “Naval Expenditure,” Asquith, “Naval 33. Asquith, 33. Admiralty of Admiralty Board of the Board by the “Remarks and 06, Jul 15 Fisher, to Jellicoe 34. 34. Jellicoe to Fisher, 15 Jul 06, and “Remarks by on n/d, 116/3095; see on the the Attached Attached memorandum,” memorandum,” n/d, both both ADM ADM 116/3095; see also also Tweedmouth, “Memorandum relative to meeting, under presidency of the Tweedmouth, “Memorandum relative to meeting, under presidency of the Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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CAB 06, CAB Jul 06, 17 Jul Street,” 17 Downing Street,” 10 Downing at 10 12, at July 12, Thursday, July on Thursday, Minister, on Prime Minister, Prime

37/83/65. 37/83/65. Charles Capt. Charles A66; Capt. Mss A66; Tweedmouth Mss 06, Tweedmouth Jul 06, 10 Jul Asquith, 10 to Asquith, Tweedmouth to 35. Tweedmouth 35. 06, Jul 06, 28 Jul Programme,” 28 Building Programme,” Naval Building Reduced Naval the Reduced and the Admiralty and “The Admiralty Ottley, “The Ottley, would ships would 1907 ships the 1907 all the hoped all Fisher hoped that Fisher possible that W57/75; itit isis possible Archives, W57/75; Royal Archives, Royal of [director of Noble [director to Noble Fisher to see Fisher which see for which cruisers, for battle cruisers, as battle down as laid down be laid be 74. FGDN, I,l, 74. 06, FGDN, Apr 06, 14 Apr Armstrong], 14 Messrs. Armstrong], Messrs. 2/22. Mss 2/22. Crease Mss 1906, Crease Oct 1906, Policy,” Oct “Admiralty Policy,” Admiralty, “Admiralty 36. Admiralty, 36. (two A66 (two and A66 A65 and Mss, A65 Tweedmouth Mss, 06, Tweedmouth Jul 06, 10 Jul Tweedmouth, 10 to Tweedmouth, Asquith to 37. Asquith 37. letters). letters). of presidency of under presidency meeting, under to meeting, relative to “Memorandum relative Tweedmouth, “Memorandum 38. Tweedmouth, 38.

CAB 06, CAB Jul 06, 17 Jul Street,” 17 Downing Street,” 10 Downing at 10 12, at July 12, Thursday, July on Thursday, Minister, on Prime Minister, the Prime the 37/83/65. 37/83/65. Board the Board by the “Remarks by and “Remarks 06, and Jun 06, “Memorandum,” Jun Clarke, “Memorandum,” George Clarke, Sir George 39. Sir 39. Naval comparative Naval on comparative memorandumz—(Notes on attached memorandum:—(Notes the attached on the Admiralty on of Admiralty of 06, Jul 06, 30 Jul Ponsonby, 30 to Ponsonby, Clarke to and Clarke 116/3095; and ADM 116/3095; both ADM 1906, both July 1906, Strength), July Strength),

41213. Mss 41213. Add Mss £200, Add f.200, 95—97. ll, 95-97. Fisher, II, Bacon, Fisher, 40. Bacon, 40. 41. to Esher, Esher, 3, Sep 06, 06, Esher Esher Mss Mss 10/49. 10/49. 41. Knollys Knollys to 3, 88 Sep Responsibility Admiralty Responsibility Regarding Admiralty “Statement Regarding Fisher, “Statement 42. Fisher, 42. of the the Navy,” Navy,” July July 1906, 1906, p. p. 1., 1., and and Clarke Clarke to to Fisher, Fisher, 18 18 Jul Jul 06, 06, of 101—2. Onwards, 101-2. 1900 Onwards, From 1900 Bacon, From Bacon, 83. ll, 83. FGDN, Il, 06, FGDN, Jul 06, Tweedmouth, 99 Jul to Tweedmouth, Fisher to 43. Fisher 43.

Strength the Strength for the for ADM 116/3095; ADM 116/3095;

44. 44. Ibid. Ibid. 219. II, 219. Esher, II, Brett, Esher, 07, Brett, Feb 07, Fisher, 44 Feb to Fisher, Esher to 45. Esher 45. 46. Fisher Fisher to to Esher, Esher, 15 15 Oct Oct 07, 07, Brett, Brett, Esher, Esher, II, II, 251. 251. 46. in cited in 1/7859) cited (ADM 1/7859) Ballard (ADM A. Ballard C. A. Commander G. by Commander 05) by Oct 05) (6 Oct Minute (6 47. Minute 47. 49. Defence,” 49. Imperial Defence,” of Imperial Committee of the Committee and the Departments and Military Departments “The Military d’Ombrain, “The d’Ombrain,

ADM 1906, ADM June 1906, Strength,” June Naval Strength,” Comparative Naval on Comparative “Notes on Clarke, “Notes 48. Clarke, 48. 116/3095. 116/3095. memoattached memothe attached on the Admiralty on of Admiralty Board of the Board by the “Remarks by Admiralty, “Remarks 49. Admiralty, 49.

1907], June 1907], or June [May or n/d [May strength,” n/d naval strength,” comparative naval on comparative randumz—(Notes on randum:—(Notes ibid. memorandum, ibid. Clarke memorandum, to Clarke attached to attached F.P.Z, Kemp, F.P.2, in Kemp, Invincible,” in and Invincible,” Dreadnought and Ships Dreadnought “HM Ships Admiralty, “HM 50. Admiralty, 50.

260—81. 260-81. 51. Jon Jon Sumida, Sumida, “The “The Quest Quest for for Reach,” Reach,” 56-70. 56—70. 51. 52. Admiralty, Admiralty, “The “The Building Building Programme Programme of of the the British British Navy,” Navy,” printed printed Feb Feb 52. 1906, FP4715, FP4715, Fisher Fisher Papers Papers 8/8. 8/8. 1906, 53. Minute Minute (17 (17 Nov Nov 06) 06) by by D.N.O. D.N.O. on on Beresford Beresford to to Tweedmouth, Tweedmouth, 16 16 Nov Nov 06, 06, 53. in in “Experimental “Experimental Battle Battle Practice Practice carried carried out out by by H.M.S. H.M.S. Britannia, Britannia,” ” G17211/6, G17211/6, PO PQ

1907, ADM ADM 256/43. 256/43. 1907, 54. 04. Sturdee Sturdee to to Sandars, Sandars, 33 Mar Mar 09, 09, enclosing enclosing untitled untitled memorandum, memorandum, f.97, [.97, Sandars Sandars Mss Mss 758; 758; Balfour Balfour to to Esher, Esher, 16 16 Apr Apr 09, 09, Esher Esher Mss Mss 16/13. 16/13. 55. ov. Ottley Ottley to to King King Edward Edward VII, VII, 8 8 Nov Nov 08, 08, Royal Royal Archives, Archives, W59/67. W59/67. 56. 506. Balfour Balfour to to Esher, Esher, 16 16 Apr Apr 09, 09, Esher Esher Mss Mss 16/13. 16/13. 07. See Marder, FDSF, 57Iv 57. FDSE I, Lambert,Nicolas.SirjohrfizIErfififilMt‘lgner’ E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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345 345

58. Marder Marder (FDSF, (FDSF, ii 57) 57) argued argued that that Fisher Fisher “knew” “knew” in in the the Spring Spring of of 1904 1904 08. the the United United States States Navy Navy intended intended to to order order the the all all big big gun gun battleships battleships Michigan Michigan

and and South South Carolina. Carolina. It It is is difficult difficult to to see see how. how. Originally Originally these these ships ships were were designed designed to to carry carry a a conventional conventional mixed mixed battery. battery. Not Not until until late late 1906 1906 did did the the

board board on on construction construction amend amend the the armament armament from from four four to to ten ten 12-inch 12-inch guns, guns, for for which which see see “Proceedings “Proceedings of of the the Board Board on on Construction,” Construction,” meetings meetings of of 21 21 Nov Nov 05, 05, 29 29 Jun Jun and and 27 27 Jul Jul 06, 06, Entry Entry 179 179 (box (box 2 2 of of 3), 3), RC. R.G. 80 80 [National [National Archives Archives Record Record Administration, Administration, Washington, Washington, DC]. DC]. 59. O9. Clarke, Clarke, “The “The Effectiveness Effectiveness of of Naval Naval Fire,” Fire,” Sep Sep 07, 07, copy copy enclosed enclosed in in Tweedmouth to to Fisher, Fisher, 25 25 Apr Apr 08, 08, FP4982, FP4982, Fisher Fisher Papers Papers 8/45. 8/45. Tweedmouth 60. 60. Esher Esher to to Brett, Brett, 3 3 Sep Sep 06, 06, Esher Esher ii, ii, 179. 179. 61. Clarke Clarke to to Asquith, Asquith, 17 17 Jul Jul 06, 06, f.196, f.196, Add Add Mss Mss 41213. 41213. 61. 62. Marder, Marder, FDSF, FDSF, I,l, 56. 56. 62. 63. 63. “Barfleur,” “Barfleur,” “The “The Growth Growth of of the the Capital Capital Ship,” Ship,” Blackwood’s Blackwood’s Magazine Magazine 179 179 (May (May 1906): 1906): 577—96; 577-96; idem, idem, “The “The Growth Growth of of the the Cruiser,” Cruiser,” Blackwood’s Blackwood’s Magazine Magazine 180 180 (January (January 1907): 1907): 21-35. 21-35. 64. 64. Cited Cited in in Marder, Marder, FDSF. FDSF, l, I, 56. 56. 65. 65. Campbell-Bannerman Campbell-Bannerman to to Asquith, Asquith, 4 4 Jan Jan 07, 07, f.220, f.220, Asquith Asquith Mss Mss 10. 10. 66. Ibid. lbid. 66. 67. 67. Asquith Asquith to to Grey, Grey, enclosing enclosing memorandum memorandum on on sale sale of of two two battleships, battleships, n/d n/d [January [January 1907], 1907], f.253, f.253, Asquith Asquith 19; 19; Fisher Fisher to to Campbell-Bannerman, Campbell-Bannerman, 4 4 Jan Jan 07, 07, f.281, f.281, Add Add Mss Mss 41210. 41210. 68. 68. Sumida, Sumida, “The “The Historian Historian as as a a Contemporary Contemporary Analyst: Analyst: Sir Sir Julian Julian Corbett Corbett

and and Sir Sir John John Fisher,” Fisher,” in in Mahan Mahan Is Is Not Not Enough: Enough: The The Proceedings Proceedings of of aa Conference Conference on on the the Works Works of of Sir Sir Julian Julian Corbett Corbett and and Admiral Admiral Sir Sir Herbert Herbert Richmond, Richmond, ed. ed. James James Goldrick Goldrick and and John John Hattendorf Hattendorf (Newport, (Newport, 1993), 1993), 129. 129. 69. 69. Fisher Fisher to to Corbett, Corbett, 4 4 Jan Jan 07, 07, Corbett Corbett Mss Mss box box 13; 13; for for evidence evidence of of Corbett’s Corbett’s receipt receipt of of this this document document see see the the copy copy in in envelope envelope containing containing various various prints Admiralty prints returned returned to to Fisher’s Fisher’s secretary secretary by by Corbett Corbett (on (on shelf shelf in in cellar) cellar) Admiralty Library; Library; there there is is also also a a later later version version of of this this print print among among the the documents documents handed handed to to Admiral Admiral Richmond Richmond by by Corbett’s Corbett’s widow, widow, Richmond Richmond Mss, Mss, 9/1 9/1 [National [National Maritime Maritime Museum Museum].]. 70. Corbett Corbett and and Ottley, Ottley, “Recent “Recent Admiralty Admiralty Administration,” Administration,” printed printed Jan Jan 07, 07, 70. run run of of 20, 20, Crease Crease Mss Mss box box 3. 3. 71. Corbett, Corbett, “Recent “Recent Attacks Attacks on on the the Admiralty,” Admiralty," The The Nineteenth Nineteenth Century Century 61 61 71. (February (February 1907): 1907): 198-210 198-210 (the (the final final version version of of “Recent “Recent Attacks Attacks on on the the Admiralty”): Admiralty”); Fisher Fisher to to Corbett, Corbett, 15 15 Jan Jan 07, 07, FGDN, FGDN, ii, II, 113. 113. 72. Corbett, Corbett, “The “The Capture Capture of of Private Private Property Property at at Sea,” Sea,” The The Nineteenth Nineteenth 72. '- Century Century 61 61 (Jun (Jun 1907): 1907): 918-32; 918-32; idem, idem, The The Strategical Strategical Value Value of of Speed Speed in in Battleships,” Battleships,” Journal Journal of of the the Royal Royal United United Services Services Institution Institution 51 51 (Jul (Jul 1907): 1907): 824—39; 824-39; in in November November 1907, 1907, a a third third article article on on the the possibility possibility of of invasion invasion was was refused refused by by the the editor editor of of The The Nineteenth Nineteenth Century. Century. Corbett Corbett never never again again wrote wrote artiarticles cles on on current current affairs. affairs.

73. 73. Asquith Asquith to to McKenna, McKenna, Jul Jul 08, 08, cited cited in in Stephen Stephen McKenna, McKenna, Reginald Reginald McKenna, McKenna, 1863—1943 1863-1943 (London, (London, 1948), 1948), 65. 65. 74. 74. Asquith Asquith to to Campbell-Bannerman, Campbell-Bannerman, 30 30 Dec Dec 06. 06, Add Add Mss Mss 41210. 41210. Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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138—140 Pages 138-140 to Pages Notes to Notes

75. 75. 76. 76. 77. 77. 41231. 41231. 78. 78.

10. Asquith 10. f.220, Asquith 07, f.220, Jan 07, Asquith, 44 Jan to Asquith, Campbell-Bannerman to Campbell-Bannerman lbid. Ibid. Mss Add Mss f.135, Add 06, f.135, Nov 06, 21 Nov Campbell-Bannerman, 21 to Campbell-Bannerman, Needmouth to Tweedmouth

lbid. Ibid. CAB 07, CAB Nov 07, 20 Nov Expenditure,” 20 Military Expenditure,” and Military “Naval and Murray, “Naval H. Murray, G. H. 79. G. 79. 37/90/98. 37/90/98. Britain in Britain Armaments in Naval Armaments to Naval Opposition to Wing Opposition “Left Wing Weinroth, “Left H. Weinroth, 80. H. 80. 97. (1971): 97. History6 Contemporary History of Contemporary Journal of 1914,” Journal before 1914,” before 6 (1971): CAB 07, CAB Nov 07, 20 Nov Expenditure,” 20 Military Expenditure,” and Military “Naval and Murray, “Naval H. Murray, G. H. 81. G. 81. 37/90/98. 37/90/98. vol1908—09” volEstimates 1908-09” “Navy Estimates in “Navy 07, in Nov 07, 21 Nov Asquith, 21 to Asquith, Tweedmouth to 82. Tweedmouth 82. Mss. Tweedmouth Mss. ume, Tweedmouth ume, ibid. 07, ibid. Nov 07, 21 Nov Tweedmouth, 21 to Tweedmouth, Asquith to 83. Asquith 83. before Britain before in Britain Armaments in Naval Armaments to Naval Opposition to Wing Opposition “Left Wing Weinroth, “Left 84. Weinroth, 84. of Climax of Bentley, Climax 162—69; Bentley, Dreadnoughts," 162-69; not Dreadnoughts,” “Pensions not Jordan, “Pensions 106; Jordan, 1914," 106; 1914,” Liberal Politics, Politics, 1 114-15. 14—15. Liberal 37/90/112. CAB 37/90/112. 07, CAB Dec 07, 18 Dec 1908/09,” 18 Estimates, 1908/09,” “Navy Estimates, Tweedmouth, “Navy 85. Tweedmouth, 85. 1908/9 Estimates 1908/9 Navy Estimates 07, Navy Nov 07, 26 Nov Street," 26 Downing Street,” “10, Downing from “10, Note from 86. Note 86. Volume, Volume, Tweedmouth Tweedmouth Mss. Mss. 87. 87. lbid. Ibid. Museum]. Maritime Museum]. [National Maritime Mss 66 [National Corbett Mss 07, Corbett Dec 07, Corbett, 11 Dec to Corbett, Slade to 88. Slade 88. outlin07, outlinNov 07, 29 Nov (controller) 29 Jackson (controller) to Jackson (secretary) to Badderly (secretary) Vincent Badderly 89. Vincent 89. Mss. Tweedmouth Mss. volume, Tweedmouth 1907/08” volume, Estimates 1907/08” “Navy Estimates suggestions, “Navy Fisher’s suggestions, ing Fisher’s ing the of the Information of the Information for the Lords for Sea Lords the Sea by the “Memorandum by Admiralty, “Memorandum 90. Admiralty, 90. copy Mss; copy Tweedmouth Mss; volume, Tweedmouth 1907/08” volume, Estimates 1907/08” “Navy Estimates 07, “Navy Dec 07, Lord,” 33 Dec First Lord,” First Mackay, also Mackay, see also collection]; see Museum collection]; Maritime Museum [National Maritime box 99 [National Mss, box May Mss, in May in Kilverstone, Kilverstone, 387-92. 387-92. 6. Mss 6. Corbett Mss 08, Corbett Jan 08, Corbett, 33 Jan to Corbett, Slade to 91. Slade 91. 92. 92. lbid. Ibid. in cited in 08, cited Jan 08, secretary), 11 Jan (king’s secretary), Ponsonby (king’s to Ponsonby secretary) to (PM’s secretary) Nash (PM's 93. Nash 93. 539. 1973), 539. (London, 1973), Campbell-Bannerman (London, Henry Campbell-Bannerman Sir Henry of Sir life of CB—A life Wilson, CB—A John Wilson, John 281. 268, 281. ll, 268, Esher, II, Brett, Esher, 08, Brett, Feb 08, and 77 Feb 07, and Dec 07, Journals, 88 Dec Esher Journals, 94. Esher 94. 280. 272, 280. II, 272, Esher, II, Brett, Esher, 08, Brett, Feb 08, and 44 Feb 08 and Jan 08 Journals, 44 Jan Esher Journals, 95. Esher 95.

of description of For aa description 280-84. For ll, 280-84. Esher, II, Brett, Esher, 07, Brett, Feb 07, Journals, 77 Feb Esher Journals, 96. Esher 96. Mr. Haldane, Mr. Mr. Haldane, between Mr. Conversation between of aa Conversation “Notes of see “Notes tactics see Haldane’s tactics Haldane’s

Esher 08, p.p. 7,7, Esher May 08, Houses,” 88 May Haldane’s Houses,” Mr. Haldane’s at Mr. Repington at Colonel Repington and Colonel McKenna and McKenna Mss 16/12. 16/12. Mss 97. 97. Slade Slade Diary, Diary, 77 Feb Feb 08, 08, reel reel 2, 2, Slade Slade Mss Mss [microfilm [microfilm copies, copies, Queens Queens Esher, Brett, Esher, 08, Brett, Feb 08, Journals, 77 Feb Esher Journals, Canada]; Esher ON, Canada]; Kingston, ON, University, Kingston, University,

283—84; 283-84; further further evidence evidence of of the the duplicitous duplicitous negotiations negotiations between between Fisher Fisher and and the the Cabinet Cabinet at at this this time time can can be be found found in in A. A. J. J. A. A. Morris. Morris, Radicalism Radicalism Against Against War, War, 1906—1914: 1906-1914: The The Advocacy Advocacy of of Peace Peace and and Retrenchment Retrenchment (London, (London, 1972), 1972), 126—28. 126-28. 375—76. 1964), 375-76. (London, 1964), Seventh (London, the Seventh Edward the King Edward Magnus, King Philip Magnus, Sir Philip 98. Sir 98. 99. 99. Asquith Asquith to to King King Edward Edward VII, VII, 66 Apr Apr 08, 08, cited cited in in McKenna, McKenna, Reginald Reginald McKenna, McKenna, 23, 23, 46—47; 46—47; For For further further evidence evidence of of Tweedmouth’s Tweedmouth’s senility senility see: see: Asquith Asquith Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, httpsz/lhd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Notes Notes to to Pages Pages 140—143 140-143

347 347

to Letters to to Venetia Venetia to Venetia Venetia Stanley, Stanley, 31 31 Oct Oct 14, 14, Brock Brock and and Brock, Brock, H. H. H. H. Asquith: Asquith: Letters Stanley, 300. 300. Stanley, 10/42. Mss 10/42. Esher Mss 08, Esher Feb 08, Esher, 22 Feb to Esher, 100. Fisher to 100. Fisher 179—83. Kilverstone, 179-83. Mackay, Kilverstone, 101. Mackay, 101.

102. Alfred Alfred Gollin, Gollin, The The Observer Observer and and J.J. L.L. Garvin, Garvin, 1908-1914 (Oxford, 1960), 1960), 102. 1908-1914 (Oxford, 28—56. 28-56. 103. Ibid., Ibid., 46-47. 46—47. 103. 104. Ibid. Ibid. 104. 105. 105. Tweedmouth Tweedmouth to to Campbell-Bannerman, Campbell-Bannerman, 11 11 Feb Feb 08, 08, f.175, f.175, Add Add Mss Mss 41231. 41231. 106. 106. Tweedmouth Tweedmouth to to Campbell-Bannerman, Campbell-Bannerman, 12 12 Feb Feb 08, 08, f.244, f.244, Asquith Asquith 19. 19. 107. Churchill Churchill to to Asquith, Asquith, 14 14 Mar Mar 08, 08, f.10, f.10, Asquith Asquith Mss Mss 11; 11; Asquith Asquith to to King King 107. Edward Edward VII, VII, 6 6 Apr Apr 08, 08, cited cited in in McKenna, McKenna, Reginald Reginald McKenna, McKenna, 23, 23, 46—47; 46-47; Jon Jon Sumida, Sumida, “Churchill “Churchill and and British British Sea Sea Power: Power: The The Politician Politician and and Statesman Statesman as as an an Advocate Advocate and and Antagonist Antagonist of of Royal Royal Navy Navy Expansion, Expansion, 1908—1929,” 1908-1929,” in in Alister Alister Parker, Parker, ed., ed., Sir Sir Winston Winston Churchill, Churchill, Europe Europe the the Empire, Empire, and and the the United United States States 7—8. 1995), 7-8. (London, 1995), (London, 108. 108. Reginald Reginald Mckenna Mckenna was was one one of of the the five five ministers ministers in in February February 1908 1908 who who renounced renounced Campbell-Bannerman’s Campbell-Bannerman’s settlement settlement with with the the Admiralty Admiralty and and demanded demanded cuts cuts in in naval naval spending, spending, for for which which see see Esher Esher journals, journals, Brett, Brett, Esher, Esher, II, II, 281. 281.

109. 109. Tweedmouth Tweedmouth to to Asquith, Asquith, 11 11 Apr Apr 08, 08, f.87, f.87, Asquith Asquith Mss Mss 11. 11. 110. 110. Fisher Fisher to to Tweedmouth, Tweedmouth, 13 13 Mar Mar 08, 08, enclosing enclosing “Memorandum “Memorandum Respecting Respecting Large Large Armoured Armoured Cruiser Cruiser to to be be Laid Laid Down Down in in 1908/09,” 1908/09,” Crease Crease Mss, Mss, 3/22. 3/22. 111. 111. Ibid.; Ibid.; see see also also Watts Watts (DNC) (DNC) to to May May (3SL), (3SL), 27 27 Nov Nov 07 07 enclosing enclosing legend legend 1/24200. ADM 1/24200. E’ ADM “Cruiser E,” for “Cruiser for 112. 112. Mackay, Mackay, Kilverstone, Kilverstone, 358, 358, 371—72, 371-72, 382-91, 382-91, 409. 409.

113. Fisher Fisher to to Tweedmouth, Tweedmouth, 26 26 Sep Sep 06, 06, FGDN, FGDN, II, ll, 93; 93; see see also also aa delightfully delightfully 113. ambiguous ambiguous minute minute by by Fisher Fisher (10 (10 Nov Nov 06) 06) in in “Admiralty “Admiralty file file 30 30 Apr Apr 1906,” 1906,” ADM ADM 1/7876. 1/7876. 141. ll, 141. FGDN, Il, 07, FGDN, Oct 07, Edward, 44 Oct King Edward, to King 114. Fisher to 114. Fisher 137. 126—29, 137. 23-25, 126-29, FDSF, I,I, 23-25, 115. Marder, FDSF, 115. Marder, “Recent on “Recent Ottley on Charles Ottley Captain Charles by Captain four by page four on page insert on written insert Hand written 116. Hand 116. printed Corbett), printed Julian Corbett), by Julian article by draft article (originally aa draft Admiralty Administration” (originally Admiralty Administration” 3/6. Mss 3/6. Crease Mss Jan 1907, Crease Jan 1907, 20 1906/7,” 20 Estimates 1906/7,” Naval Estimates on Naval Committee on of Committee meeting of “First meeting Admiralty, “First 117. Admiralty, 117. 49711. Mss 49711. Add Mss Jul f.37, Add 05, f£.37, Jul 05,

Richmond Programme,” Richmond Building Programme,” our Building of our Aspects of Strategic Aspects “The Strategic Fisher, “The 118. Fisher, 118. 9/1. Mss, Mss, 9/1. Appendix 1.1. 119. 119. Appendix 120. 2791, 120. Admiralty, Admiralty, “A “A Statement Statement of of Admiralty Admiralty Policy,” Policy,” Command Command 2791, 70:6. Vol. 70:6. 1906, Vol. (Commons), 1906, Parliamentary Papers (Commons), Parliamentary Papers 172. note 172. 70, note Defence, 70, ln Defence, 121. Sumida, In 121. Sumida, 79. Empire, 79. the Empire, Defending the 122. Williams, Defending 122. Williams, 126. FDSF, I,l, 126. Marder, FDSF, 123. Ibid., Marder, 123. Ibid., 124. Ibid; Ibid; Fisher, Fisher, “Navy “Navy and and Dockyards: Dockyards: aa Statement Statement of Policy,” 124. of Admiralty Admiralty Policy,” Library. Admiralty Library. Mss, Admiralty Cawdor Mss, box, Cawdor prints box, 05, prints Nov 05, 14 Nov revised proof, 14 revised proof, Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, httpszllhd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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348 348

143—147 Pages 143-147 to Pages Notes to Notes

109. Records, 109. Fisher, Records, 125. Fisher, 125. 108-9. lbid., 108-9. 126. Ibid., 126. 98—100. 61, 98-100. Defence, 61, In Defence, Sumida, In 127. Sumida, 127. 46—52. 35-39, 46-52. 1962), 35-39, (London, 1962), History (London, Vickers: AA History Scott, Vickers: D. Scott, 128. J.J. D. 128. Naval Victorian Naval Late Victorian of Late Aspects of “Economic Aspects Ashworth, “Economic William Ashworth, 129. William 129. 492. (1969): 492. 22 (1969): Review 22 History Review Economic History Administration,” Economic Administration,” British “Spin-Off inin British idem, “Spin-Off 52-57; idem, 23, 52-57; Brothers, 23, Vickers Brothers, Trebilcock, Vickers Clive Trebilcock, 130. Clive 130.

History Economic History 1760—1914,” Economic Industry, 1760-1914,” and Industry, Armaments and History: Armaments Economic History: Economic 480. (1969): 480. 22 (1969): Review 22 Review “procruisers, “proarmoured cruisers, on armoured Richards, on to Richards, Wilson to by Wilson 1898) by Dec 1898) (6 Dec Minute (6 131. Minute 131.

116/878. ADM 116/878. 1899—00,” ADM for 1899-00,” gramme for gramme 132. 132. John John Brown Brown (Clydebank), (Clydebank), Fairfield, Fairfield, Vickers, Vickers, Works, Iron Works, Thames Iron Laird, Thames Cammell Laird, Beardmore, Cammell Scotts, Beardmore, Scotts, Hawthorn Co, Hawthorn Laird && Co, Glasgow, Laird London && Glasgow, Wolff, London and Wolff, and Foundry Co. Co. Foundry

Armstrong, Armstrong, Palmers, Palmers, Harland Hunter, Harland Swan Hunter, Swan Greenock and Greenock Leslie, and Leslie,

Unsigned 41210; Unsigned Mss 41210; Add Mss 06, Add Dec 06, 30 Dec Campbell-Bannerman, 30 to Campbell-Bannerman, Asquith to 133. Asquith 133.

07, Nov 07, 18 Nov completed, 18 battleships completed, on battleships Haldane) on by Haldane) probably by (but probably memorandum (but memorandum 6108A. Mss 6108A. Haldane Mss Haldane

of “Scheme of discuss “Scheme to discuss 1905, to Jan 1905, Friday, 66 Jan on Friday, Admiralty on the Admiralty at the held at Meeting held 134. Meeting 134. Library. Admiralty Library. 521—26, Admiralty vol. 2,2, 521-26, Necessities,” vol. “Naval Necessities,” Repairs,” inin “Naval and Repairs,” Shipbuilding and Shipbuilding to Fisher to 344—48; Fisher 254—55, 344-48; 207, 254-55, 193—95, 207, 171, 193-95, Kilverstone, 171, Mackay, Kilverstone, 135. Mackay, 135. Knollys. 33 Mar Mar 05, 05, FGDN, FGDN, II, II, 53. 53. Knollys, Report in Report Programme,” in Building Programme,” Our Building of Our Aspects of Strategic Aspects “The Strategic Fisher, “The 136. Fisher, 136. Mss. Crease Mss. 14, Crease p. 14, 05, p. Nov 05, 16 Nov Committee, 16 Estimates Committee, Navy Estimates the Navy of the of of Programmes of Further Programmes for Further Votes for on Votes “Shipbuilding—Remarks on Admiralty, “Shipbuilding—Remarks 137. Admiralty, 137. New Shipbuilding Shipbuilding in in Successive Successive years, years, and and on on the the enormous enormous advantages advantages arising arising from from New rapid building,” building,” May May 1905, 1905, “Naval “Naval Necessities,” Necessities,” vol. vol. 2, 2, 117-19, 117—19, Admiralty Admiralty Library. Library. rapid 138. 138. lbid. Ibid. 139. 139. Admiralty, Admiralty, “The “The Advantages Advantages of of Rapid Rapid Shipbuilding,” Shipbuilding,” appendix appendix D D in in “Report “Report of Naval Naval Estimates Estimates Committee, Committee, 1906/07,” 1906/07," printed printed 10 10 Jan Jan 06, 06, prints, prints, Crease Crease Mss; Mss; of 261. Fisher, |,l, 261. Lord Fisher, of Lord Life of The Life Bacon, The Bacon, Crease 06, Crease Jan 06, 10 Jan Shipbuilding,” 10 Rapid Shipbuilding,” of Rapid Advantages of “The Advantages Admiralty, “The 140. Admiralty, 140. Mss, Mss, prints prints box. box. 141. Admiralty, Admiralty, “Shipbuilding “Shipbuilding in in Royal Royal Dockyards Dockyards in in Relation Relation to to Employment Employment 141. of of Workmen,” Workmen,” meeting meeting held held 26 26 May May 05,”Naval 05,”Naval Necessities,” Necessities,” vol. vol. 2, 2, 112—16. 112-16, Admiralty Library. Library. Admiralty

142. Admiralty, Admiralty, “Shipbuilding “Shipbuilding and and Repairs,” Repairs,” 66 Jan Jan 06,”Naval 06,”Naval Necessities,” Necessities,” 142. vol. 2,2, 525, 525, Admiralty Admiralty Library. Library. The The price price of of repairs repairs and and refits refits was was 40 40 percent percent vol. higher higher when when done done by by private private yards. yards. prelimivolume 1,1, prelimiCommittee,” volume Enquiry Committee,” Establishments Enquiry “Naval Establishments Admiralty, “Naval 143. Admiralty, 143. nary report, report, 20 20 Jul Jul 05, 05, pp.5—11, pp.5—1 1, Naval Naval Historical Historical Branch. Branch. Copy Copy also also in in ADM ADM 1/7735. 1/7735. nary 1714—1914 Dockyards, 1714-1914 Royal Dockyards, The Royal Odyssey: The Management Odyssey: Haas, AA Management M. Haas, 144. J.J. M. 144. (University (University of of America America Press, Press, 1994), 1994), 176. 176. 145. Admiralty, Admiralty, “Naval “Naval Establishments Establishments Enquiry Enquiry Committee,” Committee,” volume volume 1,1, prepre145. liminary report, report, 20 20 Jul Jul 05, 05, p.p. 114, 114, Naval Naval Historical Historical Branch; Branch; also also Fisher Fisher to to liminary Tweedmouth, 26 26 Sep Sep 06, 06, FGDN, FGDN, Il, ll, 92. Tweedmouth, Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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147—150 Pages 147-150 Notes to Pages Notes to

349 349

146. 146. Trebilcock, Trebilcock, Vickers Vickers Brothers, Brothers, 74—82. 74-82. 147. 147. In In 1905/06, 1905/06, John John Brown, Brown, Fairfield Fairfield and and Messrs. Messrs. Cammell-Laird Cammell-Laird combined combined their their gun gun making making efforts efforts to to form form the the Coventry Coventry Ordnance Ordnance Works. Works. 148. 148. Fisher Fisher to to Tweedmouth, Tweedmouth, 26 26 Sep Sep 06, 06, FGDN, FGDN, I], II, 92—93. 92-93. 149. 149. Remarks Remarks by by Fisher Fisher and and Selborne, Selborne, in in Kemp, Kemp, RP], F.P.1, 23; 23; for for the the consistenconsisten-

cy cy of of Fisher’s Fisher’s views views on on this this point point since since the the 1880s 1880s see see Mackay, Mackay, Kilverstone, Kilverstone, 187—93, 187-93, 199—200. 199-200. 150. 150. Admiralty, Admiralty, “Scheme “Scheme of of Shipbuilding Shipbuilding and and Repairs,” Repairs,” 6 6 Jan Jan 05, 05, and and “Shipbuilding “Shipbuilding in in Royal Royal Dockyards Dockyards in in Relation Relation to to Employment Employment of of Workmen,” Workmen,” 26 26 May May 05, 05, in in “Naval “Naval Necessities,” Necessities,” vol. vol. 2, 2, 112—14, 112-14, 521—26, 521-26, Admiralty Admiralty Library. Library. 151. 151. Admiralty, Admiralty, “Scheme “Scheme of of Shipbuilding Shipbuilding and and Repairs,” Repairs,” meeting meeting 6 6 Jan Jan 05,”Naval 05,”Naval Necessities,” Necessities,” vol. vol. 2, 2, 521—26, 521-26, Admiralty Admiralty Library. Library. 152. 152. Minute Minute (20 (20 Jul Jul 07) 07) by by Director Director of of Contracts, Contracts, on on “Report “Report of of Conference Conference in in Regard Regard to to Making Making Additional Additional Articles Articles at at Woolwich Woolwich Arsenal,” Arsenal,” (G11099/07) (G11099/07) p. p. 107, 107, PO PQ 1907, 1907, ADM ADM 256/43. 256/43. 153. 153. Captain Captain John John Jellicoe, Jellicoe, “Paper “Paper prepared prepared by by the the Director Director of of Naval Naval Ordnance Ordnance and and Torpedoes Torpedoes for for the the information information of of his his successor,” successor,” 7 7 Jul Jul 07, 07, pp. pp. 12—14, 12-14, Admiralty Admiralty Library. Library. 154. 194. Admiralty, Admiralty, “Remarks “Remarks by by the the Board Board of of Admiralty Admiralty on on the the attached attached memomemorandumz—(Note randum:—(Note on on comparative comparative naval naval strength), strength), July July 1906, 1906, ADM ADM 116/3095. 116/3095. 155. 155. “Memorandum “Memorandum by by the the Sea Sea Lords Lords for for the the information information of of the the First First Lord,” Lord,” 1908/09 1908/09 Naval Naval Estimates Estimates volume, volume, Tweedmouth Tweedmouth Mss. Mss. 156. 156. For For an an outline outline history history see see Peter Peter Hodges, Hodges, The The Big Big Gun: Gun: Battleship Battleship Main Main Armament Armament 1860—1945 1860-1945 (Naval (Naval Institute Institute Press: Press: Annapolis, Annapolis, 1981). 1981). 157. 157. Memorandum Memorandum by by DNO, DNO, “Supply “Supply of of Naval Naval Guns—Proposed Guns—Proposed Arrangements Arrangements with with Armstrong Armstrong and and Vickers" Vickers” (G15963/04), (G15963/04), 18 18 Nov Nov 04, 04, pp. pp. 662-79, 662-79, P.O.1906, P.Q.1906, ADM ADM 256/41; 296/41; Trebilcock, Trebilcock, Vickers Vickers Brothers, Brothers, 61—63; 61-63; Admiralty, Admiralty, “Royalties “Royalties on on Gunmount— Gunmountings,” ings,” ADM ADM 116/528. 116/528. 158. 158. William William McNeill, McNeill, The The Pursuit Pursuit of of Power Power (Chicago, (Chicago, 1982), 1982), 265—74, 265-74, 290; 290; Trebilcock, Trebilcock, Vickers Vickers Brothers, Brothers, 7—10. 7-10. 159. 159. lbid.; Ibid.; see see also also Bacon, Bacon, From From 1900 1900 Onwards, Onwards, 183—93. 183-93. 160. 160. Minutes Minutes (12 (12 May May 06) 06) by by DNO DNO and and (6 (6 Jul Jul 06) 06) by by DNC, DNC, in in “12-inch “12-inch Double Double Turrets—Capabilities Turrets—Capabilities of of Messrs. Messrs. Vickers Vickers and and Messrs. Messrs. Armstrong Armstrong for for Annual Annual Output," Output,” Apr Apr 1906, 1906, pp. pp. 723-25, 723-25, P.O.1906, P.Q.1906, ADM ADM 256/41; 256/41; McNeill, McNeill, Pursuit Pursuit of of Power, Power, 270—72; 270-72; Trebilcock, Trebilcock, “Armaments “Armaments and and Industry,” Industry,” 480. 480. 161. 161. Fisher, Fisher, “Navy “Navy and and Dockyards: Dockyards: a a Statement Statement of of Admiralty Admiralty Policy,” Policy,” p. p. 65, 65, revised revised proof, proof, 14 14 Nov Nov 05, 05, prints prints box, box, Cawdor Cawdor Mss, Mss, Admiralty Admiralty Library; Library; Fisher Fisher to to

Churchill, Churchill, 66 Dec Dec 13, 13, FGDN, FGDN, ll, Il, 496. 496. 162. 162. McLaren McLaren (MD (MD of of Vickers) Vickers) to to McKenna, McKenna, 21 21 Apr Apr 09, 09, ADM ADM 1/8046, 1/8046, cited cited in in Haas, Haas, AA Management Management Odyssey, Odyssey, 176. 176. 163. 163. Minute Minute (17 (17 Jul Jul 07) 07) by by DNO DNO on on “Report “Report of of Conference Conference in in Regard Regard to to makmaking ing Additional Additional Articles Articles in in Woolwich Woolwich Arsenal,” Arsenal,” (C11099/07) (G11099/07) p. p. 106, 106, P.0.1907, P.Q.1907, ADM ADM 256/43. 256/43. 164. 164. Minute Minute (25 (25 Jul Jul 07) 07) by by Controller, Controller, ibid.; ibid.; Parliament. Parliament, “Report “Report on on Production Production Possibilities Possibilities of of the the Shops Shops and and Machinery Machinery of of Royal Royal Arsenal,” Arsenal,” 1907, 1907, SUP SUP 6/657 6/657 [Ministry [Ministry of of Supply Supply Papers, Papers, Public Public Record Record Office, Office, Kew]. Kew].

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350 350

151—155 Pages 151-1595 to Pages Notes to Notes

conferof aa conferminutes of Estimates: minutes “Navy Estimates: McKenna, “Navy Reginald McKenna, of Reginald Testimony of 165. Testimony 165.

Tuesday, on Tuesday, Commons, on of Commons, House of room, House Minister’s room, Prime Minister’s the Prime ence held inin the ence held 21. Mss 21. Asquith Mss f.130—137, Asquith 1909,” f.130-137, 23, 1909,” February February 23, 54-55. 1-25, 54-95. Brothers, 1-25, Vickers Brothers, Trebilcock, Vickers 166. Trebilcock, 166. conferof aa conferminutes of Estimates: minutes “Navy Estimates: McKenna, “Navy Reginald McKenna, of Reginald Testimony of 167. Testimony 167.

Tuesday, on Tuesday, Commons, on of Commons, House of room, House Minister’s room, Prime Minister's the Prime held inin the ence held ence 21. Mss 21. Asquith Mss HBO-137, Asquith 1909,” f.130-137, 23, 1909,” February 23, February (London, White (London, William White Sir William of Sir Life of The Life Manning, The from F.F. L.L. Manning, Extract from 168. Extract 168. 484. 1923), 484. 1923), 481. Industry,” 481. and Industry,” “Armaments and Trebilcock, “Armaments 169. Trebilcock, 169. Vickers 60, Vickers Sep 60, 29 Sep Scott, 29 T. Scott, by J.J. T. Elswick by at Elswick Travers at Mr. Travers with Mr. Interview with 170. Interview 170. of aa minutes of Estimates: minutes “Navy Estimates: George, “Navy Lloyd George, Mr. Lloyd by Mr. remarks by also remarks see also 674; see Mss 674; Mss Tuesday, on Tuesday, Commons, on of Commons, House of room, House Minister’s room, Prime Minister’s the Prime in the held in conference held conference 21. Mss 21. Asquith Mss f.124, Asquith 1909,” f.124, 23, 1909,” February 23, February 1—26. Fisher,” 1-26. of Fisher,” Age of the Age Policy inin the and Policy Administration and “Naval Administration Sumida, “Naval 171. Sumida, 171. to Regards to Conference inin Regards of Conference “Report of on “Report DNO on by DNO 07) by Jul 07) (17 Jul Minute (17 172. Minute 172. ADM P.0.1907, ADM 107, P.Q.1907, p. 107, Arsenal,” p. Woolwich Arsenal,” in Woolwich Articles in additional Articles of additional Making of Making

256/43. 256/43.

Administration,” Naval Administration,” “British Naval idem, “British 2—7; idem, chapters 2-7; Defence, chapters In Defence, Sumida, In 173. Sumida, 173. 6-7. 6-7. Straight Aim Straight Padfield, Aim Peter Padfield, see Peter Scott, see Percy Scott, Sir Percy Adm. Sir of Adm. case of the case For the 174. For 174. 262—68. 1966), 262-68. London, 1966), Stoughton: London, (Hodder && Stoughton: (Hodder 279-89. Power, 279-89. of Power, Pursuit of McNeill, Pursuit 175. McNeill, 175. the and the Orders and Naval Orders Clyde: Naval the Clyde: on the Building on Warship Building Peebles, Warship Hugh Peebles, 176. Hugh 176. Donald: (John Donald: 1889—1939 (John Industry, 1889-1939 Shipbuilding Industry, Clyde Shipbuilding the Clyde of the Prosperity of Prosperity 69—73. 1987), 69-73. Edinburgh, 1987), Edinburgh, 21. Asquith 21. f.167, Asquith handwriting, f.167, Asquith’s handwriting, memo inin Asquith’s Undated memo 177. Undated 177. to Sandars to in Sandars Sandars in and Sandars Fisher and between Fisher conversation between of conversation report of See report 178. See 178. 49765. Mss 49765. Add Mss £34, Add 07, f.34, Apr 07, Balfour, 22 Apr Balfour, 08, Aug 08, 17 Aug Asquith, 17 to Asquith, Grey to and Grey f.4, and 08, f.4, Jul 08, 27 Jul McKenna, 27 to McKenna, McLaren to 179. McLaren 179. MCKN MCKN 3/3 3/3 McKenna McKenna Mss Mss [Reginald [Reginald McKenna McKenna Papers, Papers, Churchill Churchill College. College, Cambridge]. Cambridge]. 800/87. F0 800/87. £170, FO 08, f.170, Aug 08, 16 Aug Grey, 16 to Grey, McKenna to 180. McKenna 180. 181. Lambert, Lambert, “Admiral “Admiral Sir Sir John John Fisher,” Fisher,” 643-45. 643—45. 181.

182. 182. Gary Gary Weir, Weir, Building Building American American Submarines, Submarines, 1914-40 1914-40 (Washington, (Washington, DC, DC, 11-13. 1—4, 11-13. 1991), 1-4, 1991), 183. McNeill, McNeill, Pursuit Pursuit of of Power, Power, 278, 278, 289. 289. 183. Mss. Tweedmouth Mss. B447, Tweedmouth 07, B447, Oct 07, 26 Oct Tweedmouth, 26 to Tweedmouth, Graham to Lord Graham 184. Lord 184.

of “Type of S30250/03 “Type on $30250/03 memorandum on enclosing memorandum 03, enclosing Nov 03, May, 77 Nov to May, Bacon to 185. Bacon 185. Submarine Submarine Boat Boat for for 1904,” 1904,” Ships Ships Covers Covers 185. 185. 186. Minute Minute (29 (29 Jan Jan 04) 04) by by William William May, May, on on Fisher Fisher to to Admiralty, Admiralty, 25 25 Jan Jan 04, 04, 186. in “Tactical “Tactical and and Other Other Exercises Exercises of of Submarine Submarine Boats Boats 11 June June to to 31 31 December December in 1903,” 1903,” A1052/04, A1052/04, ADM ADM 1/7719. 1/7719. 187. Ibid. lbid. 187.

188. 188. “Meeting “Meeting of of Submarine-boat Submarine-boat Design Design Committee,” Committee,” 23 23 Jun Jun 05, 05, Ships Ships Covers 290.

Lambert, Nicolaggyglylgshgglgml Revolution.

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Notes Notes to to Pages Pages 155—159 155-159

351 351

189. 189. lbid. Ibid. 190. 190. Minute Minute (4 (4 Jul Jul 05) 05) by by A. A. J. J. Durston, Durston, f.1, f.1, Ships Ships Covers Covers 212. 212.

191. 191. “Meeting “Meeting of of Submarine Submarine Design Design Committee,” Committee,” 24 24 Jun Jun 05, 05, Ships Ships Covers Covers 290; 290; Lees Lees (lCS) (ICS) to to Jackson Jackson (controller), (controller), 16 16 Nov Nov 05, 05, on on CN20123/05, CN20123/05, f.10 f.10 & & 12. 12, 212. Covers 212. Ships Covers Ships 192. 192. Note Note radius radius of of action action for for Torpedo Torpedo boats boats 1—12 1-12 on on Docket Docket CN25462/4, CN25462/4, 22 22

Dec Dec 04, 04, Ships Ships Cover Cover 214. 214. In In 1908 1908 Beresford Beresford claimed claimed that that no no more more than than 34 34 of of the the 120 120 destroyers destroyers in in the the fleet fleet were were suitable suitable for for North North Sea Sea operations: operations: Beresford Beresford to to Balfour, Balfour, 7 7 Mar Mar 08, 08, f.179, f.179, Add Add Mss Mss 49713. 49713. 193. 193. Head Head of of N N Branch Branch to to Fisher, Fisher, 23 23 Jun Jun 05, 05, HO f.10 Ships Ships Covers Covers 212. 212. 194. 194. Submarine Submarine Committee Committee to to First First Sea Sea Lord, Lord, 23 23 Jun Jun 05, 05, £10, f.10, Ships Ships Covers Covers 212. 212. 195. 195. Minute Minute (10 (10 Aug Aug 05) 05) by by Fisher, Fisher, f.10, f.10, Ships Ships Covers Covers 212. 212. 196. Hall Hall to to Keyes, Keyes, 77 Oct Oct 11, 11, Keyes Keyes Mss Mss 4/22. 4/22. 196. 197. 197. Minute Minute (4 (4 Jul Jul 05) 05) by by Bacon, Bacon, f.1, f.1, Ships Ships Covers Covers 212. 212. 198. 198. Some Some of of these these are are found found in in Lees Lees to to Controller, Controller, 16 16 Nov Nov 05, 05, f.10—12, f.10-12, Ships Ships Covers 212. 212. Covers 199. 199. Bacon Bacon memorandum, memorandum, 28 28 Aug Aug 05, 05, cut cut 4, 4, Ships Ships Covers Covers 290. 290. 200. 200. Fisher Fisher to to Balfour, Balfour, 12 12 Sep Sep 05, 05, f.112, f.112, Add Add Mss Mss 49711. 49711.

201. 201. Bacon Bacon to to Lees, Lees, 26 26 Aug Aug 05, 05, Ships Ships Covers Covers 290. 290. 202. 202. 203. 203. 204. 204. 205. 205. 206. 206.

lbid. Ibid. lbid. Ibid. lbid. Ibid. Lees Lees to to Jackson, Jackson, 16 16 Nov Nov 05, 05, Ships Ships Covers Covers 212. 212. Minute Minute (17 (17 Nov Nov 05) 05) by by Bacon, Bacon, ibid. ibid.

207. 207. DNC DNC to to Contrdller, Controller, 77 Aug Aug 06, 06, “New “New Construction Construction 1906,” 1906,” f.159, f.159, ADM ADM 116/1012. 116/1012. 208. 208. Trebilcock, Trebilcock, The The Vickers Vickers Brothers, Brothers, 105—8; 105-8; Dash, Dash, “British “British Submarine Submarine Policy,” (Ph.D. (Ph.D. diss., diss., University University of of London, London, 1990), 1990), 109-11. 109—11. Policy,” 209. 209. Tweedmouth Tweedmouth to to Asquith, Asquith, 10 10 Jul Jul 06, 06, A66, A66, Tweedmouth Tweedmouth Mss. Mss. 210. 210. Fisher Fisher to to Tweedmouth, Tweedmouth, 11 11 Oct Oct 06, 06, FGDN, FGDN, ll, Il, 98. 98. 211. 211. Fisher Fisher to to Tweedmouth, Tweedmouth, 4 4 Oct Oct 06, 06, FGDN, FGDN, II, II, 93—95. 93-95. 212. Tweedmouth, Tweedmouth, “Navy “Navy Estimates,” Estimates," 26 26 Jun Jun 06, 06, CAB CAB 37/83/60. 37/83/60. 212. 213. Admiralty, Admiralty, “Admiralty “Admiralty Policy—Replies Policy—Replies to to Criticisms,” Criticisms,” pp. pp. 38-41, 38—41, reprint reprint 213. 2/22. Mss, 2/22. Crease Mss, 06, Crease Aug 06, 18 Aug dated 18 letter dated of letter of 214. 214. Fisher Fisher to to Tweedmouth, Tweedmouth, 11 11 Oct Oct 06, 06, FGDN, FGDN, II, II, 98—99. 98-99. 215. 215. Fisher Fisher to to Tweedmouth, Tweedmouth, 4 4 Oct Oct 06, 06, FGDN, FGDN, ll, II, 95. 95. 96. ll, 96. FGDN, II, 06, FGDN, Oct 06, Tweedmouth, 55 Oct to Tweedmouth, Fisher to 216. Fisher 216.

41231; Mss 41231; Add Mss f.127, Add 06, f.127, Oct 06, 15 Oct Campbell-Bannerman, 15 to Campbell-Bannerman, Tweedmouth to 217. Tweedmouth 217. N. B. during during the the summer summer of of 1906 1906 one one of of the the seven seven battleships, battleships, HMS HMS Montagu, Montagu. was was N.B. wrecked off off Lundy Lundy Island. lsland. wrecked 98. ll, 98. FGDN, II, 06, FGDN, Oct 06, 11 Oct Tweedmouth, 11 to Tweedmouth, Fisher to 218. Fisher 218. 219. Fisher Fisher to to Tweedmouth, Tweedmouth, 11 11 Oct Oct 06, 06, Tweedmouth Tweedmouth Mss Mss A104; A104; Admiralty, Admiralty, 219. Letter to to the the Press Press dated dated 23 23 Oct Oct 06, 06, in in “Distribution “Distribution of of the the Fleets, Fleets, 23 23 Oct Oct 06,” 06,” Letter 1/7880. ADM 1/7880. ADM 220. Historians Historians have have also also been been confused: confused: Williams, Williams, Defending Defending the the Empire, Empire, 220. 122-23. Lambert, Nicaas. 5i'rjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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159—161 Pages 159-161 to Pages Notes to Notes

221. Ibid. Ibid. 221. Crease 1907), Crease (January 1907), Administration” (January Admiralty Administration” “Recent Admiralty Admiralty, “Recent 222. Admiralty, 222.

Mss 3\6. 3\6. Mss 223. Clarke Clarke to to Esher, Esher, 25 25 Sep Sep 06, 06, enclosing enclosing clipping clipping from from the the Times, Times, Esher Esher 223. 10/39. 10/39. Minister . . . ,” Prime Minister... the Prime of the presidency of under presidency meeting, under of meeting, “Memorandum of 224. “Memorandum 224. 06, Oct 06, 15 Oct Campbell-Bannerman, 15 to Campbell-Bannerman, ’l‘weedmouth to also Tweedmouth 37/63/85; also CAB 37/63/85; 06, CAB Jul 06, 17 Jul 17 f.127, f.127, Add Add Mss Mss 41231. 41231. 225. Clarke Clarke to to Esher, Esher, 15 15 Oct Oct 06, 06, Esher Esher Mss Mss 10/39. 10/39. 225. 226. 226. lbid. Ibid. the on the report on “Draft report Balfour’s “Draft on Balfour's Clarke. on George Clarke, by George comment by Marginal comment 227. Marginal 227. to Clarke to 49700; Clarke Mss 49700; Add Mss f.43, Add 04, f.43, Jun 04, 27 Jun invasion,” 27 serious invasion,” of serious possibility of possibility 49702. Mss 49702. Add Mss f.193—200, Add 05, f.193-200, Dec 05, 23 Dec 16, 23 Balfour, 16, Balfour,

228. ((1). 228. Admiralty. Admiralty, “Invasions “Invasions and and Raids,” Raids,” August August 1907, 1907, p. p. 29, 29, part part 21 21(d), 10/40. Mss 10/40. Esher Mss 06, Esher Nov 06, 16 Nov Esher, 16 to Esher, Clarke to 9/1; Clarke Mss 9/1; Richmond Mss Richmond 229. Clarke Clarke to to Campbell-Bannerman, Campbell-Bannerman, 15 15 Nov Nov 06, 06, enclosing enclosing “Notes “Notes on on the the 229. 16 Esher, 16 to Esher, Clarke to 41213; Clarke Mss 41213; Add Mss f.236, Add Forces,” f.236, Naval Forces,” our Naval of our ' redistribution of redistribution Nov Nov 06, 06, Esher Esher Mss Mss 10/40. 10/40. 41213. Mss 41213. Add Mss £236, Add 06, f.236, Nov 06, 15 Nov Campbell-Bannerman, 15 to Campbell-Bannerman, Clarke to 230. Clarke 230. 231. 231. Mark Mark Kerr. Kerr, Prince Prince Louis Louis of of Battenberg—Admiral Battenberg—Admiral of of the the Fleet Fleet (London. (London, 1934), 219. 219. 1934), 232. Clarke Clarke to to Campbell-Bannerman, Campbell-Bannerman, 15 15 Nov Nov 06, 06, enclosing enclosing “Note “Note on on re-disre-dis232. tribution,” tribution,” f.236, f.236, Add Add Mss Mss 41213. 41213. 233. 233. Ibid. Ibid. 234. 234. Ibid. Ibid. 235. 235. Clarke Clarke to to Ponsonby, Ponsonby, 15 15 Feb Feb 07, 07, f.267, f.267, Add Add Mss Mss 41213. 41213. 103. ii, 103. FGDN, Il, 06, FGDN, Oct 06, 22 Oct Edward, 22 King Edward, to King Fisher to 236. Fisher 236. 237. 237. Fisher Fisher to to unknown unknown recipient, recipient, 24 24 Jan Jan 07, 07, FGDN, FGDN, ll, lf, 116. 116. 238. 238. Table Table showing showing comparative comparative value value of of “The “The Fleets Fleets of of the the Great Great Powers.” Powers.” Channel fleet fleet consisted consisted of of six six King King Edwards; Edwards; four four Majestics; Majestics; two two Swiftsures; Swiftsures; and and Channel two Canopi: Canopi: Jane's Jane’s Fighting Fighting Ships Ships (1906-7), (1906—7 ), 386. 386. two 239. Hardinge Hardinge to to Knollys, Knollys, 99 Jul Jul 07, 07, Knollys Knollys Mss, Mss, File File 1907, 1907, Royal Royal Archives; Archives; 239. also Fisher Fisher to to King King Edward, Edward, 33 Nov Nov 06, 06, FGDN, FGDN, II, ll, 105. 105. also

240. Hardinge Hardinge to to Colonial Colonial Office, Office, ?? Nov Nov 06, 06, file file 41147S 411478 [Colonial [Colonial Office Office 240. papers, Public Public Record Record Office, Office, Kew], Kew], CO CO 537/342. 537/342. papers, 241. Esher Fisher to to Fisher, Fisher, 21 21 Oct Oct 06, 06, Brett, Brett, Esher, Esher, II, ll, 199. 199. 241. 242. 242. Admiralty, Admiralty, “Navy “Navy Reform—A Reform—A summary” summary” (January (January 1907), 1907), p. p. 7, 7, £98. f.98, Sandars Sandars Mss Mss 755. 755. 243. 243. Esher Esher to to Fisher, Fisher, 21 21 Oct Oct 06, 06, in in Brett, Brett, Esher, Esher, ll, II, 199. 199. 244. Esher Esher to to Fisher, Fisher, 44 Feb Feb 07, 07, Brett, Brett, Esher, Esher, I], ll, 219-20; 219—20; and and Knollys Knollys to to Esher, Esher, 244. Feb 07, 07, “Your “Your letter letter to to Jacky Jacky has has terrified terrified him. him. He He came came to to me me about about itit this this mornmorn44 Feb ing, and and Ii sent sent him him to to the the Prince Prince of of Wales Wales who, who, II believe, believe, has has more more or or less less convertconverting, ed ed him him on on the the question question of of the the distribution distribution of of ships.” ships.” 245. 245. Clarke Clarke to to Esher, Esher, 11 Feb Feb 07, 07, Esher Esher Mss Mss 10/40. 10/40. 246. 246. Clarke Clarke to to Campbell-Bannerman, Campbell-Bannerman, 27 27 Feb Feb 07, 07, Add Add Mss Mss 41213. 41213. Kilverstone, 362. Mackay, Kilverstone, in Mackay, cited in 07, cited Jan 07, 23 Jan Thursfield, 23 to Thursfield, Lambert,Nicolas.Sirjohggléslgaaatteevgubgrg 247. Battenberg to E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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161—167 Pages 161-167 to Pages Notes to Notes

353 353

248. Admiralty, Admiralty, “The'Home Fleet—December 1906,” 1906,” printed printed 2/07, 2/07, Crease Crease 248. “The Home Fleet—December Mss, Mss, 2/27(i); 2/27(i); The The three three Invincible Invincible were were to to have have been been attached attached to to the the Channel Channel Fleet, Fleet, “Admiralty “Admiralty Policy,” Policy,” October October 1906, 1906, p. p. 32, 32, Crease Crease 2/22, 2/22, 249. 249. Beresford Beresford Enquiry, Enquiry, p. p. 40, 40, CAB CAB 16/9A. 16/9A. 250. 250. Fisher Fisher to to Lambert, Lambert, 21 21 Jan Jan 07, 07, and and Fisher Fisher to to Tweedmouth, Tweedmouth, 18 18 Feb Feb 07. 07,

FGDN, FGDN, II, Il, 115, 115, 118; 118; Battenberg Battenberg to to King-Hall, King-Hall, 24 24 Feb Feb 09, 09, cited cited in in Mackay, Mackay, Kilverston Kilverstone,e, 363. 363. 251. 251. Fisher, Fisher, “The “The Personnel,” Personnel,” printed printed February February 1907, 1907, copy copy sent sent to to Lord Lord

Knollys Knollys for for King King Edward, Edward, Royal Royal Archives, Archives, W58/62. W58/62. 252. 292. Marginal Marginal comment comment by by Fisher Fisher on on copy copy of of “The “The Personnel,” Personnel,” ibid. ibid. 253. 203. Fisher Fisher to to unknown unknown recipient, recipient, 24 24 Jan Jan 07, 07, FGDN, FGDN, II, Il, 116. 116. 254. 294. Fisher Fisher to to Corbett, Corbett, 99 Mar Mar 07, 07, FGDN, FGDN, ll, II, 120. 120. 255. 255. Clarke Clarke to to Ponsonby, Ponsonby, 3 3 May May 07, 07, f.289, f.289, Add Add Mss Mss 41213. 41213. 256. 256. Fisher Fisher to to Tweedmouth, Tweedmouth, 27 27 Oct Oct 06, 06, Crease, Crease, 2/21. 2/21. 257. 207. Fisher Fisher to to Tweedmouth, Tweedmouth, 11 11 Oct Oct 06, 06, FGDN, FGDN, l, I, 99. 99. 258. 258. lbid. Ibid. 259. 209. Admiralty, Admiralty, ““ The The Home Home Fleet,” Fleet,” Dec Dec 06, 06, Crease Crease Mss Mss 2/27. 2/27. 260. 260. lbid. Ibid. also also Fisher, Fisher, “The “The Personnel,” Personnel,” 25—3/07, 25—3/07, FP4824, FP4824, Fisher Fisher Papers Papers 8/23. 8/23. 261. 261. Admiralty, Admiralty, “The “The Home Home Fleet—Part Fleet—Part ii ii (for (for office office use use only),” only),” Feb Feb 07, 07, p. p. 9, 9, Crease Crease Mss, Mss, 2/22(ii). 2/22(ii). 262. 262. lbid. Ibid. 263. 263. FGDN, FGDN, ll, Il, 33—34; 33-34; Mackay, Mackay, Kilverstone, Kilverstone, 357-58. 357-58.

264. 264. Browrigg Browrigg to to Sandars, Sandars, 30 30 Nov Nov 06, 06, f.165, f.165, Sandars Sandars Mss Mss 752. 752. 265. 265. Report Report by by Captain Captain Bacon, Bacon, 19 19 Nov Nov 06, 06, ADM ADM 1/7880. 1/7880. 266. Admiralty, Admiralty, “The “The Distribution Distribution of of the the Fleet,” Fleet,” Jan Jan 07, 07, Crease Crease Mss Mss 3/2. 3/2. 266. 267. 267. Speech Speech by by Lord Lord Tweedmouth Tweedmouth to to the the 1907 1907 Colonial Colonial Conference, Conference, Apr Apr 07, 07, p. p. 130, 130, CAB18/11A. CAB18/11A. 268. 268. Admiralty, Admiralty, “The “The Distribution Distribution of of the the Fleet," Fleet,” Jan Jan 07, 07, Crease Crease Mss Mss 3/2. 3/2. 269. 269. Appendix Appendix 4. 4. 270. 270. “Notes “Notes of of aa Conversation Conversation between between Mr. Mr. Haldane, Haldane, Mr. Mr. McKenna McKenna and and Colonel Colonel Repington Repington at at Mr. Mr. Haldane’s Haldane’s Houses,” Houses,” 8 8 May May 08,'Esher 08, Esher Mss Mss 16/12. 16/12. 271. Fisher, Fisher, “War “War Arrangements,” Arrangements,” 25 25 Jun Jun 07, 07, Crease Crease Mss, Mss, 3/16. 3/16. 271. 272. 272. Lambert, Lambert, “The “The Opportunities Opportunities of of Technology,” Technology,” 41-59. 41-59.

Chapter Chapter Six: Six: Illusions IHusions and and Realities Realities 1. 1. Fisher Fisher to to J. J. A. A. Spender Spender (editor (editor of of the the Westminster Westminster Gazette) Gazette) 22 22 Apr Apr 10 10 and and 8 8 Aug Aug 10, 10, f.82, f.82, 92, 92, Add Add Mss Mss 46390. 46390. 2. 2. Morley Morley to to Clarke, Clarke, 7 7 Aug Aug 08, 08, f.49, f.49, Morley Morley Mss Mss 573/42a,b 573/42a,b [India [India Office Office Library]. Library]. 3. Woodward, Woodward, Great Great Britain Britain and and the the German German Navy Navy (Oxford, (Oxford, 1935). 1935). 3. 4. 4. Marder, Marder, FDSF, FDSF, l, I, 369. 369. 5. Ibid., lbid., 372, 372, 383-88. 383—88. 0. 6. Kemp, Kemp, F.P.2, F.P.2, 316-17; 316—17; Paul Paul Hayes, Hayes, “Britain, “Britain, Germany, Germany, and and the the Admiraltys Admiralty/S 6.

Plans for for Attacking Attacking German German Territory, Territory, 1906-1916” 1906—1916” inin Robert Robert O'Neill, O’Neill, ed., ed., Strategy Plans Strategy and and 1992), 97. (Oxford, 1992), Howard (Oxford, Michael Howard Sir Michael of Sir Honour of in Honour Lambgntggggtioonflhgogyysé-nsdgays International Politics: Essays in E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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354 354

Notes Notes to to Pages Pages 167——170 167-170

7. 7. Neil Neil Summerton, Summerton, “The “The Development Development of of British British Military Military Planning Planning for for a a War War against against Germany, Germany, 1904-1914” 1904-1914” (Ph.D. (Ph.D. diss., diss., University University of of London, London, 1970), 1970), 23—51. 23-51. 8. 8. Mackay, Mackay, Kilverstone, Kilverstone, 369-71. 369-71.

9. 9. Paul Paul Kennedy. Kennedy, “Fisher “Fisher and and Tirpitz Tirpitz Compared,” Compared,” in in Strategy Strategy and and Diplomacy, Diplomacy, 1870—1945, 1870-1945, 122. 122. 10. 10. 11. 11. 12. 12.

Ibid., Ibid., 114; 114; Marder, Marder, FDSF', FDSF, 1, I, 401—4; 401-4; Friedberg, Friedberg, Weary Weary Titan, Titan, 193. 193.

Marder, Marder, Anatomy, Anatomy, 489—91; 489-91; idem, idem, FDSF. FDSF, l, I, 25, 25, 36—45, 36-45, 87. 87. Paul Paul Kennedy, Kennedy, “The “The Relevance Relevance of of the the Pre-war Pre-war British British and and American American

Maritime Maritime Strategies Strategies to to the the First First World World War War and and its its Aftermath, Aftermath, 1898-1920,” 1898-1920,” in in John John Hattendorf Hattendorf and and Robert Robert Jordan, Jordan, ed., ed., Maritime Maritime Strategy Strategy and and the the Balance Balance of of Power Power (Macmillan: (Macmillan: London, London, 1989), 1989), 171. 171. 13. 13. Ranft, Ranft, “Protection “Protection of of Seaborne Seaborne Trade,” Trade,” 15, 15, cited cited in in Avner Avner Offer, Offer, The The First First World World War: War: An An Agrarian Agrarian Interpretation Interpretation (Oxford: (Oxford: Oxford Oxford University University Press, Press, 1989), 1989), 234. 234. 14. 14. Sumida, Sumida, “Sir “Sir Julian Julian Corbett Corbett and and Admiral Admiral Sir Sir John John Fisher,” Fisher,” 138—39; 138-39: idem, idem, “Sir “Sir John John Fisher Fisher and and the the Dreadnought: Dreadnought: The The Sources Sources of of Naval Naval Mythology,” Mythology,” 6. 6. 15. 15. Draft Draft of of letter letter sent sent by by Arthur Arthur Pollen Pollen to to the the editor editor of of the the Morning Morning Post, Post, 18 18 Mar Mar 10, 10, Pollen Pollen Papers Papers PLLN3/6; PLLN3/6; II am am indebted indebted to to Professor Professor Sumida Sumida for for bringbringing ing this this 16. 16. 17. 17.

18. 18. 19. 19. 20. 20. 21. 21. 22. 22.

document document to to my my attention. attention. Ottley Ottley to to Haldane, Haldane, 11 11 Dec Dec 09, 09, f.209, f.209, Haldane Haldane Mss Mss 5908. 5908. Marder, Marder, FDSF, FDSF, I, I, 383. 383.

Offer, Offer, The The First First World World War, War, 230—32, 230-32, 236—43. 236-43. Ibid., Ibid., 227, 227, 242—43. 242—43. Ibid., Ibid., 234. 234. Ibid., Ibid., 227. 227. Sadly, Sadly, two two cases cases of of correspondence correspondence on on “war “war arrangements" arrangements” dating dating from from

this this period period have have been been destroyed: destroyed: ADM ADM 12/1442, 12/1442, cut cut 50 50 (Mobilisation), (Mobilisation), reference reference to to secret secret cases cases 0085 0085 and and 0086. 0086. 23. 23. For For an an excellent excellent essay essay on on the the evidentiary evidentiary problems problems with with writing writing the the naval naval history history of of this this period period see see Sumida, Sumida, “The “The Sources Sources of of Naval Naval Mythology,” Mythology,”

619—38. 619-38. 24. 24. Williams, Williams, Defending Defending the the Empire, Empire, 143—47. 143-47. 25. 20. Ibid., Ibid., 138—47. 138-47. 26. 26. Tweedmouth Tweedmouth to man, 77 Aug to Campbell-Banner Campbell-Bannerman, Aug 07, 07, f.161, f.161, Add Add Mss Mss 41213. 41213.

27. 27. Tweedmouth Tweedmouth to man, 22 to Campbell-Banner Campbell-Bannerman, 22 Feb Feb 07, 07, f.152, f.152, and and Fisher Fisher to to

Campbell-Banne rman, 17 Campbell-Bannerman, 17 Aug Aug 07, 07, f.163, f.163, both both Add Add Mss Mss 41231. 41231. 28. 28. Fisher Fisher to to Campbell-Banner man, 17 Campbell-Bannerman, 17 Aug Aug 07, 07, f.163, f.163, Add Add Mss Mss 41231; 41231: Haldane Haldane to to Esher, Esher, 23 23 Aug Aug 07, 07, Brett, Brett, Esher, Esher, II, Il, 246. 246. 29. 29. Mackay, Mackay, Kilverstone, Kilverstone, 381. 381. 30. 30. Fisher Fisher to to Esher, Esher, 16 16 Sep Sep 07, 07, cited cited in in Mackay, Mackay, Kilverstone, Kilverstone, 383. 383. 31. 31. 32. 32. 33. 33.

D’Ombrain, D’Ombrain, War War Machinery, Machinery, 63. 63. Fisher Fisher to to Ottley Ottley 18 18 Sep Sep 07. 07, cited cited in in Mackay, Mackay, Kilverstone, Kilverstone, 383. 383. Haldane Haldane to to Rosebery. Rosebery, 19 19 Dec Dec 05, 05, f.282, f.282, Haldane Haldane Mss Mss 5906; 5906: Knollys Knollys to to

Haldane, Haldane, 29 29 Oct Oct 06, 06, £110, f.110, Haldane Haldane Mss Mss 5907; 5907; Slade Slade to to Corbett, Corbett, 15 15 Feb Feb 08, 08, Corbett Corbett Mss Mss 6; 6; Fisher Fisher to to Sandars, Sandars, 25 25 Jan Jan 04, 04, f.108, f.108, Add Add Mss Mss 49710. 49710. 34. 34. Fisher Fisher to to Campbell-Bann erman, 17 Campbell-Bannerman, 17 Aug Aug 07, 07, f.163, f.163, Add Add Mss Mss 41231; 41231: Haldane Haldane to to Esher, Esher, 23 23 Aug Aug 07, 07, Brett, Brett, E'sher, Esher, II, II, 246. 246. Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, httpszllhd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Notes Notes to to Pages Pages 170—174 170-174

355 355

35. 35. Fisher Fisher to to Esher, Esher, 8 8 Sep Sep 07, 07, Brett, Brett, Esher, Esher, II, II, 248. 248. 36. 36. Esher Esher to to Fisher, Fisher, 11 Oct Oct 07, 07, Brett, Brett, Esher, Esher, ll, Il, 249. 249. 37. 37. Fisher Fisher to to Esher, Esher, 7 7 Oct Oct 07, 07, FGDN, FGDN, ll, Il, 143. 143.

38. 38. Fisher Fisher to to Esher, Esher, 18 18 Sep Sep 07, 07, FGDN, FGDN, H, Il, 135. 135. 39. 39. Ottley Ottley to to Haldane, Haldane, 11 11 Dec Dec 09, 09, f.209, f.209, Haldane Haldane Mss Mss 5908. 5908. 40. 40. Andrew Andrew Gordon, Gordon, The The Rules Rules of of the the Game Game (John (John Murray: Murray: London, London, 1996). 1996). My My thanks thanks to to Dr. Dr. Gordon Gordon for for this this information. information. 41. 41. Fisher Fisher to to Balfour, Balfour, 29 29 Nov Nov 07, 07, f.21, f.21, Add Add Mss Mss 49712; 49712; Sumida, Sumida, “Sir “Sir Julian Julian Corbett and Admiral Corbett and Admiral Sir Sir John John Fisher,” Fisher,” 125—40. 125-40. 42. 42. Campbell-Bannerman Campbell-Bannerman to to TWeedmouth, Tweedmouth, 27 27 Aug Aug 07, 07, f.164, f.164, Add Add Mss Mss 41231. 41231. 43. 43. Marder, Marder, FDSF, FDSF, 348. 348. 44. Ibid. lbid. 44. 45. 45. see see Julian Julian Corbett, Corbett, Some Some Principles Principles of of Maritime Maritime Strategy Strategy (London, (London, 1911; 1911; reprint, reprint, Brassey’s, Brassey's, 1988), 1988), 209—27. 209-27. 46. 46. D’Ombrain, D’'Ombrain, “The “The Military Military Departments Departments and and the the Committee Committee of of Imperial Imperial Defence,” 220-25. 220—25. Defence,” 47. 47. Testimony Testimony of of Winston Winston Churchill Churchill to to cm CID inquiry inquiry on on “Attack “Attack on on the the British British Isles Isles from from Overseas," Overseas,” 33 Dec Dec 13, 13, 0.2558, 0.2558, p. p. 311, 311, CAB CAB 16/28A. 16/28A. 48. 48. Repington, Repington, “Notes “Notes of of aa Conversation Conversation between between Mr. Mr. Haldane, Haldane, Mr. Mr. McKenna, McKenna, and and Colonel Colonel Repington Repington at at Mr. Mr. Haldane’s Haldane’s Houses,” Houses,” 8 8 May May 08, 08, p. p. 5, 5, Esher Esher Mss Mss 16/12; 16/12; see see also also Jon Jon Sumida, Sumida, “The “The Sources Sources of of Naval Naval Mythology.” Mythology.” 49. 49. Esher Esher to to Fisher, Fisher, 11 Oct Oct 07, 07, Brett, Brett, Esher, Esher, II, II, 249. 249. 50. 00. Slade Slade to to Corbett, Corbett, 28 28 Nov Nov 07, 07, cited cited in in Donald Donald Schurman, Schurman, Julian Julian S. S. Corbett, Corbett, 1854—1922 1854-1922 (London, (London, 1981), 1981), 83. 83. 51. O01. Morley Morley to to Clarke, Clarke, 4 4 Dec Dec 07, 07, f9, f.9, Morley Morley Mss, Mss, 573/42a, 573/42a, b. b. 52. 02. Fisher Fisher to to Spender, Spender, 22 22 Apr Apr 08, 08, 1’82, f.82, Add Add Mss Mss 46390. 46390. Note Note “Whitehall “Whitehall Gardens” notepaper. notepaper. Gardens” 53. 03. Slade Slade to to Corbett, Corbett, 16 16 Dec Dec 05 05 and and 26 26 Dec Dec 05, 05, Richmond Richmond Mss, Mss, RIC9. RIC9. 54. 04. D’Ombrain, D’Ombrain, War War Machinery, Machinery, 91. 91. 55. oo. Slade Slade to to Corbett, Corbett, 11 11 & & 18 18 Nov Nov 07, 07, Corbett Corbett Mss Mss 6; 6; Slade Slade to to Corbett, Corbett, 16 16 Dec Dec 05, 05, Richmond Richmond Mss Mss 9. 9. 56. 06. Slade Slade to to Corbett, Corbett, 16 16 Dec Dec 05 05 and and 26 26 Dec Dec 05, 05, Richmond Richmond Mss Mss 9. 9. 57. 97. Mackay, Mackay, Kilverstone, Kilverstone, 396. 396. 58. 08. Slade Slade diary diary entry entry 20 20 May May 08 08 and and 77 Feb Feb 08, 08, Slade Slade Mss. Mss. 59. 09. Slade Slade diary, diary, Feb Feb 08, 08, Slade Slade Mss. Mss. 60. 60. D’Ombrain D’Ombrain “The “The Military Military Departments Departments and and the the Committee Committee of of lmperial Imperial Defence,” Defence,” 249—50, 249-50, citing citing Slade Slade diary, diary, 23 23 Jul Jul 08. 08. 61. 61. Slade Slade to to Corbett, Corbett, 11 Dec Dec 07, 07, Corbett Corbett Mss Mss 6. 6. 62. 62. Slade Slade diary diary 13 13 Nov Nov 08, 08, Slade Slade Mss. Mss. 63. 63. Slade Slade to to Corbett, Corbett, 33 Jan Jan 08, 08, Corbett Corbett Mss Mss 6, 6, NB. N.B. phrase phrase “i “i hear hear there there is is

great trouble trouble over over money money matters... matters. . . .” great 64. 64. Slade Slade diary, diary, 11 Feb Feb 08 08 & & 22 22 Feb Feb 08, 08, reel reel 2, 2, Slade Slade Mss. Mss.

65. 65. Memorandum Memorandum by by First First Sea Sea Lord, Lord, “Invasions “Invasions and and Raids,” Raids,” 22 22 Aug Aug 07, 07, p. p. 3, 3, 9/1. Mss 9/1. Richmond Mss Richmond 66. 66. lbid. Ibid. Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, httpszllhd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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356 356

174-177 Pages 174-177 Notes to Pages Notes to

147. II, 147. FGDN, Il, 07, FGDN, Oct 07, 16 Oct 67. Wales, 16 of Wales, Prince of to Prince Fisher to 67. Fisher

9/1. Mss 9/1. Richmond Mss 07, Richmond Aug 07, 16 Aug 68. Raids,” 16 and Raids,” “Invasions and Slade, “Invasions 68. Slade, 1907), (November 1907), 69. Committee—1908/09” (November Estimates Committee—1908/09”" “Naval Estimates Admiralty, “Naval 69. Admiralty, repeated committees repeated the committees for the Defence, for In Defence, p. Sumida, In See Sumida, 3/19; See Mss 3/19; Crease Mss 50, Crease p. 50, design. ship design. capital ship favored capital refusal Fisher’s favored accept Fisher’s to accept refusal to 1/7. Papers 1/7. Fisher Papers FP3383, Fisher 70. 08, FP338a, Nov 08, 24 Nov Fisher, 24 to Fisher, Ottley to 70. Ottley Mss. Slade Mss. 08, Slade Feb 08, 71. 15 Feb diary, 15 Slade diary, 71. Slade Fisher, to Fisher, Corbett to also Corbett see also 152; see II, 152; FGDN, Il, 07, FGDN, 72. Dec 07, Corbett, 44 Dec to Corbett, Fisher to 72. Fisher 44 Dec Dec 07, 07, Corbett Corbett Mss Mss box box 13. 13. Mss 6.6. Corbett Mss 07, Corbett Nov 07, 25 Nov 73. Corbett, 25 to Corbett, Slade to 73. Slade ibid. 07, ibid. Dec 07, 74. Corbett, 11 Dec to Corbett, Slade to 74. Slade of Principles of Corbett, Principles see Corbett, point see this point on this feeling on 75. his feeling of his strength of the strength For the 75. For 10-1 1. Maritime Strategy, 10-11. Maritime Strategy,

392—93. Kilverstone, 392-93. Mackay, Kilverstone, 94; Mackay, 76. 88-89, 94; Corbett, 88-89, Schurman, Corbett, 76. Schurman, Imperial of Imperial Committee of the Committee and the Departments and Military Departments “The Military 77. D’Ombrain, “The 77. D’Ombrain, Defence,” 43-44. 43—44. Defence,” 6. Mss 6. Corbett Mss 07, Corbett Dec 07, Corbett, 66 Dec to Corbett, 78. Slade to 78. Slade 6. Mss 6. Corbett Mss 07, Corbett Dec 07, 79. Corbett, 99 Dec to Corbett, Slade to 79. Slade 80. 80. Ibid. Ibid. 153. II, 153. FGDN, Il, 07, FGDN, Dec 07, 12 Dec 81. Esher, 12 to Esher, Fisher to 81. Fisher 6. Mss 6. Corbett Mss 07, Corbett Dec 07, 20 Dec 82. Corbett, 20 to Corbett, Slade to 82. Slade 93~95. Corbett, 93-95. 83. Schurman, Corbett, 83. Schurman, 6. Mss 6. Corbett Mss 07, Corbett Dec 07, 24 Dec 84. Corbett, 24 to Corbett, Slade to 84. Slade 6. Mss 6. Corbett Mss 08, Corbett Jan 08, 11 Jan 85. Corbett, 11 to Corbett, Slade to 85. Slade Mss. Slade Mss. 08, Slade Apr 08, 86. diary, 44 Apr Slade diary, 86. Slade 87. Ibid. Ibid. 87.

Meeting 88. warfare,” Meeting “flotilla warfare,” on “flotilla Fisher on and Fisher Haldane and between Haldane Conversation between 88. Conversation 16/3A. CAB 16/3A. on 239, CAB p. 239, 08, p. Apr 08, Enquiry, 22 Apr Invasion Enquiry, on Invasion 3/4, MCKN 3/4, Ha, MCKN 89. 08, f.1a, Apr 08, 20 Apr McKenna, 20 to McKenna, Fisher to 08; Fisher Apr 08; diary, 88 Apr Slade diary, 89. Slade McKenna McKenna Mss. Mss. 396-97. Kilverstone, 396-97. 90. Mackay, Kilverstone, 96—98; Mackay, Corbett, 96-98; Schurman, Corbett, 90. Schurman, CAB16/SB. 91. Enquiry, CAB16/3B. Invasion Enquiry, of Invasion Report of Final Report 91. Final W41/79. 92. Archives, W41/79. Royal Archives, 08, Royal Nov 08, Edward, 22 Nov King Edward, to King Esher to 92. Esher conreporting con93. 08, reporting Nov 08, 21 Nov entry 21 diary, entry King-Hall diary, George King-Hall Adm. George Vice Adm. 93. Vice

versation between between Sir Sir Francis Francis Bridgeman Bridgeman and and his his brother brother Capt. Capt. Herbert Herbert KingKingversation Hall. Hall.

94. 94. The The key key Admiralty Admiralty docket docket on on this this subject, subject, “British “British Intervention Intervention in in the the Event of of an an Attack Attack on on France France by by Germany,” Germany,” which which was was seen seen by by Professor Professor Event Marder Marder during during the the 19308, 1930s, had had since since disappeared disappeared from from the the archives archives (Marder, (Marder, Anatomy, the of the half of second half the second of the part of only part cites only Marder cites Unfortunately Marder 502). Unfortunately Anatomy, 502). crucial memorandum memorandum written written by by the the DN1 DNI on on 26 26 Jun Jun 05, 05, and and focuses focuses upon upon the the crucial the take the should take “promiscuous” Admiralty should the Admiralty whether the on whether Ottley on by Ottley discourse by “promiscuous” discourse risk of of losing losing aa few few ships ships and and deploy deploy elements elements of of the the fleet fleet still still more more aggresaggresrisk Sively. sively.

95. 95. Kennedy, Kennedy, Anglo-German Anglo-German Antagonism, Antagonism, 275—88. 275-88. Development the Development 96. Brian Ranft, “The and the Trade and Seaborne Trade British Seaborne of British Protection of “The Protection Lambert, Nicosia-”0199hBrAlian/RRa/Qn E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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357 357

of Systematic Systematic Planning Planning for for War, War, 1860-1906,” 1860—1906,” inin Technical Technical Change Change and and British British Naval Naval of Policy, Policy, ed. ed. Ranit Ranft (London, (London, 1977), 1977), 1—22. 1-22. 97. 97. Ottley Ottley to to Corbett, Corbett, 11 Jun Jun 05, 05, Richmond Richmond Mss, Mss, RlC9. RIC9. 98. 98. Fisher Fisher to to Fortescue, Fortescue, 14 14 Apr Apr 06, 06, FGDN, FGDN, ll, Il, 72. 72. 99. 99. Ottley Ottley to to McKenna, McKenna, 55 Dec Dec 08, 08, MCKN MCKN 3/7, 3/7, McKenna McKenna Mss. Mss. 100. 100. Introductory Introductory Remarks Remarks to to 1907 1907 War War Plans, Plans, cited cited in in Kemp, Kemp, F.P.2, F.P.2, 363. 363. 101. 101. Trade Trade Division Division papers. papers, ADM ADM 137/2749, 137/2749, and and files files 137/2864 137/2864 to to 2872 2872 cited cited by by Offer, Offer, First First World World War, War, 230—32. 230-32. 102. 102. Ottley Ottley to to Sir Sir William William May May (second (second sea sea lord), lord), 15 15 Sep Sep 07, 07, Tweedmouth Tweedmouth Mss, A163. Mss, A163. 103. 103. Fisher, Fisher, “Remarks “Remarks on on the the War War Plans Plans by by Admiral Admiral Wilson” Wilson” [Apr [Apr 1907], 1907], ADM 116/1043B; ADM 116/1043B; Fisher Fisher to to Grey, Grey, 23 23 Jan Jan 08, 08, FGDN, FGDN, II, Il, 157; 157: Fisher Fisher to to Tweedmouth, Tweedmouth, 23 23 Jan Jan 08, 08, FGDN, FGDN, ll, I, 158. 158. 104. 104. Wilson, Wilson, “Remarks “Remarks on on the the War War Plans,” Plans,” n/d n/d “[1907], [1907], FP4231, FP4231, Fisher Fisher Papers Papers 5/13. 5/13. NB. N.B. This This is is the the original original hand-written hand-written copy copy by by Wilson. Wilson. The The passage passage cited cited is is heavily heavily underlined underlined by by Fisher. Fisher. 105. 105. Minute Minute (8 (8 Mar Mar 06) 06) by by Ottley Ottley memorandum memorandum by by Beresford, Beresford, 55 Feb Feb 06, 06, ADM ADM 116/900B. 116/900B. 106. 106. Ottley, Ottley, “The “The Strategic Strategic Aspects Aspects of of our our Building Building Programme, Programme, 1907,” 1907,” 77 Jan Jan 07, 07, p. p. 34, 34, RIC RIC 5, 5, Richmond Richmond Mss. Mss. 107. 107. D’Ombrain, D’Ombrain, War War Machinery, Machinery, chapter chapter 3. 3.

108. 108. Fisher Fisher to to Esher, Esher, 15 15 Mar Mar 09, 09, FGDN, FGDN, ll, Il, 233. 233. 109. 109. Lord Lord Hankey, Hankey, The The Supreme Supreme Command, Command, 1, I, 39—40. 39-40. 110. 110. Marder, Marder, Anatomy, Anatomy, 504—5. 504-5. 111. 111. Slade Slade to to Corbett, Corbett, 16 16 Dec Dec 05 05 and and 26 26 Dec Dec 05, 05, Richmond Richmond Mss Mss 9. 9. 112. 112. Ottley Ottley to to Churchill, Churchill, 22 Nov Nov 11, 11, CAB17/8. CAB17/8. 113. 113. Admiralty, Admiralty, “Planned “Planned attack attack on on Borkum,” Borkum,” Apr Apr 07, 07, £591, f.591, and and “Plan “Plan to to Seize 116/1043B2; Seize Heligoland,” Heligoland,” f.608, f.608, volume volume 3, 3, ADM ADM 116/1043B2; Conversation Conversation with with

Admiral Admiral Lowry Lowry in in George George King-Hall King-Hall diary, diary, 14 14 Jun Jun 09. 09. 114. 114. Minute Minute by by unknown unknown NlD NID officer officer on on “Plan “Plan to to Seize Seize Heligoland,” Heligoland,” [1907] [1907]

f.608—609, 16/1043B2. f.608-609, ADM ADM 1116/1043B2. 115. 115. Introductory Introductory Remarks Remarks to to 1907 1907 War War Plans, Plans, cited cited in in Kemp, Kemp, F.P.2, F.P.2, 364. 364. 116. 116. Testimony Testimony of of Reginald Reginald McKenna, McKenna, to to the the Beresford Beresford Enquiry, Enquiry, May May 09, 09, pp. pp. 245—46, especially especially Q.2189, 0.2189, CAB16/9A; CAB16/9A; this this evidence evidence contradicts contradicts the the interpretation interpretation 245-46, of of the the Ballard Ballard report report given given in in Offer, Offer, The The First First World World War, War, 235, 235, citing citing Lord Lord Hankey, Hankey,

Supreme Command, Command, 1,I, 39-40; 39—40; see see also also Ottley Ottley to to Churchill, Churchill, 22 Nov Nov 11, 11, CAB17/8. CAB17/8. Supreme 117. 117. Kemp, Kemp, F.P.2, F.P.2, 316—18; 316-18; see see also also Admiralty, Admiralty, “War “War Plans,” Plans,” ADM ADM 116/1043B1. 116/1043B1. 118. 118. Kemp, Kemp, F.P.2, F.P.2, 316—18; 316-18; Hayes, Hayes, “Britain, “Britain, Germany Germany and and the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s plans for attacking Germany, 1906—1916,” pp. 96—116; plans for attacking Germany, 1906-1916,” pp. 96-116; The The case case of of supporting supporting docdocuments uments to to the the “War “War Plans” Plans” (0073 (0073 now now known known as as ADM ADM 116/1043B) 116/1043B) was was created created in in November November 1936 1936 from from miscellaneous miscellaneous papers papers in in the the Admiralty Admiralty record record office. office. All All of of the the

documents, documents, including including several several supporting supporting documents documents in in typescript typescript are are unsigned. unsigned. Although Although some some historians historians have have attempted attempted to to assign assign authorship authorship of of some some of of the the docudocuments ments to to certain certain officers officers the the “evidence” “evidence” submitted submitted to to support support their their arguments arguments is is speculative to say the least! La m besrmcgFalslgigéll'ig Fgger§fixaulghhggsu E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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180—183 Pages 180-183 to Pages Notes to Notes

cerof cerframing of the framing on the “Remarks on enclosing “Remarks 09 enclosing May 09 Fisher, 33 May to Fisher, Balla to 119. Ballard 119. (Ady 33 Plans” (Ady “War Plans” in “War Admiralty,” in the Admiralty,” at the now at Germany now with Germany war with for war plans for tain plans tain 1/8997. ADM 1/8997. 1933) ADM August 1933) August the at the printed at were printed Plans were War Plans The War NB. The f.331; N.B. 3, f.331; volume 3, 116/1043B2, volume ADM 116/1043B2, 120. ADM 120. printers. Admiralty printers. the Admiralty than the rather than Harrison’s rather by Harrison's Office by Foreign Office Foreign 06, Oct 06, 13 Oct Tweedmouth, 13 to Tweedmouth, Fisher to reference inin Fisher cryptic reference also aa cryptic See also 121. See 121. Tweedmouth Mss, Mss, A105. A105. Tweedmouth Plans War Plans n/d, War Fleet,” n/d, the Fleet,” of the Distribution of the Distribution and the Plans and “War Plans Admiralty, “War 122. Admiralty, 122. the in the exists in preface exists this preface of this copy of surviving copy other surviving (the other 116/1043B1 (the ADM 116/1043B1 1907/8, ADM 1907/8, papers). Fisher papers). Fisher 23 Grey, 23 to Grey, Fisher to see Fisher copy; see sent aa copy; was sent Grey was Edward Grey Secretary Edward Foreign Secretary 123. Foreign 123. of papers of private papers the private in the exists in also exists set also incomplete set An incomplete 155; An ll, 155; FGDN, Il, 08, FGDN, Jan 08, Jan 510 dep. 510 Mss dep. Harcourt Mss works) Harcourt of works) commissioner of (first commissioner Harcourt (first “Loulou” Harcourt Lewes “Loulou” Lewes [Bodleian Library]. Library]. [Bodleian Imperial of Imperial Committee of the Committee and the Departments and Military Departments “The Military D’Ombrain, “The 124. D’Ombrain, 124. Defence,” Defence,” 157—58. 157-58. 125. Fisher Fisher to to Leyland, Leyland, 77 Nov Nov 11, 11, FGDN, FGDN, I,l, 412. 412. 125. 126. 126. Slade Slade diary, diary, 17 17 Jan Jan 08, 08, Slade Slade Mss; Mss; Mackay, Mackay, Kilverstone, Kilverstone, 386. 386. 127. Slade Slade diary, diary, 11 Feb Feb 08, 08, Slade Slade Mss. Mss. 127. Imperial of Imperial Committe of the Committe and the Departments and Military Departments “The Military D’Ombrain, “The 128. D’Ombrain, 128. Defence,” 248. 248. Defence,” 129. Summerton, Summerton, “The “The Development Development of of British British Military Military Planning,” Planning,” 130 130 et et 129. judgsubject, aa judgthis subject, on this authoritative on being authoritative as being cited as widely cited thesis isis widely this thesis N.B. this seq.; N.B. seq.; ment with with which which [I| do do not not agree. agree. ment 130. Mackay, Mackay, Kilverstone, Kilverstone, 396, 396, 405; 405; Slade Slade diary, diary, 22 22 Feb Feb 08, 08, Slade Slade Mss. Mss. 130. 131. Slade Slade diary, diary, 20 20 May May 08, 08, Slade Slade Mss. Mss. 131. 132. 132. Captain Captain Osmond Osmond de de Brock Brock to to Colonel Colonel Gleichen, Gleichen, 19 19 Oct Oct 08, 08, cited cited in in Mackay, Mackay, Kilverstone, Kilverstone, 405—7. 405-7. 133. Lewis Lewis Bayly, Bayly, Pull Pull Together: Together: The The Memoirs Memoirs of of Admiral Admiral Sir Sir Lewis Lewis Bayly Bayly 133. (London, (London, 1939), 1939), 131. 131. 134'. 134. Ottley Ottley to to Esher, Esher, 8 8 Oct Oct 11, 11, Esher Esher Mss, Mss, 4/3. 4/3. 135. 135. Invasion Invasion Enquiry, Enquiry, 1907/8, 1907/8, CAB CAB 16/5a. 16/5a. 136. 136. Slade Slade diary, diary, 28 28 Nov Nov 08, 08, Slade Slade Mss. Mss. 137. Minutes Minutes of of first first and and second second meetings, meetings, CID, ClD, “Military “Military Needs Needs of of the the 137. Empire,” 3,3, 17 17 Dec Dec 08, 08, CAB16/14. CAB16/14. N.B. N.B. Appendix Appendix 5,5, “The “The economic economic effect effect of of war war Empire,” upon German German trade,” trade,” Admiralty, Admiralty, 12 12 Dec Dec 08. 08. upon 138. 138. Third Third meeting meeting of of cm CID subcommittee, subcommittee, 23 23 Mar Mar 09, 09, CAB CAB 16/4. 16/4. 139. Admiralty, Admiralty, CID ClD paper paper E8, E8, 44 Feb Feb 09, 09, appendix appendix X, X, pp. pp. 45—48, 45—48, “Military “Military 139. Needs of of the the Empire,” Empire,” CAB CAB 16/4. 16/4. Needs

140. 140. Slade Slade to to Asquith, Asquith, 88 May May 09, 09, Beresford Beresford Enquiry, Enquiry, f.195, f.195, CAB CAB 16/9B. 16/9B. 141. Fisher, Fisher, “The “The Submarine Submarine Question,” Question,” n/d n/d [November [November 1908], 1908], FP4238, FP4238, Fisher Fisher 141. Papers Papers 5/13. 5/13. 142. 142. lbid., Ibid., 143. 143. lbid.; Ibid.; 144. 144. Hall Hall

part part 3. 3. Hall Hall to to Keyes, Keyes, 15 15 Dec Dec 12, 12, Keyes Keyes Mss Mss 4/22. 4/22. to to Keyes, Keyes, 15 15 Dec Dec 12, 12, Keyes Keyes Mss Mss 4/22; 4/22; see see Reginald Reginald Tupper. Tupper,

Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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359 359

War,” the War,” of the History of Reminiscences Official History “The Official Admiralty, “The 110; Admiralty, 1932), 110; (London, 1932), Reminiscences (London, Technical History History 40, 40, Admiralty Admiralty Library. Library. Technical to Jellicoe to 1/8; Jellicoe Papers 1/8; Fisher Papers 145. FP412, Fisher 09, FP412, Sep 09, 24 Sep Hall, 24 to Hall, Fisher to 145. Fisher McKenna, 11 11 Nov Nov 09, 09, f6, f.6, MCKN MCKN 3/22, 3/22, McKenna McKenna Mss. Mss. McKenna, requiremanning requireon manning committee on the committee 146. of the report of “interim report Bridgeman, “Interim 146. Bridgeman, ments,” 18 18 Jun Jun 09, 09, p. p. 2, 2, ADM ADM 1/8048. 1/8048. ments,” 147. Navy Navy War War Council, Council, minutes. minutes, ADM ADM 116/3090 116/3090 147. 148. 148. Jellicoe Jellicoe to to Fisher, Fisher, 18 18 Apr Apr 09, 09, FP413, FP413, Fisher Fisher Papers Papers 1/8. 1/8. 149. 149. Ibid. lbid. 150. lbid.; Ibid.; see see also also Hall Hall to to Fisher, Fisher, 3 3 Aug Aug 09, 09, enclosed enclosed with with Fisher Fisher to to 150. McKenna, McKenna, 24 24 Sep Sep 09, 09, FP413, FP413, Fisher Fisher Papers Papers 1/8. 1/8. 151. 151. Fisher Fisher to to McKenna, McKenna, 24 24 Sep Sep 09, 09, FP413, FP413, Fisher Fisher Papers Papers 1/8. 1/8. 242. H, 242. FGDN, Il, 09, FGDN, Apr 09, 152. McKenna. 88 Apr to McKenna, Fisher to 152. Fisher 153. 153. Jan Jan Morris, Morris, Fisher's Fisher’s Face, Face, 161-62. 161—62. 154. 154. Fisher Fisher to to Lambert, Lambert, 55 Apr Apr 09, 09, FGDN, FGDN, II, ll, 240. 240. 155. 155. Morley Morley to to Clarke, Clarke, 29 29 May May 08, 08, f.37, f.37, Morley Morley Mss, Mss, 373/42a&b. 573/42a&b. 24 Ponsonby, 24 to Ponsonby, Fisher to 09, Fisher Apr 09, 14 Apr 156. and 14 09, and Apr 09, McKenna, 88 Apr to McKenna, Fisher to 156. Fisher Apr 09, 09, FGDN, FGDN, ll, Il, 242—47; 242-47; Esher Esher to to Balfour, Balfour, 15 15 Apr Apr 09, 09, Brett, Brett, Esher, Esher, H, II, 383. 383. Apr 2/11. Mss 2/11. Esher Mss 157. 09, Esher May 09, 14 May Journals, 14 Esher Journals, 157. Esher 37/83/62. CAB 37/83/62. 06, CAB Jul 06, 158. Expenditure,” 99 Jul “Naval Expenditure,” Asquith, “Naval 158. Asquith, 159. 159. Nicholas Nicholas Lambert, Lambert, “Concept “Concept of of Flotilla Flotilla Defence,” Defence,” 644—45; 644—45; idem, idem, “Economy “Economy or or Empire.” Empire.” 5981. Mss, 5981. Haldane Mss, f.72, Haldane 09, f.72, 160. Feb 09, 24 Feb mother, 24 his mother, to his Haldane to 160. Haidane collection]. private collection]. [N.B.: private Mss [N.B.: 161. May Mss 09, May May 09, May, 99 May to May, Fisher to 161. Fisher 5908. Mss 5908. Haldane Mss f.209, Haldane 09, f.209, Dec 09, 11 Dec 162. Haldane, 11 to Haldane, Ottley to 162. Ottley 163. Sumida, Sumida, “Naval “Naval Administration Administration and and Policy Policy in in the the Age Age of of Fisher,” Fisher,” 1—26. 1-26. 163. 164. Mackay, Mackay, Kilverstone, Kilverstone, 365—66, 365-66, 370—74, 370-74, 412—15; 412-15; Geoffrey Geoffrey Bennett, Bennett, 164. Charlie B: B: AA Biography Biography of of Admiral Admiral Lord Lord Charles Charles Beresford Beresford of of Metemmeh Metemmeh and and Charlie 1968). Curraghmore (London, 1968). Curraghmore (London, 90. FDSF, I,l, 90. 165. Marder, FDSF, 165. Marder, 90—91. 166. FDSF, I,I, 90-91. Marder, FDSF, 166. Marder, 30. ll, 30. Fisher, II, 167. Lord Fisher, of Lord Life of The Life Bacon, The 167. Bacon, 168. 31—50. Ibid., 31-50. 168. Ibid., Admiral, Beresford, Admiral, Pour Beresford, 169. la Pour de la William de Charles William records: Charles officers records: Flag officers 169. Flag f.39, 196/86. ADM 196/86. £39, ADM 170. 170. See See untitled untitled memorandum memorandum by by Fisher Fisher for for the the Board Board of of Admiralty Admiralty on on Mss. Crease Mss. 3, Crease box 3, behavior 1907, box June 1907, printed June Beresford, printed Admiral Beresford, of Admiral behavior of

May Selborne, 55 May to Selborne, Kerr to 171. 41; Kerr Selborne 41; f.102, Selborne 04, f.102, Apr 04, 16 Apr Selborne, 16 to Selborne, Kerr to 171. Kerr 31. Mss 31. Selborne Mss all Selborne (f.102) all 02 02 (f.102) Jul 02 (f.80), 11 Jul 02 (f.80), May 02 16 May (£72), 16 02 (f.72), 172. Kerr Kerr to to Selborne, Selborne, 11 Jul Jul 02, 02, f.102, f.102, Selborne Selborne 31; 31; see see also also McKenna’s McKenna’s 172. CABI6/9A. (0.1863), CAB16/9A. 193 (Q.1863), p. 193 (0.1767), p. exchanges 182 (Q.1767), p. 182 CID p. in CID Asquith in with Asquith exchanges with 173. 173. Beresford Beresford served served as as MP MP for: for: Waterford, Waterford, 1874—80; 1874-80; East East Marylebone, Marylebone, 1910—16. Portsmouth, 1910-16. and Portsmouth, 1902—3; and 1885-89; Woolwich, 1902-3; 1897—1900; Woolwich, York, 1897-1900; 1885-89; York,

174. 174. Gordon, Gordon, Rules Rules of of the the Game, Game, 333. 333. 1I am am indebted indebted to to Dr. Dr. Gordon Gordon for for this this reference. reference. Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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187—190 Pages 187-190 to Pages Notes to Notes

16/9A. CAB 16/9A. (0.721), CAB 67 (Q.721), Enquiry, p.p. 67 Beresford Enquiry, 175. 175. Beresford Charles Lord Charles Adm. Lord between Adm. relations to relating correspondence of File 176. 176. File of correspondence relating to relations between 116/3108. ADM 116/3108. 1906—9, ADM Admiralty, 1906-9, of Admiralty, Board of the Board and the Beresford and Beresford and A121 and Mss, A121 Tweedmouth Mss, letters), Tweedmouth (2 letters), 07 (2 Feb 07 18 Feb Tweedmouth, 18 to Tweedmouth, Fisher to 177. Fisher 177. A122. A122. to Fisher to A135; Fisher Mss, A135; Tweedmouth Mss, 07, Tweedmouth Jun 07, Fisher, 88 Jun to Fisher, Tweedmouth to 178. Tweedmouth 178. FGDN, (DNI), FGDN, Ottley (DNI), by Ottley memorandum by undated memorandum enclosing undated 06, enclosing Jul 06, 27 Jul Tweedmouth, 27 Tweedmouth, to Fisher to A109; Fisher Mss, A109; Tweedmouth Mss, 06, Tweedmouth Dec 06, 31 Dec Tweedmouth, 31 to Tweedmouth, Fisher to 84—85; Fisher ll, 84-85; Il, Mss. Tweedmouth Mss. A122, Tweedmouth 07, A122, Feb 07, 10 Feb Tweedmouth, 10 Tweedmouth, 116/1037. ADM 116/1037. H8 ADM 07, f.18, May 07, Admiralty, 88 May to Admiralty, Beresford to 179. Beresford 179. 180. Fisher Fisher to to McKenna, McKenna, 26 26 May May 08, 08, f.10, HO, MCKN3/4, MCKN3/4, McKenna McKenna Mss; Mss; Beresford Beresford 180. CA816/9B. (0.761), CAB16/9B. 72 (Q.761), p. 72 (0.733), p. 68 (0.733), p. 68 (0636—637), p. 60 (Q.636-637), p. 60 Enquiry, p. Enquiry, 181. Beresford Beresford Enquiry, Enquiry, pp. pp. 51-64 51-64 (Q.582-664), (0.582—664), ibid. ibid. 181. 182. Fisher Fisher to to McKenna, McKenna, 26 26 May May 08, 08, FGDN, FGDN, Il, ll, 177-79. 177—79. 182. 183. Beresford, Beresford, “Plan “Plan of of Campaign—Channel Campaign—Channel Fleet,” Fleet," 99 May May 07, 07, pp. pp. 3-16, 3—16, 183. ADM 116/1043B/2. 116/10438/2. ADM 184. Beresford, Beresford, “Remarks “Remarks on on War War Plan Plan 1,” 1,” 88 May May 07, 07, ADM ADM 116/1037; 116/1037; Fisher Fisher to to 184. McKenna, 26 26 May May 08, 08, FGDN, FGDN, Il, II, 177; 177; Kemp, Kemp, F.P.2, F.P.Z, 372. 372. McKenna, 185. Beresford Beresford Enquiry, Enquiry, remarks remarks by by Admiral Admiral Beresford, Beresford, 29 29 Apr Apr 09, 09, p. p. 62 62 185. (0659—664), CAB16/9B. CABl6/9B. (Q.659-664), 186. Beresford Beresford to to Admiralty, Admiralty, 88 May May 07, 07, enclosing enclosing general general remarks remarks on on Plan Plan AA 186. in in “Correspondence “Correspondence Relating Relating to to War War Orders Orders & & Position Position of of C-in-C C-in-C Channel Channel Fleet Fleet etc.,” etc.,” ADM ADM 116/1037. 116/1037. 187. Ibid. ibid. 187. 188. 188. lbid. Ibid. 189. Ballard Ballard to to Fisher, Fisher, 33 May May 09, 09, in in “War “War Plans,” Plans,” Ady Ady 33 Aug Aug 1933, 1933, ADM ADM 189. 1/8997. 1/8997. 190. Fisher, Fisher, “War “War Arrangements,” Arrangements,” 25 25 Jun Jun 07, 07, 3/16, 3/16, Crease Crease Mss; Mss; Slade Slade to to 190. Corbett, Corbett, 66 Dec Dec 07, 07, Corbett Corbett Mss Mss 6. 6. 191. Draft Draft War War Orders Orders sent sent to to Commander-in-Chief, Commander-in-Chief, 14 14 Jun Jun 07, 07, B250, B250, 191. 177—79. [1. 177-79. FGDN, II, 08, FGDN, May 08, 26 May McKenna, 26 to McKenna, Fisher to Mss; Fisher Tweedmouth Mss; Tweedmouth 192. Tweedmouth Tweedmouth to to Fisher, Fisher, 88 Jun Jun 07, 07, FGDN, FGDN, I,l, 125; 125; Transcript Transcript of of meeting meeting 192.

between between Tweedmouth, Tweedmouth, Fisher Fisher and and Beresford, Beresford, 55 Jul Jul 07, 07, f.234——253, f.234-253, Add Add Mss Mss 4971 49711.1. 193. 193. lbid., Ibid., £254, f.254, Remarks, Remarks, Fisher, Fisher, 5 5 Jul Jul 07. 07. 194. Remarks Remarks by by Fisher Fisher on on Beresford Beresford to to Fisher, Fisher, 16 16 Jul Jul 07, 07, FGDN, FGDN, I,l, 127; 127; Minute Minute 194.

by by Fisher, Fisher, on on Beresford Beresford to to Admiralty, Admiralty, 16 16 Jul Jul 07, 07, ADM ADM 116/1037. 116/1037. 195. 195. Fisher Fisher to to McKenna, McKenna, 25 25 May May 08, 08, f.11, f.11, MCKN MCKN 3/4, 3/4, McKenna McKenna Mss; Mss; Minute Minute between relations between to relations relating to correspondence relating of correspondence file of in file McKenna in by McKenna 08) by (Jun 08) (Jun

ADM 1906—9, ADM Admiralty, 1906-9, of Admiralty, Board of the Board and the Beresford and Charles Beresford Lord Charles Adm. Lord Adm. 116/3108. 116/3108. Museum]. Maritime Museum]. [National Maritime 76 [National Mss 76 White Mss 08, White Jul 08, 22 Jul White, 22 to White, Crease to 196. Crease 196. 197. 197. Fisher Fisher to to Esher, Esher, 31 31 Jan Jan 08, 08, FGDN, FGDN, II, II, 161; 161; Fisher Fisher to to McKenna, McKenna, 16 16 Apr Apr 08, 08, FGDN, FGDN, II, Il, 173. 173. 198. 198. Fisher, Fisher, “War “War Arrangements,” Arrangements,” 25 25 Jun Jun 07, 07, 3/16, 3/16, Crease Crease Mss. Mss. 199. Esh r Journals 9 Nov 08, f.188, Esher Mss, 2/11; McKenna to Asquith, Asquith, 199. Esher, Journals 9 Nov 08, f.188, Esher Mss, 2/11; McKenna to Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Nava Rei/o t E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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190—193 Notes Pages 190-193 to Pages Notes to

361 361

n/d n/d [Nov [Nov 1908], 1908], f.8, f.8, Asquith Asquith Mss Mss 21; 21; Fisher Fisher to to King King Edward, Edward, 31 31 Jan Jan 09, 09, f6, f.6, W59/69, W59/69, Royal Royal Archives; Archives; Fisher Fisher to to McKenna, McKenna, 25 25 Jun Jun 09, 09, f.25, f.25, MCKN MCKN 3/4, 3/4, McKenna McKenna Mss. Mss. 200. 200. “War “War Orders—Channel Orders—Channel Fleet,” Fleet,” 11 Jul Jul 08, 08, ADM ADM 116/1043B2. 116/1043B2. 201. 201. Fisher Fisher to to Grey, Grey, 23 23 Jan Jan 08, 08, FGDN, FGDN, ii, Il, 155; 155; Slade Slade diary, diary, 8 8 Jan Jan 08, 08, Slade Slade Mss. Mss. 202. 202. Fisher Fisher to to McKenna, McKenna, 10 10 Nov Nov 08, 08, ADM ADM 116/1037. 116/1037. 203. 203. Fisher Fisher to to Ottley, Ottley, 29 29 Aug Aug 09, 09, FGDN, FGDN, ii, Il, 263. 263. 204. 204. Beresford Beresford Enquiry, Enquiry, pp. pp. 51—64 51-64 (0.582—664), (Q.582-664), testimony testimony of of Admiral Admiral Beresford, Beresford, CAB CAB 16/9B. 16/9B. 205. 205. lbid., Ibid., p. p. 62 62 (0.659), (Q.659), Beresford Beresford speaking. speaking. 206. 206. ibid., Ibid., p. p. 52 52 (0.582). (Q.582). 207. 207. ibid., Ibid., p. p. 10 10 (0.112), (0.112), pp. pp. 51—53 51-53 (0582—584). (0.582-584). 208. 208. ibid., Ibid., p. p. 60 60 (0.636), (Q.636), Asquith Asquith speaking. speaking. 209. 209. lbid., Ibid., pp. pp. 51-52 51-52 (0580-582). (Q.580-582). 210. 210. Beresford Beresford Enquiry, Enquiry, final final report, report, pp. pp. 240-44 240-44 (0.2128), (Q.2128), CAB CAB 16/9A; 16/9A; see see also also Ottley, Ottley, “The “The Strategic Strategic Aspects Aspects of of our our Building Building Programme, Programme, 1907,” 1907,” 7 7 Jan Jan 07, 07, RIC RIC 5, 5, Richmond Richmond Mss. Mss. 211. 211. Parliamentary Parliamentary Debates, Debates, fifth fifth series, series, vol. vol. 8. 8. Mr Mr Lee, Lee, 3 3 Aug Aug 09, 09, p. p. 1800. 1800. 212. 212. Beresford Beresford Enquiry, Enquiry, p. p. 187 187 (0.1814), (Q.1814), CAB CAB 16/9B. 16/9B. 213. 213. ibid., Ibid., p. p. 51 51 (0.582). (Q.582). 214. 214. ibid., Ibid., p. p. 188 188 (0.1818—1821); (Q.1818-1821); for for aa slightly slightly more more coherent coherent explanation explanation see see remarks remarks by by Admiral Admiral Beresford Beresford on on paper paper by by Sir Sir John John Biles, Biles, “0n “On the the Protection Protection

of Battleships Battleships against against Submarine Submarine Attack,” Attack,” inin Transactions Transactions of of the the Institute Institute of of of Naval Naval Architects, Architects, 57 57 (1914): (1914): 268-70. 268-70. 215. 215. Beresford Beresford Enquiry, Enquiry, pp. pp. 188—89 188-89 (0.1820—1822), (Q.1820-1822), CAB CAB 16/9B. 16/9B. 216. 216. Proof Proof of of CID CID document document No.7, No.7, “Small “Small cruisers cruisers and and torpedo torpedo craft—statecraft—statement ment by by Lord Lord Charles Charles Beresford," Beresford,” dated dated 29 29 Apr Apr 09. O09. p. p. 1, 1, Royal Royal Archives Archives X40—42. X40—42, 217. 217. Admiralty Admiralty reply reply to to “Cruisers “Cruisers and and Torpedo Torpedo Craft," Craft,” paper paper 24, 24, 12 12 May May 09, 09, CAB16/9a. CAB16/9a. 218. 218. Beresford Beresford Enquiry, Enquiry, p. p. 189 189 (0.1822), (Q.1822), CAB CAB 16/9B. 16/9B. 219. 219. [Did Ibid. p. p. 187. 187. 01816. Q1816. See See also also Beresford Beresford proposed proposed distribution distribution of of submarines submarines in in “Plan “Plan of of campaign—Channel campaign—Channel Fleet,” Fleet,” 9 9 May May 07, 07, p. p. 16, 16, ADM ADM 116/1043 116/1043 part part 2. 2. 220. 220. Bacon, Bacon, From From 1900 1900 Onwards, Onwards, 54. 54. 221. 221. Experiments Experiments involving involving concentration concentration of of fire fire by by battleships: battleships: Beresford Beresford to to Hamilton Hamilton (inspector (inspector of of target target practice), practice), 11 Dec Dec 07, 07, HOpe Hope to to Hamilton, Hamilton, 22 Dec Dec 07, 07, Craig Craig to to Hamilton, Hamilton, 12 12 Dec Dec 07, 07, all all Hamilton Hamilton Mss, Mss, box box 118A; 118A; Lt. Lt. Peter Peter Macnamara, Macnamara, “Concentration “Concentration of of Fire, Fire, its its Effects Effects and and its its Future,” Future,” April April 1909, 1909, in in “Fleet “Fleet Fire.” Fire,” special special documents documents cabinet, cabinet, HMS HMS Excellent Excellent Mss; Mss; also also Sumida, Sumida, “The “The Quest Quest for for Reach,” Reach,” 61. 61. 222. 222. Beresford Beresford to to Admiralty, Admiralty, 99 Dec Dec 07, 07, ADM ADM 116/1037 116/1037 (copy (copy in in f.35 f.35 CAB CAB 16/9B). 16/9B). 223. 223. lbid.; Ibid.; Beresford, Beresford, “Second “Second Plan Plan of of Action Action for for British British Fleet,” Fleet,” 11 Jun Jun 08, 08, ibid., ibid., generally, generally, “Tactical “Tactical Exs—Channel Exs—Channel Fleet, Fleet, 5C.S., 5C.S., Scouts Scouts and and Destroyers,” Destroyers,” D675/07, D675/07, ADM ADM 1/7926. 1/7926. 224. 224. lbid.; Ibid.; Minute Minute (31 (31 Oct Oct 08), 08), by by Vice Vice Adm. Adm. Francis Francis Bridgeman Bridgeman (c. (c. in in c.. c.,

Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, httpszllhd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Watching “Destroyers Watching Bayly), “Destroyers (Lewis Bayly), Commodore TT (Lewis by Commodore report by on report Fleet) on Home Fleet) Home 116/1037. ADM 116/1037. 08, ADM Aug 08, (H.F.2560/030), 44 Aug Rivers,” (H.F.2560/030), of Rivers,” mouths of mouths Mss. Tweedmouth Mss. B248, Tweedmouth 08, B248, Jun 08, 16 Jun Tweedmouth, 16 to Tweedmouth, Fisher to 225. Fisher 225. 5/31. Mss 5/31. Esher Mss 09, Esher Aug 09, 15 Aug Esher, 15 to Esher, Sandars to 226. Sandars 226. 227. 227. Ibid. Ibid. 16/9B. CAB 16/9B. (0.2598) CAB 314 (Q.2598) Enquiry, p.p. 314 Beresford Enquiry, 228. Beresford 228. 5/31. Mss Esher 09, Aug 15 Esher, to Sandars 229. 229. Sandars to Esher, 15 Aug 09, Esher Mss 5/31. 1/10. Papers 1/10. Fisher Papers F.P.499, Fisher 10, F.P.499, Oct 10, 15 Oct Fisher, 15 to Fisher, Balfour to 230. Balfour 230.

11, Oct 11, 20 Oct Esher, 20 to Esher, Fisher to 267; Fisher II, 267; FGDN, Il, 09, FGDN, Sep 09, 19 Sep Fisher, 19 to Fisher, Knollys to 231. Knollys 231. FGDN, FGDN, II, Il, 396. 396. (Navy). C/7 (Navy). Add C/7 Archives, Add Royal Archives, 09, Royal Sep 09, 24 Sep Knollys, 24 to Knollys, Fisher to 232. Fisher 232. collection]. private collection]. [N.B.: private Mss [N.B.: May Mss 09, May May 09, May, 99 May to May, Fisher to 233. Fisher 233. 2/12. Mss 2/12. Esher Mss 09, Esher May 09, 14 May Journals, 14 Esher Journals, 234. Esher 234. with conversation with reporting conversation 09, reporting Sep 09, 25 Sep entry 25 diary, entry King-Hall diary, George King-Hall 235. George 235. on Lord on Sea Lord First Sea for First “Notes for Fisher), “Notes to Fisher), (assistant to Crease (assistant Drury; Crease Charles Drury; Adm. Charles Adm. 28 diary, 28 Troubridge diary, 1/28268; Troubridge ADM 1/28268; 15, ADM Apr 15, 16 Apr Fleet,” 16 Grand Fleet,” C-in-C Grand from C-in-C letters from letters collection). Museum collection). War Museum (Imperial War Mss (Imperial Troubridge Mss 10, Troubridge Feb 10, Feb 2/12. Mss 2/12. Esher Mss 09, Esher May 09, 14 May Journals, 14 Esher, Journals, 236. Esher, 236. 16/13. Mss 16/13. Esher Mss 09, Esher Apr 09, 16 Apr Esher, 16 to Esher, Balfour to 237. Balfour 237.

759. Mss 759. Sandars Mss f.115, Sandars 09, f.115, Aug 09, 18 Aug Sandars, 18 to Sandars, Esher to 238. Esher 238. Foreign Papers, Foreign [Grey Papers, 800/87 [Grey FO 800/87 £226, FO 10, f.226, Dec 10, 12 Dec Grey, 12 to Grey, McKenna to 239. McKenna 239. Kew]. Office, Kew]. Record Office, Public Record Papers, Public Office Papers, Office Mss. McKenna Mss. 3/17, McKenna MCKN 3/17, 10, MCKN Dec 10, 17 Dec Asquith, 17 to Asquith, McKenna to 240. McKenna 240.

Aberrations Seven: Aberrations Chapter Seven: Chapter 1. 1. 2.2. 3. 3.

5/31. Mss 5/31. Esher Mss 09, Esher Sep 09, and 88 Sep 09 and Aug 09 25 Aug Esher, 25 to Esher, Sandars to Sandars Knollys to to Esher, Esher, 22 Sep Sep 09, 09, Esher Esber Mss Mss 10/51. 10/51. Knollys Sandars to to Esher, Esher, 8,8, 16 16 Sep Sep 09, 09, both both Esher Esher Mss Mss 5/31; 5/31; Marder, Marder, FDSF, FDSF, I,1. Sandars

98. 1970), 98. London, 1970), (Collins: London, Secrets (Collins: of Secrets Man of Hankey Man Roskill, Hankey Stephen Roskill, 204—7; Stephen 204—7; Sandars f.216—220, Sandars 09,” f.216—220, May 09,” 12 May EB. 12 with F.B. interview with on interview “Notes on Sandars, “Notes 4. Sandars, 4.

Maritime [National Maritime Mss [National Troubridge Mss C3, Troubridge 09, C3, Jul 09, Troubridge, 44 Jul to Troubridge, Crease to 7 58; Crease Mss 758; Mss Museum collection]. collection]. Museum

FGDN, 09, FGDN, Oct 09, 26 Oct Fisher, 26 to Fisher, Asquith to and Asquith 09 and Oct 09 12 Oct McKenna, 12 to McKenna, Fisher to 5.5. Fisher Archives, Royal Archives, 09, Royal Oct 09, 20 Oct Knollys, 20 to Knollys, McKenna to 204-205; McKenna FDSF, I,I, 204-205; 272—73; FDSF, 11, 272—73; Il, W59/89. W59/89. Atkinson Charles Atkinson and Charles Acland and William Acland Fawkes, William Wilmot Fawkes, Fanshawe, Wilmot Arthur Fanshawe, 6. Arthur 6. fell into into this this category: category; Navy Navy List, List, January January 1910. 1910. (Correct (Correct to to November November 1909.) 1909.) fell 7. 7. Ibid. Ibid. 8. Lady Lady Wester Wester Wemyss, Wemyss, The The Life Life and and Letters Letters of ofAdmiraI of the the Fleet Fleet Lord Lord 8. Admiral of Wester Wester Wemyss Wemyss (London, (London, 1935), 1935), 87. 87. 9. The The Navy NavyList for April April 1909 1909 shows shows May May hoisted hoisted his his flag flag on on 24 24 March March 1909. 1909. 9. List for

10. 10. Sandars Sandars to to Esher, Esher, 25 25 Aug Aug 09, 09, Esher Esher Mss Mss 5/31. 5/31. 11. 11. Ibid. Ibid. Sandars’s Sandars’s source source for for this this information information was was almost almost certainly certainly his his close close friend friend Sir Sir Francis Francis Bridgeman. Bridgeman. 12. Esher to Sandars, 26 26 AUg Aug 09’ 09, Brett" Brett, ESIICI‘, Esher, H, II, 402402. Lambert,Nicolas.Sirjolgishgmfietgutglandars' E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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13. 13. Fisher Fisher to to Churchill, Churchill, 55 Mar Mar 12, 12, FGDN, FGDN, II, Il, 439; 439; Fisher Fisher to to Churchill, Churchill, 14 14 May May

12, 12, £124, f£.124, Chart Chart 13/43. 13/43. 14. 14. Nicholas Nicholas Lambert, Lambert, “Admiral “Admiral of of the the Fleet Fleet Sir Sir Arthur Arthur Knyvett Knyvett Wilson,” Wilson,” in in The The First First Sea Sea Lords: Lords: From From Fisher Fisher to to Mountbatten, Mountbatten, ed. ed. Malcolm Malcolm Murfett Murfett (Praeger: (Praeger: Westport, Westport, CT, CT, 1995), 1995), 35—53. 35-53. 15. Fisher Fisher to to McKenna, McKenna, 12 12 Oct Oct 09, 09, FGDN, FGDN, Il, II, 272. 272. 15. 16. Lambert, Lambert, “Wilson.” “Wilson.” 16. 17. Ibid.; lbid.; also also Fisher Fisher to to Yexley, Yexley, 13 13 Jan Jan 10, 10, FGDN, FGDN, Hl, ll, 290. 290. 17. 18. 18. Marder, Marder, FGDN, FGDN, II, Il, 285. 285. ft.1. ft.1. 19. Ibid.; lbid.; Esher Esher to to Brett, Brett, 13 13 Sep Sep 09, 09, Brett, Brett. Esher, Eslier, II, II, 409. 409. 19. 20. 20. Fisher Fisher to to King King Edward Edward VII, VII, 27 27 Nov Nov 09, 09, Royal Royal Archives, Archives, W59/93; W59/93; see see also also

very very similar similar texts texts in in Fisher Fisher to to McKenna, McKenna, 17 17 Nov Nov 09, 09, FGDN, FGDN, II, II, 285; 285; Fisher Fisher to to Esher, Esher, 5 5 Aug Aug 10, 10, FGDN, FGDN, ll, II, 333—34. 333-34. 21. 21. Fisher Fisher to to McKenna, McKenna, 8 8 Nov Nov 09, 09, FGDN, FGDN, II, II, 217. 217. 22. 22. Esher Esher to to Sandars, Sandars, 18 18 Aug Aug 09, 09, f.115, f.115, Sandars Sandars Mss Mss 759. 759. 23. 23. Morley Morley to to Clarke, Clarke, 20 20 Aug Aug 09, 09, £113, f.113, Morley Morley Mss, Mss, Eur.D.573.47/49. Eur.D.573.47/49. 24. 24. See See Fisher’s Fisher’s stunned stunned reaction reaction to to the the news news of of Wilson’s Wilson’s appointment appointment to to the the CID CID in in Fisher Fisher to to McKenna, McKenna, 14, 14, 19 19 Apr Apr 09, 09, FGDN, FGDN, [1, Il, 244—46. 244-46. 25. 25. Lambert, Lambert, “Wilson,” “Wilson,” 3538. 35-38. 26. 26. McKenna McKenna to to Wilson, Wilson, 19 19 Nov Nov 09, 09, and and Wilson Wilson to to McKenna, McKenna, 20 20 Nov Nov 09, 09, both both f.43a, f.43a, McKenna McKenna Mss, Mss, 3/9; 3/9; Fisher Fisher to to Knollys, Knollys, 33 Nov Nov 09, 09, FGDN, FGDN, II, Il, 276. 276. 27. 27. Fisher Fisher to to Knollys, Knollys, 11 Dec Dec 09, 09, Royal Royal Archives, Archives, W59/93a. W59/98a. 28. 28. Roskill, Roskill, Hankey Hankey Man Man of of Secrets, Secrets, 98; 98; Beresford Beresford to to Balfour, Balfour, 12 12 Dec Dec 09. 09, FDSF, FDSF, l, I, 212. 212. 29. 29. Oscar Oscar Parkes, Parkes, British British Battleships, Battleships, 543. 543. 30. 30. Bridgeman Bridgeman to to Fisher, Fisher, 21 21 Nov Nov 09, 09, FGDN,. FGDN, II, II, 282. 282. 213. FDSF, I,l, 213. Marder, FDSF, in Marder, cited in 09, cited Dec 09, 30 Dec Esher, 30 to Esher, Knollys to 31. Knollys 31. [National 118A [National Mss 118A Hamilton Mss 10, Hamilton Dec 10, Hamilton, 55 Dec to Hamilton, Battenberg to 32. Battenberg 32. Museum]. Maritime Museum]. Maritime Mss. McKenna Mss. MCKN3/4, McKenna 09, MCKN3/4, Nov 09, McKenna, 88 Nov to McKenna, Fisher to 33. Fisher 33. McKenna, to McKenna, Fisher to 344; Fisher ll, 344; FGDN, Il, 10, FGDN, Dec 10, McKenna, ?? Dec Pamela McKenna, to Pamela Fisher to 34. Fisher 34. 23 23 Feb Feb 11, 11, FGDN, FGDN, II, Il, 356. 356. 277. ll, 277. FGDN, II, 09, FGDN, Nov 09, 13 Nov White, 13 to White, Fisher to 35. Fisher 35. “Wilson.” Lambert, “Wilson.” 36. Lambert, 36. (IWM). Mss (IWM). Troubridge Mss 10, Troubridge Feb 10, and 11 Feb Jan and diary, 77 Jan Troubridge diary, 37. Troubridge 37.

11, Oct 11, 20 Oct Esher, 20 to Esher, Fisher to 297; Fisher II, 297; FGDN, Il, 10, FGDN, Jan 10, 12 Jan White, 12 to White, Fisher to 38. Fisher 38. 395. II, 395. FGDN, Il, FGDN, Jul 21-25 Jul diary, 21-25 Grant-Duff, diary, Adrian Grant-Duff, Ma]. Adrian also: Maj. see also: “Wilson”; see Lambert, “Wilson”; 39. Lambert, 39. of example of an example for an and for Museum]; and War Museum]; [Imperial War DC/MlSC/77 [Imperial Mss, DC/MISC/77 Grant-Duff Mss, 11, Grant-Duff 11,

Wilson’s Wilson’s reluctance reluctance to to delegate, delegate, Wilson Wilson to to Sir Sir Arthur Arthur Nicholson Nicholson (Foreign (Foreign Office), Office), 371/1140/19617. FO 371/1140/19617. f.155a, FO 11, f.155a, Jun 11, 88 Jun |' 40. Esher Esher to to MV MV Brett, Brett, 44 Jan Jan 10, 10, Esher, Esher, II, II, 433; 433; Bridgeman Bridgeman seems seems to to have have 40. executive as executive serving as while serving 1890s while the 1890s During the bullies. During of bullies. victim of habitual victim been aa habitual been locked reportedly locked Bridgeman reportedly Henage, Bridgeman “Pompo” Henage, Captain “Pompo” infamous Captain the infamous to the officer to officer Andrew see Andrew transfer; see given aa transfer; until given out until come out to come refused to and refused cabin and his cabin in his himself in himself Gordon, Rules of the Game, 175. Lambefinrdomofluies tit/theuia‘ame. 175. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Conversation (IWM); Conversation Mss (IWM); Troubridge Mss 10, Troubridge Jan 10, diary, 77 Jan 41. Troubridge diary, 41. Troubridge

39. “Wilson,” 39. Lambert, “Wilson,” 213; Lambert, FDSF, |,I, 213; between McKenna, FDSF, and McKenna, Esher and between Esher obsersimilar obsersee similar (IWM); see Mss (IWM); Troubridge Mss 10, Troubridge Jan 10, Diary, 77 Jan 42. Troubridge Diary, 42. Troubridge the to the (secretary to Greene (secretary Graham Greene and Graham 10, and Jan 10, 24 Jan Slade, 24 to Slade, vations Pollen to in: Pollen vations in: Mss. Slade Mss. reel 1,1, Slade in reel both in 11, both May 11, 16 May Slade, 16 to Slade, Admiralty) Admiralty) to 158. Mss 158. Selborne Mss 146, Selborne f.158/p. 146, 1901, f.158/p. March 1901, “Memorandum,” March Selborne, “Memorandum,” 43. 43. Selborne, 44. 44. See See chapter chapter 2. 2. to Selborne to 49707; Selborne Mss 49707; Add Mss f.251, Add 15, f.251, May 15, 20 May Balfour, 20 to Balfour, Selborne to 45. Selborne 45. Wilson, Wilson, 19 19 Mar Mar 01, 01, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 28. 28. 46. A6. Fisher Fisher to to Esher, Esher, 3 3 Jan Jan 10, 10, Esher Esher Mss Mss 10/43. 10/43. in 08, in Jan 08, 23 Jan Tweedmouth, 23 to Tweedmouth, Fisher to and Fisher 08, and Jan 08, 23 Jan Grey, 23 to Grey, Fisher to 47. Fisher 47. 155—57. 1], 155-57. FGDN, Il, Marder, FGDN, Marder, Wilson Admiral Wilson of Admiral testimony of 296—98; testimony 285, 296-98; War, 285, World War, First World The First Offer, The 48. Offer, 48. 16/9A. CAB 16/9A. 305—15, CAB pp. 305-15, 09, pp. Jun 09, 24 Jun CID, 24 the CID, to the to 2/11. Mss 2/11. Esher Mss 08, Esher Aug 08, 21 Aug Journals, 21 Esher Journals, 49. Esher 49. II, FGDN, Il, 08, FGDN, Jan 08, 23 Jan both 23 Tweedmouth, both to Tweedmouth, Fisher to and Fisher Grey, and to Grey, Fisher to 50. Fisher 50. 16/9A. CAB 16/9A. 0.2540, CAB 308, 0.2540, p. 308, 09, p. Jun 09, 24 Jun Wilson, 24 Arthur Wilson, Sir Arthur of Sir testimony of 155-58; testimony 155-58; 51. For For the the background background to to the the crisis crisis see see Steiner, Steiner, Origins Origins of of the the First First World World 01. War, 66-78, 66-78, 197-203. 197—203. War, Policy Military Policy the Military and the Staff and General Staff Imperial General “The Imperial d’Ombrain, “The Nicholas d’Ombrain, 52. Nicholas 32. Crisis,” Military/Affairs International Crisis,” 1911 International the 1911 during the Strategy’ during ‘Continental Strategy’ of aa ‘Continental of Military Affairs (February (February 1970): 1970): 88—93. 88-93.

53. Minutes Minutes of of 114th 114th meeting meeting of of CID, CID, 23 23 Aug Aug 11, 11, p.p. 11, 11, Sir Sir Arthur Arthur Wilson Wilson 53. speaking, CAB CAB 2/2. 2/2. speaking, 54. o4. Ibid. Ibid. [my [my emphasis] emphasis] 55. Ibid. Ibid. 00. 56. 56. Asquith Asquith to to Haldane, Haldane, 31 31 Aug Aug 11, 11, f.140, f.140, Haldane Haldane Mss Mss 5909; 5909; Haldane, Haldane, “Memorandum of of Events Events between between 1906 1906 and and 1915” 1915” [Apr [Apr 1916], 1916], f.390, £390, Haldane Haldane “Memorandum Mss Mss 6109 6109 (II). (II). 57. Minutes Minutes of of 114th 114th meeting meeting of of CID, CID, A. A. K. K. Wilson, Wilson, p. p. 14, 14, CAB2/2; CAB2/2; Asquith Asquith o7. to Crewe, Crewe, ?? Aug Aug 11, 11, cited cited in in Roy Roy Jenkins, Jenkins, Asquith Asquith (London, (London, 1964) 1964) 164. 164. to 58. Hand-written Hand-written statement statement by by Battenberg, Battenberg, 24 24 Jun Jun 16, 16, Battenberg Battenberg Mss, Mss, 08.

MBi/T39/378; see see also also views views of of Francis Francis Bridgeman Bridgeman (c. (c. inin c., c., Home Home Fleet) Fleet) ,, MB1/T39/378; Bridgeman Bridgeman to to Sandars, Sandars, 12 12 Jan Jan 15, 15, f.12, f.12, Sandars Sandars Mss, Mss, 768. 768. 59. Ottley Ottley to to Churchill Churchill (first (first lord lord of of the the Admiralty), Admiralty), 22 Nov Nov 11, 11, CAB CAB 17/8. 17/8. 09. 60. Graham Graham Green Green to to Slade, Slade, 16 16 May May 11, 11, and and Capt. Capt. Osmond Osmond de de Brock Brock to to 60. Slade, Slade, 28 28 Dec Dec 11, 11, both both reel reel 1, 1, Slade Slade Mss; Mss; see see also also “Minutes “Minutes of of Navy Navy War War Council,” p. p. 4, 4, which which shows shows that that between between April April 1910 1910 and and November November 1911 1911 not not aa Council,”

single single meeting meeting of of the the council council was was convened, convened, ADM ADM 116/3090. 116/3090. 61. Ottley Ottley to to Churchill, Churchill, 22 Nov Nov 11, 11, CAB CAB 17/8; 17/8; for for the the results results of of this this meeting meeting 61. see see also also chapter chapter 8. 8. 62. 62. Ibid.; Ibid.; Ottley Ottley also also cited cited the the findings findings of of the the 1905 1905 joint joint service service committee committee on on amphibious amphibious operations operations chaired chaired by by General General Plummer Plummer which which concluded concluded that that “the “the operation operation of of [opposed] [opposed] landing landing in in the the face face of of aa determined determined enemy enemy was was out out of the the question.” question. ” of 63. 63. Hayes, Hayes, “The “The Admiralty’s Admiralty’s Plans Plans for for Attacking Attacking German German Territory,” Territory,” 95—116, 95-116, Lambert, Nicolas. .5irjohnfis r’s mg?!) 3; 415%)". E- book Columlfis 41ttp12/lhillha@nMfiGkflsBiE/filverstone, 431; FDSF, I, 245. especially 99, 103-4, 111-12; Mackay, Kilverstone, 431; FDSF, I, 245. Downloaded on bea Ifof DigitiyfTheologrical Li rary, tiaremont, A

206—210 Pages 206-210 to Pages Notes to Notes

365 365

for Orders for War Orders Squadron—Preliminary War Blockade Squadron—Preliminary Bight Blockade “Heligoland Bight 64. “Heligoland 64. Commodore T,” T,” issued issued by by W. W. H. H. May, May, January January 1911 1911 and and approved approved by by Admiralty Admiralty Commodore on on paper paper M071/11, MO71/11, 11 Mar Mar 11, 11, ADM ADM 116/3096. 116/3096. 65. 65. Lambert, Lambert, Wilson; Wilson; see see also: also: Bridgeman Bridgeman to to Sandars, Sandars, 12 12 Jan Jan 15, 15, £12. f.12, Sandars Sandars Mss Mss 768. 768. 66. 66. Callaghan Callaghan to to Admiralty, Admiralty, 9 9 Jan Jan 12, 12, handwritten handwritten addenda addenda “War “War Plans— Plans— pages pages 1—24, 1-24, Remarks Remarks by by C-in-C C-in-C Home Home Fleet,” Fleet,” (Vll) (VII) section section on on War War Stations, Stations, ADM ADM 116/3096. 116/3096. 67. 67. Vice Vice Admiral Admiral commanding commanding 1st 1st and and 2nd 2nd Divisions Divisions (Callaghan) (Callaghan) to to

Admiralty, Admiralty, 31 31 Aug Aug 11, 11, “Blockade “Blockade of of North North Sea Sea Coast Coast of of German German Empire,” Empire,” ADM ADM 1/8132. 1/8132. 68. Bridgeman Bridgeman to to Sandars, Sandars, 12 12 Jan Jan 15, 15, f.12, f.12, Sandars Sandars Mss Mss 768. 768. 68. 69. Wilson, Wilson, “Remarks “Remarks on on War War Plans,” Plans,” April April 1907, 1907, FP4231, FP4231, Fisher Fisher Papers Papers 5/13. 5/13. 69. 70. 70. lbid., Ibid., p. p. 6. 6. 71. 71. Evidence Evidence of of Sir Sir Arthur Arthur Wilson, Wilson, 24 24 Jun Jun 09, 09, p. p. 308, 308, 0.2540, Q.2540, CAB CAB 16/9B. 16/9B. 72. 72. Answers Answers to: to: 0.2602, Q.2602, p. p. 314]; 3141; 0.2539, Q.2539, p. p. 307; 307; 0.2541, Q.2541, p. p. 308, 308, and and p. p. 315, 315, ibid.; ibid.; see see also also Beresford, Beresford, “Plan “Plan of of Campaign—Channel Campaign—Channel Fleet,” Fleet,” 9 9 May May 07, 07, pp. pp. 3-16, 3-16, ADM ADM 116/10433. 116/1043B. 73. Evidence Evidence of of Sir Sir Arthur Arthur Wilson, Wilson, 24 24 Jun Jun 09, 09, 0.2539, 0.2539, p. p. 307 307 and and Q.2541, 0.2541, 73. p. p. 308; 308; 0.2554, Q.2554, p. p. 309, 309, all all CAB CAB 16/9A. 16/9A. 74. Wilson, Wilson, Q.2596-2599, 0.2596-2599, Q.2602, 0.2602, Q.2604, 0.2604, p.p. 314, 314, ibid. ibid. 74. 75. 70. Bradford, Bradford, Wilson, Wilson, viii. viii. 76. 76. Keyes, Keyes, Memoirs, Memoirs, 23. 23. 77. Minutes Minutes of of the the 114th 114th meeting meeting of of the the CID, ClD, A. A. K. K. Wilson, Wilson, p. p. 14, 14, CAB2/2. CAB2/2. 77. 78. 78. lbid. Ibid. 79. 79. lbid. Ibid. 80. 80. lbid. Ibid. |, 81. 81. Churchill Churchill citing citing a a report report by by Wilson, Wilson, 0.2741, Q.2741, p. p. 324, 324, CAB CAB 16/28A. 16/28A. 82. Testimony Testimony by by Wilson Wilson (3 (3 Dec Dec 13) 13) Q.2661, 0.2661, p. p. 311, 311, ibid. ibid. 82. 83. See See chapter chapter 3. 3. 83. Home between Home Manoeuvres between of Manoeuvres “Reports of 04, “Reports Mar 04, 22 Mar Admiralty, 22 to Admiralty, Wilson to 84. Wilson 84. Fleet Fleet and and Submarines,” Submarines,” ADM ADM 1/7725. 1/7725. August fleet, August blue fleet, commanding blue admiral commanding vice admiral by vice report by from report Extract from 85. Extract 85. 1904, 1904, MD NID 754, 754, appendix appendix 2, 2, p. p. 72, 72, ADM ADM 231/43. 231/43. 242. 193, 242. Wilson, 193, Bradford, Wilson, in Bradford, cited in 15, cited Feb 15, 14 Feb Bradford, 14 to Bradford, Wilson to 86. Wilson 86. 87. Minute Minute (16 (16 Apr Apr 10) 10) by by Wilson, Wilson, GO230/10, G0230/10, f.38, f.38, Ships Ships Covers Covers 338. 338. 87. Home divisions, Home 4th divisions, and 4th 3rd and commanding 3rd (then commanding Battenberg (then to Battenberg Keyes to 88. Keyes 88. Fleet), 33 Jul Jul 11, 11, Keyes Keyes Mss, Mss, 4/13. 4/13. Fleet), 89. 89. Keyes Keyes to to Rear Rear Adm. Adm. Lewes Lewes Bayly Bayly (commanding (commanding blue blue fleet), fleet), 11 Jul Jul 11, 11, Keyes Keyes Mss Mss 4/13. 4/13. 90. Hall Hall to to Keyes, Keyes, 15 15 Dec Dec 12, 12, Keyes Keyes Mss Mss 4/22. 4/22. Reference Reference to to formation formation of of 90. subcommittee on on 44 Apr Apr 09. 09. subcommittee 91. 91. Minute Minute (29 (29 Dec Dec 10) 10) by by Wilson, Wilson, on on “Proposals “Proposals of of Fitting Fitting to to Submarine Submarine to to Make Make Vessel Vessel Dive,” Dive,” ADM ADM 1/8132; 1/8132; Plans Plans for for modifications modifications to to A1, Al, f.71, f.71, Ships Ships Covers Covers 290A. 290A. “uS bmarine Committee: Committee. General General Summary,” Summary,’ 21 21 Sep Sep 12, 12, f.39, f.39, Ships Ships 92. “Submarine Lambert, Nicolass.3SIrjohn Fisher's Naval Revoluto tio E-book, Covers Wig ommarolina Press, 2002, https://hd|. handle. net/2027/heb.31569. Downloa ed on a 290B. o IgI aiTheological Library, Claremont, CA

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210—212 Pages 210-212 to Pages Notes Notes to

cited 116/1430, cited ADM 116/14380, 17, ADM p. 17, 18, p. Dec 18, 31 Dec 93. dated 31 Boyle, dated W. Boyle, R. W. Dr. R. by Dr. Report by 93. Report 508. Kilverstone, 508. in Mackay, Kilverstone, in Mackay, 94. Appendix 1.1. 94. Appendix print1914,” printto 1914,” up to Navy up the Navy of the Requirements of 95. Manning Requirements the Manning of the “Estimate of 95. “Estimate Mss. Battenberg Mss. MBl/l‘7/4OB, Battenberg ed July, MB1/T7/40B, dated July, but dated 1910, but Nov 1910, ed Nov 49006. Mss 49006. Add Mss f6, Add 11, f.6, Jan 11, 10 Jan 96. Jellicoe, 10 to Jellicoe, Fisher to 96. Fisher

1/8120. ADM 1/8120. X1677/10, ADM 10, X1677/10, Feb 10, 97. 16 Feb Hall. 16 SS Hall. to SS Neville to 97. Neville 4/13. Mss 4/13. Keyes Mss 11, Keyes Jan 11, 23 Jan Keyes, 23 to Keyes, 98. BS) to (3, 44 BS) Neville (3, 98. Neville 4/13 Mss 4/13 Keyes Mss 11, Keyes Apr 11, 12 Apr Keyes, 12 to Keyes, 99. BS) to (3 BS) Battenberg (3 99. Battenberg 4/13. Mss 4/13. Keyes Mss 11, Keyes May 11, 100. Battenberg, 11 May to Battenberg, May to 100. May to Battenberg to and Battenberg 11, and Dec 11, 26 Dec Orders,” 26 War Orders,” 101. Local War to Local No.14 to “Enclosure No.14 101. “Enclosure 4/13. Mss 4/13. Keyes Mss in Keyes both in 11, both Keyes, Sep 11, Keyes, 22 Sep Reorganisation,” Flotillas Reorganisation,” “Destroyer Flotillas 10, “Destroyer 102. Feb 10, 16 Feb Hall, 16 to Hall, Neville to 102. Neville Keyes, 11 to Keyes, Bridgeman to and Bridgeman 11, and Feb 11, 11 Feb X1677/10, May, 11 to May, Keyes to 1/8120; Keyes ADM 1/8120; X1677/10, ADM “Captain on “Captain Hamilton on VA Hamilton by VA 11) by Dec 11) (19 Dec May Minutes (19 4/13; Minutes Mss 4/13; Keyes Mss both Keyes 11, both May 11, 1/8273. ADM 1/8273. Ships,” ADM Depot Ships,” and Depot Cruisers and (D) Scouts, Cruisers “Flotilla Scouts, in “Flotilla Conference,” in (D) Conference,” remarks also remarks see also 758; see Mss 758; Sandars Mss 1’97, Sandars 1909, f.97, 103. Mar 1909, Sandars, Mar to Sandars, Sturdee to 103. Sturdee umpire’s 1913, umpire’s dated 1913, Menace" dated Submarine Menace” “The Submarine on “The by Sturdee on Admiral Sturdee Vice Admiral by Vice 116/3381. ADM 116/3381. 5, ADM part 5, report Manoeuvres, part 1913 Manoeuvres, for 1913 report for May, to May, Keyes to 11; Keyes Jan 11; 19 Jan Neville, 19 to Neville, May to 10; May May 10; 104. Admiralty, 33 May to Admiralty, May to 104. May 11 11 Feb Feb 11; 11; and and May May to to Battenberg, Battenberg, 11 May May 11, 11, all all Keyes Keyes Mss Mss 4/13; 4/13; Keyes, Keyes, 1/8119. ADM 1/8119. X1596, ADM On,” X1596, “Submarines, Memorandum On,” “Submarines, Memorandum all of all Officers of Commanding Officers to Commanding (S) to Captain (S) by Captain 105. “Memorandum by Keyes, “Memorandum 105. Keyes,

1/8119. ADM 1/8119. Ships,” X1596/10, ADM Ships,” X1596/10, Feb 11 Feb May, 11 Admiral May, by Admiral (T),” by Commodore (T),” for Commodore 106. Orders for War Orders “Preliminary War 106. “Preliminary 11) Mar 11) (23 Mar Minute (23 Submarines,” Minute for Submarines,” orders for War orders 11, of War “Revision of and “Revision 8., and p. 8., 11, p. (Capt. D.N.M. (Capt. by D.N.M. 10) by Nov 10) (24 Nov Minute (24 116/3096; Minute ADM 116/3096; in ADM Wilson both in DNM, both to DNM, Wilson to to reference to Flotillas,” reference Submarine Flotillas,” of Submarine Herbert “Organisation of on “Organisation King-Hall) on Herbert King-Hall) Report Committee Report “Submarine Committee 1/8121; “Submarine ADM 1/8121; “offensive X1763/10, ADM sections,” X1763/10, “offensive sections,” 1/8128. ADM 1/8128. 10, ADM Aug 10, 15 Aug Admiralty, 15 to Admiralty, May to by May Minute by 14.” Minute No No 14.” war for war option for showing option chart showing on chart (DNM) on 107. King-Hall (DNM) by King-Hall 10) by Nov 10) (24 Nov Minute (24 107. Minute ADM X1763/10, ADM 10, X1763/10, Nov 10, 11 Nov Neville, 11 to Neville, Hall to stations in Hall enclosed in submarines enclosed for submarines stations for

War of War “Revision of on “Revision (DNM), on King-Hall (DNM), to King-Hall Wilson to 11) Wilson Mar 11) 1/8121; (23 Mar Minute (23 1/8121; Minute Orders for for Submarines,” Submarines,” ADM ADM 116/3096. 116/3096. Orders 108. 108. Battenberg Battenberg (c. (c. in in c., c., Atlantic Atlantic Fleet) Fleet) to to McKenna, McKenna, 20 20 Apr Apr 09, 09, MB1/T6/37. MB1/T6/37, Battenberg Mss. Mss. Battenberg see 1890—1916, see from 1890-1916, tactics from fleet tactics in fleet style” in in style” “conflict in of “conflict survey of For aa survey 109. 109. For

Andrew Gordon, Gordon, Rules Rules of of the the Game. Game. Andrew 110. 110. E. E. E. E. Bradford Bradford to to MacNamara, MacNamara, n/d n/d [1909], [1909], in in folder folder on on “Fleet “Fleet fire fire and and Concentration,” Concentration,” June June 1909, 1909, special special documents documents cabinet, cabinet, HMS HMS Excellent Excellent Mss. Mss. 111. 111. Lambton Lambton to to Fisher, Fisher, 11 11 Nov Nov 03, 03, enclosure enclosure f.94, f.94, Fisher Fisher Papers Papers 1/3. 1/3. 112. Lt. Lt. Peter Peter Macnamara, Macnamara, “Concentration “Concentration of of Fire, Fire, its its Effect Effect and and its its 112. Further: Further: from from experience experience gained gained during during trials trials carried carried out out by by the the different different modern modern battle battle fleets fleets and and cruiser cruiser squadrons squadrons in in the the past past and and present. present. The The uses uses of difof Director Director Firing Firing for for this this purpose purpose and and the the value value of of different different ships ships using using different ferent coloured coloured shell shell bursts, bursts,” " April April 1909, 1909, in in file file on on “Fleet “Fleet fire fire and and

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officer gunnery officer senior gunnery the senior been the had been he had of Excellent; he HMS Excellent; school, HMS gunnery school, the gunnery of the contains also contains file also This file experiments. This to gunnery experiments. Hero gunnery 1907 Hero the 1907 in the participate in to participate of most of day, most the day, of the officers of gunnery officers correspondence leading gunnery the leading of the many of with many correspondence with whom see Gunnery Gunnery whom agreed agreed with with his his analysis; analysis; for for further further details details on on this this subject subject see Branch, Branch, “Fleet “Fleet Fire Fire and and Concentration Concentration of of Fire Fire Experiments,” Experiments,” G.0132/10, G.0132/10, Ja.010, subjects), Ja.010, gunnery subjects), on gunnery papers on 1910, miscellaneous papers in miscellaneous (bound in 1040 (bound p. 1040 1910, p. Library. Admiralty Admiralty Library. 113. 113. Sumida, Sumida, Jn In Defence, Defence, 163-66, 163-66, 171-76, 171—76, 196-206, 196—206, 249-56. 249—56. Committee the Committee of the Report of “Final Report 114. Pierce, “Final Richard Pierce, and Richard Scott and Percy Scott Adms. Percy 114. Adms. Sumida, also Sumida, see also Mss; see on Battenberg Mss; MB1/I‘22/161, Battenberg 12, MB1/T22/161, Nov 12, Firing,” 55 Nov Director Firing,” on Director 70—81. “Quest Reach,” 70-81. for Reach,” “Quest for 11. 10, 11. chapters 10, Game, chapters 115. the Game, of the Rules of Gordon, Rules 115. Gordon, 116. 116. Julian Julian Corbett, Corbett, Maritime Maritime Operations Operations in in the the Russo-Japanese Russo-Japanese War, War, 1904-1905, 1904-1905, 2 2 vols. vols. (Admiralty, (Admiralty, 1913; 1913; reprint, reprint, N.l.P.: N.I.P.: Annapolis, Annapolis, 1994) 1994) 1, I, 240—48. 232—35, 240-48. 310-19, ll, 232-35, 474-91, If, 310—19, 474-91, 117. lbid., Ibid., ll, II, 258. 258. 117. 118. Gordon, Gordon, Rules Rules of of the the Game, Game, 372 372 [my {my thanks thanks to to Andrew Andrew Gordon Gordon for for this this 118. reference]. reference]. 119. Sturdee Sturdee to to Sandars, Sandars, 9 9 Mar Mar 09, O09, f.97, f.97, Sandars Sandars Mss Mss 758. 758. 119. 120. lbid.; Ibid.; for for further further evidence evidence of of poor poor prevailing prevailing weather weather in in the the North North Sea Sea 120. 70. Reach,” 70. for Reach,” “Quest for Sumida, “Quest by Sumida, cited by see control cited fire control on fire memo on Hugh-Onslow’s memo see Hugh-Onslow’s 121. 121. Sumida, Sumida, In In Defence, Defence, 196-220. 196—220. 122. May May to to Admiralty, Admiralty, 16 16 Apr Apr 10, 10, enclosing enclosing report report on on “the “the possible possible effects effects 122. “The 2, “The paper 2, tactics,” paper fleet tactics,” in fleet of developments in new developments the new on the Technique on Gunnery Technique of Gunnery Value of of Plotting”; Plotting”; Minute Minute (15 (15 Jun Jun 10) 10) by by Bethell, Bethell, on on May May to to Admiralty, Admiralty, 17 17 May May Value evifor evi1/8120; for ADM 1/8120; X1751, ADM Action,” X1751, 10, Fleet Action,” in Fleet Destroyers in of Destroyers “Employment of in “Employment 10, in Balfour see Balfour service see the service within the ships within dence all-big-gun ships to all-big-gun hostility to widespread hostility of widespread dence of 16/13. Mss 16/13. Esher Mss to postscript, Esher 09, postscript, Apr 09, 16 Apr Esher, 16 to Esher, 123. 123. Jon Jon Sumida, Sumida, “The “The Quest Quest for for Reach,” Reach,” 70—72; 70-72; idem, idem, In In Defence, Defence, 252—54. 252-54, 285, note note 369. 369. 285, lbid. 124. 124. Ibid. on (lTP), on Peirse (ITP), by Peirse 10) by 125. May 10) (18 May (DNO) (18 Moore (DNO) by Moore 10) by May 10) (24 May Minutes (24 125. Minutes of change of of change rate of (b) rate Admiral range (b) for range plotting for (a) plotting on (a) effects on “Gunnery: effects May, “Gunnery: Admiral May, developnew developof new etc. of fire etc. of fire bearing concentration of of concentration possibility of (c) possibility range (c) and range bearing and 1/8051. ADM 1/8051. 10, ADM ments Apr 10, 25 Apr Tactics,” 25 Fleet Tactics,” in Fleet ments in 794 another 794 and another 126. delivered and been delivered had been torpedoes had 49 torpedoes 1910, 49 November 1910, By November 126. By DNQ, by DNO, 09) by Apr 09) (16 Apr Minute (16 Library; Minute Admiralty Library; 1910, Admiralty ART 1910, 8, ART p. 8, order, p. on order, were on were 256/124. on ADM 256/124. f.178, ADM G.5891/09, f.178, on G.5891/09, in 10, in May 10, 17 May Admiralty, 17 to Admiralty, May to on May 127. (DNl) on Bethell (DNI) by Bethell 10) by Jun 10) (15 Jun Minute (15 127. Minute “Employment of of Destroyers Destroyers in in Fleet Fleet Actions,” Actions,” ADM ADM 1/8120. 1/8120. “Employment 128. 128. Minutes Minutes (17 (17 Dec Dec 08) 08) by by Capt. Capt. Bernard Bernard Currey Currey (A.T.D.) (A.T.D.) and and Rear Rear Adm. Adm. Reginald Bacon Bacon (DNQ) (DNO) on on memo memo “As “As to to allowance allowance of of 21-inch 21-inch torpedoes torpedoes in in ships,” ships,” Reginald f.34 (G18176/8) (G18176/8) in in Ships Ships Covers Covers 224 224 (Australia (Australia and and New New Zealand). Zealand). f.34 129. Bacon, Bacon, “The “The Battleship Battleship of of the the Future,” Future,” 16 16 Mar Mar 10, 10, in in Transactions Transactions of of the the 129. 1 —21. (1910): 1-21. 52 (1910): Institute Architects 52 Naval Architects of Naval Institute of 130 of 130. For For evidence evidence of Madden’s Madden’s views views see see Madden Madden to to Fisher Fisher (plus (plus enclosure), enclosure), Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjofg3Fis e ’5 Ifev E-book, c9 Nov 13, Win: mge. def/1(47/heb.31569. FP 741, raw/gimp FisherClarem Papers 1/14. Downloa ed on ehafof DIgitaIT oogIca Libraryetn) t, CA V

368 368

216—218 Pages 216-218 to Pages Notes to Notes

also War”; also in War’; Destroyers in of Destroyers “Duties of on “Duties Bayly on L. Bayly 131. by L. 08) by Nov 08) (4 Nov Memo (4 131. Memo ADM X950/08, ADM Exs,” X950/08, “Tactical Exs,” all inin “Tactical 08, all Oct 08, 31 Oct Bridgeman and 31 Aug and 18 Aug Bayly, 18 to Bayly, Bridgeman to 1/7988. 1/7988. 161—62. FGDN, 1,l, 161-62. 00, FGDN, Sep 00, 29 Sep Fisher, 29 Lady Fisher, 132. to Lady Fisher to see Fisher But see 132. But Library. Admiralty Library. 316, Admiralty War, 1,I, 316, 133. Russo-Japanese War, Corbett, Russo-Japanese 133. Corbett, “Tactical Sturdee, “Tactical by Sturdee, paper by enclosing paper 10, enclosing Jun 10, 134. 12 Jun Admiralty, 12 to Admiralty, May to 134. May Covers Ships Covers f.42, Ships 10, f.42, May 10, 13 May fire,” 13 torpedo fire,” tube torpedo importance submerged tube of submerged importance of Mss Esher Mss 11, Esher Oct 11, Esher, 88 Oct to Esher, Ottley to battleships); Ottley 338 class battleships); George VVclass (King George 338 (King 4/3. 4/3. Fleet in Fleet Destroyers in of Destroyers “Employment of 10, “Employment May 10, 17 May 135. Admiralty, 17 to Admiralty, May to 135. May 1/8120. ADM 1/8120. X1751/10, ADM Actions,” Actions,” X1751/10, 136. 136. [Did Ibid. 10), May 10), (1 May Colville (1 10), Colville Apr 10), (27 Apr Sturdee (27 Admirals Sturdee by Admirals Enclosures by 137. Enclosures 137.

ibid. 10), ibid. May 10), (2 May Milne (2 10), Milne May 10), (2 May Battenberg (2 Battenberg 404, FP 404, 09, FP Aug 09, Fisher, 33 Aug to Fisher, Battenberg to see Battenberg view see contradictory view 138. For contradictory 138. For Fisher Papers Papers 1/8. 1/8. Fisher 139. Kerr Kerr to to Watts Watts (DNC), (DNC), 27 27 Jun Jun 09, 09, cited cited in in Parkes, Parkes, British British Battleships, Battleships, 139. 545. 045. vol. IODNO, vol. f.325, IQDNO, G.15927/14, f.3825, on G.15927/14, (DNO) on Tudor (DNO) by Tudor 14) by Jun 14) (10 Jun Minute (10 140. Minute 140. 3, 1914, 1914, Admiralty Admiralty Library. Library. 3, 141. Admiralty, Admiralty, “Anti-torpedo “Anti-torpedo boat boat armament armament on on capital capital ships,” ships,” (G02343/1 (G02343/14) 141. 4) ADM 1/8367/27. 1/8367/27. ADM 142. Synthesis Synthesis of of arguments arguments expressed expressed in in the the following following documents. documents. Letters Letters 142. May (1 May Colville (1 10), Colville Apr 10), (27 Apr Sturdee (27 Admirals Sturdee from Admirals May from Admiral May to Admiral addressed to addressed in Destroyers in of Destroyers “Employment of in “Employment 10), in May 10), (2 May Milne (2 10), Milne May 10), (2 May Battenberg (2 10), Battenberg 10), Fleet Actions,” Actions,” X1751/10, X1751/10, ADM ADM 1/8120; 1/8120; May, May, “Notes “Notes on on Tactical Tactical Exercises— Exercises— Fleet Library. Admiralty Library. 012, Admiralty EB 012, 411—30, EB 1911, 411-30, Sep 1911, printed Sep Home 1909—1911, printed Fleet, 1909-1911, Home Fleet, 143. 143. May May to to Admiralty, Admiralty, 17 17 May May 10, 10, “Employment “Employment of of Destroyers Destroyers in in Fleet Fleet Actions,” Actions,” X1751/10, X1751/10, ADM ADM 1/8120; 1/8120; see see also also May, May, “Notes “Notes on on Tactical Tactical Exercises,” Exercises,” p. 415, 415, EB EB 012, 012, Admiralty Admiralty Library. Library. p.

McKenna. Reginald McKenna. citing Reginald 538, citing Battleships, 538, British Battleships, 144. Parkes, British 144. Parkes, 294 Covers 294 Ships Covers f.49, Ships 12, f.49, Nov 12, 25 Nov gun,” 25 12-pounder gun,” “Fitting 12-pounder 145. Bridgeman, “Fitting 145. Bridgeman, (Queen Elizabeth Elizabeth class class battleships); battleships); there there is is a a copy copy in in Admiralty, Admiralty, “Anti-torpedo “Anti-torpedo (Queen boat armament armament on on capital capital ships” ships” (G02343/14) (G02343/14) ADM ADM 1/8367/27; 1/8367/27; Bridgeman Bridgeman to to boat Bayly, Bayly, 18 18 Aug Aug and and 31 31 Oct Oct 08, 08, in in “Tactical “Tactical Exs,” Exs,” X962/08, X962/08, ADM ADM 1/7988; 1/7988; Minute Minute (4 (4 Jul Jul 10) 10) by by Jellicoe, Jellicoe, “Destroyers “Destroyers in in Fleet Fleet Actions,” Actions,” X1751/10, X1751/10, ADM ADM 1/8120. 1/8120. 146. 146. Minute Minute (10 (10 Jun Jun 14) 14) by by Jellicoe, Jellicoe, Admiralty, Admiralty, “Anti-torpedo “Anti-torpedo boat boat armament armament on on capital capital ships” ships” (G02343/14) (G02343/14) ADM ADM 1/8367/27; 1/8367/27; see see also also Jellicoe Jellicoe to to Fisher, 29 Fisher, 29 Nov Nov 14, 14, FP890a, FP890a, Fisher Fisher Papers Papers 1/17. 1/17. 147. 147. This This is is made made very very clear clear in in Jellicoe’s Jellicoe’s “First “First Draft Draft of of War War Orders, Orders, 2nd 2nd

Division Division Home Home Fleet Fleet 1912,” 1912,” c. c. Jan Jan 12 12 to to Apr Apr 12, 12, f.3, f.3, Add Add Mss Mss 49,012; 49,012; see see also also Sumida, Sumida, In Jn Defence, Defence, 206, 206, 238, 238, 305—6. 305-6. 148. 148. Bacon, Bacon, remarks remarks on on paper paper by by Alan Alan Burgoyne Burgoyne MP, MP, “Recent “Recent Developments Developments in in Battleship Battleship Type,” Type,” 12 12 Mar Mar 13, 13, in in Transactions Transactions of of the the Institute Institute of of Naval Naval Architects Architects 55 55 (1913, (1913, part part 1): 1): 1-19; 1-19; further further evidence evidence on on Bacon’s Bacon’s tactical tactical theory theory can can be be found found in in Lambert, Lambert, “The “The Fleet Fleet Unit Unit Concept,” Concept,” 55—83. 55-83.

Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, httpszllhd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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149. 149. Bacon, Bacon, remarks remarks on on paper paper by by Alan Alan Burgoyne, Burgoyne, “Recent “Recent Developments Developments in in

Battleship Battleship Type,” Type,” 12 12 Mar Mar 13, 13, in in Transactions Transactions of of the the Institute Institute of of Naval Naval Architects Architects 55 O00 (1913, (1913, part part 1): 1): 16. 16. 150. 150. The The Iron Iron Duke Duke class; class; for for evidence evidence of of the the lateness lateness of of the the decision decision see see Parkes, Parkes, British British Battleships, Battleships, 47 47 and and see see also also Briggs Briggs to to Wilson, Wilson, 31 31 Jul Jul 11, 11, on on “Design “Design of of Armoured Armoured Cruiser Cruiser for for 1911—12 1911-12 Programme," Programme,” £34, f.34, and and “Report “Report of of Conference Conference under under Presidency Presidency of of the the DN0 DNO to to consider consider crews crews for for 6-inch 6-inch anti-toranti-torpedo pedo boat boat armament,” armament,” 11 Apr Apr 12, 12, 1’87, f.37, both both in in Ships Ships Covers Covers 279 279 (Tiger). (Tiger).

151. 151. Capt. Capt. Mark Mark Kerr Kerr (Battenberg’s (Battenberg’s flag flag captain) captain) to to Watts Watts (DNC), (DNC), 27 27 Jun Jun 09, 09, cited cited in in Parkes, Parkes, British British Battleships, Battleships, 545—46; 545-46; Sturdee Sturdee to to Sandars, Sandars, 9 9 Mar Mar 09, 09, f.97, f.97, Sandars Sandars Mss Mss 758. 758. 152. 152. Minutes Minutes (8 (8 Aug Aug 11) 11) by by Moore Moore (DNO) (DNO) and and (10 (10 Aug Aug 11) 11) by by Briggs Briggs (3SL), (3SL), on on “6-inch “6-inch Shell,” Shell,” 6.0517, G.0517, f.11-14, f.11-14, IODNO, IQDNO, vol. vol. 1, 1, 1912, 1912, Admiralty Admiralty Library. Library. 153. 153. Madden Madden to to Fisher, Fisher, 9 9 Nov Nov 13, 13, enclosing enclosing articles articles from from the the Times, Times, FP741, FP741, Fisher Fisher Papers Papers 1/14. 1/14. 154. 154. Fisher Fisher to to McKenna, McKenna, 22 22 Nov Nov 11, 11, MCKN MCKN 6/3; 6/3; see see also also Parkes, Parkes, British British Battleships, Battleships, 538, 538, 547; 547; Churchill Churchill to to Fisher, Fisher, 22 Nov Nov 11, 11, FP537, FP537, Fisher Fisher Papers Papers 1/10; 1/10; Sumida, Sumida, In Jn Defence, Defence, 258—60. 258-60.

155. 155. Précis Précis of of opinions opinions expressed expressed by. by_ officers officers in in the the Home Home Fleet, Fleet, in in “Armament “Armament for for Defence Defence Against Against Torpedo Torpedo Craft,” Craft,” G.0243/14, G.0243/14, f.365-372, £.365-372, lODNO, IODNO, vol. vol. 3, 3, 1914, 1914, Admiralty Admiralty Library. Library. 156. 156. Minute Minute (6 (6 May May 10) 10) by by Richmond Richmond on, on, “Employment “Employment of of T.B.D.s T.B.D.s [torpedo [torpedo boat boat destroyers] destroyers] in in varying varying weathers weathers against against a a battle battle fleet,” fleet,” May May Mss Mss 9/1 9/1 (NMM). (NMM). 157. 157. Minute Minute (6 (6 May May 10) 10) by by Capt. Capt. Herbert Herbert Richmond, Richmond, “Employment “Employment of of T.B.D.s T.B.D.s

in in varying varying weathers weathers against against aa battle battle fleet,” fleet,” May May Mss Mss 9/1 9/1 (NMM). (NMM). 158. 158. Milne Milne to to May, May, 22 May May 10, 10, X1751/10, X1751/10, ADM ADM 1/8120. 1/8120. 159. 159. Cowan Cowan to to Bridgeman, Bridgeman, 9 9 Oct Oct 11, 11, “On “On use use of of destroyers destroyers in in wartime,” wartime,” p. p. 3, 3, BTY2/3/2 BTY2/3/2 [Beatty [Beatty Mss]. Mss]. 160. 160. Note Note on on front front cover cover of of docket, docket, endorsements endorsements (26 (26 Feb Feb 12) 12) by by Battenberg Battenberg (2d (2d 8]) sl) and and (28 (28 Feb Feb 12) 12) by by Churchill Churchill (1st (1st lord), lord), ibid. ibid. 161. 161. Bacon, Bacon, “The “The Battleship Battleship of of the the Future,”17-——see Future,”17—see note note 11 above; above; see see also also Gordon, Gordon, Rules rules of of the the Game, Game, 354—70. 354-70. .. 162. 162. mm; Ibid.; see see especially especially report report by by Vice Vice Adm. Adm. Sir Sir John John Jellicoe Jellicoe on, on, “Naval “Naval

Manoeuvres, Manoeuvres, 1913,” 1913,” 6 6 Aug Aug 1913, 1913, p. p. 4—6, 4-6, ADM ADM 116/3381. 116/3381. 163. 163. Jellicoe, Jellicoe, “First “First Draft Draft of of War War Orders, Orders, 2nd 2nd Division Division Home Home Fleet Fleet 1912,” 1912,” section on on “destroyer “destroyer attack attack on on enemy's enemy’s line,” line,” f.15, £15, Add Add Mss Mss 49012. 49012. section

164. 164. Minute Minute (9 (9 Jun Jun 10) 10) by by King—Hall King-Hall (D.N.M.) (D.N.M.) on on May May to to Admiralty, Admiralty, 17 17 May May 10, 10, and and also also Colville Colville to to May, May, 11 May May 10, 10, ADM ADM 1/8120. 1/8120. 165. 165. Submissions Submissions by by Rear Rear Adm. Adm. Bradford Bradford (1 (1 May May 10) 10) and and Vice Vice Adm. Adm. Berkeley Berkeley Milne Milne (2 (2 May May 10), 10), ibid. ibid. 166. 166. May, May, “Notes “Notes on on Tactical Tactical Exercises,” Exercises,” p. p. 425, 425, EB EB 012, 012, Admiralty Admiralty Library. Library. 167. 167. May May to to Admiralty, Admiralty, 17 17 May May 10, 10, “Employment “Employment of of Destroyers Destroyers in in Fleet Fleet

Actions,” X1751/10, X1751/10, ADM ADM 1/8120. 1/8120. Actions,” 168. 168. May, May, “Notes “Notes on on Tactical Tactical Exercises,” Exercises,” p. p. 411, 411, EB EB 012, 012, Admiralty Admiralty Library. Library. 169. 169. Minutes Minutes (4 (4 Feb Feb 10) 10) by by Rear Rear Adm. Adm. Alexander Alexander Bethell Bethell (DNl) (DNI) and and Capt. Capt. Herbert Herbert LmblgihrigIHSaIJIJDNMINgPtacmc King-Hall (DNM) on “Pacific Fleet—provision Fleet—provision and and disposition disposition of,” of,” ADM ADM 116/1270. 116/1270. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|. handle. net/2027/heb.31569. Downloaded on behalf of Digital Theological Library, Claremont, CA

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67—7 1. Empire,” 67-71. or Empire,” “Economy or 170. Lambert, “Economy 170. Lambert, Library. Admiralty Library. 012, Admiralty EB 012, 424, EB Exercises,” p.p. 424, Tactical Exercises,” on Tactical “Notes on May, “Notes 171. May, 171. Sturdee Admiral Sturdee Rear Admiral by Rear paper by forwarding paper 10, forwarding Jun 10, 12 Jun Admiralty, 12 to Admiralty, May to 172. 172. May 10, May 10, 13 May dated 13 Fire,” dated Torpedo Fire,” tube Torpedo Submerged tube of Submerged Importance of on Tactical Importance “The Tactical on “The George VV). (King George 260 (King Covers 260 Ships Covers f.42, Ships in ). in f.42, “investigation on “investigation folder on 14, folder May 14, 12 May (C08), 12 Jackson (COS), to Jackson (DOD) to Leverson (DOD) 173. Leverson 173. 4/14. Mss 4/14. Keyes Mss 11,” Keyes 11,” Home Divisions, Home 4th Divisions, 3rd && 4th commanding 3rd V.A. commanding via V.A. Admiralty via to Admiralty Keyes to 174. Keyes 174. Fleet, 33 Jun Jun 11, 11, Keyes Keyes Mss Mss 4/13. 4/13. Fleet, 17 Admiralty, 17 to Admiralty, c.) to in c.) (0. in May (c. on May Bethell, on by Bethell, 10) by Jun 10) (15 Jun minute (15 lbid.; minute 175. 175. Ibid.; ADM X1751/10, ADM Actions,” X1751/10, Fleet Actions,” in Fleet Destroyers in of Destroyers “Employment of on “Employment 10, on May 10, May subfleet subfor fleet enthusiasm for Battenberg’s enthusiasm and Battenberg’s Jellicoe and of Jellicoe evidence of further evidence 1/8120; further 1/8120; marines isis cited cited below. below. marines volume in volume contained in 1910, contained dated 1910, RMA, dated Paris RMA, A. Paris N. A. Col. N. Lt. Col. by Lt. Notes by 176. 176. Notes Dolphin HMS Dolphin reports), HMS MD reports), from NID (extracts from Navies” (extracts Foreign Navies” on Foreign “Reports on “Reports Museum. Submarine Museum. Submarine subdesign subboat design “Submarine boat on “Submarine Jellicoe, on to Jellicoe, Watts to 09) Watts Nov 09) (22 Nov Minute (22 177. Minute 177. 290A. Covers 290A. Ships Covers f.40, Ships (CN01029/09) f.40, Greenock,” (CN01029/09) of Greenock,” Scott of Messrs Scott by Messrs mitted by mitted 178. 178. Admiralty Admiralty to to Vickers, Vickers, 25 25 Mar Mar 09 09 and and reply reply dated dated 27 27 Mar Mar 09, O09, f.131, f.131, Ships Ships Covers, Covers, 290. 290.

179. 179. Memorandum Memorandum by by contracts contracts department department on on CN.0580/10, CN.0580/10, [Jan [Jan 1910], 1910], f.39, f.39, Ships Ships Covers Covers 290A. 290A. the on the “Report on on “Report DNl on for DNI Jackson for Thomas Jackson Capt, Thomas by Capt, 09) by Dec 09) (23 Dec Minute (23 180. Minute 180. British with British Comparison with in Comparison Merits in its Merits of its Discussion of and Discussion hvalen and Submarine hvalen Swedish Submarine Swedish and and French French Types Types of of Submarine,” Submarine,” Keyes Keyes Mss Mss 4/1. 4/1. 181. 181. lbid. Ibid. 182. 182. SS SS Hall Hall to to Admiralty, Admiralty, 15 15 Nov Nov 09, 09, ibid.; ibid.; Hall Hall to to Jellicoe Jellicoe (controller), (controller), 22 Dec Dec 09, Ships Ships Covers Covers 290A. 290A. 09, 183. 183. Hall Hall to to Admiralty, Admiralty, 19 19 Nov Nov 09, 09, Keyes Keyes Mss, Mss, 4/1. 4/1. 184. 184. “Memorandum “Memorandum by by Captain Captain (S) (S) to to commanding commanding officers officers of of all all ships,” ships,” X1596/10, X1596/10, ADM ADM 1/8119. 1/8119. Contrast Contrast with with Hvalen Hvalen report report by by A/DNI A/DNI Capt. Capt. T. T. Jackson, Jackson, 23 23 Dec Dec 09, 09, Keyes Keyes Mss Mss 4/1. 4/1.

185. Hvalen Hvalen report, report, Hall Hall to to Admiralty, Admiralty, 19 19 Nov Nov 09, 09, ibid. ibid. 185. 186. 186. Minute Minute (23 (23 Dec Dec 09) 09) by by Capt. Capt. T. T. Jackson Jackson (A/DNl), (A/DNI), ibid. ibid. 187. 187. SS SS Hall Hall to to Admiralty, Admiralty, 22 Feb Feb 10, 10, ibid. ibid. 188. 188. Hvalen Hvalen report, report, “Further “Further remarks remarks by by [08," ICS,” 22 Feb Feb 10, 10, ibid. ibid. 189. 189. lbid. Ibid. 190. 190. “Memorandum” “Memorandum” dated dated 20 20 Feb Feb 14, 14, Thorneycroft Thorneycroft Mss Mss file file X123. X123. 191. 191. Hall Hall to to Fisher, Fisher, 15 15 Jun Jun 10, 10, FP FP 489, 489, Fisher Fisher Papers Papers 1/9. 1/9. 192. 192. Hall Hall to to Jellicoe, Jellicoe, 12 12 Nov Nov 09 09 (on (on CN0936/09) CNO936/09) f.1, f.1, Ships Ships Covers Covers 291. 291. 193. 193. Hall(lCS) Hall(ICS) to to Jellicoe Jellicoe (38.L.), (3S.L.), 12 12 Nov Nov 09; 09; Hall Hall ([08) (ICS) to to Captain Captain Hornsby Hornsby (HMS (HMS Vernon), Vernon), 11 11 Aug Aug 09. 09. f.1, f.1, ibid. ibid.

194. 194. Hall Hall to to Jellicoe, Jellicoe, 22 Dec Dec 09, 09, f.40, f.40, Ships Ships Covers Covers 290A. 290A. 195. 195. It It was was also also essential essential to to keep keep secret secret the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s decision decision to to adopt adopt broadside broadside tubes tubes for for which which see see Minute Minute by by HG. H.G. Watts, Watts, 27 27 Dec Dec 09, 09, ibid. ibid. 196. 196. Notes Notes on on submarine submarine construction, construction, shows shows that that an an appropriation appropriation was was Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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371 371

made: .552 was made: £537 £537,552 was voted voted for for submarine submarine construction construction for for 1910/11. 1910/11, but but only only 1/8380/150. ADM 1/8380/150. spent, ADM actually spent, was actually £321,852 was £321,852 197. Minutes Minutes of of meeting meeting held held on on 22 Jun Jun 10, 10, f.2, £2, Ships Ships Covers Covers 291. 291. 197. 4/22. Mss 4/22. Keyes Mss 12, Keyes Oct 12, 19 Oct Hall, 19 to Hall, Keyes to 198. Keyes 198. 199. 199. Constructor Constructor Harris Harris Williams Williams (a/DNC) (a/DNC) to to Keyes, Keyes, 22 22 Nov Nov 11, 11, Keyes Keyes Mss, Mss, 4/1; Cmdr. Cmdr. A. A. Percy Percy Addison Addison to to Keyes, Keyes, ?? Dec Dec 17, 17, Keyes Keyes Mss, Mss, 4/11. 4/11. 4/1; 200. 200. Fisher Fisher to to Hall, Hall, 21 21 Jun Jun 10, 10, FGDN, FGDN, ll, Il, 328—29. 328-29. Further Further correspondence correspondence on on this subject subject isis found found in in the the Fisher Fisher Papers. Papers. See See especially, especially, Hall Hall to to Fisher, Fisher, 15 15 Jun Jun this 10, 10, FP FP 489, 489, Fisher Fisher Papers Papers 1/9. 1/9.

201. 201. “New “New Submarine-boat Submarine-boat Designs Designs 1910—11,” 1910-11,” enclosed enclosed with with Williams Williams to to DNC, 25 25 Oct Oct 10, 10, f.7b, f.7b, Ships Ships Covers Covers 291. 291. DNC, 202. 202. Watts, Watts, Memorandum Memorandum handed handed to to the the DNC DNC for for the the Controller, Controller, 2 2 Jun Jun 10, 10, £2, f.2, 291. Covers 291. Ships Covers Ships 203. 203. Watts Watts suggested suggested approaches approaches to to MAN MAN (Numberg) (Nurnberg) GMB, GMB, and and Busch-Sulzer, Busch-Suizer, ibid. ibid. 204. 204. Report Report on on submarine submarine design design (TE) (TE) of of 27 27 Jun Jun 10 10 and and design design (TG) (TG) of of 14 14 Jul Jul 10, f.178, f.178, ADM ADM 226/16. 226/16. 10, 205. Report Report on on model model TE, TE, 19 19 Aug Aug 10. 10. f.174-182, f.174—182, ibid. ibid. 205.

206. Report Report on on model model TG, TC, 11 Mar Mar 11, 11, p.p. 3,3, £.219, £219, ibid. ibid. 206. 207. 207. Hall Hall to to Keyes, Keyes, n/d n/d [c. [c. 1911], 1911], Keyes Keyes Mss Mss 4/22. 4/22. 208. 208. Fisher Fisher to to Gardiner, Gardiner, 19 19 Jan Jan 11, 11, FGDN, FGDN, II, II, 352. 352. 209. 209. Hall Hall to to Keyes Keyes (n/d), (n/d), enclosing enclosing Hall Hall to to Briggs, Briggs, 77 Feb Feb 11, 11, Keyes Keyes Mss Mss 4/1; 4/1: Fisher Fisher to to Hankey, Hankey, 3 3 Nov Nov 11, 11, cited cited in in Mackay, Mackay, Kilverstone, Kilverstone, 432. 432. 210. 210. Vickers Vickers to to Admiralty, Admiralty, 2 2 Feb Feb 11, 11, £13, f.13, Ships Ships Covers Covers 291. 291. 211. 211. Admiralty Admiralty to to Vickers, Vickers, 22 Feb Feb 11, 11, £13, f.13, and and note note by by H. H. G. G. Williams, Williams, 7 7 Feb Feb 11, 11, £7a, f.7a, both both in in Ships Ships Covers Covers 291; 291; also also reports reports on on submarine submarine design design (TD) (TD) of of 23 23 226/16. ADM 226/16. £358, ADM 12, f.358, Apr 12, dated 11 Apr report dated 10, report Jun 10, Jun lbid. 212. Ibid. 212. 213. The The Navy Navy List List for for January January 1911 1911 shows shows Jellicoe Jellicoe hoisting hoisting his his flag flag as as c.c. in in 213. 0., Atlantic Atlantic Fleet, Fleet, on on 20 20 Dec Dec 1910. 1910. c., 214. 214. Fisher Fisher to to McKenna, McKenna, 20 20 Nov Nov 09, 09, FGDN, FGDN, ll, II, 281; 281; Fisher Fisher to to Jellicoe, Jellicoe, 99 May May 11, FGDN, FGDN, Ul, ll, 369. 369. 11, 215. Wilson Wilson to to McKenna, McKenna, 88 Feb Feb 11, 11, f.28, £28, MCKN MCKN 3/22. 3/22. 215. 216. 216. Fisher Fisher to to Churchill, Churchill, 30 30 Dec Dec 11, 11, cited cited in in Randolph Randolph Churchill, Churchill, Winston Winston S. S. also see also 1364; see 2, 1364; vol. 2, companion vol. 1967), companion (London, 1967), Statesman (London, Churchill—Young Statesman Churchill—Young notes on on Hall Hall and and Yarrow Yarrow (n/d), (n/d), FP FP 497, 497, Fisher Fisher Papers Papers 1/10. 1/10. notes 217. 217. Navy Navy List, List, January January 1911, 1911, officers officers of of HMS HMS Diana. Diana. 4/22. Mss 4/22. Keyes Mss 1913, Keyes Dec 1913, Hall, Dec to Hall, Keyes to 218. Keyes 218. 219. Roger Keyes, The Naval Memoirs of Sir Roger Keyes Keyes (London, (London, 1934), 1934), 23. 23. 219. Roger Keyes, The Naval Memoirs of Sir Roger lbid. 220. Ibid. 220. 4/22. Mss 4/22. Keyes Mss 13, Keyes Dec 13, Hall, 77 Dec to Hall, Keyes to 221. Keyes 221. 222. 222. Hall Hall to to Fisher, Fisher, 26 26 Apr Apr 14, 14, FP803, FP803, Fisher Fisher Papers Papers 1/15; 1/15; Keyes Keyes to to Hall, Hall, Dec Dec 4/22. Mss 4/22. Keyes Mss 1913, Keyes 1913, 223. 223. “Memorandum,” “Memorandum,” enclosed enclosed with with Keyes Keyes to to Admiralty, Admiralty, 33 Jun Jun 11, 11, Keyes Keyes Mss Mss 4/13; 4/13; Further Further examples examples of of Keyes’ Keyes’ views views can can be be found found in: in: Keyes Keyes to to Bayly Bayly (c.o. (c.o. blue blue fleet) fleet) 11 Jul Jul 11, 11, and and 3 3 Jul Jul 11, 11, Keyes Keyes Mss Mss 4/14; 4/14; Keyes Keyes to to de de Robeck, Robeck, 10 10 Aug Aug 13, 13, 137/1926. ADM £420—425, f.420—425, ADM Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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228—230 Pages 228-230 to Pages Notes to Notes

[National Mss [National Beatty Mss BTY13/22/12, Beatty 16, BTY13/22/12, May 16, Jellicoe, 77 May to Jellicoe, Beatty to 224. Beatty 224. Maritime Maritime Museum]. Museum]. 27. Memoirs, 27. Keyes, Memoirs, 225. Keyes, 225.

Papers Fisher Papers 783, Fisher PP 783, 14, FP Feb 14, 17 Feb Fisher, 17 to Fisher, Hall to 25; Hall Memoirs, 25; Keyes, Memoirs, 226. Keyes, 226. 1/13. 1/13. version), published version), (deleted inin published Memoirs, p.p. 88 (deleted for Memoirs, manuscript for draft manuscript Keyes. draft 227. Keyes, 227. Keyes 18/1. Keyes Mss Mss 18/1. For 289A. For Covers 289A. Ships Covers f.1, Ships 11, f.1, Aug 11, 31 Aug Watts, 31 DNC Watts, the DNC by the Memorandum by 228. Memorandum 228. of draft of the draft in the text in deleted text see deleted question see this question understood this fully understood Keyes fully that Keyes evidence that evidence 18/1. Mss 18/1. Keyes Mss 17, Keyes 8, 17, pp. 8, memoirs, pp. his memoirs, his 289A; Covers 289A; Ships Covers 2, Ships p. 2, H, p. 11, f.1, Aug 11, 31 Aug Watts, 31 G. Watts, H. G. by H. Memorandum by 229. Memorandum 229. for earlier earlier speculation speculation on on the the possibilities possibilities with with Italian Italian hulls hulls see see minute minute (27 (27 Dec Dec for 290A. Covers 290A. Ships Covers f.40, Ships Watts, f.40, G. Watts, H. G. by H. 09) by 09) form hull form on hull report on and report f.247, and 11, f.247, Jul 11, 17 Jul dated 17 TK, dated and TK, TG and hull TG on hull Report on 230. Report 230. TS, TS, dated dated 18 18 Dec Dec 12, 12, paragraph paragraph 18, 18, reference reference to to receipt receipt of of instructions instructions received received on on 2 2 May May 11 11 and and 12 12 May May 11 1 for for hull hull forms forms TJ TJ and and TK, TK, f.428a, f.428a, all all in in ADM ADM 226/16; 226/16; Watts 1:0:11, on on “Programme Watts to to Briggs, Briggs, 1:0:11, “Programme 1911—1912” 1911-1912” (CN02218/11), (CNO2218/11), f.31, £.31, Ships Ships Covers 291. 291. . Covers 231. Mss 4/22; 4/22; also report on submarine 231. Keyes Keyes to to Hall, Hall, 19 19 Oct Oct 12, 12, Keyes Keyes Mss also report on submarine design (TS), (TS), dated dated 18 18 Oct Oct 12: 12: paragraphs paragraphs 18-19 18—19 refer refer to to submarine submarine design design (TJ) (TJ) design May 11, 11, and and (TK) (TK) 12 12 May May 11, 11, f.428a, £4283, ADM ADM 226/16. 226/16. 22 May 232. Keyes, Keyes, draft draft manuscript manuscript for for Memoirs, Memoirs, p. p. 88 (deleted (deleted in in published published version), version), 232.

Keyes Mss Mss 18/1. 18/1. N.B.: N.B.: Keyes Keyes generally generally referred referred to to all all saddle saddle tank tank designs designs (includ(includKeyes ing “D-mod “D-mod y’) y”) as as “E “E types.” types.” ing 233. Ibid., lbid., see see also also Williams Williams to to Keyes, Keyes, 22 22 Nov Nov 11, 11, Keyes Keyes Mss Mss 4/4. 4/4. 233. 234. Draft Draft letter letter Keyes Keyes to to Hall, Hall, 19 19 Oct Oct 12 12 [11], [11], Keyes Keyes Mss Mss 4/22. 4/22. 234. 235. Ibid. Ibid. 235. 236. Ibid. Ibid. 236. 237. Ibid.; lbid.; also also Controller Controller to to First First Sea Sea Lord Lord (Wilson), (Wilson), 30 30 Aug Aug 11 11 (on (on 237. CN02430/11) CN02430/11) f.38, £.38, Ships Ships Covers Covers 291. 291. 238. Hall Hall to to Keyes, Keyes, 77 Oct Oct 11, 11, Keyes Keyes Mss Mss 4/22. 4/22. 238. 239. 239. Trebilcock, Trebilcock, The The Vickers Vickers Brothers, Brothers, 105—8. 105-8. 240. 240. Table Table showing showing costs costs and and prices, prices, dated dated 7 7 Sep Sep 12, 12, document document 590/12, 590/12, Nautilus Nautilus file, file, Vickers Vickers Mss Mss 1110. 1110. 241. 241. For For the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s recognition recognition of of the the reliability reliability problems problems with with foreign foreign diesels diesels see see Keyes, Keyes, “Development “Development of of British British Submarines,” Submarines,” May May 1914, 1914, pp. pp. 4-5, 4-5, ADM ADM 137/2067; 137/2067; extracts extracts from from MD. N.I.D. “Reports “Reports on on Foreign Foreign Navies,” Navies,” Germany, Germany, p. p. 26 26 (old, (n/d, 1913), 1913), p. p. 38 38 (12 (12 Nov Nov 13), 13), France, France, p. p. 135, 135, volume volume held held at at HMS HMS Dolphin Dolphin Submarine Submarine Museum. Museum. 242. 242. Hall Hall to to Briggs, Briggs, 77 Feb Feb 11, 11, Keyes Keyes Mss, Mss, 4/1; 4/1; Keyes. Keyes, “Report “Report as as to to Immediate Immediate Future Future Construction Construction of of Submarine Submarine Boats,” Boats,” appendix appendix on on engine engine design. design,

CN0420/12, CN0420/12, enclosed enclosed in in Hall Hall to to Briggs, Briggs, 99 Mar Mar 12, 12, Ships Ships Covers Covers 306 306 (Nautilus (Nautilus class class submarine). submarine). For For technical technical explanations explanations see see Norman Norman Friedman, Friedman, U.S. U.S. Submarines Submarines Through Through 1945 1945 (N.I.P.: (N.1.P.: Annapolis, Annapolis, 1995), 1995), appendix appendix a, a, “submarine “submarine propulsion,” propulsion,” 255—58; 255-58; Lambert, Lambert, “The “The Influence Influence of of the the Submarine Submarine Upon Upon Naval Naval Strate Thouguhngh” Strategicic Thought.” Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn er's Naval Re E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Notes to to Pages Pages 230-232 230~232 Notes

373 373

243. 243. See See unfavorable unfavorable report report on on Italian Italian and and German German engines engines by by Eng. Eng. Cmdr. Cmdr. Hugh Hugh Garwood, Garwood, “Report “Report on on Visit Visit to to Fiat Fiat San San Georgio Georgio Works Works at at La La Spezia,” Spezia,” CN43282/11, CN43282/11, 6 6 Sep Sep 11, 11, Keyes Keyes Mss, Mss, 4/2; 4/2; for for typical typical opinion opinion on on the the virtues virtues of of forforeign eign designs designs see see Williams Williams (a/DNC) (a/DNC) to to Keyes, Keyes, 22 22 Nov Nov 11, 11, Keyes Keyes Mss, Mss, 4/4. 4/4. 244. 244. Eckhart Eckhart Roessler, Roessler, The The U-boat U-boat (Arms (Arms & & Armour Armour Press: Press: London, London, 1981); 1981); for for an an account account of of the the French French navy’s navy's disastrous disastrous experience experience see see Lambert, Lambert, “The “The Influence Influence of of the the Submarine Submarine Upon Upon Naval Naval Strategy,” Strategy,” chapter chapter 3. 3. 245. 245. Keyes Keyes to to Admiralty Admiralty 20 20 Jul Jul 11 11 (CN02408/11) (CNO2408/11) and and reply reply from from Vickers, Vickers, 25 25

Jul Jul 11, 11, Keyes Keyes Mss Mss 4/17; 4/17; Admiralty, Admiralty, untitled untitled memorandum memorandum on on using using clause clause C, C, 28 28 Jul Jul 11, 11, Keyes Keyes Mss Mss 4/18. 4/18. 246. 246. Watts, Watts, memorandum memorandum dated dated 8 8 Mar Mar 11, 11, f.19, f.19, Ships Ships Covers Covers 291. 291. 247. 247. Vickers Vickers costed costed the the building building of of an an E & type type submarine submarine at at £79,039, £79,039, table table showing showing costs costs and and prices, prices, 7 7 Sep Sep 12, 12, Vickers Vickers Mss Mss 1110. 1110. 248. 248. For For a a similar similar story story of of the the relations relations between between the the Admiralty Admiralty and and Arthur Arthur Pollen’s Pollen’s Argo Argo Company, Company, see see Sumida, Sumida, In In Defence, Defence, from from 220. 220. 249. 249. Keyes Keyes to to Admiralty Admiralty 20 20 Jul Jul 11 11 (CN02408/11) (CN02408/11) and and attached attached papers papers notably notably Vickers Vickers to to Admiralty, Admiralty, 25 25 Jul Jul 11, 11, all all in in Keyes Keyes Mss Mss 4/17; 4/17; notes notes on on Vickers Vickers letter letter to to Admiralty, Admiralty, 12 12 Dec Dec 11, 11, [50, f.50, Ships Ships Covers Covers 291; 291; and and especially especially Minute Minute (13 (13 Sep Sep 11) 11) by by Briggs Briggs on on “Further “Further remarks remarks on on CN.02408/11, CN.02408/11, f.85, f.85, Ships Ships Covers Covers 290A. 290A. 250. 290. Endorsements Endorsements by by (14 (14 Sep Sep 11) 11) by by Wilson, Wilson, and and (18 (18 Oct Oct 11) 11) by by McKenna, McKenna, ibid.; ibid.; see see also also remarks remarks of of Capt. Capt. Murray Murray Sueter Sueter cited cited in in J. J. D. D. Scott, Scott, Vickers: Vickers: AA History History (Weinfield (Weinfield & & Nicholson: Nicholson: London, London, 1962), 1962), 67. 67. 251. 201. Minute Minute (7 (7 Jul Jul 12) 12) by by Sir Sir Francis Francis Hopwood, Hopwood, on on “Construction “Construction of of Future Future Submarine Submarine boats—Procedure,” boats—Procedure,” CN0492/12, CN0492/12, f.34, £.34, Ships Ships Covers Covers 290B. 290B. 252. 292. See See copy copy of of memorandum memorandum by by Admiralty Admiralty legal legal department department dated dated 19 19 Mar Mar 09, 09, in in the the possession possession of of Roger Roger Keyes, Keyes, Keyes Keyes 4/5; 4/5; unsigned unsigned memorandum memorandum on on CN0580/10 CNO580/10 [1910], [1910], f.39, £.39, Ships Ships Covers Covers 290A. 290A. 253. 203. Minute Minute (16 (16 May May 12) 12) by by A. A. W. W. Smallwood Smallwood of of the the legal legal department, department, f.34, f.34, Ships Ships Covers Covers 2903. 290B. 254. 294. Minute Minute (14 (14 Jun Jun 12) 12) by by Admiralty Admiralty solicitor solicitor Mr. Mr. B. B. A. A. Cohen, Cohen, ibid. ibid. 255. 255. Briggs Briggs to to Wilson, Wilson, 11 Sep Sep 11, 11, f.38, f.38, Ships Ships Covers Covers 291. 291. 256. 296. Cmdr. Cmdr. Percy Percy Addison, Addison, “Report “Report on on Visit Visit to to FIAT FIAT San San Georgeo Georgeo Works Works at at Spezia,” Spezia,” 6 6 Sep Sep 11, 11, Keyes Keyes Mss Mss 4/2. 4/2. 257. 257. Hugh Hugh S. S. Garwood, Garwood, “Report “Report on on Engines” Engines” (n/d) (n/d) (CN43282/11), (CN43282/11), ibid. ibid. 258. 258. Minute Minute (1 (1 Sep Sep 11) 11) by by Watts Watts on on “Programme “Programme 1911—12,” 1911-12,” f.31, f.31, Ships Ships Covers Covers 291. 291. 259. 2959. Minute Minute (6 (6 Sep Sep 11) 11) by by Keyes, Keyes, on on “FIAT “FIAT Submarines—Report Submarines—Report by by Commander Commander Addison,” Addison,” ibid. ibid.

’~

260. 260. Contract Contract dated dated 23 23 Jan Jan 12, 12, f5, f.5, Ships Ships Covers Covers 289a. 289a.

261. 261. Keyes, Keyes, Memoirs, Memoirs, 27—32; 27-32; and and First First Draft Draft of of Memoirs, Memoirs, p. p. 13, 13, Keyes Keyes Mss Mss 18/1. 18/1. 262. 262. Keyes Keyes to to 3rd 3rd sea sea lord, lord, 9 9 Mar Mar 12, 12, enclosing enclosing “Report “Report as as to to Immediate Immediate future future Construction Construction of of Submarine Submarine Boats” Boats” (CN0420/12) (CN0420/12) f.1, f.1, Ships Ships Covers Covers 306 306 (Nautilus (Nautilus class class submarine). submarine). 263. 263. Keyes, Keyes, “Memorandum “Memorandum for for Successor,” Successor,” 6 6 Apr Apr 14, 14, section section 27, 27, ADM ADM 137/2067. Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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232-235 Pages 232-235 to Pages Notes Notes to

4/22. Mss 4/22. Keyes Mss 1914], Keyes [June 1914], 264. n/d [June Hall, n/d to Hall, Keyes to 264. Keyes

Ships M, Ships 12, f.4, Jun 12, Vickers,” 33 Jun Messrs Vickers,” by Messrs 265. Submarine by of Submarine Design of “New Design 265. “New (Nautilus). 306 (Nautilus). Covers Covers 306 above. cited above. department cited legal department Admiralty legal 266. by Admiralty memoranda by See memoranda 266. See Armstrongs, and Armstrongs, RN and Nasmith RN Martin Nasmith Lt. Martin 267. between Lt. meeting between of meeting Minutes of 267. Minutes Charles to Charles handed to boat” handed Submarine boat” for aa Submarine copy Requirement for of Requirement “Statement of of “Statement copy of

12, Sep 12, 21 Sep and 21 12. and Sep 12. 16 Sep Keyes, 16 to Keyes, Watts to 4/1; Watts Ottley Mss 4/1; Keyes Mss (CN02069/12) Keyes Ottley (CN02069/12)

address. home address. Keyes’ home to Keyes’ sent to were sent Keyes letters were these letters Note: these 4/23. Note: Keyes 4/23. to Keyes to 4/1; Keyes Mss 4/1; Keyes Mss (CP01202) Keyes 14 (CP01202) Jan 14 268. Admiralty, 77 Jan to Admiralty, Keyes to 268. Keyes 4/4. Keyes 4/4. 11, Keyes Nov 11, 22 Nov Admiralty, Admiralty, 22

1973), Penguin, 1973), (London: Penguin, Biography (London: 269. Wallis—A Biography Barnes Wallis—A Morpurgo, Barnes E. Morpurgo, 269. J.J. E.

bomb" “Dambusting—bouncing bomb” legendary “Dambusting—bouncing the legendary of the 76. inventor of the inventor Wallis, the Barnes Wallis, 76. Barnes for designer submarine a as War World First in 1943, was employed before the First World War as a submarine designer for the before in 1943, was employed Cowes. of Cowes. White of Messrs. White and Messrs. Vickers Vickers and

Future Immediate Future to Immediate as to “Report as 12, “Report Mar 12, 270. Briggs, 99 Mar to Briggs, Keyes to 270. Keyes

(Nautilus). 306 (Nautilus). Covers 306 Ships Covers f.1, Ships Construction,” Construction,” f.1, 741. Mss, 741. Vickers Mss, 13, Vickers Aug 13, 20 Aug Vickers), 20 of Vickers), 271. (MD of Dawson (MD to Dawson Keyes to 271. Keyes superinten(works superintenWardropper (works Mr. Wardropper see Mr. plant see 272. the plant at the output at boosted output For boosted 272. For 1110. Mss 1110. Vickers Mss file, Vickers Nautilus file, in Nautilus 12, in dent) Nov 12, 20 Nov McKechnie, 20 to McKechnie, dent) to Jul (18 Jul Minute (18 1/14; Minute Papers 1/14; Fisher Papers 783, Fisher FP 783, 273. 14, FP Feb 14, 17 Feb Fisher, 17 to Fisher, Hall to 273. Hall 1/8127; ADM 1/8127; submarine, ” ADM on submarine,” Mounting on Gun Mounting of Gun 10) “Invention of on “Invention Watts, on DNC Watts, by DNC 10) by

on 11, on Aug 11, 30 Aug Wilson, 30 to Wilson, Briggs to 4/22.; Briggs Mss 4/22.; Keyes Mss also 12, Keyes Dec 12, 15 Dec Keyes, 15 to Keyes, Hall to also Hall 291. Covers 291. Ships Covers f.,38 Ships CN02430/11, CN02430/11, £.38, 290A. Covers 290A. Ships Covers f.39, Ships CN.O580/10, f.39, on CN.0580/10, branch on 274. legal branch by legal Memorandum by 274. Memorandum The ibid. The paper, ibid. rough paper, on rough Watts on by Watts 09) by Dec 09) 275. (27 Dec minute (27 Handwritten minute 275. Handwritten tube. torpedo tube. beam torpedo design aa beam to design Scotts to minute asking Scotts to asking refers to minute refers Ships f.12, Ships 13, f.12, Jan 13, 29 Jan rooms, 29 lord’s rooms, sea lord’s 276. third sea held inin third meeting held of meeting Minutes of 276. Minutes ADM 20, ADM section 20, 14, section Apr 14, Successor, 66 Apr Covers for Successor, Memorandum for Keyes, Memorandum 289A; Keyes, Covers 289A; by 14) by Jun 14) (18 Jun minute (18 see minute Armstrong see 137/2067; Messrs. Armstrong to Messrs. offered to terms offered for terms 137/2067; for subclass subbuilt W Armstrong built the Armstrong on the Moore, W class details on further details 330; further Covers 330; Ships Covers Moore, Ships 307. Covers 307. Ships Covers in Ships found in marines be found can be marines can (23 and (23 l.), and (1st 1.), Churchill (1st and Churchill SJ.) and (3d s.1.) 277. Moore (3d by Moore 12) by Sep 12) (14 Sep Minutes (14 277. Minutes 4/1. Mss Keyes Nov 12) by Moore, on CN02069/12, Keyes Mss 4/1. CN02069/12, on Moore, by Nov 12)

to Keyes to and Keyes CN02069/12, and memo CNO02069/12, on memo 278. Keyes on by Keyes 12) by Sep 12) (14 Sep Minute (14 278. Minute

ibid. all ibid. 12, all Nov 12, DNC, 33 Nov to DNC, Keyes to and Keyes Moore, 12, and Nov 12, 28 Nov Moore, 28

279. 279. Ibid. lbid. 280. Hall Hall to to Fisher, Fisher, 26 26 Apr Apr 14, 14, FP FP 803, 803, Fisher Fisher Papers Papers 1/13. 1/13. 280.

Administration Chapter Churchill Administration The Churchill Eight: The Chapter Eight: to Asquith to especially Asquith sec especially 46—47, see McKenna, 46—47, 1.1. Stephen Reginald McKenna, McKenna, Reginald Stephen McKenna, campreviously camhad previously McKenna had that McKenna evidence that McKenna, for evidence 65; for on 65; cited on 1908, cited Jul 1908, McKenna, Jul 08. Apr 08, 11 Apr VII, 11 Edward VH, King Edward to King Fisher to see Fisher paigned estimates see navy estimates the navy in the cuts in for cuts paigned for FGDN. FGDN, II, Il, 172. 172. 62973. Mss 62973. Add Mss f.,32 Add 13 f.32, Sep 13, 26 Sep diary, 26 2. Riddle diary, 2. Riddle

46—47. 23, 46-47. 2—13, 23, McKenna, 2-13, 3. Stephan Reginald McKenna, McKenna, Reginald ehan McKenna,

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375 375

Williams (Lincoln Williams Admiralty (Lincoln the Admiralty at the Years at Thirty-Six Years Walker, Thirty-Six Charles Walker, Sir Charles 4. Sir 4. for served who servant civil career a was (Walker 66. (Walker was a career civil servant who served for 57, 66. 1933), 57, London, 1933), Ltd.: London, Ltd.: deputy become deputy to become rose to ultimately rose and ultimately secretary and private secretary Fisher’s private as Fisher’s years as two years two 356. II, 356. FGDN, II, 11, FGDN, Jan 11, Leyland, 11 Jan to Leyland, Fisher to Admiralty); Fisher the Admiralty); of the secretary of secretary 175. II, 175. FGDN, Il, 08, FGDN, May 08, Esher, 55 May to Esher, Fisher to 5. Fisher 5.

reliable only reliable the only 396; the II, 396; FGDN, II, 11, FGDN, Oct 11, 24 Oct Fisher, 24 Cecil Fisher, to Cecil Fisher to 6. Fisher 6. strategic the strategic and the McKenna and of McKenna dismissal of the dismissal surrounding the events surrounding the events of the account of account

Machinery. War Machinery. d’Ombrain, War found inin d’Ombrain, crisis isis found Agadir crisis the Agadir during the discussions during discussions 139—44. War, 139-44. World War, First World the First of the Origins of Steiner, Origins 7.7. Steiner, 13. Apr 13, 18 Apr George, 18 Lloyd George, with Lloyd conversations with reporting conversations diary, reporting Riddle diary, 8. Riddle 8. 62973. Mss 62973. Add Mss £32. Add 13, f.32, Sep 13, 26 Sep and 26 62972, and Mss 62972, Add Mss f.116, Add f.116, 10/43. Mss, 10/43. Esher Mss, 10, Esher Aug 10, Esher, 55 Aug to Esher, Fisher to 9. Fisher 9. 200.) Memories, 200.) Fisher, Memories, also Fisher, (See also lbid. (See 10. Ibid. 10. 1 18—19. McKenna, 118-19. Reginald McKenna, McKenna, Reginald 1 1. McKenna, 11. collection]. private collection]. [N.B.: private Mss [N.B.: May Mss 11, May May 11, 10 May May, 10 to May, Fisher to 12. Fisher 12. frecontains freCID) contains the CID) to the (secretary to Grant-Duff (Secretary Adrian Grant-Duff Maj. Adrian of Maj. diary of The diary 13. The 13. entries diary entries time: diary this time: at this Admiralty at the Admiralty of the unpopularity of the unpopularity to the references to quent references quent DC/MlSC/77. MSS, DC/MISC/77. Grant-Duff MSS, 11, Grant-Duff Jul 11, 21 Jul 11, 21 Mar 11, 24 Mar 11, 24 Jan 11, 16-21 Jan 16-21 f.127-128. 13, f.127-128, Apr 13, 26 Apr and 26 62973, and Mss 62973, Add Mss 1’32, Add 13, f.32, Sep 13, 26 Sep diary, 26 Riddle diary, 14. Riddle 14.

62972. Mss 62972. Add Mss Add Asquith: H. Asquith: H. H. Brock, H. and Brock, Brock and in Brock cited in 15, cited Mar 15, Stanley, 77 Mar Venetia Stanley, to Venetia Asquith to 15. Asquith 15. 635. McKenna, 635. on McKenna, note on biographical note also biographical see also 464; see Stanley, 464; Venetia Stanley, to Venetia Letters to Letters 215-221. FDSF, I,I, 215-221. Marder, FDSF, 16. Marder, 16. 10. and 10. chapters 88 and Empire, chapters the Empire, Defending the Williams, Defending 17. Williams, 17. Jan Situation, 11 Jan Present Situation, the Present on the memorandum on Preliminary memorandum Haldane, AA Preliminary 18. Haldane, 18.

101. Empire, 101. the Empire, Defending the Williams, Defending cited inin Williams, 5918, cited Mss 5918, Haldane Mss f.44, Haldane 06, f.44, 06, of Making of the Making and the Europe and of Europe Arming of The Arming Hermann, The David Hermann, recently, David Most recently, 19. Most 19. 55—56. 1996), (Princeton, War World First the First World War (Princeton, 1996), 55-56. the 101—2. Empire, 101-2. the Empire, Defending the Williams, Defending 20. Williams, 20. 53-56. 1980), 53-56, UP, 1980), (Edinburgh UP, Reformer (Edinburgh Army Reformer An Army Haldane: An Spiers, Haldane: Edward Spiers, 21. Edward 21. Samuel 268—84; Samuel 1980), 268-84; 1815—1914(London, Society, 1815-1914 and Society, Army and The Army idem, The 192—95; idem, 192-95; (London, 1980), 1969),165—92. (Harvard, 1969),165-92. Strategy (Harvard, Grand Strategy of Grand Politics of The Politics Williamson, The Williamson, 192—95. 53—56, 192-95. Reformer, 53-56, Army Reformer, An Army Haldane: An Spiers, Haldane: 22. Spiers, 22. “The McDermott, “The 97-99; J.J. McDermott, 80—89, 97-99; Machinery, 80-89, War Machinery, D’Ombrain, War 23. D’Ombrain, 23. Moroccan [First] Moroccan the [First] to the War to Boer War the Boer from the Thinking from Military Thinking British Military in British Revolution Revolution in Kennedy Paul Kennedy ed. Paul 1880—1914, ed. Powers 1880-1914, Great Powers the Great of the Plans of War Plans The War Crisis,” inin The Crisis,” 99—117. 1979), 99-117. (London, 1979), (London, David 423—29; David 1860-1914, 423-29; Antagonism, 1860-1914, Anglo-German Antagonism, Kennedy, Anglo-German 24. Kennedy, 24. 1986),1-—13. (London, 1986),1-13. 1914-16 (London, Aims, 1914-16 War Aims, and War Strategy and British Strategy French, French, British 170. Strategy, 170. Grand Strategy, Williamson, Grand 97; Williamson, Machinery, 97; War Machinery, D’Ombrain, War 25. D’Ombrain, 25. 1916], [Apr 1916}, 1915” [Apr and 1915” 1906 and between 1906 Events between of Events “Memorandum of Haldane, “Memorandum 26. Haldane, 26. 5923. Mss 5923. Haldane Mss f.15, Haldane f.15, DC/MlSC/77. MSS, DC/MISC/77. Grant-Duff MSS, 10, Grant-Duff Nov 10, entry, 99 Nov Diary entry, 27. Diary 27. 359. II, 359. FGDN, II, 11, FGDN, Feb 11, 27 Feb Spender, 27 to Spender, Fisher to 28. Fisher 28. to Fisher to CAB17/107; Fisher and CAB17/107; 1/8896 ADM 11, Jan 16 Bethell, to Ottley 29. 29. Ottley to Bethell, 16 Jan 11, ADM 1/8896 and May, 21 May 11, May ution. Mss [N.B.: private collection].

MarziMynMr Mss m3. private collection!-

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Departments Military Departments “The Military idem, “The 97-107; idem, Machinery, 97-107; War Machinery, D’Ombrain, War 30. 30. D’Ombrain, 287-99. Defence,” 287-99. Imperial Defence,” of Imperial Committee of the Committee and the and 376. II, 376. FGDN, Il, 11, FGDN, Jun 11, 19 Jun McKenna, 19 to McKenna, Fisher to 31. Fisher 31. CABB7/105/12. 11, CAB37/105/1 Feb 11, 16 Feb Estimates,” 16 “Navy Estimates,” McKenna, “Navy 32. McKenna, 32. 2. to Asquith to 6; Asquith Asquith 6; H4, Asquith 11, f.14, Mar 11, King, 11 Mar the King, to the Asquith to notes, Asquith Cabinet notes, 33. Cabinet 33. 12, Jul 12, 12 Jul Lloyd-George, 12 to Lloyd-George, Churchill to 4/1; Churchill Mss. 4/1; McKenna Mss, 11, McKenna Oct 11, 15 Oct McKenna, 15 McKenna, vols. companion vols. including 33 companion vols. including Statesman, 44 vols. Young Statesman, Churchill, Young Randolph Churchill, Randolph in cited in (hereafter cited 1613 (hereafter p. 1613 3, p. vol. 3, companion vol. 1967—69), companion London, 1967-69), (Heinemann: London, (Heinemann: 1613). 03, 1613). YS, c3, format YS, format 67. Years, 67. Thirty-six Years, Walker, Thirty-six 34. Walker, 34. DC/MlSC/77. MSS, DC/MISC/77. Grant-Duff MSS, 11, Grant-Duff Feb 11, entry, 77 Feb Diary entry, 35. Diary 35. 366—67. 11, FGDN, 11, Apr 15 White, to Fisher 36. 36. Fisher to White, 15 Apr 11, FGDN, 11, 366-67. 368. II, 368. FGDN, Il, 1911, FGDN, May 1911, McKenna, 44 May Mrs McKenna, to Mrs Fisher to 37. Fisher 37. Mss. McKenna Mss. 4/4, McKenna MCKN 4/4, 11, MCKN Jul 11, 28 Jul McKenna, 28 to McKenna, Madden to 38. Madden 38. 47—48. Crisis, 1,I, 47-48. World Crisis, Churchill, World Winston Churchill, 39. Winston 39. 40. Hankey Hankey to to McKenna, McKenna, 15 15 Aug Aug 11, 1 1, cited cited in in Roskill, Roskill, Hankey: Hankey: Man Man of of Secrets, Secrets. 40. 101-2. 101-2. 41. 41. lbid., Ibid., 102. 102. 380. II, 380. FGDN, II, 11, FGDN, Aug 11, 20 Aug McKenna, 20 to McKenna, Fisher to 42. Fisher 42. FGDN, 11, FGDN, May 11, 18 May McKenna, 18 to McKenna, Fisher to see Fisher advice see similar advice very similar for very lbid.; for 43. Ibid.; 43. ' 371. II, 371. Il, Policy Military Policy the Military and the Staff and General Staff Imperial General “The Imperial d’Ombrain, “The Nicholas d’Ombrain, 44. Nicholas 44. Affairs Military Affairs Crisis,” Military International Crisis,” 1911 International the 1911 during the Strategy during Continental Strategy of aa Continental of 253—59. 100—105, 253-59. Machinery, 100-105, War Machinery, idem, War 88—93; idem, 1970): 88-93; (Oct 1970): (Oct 182—92. 165—69, 182-92. Strategy, 165-69, Grand Strategy, Williamson, Grand 45. Williamson, 45. CAB2/2. 11, CAB2/2. Aug 11, 23 Aug 5, 23 CID, p.p. 5, the CID, of the meeting of 114th meeting of 114th minutes of Wilson, minutes 46. Wilson, 46. 47. Steiner, Steiner, The The First First World World War, War, 126. 126. 47. 48. Spiers, Spiers, Haldane, Haldane, 192. 192. 48. CAB2/2. 11, CAB2/2. Aug 11, 23 Aug 10, 23 CID, p.p. 10, the CID, of the meeting of 114th meeting of 114th minutes of Haldane, minutes 49. Haldane, 49. DC/MISC/77. MSS, DC/MISC/77. Grant-Duff MSS, 11, Grant-Duff Aug 11, 25 Aug entry, 25 Diary entry, 50. Diary 50. see regret see McKenna’s regret for McKenna’s 88—93; for Strategy,” 88-93; “Continental Strategy,” D’Ombrain, “Continental 51. D’Ombrain, 51. McKenna, Reginald McKenna, 330. McKenna, Reginald McKenna, 330. Nicholson in Nicholson enclosed in BEF enclosed the BEF for the Transports for on Transports memorandum on Secret memorandum 52. Secret 52. 6129“]. Mss 6129{1]. Haldane Mss f.212—219, Haldane 11, f.212-219, Sep 11, 25 Sep Haldane, 25 to Haldane, to 24 Fisher, 24 to Fisher, Hankey to see: Hankey proceedings see: the proceedings on the reports on contrasting reports For contrasting 53. For 03.

Aug 11, Aug 11, 11, FP530A, FPS30A, Fisher Fisher Papers Papers 1/10; 1/10; Churchill Churchill to to Asquith, Asquith, 13 13 Sep Sep 11, all 11, all Sep 11, 15 Sep Churchill, 15 to Churchill, George to Lloyd George 11, Lloyd Sep 11, 14 Sep George, 14 Lloyd George, to Lloyd Churchill to Churchill f.138, 11, f.138, Sep 11, 11 Sep Grey, 11 to Grey, Haldane to 531-35; Haldane Statesman, {,I, 531-35; Young Statesman, Churchill, Young in Churchill, in Mss Haldane Mss f.140, Haldane 11, f.140, Aug 11, 31 Aug Haldane, 31 to Haldane, Asquith to 800/102; Asquith F0 800/102; Mss, FO Grey Mss, Grey 5909. 0909. 54. to 04. Asquith Asquith to to McKenna, McKenna, 18 18 Sep Sep 11, 11, McKenna McKenna Mss Mss 4/1; 4/1; McKenna McKenna to Asquith both Asquith [’48, both 11, f.48, Sep 11, 25 Sep Asquith, 25 to Asquith, Haldane to and Haldane f.43, and 11, f.43, Sep 11, 19 Sep Asquith, 19 Asquith, Mss, 13, 13, Mss, and Departments and Military Departments “The Military d’Ombrain, “The 56; d’Ombrain, Crisis, 56; World Crisis, Churchill, World 55. Churchill, 55.

the the Committee Committee of of Imperial Imperial Defence,” Defence,” 288-95. 288-95. 06. Richard Richard Haldane, Haldane, Autobiography.

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377 377

57. o7. Esher Esher Journals, Journals, 4 4 Oct Oct & & 24 24 Nov Nov 11, 11, Esher Esher Mss Mss 12/1. 12/1.

58. o8. Esher Esher to to Spender, Spender, 88 Aug Aug 11, 11, f.22, f.22, Add Add Mss Mss 46392; 46392; Riddle Riddle diary, diary, reportreporting ing conversation conversation with with Charles Charles Masterman, Masterman, 18 18 Dec Dec 13, 13, f.100, f.100, Add Add Mss Mss 62973. 62973. 59. O9. Neilson, Neilson, The The Last Last Tsar, Tsar, 28. 28. 60. 60. Steiner, Steiner, Origins Origins of of the the First First World World War, War, 91, 91, 139—43. 139-43. 61. 61. Fisher Fisher to to Cecil Cecil Fisher, Fisher, 24 24 October October 1911, 1911, FGDN, FGDN, II, II, 396. 396. 62. 62. D’Ombrain, D’'Ombrain, “The “The Military Military Departments Departments and and the the Committee Committee of of Imperial Imperial

Defence,” Defence,” 292—94; 292-94; French, French, British British Strategy Strategy and and War War Aims, Aims, 3. 3. 63. 63. D’Ombrain, D’Ombrain, War War Machinery, Machinery, 259. 259. 64. 64. Asquith Asquith to to Crewe, Crewe, 77 Oct Oct 11, 11, Asquith Asquith Mss Mss 46; 46; Violet Violet Bonham-Carter, Bonham-Carter, Winston Winston Churchill Churchill as as I| Knew Knew Him Him (London: (London: Eyre Eyre & & Spottiswoode Spottiswoode and and Collins, Collins, 1965), 1965), 235. 235. 65. 65. Lady Lady Randolph Randolph Churchill Churchill (his (his mother) mother) to to Churchill, Churchill, 11 Oct Oct 11, 11, YS, YS, 02, c2, 1294. 1294. 66. 66. Riddle Riddle diary, diary, reporting reporting conversations conversations with with Lloyd Lloyd George George and and Churchill, Churchill, 11 11 Nov Nov 11, 11, f.103, f.103, Add Add Mss Mss 62968, 62968, and and 6 6 Jan Jan 14, 14, f.7, f.7, Add Add Mss Mss 62974, 62974, and and with with Charles Charles Masterman, Masterman, 18 18 Dec Dec 13, 13, f.100 f.100 Add Add Mss Mss 62973. 62973. 67. 67. Battenberg, Battenberg, “Statement “Statement made made to to me me by by Sir Sir Francis Francis Hopwood, Hopwood, additional additional Civil Civil Lord Lord at at the the Admiralty," Admiralty,” 24 24 Jun Jun 16, 16, MB1/F24/378, MB1/T24/378, Battenberg Battenberg Mss. Mss. For For Churchill’s Churchill’s equivocal equivocal attitude attitude towards towards women’s women’s suffrage suffrage see see John John Grigg, Grigg, Lloyd Lloyd George: George: From From Peace Peace to to War, War, 1912—16 1912-16 (Berkeley, (Berkeley, CA: CA: University University of of California California Press, Press, 1985), 1985), 72. 72. 68. 68. Asquith Asquith to to McKenna, McKenna, 10 10 Oct Oct 11, 11, MCKN MCKN 4/1, 4/1, McKenna McKenna Mss. Mss. 69. 69. Montagu Montagu to to McKenna, McKenna, 15 15 Nov Nov 11, 11, MCKN MCKN 4/1, 4/1, McKenna McKenna Mss, Mss, cited cited in in d’Ombrain, d’Ombrain, “The “The Military Military Departments Departments and and the the Committee Committee of of Imperial Imperial Defence,” Defence,”

291; 291; Sandars Sandars to to Balfour, Balfour, 14 14 Dec Dec 11. 11, f.3, f.3, Add Add Mss Mss 49768. 49768.

70. 70. Riddle Riddle diary, diary, 11 11 Nov Nov 11, 11, f.102, f.102, Add Add Mss Mss 62968. 62968. 71. 71. McKenna McKenna to to Asquith, Asquith, 17 17 Oct Oct 11, 11, Asquith Asquith to to McKenna, McKenna, 18 18 Oct Oct 11 11 and and McKenna McKenna to to Asquith Asquith 19 19 Oct Oct 11, 11, all all MCKN MCKN 4/1, 4/1, McKenna McKenna Mss. Mss. 72. 72. Gilbert, Gilbert, Organiser Organiser of of Victory, Victory, 53, 53, 131-35. 131-35. 73. 73. Sumida, Sumida, “Churchill “Churchill and and British British Seapower”; Seapower”; Randolph Randolph Churchill, Churchill, Young Young Statesman, Statesman, 30—32; 30-32; George George Bernstein, Bernstein, Liberalism Liberalism and and Liberal Liberal Politics Politics in in Edwardian Edwardian England England (Boston: (Boston: Allen Allen & & Unwin, Unwin, 1986), 1986), 96—104, 96-104, 114-15, 114-15, 125—28; 125-28; Michael Michael Bentley, Bentley, The The Climax Climax of of Liberal Liberal Politics Politics (London, (London, 1987), 1987), 112. 112. 74. 74. Riddle Riddle diary, diary, reporting reporting conversations conversations with with Churchill, Churchill, June—August June—August 1911, 1911, f.86—97, f.86-97, Add Add Mss Mss 62968. 62968. 75. 79. Churchill, Churchill, “Naval “Naval Expenditure,” Expenditure,” 15 15 Jul Jul 10, 10, CAB37/103/32; CAB37/103/32; Churchill, Churchill, “Secret” “Secret” [Navy [Navy Expenditure], Expenditure], 33 Feb Feb 11. 11, CAB37/105/7; CAB37/105/7; Churchill, “The “The Churchill, Mediterranean Mediterranean Fleet.” Fleet,” 15 15 Mar Mar 11, 11, CAB37/105/27. CAB37/105/27. 76. 76. Nicholas Nicholas Lambert, Lambert, “Economy “Economy or or Empire,” Empire,” 55—84; 55-84; Churchill Churchill to to Crewe, Crewe, 14 14

Feb Feb 11, 11, f.3, f.3, Churchill Churchill to to Lloyd Lloyd George, George, 14 14 Feb Feb 11, 11, f4, f.4, Lloyd Lloyd George George Mss, Mss, C/3/15 C/3/15 [House [House of of Lords Lords Records Records Office]. Office]. 77. 77. Churchill, Churchill, World World Crisis, Crisis, 76. 76. 78. 78. Williamson, Williamson, Grand Grand Strategy, Strategy, 185. 185. 79. 79. “The “The Guildhall Guildhall Banquet—Mr. Banquet—Mr. Churchill Churchill on on Naval Naval Expenditure,” Expenditure,” reported reported in in the the Times, Times, 10 10 Nov Nov 11, 11, p. p. 10, 10, col. col. 2. 2. 80. 80. Churchill Churchill to to Asquith, Asquith, 13 13 Sep Sep 11, 11, Young Young Statesman, Statesman, 531; 531; Churchill, Churchill, World World Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Lloyd 11, Lloyd Sep 11, 14 Sep and 14 George, 55 and Lloyd George, to Lloyd Churchill to also Churchill see also 78-82; see 56, 78-82; Crisis, 56, Crisis,

C/3/15/12. and C/3/15/12. C/3/15/9 and Mss, C/3/15/9 George Mss, George 89. Crisis, World Churchill, 81. 81. Churchill, World Crisis, 89. 82. 82. 83. 83. 84. 84. Asquith Asquith

13. Asquith 13. f.58, Asquith 11, f.58, Nov 11, Asquith, 55 Nov to Asquith, Churchill to Churchill 12/1. Mss 12/1. Esher Mss 11, Esher Oct 11, diary, 44 Oct Esher diary, Esher 11, Oct 11, Crewe, 77 Oct to Crewe, Asquith to 1/12; Asquith Mss 1/12; Esher Mss 11, Esher Oct 11, Journals, 44 Oct Esher Journals, Esher 46. Mss Mss 46.

1336. 03, 1336. YS, c3, Churchill, YS, 11, Churchill, Nov 11, 16 Nov Asquith, 16 to Asquith, Churchill to 85. Churchill 85. Churchill, to Churchill, Ottley to also Ottley see also 13; see Asquith 13; £58, Asquith 11, £.58, Nov 11, Asquith, 55 Nov to Asquith, Churchill to 86. Churchill 86. 235. Him, 235. Knew Him, as II Knew Churchill as Winston Churchill Carter, Winston CABl/31; Carter, 11, CAB1/31; Nov 11, 33 Nov Mss. King-Hall Mss. 12, King-Hall Dec 12, 28 Dec diary 28 King-Hall, diary George King-Hall, Admiral George 87. Admiral 87. 1/11. Papers 1/11. Fisher Papers FP547, Fisher 11, FP547, Dec 11, Fisher, 44 Dec to Fisher, Bridgeman to 88. Bridgeman 88.

71. Crisis, 71. World Crisis, Churchill, World Seapower”; Churchill, British Seapower”; and British “Churchill and Sumida, “Churchill 89. Sumida, 89. 90. 90. For For an an insightful insightful analysis analysis of of their their relationship relationship see see Morris, Morris, Fisher's Fisher's Face. Face, 180—88. 180-88. 1298. 02, 1298. YS, c2, 11, YS, Oct 11, 25 Oct Fisher, 25 to Fisher, Churchill to 75; Churchill lbid., 75; 91. Ibid., 91. 205. Memories, 205. Fisher, Memories, cited inin Fisher, 11, cited Oct 11, 29 Oct Esher, 29 to Esher, Fisher to 92. Fisher 92. 93. Churchill, Churchill, notes notes on on conversations conversations with with Lord Lord Fisher, Fisher, 28, 28, 29, 29, 30 30 Oct Oct 1911, 1911. 93. 409. ii, 409. FGDN, II, 11, FGDN, Oct 11, 31 Oct Spender, 31 to Spender, Fisher to 1300; Fisher 02, 1300; YS, c2, YS,

94. 94. Churchill, Churchill, World World Crisis, Crisis, 76—77; 76-77; Churchill Churchill to to Asquith, Asquith, 55 Nov Nov 11, 11, £58. £.58, Asquith Mss 13. Asquith Mss 13. diary, 99 Riddle diary, 172; Riddle Mss, 172; White Mss, Arnold White 11, Arnold Nov 11, 29 Nov White, 29 to White, Scott to Percy Scott 95. Percy 95.

Dec Dec 11, 11, £133, f.133, Add Add Mss Mss 62968. 62968. 12, Apr 12, 12 Apr Fisher, 12 to Fisher, Churchill to and Churchill f.75, and 12, f.75, Mar 12, Churchill, 55 Mar to Churchill, Fisher to 96. Fisher 96.

442. II, 442. FGDN, Il, 12, FGDN, Apr 12, Esher, 22 Apr to Esher, Fisher to 8/177; Fisher Chart 8/177; f.24, Chart f.24, Mss Troubridge Mss F1, Troubridge 12, F1, Apr 12, 27 Apr and 27 12 and Apr 12 19 Apr Troubridge, 19 to Troubridge, Fisher to 97. Fisher 97. Churchill's 11/1; Churchill's Mss 11/1; Fisher Mss 570, Fisher FR 570, 12, FP Apr 12, 22 Apr Churchill, 22 to Churchill, Fisher to (NMM); Fisher (NMM); evifor evi13/14; for Chart 13/14; f.110, Chart 12, f.110, May 12, reply: 22 May Fisher’s reply: 1545-1548; Fisher’s 03, 1545-1548; YS, c3, reply: YS, reply: see made see were made appointments were the appointments why the of why idea of no idea had no Fisher had initially Fisher that initially dence that dence Fisher to to Mrs Mrs McKenna, McKenna, 20 20 Apr Apr 12, 12, FGDN, FGDN, Il, II, 446. 446. Fisher Mss Troubridge Mss F1, Troubridge both F1, 12, both Apr 12, 27 Apr and 27 19 and Troubridge, 19 to Troubridge, Fisher to 98. Fisher 98.

(NMM); (NMM); Fisher Fisher to to Esher, Esher, 29 29 Apr Apr 12, 12, and and Fisher Fisher to to Cecil Cecil Fisher, Fisher, 66 and and 99 May May 12. 12, 457-60 ll, 457-60 FGDN, II, FGDN, 13/2. Chart 13/2. f.16, Chart 11, f.16, Nov 11, Churchill, 66 Nov to Churchill, Fisher to 99. Fisher 99. 100. 100. Fisher Fisher to to Churchill, Churchill, n/d, n/d, note note by by John John Fisher Fisher on on employment employment of of subsub-

marines inin northern northern waters. waters. The The references references to to the the anticipated anticipated visit visit of of the the head head marines was letter was the letter that the Grigorovich—and that England—Admiral Grigorovich—and to England—Admiral navy to Russian navy the Russian of the of addressed 5-8, Chart addressed from from Naples Naples indicate indicate this this letter letter was was written written in in Dec Dec 1911, 1911, f. f.5-8, Chart 13/43. Note, Note, the the requests requests for for 15-inch 15-inch guns guns inin the the new new ships ships and and more more subsub13/43. marines indicates indicates the the letter letter was was written written about about or or before before January January 1912, 1912, Chart Chart marines 13/14; Fisher Fisher to to Knollys, Knollys, 29 29 Jan Jan 09, 09, enclosures enclosures “German “German War War Vessels Vessels in in Danish Danish 13/14;

Waters Waters and and Secret Secret Orders Orders to to the the IX IX German German Army Army Corps,” Corps,” and and Fisher Fisher to to McKenna, McKenna, 26 26 Jan Jan 09, 09, Royal Royal Archives, Archives, W59/72. W59/72. 101. 101. Fisher Fisher to to Hankey, Hankey, 4 4 Nov Nov 11, 11, cited cited in in Mackay, Mackay, Kilverstone, Kilverstone, 434; 434; Fisher Fisher to to

Churchill, Churchill, 22 22 Nov Nov 11, 11, f.41, f.41, Chart Chart 13/2. 13/2. 102. 102. Churchill Churchill to to Fisher, Fisher, 10 10 Jan Jan 12, 12, YS, YS, c3, c3, 1495. Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, httpsz/lhd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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379 379

1349; 1341, 1349; c2, 1341, Churchill, c2, 11, Churchill, Dec 11, and 33 Dec 11 and Nov 11 22 Nov Churchill, 22 to Churchill, 103. Fisher to 103. Fisher Mss. Battenberg Mss. MB1/F9/46, Battenberg 11, MB1/T9/46, Nov 11, 10 Nov Churchill Battenberg, 10 to Battenberg, Churchill to YS, 11, YS, Dec 11, Churchill, 66 Dec to Churchill, Fisher to and Fisher 11, and Dec 11, 30 Dec Churchill, 30 to Churchill, 104. Fisher to 104. Fisher 1365. 1351, 1365. 02, 1351, c2, 431. II, 431. FGDN, Hl, 12, FGDN, Feb 12, 13 Feb Churchill, 138 to Churchill, Fisher to 105. 105. Fisher Mss. Battenberg Mss. MB1/I‘9/46, Battenberg 11, MB1/T9/46, Nov 11, 10 Nov Battenberg, 10 to Battenberg, 106. Churchill to 106. Churchill 107. Churchill Churchill to to Battenberg, Battenberg, 18 18 Nov Nov 11, 11, MB1/T9/46, MB1/T9/46, ibid. ibid. 107. c2, YS, c2, 11, YS, Dec 11, Fisher, 33 Dec to Fisher, Churchill to found inin Churchill language isis found similar language 108. lbid.; similar 108. Ibid.; 1350. 1350. lbid. 109. 109. Ibid. of Louis of Prince Louis Kerr, Prince in Kerr, cited in 11, cited Nov 11, 20 Nov Churchill, 20 to Churchill, Battenberg to 110. Battenberg 110. 233. Battenberg, 233. Battenberg, 111. 111. Fisher Fisher to to Churchill, Churchill, 20 20 Nov Nov 11, 11, YS, YS, C2, c.2, 1338. 1338.

Apr 12 Apr Fisher, 12 to Fisher, Churchill to Seapower”; Churchill British Seapower”; and British “Churchill and Sumida, “Churchill 112. Sumida, 112. 12, 12, FP568, FP568, Fisher Fisher Papers Papers 1/11. 1/11. CAB1/32. f.69, CAB1/32. 1911], f.69, [Dec 1911], n/d [Dec 1912/13,” n/d Programme 1912/13,” “Naval Programme Churchill, “Naval 113. Churchill, 113. lbid. 114. Ibid. 114. 115. 115. lbid. Ibid. 13/2. Chart 13/2. f.77, Chart 11, f.77, Dec 11, 30 Dec Churchill, 30 to Churchill, Fisher to 116. Fisher 116. Slade. reel 1,1, Slade. 11, reel Dec 11, 28 Dec Slade, 28 to Slade, Brock to de Brock Osmond de 117. Osmond 117. 644—45; Defence,” 644-45; Flotilla Defence,” of Flotilla Concept of the Concept and the “Fisher and Lambert, “Fisher 118. Nicholas Lambert, 118. Nicholas

13/9. Chart 13/9. f.50, Chart 12, f.50, May 12, 21 May Churchill, 21 to Churchill, Bridgeman to Bridgeman Library. Admiralty Library. FLM, Admiralty 117, FLM, Churchill, p.p. 117, by Churchill, 12) by Oct 12) (27 Oct Minute (27 119. Minute 119. 8/59. Chart 8/59. f.13, Chart draft,” f.13, “first draft,” also “first see also 132—33, see Crisis, 132-33, World Crisis, Churchill, World 120. Churchill, 120. 121. 121. Fisher Fisher to to Churchill, Churchill, 66 Dec Dec 11, 11, Churchill, Churchill, c2, c2, 1351. 1351. The The two two experts experts were were (controller). Briggs (controller). Charles Briggs Adm. Charles Rear Adm. and Rear Sir (DNC) and Watts (DNC) Philip Watts Sir Philip sur— detailed surmore detailed for more 13/2; for Chart 13/2; f.77, Chart 122. 11, f.77, Dec 11, 30 Dec Churchill, 30 to Churchill, Fisher to 122. Fisher 258—65. Defence, 258-65. In Defence, Sumida, In see: Sumida, vey policy see: ship policy capital ship Churchill’s capital of Churchill's vey of 12, Apr 12, Esher, 22 Apr to Esher, Fisher to 430; Fisher II, 430; 123. FGDN, Il, 12, FGDN, Feb 12, Fiennes, 88 Feb to Fiennes, Fisher to 123. Fisher 10/43. Esher Mss 10/43. Esher Mss Mss. Battenberg Mss. MB1/l‘9/46, Battenberg 11, MB1/T9/46, Nov 11, 18 Nov 124. Battenberg, 18 to Battenberg, Churchill to 124. Churchill 125. Battenberg Battenberg to to Churchill, ibid.: Fisher 125. Churchill, 77 Dec Dec 11, 11, MB1/T9/49, MB1/T9/49, ibid.; Fisher to to Churchill, Churchill, 4/22. Mss 4/22. Keyes Mss 12, Keyes Jan 12, 31 Jan Keyes, 31 to Keyes, Hall to 16 also Hall see also 13/14; see Chart 13/14; f.18, Chart 12, f.18, Jan 12, 16 Jan dreadof dreadentirely of comprise entirely to comprise was to In Squadron was Battle Squadron First Battle the First 1912, the January 1912, In January noughts, noughts, the the Second Second of of 22 dreadnoughts, dreadnoughts, 22 Lord Lord Nelson, Nelson, and and 44 King King Edward Edward class; class;

Feb 15 Feb “Secret,” 15 marked “Secret,” memorandum marked see enclosing memorandum Staff, enclosing War Staff, to War Churchill to also Churchill see also 116/3099. ADM 116/3099. 12, paragraph 2,2, ADM 12, paragraph 1609. 03, 1609. YS, c3, sent], YS, [not sent], 12 [not Jul 12 12 Jul George, 12 126. Lloyd George, to Lloyd Churchill to 126. Churchill the reduce the to reduce proposal to Churchill proposal on Churchill 127. Bethell, on by Bethell, 11) by Nov 11) Minute (1(1 Nov 127. Minute 21/20. Chart 21/20. f.12a, Chart Mediterranean Fleet, f.12a, Mediterranean Fleet,

128. 128. Battenberg Battenberg to to Churchill, Churchill, 77 Dec Dec 11, 11, MB1/T9/49, MB1/l‘9/49, Battenberg Battenberg Mss; Mss; Minute Minute the that the shows that document shows This document ibid. This MB1/T15/71, ibid. (8 Battenberg, MB1/T15/71, by Battenberg, 12) by Jan 12) (8 Jan

eight of eight comprised of Fleet comprised Home Fleet the Home of the Division of Third Division form aa Third to form Admiralty intended to Admiralty intended 16 leave 16 would leave This would crews. This nucleus crews. percent nucleus King 60 percent with 60 manned with but manned Edwards, but King Edwards, other six other plus six Squadrons, plus Second Squadrons, and Second First and the First in the dreadnoughts in fully manned dreadnoughts fully manned 22. of 22. total of Gibraltar—a total at Gibraltar—a battleships commission at full commission in full battleships in Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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249—253 Pages 249-253 to Pages Notes to Notes

129. 129. Churchill Churchill to to Battenberg, Battenberg, 26 26 Dec Dec 11, 11, MB1/I‘10/58, MB1/T10/58, Battenberg Battenberg Mss. Mss. The The six Mediterranean Mediterranean battleships battleships were were scheduled scheduled to to be be reduced reduced inin July July 1912 1912 and six and their their crews crews turned turned over; over; see see Admiralty, Admiralty, “Confidential “Confidential Nucleus Nucleus Crews Crews Turn Turn Over Over Lists—Chronological Lists—Chronological Relief Relief List List (for (for six six months months from from 11 Mar Mar 12),” 12),” 29 29 Feb Feb 12, 12, MBI/l‘89; MB1/T89; Fisher Fisher to to Churchill, Churchill, 22 22 Nov Nov 11, 11, £41, f.41, Chart Chart 13/2. 13/2. 130. Marder, Marder, FDSF, FDSF. I,1, 275-87. 275—87. 130. 131. 131. Churchill Churchill to to Cassel, Cassel, 7 7 and and 26 26 Jan Jan 12, 12, £34, f.34, MB1/X4, MB1/X4, Cassel Cassel Mss Mss [Southampton University University Library}. Library]. [Southampton 132. 132. Churchill Churchill to to Grey, Grey, 31 31 Jan Jan 12, 12, enclosing enclosing note note on on “observations,” “observations,” YS, YS, c3, c3, 1504. 1504. 133. 1906, 133. Churchill, Churchill, “Amendment “Amendment to to the the Laws Laws of of June June 14, 14, 1900, 1900, and and June June 5, 5, 1906,

Concerning Concerning the the German German Fleet,” Fleet,” 14 14 Feb Feb 12, 12, CAB CAB 37/109/21; 37/109/21; the the figure figure for for the the establishment establishment of of the the Navy Navy in in 1912 1912 is is taken taken from from Brassey’s Brassey's Naval Naval Annual, Annual, 1913. 1913. 134. 134. Churchill, Churchill, “Admiralty “Admiralty Memorandum Memorandum on on New New German German Naval Naval Law,” Law,” 9 9 Mar Mar 12, CAB CAB 37/110/43. 37/110/43. 12,

135. 135. Churchill Churchill to to War War Staff, Staff, 15 15 Feb Feb 12, 12, ADM ADM 116/3099; 116/3099; Admiralty. Admiralty, “Confidential “Confidential Nucleus Nucleus Crew Crew Turn Turn Over Over Lists,” Lists,” 29 29 Feb Feb 12, 12, MB1/I‘89, MB1/T89, Battenberg Battenberg Mss. Mss. 136. 136. Churchill Churchill to to Grey, Grey, 31 31 Jan Jan 1912, 1912, YS, YS, c3, c3, 1504. 1504. 137. 137. Churchill Churchill to to Masterton-Smith, Masterton-Smith, 23 23 May May 14, 14, f.106, f.106, CAB CAB 1/33; 1/33; Churchill, Churchill, “Manning “Manning Requirements Requirements for for the the Navy,” Navy,” 26 26 Jun Jun 12. 12, CAB CAB 37/111/82; 37/111/82; Churchill, Churchill, “The “The Naval Naval Situation Situation Ill,” III,” 25 25 Jun Jun 12, 12, CAB CAB 37/111/80. 37/111/80. 138. 138. Churchill Churchill to to Troubridge, Troubridge, 11 Feb Feb 12, 12, ADM ADM 116/3099; 116/3099; Churchill Churchill to to Grey, Grey, 31 31 Jan Jan 12, 12, Churchill Churchill YS, YS, C2, c.2, 1504. 1504. 139. 139. lbid. Ibid. 140. 140. Fisher Fisher to to Churchill, Churchill, 55 Mar Mar 12, 12, FGDN, FGDN, II, Il, 437. 437.

141. 141. Bridgeman Bridgeman to to Churchill, Churchill, 21 21 May May 12, 12, £50, f.50, Chart Chart 13/9. 13/9. 142. 142. Esher Esher to to Spender, Spender, 5 5 Jun Jun 12, 12, f.80, f.80, Add Add Mss Mss 46392. 46392. 143. 143. Troubridge Troubridge to to Churchill, Churchill, 77 Feb Feb 12, 12, ADM ADM 116/3099. 116/3099. 144. 144. lbid. Ibid. 145. 145. Churchill, Churchill, 14 14 Feb Feb 12, 12, CAB CAB 37/109/21. 37/109/21. 146. 146. Churchill Churchill to to War War Staff, Staff, 15 15 Feb Feb 12, 12, f.20, f.20, ADM ADM 116/3099. 116/3099. 147. 147. Churchill, Churchill, “Naval “Naval Situation Situation in in the the Mediterranean,” Mediterranean,” Churchill, Churchill, 15 15 Jun Jun 12, 12, p. p. 1, 1, CAB CAB 37/111/76. 37/111/76. 148. 148. Churchill Churchill to to War War Staff, Staff, 15 15 Feb Feb 12, 12, f.20, f.20, ADM ADM 116/3099. 116/3099.

149. 149. Churchill, Churchill, “The “The Naval Naval Situation,” Situation,” 22 22 Jun Jun 12, 12, p. p. 2, 2, CAB CAB 37/111/78. 37/111/78. 150. 150. Capt. Capt. John John Dumaresq Dumaresq to to Tupper, Tupper, 28 28 Dec Dec 13, 13, Tupper Tupper Mss Mss [Portsmouth [Portsmouth Naval Naval Museum]. Museum]. 151. 151. Battenberg Battenberg to to Churchill, Churchill, 10 10 Jul Jul 12, 12, £1, f.1, CAB CAB 1/33. 1/33.

152. 152. Parliamentary Parliamentary Debates, Debates, 5th Sth series, series, vol. vol. 35 35 (1912), (1912), 1556, 1556, 1563-68. 1563-68, Churchill, Churchill, 18 18 Mar Mar 12. 12.

153. 153. Marder, Marder, FDSF, F'DSF, l,I, 287—88; 287-88; Admiralty, Admiralty, Report Report of of interview interview with with the the French French minister minister of of marine, marine, Adm. Adm. Boue Boue de de Lapreyere, Lapreyere, 21 21 Jan Jan 12, 12, ADM ADM 116/3109. 116/3109. 154. 154. Parliamentary Parliamentary Debates, Debates, 5th oth series, series, vol. vol. 35 35 (1912),1556, (1912), 1556, 1563-68, 1563-68, Churchill, Churchill, 18 18 Mar Mar 12. 12. 155. 155. Churchill, Churchill, World World Crisis, Crisis, 101. 101. Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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'\ ™~

253—256 Pages 253-256 to Pages Notes to Notes

381 381

1563—68, 1556, 1563-68, (1912), 1556, 35 (1912), vol. 35 series, vol. 5th series, Debates, 5th Parliamentary Debates, 156. Parliamentary 156. Churchill, Churchill, 18 18 Mar Mar 12. 12.

on Mediterranean on the Mediterranean of the Evacuation of British Evacuation of aa British “Effect of Office, “Effect Foreign Office, 157. Foreign 157. Question of of Foreign Foreign Policy,” Policy,” 88 May May 12, 12, ADM ADM 116/3099. 116/3099. Question

158. 158. Halpern, Halpern, Mediterranean, Mediterranean, 21-23. 21-23. upon Mediterranean upon the Mediterranean power inin the Sea power of Sea Loss of of Loss “Effect of Office, “Effect War Office, 159. War 159. British British Military Military Strategy,” Strategy,” 99 May May 1912, 1912, Asquith Asquith Mss Mss 107. 107. 160. 160. For For Esher’s Esher’s views views see see Brett, Brett, Esher, Esher, vol. vol. 3, 3, especially especially Esher Esher to to Balfour. Balfour,

11 Jul Jul 12, 12, ill, Ill, 95-98. 95-98. 99—100. lll, 99-100. Esher, III, Brett, Esher, Brett), Brett, V. Brett), (M. V. son (M. his son to his Esher to 161. Esher 161. 162. 162. Esher Esher to to Fisher, Fisher, 20 20 Apr Apr 12, 12, Brett, Brett, Esher, Esher, Ill, Ill, 88. 88.

46392. Mss 46392. Add Mss f.80, Add Mss, f.80, Spender Mss, f.80, Spender 12, f.80, Jun 12, Spender, 55 Jun to Spender, Esher to 163. Esher 163. 164. 164. Esher Esher to to Balfour, Balfour, 23 23 Jul Jul 12, 12, Brett, Brett, Esher, Esher, lll, Ill, 103. 103. 165. 165. Churchill, Churchill, “Secret” “Secret” [Navy [Navy Expenditure], Expenditure], 3 3 Feb Feb 11, 11, CAB CAB 37/105/7; 37/105/7; Churchill, Churchill, “The “The Mediterranean Mediterranean Fleet,” Fleet,” 15 15 Mar Mar 11, 11, CAB CAB 37/105/27. 37/105/27. 166. Nicholas Nicholas Lambert, Lambert, “Economy “Economy or or Empire,” Empire,” 55-84. 55—84. 166.

167. 167. Esher Esher to to Spender, Spender, 5 5 Jun Jun 12, 12, f.80, f.80, Spender Spender Mss, Mss, f.80, f.80, Add Add Mss Mss 46392; 46392; Nicholas Nicholas Lambert, Lambert, “Economy “Economy or or Empire,” Empire,” 55—84. 55-84.

168. Esher Esher to to Balfour, Balfour, 11 Jul Jul 12, 12, Brett, Brett, Esher, Esher, III, Ill, 96. 96. 168. 169. Churchill Churchill to to Haldane, Haldane, 66 May May 12, 12, Haldane Haldane Mss Mss cited cited in in YS, Y8, c3, c3, 1549. 1549. 169. from reaction from hostile reaction the hostile for the 13/5; for Chart 13/5; 12, Chart Apr 12, 14 Apr Asquith, 14 to Asquith, Churchill to 170. Churchill 170. Australia see see Lambert, Lambert, “Economy “Economy or or Empire,” Empire,” 74-75. 74—75. Australia

171. 171. lbid. Ibid. Foreign the Foreign to the undersecretary to (permanent undersecretary Nicholson (permanent Arthur Nicholson Sir Arthur 172. Sir 172. Office) Office) to to Sir Sir Francis Francis Bertie, Bertie, 6 6 May May 12, 12, cited cited in in G.P. G.P. Gooch Gooch & & H. H. Temperley, Temperley, volume xx 1926-38), volume (London, 1926-38), War (London, the War of the Origins of the Origins on the Documents on British Documents British (part (part 2), 2), 584. 584. Keith also Keith see also 800/94; see FO 800/94; Mss, FO Grey Mss, f.94, Grey 12, f.94, May 12, Grey, 66 May to Grey, Nicholson to 173. Nicholson 173. Neilson, Neilson, The The Last Last Tsar, Tsar, 326. 326. 174. 174. Williamson, Williamson, Grand Grand Strategy, Strategy, 269—72. 269-72. Apr 27 Apr Troubridge, 27 to Troubridge, Hankey to reply Hankey and reply 12, and Apr 12, 25 Apr Hankey, 25 to Hankey, Churchill to 175. Churchill 175.

12, 12, ADM ADM 116/3099. 116/3099. 580—81. Documents, 580-81. British Documents, 12, British Apr 12, 30 Apr Grey, 30 to Grey, Hankey to 176.‘ Hankey 176. 1553. c3, 1553. YS, c3, Churchill, YS, 12, Churchill, May 12, 15 May Fisher, 15 to Fisher, Churchill to 177. Churchill 177. 178. Enclosure Enclosure 2, 2, ibid. ibid. 178.

179. 179. Asquith Asquith to to Churchill, Churchill, 10 10 May May 12, 12, Churchill, Churchill, YS, YS, 03, c3, 1552. 1552. 180. 180. Esher Esher journals, journals, 6 6 Jun Jun 12, 12, Esher Esher Mss Mss 2/12. 2/12. 13/9. Chart 13/9. f.50, Chart 12, f.50, May 12, 21 May Churchill, 21 to Churchill, Bridgeman to 181. Bridgeman 181. Society: Records Society: Naval Records vols.; Naval (2 vols.; Papers (2 Beatty Papers The Beatty ed., The Ranft, ed., Brian Ranft, 182. Brian 182. 1918. December 1918. Admiralty, December to Admiralty, Beatty to 16—19. Beatty vol. 2,2, 16-19. 1990—1994), vol. London, 1990-1994), London, 1/33. CAB 1/33. f.237, CAB 12, £.237, Jun 12, Bridgeman, 11 Jun to Bridgeman, Churchill to telegram, Churchill Draft telegram, 183. Draft 183. 19—30. Mediterranean, 19-30. Halpern, Mediterranean, 184. Halpern, 184. 1/33. CAB 1/33. f.237, CAB 12, f.237, Jun 12, Bridgeman, 11 Jun to Bridgeman, Churchill to telegram, Churchill Draft telegram, 185. Draft 185. 186. Ibid. Ibid. 186. 1/33. CAB 1/33. f.189, CAB 12, f.189, Jun 12, Churchill, 11 Jun to Churchill, Bridgeman to 187. Bridgeman 187. CAB 1/33. f.237, CAB 12, f.237, Jun 1 Bridgeman, to ohgalgerteleflaménilhurchill Lambert, “118385” 188. Draft telegram, Churchill to Bridgeman, 1 Jun 12, vo E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Notes to to Pages Pages 256—262 256-262 Notes

189. Bridgeman, Bridgeman, “Mediterranean,” “Mediterranean,” 9 9 Jun Jun 12, 12, f.53-57 f£.53-57 ADM ADM 116/3099. 116/3099. 189. 190. 190. Ibid. lbid. 191. 191. lbid. Ibid. 192. 192. lbid. Ibid. 193. Minute Minute (25 (25 Jun Jun 13) 13) by by Churchill, Churchill, p. p. 242, 242, FLM, FLM, Admiralty Admiralty Library. Library. 193. 194. 194. Kitchener Kitchener to to Grey, Grey, 22 Jun Jun 12, 12, cited cited in in British British Documents, Documents, x, x, part part 2, 2, 594. 094. 195. 195. lbid., Ibid., enclosure. enclosure. 196. 196. Nicholson Nicholson to to Grey, Grey, 30 30 Jun Jun 12, 12, f.115, f.115, Grey Grey Mss, Mss, F0 FO 800/94. 800/94. 197. 197. McKenna, McKenna, [The [The Mediterranean Mediterranean Situation], Situation], 24 24 Jun Jun 12, 12, CAB CAB 37/111/79. 37/111/79. 198. 198. Churchill, Churchill, “Naval “Naval Situation Situation in in the the Mediterranean,” Mediterranean,” Churchill, Churchill, 15 15 Jun Jun 12, 12, p. p. 1, 1, CAB CAB 37/111/76. 37/111/76. 199. 199. lbid., Ibid., p. p. 2. 2. 200. 200. Churchill, Churchill, “Naval “Naval Situation Situation in in the the Mediterranean,” Mediterranean,” 15 15 Jun Jun 12, 12, CAB CAB 37/111/76. 37/111/76. 201. lbid. Ibid. 201. 202. 202. lbid. Ibid. 203. 203. Churchill, Churchill, Cabinet Cabinet paper paper marked marked “Not “Not Circulated,” Circulated,” 6 6 Jul Jul 12, 12, p. p. 2, 2, CAB CAB 37/111/89. 37/111/89. 204. 204. McKenna, McKenna, [The [The Mediterranean Mediterranean Situation], Situation], 24 24 Jun Jun 12, 12, CAB CAB 37/111/79. 37/111/79. 205. 205. Fisher Fisher to to '?, ?, 21 21 Jun Jun 12, 12, cited cited in in Bacon, Bacon, Lord Lord Fisher, Fisher, II, Il, 154. 154.

206. 206. Nicholson Nicholson to to Grey, Grey, 21 21 Jun Jun 12, 12, f.112, f.112, Grey Grey Mss, Mss, F0 FO 800/94. 800/94. 207. 207. lbid. Ibid. 208. 208. Minutes Minutes of of 117 117 meeting meeting of of ClD, CID, 4 4 Jul Jul 12, 12, CABZ/2. CAB2/2. 209. 209. Fisher Fisher to to Cecil Cecil Fisher, Fisher, 55 Jul Jul 12, 12, FGDN, FGDN, II, Il, 470; 470; Esher, Esher, Journals, Journals, 5 5 Jul Jul 12, 12, Esher Esher M88. Mss. 210. 210. Halpern, Halpern, Mediterranean, Mediterranean, chap. chap. 2. 2. 211. 211. Ibid., [bid., 35. 35. 212. 212. Fisher Fisher to to Cecil Cecil Fisher, Fisher, 66 May May 12, 12, FGDN, FGDN, ll, Il, 460. 460. Just Just before before the the meetmeeting ing Fisher Fisher sent sent Churchill Churchill aa memorandum memorandum suggesting suggesting that that British British flotilla flotilla craft craft operating operating from from Malta Malta should should try try to to stop stop all all merchant merchant traffic traffic in in the the region; region; see see

Fisher, Fisher, “Battleships “Battleships and and Trade Trade in in the the Mediterranean," Mediterranean,” n/d n/d [June [June 1912], 1912], f.196, f.196, CAB CAB 1/33; 1/33; for for edited edited copy copy see: see: Fisher Fisher to to Stamfordham, Stamfordham, 25 25 Jun Jun 12, 12, enclosure, enclosure, FGDN, FGDN, II, Il, 469. 469.

213. 213. Minutes Minutes of of 117th 117th meeting meeting of of cm CID 44 Jul Jul 12, 12, CAB CAB 2/3. 2/3. 214. 214. lbid. Ibid. 215. 215. lbid. Ibid.

216. 216. Fisher Fisher to to Cecil Cecil Fisher, Fisher, 55 Jul Jul 12, 12, FGDN, FGDN, ll, Ul, 470; 470; Esher Esher to to Balfour, Balfour, 23 23 Jul Jul 12, 12, Brett, Brett, Esher, Esher, III, Ill], 103. 103.

217. 217. Fisher Fisher to to Cecil Cecil Fisher, Fisher, 55 Jul Jul 12, 12, FGDN, FGDN, ll, Il, 470. 470. 218. 218. Diary Diary entry, entry, 4 4 Jul Jul 12, 12, Grant-Duff Grant-Duff Mss, Mss, DC/MlSC/77. DC/MISC/77. 219. 219. See See memorandum memorandum by by Battenberg, Battenberg, 77 Jul Jul 12, 12, MB1/I‘20/1033, MB1/T20/103B, Battenberg Battenberg Mss. Mss. 220. 220. Diary Diary entry, entry, 4 4 Jul Jul 12, 12, Grant-Duff Grant-Duff Mss, Mss, DC/MlSC/77. DC/MISC/77.

221. 221. Minutes Minutes of of 117th 117th meeting meeting of of CID CID 44 Jul Jul 12, 12, CAB CAB 2/3. 2/3.

222. 222. Memorandum Memorandum by by Battenberg, Battenberg, 77 Jul Jul 12, 12, MBl/l‘20/1038, MB1/T20/103B, Battenberg Battenberg Mss. Mss. 223. 223. lbid. Ibid. Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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383 383

224. 224. Ibid. Ibid. 225. Beatty Beatty to to his his Wife, Wife, 24 24 May May 12, 12, cited cited in in Ranft, Ranft, Beatty Beatty Papers, Papers, I, I, 46. 46. 225. 226. 226. Halpern, Halpern, Mediterranean, Mediterranean, 39—40. 39-40. 227. 227. Asquith Asquith to to the the King, King, 16 16 Jul Jul 12, 12, f.156—157, f.156—157, Asquith Asquith Mss Mss 6, 6, NB. N.B. secret secret enclosure. enclosure. the at the met at Churchill met and Churchill Borden and 73—74; Borden Empire,” 73-74; or Empire,” “Economy or 228. Lambert, “Economy 228. Lambert,

Spithead Spithead review review on on 9th 9th July July 1912. 1912. 229. 229. Williamson, Williamson, Grand Grand Strategy, Strategy 286-91. 286—91. 230. Sandars Sandars to to Balfour, Balfour, 10 10 Oct Oct 12, 12, f.27, f.27, Add Add Mss Mss 49768. 49768. 230. 231. 231. Pencil Pencil note note by by Churchill Churchill on on paper paper outlining outlining list list of of appointments, appointments, f.68, f.68, 13/1. Chart Chart 13/1. 232. Admiralty Admiralty to to C-in-C, C-in-C, 23 23 Aug Aug 11, 11, f£.8, f8, ADM ADM 1377/1936. 137/1936. 232. Ibid. 233. 233. Ibid. 234. Callaghan Callaghan to to Admiralty, Admiralty, 99 Jan Jan 12, 12, enclosing enclosing “War “War Plans Plans pages pages 11 to to 24— 24— 234. Remarks by by the the C. C. in in C. C. H.F.,” H.F.,” hand-written hand-written secret secret enclosure enclosure entitled entitled VII, Vll, War War Remarks Stations, Stations, p. p. 10, 10, “Watch “Watch on on German German Rivers,” Rivers,” ADM ADM 116/3096. 116/3096. 235. Admiralty Admiralty to to Callaghan, Callaghan, 99 Apr Apr 12 12 (M001/12), (M001/12), ADM ADM 116/3096. 116/3096. 235. ibid. 13, ibid. Jan 13, 18 Jan M0025, 18 on M0025, issued on Plans issued 236. War Plans 236. War

237. D’Ombrain, D’Ombrain, “The “The Military Military Departments Departments and and the the Committee Committee of of Imperial imperial 237. 295—99. Defence,” Defence,” 295-99.

238. Mar 12,’ 12, ADM ADM 116/3096. 116/3096. 238. Troubridge Troubridge to to Bridgeman, Bridgeman, 88 Mar 239. 239. Drafts Drafts of of War War Staff, Staff, “Memorandum “Memorandum Approved Approved for for issue issue to to Flag Flag officers,” officers,” 116/3096. ADM 116/3096. issued), ADM not issued), (marked not 15 12. (marked Apr 12. 15 Apr 240. Admiralty, Admiralty, “Memorandum “Memorandum Approved Approved for for issue issue to to flag flag officers,” officers,” dated dated 15 15 240. Apr 12, 12, but but never never issued, issued, ADM ADM 116/3096; 116/3096; Battenherg Battenberg to to Churchill, Churchill, 10 10 Jul Apr Jul 12; 12; Chart 12, fl, f.1, CAB CAB 1/32; 1/32; Churchill, Churchill, “Notes “Notes Chart 13/13, 13/13, Churchill Churchill to to Bridgeman, Bridgeman, 27 27 Sep Sep 12, on on the the Manoeuvres Manoeuvres prepared prepared for for the the PM PM by by the the First First Lord, Lord, 17 17 Oct Oct 13, 13, ADM ADM 116/3381. 116/3381. 241. Minute Minute (11 (11 Mar Mar 13) 13) by by Jackson, Jackson, on on “Remarks “Remarks on on War War Plans Plans and and on on the the 241. First Lord’s Lord’s Notes Notes on on the the Subject,” Subject,” f.199, f.199, ADM ADM 116/3412. 116/3412. First 242. Churchill Churchill to to Clementine Clementine Churchill, Churchill, 25 25 Mar Mar 12, 12, YS, YS, 03, c3, 1529. 1529. 242. 243. First First draft draft of of World World Crisis, Crisis, f.4, f.4, Chart Chart 8/60. 8/60. 243. 244. 244. Some Some historians historians have have mistakenly mistakenly argued argued that that this this intermediate intermediate blockade blockade strategy was was adopted; adopted; see see Marder, Marder, FDSF, FDSF, i.i. 372; 372; Richard Richard Hough, Hough, The The Great Great War War strategy 1983). at (Oxford, 1983). Sea (Oxford, at Sea 245. 245. Telegram Telegram (24 (24 May May 12) 12) from from Churchill Churchill to to Admiralty, Admiralty, f.1, f.1, ADM ADM 116/1169; 116/1169; Bridgeman to to Troubridge, Troubridge, 25 25 May May 12, 12, 86, B6, Troubridge Troubridge Mss Mss (NMM). (NMM). Bridgeman 246. Memorandum Memorandum by by Troubridge Troubridge for for the the First First Sea Sea Lord, Lord, 26—30 26-30 May May 1912, 1912, in in 246.

116/1169. ADM 116/1169. Troubridge’s f.1, ADM handwriting, f.1, Troubridge's handwriting, 247. Diary Diary entry entry 25 25 Apr Apr 12, 12, Grant-Duff Grant-Duff Mss, Mss, DC/MlSC/77. DC/MISC/77. 247. 248. Churchill, Churchill, World World Crisis, Crisis, 153. 153. 248. 249. Churchill Churchill to to Clementine Clementine Churchill, Churchill, 24 24 Mar Mar 12, 12, ibid. ibid. 249. 290. Churchill, Churchill, first first draft draft of of World World Crisis, Crisis, f.4, f.4, Chart Chart 8/60; 8/60; Churchill Churchill to to 250. preManoeuvres preBridgeman, the Manoeuvres on the “Notes on Churchill, “Notes 13/13; Churchill, Chart 13/13; 12, Chart Sep 12, 27 Sep Bridgeman, 27 pared for for the the PM PM by by the the First First Lord, Lord, 17 17 Oct Oct 13, 13, ADM ADM 116/3381. 116/3381. pared

291. Churchill to Battenberg, 18 Sep 12, f.212, Chart 13/22B.

25itrhnwnrenberg. 18 Sep 12, £212. Chart 13/223.

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264—267 Pages 264-267 to Pages Notes to Notes

1633. 03, 1633. YS, c3, 12, YS, Aug 12, 15 Aug Asquith, 15 to Asquith, 252. Churchill to 252. Churchill illness Bridgeman’s illness to Bridgeman’s [reference to n/d [reference Churchill, n/d to Churchill, Battenberg to lbid.; Battenberg 253. Ibid.; 253. CAB replacements, CAB possible replacements, discussing possible 1912], discussing Sep 1912], or Sep Aug or to Aug dates paper to this paper dates this

Churchill 13/22B; Churchill Chart 13/22B; £212, Chart 12, f.212, Sep 12, 18 Sep Battenberg, 18 to Battenberg, Churchill to 1/34; also Churchill See also 1/34; See (NMM). Mss (NMM). Troubridge Mss C2, Troubridge 12, C2, Nov 12, 14 Nov to Troubridge, 14 to Troubridge, by note by also note see also 69—70; see Bridgeman,” 69-70; Francis Bridgeman,” Sir Francis “Admiral Sir Lambert, “Admiral 254. Lambert, 254. 765. Mss 765. Sandars Mss £22, Sandars 12, f.22, Dec 12, Sandars, 55 Dec to Sandars, Balcarres) to of Balcarres) Lindsay of (Lord Lindsay “Bal” (Lord “Bal” 255. Ibid. lbid. 255. “Remarks Ballard, “Remarks 116/866B; Ballard, ADM 116/866B; 1912, ADM Sept. 1912, 256. memorandum, Sept. Ballard, memorandum, 256. Ballard, ADM £204, ADM 13, f.204, Feb 13, 17 Feb Battenberg, 17 to Battenberg, Churchill to on Churchill 1913], on [March 1913], n/d [March D.0.D.,” n/d by D.O.D.,” by 116/3412. 116/3412. 1913—North Manoeuvres, 1913—North “Naval Manoeuvres, in “Naval 13, in Aug 13, 28 Aug Admiralty, 28 to Admiralty, 257. Callaghan to 257. Callaghan 116/3130. ADM 116/3130. Strategy,” ADM Sea Strategy,” Sea Orders War Orders on War Remarks on Sea: Remarks North Sea: the North in the force in “Observation force Ballard, “Observation 258. Ballard, 258.

for, for, in in connection connection with with lessons lessons of of 1912 1912 manoeuvres,” manoeuvres,” 16 16 Sep Sep 12, 12, ADM ADM 116/866B; 116/866B; (NMM). Mss (NMM). Troubridge Mss B6, Troubridge 12, B6, Dec 12, Troubridge, 66 Dec to Troubridge, Bridgeman to Bridgeman 4/3. Mss 4/3. Esher Mss 11, Esher Oct 11, Esher, 88 Oct to Esher, Ottley to 259. Ottley 259. 260. Hankey Hankey to to Esher, Esher, 55 Oct Oct 11, 11, Esher Esher Mss Mss 4/3. 4/3. 260. 261. Confidential Confidential reports reports on on G. G. A. A. Ballard Ballard by by Beresford Beresford and and Callaghan, Callaghan, f.29, f.29, 261. ADM ADM 196/90. 196/90. 262. 262. Grant-Duff Grant-Duff diary, diary, n/d n/d (after (after entry entry of of 25 25 Aug11), Augi1), Grant-Duff Grant-Duff Mss, Mss, DC/MlSC/77. DC/MISC/77. 1321. 1300, 1321. CB, 1300, YS, c3, 11, YS, Nov 11, 11, 44 Nov Oct, 11, 26 Oct, Churchill, 26 to Churchill, Fisher to 263. Fisher 263. to Churchill to see: Churchill selection see: Troubridge’s selection in Troubridge’s responsibility in Churchill’s responsibility For Churchill’s 264. For 264. Battenberg, | Mss. Battenberg Mss. MBl/l‘9/43, Battenberg 11, MB1/T9/43, Nov 11, 19 Nov Battenberg, 19 265. Asquith Asquith to to Troubridge, Troubridge, 11 Sep Sep 10, 10, Al, A1, Troubridge Troubridge Mss Mss (NMM). (NMM). 265. DC/MlSC/77. Mss, DC/MISC/77. Grant-Duff Mss, 12, Grant-Duff Apr 12, 25 Apr entry 25 Diary entry 266. Diary 266. 267. 267. Diary Diary entry entry 11 11 Oct Oct 12, 12, ibid. ibid. 13/22B. Chart 13/22B. f.212, Chart 13, f.212, Sep 13, 18 Sep Battenberg, 18 to Battenberg, Churchill to 268. Churchill 268. 269. 269. lbid., Ibid., 2-3. 2-3. of admiral of appointed admiral was appointed Ballard was captain, Ballard only aa captain, still only being still Despite being 270. Despite 270. patrols patrols in in succession succession to to Rear Rear Adm. Adm. John John de de Robeck: Robeck: Navy Navy List, List, June June 1914. 1914. 271. 271. lbid. Ibid. 272. 272. Admiralty Admiralty to to C. C. in in C., C., 16 16 Dec Dec 12, 12, enclosing enclosing drafi; draft War War Orders Orders on on M0020. M0020, f.47, f.47, ADM ADM 116/3412. 116/3412. 273. 273. Admiralty, Admiralty, War War Orders, Orders, “Part “Part 1—Ceneral 1—General Instructions,” Instructions,” f.10, f.10, ADM ADM 116/3412. 116/3412. 274. 274. Churchill Churchill to to Asquith, Asquith, “Notes “Notes on on the the Manoeuvres Manoeuvres Prepared Prepared for for the the PM PM by by the the First First Lord,” Lord,” 17 17 Oct Oct 12, 12, ADM ADM 116/3381. 116/3381.

275. 275. Admiralty, Admiralty, “War “War Plans Plans & & War War Orders,” Orders,” part part 1, 1, November November 1912, 1912, 25 25 Nov Nov 12, 12, ADM ADM 116/3412. 116/3412. The The draft draft War War Orders Orders in in force force from from April April to to November November cancannot not be be located; located; they they may may never never have have existed. existed. 276. Ballard, Ballard, “Remarks “Remarks by by D.O.D.,” D.O.D.,” n/d n/d [March [March 1913], 1913], f.204, £204, ADM ADM 116/3412, 116/3412, 276. 277. Beatty, Beatty, notes, notes, n/d n/d [1913], [1913], f.188, f.188, ADM ADM 116/3412. 116/3412. N.B., N.B., Beatty Beatty was was sucsuc277. 13. Jan 13. on 88 Jan secretary on naval secretary as naval ceeded as ceeded 278. Ibid. Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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385 385

279. 279. Churchill Churchill to to Battenberg, Battenberg, 17 17 Feb Feb 13, 13, f.190, f.190, ADM ADM 116/3412; 116/3412; and and testimotestimony ny of of Churchill Churchill to to the the CID CID invasion invasion enquiry, enquiry, 3 3 Dec Dec 13, 13, p. p. 310 310 (0.2655), (Q.2655), CAB CAB 16/28A. 16/28A. 280. Bridgeman Bridgeman to to Troubridge, Troubridge, 26 26 Nov Nov 12 12 and and 66 Dec Dec 12, 12, B6, B6, Troubridge Troubridge Mss Mss 280. (NMM). (NMM)._

_.

281. Jackson, Jackson, “Remarks “Remarks on on War War Plans Plans and and on on the the First First Lord’s Lord’s Notes Notes on on the the 281. Subject," Subject,” 11 11 Mar Mar 13, 13, f.194, f£.194, ADM ADM 116/3412. 116/3412. 282. 282. ibid. Ibid. 283. 283. Marder, Marder, FDSF. FDSF, l, I, 354—57. 354-57. 284. 284. Seely Seely to to Asquith, Asquith, 3 3 Jan Jan 13, 13, f.13—15, f.13-15, Mottistone Mottistone Mss Mss 13 13 [Papers [Papers of of Jack Jack

Seely, Seely, Nuffield Nuffield College, College, Oxford]. Oxford]. 285. 285. Jackson, Jackson, “Remarks “Remarks on on War War Plans Plans and and on on the the First First Lord’s Lord’s Notes Notes on on the the Subject,” Subject,” 11 11 Mar Mar 13, 13, f.194, f.194, ADM ADM 116/3412. 116/3412. 286. 286. Ibid. Ibid. 287. 287. Ibid. Ibid. 288. 288. Ibid. Ibid. 289. 289. Ballard, Ballard, “Remarks “Remarks by by D.0.D.,” D.O.D.,” Ballard, Ballard, n/d n/d [March {March 1913], 1913], f.201, f.201, ibid.; ibid.: Ballard, Ballard, “Memorandum “Memorandum on on Seizure Seizure of of Advanced Advanced Base,” Base,” n/d, n/d, f.296, f.296, ADM ADM 116/866B. 116/866B. 290. 290. Richmond, Richmond, “Remarks “Remarks on on First First Lord’s Lord’s Paper,” Paper,” unsigned unsigned [but [but Richmond’s Richmond’s handwriting], handwriting], n/d n/d [March [March 1913], 1913], f.205, f.205, ADM ADM 116/3412; 116/3412; the the three three staff staff assessassessments ments are are quoted quoted at at length length in in Marder, Marder, FDSF, FDSF, I, I, 372-400. 372-400. 291. 291. Fisher Fisher to to Churchill, Churchill, 24 24 Apr Apr 13, 13, f.12, f.12, Chart Chart 13/21. 13/21. 292. 292. Mackay, Mackay, Kilverstone, Kilverstone, 456; 456; Admiralty Admiralty to to Bayly, Bayly, 31 31 Jan Jan 13, 13, ADM ADM 137/452. 137/452. 293. 293. Minute Minute (26 (26 Mar Mar 13) 13) by by Jackson Jackson to to Battenberg, Battenberg, on on “Points “Points raised raised by by C. C. in in C. C. Home Home Fleet,” Fleet,” MBI/T23/184, MB1/T23/184, Battenberg Battenberg Mss; Mss; Jackson Jackson to to Battenberg, Battenberg, 55 Apr Apr 13, 13, MB1/F23/199, MB1/T23/199, ibid. ibid. 294. 294. Beatty Beatty to to Churchill Churchill [7 [7 Apr Apr 12], 12], Ranft, Ranft, Beatty Beatty Papers. Papers, I, 1, 44—45; 44-45; Beatty Beatty to to Churchill Churchill [7 [7 Apr Apr 12], 12], cited cited in in Ranft, Ranft, Beatty Beatty Papers, Papers, I, 1, 44—45; 44-45; There There is is a a remarkremarkable able similarity similarity of of the the language language in in this this document document and and that that in in Churchill’s Churchill's letter letter to to Battenberg Battenberg of of 17 17 Feb Feb 13; 13; see see also also Hankey Hankey to to Churchill, Churchill, 9 9 Sep Sep 13, 13, f.51, f.51, CAB CAB 1/32. 1/32. 295. Ballard Ballard to to Jackson, Jackson, 10 10 Jul Jul 13, 13, ADM ADM 137/452. 137/452. 295. 296. 296. Callaghan Callaghan to to Admiralty, Admiralty, 3 3 Oct Oct 13, 13, enclosing enclosing paper paper on on “Employment “Employment of of Destroyers,” Destroyers,” MB1/I‘26/240, MB1/T26/240, Battenberg Battenberg Mss. Mss. 297. Testimony Testimony by by Churchill Churchill to to Invasion Invasion Enquiry Enquiry 1913, 1913, 33 Dec Dec 13, 13, Q.2655, 0.2655, p.p. 297. 310, 310, CAB CAB 16/28A. 16/28A. 298. 298. Minutes Minutes (27 (27 Jul Jul 14) 14) by by Jackson Jackson on on “Plan “Plan L” L” (a) (a) and and (b) (b) f.15, f.15, ADM ADM 137/0968; 137/0968; Churchill Churchill to to Battenberg, Battenberg, 11 11 Jun Jun 14, 14, ADM ADM 116/3096. 116/3096. 299. 299. Ballard, Ballard, “Observation “Observation Force Force in in the the North North Sea,” Sea,” 16 16 Sep Sep 12, 12, p. p. 3, 3, f.290, f.290, ADM ADM 116/866B. 116/866B. 300. Ibid. Ibid. 300. 301. 301. Minutes Minutes (6 (6 Feb Feb 13) 13) by by Ballard Ballard and and (11 (11 Feb Feb 13) 13) by by Jackson, Jackson, on on

“Proposals “Proposals for for the the use use of of Mines Mines in in anti-German anti-German War," War,” f.493, f.493, ADM ADM 116/3412. 116/3412. 2/3. CAB 2/3. 12, CAB Dec 12, CID, 66 Dec 120th CID, of 120th Minutes of 302. Minutes 302. 303. 303. Minute Minute (n/d) (n/d) by by General General David David French French (CIGS) (CIGS) on on paper paper by by Henry Henry Wilson Wilson (DMl) (DMI) addresses addresses to to Seely, Seely, 20 20 Jan Jan 13, 13, f.29, f.29, Mottistone Mottistone Mss Mss 2. 2. Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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271—276 Notes Pages 271-276 to Pages Notes to

116/3412. ADM 116/3412. f.493, ADM 304. Memorandum, f.493, Ballard, Memorandum, 304. Ballard,

f.290, 3. £.290, 12, p.p. 3, Sep 12, 16 Sep Sea,” 16 North Sea,” 305. the North Force inin the “Observation Force Ballard, “Observation 305. Ballard, ADM 116/866B. ADM 116/866B. an of an Support of in Support Mines in of Mines Use of the Use 306. Regarding the Proposals Regarding “Secret Proposals Ballard, “Secret 306. Ballard, approval Board approval For Board 116/3412. For ADM 116/3412. Offensive £542, ADM 13, £.542, Feb 13, Plan,” 66 Feb Strategic Plan,” Offensive Strategic see ibid.; see 542, ibid.; f.504, 542, M0033/13) f.504, see (Letter M0033/13) 13 (Letter Apr 13 23 Apr Callaghan, 23 to Callaghan, Admiralty to see Admiralty

MBl/l‘23/199. Mss MB1/T23/199. Battenberg Mss also 13, Battenberg Apr 13, Battenberg, 55 Apr to Battenberg, Jackson to also Jackson

instructions to instructions referring to 307. hydrographer, referring chief hydrographer, by chief 13) by Nov 13) (21 Nov Minute (21 307. Minute ibid. f.500, ibid. dated September, f.500, 22 September, dated 22 328—29. 308. FDSF, I,I, 328-29. Marder, FDSF, 308. Marder, 152. Crisis, 152. 309. World Crisis, Churchill, World 309. Churchill, 313 p. 313 13, p. Dec 13, 1913, 33 Dec Enquiry 1913, 310. Invasion Enquiry to Invasion Churchill to by Churchill Testimony by 310. Testimony 16/28A. (Q.2672) CAB 16/28A. (0.2672) CAB (0.2655). 311. 310—311 (Q.2655). pp. 310-311 lbid., pp. 311. Ibid.,

Revolution Chapter The Revolution Nine: The Chapter Nine:

WD NS nm ok Oomon CDQ-QUDCNJROON

1563—68, 1556, 1563-68, (1912), 1556, 35 (1912), 1.1. Parliamentary vol. 35 series, vol. 5th series, Debates, 5th Parliamentary Debates, Churchill, 18 18 Mar Mar 12. 12. Churchill, 1655. c3. 1655. YS, c3, 12, YS, Oct 12, .. Sandars 16 Oct Balfour, 16 to Balfour, Sandars to .. Ibid. Ibid. 2/2. CAB 2/2. 12, CAB Jul 12, .. Minutes CID, 44 Jul of CID, meeting of 117th meeting of 117th Minutes of 1655. c3, 1655. YS, c3, .. Sandars 12, YS, Oct 12, 16 Oct Balfour, 16 to Balfour, Sandars to Library. Admiralty Library. FLM, Admiralty .. Churchill 114—16, FLM, pp. 114-16, 12, pp. Oct 12, 27 Oct Moore, 27 to Moore, Churchill to 16. table 16. .. Sumida, Defence, table In Defence, Sumida, In 37/111/92. CAB 37/111/92. 12, CAB Jul 12, 12 Jul .. Churchill George, 12 Lloyd George, to Lloyd Churchill to 1658. CS, 1658. YS, c3, 12, YS, .. Churchill Oct 12, 29 Oct George, 29 Lloyd George, to Lloyd Churchill to 1659. CS, 1659. YS, c3, 12, YS, Nov 12, 10. George, 33 Nov Lloyd George, to Lloyd Churchill to 10. Churchill pages, 35 pages, 12, 35 Oct 12, Navy,” 11 Oct 11. Pay—Royal Navy,” of Pay—Royal Scale of “Proposed Scale Churchill, “Proposed 11. Churchill, Cabinet of Cabinet series of 37 series CAB 37 the CAB in the listed in Mottistone not listed is not paper is this paper [N.B. this Mss [N.B. Mottistone Mss Papers]; Papers]; idem, idem, “Navy “Navy Pay Pay (November (November 1911)," 1911),” printed printed 7 7 Nov Nov 12, 12, P.902K. P.902K, Admiralty Library. Library. Admiralty

the to the Asquith to also Asquith 12. CAB37/111/92; also 12, CAB37/111/92; Jul 12, 12 Jul George, 12 Lloyd George, to Lloyd Churchill to 12. Churchill 6. Mss 6. Asquith Mss King, £156. Asquith 12, f.156, Jul 12, 16 Jul King, 16 13. Fisher Fisher to to Esher, Esher, 2 2 Aug Aug 12, 12, FGDN, FGDN, I, I, 475. 475. 13.

1619. c3, 1619. Y8, c3, cited inin YS, Mss, cited George Mss, 14. Lloyd George 12, Lloyd Jul 12, 16 Jul notes, 16 Cabinet notes, 14. Cabinet ibid. note, ibid. Cabinet note, George’s Cabinet Lloyd George’s 15. on Lloyd Churchill on by Churchill 12) by Jul 12) (16 Jul Minute (16 15. Minute 16. Ibid. Ibid. 16. but costs but full costs the full of the Cabinet of the Cabinet 17. inform the to inform planned to had planned Churchill had Initially Churchill 17. Initially

later changed changed his his mind mind after after securing securing Borden’s Borden's offer. offer. See: See: Churchill Churchill to to Lloyd Lloyd later George, George, 12 12 Jul Jul 12, 12, CAB CAB 37/111/92 37/111/92 [Marked [Marked “not “not sent”]. sent”}. 18. 18. Borden Borden to to Churchill, Churchill, 3 3 Oct Oct 12, 12, 03, c3, 1650; 1650; Asquith Asquith to to Harcourt, Harcourt, 15 15 Sep Sep 12. 12, f.188, Harcourt Harcourt Mss, Mss, dep. dep. 421. 421. f.188, sent”]. [“not sent’}. CAB37/111/92 [“not 12, CAB37/111/92 19. Jul 12, 12 Jul George, 12 Lloyd George, to Lloyd Churchill to 19. Churchill 20. 20. lbid. Ibid.

21. Williams, Williams, Defending Defending the the Empire, Empire, 208-1 208-12.2. 21. Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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276-280 Pages 276-280 to Pages Notes to Notes

387 387

22. 22. Lansdowne Lansdowne to to Selborne, Selborne, 4 4 Sep Sep 12, 12, f.117, f.117, Selborne Selborne Mss Mss 79, 79, cited cited by by Williams, 209-10, 209—10, ibid. ibid. Williams, Times, the Times, in the reported in Banquet, reported Guildhall Banquet, at Guildhall given at Speech given instance: Speech For instance: 23. For 23.

206—8. Empire, 206-8. the Empire, Defending the Williams, Defending col. 2;2; Williams, 10, col. 11, p.p. 10, Nov 11, 10 Nov 10 24. Churchill Churchill to to Lloyd Lloyd George, George, 29 29 Oct Oct and and 33 Nov Nov 12, 12, YS, YS, c3, c3, 1658-60. 1658-60. 24. 25. Ballard, Ballard, “Observation “Observation force force in in the the North North Sea: Sea: Remarks Remarks on on war war orders orders 29.

116/866B. ADM 116/866B. 12, ADM Sep 12, 16 Sep manoeuvres,” 16 1912 manoeuvres,” of 1912 lessons of with lessons connection with for, inin connection for, For evidence evidence this this paper paper was was noticed noticed by by Churchill Churchill and and the the Sea Sea Lord’s Lord’s see see For Churchill to to Bridgeman, Bridgeman, 27 27 Sep Sep 12, 12, Chart Chart 13/13. 13/13. Churchill 26. 26. lbid. Ibid. 27. 27. Sandars Sandars to to Balfour, Balfour, 16 16 Oct Oct 12, 12, f.29, f.29, Add Add Mss Mss 49768. 49768. Note: Note: the the most most important part part of of this this letter letter was was deleted deleted by by Randolph Randolph Churchill Churchill (YS, (YS, c3, CB, 1655). 1655). important 28. 28. lbid. Ibid. 29. 29. Troubridge Troubridge to to de de Robeck, Robeck, 20 20 Sep Sep 12, 12, De De Robeck Robeck Mss, Mss, 3/31 3/31 [Churchill [Churchill

Cambridge]. College, Cambridge]. College, 30. Fisher Fisher to to Churchill, Churchill, 88 Nov Nov 12, 12, f.107, f.107, Chart Chart 8/177. 8/177. 30. 31. 31. lbid.; Ibid.; Fisher Fisher to to Bonar Bonar Law, Law, 27 27 Jul Jul 12, 12, Bonar Bonar Law Law Mss, Mss, 26/5/42 26/5/42 [House [House of Lords Lords Record Record Office]. Office]. of 32. 32. Milan Milan Vego, Vego, Austro-Hungarian Austro-Hungarian Naval Naval Policy, Policy, 1904—1914 1904-1914 (Frank (Frank Cass: Cass: London, London, 1996), 1996), 136; 136; Lawrence Lawrence Sondhaus, Sondhaus, The The Naval Naval Policy Policy of of Austria-Hungary Austria-Hungary, 186 7—1918: Navalism, Navalism, Industrial Industrial Development, Development, and and the the Politics Politics of of Dualism Dualism 1867-1918: (West Lafayette, Lafayette, Ind.: lnd.: Purdue Purdue U.P., UP, 1994), 1994), makes makes no no mention mention of of the the proposed proposed (West increase. increase. 33. 33. Sir Sir F. F. Cartwright Cartwright (British (British ambassador ambassador in in Vienna) Vienna) to to Foreign Foreign Office, Office, 19 19 f.304, Office, f.304, Foreign Office, to Foreign Cartwright to 12), Cartwright Oct 12), (16 Oct telegram (16 and telegram £274, and 12, £.274, Sep 12, Sep 43537, 43537, FO FO 371/1298; 371/1298; Churchill Churchill to to Lloyd Lloyd George, George, 18 18 Nov Nov 12, 12, YS, YS, c3 c3 1671; 1671; Halpern, Mediterranean, 172—74. Halpern, Mediterranean, 172-74. 34. Churchill Churchill to to Lloyd Lloyd George, George, 18 18 Nov Nov 12, 12, YS, YS, c3, c3, 1671. 1671. 34. 35. Ibid. lbid. 35. 36. Ballard, Ballard, “Considerations “Considerations as as to to the the best best composition composition of of the the 36.

Mediterranean Mediterranean fleet fleet in in 1915,.” 1915,” 20 20 Nov Nov 12, 12, £77, f.77, ADM ADM 116/3099. 116/3099. lbid. 37. Ibid. 37. 38. 38. lbid. Ibid. 39. Admiralty, Admiralty, “Reports “Reports of of the the Finance Finance Committee Committee of of the the Admiralty Admiralty on on the the 39. Sketch Sketch Navy Navy Estimates Estimates 1913—14, 1913-14, Prepared Prepared in in October-December October-December 1912,” 1912,” 19 19 Dec Dec 62972. Mss 62972. Add Mss f.140, Add 13, f.140, Apr 13, 27 Apr diary, 27 Riddle, diary, Lord Riddle, 1/8275; Lord ADM 1/8275; 12, ADM 12,

40. 40. The The original original docket docket containing containing the the minutes minutes cited cited in in the the volumes volumes of of First First Lord’s Minutes Minutes at at the the Admiralty Admiralty Library Library (see (see note note 22 above) above) isis not not in in the the Public Public Lord’s Office. Record Office. Record 41. 41. Churchill, Churchill, “New “New programme programme 1913/14,” 1913/14,” 8 8 Dec Dec 12, 12, YS, YS, c3, c3, 1695—97. 1695-97. 42. 42. lbid. Ibid.

43. 43. For For more more evidence evidence of of complaints complaints against against Churchill’s Churchill’s forcefulness forcefulness see see 254—55. Defence, 254-55. In Defence, Sumida, In Sumida,

44. 44. Extracts Extracts from from Jellicoe’s Jellicoe’s autobiographical autobiographical notes notes (Add (Add Mss Mss 49038, 49038, pp. pp. 239—50) 239-50) cited cited in in Temple Temple Patterson, Patterson, The The Jellicoe Jellicoe Papers Papers (N.R.S.: (N.R.S.: London, London, 1966), 1966), vol. 1, 27. Lambei¥(l\)licblas.’5irjohh Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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388 388

280—282 Pages 280-282 Notes to Pages Notes to

147—54. Policy, 147-54. Naval Policy, 45. Austro-Hungarian Naval Vego, Austro-Hungarian 45. Vego, f.112, 14, f.112, Jan 14, printed 11 Jan 1914/15," printed 46. Navy, 1914/15,” the Navy, of the Strength of “The Strength Churchill, “The 46. Churchill, CAB 1/32. 1/32. CAB Gilbert, Brinkley Gilbert, 62973; Brinkley Mss 62973; Add Mss 47. f.59/60, Add 13, f.59/60, Oct 13, 31 Oct diary, 31 Riddle, diary, Lord Riddle, 47. Lord 55—66. 1992), 55-66. (London, 1992), Victory (London, Lloyd of Victory Organiser of George: Organiser Lloyd George: 1914/15: Construction, 1914/15: “Submarine Construction, 48. Churchill, “Submarine by Churchill, 13) by Jun 13) (10 Jun Minute (10 48. Minute Précis of of Papers,” Papers,” Keyes Keyes Mss Mss 4/5. 4/5. Précis (includElizabeth (includQueen Elizabeth Battleship Queen 1913: Battleship 49. in 1913: warships in of warships costs of Average costs 49. Average subclass sub£125,000; EE class (average) £125,000; destroyer (average) ing class destroyer “M” class £2,760,337; “M” outfits) £2,760,337; ing outfits) marine (E17 (E178: E18), £105,560. £105,560. marine & E18), pré1914—15: préConstruction 1914-15: “Submarine Construction Moore, “Submarine 50. by Moore, 13) by Jun 13) (12 Jun Minute (12 50. Minute cis of of papers,” papers,” Keyes Keyes Mss Mss 4/5. 4/5. cis J. also J. See also 741; See Mss 741; Vickers Mss 13, Vickers 51. Aug 13, 20 Aug Dawson, 20 to Dawson, Keyes to 51. Keyes R.Wardropper R.Wardropper (works (works superintendent superintendent at at the the Vickers Vickers diesel diesel engine engine plant) plant) to to J.J. Meckechie (director), (director), 20, 20, 25 25 Nov Nov 12, 12, Vickers Vickers Mss Mss 1110; 1110; Fisher Fisher to to Asquith, Asquith, Mar Mar Meckechie 1916, FGDN, FGDN, Ill, III, 326. 326. 1916, 52. 92. Minute Minute (12 (12 Jun Jun 13) 13) by by Moore, Moore, Keyes Keyes Mss Mss 4/5. 4/5. 53. O03. Minutes Minutes (12, (12, 18 18 Jun Jun 13) 13) by by Moore, Moore, ibid. ibid. 54. 04. Minutes Minutes (24 (24 Jun Jun 13 13 & & 26 26 Jun Jun 13) 13) by by Battenberg, Battenberg, and and (3 (3 Jul Jul 13) 13) by by Jellicoe, ibid. ibid. Jellicoe, ibid. secretary), ibid. (financial secretary), Lambert (financial and Lambert Churchill and by Churchill 13) by Jul 13) (2 Jul oo. Minutes (2 55. Minutes 56. 96. Minute Minute (8 (8 Jul Jul 13) 13) by by Moore, Moore, ibid. ibid. Firms Firms approached approached were: were: Yarrow. Yarrow, White, White, Hawthorn Hawthorn Leslie, Leslie, Swan Swan Hunter, Hunter, Denny, Denny, Thorneycroft, Thorneycroft, Fairfield Fairfield and and Beardmore. Beardmore. For For evidence evidence of of receipt receipt of of this this approach approach see see Admiralty Admiralty to to Thorneycroft, 16 16 Jul Jul 13, 13, Thorneycroft Thorneycroft Mss Mss X175. X175. Thorneycroft, o7. Minutes Minutes of of meeting meeting held held 29 29 Jan Jan 13 13 shows shows these these were were the the terms terms offered offered 57. to to Armstrongs, Armstrongs, Whitworth Whitworth Ltd., Ltd., and and Messrs. Messrs. Scott, Scott, f.12, f.12, Ships Ships Covers Covers 404B. 404B. 08. Ballard, Ballard, “General “General Policy Policy of of Submarine Submarine Development,” Development,” 14 14 Jul Jul 13, 13, 58. X3341/12, ADM ADM 1/8331. 1/8331. X3341/12, o9. For For evidence evidence that that shipbuilders shipbuilders that that specialized specialized in in building building destroyers destroyers 59. were aware aware of of the the Admiralty’s Admiralty’s intentions intentions see see Nicholas Nicholas Lambert, Lambert, “British “British Naval were Naval Policy 1913/14: 1913/14: Financial Financial Limitation Limitation and and Strategic Strategic Revolution,” Revolution,” The The Journal Journal of Policy of Modern Modern History History 67:3 67:3 (September (September 1995): 1995): 605; 605; Messrs Messrs Thorneycroft Thorneycroft internal internal letletters, 13, 13, 17 17 Mar Mar 13, 13, file file X175, X175, and and Thorneycroft Thorneycroft to to Admiralty, Admiralty, 5 5 Feb Feb 13, 13, tile file ters, X123, X123, all all in in Thorneycroft Thorneycroft Mss; Mss; Churchill Churchill to to Chief Chief of of War War Staff, Staff, 11 11 Mar Mar 13, 13, p. p. 205, 205, FLM, FLM, Admiralty Admiralty Library; Library; Churchill, Churchill, “New “New programme programme 1913/14,” 1913/14,” 8 8 Dec Dec 12, 12, YS, YS, 03. c3, 1695—97. 1695-97.

60. Keyes, Keyes, “Commodore “Commodore SS Minute Minute on on Submarines,” Submarines,” 15 15 Aug Aug 13, 13, DEY DEY 31, 31, 60. d’Eyncourt d’Eyncourt Mss Mss [National [National Maritime Maritime Museum]. Museum]. 61. 61. Ballard, Ballard, “General “General Policy Policy of of Submarine Submarine Development,” Development,” 14 14 Jul Jul 13. 13, X3341/12, X3341/12, ADM ADM 1/8331. 1/8331. 62. 62. Ibid. lbid. 63. 63. Jackson, Jackson, “War “War Staff Staff Minute Minute on on Submarines” Submarines” n/d. n/d. [July [July 1913] 1913] DEY DEY 31. 31, d’Eyncourt d’Eyncourt Mss. Mss. 64. 64. Minute Minute (3 (3 Jul Jul 13) 13) by by Jellicoe, Jellicoe, “Submarine “Submarine Construction Construction 1914-15,” 1914-15,” Keyes Keyes Mss 4/10. 4/10. Mss Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Notes Notes to to Pages Pages 282—286 282-286

389 389

65. 65. Ibid. Ibid. 66. 66. Keyes, Keyes, “Commodore “Commodore S S Minute Minute on on Submarines,” Submarines,” 15 15 Aug Aug 13, 13, DEY DEY 31, 31, d’Eyncourt d'Eyncourt Mss. Mss. 67. 67. Ibid., Ibid., p. p. 2. 2. 68. 68. lbid.; Ibid.; see see also also a a restatement restatement of of the the arguments, arguments, in in Keyes Keyes to to Battenberg, Battenberg, 18 18 Aug Aug 13, 13, Keyes Keyes Mss Mss 4/11. 4/11. 69. 69. Ballard, Ballard, “General “General Policy Policy of of Submarine Submarine Development,” Development,” 14 14 Jul Jul 13, 13, X3341/12, X3341/12, ADM ADM 1/8331; 1/8331; Jackson, Jackson, “War “War Staff Staff Minute Minute on on Submarines,” Submarines,” July July or or August August 1913, 1913, DEY DEY 31, 31, d’Eyncourt d’Eyncourt Mss. Mss. 70. 70. Churchill, Churchill, “First “First Lord’s Lord’s Minute Minute on on Submarines,” Submarines,” 20 20 Jul Jul 13, 13, DEY DEY 31, 31, d’Eyncourt d'Eyncourt Mss. Mss. 71. 71. ibid. Ibid.

72. 72. Churchill Churchill to to 1st 1st and and 3rd 3rd Sea Sea Lords, Lords, 15 15 Aug Aug 13, 13, 1911—13, 1911-13, p. p. 256, 256, FLM, FLM, Admiralty Admiralty Library. Library. 73. 73. Churchill, Churchill, “First “First Lord’s Lord’s Minute Minute on on Submarines,” Submarines,” 20 20 Jul Jul 13, 13, DEY DEY 31, 31, d’Eyncourt d’Eyncourt Mss. Mss. 74. 74. ibid. Ibid. 75. 75. Docket, Docket, “Naval “Naval Manoeuvres Manoeuvres 1913” 1913” subtitled subtitled “North “North Sea Sea Problem—War Problem—War Plans,” Plans,” 29 29 Jan Jan 13, 13, ADM ADM 116/1214. 116/1214. 76. 76. Lord Lord Riddle, Riddle, diary, diary, 21 21 Mar Mar and and 5 5 May May 13, 13, f.62, f.62, 153, 153, Add Add Mss Mss 62972. 62972. 77. 77. Docket, Docket, “Naval “Naval Manoeuvres Manoeuvres 1913” 1913” subtitled subtitled “North “North Sea Sea Problem—War Problem—War Plans,” Plans,” 29 29 Jan Jan 13, 13, ADM ADM 116/1214; 116/1214; for for reference reference to to the the primary primary object object of of the the maneuvers maneuvers see see minutes minutes (8 (8 Sep Sep 13) 13) by by Ballard Ballard and and Jackson Jackson on on criticisms criticisms of of the the manoeuvres manoeuvres by by Admiral Admiral Custance, Custance, ADM ADM 116/1169. 116/1169. 78. 78. Minute Minute (12 (12 Feb Feb 13) 13) by by Jackson Jackson on on “Naval “Naval Manoeuvres Manoeuvres 1913,” 1913,” ADM ADM 116/1214. 116/1214. 79. 79. Adm. Adm. Sir Sir William William May, May, “Naval “Naval Manoeuvres Manoeuvres 1913: 1913: Report Report of of Umpire Umpire in in Chief,” Chief,” p. p. 6, 6, MB1/l‘26/231; MB1/T26/231; Minute Minute (20 (20 Aug Aug 13) 13) by by de de Robeck Robeck on on Keyes Keyes to to de de Robeck, Robeck, 10 10 Aug Aug 13, 13, f.425, f.425, ADM ADM 137/1926; 137/1926; Jellicoe Jellicoe to to May, May, 11 Aug Aug 13, 13, p. p. 4, 4, ADM ADM 116/1214; 116/1214; Keyes Keyes to to Admiralty, Admiralty, 11 Nov Nov 14, 14, p. p. 7, 7, ADM ADM 137/1926; 137/1926; Hall Hall to to Fisher, Fisher, n/d n/d [Aug [Aug 1913] 1913] FP648, FP648, Fisher Fisher Papers Papers 1/12. 1/12. 80. 80. Hall Hall to to Fisher, Fisher, ibid. ibid. 81. 81. For For critique critique by by the the War War Staff Staff see see “Remarks “Remarks on on Comments Comments by by the the Commander-in-Chief Commander-in-Chief on on the the 1913 1913 Manoeuvres,” Manoeuvres,” 29 29 Sep Sep 13, 13, ADM ADM 116/1214; 116/1214; also also aa highly highly critical critical letter letter from from Churchill Churchill to to Callaghan Callaghan dated dated 29 29 Jul Jul 13, 13, Chart Chart 13/5. 13/5. 82. 82. Callaghan, Callaghan, “Naval “Naval Manoeuvres, Manoeuvres, 1913: 1913: North North Sea Sea Strategy,” Strategy,” p. p. 11, 11, ADM ADM 116/3130. 116/3130. Copies Copies also also found found in in f.48, f.48, ADM ADM 137/1936 137/1936 and and ADM ADM 116/1214. 116/1214. 83. 83. Report Report of of Committee Committee under under Sir Sir George George Callaghan Callaghan on on the the function function of of the the Grand Fleet, Fleet, October October 1914, 1914, Richmond Richmond Mss, Mss, RIC RlC 2/2. 2/2. Grand 84. 84. lbid. Ibid.

85. 85. Callaghan Callaghan to to Admiralty Admiralty (No.1472/H.F.7.S.) (No.1472/H.F.7.8.) 22 Oct Oct 13, 13, citing citing Admiralty Admiralty letter letter to to c. c. in in c. c. M0036/13, M0036/13, of of 22 22 Jul Jul 13, 13, Battenberg Battenberg Mss, Mss, MBl/T26/240. MB1/T26/240.

ibid. 13, ibid. Oct 13, Admiralty, 22 Oct to Admiralty, 86. Callaghan to 86. Callaghan 87. 87. Callaghan, Callaghan, “Review “Review of of War War Plans Plans after after Manoeuvres,” Manoeuvres,” 22 Oct Oct 13, 13, ibid. ibid. 88. 88. Callaghan, Callaghan, “Employment “Employment of of Destroyers Destroyers in in War,” War,” paragraph paragraph 4, 4, enclosure, enclosure, ibid.

Lambél’pmolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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390 390

286—288 Pages 286-288 to Pages Notes to Notes

89. 89. Ibid. Ibid. 116/3381. ADM 116/3381. 13, ADM Aug 13, 1913,” 66 Aug Manoeuvres, 1913,” 90. “Naval Manoeuvres, Jellicoe, “Naval 90. Jellicoe, and MBl/T37/377, and n/d, MB1/T37/377, defence, n/d, coastal defence, on coastal Memorandum on 91. Battenberg. Memorandum 91. Battenberg, and Scotland and of Scotland coast of east coast the east on the Groups on and Groups Areas and War “Districts, Areas Staff, “Districts, War Staff, Mss. Battenberg Mss. MB1/T25/227, Battenberg 13, MB1/T25/227, Jun 13, England,” England,” 66 Jun 1913 to 1913 Churchill to by Churchill testimony by in testimony forecast in was forecast 92. dismissal was Robeck’s dismissal 92. Robeck’s CA316/28A. (0.2726) CAB16/28A. 319—320 (Q.2726) pp. 319-320 13, pp. Dec 13, Invasion Enquiry, 33 Dec Invasion Enquiry, of “Organisation of memorandum “Organisation Staff memorandum War Staff on War Battenberg, on 93. by Battenberg, (n/d) by Minute (n/d) 93. Minute Battenberg MB1/T32/302, Battenberg 14), MB1/T32/302, Apr 14), Watching (( 33 Apr Coastal Watching Patrol and Coastal Flotillas and Patrol Flotillas MBl/I‘33/317; 13, MB1/T33/317; Dec 13, 15 Dec Defence,” 15 Coast Defence,” on Coast report on Mss; “Draft report Staff, “Draft War Staff, Mss; War Nov (12 Nov Minute (12 MB1/l‘37/377; Minute in MB1/T37/377; report in previous report on previous Battenberg on Minute by Battenberg (n/d) by Minute (n/d) 4th FLM, 4th Patrols, FLM, of Patrols, Admiral of to Admiral RNAS to of RNAS control of transferring control 13) on transferring Churchill, on by Churchill, 13) by MB1/I‘36/354, (DOD), MB1/T36/304, Leverson (DOD), Arthur Leverson Capt. Arthur by Capt. 14) by Jun 14) (18 Jun series, Minute (18 series, p.p. 5;5; Minute Mss. Battenberg Mss. Battenberg

likeare likeaircraft are far aircraft How far “B8 How enclosing “B8 14, enclosing Jul 14, 23 Jul Callaghan, 23 94. to Callaghan, Burney to 94. Burney

likeare likethey are far they How far future. How near future. the near in the line in cruiser line advanced cruiser ly the advanced replace the to replace ly to 137/1939. ADM 137/1939. f.86, ADM flotillas,” f.86, Patrol flotillas,” the Patrol replace the to replace ly to ly Jul 26 Jul Warfare,” 26 “Aerial Warfare,” Admiralty, “Aerial on Admiralty, Churchill, on by Churchill, 13) by Feb 13) (26 Feb 95. Minute (26 95. Minute

1/8331. ADM 1/8331. 13, ADM 13, was 1915 was and 1915 1914 and Service inin 1914 Air Service RN Air the RN on the spend on be spend to be sum to 96. total sum The total 96. The the to the allocated to be allocated to be were to personnel were naval personnel 1,452 naval addition, 1,452 In addition, to £978,473. In be £978,473. to be “Aerial Admiralty “Aerial 13, Admiralty May 13, 16 May Warfare,” 16 “Aerial Warfare,” Jellicoe, “Aerial see Jellicoe, RNAS, which see for which RNAS, for Warfare.” Warfare,” ADM ADM 1/8331. 1/8331. Politics The Politics Williamson, The Samuel Williamson, by Samuel expressed by was expressed view was mistaken view 97. This mistaken 97. This 22. note 22. 308, note Strategy, 308, Grand Strategy, of Grand of 55. 25—28, 55. Game, 25-28, the Game, of the Rules of The Rules Gordon, The 98. Gordon, 98. comof comdecentralisation of “B5: decentralisation enclosing “B5: 14, enclosing Jul 14, 23 Jul Callaghan, 23 to Callaghan, 99. Burney to 99. Burney initiative own initiative their own on their act on should act officers should Flag officers Junior Flag extent Junior what extent mand, to what i.e.—— to mand, i.e.— f.83. Commander-in-Chief,” f.83, the Commander-in-Chief,” from the orders from and orders and signals and without signals responsibility without and responsibility

the Studies inin the Tactics, Studies “Naval Tactics, Hardinge), “Naval W. Hardinge), E. W. Capt. E. (alias Capt. COI (alias Adm137/1939; Adm137/1939; CQI 123. 4: 123. part 4: (1914), part 208, (1914), 82, 208, 12, 82, (1913): 12, Review (1913): Naval Review parts), Naval four parts), (in four of" (in Theory of” Theory CAB (0.2687), CAB 315 (Q.2687), Enquiry, p.p. 315 Invasion Enquiry, 1913 Invasion to 1913 testimony to Jellicoe, testimony 100. Jellicoe, 100.

16/28A. 16/28A. Aug 1913,” 66 Aug Manoeuvres, 1913,” “Naval Manoeuvres, Jellicoe, “Naval 101. Jellicoe, 101. 1913,” Manoeuvres, 1913,” “Naval Manoeuvres, Callaghan, “Naval 102. Callaghan, 102. 116/3130. 116/3130.

-

116/3381. ADM 116/3381. 13, ADM 13, ADM 19, ADM 13, p.p. 19, Aug 13, 28 Aug 28

103. Battenberg Battenberg to to Churchill, Churchill, 10 10 Jun Jun 12, 12. f£.1, f.1, CAB CAB 1/33. 1/33. 103. Boat Torpedo Boat in Torpedo Mines in of Mines “Fitting of on “Fitting Battenberg, on by Battenberg, 13) by Apr 13) (22 Apr Minute (22 104. Minute 104. 1914, '3, 1914, vol. 3, IODNO, vol. f.318, IODNO, G.01358/12,” f.318, on G.01358/12,” minutes on and minutes Destroyers—reports and Destroyers—reports Library. Admiralty Library. Admiralty 105. 105. Sumida, Sumida, In In Defence, Defence, 250—51, 250-51, 255-56. 255-56. 106. Callaghan, Callaghan, “Employment “Employment of of Destroyers Destroyers in in War,” War,” Callaghan, Callaghan, 33 Oct Oct 13, 13. 106.

enclos14, enclosJul 14, 23 Jul Callaghan, 23 to Callaghan, Burney to also Burney see also MB1/I‘26/240; see Mss. MB1/T26/240; Battenberg Mss, Battenberg in aa applied in be applied to be are to craft are torpedo craft and torpedo cruisers and light cruisers which light to which use to The use “B4: The ing “B4: ing 137/1939. ADM 137/1939. f.82, ADM same,” f.82, the same,” against the defence against the defence and the action, and fleet action, fleet Strategy, p.p. Sea Strategy, North Sea on North letter on HF’s letter C. HF’s in C. C. in on C. Richmond on 107. Remarks by Richmond Lambert,Nicolas.5irjoa,-lervfll§vl,llevfilfimby E-book, ColumbiiUMCie‘imel 2, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569. Downloaded on 7,eh ADM ta 116/1169. T ic | ary, Claremont, CA

288—291 Pages 288-291 to Pages Notes to Notes

391 391

108. 108. Callaghan, Callaghan, “Employment “Employment of of Destroyers Destroyers in in War,” War,” Callaghan, Callaghan, 3 3 Oct Oct 13. 13,

MB1/l‘26/240, MB1/T26/240, Battenberg Battenberg Mss. Mss. 109. 109. War War Staff, Staff, “Remarks “Remarks on on Comments Comments by by the the Commander-in-Chief Commander-in-Chief on on the the 1913 1913 Manoeuvres,” Manoeuvres,” 29 29 Sep Sep 13, 13, ADM ADM 116/1214. 116/1214. 110. 110. Callaghan Callaghan to to Admiralty, Admiralty, 11 11 Dec Dec 12, 12, G.O1313/13, G.01313/18, f.314, f.3814, IODNO, JODNO, vol. vol. 3. 3, 1914, 1914, Admiralty Admiralty Library. Library. 111. 111. Minutes Minutes (21 (21 Jan Jan 14) 14) by by Lambert, Lambert, (24 (24 Jan Jan 14) 14) by by Moore, Moore, and and (26 (26 Jan Jan 14) 14) by by Battenberg, Battenberg, on on “Outfit “Outfit of of Torpedoes Torpedoes for for Torpedo Torpedo boat boat destroyers destroyers of of First First Fleets,” Fleets,” f.311—313, £.311-313, ibid. ibid. 112. 112. War War Staff, Staff, “Remarks “Remarks on on Comments Comments by by the the Commander-in-Chief Commander-in-Chief on on the the 1913 1913 Manoeuvres,” Manoeuvres,” 29 29 Sep Sep 13, 13, ADM ADM 116/1214; 116/1214; Callaghan Callaghan to to de de Robeck, Robeck, 6 6 Aug Aug 13, 13, pp. pp. 414-19, 414-19, ADM ADM 137/1926. 137/1926.

113. 113. Jellicoe, Jellicoe, “Naval “Naval Manoeuvres, Manoeuvres, 1913,” 1913,” 66 Aug Aug 13, 13, p. p. 5, 5, ADM ADM 116/3381. 116/3381. 114. 114. Custance Custance to to Churchill, Churchill, 28 28 Sep Sep 13, 13, enclosing enclosing annotated annotated copy copy of of

Callaghan’s 1913: Callaghan’s “Naval “Naval Manoeuvres, Manoeuvres, 1913: North North Sea Sea Strategy”; Strategy”; Churchill Churchill to to Battenberg, Battenberg, 30 30 Aug Aug 13, 13, MB1/T26/238, MB1/T26/238, Battenberg Battenberg Mss; Mss; Custance Custance to to Churchill, Churchill, 10 10

Aug Aug 14, 14, MB, f.43, Chart Chart 13/43. 13/43. 115. 115. Custance Custance to to Churchill, Churchill, 10 10 Aug Aug 14, 14, f.43, f.43, Chart Chart 13/43; 13/43; Custance Custance to to

Churchill, Churchill, 30 30 Aug Aug 13, 13, and and Churchill Churchill to to Asquith, Asquith, 30 30 Aug Aug 13, 13, ADM ADM 116/3381. 116/3381. 116. 116. Churchill Churchill to to Battenberg, Battenberg, 18 18 Sep Sep 13, 13, f.212, f.212, Chart Chart 13/22b; 13/22b; typed typed memomemorandum randum by by War War Staff Staff on on Admiral Admiral Custance’s Custance’s critique, critique, 88 Sep Sep 13, 13, notes notes marked marked

“received “received 8/9/23,” 8/9/23,” ADM ADM 116/1169; 116/1169; Bridgeman Bridgeman to to Troubridge, Troubridge, 6 6 Sep Sep 13, 13, 86. B6, Troubridge Troubridge Mss Mss (NMM). (NMM).

117. 117. Battenberg Battenberg to to Churchill, Churchill, 24 24 Oct Oct 13, 13, f.109, f.109, CAB CAB 1/33. 1/33. 118. Minute Minute (n/d) (n/d) by by Churchill, Churchill, on on Custance Custance to to Churchill, Churchill, 30 30 Aug Aug 13, 13, ADM ADM 118.

116/3381. 116/3381. 119. 119. Marder, Marder, FDSF, FDSF, l, I, 330. 330. 120. Fisher Fisher to to Churchill, Churchill, 26 26 Oct Oct 11, 11, 22 && 44 Nov Nov 11, 11, YS, YS, c2, c2, 1299-1321; 1299—1321; inin 120. 1920, 1920, Kerr Kerr wrote wrote Battenberg’s Battenberg’s biography. biography. 121. 121. Churchill Churchill to to Greek Greek Minister Minister of of Marine, Marine, 2 2 Jun Jun 13, 13, YS, YS, 03, c3, 1751. 1751. 122. Kerr, Kerr, “Greek “Greek Naval Naval Construction Construction Policy,” Policy,” print, print, n/d n/d [Sept. [Sept 13], 13], ADM ADM 122. 116/3486. 116/3486. 123. 123. Kerr Kerr to to Greek Greek Minister Minister of of Marine, Marine, 4 4 Oct Oct 13, 13, print, print, ADM ADM 116/3486. 116/3486. 124. 124. lbid., Ibid., p. p. 4. 4. 125. 125. ibid. Ibid. 126. 126. Ballard, Ballard, “Remarks “Remarks on on Proper Proper Shipbuilding Shipbuilding Policy Policy for for Greece,” Greece,” 7 7 Jan Jan 13; 13;

Minutes Minutes (2 (2 Jan Jan 13) 13) by by Churchill Churchill and and (7 (7 Jan Jan 13) 13) by by Troubridge, Troubridge, in in “Greece. “Greece, Shipbuilding Shipbuilding and and islands,” Islands,” ADM ADM 116/3098. 116/3098. 127. 127. Hall Hall to to Fisher, Fisher, 26 26 Apr Apr 14, 14, FP803, FP803, Fisher Fisher Papers Papers 1/15; 1/15; see see also also Hall Hall to to Fisher, Fisher, 14 14 Jun Jun 14, 14, FP809, FP809, ibid. ibid. 128. Warrender Warrender to to Callaghan, Callaghan, 88 Jul Jul 14, 14, f£.35, f.35, ADM ADM 137/1939; 137/1939; see see also also other other 128. submissions submissions ff.40—90. ff.40-90.

129. 129. Briggs Briggs to to Callaghan, Callaghan, 22 22 Jun Jun 14, 14, f4], f£.41, ADM ADM 137/1939. 137/1939. 130. 130. Minute Minute (16 (16 May May 14) 14) by by Keyes Keyes on, on, submarine submarine committee committee to to Admiralty, Admiralty, 5 5 May14, May 14, f.460—464, f.460-464, ADM ADM 137/1926; 137/1926; Capt. Capt. John John Dumaresq Dumaresgq to to Rear Rear Adm. Adm. Reginald Reginald Tupper, 28 28 Dec Dec 13, 13, Tupper Tupper Mss. Mss. See See reference reference to to views views of of Vice Vice Adm. Adm. Doveton Doveton Tupper, mbert icolas. dSlrjohn FIs s’NiIvalR Sturdee in gltafi Hall to Fisher, 26 Apr 14, FP803, Fisher Papers 1/15. Downloaded on b

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392 392

292—294 Pages 292-294 to Pages Notes to Notes

439. Kilverstone, 439. Mackay, Kilverstone, 131. Mackay, 131. 137-38; Crisis, 137-38; World Crisis, Churchill, World cited inin Churchill, 12, cited Jun 12, 11 Jun Fisher, 11 to Fisher, Churchill to 132. Churchill 132. to Hopwood to and Hopwood 12 and May 12 26 May Fisher, 26 to Fisher, Churchill to 270; Churchill FDSF, I,I, 270; Marder, FDSF, in Marder, also in also 1928. 03, 1928. YS, c3, 12, YS, Jun 12, Churchill, 11 Jun Churchill, 1939. c3, 1939. YS, c3, 13, YS, Apr 13, 24 Apr Churchill, 24 to Churchill, Fisher to 133. Fisher 133. Policy,” Naval Policy,” upon Naval Submarine upon the Submarine of the Influence of “The Influence [Hall], “The Anonymous [Hall], 134. Anonymous 134.

47-52. (1914): 47-52. 396-402, (1914): 256—61, 396-402, Naval Review(1913): Naval Review (1913): 256-61, 135. 135. For For evidence evidence of of Hall’s Hall’s authorship authorship see: see: “Author “Author List List for for The The Naval Naval Review. Review,

1913-1930,” 1913-1930,” in, in, Mahan Mahan is is Not Not Enough, Enough, ed. ed. Goldrick Goldrick and and Hattendorf, Hattendorf, 342—46. 342-46. 49712; Mss 49712; Add Mss seq., Add et seq., f.87 et Balfour, f.87 to Balfour, Fisher to from Fisher sent from drafts sent Various drafts 136. Various 136. Papers Fisher Papers 705, Fisher FP704 && 705, 13, FP704 Jun 13, 28 Jun and 28 13, and Jun 13, 24 Jun Fisher, 24 to Fisher, Sydenham to Sydenham

1/13. 1/13. 137. 137. Fisher Fisher to to Churchill, Churchill, 31 31 Mar Mar 13, 13, YS, YS, CS, c3, 1937. 1937. 138. Fisher Fisher to to Balfour, Balfour, 15 15 May May 13, 13, f.95; 1’95; memo memo entitled entitled “Submarines “Submarines and and 138. Commerce,” 28 28 May May 13, 13, f.105, £105, both both Add Add Mss Mss 49712. 49712. Commerce,” 139. Engineer Engineer Lt. Lt. C. C. J.J. Hawkes Hawkes (DNC’s (DNC’s department) department) to to Fisher, Fisher, n/d n/d [May [May 139.

1913], 1913], FP698; FP698; Fisher Fisher to to Hopwood, Hopwood, 16 16 Jun Jun 13, 13, FP690, FP690, Fisher Fisher Papers Papers 1/13. 1/13. 140. 140. Moore Moore to to Keyes, Keyes, 12 12 May May 13, 13, Keyes Keyes Mss Mss 4/23. 4/23. 141. 141. Tennyson Tennyson d’Enycourt, d’Enycourt, “Pr0posed “Proposed Submarine” Submarine” [0. [c. May May 1913], 1913], DEY DEY 31. 31, d’Eyncourt d'Eyncourt Mss. Mss. 142. Admiralty, Admiralty, Memorandum Memorandum prepared prepared by by the the DNC’s DNC’s department department on on “The “The 142. Development Development of of the the Submarine,” Submarine,” p. p. 9, 9, printed printed 31 31 Dec Dec 18, 18, ADM ADM 1/8547/340. 1/8547/340.

143. 143. Hall Hall to to Fisher, Fisher, 44 Jul Jul 13, 13, FP708, FP708, and and 19 19 Aug Aug 13, 13, FP717, FP717, both both Fisher Fisher Papers Papers 1/13. 1/13. 144. 144. Fisher Fisher to to Jellicoe, Jellicoe, 11 Jun Jun 13, 13, FGDN, FGDN, II, ll, 489, 489, ft.1. ft.1. 145. 145. Fisher Fisher to to Churchill, Churchill, ?? Oct Oct 13, 13, YS, YS, 03, c3, 1955. 1955. 146. 146. Hall Hall to to Fisher, Fisher, 19 19 Aug Aug 13, 13, FP717, FP717, and and Churchill Churchill to to Fisher, Fisher, 30 30 Aug Aug 13. 13, FP720, FP720, Fisher Fisher Papers Papers 1/13. 1/13. 147. 147. Between Between May May and and November November 1913 1913 this this paper paper was was printed printed in in runs runs of of 6. 6,

2, 2, 25, 25, 6. 6. 148. 148. Churchill Churchill to to Fisher, Fisher, 12 12 Nov Nov 13, 13, YS, YS, 03, c3, 1795. 1795.

149. 149. Churchill Churchill to to Fisher, Fisher, 11 Jan Jan 14, 14, FP763, FP763, Fisher Fisher Papers Papers 1/14; 1/14; See See also also Mackay, Mackay, Kilverstone, Kilverstone, 453. 453. 150. 150. Marder, Marder, FDSF, FDSF, I, I, 363; 363; Mackay, Mackay, Kilverstone, Kilverstone, 441—51. 441-51.

151. 151. Fisher, Fisher, “The “The Oil Oil Engine Engine and and the the Submarine,” Submarine,” Run Run of of 6, 6, printed printed 11/13. 11/13, FP4293, FP4293, Fisher Fisher Papers Papers 5/13. 5/13. 152. 152. lbid. Ibid. 153. 153. lbid., Ibid., p. p. 2. 2. 154. 154. lbid., Ibid., p. p. 9. 9. 155. 155. lbid. Ibid. 156. 156. Marder, Marder, FDSF, FDSF, 1, I, 363—64. 363-64. 157. 157. Hall Hall to to Fisher, Fisher, 11 11 Dec Dec 13, 13, Fisher Fisher Papers Papers 1/14, 1/14, FP758. FP758. (This (This letter letter is is dated dated Thursday, Thursday, 11 11 December December 1913, 1913, and and refers refers to to aa meeting meeting having having taken taken place place the the previous previous Tuesday—9 Tuesday—9 December); December); see see also also reference reference in in Churchill Churchill to to Sea Sea

Lords, Lords, 25 25 Dec Dec 13, 13, f.261, f.261, Chart Chart 13/22B, 13/22B, f.261; f.261; and and Keyes, Keyes, “Record “Record of of Conference Conference

Lambert,NicoE‘§sl,-90 Rompon. room, held inpFiSFLirgsctva First Lord’s room, 9 9 December December 1913,” 1913,” Keyes Keyes Mss Mss 4/10. 4/10. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Notes Notes to to Pages Pages 294—297 294-297

393 393

158. 158. ibid. Ibid. 159. 159. Keyes, Keyes, “Record “Record of of Conference Conference held held in in First First Lord’s Lord’s room room on on 9 9 December December 1913,” 1913,” paragraph paragraph 2, 2, Keyes Keyes Mss Mss 4/10; 4/10; this this was was also also Jellicoe’s Jellicoe’s impression impression for for which which see: see: Jellicoe Jellicoe to to Board Board of of Admiralty Admiralty (addressed (addressed to to First First Lord), Lord), 19 19 Dec Dec 13. 13, MB1/l‘49/25, MB1/T49/25, Battenberg Battenberg Mss. Mss. lbid. 160. Ibid. 160. 161. 161. Keyes Keyes to to Trevor Trevor Dawson Dawson (managing (managing director director of of Vickers Vickers Ltd.), Ltd.), 20 20 Aug Aug 13, 13, Vickers Vickers Mss Mss 741; 741; Keyes, Keyes, Memorandum Memorandum addressed addressed to to First First Lord, Lord, January January 1914. 1914, 4/11. Mss 4/11. Keyes Mss Keyes 162. 162. The The Improved Improved E E was was later later designated designated as as G G class class for for which which see: see: Ships Ships Covers Covers 330, 330, G G class class submarines, submarines, f.1, f.1, d’Enycourt d’Enycourt to to Mr. Mr. Johns, Johns, 10 10 Dec Dec 13; 13; Moore Moore to to Keyes, Keyes, 30 30 Dec Dec 13, 13, Keyes Keyes Mss Mss 4/4. 4/4. 163. 163. Jellicoe Jellicoe to to Board Board of of Admiralty Admiralty (addressed (addressed to to First First Lord), Lord), 19 19 Dec Dec 13, 13, p. p. 1, 1, MB1/T49/25; MB1/T49/25; in in fact, fact, faith faith was was broken broken at at the the end end of of December: December: Churchill Churchill to to Sea Sea Lords, Lords, 25 25 Dec Dec 13, 13, f.261, f.261, Chart Chart 13/22B; 13/22B; Jellicoe, Jellicoe, Memorandum Memorandum to to 1st 1st Lord, Lord,

ist 1st and and 3rd 3rd Sea Sea Lords, Lords, 19 19 Dec Dec 13, 13, T49/25, T49/25, Battenberg Battenberg Mss; Mss; Admiralty, Admiralty, “Request “Request for for Tenders,” Tenders,” 28 28 Oct Oct 13—due 13—due 10 10 Dec Dec 13—Thorneycroft 13—Thorneycroft Mss Mss X123. X123. 164. 164. Keyes, Keyes, “Record “Record of of Conference. Conference. ... . .” Keyes Keyes Mss Mss 4/10. 4/10.

165. 165. lbid., Ibid., paragraph paragraph 7. 7. 166. 166. Jellicoe Jellicoe to to Board Board of of Admiralty Admiralty (addressed (addressed to to first first lord), lord), 19 19 Dec Dec 13, 13, p. p. 1, 1, MB1/T49/25; MB1/T49/25; for for reply reply see see Churchill Churchill to to Jellicoe, Jellicoe, 16 16 Jan Jan 14, 14, f.23, £.23, Chart Chart 13/29. 13/29. 167. 167. Churchill Churchill to to First, First, Second Second and and Third Third Sea Sea Lords, Lords, 25 25 Dec Dec 13. 13. f.261, f.261, Chart Chart 13/22B. 13/22B. lbid. 168. Ibid. 168. lbid. 169. Ibid. 169. 170. 170. For For reference reference to to the the “secret “secret file” file” see see Churchill Churchill to to Masterton-Smith, Masterton-Smith, 2 2 Jan 14, 14, f.6, f6, Chart Chart 13/29. 13/29. Jan 171. 171. Churchill Churchill to to Moore, Moore, 14 14 Jan Jan 14, 14, vol vol 2,. 2, p. p. 9. 9. FLM, FLM, Admiralty Admiralty Library. Library. 172. 172. Churchill Churchill to to Moore, Moore, 22 22 Jan Jan 14, 14, p. p. 16, 16, ibid. ibid. 173. 173. Churchill Churchill to to Battenberg, Battenberg, 26 26 Dec Dec 13, 13, MBl/T28/261, MB1/T28/261, Battenberg Battenberg Mss. Mss. 174. 174. Churchill, Churchill, “Naval “Naval Estimates Estimates 1914/15,” 1914/15,” 5 5 Dec Dec 13, 13, CAB CAB 37/117/86. 37/117/86. 175. 175. The The hard-line hard-line economists economists were were Herbert Herbert Samuel Samuel (postmaster (postmaster general), general), John John Simon Simon (attorney (attorney general), general), Charles Charles Hobhouse Hobhouse (duchy (duchy of of Lancaster), Lancaster), Walter Walter Runciman Runciman (Agriculture (Agriculture and and Fisheries), Fisheries), and and Joseph Joseph Pearce Pearce (Education). (Education). They They were supported supported by by McKenna McKenna (home (home secretary) secretary) McKinnon McKinnon Wood, Wood, Lord Lord were Beauchamp. and and Lewis Lewis Harcourt Harcourt (colonial (colonial secretary), secretary), for for which which see see Simon Simon to to Beauchamp, Asquith, 29 29 Jan Jan 14, 14, f.29, f.29, Simon Simon Mss Mss 50 50 [Bodleian [Bodleian Library]; Library]; Churchill, Churchill, Young Young Asquith, Statesman, 659, 659, 668. 668. Statesman, 176. 176. Lord Lord Riddle, Riddle, diary, diary, 18 18 Dec Dec 13, 13, f.98, f.98, Add Add Mss Mss 62973, 62973, & & 16 16 Jan Jan 14, 14, £31. f£.31, 62974. Mss 62974. Add Mss Add 177. 177. Asquith Asquith to to Lloyd Lloyd George, George, 17 17 Nov Nov 13, 13, cited cited in in Churchill, Churchill, Young Young Statesman, Statesman, 655—66. 655-66.

178. 178. Cabinet Cabinet notes notes between between Churchill Churchill and and Lloyd Lloyd George, George, 16 16 Dec Dec 13, 13, and and Hopwood Hopwood to to Stamfordham, Stamfordham, 11 11 Jan Jan 14, 14, both both cited cited in in Churchill, Churchill, Young Young Statesman, Statesman, 661, 661, 668; 668; McKenna McKenna to to Riddle, Riddle, cited cited in in Lord Lord Riddle, Riddle, diary, diary, 31 31 Dec Dec 13, 13, f.91—93, f.91-93, Add Mss 49673. LambemglaMIsrfimfighseZ grim] Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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297-300 Pages 297-300 to Pages Notes to Notes

179. Lord Lord Riddle, Riddle, diary, diary, 31 31 Oct Oct 13, 13, f.59/60, f.59/60, Add Add Mss Mss 62973; 62973; Brinkley Brinkley Gilbert, Gilbert, 179. Lloyd George: George: Organiser Organiser of of Victory Victory (London, (London, 1992), 1992), 55-66; 55—66; see see also also Jan [an Packer, Packer, Lloyd “The Liberal Liberal Land Land Campaign Campaign and and the the Land Land Issue, Issue, c.1906-1919” c.1906—1919” (Ph.D. (PhD. diss., diss., “The Oxford, 1995); 1995); Bridgeman Bridgeman to to Sandars, Sandars, 22 and and 11 11 Jan Jan 14, 14, f.13, f.13, Sandars Sandars Mss Mss 766. 766. Oxford, 180. 180. Churchill, Churchill, “Naval “Naval Estimates: Estimates: Notes Notes on on Various Various Suggestions Suggestions for for Reduction,” Reduction,” 13 Dec Dec 13, 13, CAB CAB 37/117/93. 37/117/93. 13 181. 181. Hopwood Hopwood to to Stamfordham, Stamfordham, 17 17 Dec Dec 13, 13, cited cited in in Randolph Randolph Churchill, Churchill, Young Statesman, Statesman, 661-62. 661—62. Young 182. 182. Ibid. Ibid. 183. 183. Lord Lord Riddle, Riddle, diary, diary, 18 18 Dec Dec 13, 13, f.98—100, f.98-100, Add Add Mss Mss 62973. 62973. 184. 184. Simon Simon to to Asquith, Asquith, 29 29 Jan Jan 14, 14, f.30, £.30, Simon Simon Mss Mss 50. 50. 185. 185. Cabinet Cabinet notes notes passed passed between between Churchill Churchill and and Lloyd Lloyd George. George, YS, YS, C3, c3, 1833. 1833. 186. 186. E. E. David, David, ed., ed., Inside Inside Asquith Asquith’s’3 Cabinet: Cabinet: From From the the Diaries Diaries of of Edward Edward Hobhouse Hobhouse (London, (London, 1977), 1977), 20 20 Dec Dec 13, 13, 154, 154, cited cited in in Gilbert. Gilbert, Lloyd Lioyd George, George, 70—74. 70-74. 187. 187. Churchill Churchill to to Borden, Borden, 19 19 Dec Dec 12, 12, and and Borden Borden to to Churchill, Churchill, 31 31 Dec Dec 13, 13, MG26H, MG26H, 00659, OC659, volume volume 126, 126, 67914 67914 (Microfilm (Microfilm reel reel C4349), C4349), Borden Borden Mss Mss [Canadian [Canadian National National Archives]; Archives]; for for an an informed informed assessment assessment of of the the implications implications see see Hopwood Hopwood to to Stamfordham, Stamfordham, 5 5 Jan Jan 14, 14, Churchill, Churchill, Young Young Statesman, Statesman, 667. 667. 188. 188. Churchill Churchill to to Asquith, Asquith, 18 18 Dec Dec 13, 13, YS, YS, 03, c3, 1834; 1834; for for the the eventual eventual adoption adoption of of this this policy policy see see Churchill Churchill to to Asquith, Asquith, 4 4 Jul Jul 14. 14, p. p. 7, 7, fifth fifth series, series, FLM, FLM, Admiralty Admiralty Library. Library.

189. 189. Churchill Churchill to to Lloyd Lloyd George, George, 19 19 Jan Jan 14, 14, f.160, f.160, Asquith Asquith Mss Mss 25. 25. 190. 1914 190. Bruce Bruce Murray, Murray, “Battered “Battered and and Shattered: Shattered: Lloyd-George Lloyd-George and and the the 1914 Budget Budget Fiasco,” Fiasco,” Albion Albion 23/3 23/3 (Fall (Fall 1991): 1991): 483—507; 483-507; F. F. W. W. Wiemann, Wiemann, “Lloyd “Lloyd George Twelve George and and the the Struggle Struggle for for the the Navy Navy Estimates Estimates of of 1914,” 1914,” Lloyd Lloyd George: George: Twelve Essays, Essays, ed. ed. A. A. J. J. P. P. Taylor Taylor (Atheneum: (Atheneum: New New York, York, 1971), 1971), 71—91. 71-91. 191. 191. Lord Lord Riddle, Riddle, diary, diary, 16 16 Jan Jan 14, 14, H6 f.16, Add Add Mss Mss 62974. 62974. 192. 192. Lord Lord Riddle, Riddle, diary, diary, 23rd 23rd to to 25th 25th January. January, f.31-34, f.31-34, ibid.; ibid.: Churchill Churchill to to Asquith, Asquith, 23 23 Jan Jan 14, 14, YS, YS, c3, c3, 1852; 1852; correspondence correspondence between between Churchill Churchill to to Lloyd Lloyd George, George, 26 26 Jan Jan 14 14 (2 (2 letters), letters), 27 27 Jan Jan 14 14 (2 (2 letters), letters), YS, YS, 03, c3, 1853-56; 1853-56; J. J. B. to B. to Chancellor Chancellor of of Exchequer, Exchequer, 26 26 Jan Jan 14, 14, 024/3/23, €24/3/23, Lloyd-George Lloyd-George Mss. Mss. 193. 193. Churchill Churchill to to Lloyd Lloyd George, George, 19 19 Jan Jan 14, 14, f.160, f.160, Asquith Asquith Mss Mss 25; 25; Asquith Asquith to to

the the King, King, 29 29 Jan Jan 14, 14, f.93, f.93, Asquith Asquith Mss Mss 7. 7. 194. 194. Churchill Churchill to to Asquith, Asquith, 2 2 Feb Feb 14, 14, YS, YS, (33, c3, 1860. 1860. 195. 195. Wiemann, Wiemann, “The “The Navy Navy Estimates Estimates of of 1914,” 1914,” 486—87; 486—87; Asquith Asquith to to the the King, King, 29 29 Jan Jan 14, 14, Cabinet Cabinet notes, notes, Asquith Asquith Mss Mss 6. 6.

196. 196. Churchill, Churchill, first first draft draft of of “World “World Crisis,” Crisis,” f.27, f.27, Chart Chart 8/61. 8/61. 197. 197. Murray, Murray, “Battered “Battered and and Shattered,” Shattered,” note note 2; 2; Avner Avner Offer, Offer, Property Property and and

Politics, Politics, 1870-1914 1870-1914 (Cambridge, (Cambridge, 1973), 1973), 396—400; 396-400; Packer, Packer, “The “The Liberal Liberal Land Land Campaign” Campaign” (PhD. (Ph.D. diss., diss., Oxford, Oxford, 1995), 1995), 244. 244. 198. 198. Churchill, Churchill, first first draft draft of of “World “World Crisis,” Crisis,” f.27-30, f.27-30, Chart Chart 8/61. 8/61. 199. Ibid. Ibid. 199. 200. Ibid. ibid. 200. 201. 201. Minutes Minutes (22 (22 Jan Jan 14 14 and and 11 Jun Jun 14) 14) both both by by Churchill Churchill to to Moore, Moore, vol vol 2, 2, p. p. 16, 16, 62, 62, FLM, FLM, Admiralty Admiralty Library. Library. Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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300—303 Pages 300-303 to Pages Notes to Notes

395 395

202. 202. Churchill Churchill to to Borden, Borden, 6:3:14, 6:3:14, M626H, MG26H, 0C OC 659, 659, vol. vol. 126, 126, 68013. 68013. (micro(microfilm film reel reel C4349) C4349) Borden Borden Mss; Mss; the the Navy Navy List List shows shows that that Vice Vice Adm. Adm. Sir Sir George George Warrender’s Warrender’s two-year two-year term term as as admiral admiral commanding commanding the the First First Battle Battle Squadron Squadron was was due due to to end end 16 16 Dec Dec 14. 14. 203. 203. Bridgeman Bridgeman to to Sandars, Sandars, 8 8 Mar Mar 16, 16, f.62, f.62, Sandars Sandars Mss Mss 759. 759. 204. 204. Hamilton Hamilton to to Churchill, Churchill, n/d. n/d. [June [June 1914], 1914], Hamilton Hamilton Mss Mss 125. 125. 205. 205. lbid. Ibid. 206. 206. Minutes Minutes (n/d) (n/d) by by Jellicoe Jellicoe and and Moore, Moore, on on undated undated handwritten handwritten memoranmemorandum dum by by Hamilton Hamilton (returned (returned within within Moore Moore to to Hamilton Hamilton 17 17 Jul Jul 14), 14), box box 124, 124, Hamilton Hamilton Mss Mss (hereafter (hereafter cited cited as as Hamilton Hamilton Memorandum). Memorandum). 207. 207. Churchill Churchill to to Controller, Controller, 11 11 Jun Jun 14, 14, vol.2, vol.2, p. p. 67, 67, FLM, FLM, Admiralty Admiralty Library; Library; Churchill Churchill to to Sea Sea Lord’s, Lord’s, 11 Jun Jun 14, 14, MB1/T34/322, MB1/T34/322, Battenberg Battenberg Mss. Mss. 208. 208. Vice Vice Adm. Adm. Doveton Doveton Sturdee Sturdee (chief (chief of of naval naval staff), staff), “What “What is is the the Raison Raison d’étre d’étre of of aa Polyphemus Polyphemus at at the the present present time?” time?” and and “What “What is is the the Strategic Strategic and and Tactical Tactical Value Value of of aa Polyphemus?” Polyphemus?” both both dated dated 24 24 Jul Jul 14, 14, MB1/T37/361 MB1/T37/361 &/362. & /3862, both both Battenberg Battenberg Mss; Mss; see see also also Ships Ships Covers Covers 333A 333A (Polyphemus (Polyphemus type) type) 1914; 1914: Diary Diary entry entry 18 18 Nov Nov 13, 13, DEY31, DEY31, d’Enycourt d’Enycourt Mss. Mss. 209. 209. lbid. Ibid. 210. 210. Minute Minute (n/d) (n/d) by by Jellicoe, Jellicoe, Hamilton Hamilton Memorandum, Memorandum, Hamilton Hamilton Mss Mss 124. 124. 211. 211. Minute Minute (n/d) (n/d) by by Moore, Moore, ibid. ibid. 212. 212. Churchill, Churchill, first first draft draft “World “World Crisis," Crisis,” f.28, f.28, Chart Chart 8/61. 8/61. 213. 213. lbid. Ibid. 214. 214. Churchill Churchill to to Sea Sea Lords, Lords, 11 Jun Jun 14, 14, MB1/l‘34/322, MB1/T34/322, Battenberg Battenberg Mss. Mss. 215. 215. Churchill, Churchill, first first draft draft “World “World Crisis,” Crisis,” f.28, f.28, Chart Chart 8/61. 8/61. 216. 216. Hamilton, Hamilton, Hamilton Hamilton Memorandum, Memorandum, Hamilton Hamilton Mss Mss 124. 124. 217. 217. Fisher Fisher to to Jellicoe, Jellicoe, 25 25 May May 14, 14, FGDN FGDN ii, ii, 506. 506. 218. Hamilton 218. Minute Minute by by Jellicoe, Jellicoe, Hamilton Hamilton Memorandum, Memorandum, Hamilton Mss Mss 124; 124; Churchill Churchill to to Battenberg, Battenberg, 11 11 Jul Jul 14, 14, YS, YS, 03, c3, 1986. 1986. 219. 219. Churchill Churchill to to Borden, Borden, 6 6 Mar Mar 14, 14, MG26H MG26H (microfilm (microfilm reel reel C4349), C4349), p. p. 68016, 68016, Borden Borden Mss. Mss. 220. 220. Telegram, Telegram, Churchill Churchill to to Borden, Borden, 8 8 Jul Jul 14, 14, p. p. 68057, 68057, ibid. ibid. 221. 221. Adm. Adm. Sir Sir Percy Percy Scott, Scott, the the Times, Times, 55 Jun Jun 14. 14. 222. 222. Kennedy, Kennedy, “Two “Two interpretations Interpretations of of British British Seapower," Seapower,” 54—55. 54-55. 223. 223. Churchill, Churchill, first first Draft Draft “World “World Crisis,” Crisis,” f.28, f.28, Chart Chart 8/61. 8/61. 224. 224. Fisher Fisher to to Churchill, Churchill, 77 Jul Jul 14, 14, 1°24, f.24, Chart Chart 13/43. 13/43. 225. 225. Fisher Fisher to to Corbett, Corbett, 22 22 Jun Jun 14, 14, FGDN, FGDN, H, Il, 507. 507. 226. 226. Churchill Churchill to to Battenberg, Battenberg, 12 12 Jul Jul 14, 14, enclosing enclosing memorandum memorandum (1.117) (f.117) and and Churchill 15—122, CAB Churchill to to Harcourt, Harcourt, 13 13 Jul Jul 14, 14, fl f.115-122, CAB 1/34; 1/34; also also Churchill Churchill to to Battenberg, Battenberg, 11 11 Jul Jul 14, 14, YS, YS, 03, c3, 1986 1986 (not (not sent). sent). 227. 227. Admiralty Admiralty to to Coventry Coventry Ordnance, Ordnance, and and Admiralty Admiralty to to Armstrongs, Armstrongs, both both 29 29 Jul 14, 14, Ships Ships Covers Covers 325 325 (HMS (HMS Resistance). Jul

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Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Index Index favors favors relying relying upon upon submarines, submarines, 277—79, 277-79, 281 281 plan for for mining mining North North Sea, Sea, 270-74 270—74 plan Battenberg, Admiral Admiral Prince Prince Louis, Louis, 91, 91, 98, 98, 205 205 Battenberg,

Admiralty, Admiralty, Board Board of of members members and and constitution, constitution, 16 16 Sea Sea Lords Lords title title reintroduced, reintroduced, 97 97 Arbuthnot, Arbuthnot, Captain Captain Robert, Robert, 84, 84, 209 209 Arnold-Forster, Arnold-Forster, H. H. Oakley Oakley appointed appointed War War Minister, Minister, 61—62, 61-62, 69—71. 69-71, 89 89 attempts attempts to to abolish abolish Royal Royal Engineers Engineers Corps Corps of of Miners, Miners, 63, 63, 70—72, 70-72, 117—21 117-21 enthusiasm enthusiasm for for submarines. submarines, 46—47,49—50, 55, 62, 62, 67, 67, 69 69 46-47 ,49-50, 55, urges urges naval naval reform, reform, 101 101 Asquith, Herbert Herbert Henry Henry Asquith,

on on the the 1904 1904 fleet fleet redistribution, redistribution, 98. 98, 105—9, 115, 115,161 105-9, 161 on armoured armoured cruisers, cruisers, 109 109 on First First Sea Sea Lord, Lord, 264, 264, 286-88, 286-88, 293—94. 293-94, 302—3 302-3 on on Grand Grand Fleet Fleet tactics, tactics, 217, 217, 221, 221, 252 252 on on the the navy’s navy's role role in in coastal coastal defense. defense, 59—60, 59-60, 117 117 opposition opposition to to flotilla flotilla defense, defense, 260—61 260-61 as Second Second Sea Sea Lord, Lord, 244-49, 244—49, 255, 255, 274 274 as views on on submarines, submarines, 60-64 60—64 views battle-cruiser 92—94. battle-cruiser theory, theory, 6, 6, 8—10, 8-10, 92-94, 107-9, 114-15, 114—15, 142-43, 142—43, 154, 154, 246-48 246—48 107-9, Beresford, Beresford, Admiral Admiral Lord Lord Charles Charles early career, career, 186-87 186—87 early early views views on on submarines, submarines, 44, 44, 76 76 early on effectiveness effectiveness of of torpedoes, torpedoes, 78—79n. 78—79n. 51 51 on later hostility hostility to to submarines, submarines, 191-92 191—92 later opposition to to Fisher, Fisher, 175, 175, 180, 180, 184-94 184—94 opposition Bethell, Rear Rear Admiral Admiral Alexander Alexander Bethell, as as DNl, DNI, 182, 182, 205, 205, 215—17, 215-17, 221—23, 221-23, 241, 241, 265 265 Borden, Sir Sir Robert, Robert, 278, 278, 298, 298, 302 302 Borden,

appointed appointed Prime Prime Minister, Minister, 138, 138, 199. 199, 204, 204, 244, 244, 258, 258, 271 271 attacks attacks naval naval budget, budget, 129-35, 129-35, 138—41. 138-41, 176, 176, 184—85, 184-85, 190, 190, 194, 194, 201, 201, 235. 235, 242, 242, 260. 260, 297 297 170 137—38, 170 128—29, 137-38, Chancellor, 128-29, as Chancellor, as 232 186, 232 Reginald, 186, Captain Reginald, Bacon, Captain Bacon, submarines command submarines to command appointment to appointment service, 01 51 service,

85—86 52—53, 85-86 ASW, 52-53, on ASW, on 218 theory, 218 tactical theory, radical tactical radical strategic strategic implications implications of of submarines. submarines,

123 116, 123 80-86, 116, 67, 80-86, 63, 67, 53—54, 63, 03-04,

Bridgeman, Bridgeman, Admiral Admiral Sir Sir Francis, Francis, 90, 90, 159, 159, 199 199 as CinC, CinC, 206, 206, 218, 218, 261-63 261-63 as

thoughts thoughts on on submarine submarine development, development,

155—57 123, 155-57 82, 123, 60, 82, 51—53, 60, 51-53, on utility utility of of long-range long-range torpedoes, torpedoes, 215 215 on 193-94 142—43, 193-94 129, 142-43, 127, 129, Arthur, 127, Balfour, Arthur, Balfour,

as First First Sea Sea Lord, Lord, 244, 244, 248-49, 248—49, 274 274 as

opinions opinions ignored ignored by by Churchill, Churchill, 255—56, 255-56, 260-61, 264, 264, 267 267 260-61, as Second Second Sea Sea Lord, Lord, 200-203 200—203 as

35 PM, 35 appointed PM, appointed 71 61—62, 71 Arnold-Forster, 61-62, of Arnold-Forster, dislike of dislike

penchant penchant for for submarines submarines 65—67, 65-67, 89-90. 89-90, 120 120 65— 61, 6556, 61, 35, 56, policy, 35, defense policy, on defense views on views 278 169, 278 135, 169, 120, 135, 117, 120, 87-88, 117, 66, 87-88, 66, 189 179-80, 189 George, 179-80, Captain George, Ballard, Captain Ballard,

supports flotilla flotilla defense, defense, 250-51, 250—51, 260, 260, supports 278 278 supports supports Grand Grand Fleet Fleet system, system, 217, 217, 220—21 220~21

Briggs, Briggs, Vice Vice Admiral Admiral Sir Sir Charles, Charles, 219, 219, 226, 226,

as DOD, 265-70, 277, 286

229, 248, 291

229, 248. 291 Lambert, Nicafi.BIQDMIZIQéNJDRenon286 E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.hand|e.net/2027/heb.31569.

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407

407

408 408

Index Index

291 210, 291 Cecil, 210, Sir Cecil, Burney, Admiral Sir Rear Admiral Burney, Rear

George Sir George Admiral Sir Callaghan, Callaghan, Admiral 284—89 270, 284-89 261—79, 270, CinC, 206, 261-79, CinC, 206, Churchill, Churchill, Winston Winston and (1911) and post (1911) asks Admiralty post for Admiralty asks for 243 Lord, 243 First Lord, appointed First appointed theories,245— radical theories,245— Fisher’s radical considers considers Fisher’s

202 160, 202 111, 160, 98, 111, Edward 86-87, 98, VII, 86-87, Edward VII, 200,265 161, 200, 159, 161, Reginald, 159, Esher, 265 Lord Reginald, Esher, Lord 259 253—55, 259 193—94, 253-55, 176, 193-94, 170, 176, CID, 170, CID, views on on submarines, submarines, 7, 7, 254 254 views 87 61, 87 reform, 61, Office reform, War Office War limitation financial financial limitation

302 291, 302 277—78, 291, 274, 277-78, 49, 257—60, 274, 49, 257-60, crisis, spending crisis, naval spending to naval contribution contribution to 274-78 274-78 advisors, ignore advisors, to ignore tendency to growing tendency growing 263, 266 266 263, interest interest in in defense defense matters, matters, 172, 172, 205. 205,

239, 239, 243—44 243-44 Mediterranean Mediterranean policy, policy, 252—61, 252-61, 275. 275, 277—78 277-78 proposes naval naval holiday holiday with with Germany, Germany, 249 249 proposes refuses Admiralty Admiralty post refuses post (1908), (1908), 141, 141, 235 235 274, policy, 274, substitution policy, submarine substitution submarine

279—84, 279-84, 296-303 296-303

18— 7—8, 18— 1—4, 7-8, policy, 1-4, naval policy, impact upon naval impact upon 20, 29-37, 29—37, 56, 56, 61, 61, 65, 65, 71, 71, 87-88, 87-88, 20, 41,157— 91, 109-11, 129-34, 139-41, 15791,109—11,129—34,139— 58, 58, 165—68, 165-68, 235, 235, 238—39, 238-39, 244. 244, 296—300 283, 296-300 275-77, 280, 283, 275—77, 280, John Sir John Fleet Sir the Fleet of the Fisher, Admiral of Fisher, Admiral 265—66 Ballard, 265-66 George Ballard, admiration of George admiration of 112 80, 112 55, 80, Lord, 55, Naval Lord, appointed Second Naval appointed Second on ASW, ASW, 43, 43, 76, 76, 85, 85, 209 209 on 293—95 concept. 293-95 attacks submarine concept, fleet submarine attacks fleet 261—62 Commission, 261-62 chairman Fuel Commission, of Fuel chairman of

as as CinC CinC Mediterranean, Mediterranean, 75-76 75—76 CinC CinC Portsmouth, Portsmouth, 82, 82, 84—86 84-86 dispute with with Beresford, Beresford, 184-94 184—94 dispute

support support for for fleet fleet submarine, submarine, 293 293

towards resources towards construction resources diverts construction diverts

views on on naval naval strategy, strategy, 250-52, 250—52, 262262— views 74, 284-90 284—90' 74,

146 73—75, 146 early career, 73-75, early career,

134 128, 134 119, 128, 87, 119, 58, 87, George, 58, Clarke, George, Clarke, policy, Admiralty policy, subvert Admiralty to subvert attempts to attempts

134—36, 134-36, 159-61 159-61 Committee Committee of of Imperial Imperial Defence Defence Beresford Beresford Enquiry Enquiry (1909), (1909), 11, 11, 184—94. 184-94,

199, 199, 201 201 established (1902) (1902) as as Cabinet Cabinet Defence Defence established Committee, 36, 36, 56 56 Committee, Invasion Invasion Enquiry Enquiry (1904), (1904), 56—57, 56-57, 59-61. 59-61,

65-67, 65-67, 87, 87, 89-90, 89—90, 116-21 116-21 Invasion Enquiry Enquiry (1907), (1907), 168-77 168—77 Invasion

Invasion Enquiry Enquiry (1913), (1913), 268-69 268-69 Invasion reconstituted (1904) (1904) as as CID, CID, 71-72, 71—72, reconstituted

132—35, 132-35, 159—60, 159-60, 204—5, 204-5, 240—44. 240-44, 258—61, 258-61, 270 270 Corbett, Corbett, Julian, Julian, 137, 137, 173, 173, 175. 175, 302— 302-3 3 Custance, Custance, Admiral Admiral Sir Sir Reginald Reginald considered inin 1913 1913 for for post post as as Chief Chief of of considered Staff, Staff, 289 289 dogmatic dogmatic views views on on strategy, strategy, 56, 56, 60, 60, 79. 79,

137, 137, 200 200

skepticism skepticism towards towards submarines, submarines, 27, 27, 42, 42,

44, 44, 288—89 288-89 D’Eyncourt, D’Eyncourt, Tennyson, Tennyson, 292, 292, 294 294

Douglas, Douglas, Vice Vice Admiral Admiral Sir Sir Archibald, Archibald, 47, 47, 55 55 Drury, fiMimMmiralrSir Vice Admiral Sir Charles, Charles, 68 68

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flotilla, flotilla, 123, 123, 163 163 80—82, 76, 80-82, submarines, 76, early interest inin submarines, early interest 123—26 89, 119, 123-26 89, 119, 77— warfare, 77-— torpedo warfare, on torpedo early thoughts on early thoughts

124 116-17, 124 79, 116-17, 79, invasion 1904 invasion to 1904 given to evidence given evidence 169—77 120. 169-77 enquiry, 89—90, 120, enquiry, 89-90, favors favors battlecruisers battlecruisers over over battleships. battleships,

92—93, 92-93, 107—9, 107-9, 114—16, 114-16, 142, 142, 144. 144, 219 153—54, 219 153-54, friendship friendship with with Reginald Reginald McKenna, McKenna, 236. 236, 239-40 239—40 on on imperial imperial defense, defense, 81, 81, 87—88, 87-88, 107. 107, 115,118—19,163 115, 118-19, 163 invited invited to to become become First First Sea Sea Lord, Lord, 91, 91, 97, 109-10 109—10 97, on on need need for for administrative administrative reform, reform, 73. 73, 80, 80, 87—92, 87-92, 97, 97, 110, 110, 146 146 prediction prediction of of unrestricted unrestricted submarine submarine 292 warfare, 292 warfare,

89— 80—85, 89strategy, 80-85, on strategy, views on radical views radical 182-84 123—26, 182-84 116-19, 123-26, 94, 116-19, 94, recognizes recognizes need need for for economy, economy, 72, 72, 81. 81, 87—88, 87-88, 91—92, 91-92, 109, 109, 111-15, 111-15, 130. 130, 142—43 139, 142-43 139, on on redistribution redistribution of of the the fleet, fleet, 97—109. 97-109, 261 160, 261 157—58, 160, 114-15, 124, 157-58, 114—15, 124, relationship relationship with with Arthur Arthur Balfour, Balfour, 66— 6667, 87-89, 87—89, 129 129 67,

index Index

relationship relationship with with Winston Winston Churchill, Churchill, 244—45, 244-45, 248, 248, 269, 269, 278 278 resists Liberal Liberal government government calls calls for for further further resists economies, economies, 133-44, 133-44, 172, 172, 184—85, 184-85, 202 202 role in in cementing cementing naval-industrial naval-industrial comcomrole plex, 142-54, 142-54, 155-57 155-57 plex, on submarine submarine warfare, warfare, 84-85, 84—85, 119, 119, 121121— on 26, 26, 156, 156, 176, 176, 182—84, 182-84, 210 210 theory theory of of flotilla flotilla defense, defense, 94, 94, 120—26, 120-26, 162—64, 162-64, 174, 174, 176, 176, 183—84, 183-84, 195, 195, 245. 245, 250, 258-59 258-59 250, views views on on Arthur Arthur Wilson, Wilson, 203 203 views views on on North North Sea Sea strategy, strategy, 168, 168, 170. 170, 177-82, 188-89, 188—89, 203-4 203—4 177-82, views views on on William William May, May, 200 200 fleet fleet redistribution redistribution (1904), 1,1, 4-5, 4—5, 98-115 98—115 (1904), (1907), 157-64 157—64 (1907), flotilla flotilla defence defence concept concept of, of, 10, 10, 116—17, 116-17, 121—26, 121-26, 162—64. 162-64, 174—76, 183—84, 195, 174-76, 183-84, 195, 245, 245, 250, 250, 258—59 258-59 Fournier, Fournier, French French Vice Vice Admiral Admiral Francois, Francois, 24—27, 24-27, 75 75

George, George, David David Lloyd, Lloyd, 9, 9, 201, 201, 137, 137, 151. 151, 271. 271, 280 280 on naval naval finance, finance, 135, 135, 236, 236, 239, 239, 275275— on 78, 78, 296-300 296-300 Grand Grand Fleet Fleet Tactical Tactical System, System, 11, 11, 78—79, 78-79, 211, 211, 222 222 fleet fleet submarines, submarines, 221-26, 221-26, 228—34, 228-34, 252, 252, 285—9 285-9 Goshen, Goshen, George, George, 22—24, 22-24, 32, 32, 42, 42, 75 75 Haldane, Richard Richard Haldane, role in in McKenna’s McKenna’s dismissal, dismissal, 237-42 237—42 role as as War War Minister, Minister, 129, 129, 132—34, 132-34, 205, 205, 254. 254,

237, 244 244 237, Hall, Captain Captain Sydney Sydney Hall, criticisms criticisms of of Keyes Keyes policy, policy, 228, 228, 232—35, 232-35, 291—92 291-92 alS,125,209 as ICS, 125, 209 opposition to to fleet fleet submarines, submarines, 222-27 222—27 opposition sacked by by Wilson, Wilson, 227 227 sacked Hamilton, Hamilton, Vice Vice Admiral Admiral Frederick Frederick support for for substitution substitution program, program, 300-303 300—303 support Hamilton, Lord Lord George, George, 18-19 18—19 Hamilton, Hankey, Hankey, Captain Captain Maurice, Maurice, 75, 75, 240—41, 240-41, 255, 255, 265, 265, 270 270 Hicks-Beach, Hicks-Beach, Michael, Michael, 22-24, 22-24, 30—34 30-34

Henry Sir Henry Admiral Sir Vice Admiral Jackson, Vice Jackson, as Controller, Controller, 150, 150, 155-56 155-56 as as COS, COS, 264, 264, 268-71, 268—71, 289 289 as intelligence intelligence reports reports from from Paris, Paris, 41— 41— 42 42

serving as as a/DNO, a/DNO, 58 58 serving 155 80, 155 submarines, 80, on submarines, on Jeffreys, Captain Captain Edmond, Edmond, 42-44 42—44 Jeffreys, Jellicoe, Vice Vice Admiral Admiral Sir Sir John John Jellicoe, as Second Second Sea Sea Lord, Lord, 216-19, 216—19, 280, 280, 292292as 300—301 94, 300-301 94, support for for fleet fleet submarines, submarines. 222-26, 222—26; 282 282 support support for for Grand Grand Fleet Fleet system, system, 217, 217, support 220—21, 220-21, 284—87 284-87 views views on on submarines, submarines, 183, 183, 282, 282, 289 289

Kerr, Rear Rear Admiral Admiral Mark Mark Kerr, favors flotilla flotilla defence, defence, 290-91 290—91 favors Kerr, Kerr, Admiral Admiral of of the the Fleet Fleet Lord Lord Walter, Walter, 20, 20, 33—34, 53, 53, 76 76 33-34, distrust distrust of of Fisher, Fisher, 91 91 refusal to to introduce introduce reforms, reforms, 101, 101, 105105— refusal 112 108, 112 6, 108, 6, on on submarines. submarines, 43—44, 43-44, 46, 46, 49, 49, 60—64, 60-64, 67—69, 85 85 67-69, Keyes, Keyes, Captain Captain Roger, Roger, 207, 207, 209, 209, 227-34. 227-34, 268, 281-83, 281-83, 293-94 293—94 268, Knollys, Knollys, Viscount Viscount Francis, Francis, 84, 84, 111, 111, 176, 176, 199 199 Lambton, Vice Vice Admiral Admiral Hedworth Hedworth (Meux, (Meux, til til Lambton, 1912), 1912), 60 60 Lees, Lees, Captain Captain Edgar, Edgar, 156 156 Lockroy, Lockroy, Edouard, Edouard, 26—28, 26-28, 42 42 Madden, Rear Rear Admiral Admiral Sir Sir Charles, Charles, 216, 216. 240 240 Madden, May, May, Admiral Admiral of of the the Fleet Fleet Sir Sir William, William, 51, 51, 106 55,60, 55, 60, 106 accusations of of incompetence incompetence against against accusations 200 of. 200 unpopularity of, and unpopularity and

assessment assessment of of submarines, submarines, 67—68, 67-68, 85, 85, 211 155, 211 155, CinC, CinC, 194 194 214-16 Strategy, 214-16 Sea Strategy, North Sea on North on on on torpedo torpedo warfare, warfare, 79—80 79-80 views on on Grand Grand Fleet Fleet tactics, tactics, 217, 217, 220 220 views McKenna, McKenna, Reginald Reginald 235—36 career, 235-36 early career, early

as as First First Lord, Lord, 141, 141, 151, 151, 185, 185, 189-90, 189-90, 194-95, 194-95, 200-206, 200-206, 238—43, 238-43, 246 246 as as Home Home Secretary, Secretary, 257—58, 257-58, 260, 260, 299 299 Moore, Moore, Rear Rear Admiral Admiral Archibald, Archibald, 280—81, 280-81, 294—96, 300-301 300—301 294-96,

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409 409

410 410

Index Index

210 George, 210 Sir George, Admiral Sir Vice Admiral Neville, Neville, Vice 71, William, 71, Sir William, Marshall Sir Field Marshall Nicholson, Nicholson, Field 169, 238 238 169,

185 170, 185 167, 170, Charles, 167, Captain Charles, Ottley, Ottley, Captain 173 24, 173 120, 24, DNl, 120, DNI, 43 submarines, 43 USN submarines, on USN reports on intelligence reports intelligence

137, defense,124, 137, flotilla defense,124, for flotilla support for support 178—79 171—73, 178-79 171-73,

Vlckers, Maxim Maxim && Sons Sons Ltd., Ltd, 45, 45, 51, 51, 147, 147, Vickers,

280 231—34, 280 225—29, 231-34, 156—57, 225-29, 149—51, 156-57, 149-51, Whitworth && Armstrong, Whitworth G. Armstrong, William G. Sir William Sir 280 234, 280 Ltd.,146-51, 234, Co. Ltd.,146-51, Co. 207 300n. 207 214, 300n. Doveton, 214, Admiral Doveton, Rear Admiral Sturdee, Rear Sturdee, submarines submarines of development of development 39—45 craft), 39—45 Century craft), (19th Century (19th

82 class), 82 (B && CC class), (B 207 182-83, 207 154—57, 182-83, class), 154-57, (D class), (D y), mod y), and DD mod class and or EE class mod xx or (D mod (D

personnel personnel constraint choices, 80, 80. constraint upon upon strategic strategic choices, 99—100, 111-14, 111—14, 162-64, 162—64, 250-52, 250—52. 99-100, 279 256, 279 256,

228-29 224-26, 228-29 224-26, (F (F class), class), 280—83 280-83 231—34 229, 231-34 class), 229, or SS class), (Fiat or (Fiat (French prototypes), prototypes), 27-28 27-28 (French (Holland type), type), 45-46, 45—46, 50-52 50—52 (Holland (K class class steam steam powered), powered), 292-93 292—93 (K intelligence on on foreign foreign development, development, intelligence 225 222, 225 76, 222, 55, 76, 51, 55, 39-47, 51, 39-47,

Frederick, Sir Frederick, Fleet Sir the Fleet of the Admiral of Richards, Admiral Richards, 137 23, 137 20, 23, 20, 269 219, 269 Herbert, 219, Captain Herbert, Richmond, Captain Richmond,

with, battleships with, replace battleships to replace proposals to proposals

35 30—32, 35 Marquis, 30-32, third Marquis, Salisbury, third Salisbury, 278 200, 278 193, 200, 162, 193, 90, 162, Jack, 90, Sanders, Jack, Sanders, 302 213, 302 5, 213, Percy, 5, Sir Percy, Admiral Sir Rear Admiral Scott, Rear Scott, Earl third Earl Selborne, third Selborne,

46 32, 46 Lord, 32, First Lord, appointed First appointed

9—1 9-11,1, 80—81, 80-81, 90, 90, 124—26, 124-26, 247, 247, 254, 254, 296—303 290—91, 296-303 284, 290-91, 277-80, 284, 274, 277-80, 274, 245, 203, 245, Ernest, 203, Admiral Ernest, Rear Admiral 'I‘roubridge, Rear Troubridge,

285 278, 285 270, 278, 260—66, 270, 254—55, 260-66, 250—51, 254-55, 250-51,

on British British submarines, submarines, 47, 47, 49-51, 49—51, 54, 54, 60, 60, on 64, 64, 66—69, 66-69, 80 80

213 George, 213 Sir George, Admiral Sir Vice Admiral Tryon, Vice Tryon, 210 Reginald, 210 Admiral Reginald, Rear Admiral Tupper, Rear Tupper, Tweedmouth, first first Earl, Earl, 129-41, 129—41, 158, 158, 162, 162. Tweedmouth,

111 93, 111 Fisher, 93, of Fisher, distrust of distrust

distrust distrust of of Wilson, Wilson, 203 203 115 108—9, 115 battleships, 108-9, faith inin battleships, faith

170—71, 175, 175, 253 253 170-71,

on French French submarine submarine development, development. on

28—29, 28-29, 113 113 RNVR with RNVR submarines with manning submarines on manning on crews, 64, 64, 120 120 crews, on naval naval responsibility responsibility for for coastal coastal on

defense, 63-64, 63—64, 70-71, 70—7 1, 119-20 119-20 defense, 109-12 36—37, 109-12 economy, 36-37, naval economy, for naval need for need no no confidence confidence in in torpedo torpedo warfare, warfare, 79. 79, 117, 122 122 117, views views

on on

naval naval

standard, standard,

166Strategy, 166Sea Strategy, North Sea and North Flaming and War Planning War 68, 68, 174, 174, 177-82, 177-82, 188—90, 188-90, 195, 195, 203—9. 203-9, 245—46, 250-52, 258—60, 261—73. 245-46, 250-52, 258-60, 261-73, 284—89, 294-96 294-96 284-89, Watts, Sir Sir Philip, Philip, 222, 222, 228-30, 228—30, 234 234 Watts, White, White, Sir Sir William, William, 41-42, 41-42, 45, 45, 50, 50, 152 152 Wilson, Wilson, Admiral Admiral of of the the Fleet Fleet Sir Sir Arthur. Arthur,

33-35, 33-35,

98-101, 98-101, 103—5 103-5 Slade, Slade, Rear Rear Admiral Admiral Edmond, Edmond,

173-77, 173—77,

180—82, 190 190 180-82, 137, 133—34, 137, 17, 133-34, 2-4, 17, industry, 2-4, shipbuilding industry, shipbuilding

142-57, 229-34, 229—34, 250-51, 250—51, 275, 275, 295-96, 295—96, 303 303 142-57, 147 Ltd, 147 Co. Ltd., Shipbuilding Co. Fairfleld Shipbuilding Fairfield 147 Ltd., 147 Brown Ltd., John Brown John

Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hd|.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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178, 211, 211, 227, 227, 241 241 178,

209 83—86, 209 maneuvers, 83-86, 1904 maneuvers, at 1904 at 247 242—44, 247 206, 242-44, dismissal, 206, dismissal, 236 201—6, 236 181, 201-6, Lord, 181, Sea Lord, First Sea as First as on on submarine submarine policy, policy, 40, 40, 44—45, 44-45, 48. 48, 49, 49, 83—86, 83-86, 207-11 207-11 78—79 warfare, 78-79 torpedo warfare, on torpedo on views on on North North Sea Sea strategy, strategy, 178-79, 178—79, views 270 262, 270 221, 262, 210, 221, 203-9, 210, 194, 203-9, 194,

Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher’s Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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Lambert, Nicolas. Sirjohn Fisher's Naval Revolution. E-book, Columbia: U of South Carolina Press, 2002, https://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31569.

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