Siliceous Rocks and Prehistory: Bibliography on Geo-archaeological Approaches to Chert Sourcing and Prehistoric Exploitation 9781841713427, 9781407325736

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Siliceous Rocks and Prehistory Bibliography on Geo-archaeological Approaches to Chert Sourcing and Prehistoric Exploitation

Christophe Delage

BAR International Series 1168 2003

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 1168 Siliceous Rocks and Prehistory © Christophe Delage and the Publisher 2003 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781841713427 paperback ISBN 9781407325736 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841713427 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by John and Erica Hedges in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2003. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

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TABLE OF CONTENT

Foreword

M. Steven Shackley ......... .....................................................

.

Preface Chapter l -

11

lll

Study of Lithic Raw Material Procurement in Prehistory: An Introduction .......................................................................

.

Chapter 2 -

Geological Studies on Chert: A Bibliography .... .. ... ...... .. ......... .. ... .

21

Chapter 3 -

Archaeological Studies on Lithic Raw Materials: A Bibliography ....... .

63

Chapter 4 -

Archaeological Studies on Lithic Raw Materials : Indexes .... .... .. ... ... .

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FOREWORD M . Steven Shack] ey University of California , Berkeley

D efine the prob lem. A good sourc e analy sis is usua lly compl ex and exp ensive, and hould not be initiat ed merely as a .fi shing exp edition in the vague hope that y ou might find something interesting ... all chert sources hav e an inherent level of uncertainty. There are million of chert sources on earth, and unless y ou contro l every one of them there is always the po ss ibility that the art ifa ct in question is a tually mad e from a material outside y our samp ling universe (L uedtke 1992: I 17). A year or so befor e her unti me ly dea th in May 20 00 , I had occasion to di c uss th e is ue of chert charac teriza tion and so urce prove nance studi es with Barbara Lued tke. She fe lt adamant that one of the g rea test stumbli ng block to unde rstand ing wo rld w ide hunt r-ga therer exc hange, group int eraction , not to m enti on pro curement ran ges, was an abilit y to confid ently determin e th e ge olo g ica l ori g in of chert s. Chri stoph e De lage has taken a larg step in that dir ection by compilin g th e mo t compreh ens ive biblio graphy and ind ex on chert pro cur e ment and ch arac terization yet attempt ed . D elage is uniqu e ly qualifi ed for thi task since he i both flu ent in French and English, read s many oth er languages, and is a lithi c analyst him self who ha s work ed in a number of reg ion s. Mo st of us in archa eolo gy , particularly tho se of us who tea ch at univ ersitie s, are inc ess antly worried that we cannot keep up with the litera tur e in our di sciplin e, inde ed in our own spec ialti s. Biblio graphi es and ind exes compil ed in the way thi on is, ce rt ainly work tow ard amelioratin g th at issue . Th e shee r size of th e numb er of entries here ignals the probl em we fa ce in a 2 JS' Century archa eolo gy. Sur e th ere will be tho se that can find an entry , that "s hould hav e bee n includ ed", but thi s will be a rarity . Perh aps ju st as valuable as the biblio graphy prop er, is Delage's introductory chapter . His eight yea rs of work on thi s tom e ar e refl ec ted in th e id enti fica tion of th e sa lient i sues in chert pro cur e ment and characterization tudi es on a numb er of contin ent . Th e pot enti ally haza rdou s interaction betw ee n poor fi e ld sa mplin g of sour ces and bl ack bo x analyses by NAA or oth er in strum ent al tec hniqu es is aptly di sc usse d by Delage. Thi s, of cour , e, wa brou ght to th e for e by Chur ch ' s ( 1995) criti c ism of Hoard et al. 's ( 1993) tud y of Whit e Ri ver sec ond ary silice ou s edim ents in a Gr ea t Pla ins form ation. Th e NAA study of th e chert itse lf was no t th e thru st of Chur c h 's critiqu e , but the fac t that mo st of th e sa mpl es analy zed ca me from archaeol og ica l artifa cts coll ec ted from th e sour ce rath er th an geolo g ica l ampl es , ig norin g th e po ss ibilit y of prehistori c re- to o ling at the sour ce (replac ing old too ls made from oth er sourc es with new material and di sca rd of the old at the new our ce), and even the pot enti al for coll ec tin g mod ern flintknapp er debitage . In thi s case , on e can commit a Typ e I or Type II error without knowledge . As ably not ed by D e lage , a co mpr ehensive chert stud y relie, on ca reful samplin g as we ll as ca re in the labora tory wh ether th e analys is invo lve s mega scopic source as sig nm ent , o pti ca l petro graphy , o r in strum e nta l chemistry. In a 2 1s1 Centur y archaeolo gy, bibli og raphi c studi es such as thi s on e are crucial to di se minat e kno wledge worldwid e. l ca nnot think of any oth er way to kee p up in a world that is beco min g mor e co rporat e, mor e eas ily acce ssed , with a body of litera tur e that see ms to be ex pandin g ex ponenti ally, and an ever expandin g co rps of new Ph .D.s. De lage will have to re- invent thi biblio graph y as a mid-ca ree r proj ect. Fin ally , I see thi s as a comp anion to the Int ernation al As, oc iation for Ob sidian Studi es on -lin e biblio graph y of obsidian rese arch at: http: //www .pea k.org/ob sidian/iaos _ bib .html Ind eed , De lage 's bibliograp hy will be mo st valuab le in electro nic fo rm , and whil e I reco mm end that all arc haeo logi sts, and so me geo log i ts, includ e thi s book in the ir libra ries, the e lec troni c vers ion ca rrie the greatest utilit y .

II

PREFACE The first mention on lithic raw material procurement in prehistoric times goes back to the 19th century, with a note on the Neolithic chert extraction site of Grime's Graves in England (Greenwell 1870). Since then, the literature on this topic continued to increase steadily, especially since the l 970's. Rocks, such as cherts, appeal to prehistorians for their material characteristics of hardness and durability. These raw materials indeed constitute archaeological remains essential for testifying to the presence and evolution of hominids since the origins of humankind. Moreover, lithic artifacts present in any archaeological site yield, more or less completely and clearly, evidence of the various treatment they have experienced from their acquisition in the natural environment to their discard. Therefore , these archaeological remains can shed light on the techno-economic activities of prehistoric groups as well as on their adaptive patterns to specific environments. The question then becomes how to assess the nature of the evidence that can be drawn from such remains of the past. These artifacts can indeed lead to a multiplicity of dimensions related to human activities. Therefore, anthropologists in most regions of the world are now concerned and interested in such an approach in order to reconstruct past human behavior. The published evidence is presented in many languages and is available in both local and international journals. Nowadays , it appears quite overwhelming, almost impossible, to grasp the full extent of research regarding this topic. Efforts in the last decades have tried to fill in the blanks, focusing on methodological grounds (Church 1994; Luedtke I 992;Seronie-Vivien and Seronie-Vivien 1987) or on the synthesis of specific geographical areas from either the Old World (Feblot-Augustins 1997) or the New World (Banks 1990). Yet, these rather essential publications inevitably provided a limited scope of reflection and discussion. It would become necessary at some point to expand and update their basis. A first step in this direction would be to become aware of the huge amount of literature on this topic. Such a reference source would then provide the "raw material" for scholars interested in furthering their knowledge and understanding of prehistoric economic strategies of lithic procurement and exp loitation . This volume corresponds to this first step . It is the result of several years collecting bibliographical reference on lithic raw material procurement and exploitation in prehistoric times. Publications ranging from a simple mention of a few raw materials present at a specific site to detailed studies of lithic sourcing and procurement strategies or the geo-archaeological assessment of chert available in a particular region , have been taken into consideration. Moreover, literature covering every prehistoric (Old World) / precontact (New World) periods from both the New and Old World have been considered. In 200 I, more than 2000 references were available , reflecting the considerable intere t shown by anthropologists for uch a topic in the last 130 years. This publication does not pretend to be exhaustive , but rather represent an effort in this direction. Many subsequent editions , updating it continually with recent a well a older references, will be required to reach this point. In its present version, this first edition contain bibliographical references that will interest specialists from various fields from the social science (anthropology , archaeology ,...) as well as the natural sciences (earth sciences).

Organization of the Volume

The volume is composed of four parts. Chapter I is an introduction to the field of lithic raw material procurement in prehistoric times. A large amount of literature has been considered in this review. Moreover , it focuses on rocks composed of siliceous raw materials , mainly cherts. It presents methodological considerations related to the geo-archaeological assessment of raw material availability and sourcing , as well as prehistoric procurement and exploitation patterns. It draws on examples from the Old and the New Worlds. Chapter 2 is comprised of bibliographical references which cover the geological studies on cherts , whereas Chapter 3 is concerned with archaeological studie on cherts. The earliest reference found goes back to 1870 (Greenwell 1870) ; and the most recent information in the databa e is from 200 I. Chapter 4 is divided into geographical and chronological indices based on the database presented in Chapter 3.

111

Acknowledgements Coll cting bibliographical references on a specific topic like chert (from a geological and archaeological viewpoint) is a tedious and time-consuming task. Thi volume is the result of seven years of research. Along the way, many people have helped me in various ways to access libraries, acquire books and journals , or provide r ferences. This research started in 1995 while I was a doctoral student at the French Research Ce nter in Jerusalem (Israel). I would like to thank the French Ministry of For ign Affairs and the Center Directors, F. Blanchetiere and D. Bourel for the financial support during the first years (1995-1997). During this time period, 1 was able to spend six month at Indiana University (USA) , as a CRAFT (Center of Research in the Anthropological Foundation of Technology) research a sociate. I incerely thank Kathy Schick and Nick Toth (CRAFT co-directors) for granting me this affiliation. The tim pent there wa the most crucial for assembling the references presented here. In the last years , the Univer ity of California , Santa Cruz, provided the conditions necessary for the inclu ion of more recent references in the database. Thi would not have been pos ible without the amazing help of Jennifer Walker and Jim Tschen-Emmon from the Inter-Library Loan Department. Finally , I would like to thank Jan St Clair for editing Chapter I and improving the clarity of the text through her suggestions and comment .

IV

-CHAPTER 1-

STUDY OF LITHIC RAW MATERIAL PROCUREMENT IN PREHISTORY AN INTRODUCTION

2

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS I. TERMINOLOGY

Several conclusions can be drawn from these considerations: 1) The use of a unique term (chert) in a general sense would imply a variety of features among rocks being considered rather than a variety of rocks. On the mineralogical level, cherts are constituted "largely or entire ly of cryptocrystalline or microcrystalline quartz" (Blatt et al. 1980: 571; see also Friedman et al. 1992: 133; Heinrich 1956: 135; Nockolds et al. 1978: 291 ). Within a matrix made almost exclusively of silica , some rare impurities , such as particles of clay, calcite or hematite, may also be found (Blatt et al. 1972: 535; Blatt et al. 1980: 571; Hammer 1976: 40-4 l ); 2) lt is essential to avoid making direct equivalence between a specific term such as "chert" and a specific type of outcrop , texture, or color ...

Terminology of the sedimentary rocks composed mainly of silica requires some explanation. At the mineralogical and petrographic level, there is a great variety of types, from purely organic and nonconsolidated materials to the various groups of "cherts" (Hatch et al. 1957: 198-199). Between these two extremities , numerous intermediate types are present, which do not make identification easier for geologists or prehistorians (Calogero 1992; Calogero and Philpotts 1995; Holliday and Welty 1981; Luedtke 1992). For instance geologists are far from agreeing to definitions and names of these various rocks. In various parts of the world, such as the New England region of the United States (Calogero 1992; Dincauze 1976; Luedtke 1993) and eastern Africa (Potts 199 l ; Stiles et al. 1974 ; Toth 1985 , 1987), prehistoric groups have taken advantage of a variety of sedimentary , igneous and metamorphic rocks which requires great caution and in-depth knowledge for their identification. Nevertheless, we will focus as much as possible on siliceous materials in the text that follows.

HISTORY RESEARCH II.

AND GEOGRAPHY

OF

It is quite difficult to present a historical view of the work done without taking into consideration the specific dynamics of each geographical area. First , the interest in tudying lithic sources and exploitation patterns did not appear everywhere at the same time. Second , different traditions of research or of thought have oriented or emphasized research design and /or methods toward specific domains or periods. Finally , our a sumption regarding the rarity , or even the lack , of publications in some areas , such as the Asian continent , could be due to a language problem and reflect our inability to read some original texts , for instance in Chinese , Japanese or Ru sian.

In the English speaking literature , one can generally find references to such terms as chert , flint and chalcedony (Butler and May 1984: xviii). The tern, "flint" has been used for a long time in a very restricted sense , particularly in Briti h geological and archaeological publications (Butler and May I 984: xviii). Thus flint was defined as a rock of dark brown to black color, present as nodule in the Upper Cretaceous chalks (Hammer 1976: 41; Henson 1985: 2) . In the middle of the 20th century , Wray ( 1948: 25) promoted the term "flint" as a generic name, but without success. More recently , the term "chert" has achieved more wide-spread consensus , both in geology and in archaeology (Butler and May 1984: xviii; Hammer 1976 : 41 ; Hatch et al. 1957: 199; Luedtke 1979: 745).

Europ e Prior to the 1970s, it is possible to find only brief notes mentioning the chert types pre ent at a site and their sources. These rare efforts were the result of an early interest already present among some archaeologists , as well as geologists at the beginning of the 20th century (Demars 1982a: 29-30). The pioneer work by L. Valensi (1955, 1960) and G. Deflandre ( 1966) , in the application of micropaleontology to chert sourcing represents a notable exception. The true development of this discipline happens in the 1970s , in Western and Eastern Europe.

3

Research on the Neolithic period focuses on documenting networks of long-distance exchange. Petrographic analyses of polished axes (Cogne et Giot 1952; Cummins 1974; Cummins and Moore 1973; Evens et al. 1972; Le Roux et Cordier 1974 ; McK Clough and Green 1972 ; Morey 1950) and geochemical characterization of cherts from major mines (Aspinall and Feather 1972; de Bruin et al. 1972; Sieveking et al. 1970 ; Sieveking et al. 1972) provide most of the evidence to stimulate on-going debat s. This tradition of research on lithic procurement during the Neolithic period is still present , particularly in England, Belgium and th Nether land s. The city of Maastricht in the Netherlands provided a dynamic context for the first three international conferences on chert , in 1969, 1975, and 1979 (respectively Engelen 1971 ed., 1976 ed. , 1981 ed .; see history of conference in Seronie-Yivien and Lenoir 1990). In England recently , re earch ha also included the periods prior to the Neolithic , notably the Upper Palaeolithic (Slater and Grunberg 1991) and especially the Mesolithic (Myers 1989; Wickham-Jones l 989; Woodman 1989). These recent studies have also initiated a change of approach , focusing now on the source of cherts pre ent at a specific site. By contrast , Belgium and the Netherlands continue the tradition of analysis from the perspective of a specific source area (notably work hops and mines), assessing its geographical distribution at various chronological periods (Caspar 1984).

have now documented the diversity of chert procurement patterns. Overall, the Lower Palaeolithic (Wilson 1988, and some data in the monograph edited by Bonifay and Vanderrne rsch, 1991) and the N olithic (Bi nder 1986, 1991 b; Binder et al. 1990; Brioi 1990; Jeudy et al. 1995; Petrequin et al. 1993 ; Plateaux l 990 , 1993) seem less investigated and known than the Upper Palaeolithic (Aubry 1990; Chadelle 1990 ; Demars 1982a , 1990a , 1990b , 1992; Larick 1983, 1986; Turq 1992b; Turq et al. 1992) , and especially the Middle Palaeolithic (Dibble 1995 ; Geneste 1988b , 1989 ; Meignen 1988; Monce! and Co rnbier 1990; Turq 1989, 1990b , 1995). With regard to Germany , analyses have concentrated esse ntially on the Upper Palaeolithic period (Aurignacian-GravettianMagdalenian). Thus the procurement of nonlocal chert is now well documented for these period (Floss 1990 , 1991 ; Hahn 1987; Hahn and Owen 1984, 1985 ; Scheer I 993; Weniger 1987a , 1987b , 1990). These observations rest upon a precise, yet implicit, knowledge of the source areas , as no publication has presented details of the regional availability in cherts. For Mediterranean Europe, studies on chert procurement/exploitation are not numerous. Yet , Spain offer a rather different situation. Since the organization in 1990 of the 6th International Symposium on Flint, research on this topic has dramatically increased (Cacho 1990 ; Carbonell et al. 1999 ; Mallo I I 999 ; Mo quera Martinez 1998; Ramo Millan 1991; Ramos Millan et al. 1991; Ripoll Lopez 1990; Soler et al. 1990; Straus 1992 ; trau ct al. 1986). All of the periods are investigated , from the Lower Palaeolithic at Atapuerca to the Bronze Age. In Italy , this kind of interest was rare until th 1990 s (Barfield 1987 , 1990 ; Simek and Ammerman 1990) , but there is a more dynamic trend in recent years that encompasse raw materials (Barfield 1994 ; Bietti and Grimaldi 1995; Kuhn 1991 , 1992, 1995; Kuhn and Stiner 1998; Milliken 1998). In Greece, obsidian has been the main focu of re earch (Torrence 1986). With regard to the rare publications that also touch upon chert , a special mention goes to C. Perles , who deals with lithic raw material procurement and exploitation patterns from the Upper Palaeolithic to the Neolithic periods in continental Greece (Perles 1990, 1992).

In France , re earch took place at about the ame time , initiated notably by Pierre-Yves Demars and others (Bricker 1975; Demars 1974; Malissen 1977; Seronie-Vivien et Le Tensorer 1979 ; Turq 1977). These studie seem to have been carried out independently from the trend mentioned in the previous paragraph , especially from the orientation regarding the Neolithic period. The principal interest is going to be on the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic periods. Moreover , the evidence available is now going to be based on syst matic geoarchaeological survey at the regional level ( c.g , South-West , Massif central) and the analysis essentially macro copic , of num ero us archaeological and geological chert sample . For example, doctoral dissertation by P.-Y. Demars ( 1982a) and Annie Masson ( 1981) are the achievcm nt of many y ars of re earch. In the last two decad es, severa l other di ssertatio ns (Aubry 1991 ; Fouere 1994 ; Gene tc 1985 ; Mauger 1985a ; Morala 1984; Turq 1992a) have been defended and man y publications on this topic

Eastern Europe constitutes the other province where research on the characterization of chert so urces and their prehistoric exploitation wer e initiated very early and have been particularly

4

developed in the second half of the 20th century. Poland leads this trend. With the impetus of J. Kozlowski, work there has been on-going since the l 970's. Even at that time, earth sciences and prehistoric archaeology were working collaboratively to provide petrographic, mineralogical and geochemical information as accurately as possible on raw material sourcing (Kozlowski 1972- 73 ). In 1976, a conference on chert procurement in the Carpathian region revealed the breadth of research on this topic (Kozlowski 1976; see also Balcer 1976; Schild 1976). Studies have focused on chert source areas (Borkowski et al. 199 l; Kozlowski et al. 1981; Kozlowski and Pawlikowski I 989), notably of some very discriminant types, such as the "chocolate flint" outcropping in Central Poland (Lech and Lech 1984: 196-199; Schild 1971, 1979: 813, 1987: 142-14 7) or the "Swieciechow flint" (Balcer 1976: 190-196). The studies have also paid careful attention to Neolithic mines, very impressive and well known in this region of Europe (Borkowski 1995; Borkowski et al. 1986; Budziszewski I 986, 1990; Salacinski 1990; Salacinski and Bednarz 1995; Zalewski 1990, 1991, 1995).

are sparse and have rarely been published. In this region of Europe, a few studies regarding raw material procurement have also been done in the former Yugoslavia (Montet-White 1994; Simek 1991; Voytek 1986-87). In the Scandinavian region, research has focused little on chert procurement and exploitation. The rare publications encountered are concerned with the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods (Hood 1994, 1995; Welinder and Griffin 1984). By contrast, much attention has been given to raw materials used in the manufacture of Neolithic polished axes.

Africa The African continent has not yet been the subject of intensive research that allows us to get a global picture of chert availability. Only a few small-scale projects have contributed more in-depth knowledge on this topic. Moreover, these studies have often focused on a single chronological period. The first area to mention is Morocco , with the research on the Middle Paleolithic Period being carried out by L. Wengler ( 1990a , 1990b , 1990c, 1991, 1993 ). Through these pub! ications , one perceives the complexity of the field work involved in identifying the chert-bearing outcrops and documenting the raw material characteristics. Such a geo-archaeological approach becomes particularly meaningful when the author combines it with an understanding of the procurement and exploitation pattern of some Mousterian and Aterian sites.

Numerous systematic surveys, as well as visual and archaeometric determinations of cherts, have been carried out in Hungary to assess regional raw material availability and characteristics. This exceptional effort has been led mainly by Katalin Biro , whose publications clearly detail the research methodology and the various results achieved (Biro 1986 , 1988, 1989, 1993; Takacs-Biro 1986, 1987, 1988, 1991a, 1991 b; Takacs-Biro and Tolnai-Dobo i 1990). Her research is of interest as much in the regional availability in cherts as in the features of the raw materials (dimensions , flintknapping qualities , access to outcrops , visual/mineralogical /geochemical aspects). Archaeological interpretations of lithic procur ment patterns can then develop from these solid grounds. Besides research, various scholar have also contributed to the understanding of mineral resource exploitation during the Upper Palaeolithic and the Neolithic periods (Bacskay l 990; Dobosi 1991; Patay 1976; Siman 1989, 1991 ). In the Czech Republic and in Slovakia , research has focused primarily on the identification of raw material types present in various Upper Palaeolithic sites and their geographical origin (Kaminska 1990; Oliva 1990; Prichystal 1989, 1994; Skrdla 1994 ; Svoboda I 983 , 1990 , 1994a, 1994b ). It appears that surveys were carried out to determine the regional availability , but data

In Egypt , P. Vermeersch and his colleagues have been working for a few decades on the potential chert sources used by Palaeolithic hominids. They were thus able to identify several mines and extraction/quarry sites which date back to the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic periods (Vermeersch et al. 1986 , 1989, 1990 , 199 l; Vermeersch and Van Peer 1990; see also Bednarik 1990; Fuch I 995). Besides Vermeer ch's efforts, another team led by F. Wendorf and R. Schild has also focused primarily on Egypt, bringing together scientists from various disciplines to understand the evolution and adaptation of prehistoric communities during the Pleistocene and early Holocene periods. Within the many aspect of this research , chert exploitation patterns were considered an important dimension to record and document. As part of this project , Angela Close recently offered an interesting model for the procurement and transportation patterns of

5

Winter and Ronen 1994). Regarding thi later period, the detailed analyses on the prehistoric sites of the Negev (Israel) carried out by N. Goring-Morris and his team must be mentioned. Their long-term research now allows us to have a better idea of regional chert availability and the sources specifically exploited during the Epipalaeolithic Period. Fine-grained, a well as coarse-grained, cherts from local Eocene formations are present at lowlands sites. Nevertheles , chalcedony was also exploited , supposedly coming from Senonian outcrops at a distance of 6-8 kilometers from the sites (Goring-Morris 1996: 133-134 ; Goring-Morris et al. 1998: 162).

Neolithic raw materials (Close 1996, 1997). During this time period, distance does not seem to affect the characteristics of the raw materials moved around, a opposed to the Mousterian Period, for instance. Close argues then for the use of animals helping in the transport of complete nodules to occupation it s distant from the source areas.

In eastern Africa , research on the provenance of lithic raw material can best be illustrated by case studies of Lower Pleistocene sites , such as Olduvai and Koobi Fora (FeblotAugustins 1990; Pott I 991; Schick and Toth l 994; Stiles et al. 1974; Toth 1985, 1987). By contrast , the recent analysi carried out by Barut ( I 994) has focused on later periods , notably the transition from the Middle Stone Age to Later Stone Age. Finally , there are a few publications on thi topic r levant to South Africa (Ambrose and Lorenz 1990; Parkington l 986).

Am ericas Within the Americas , North America i the other continent , be ides Europe, where an intere t to locate lithic raw material sources grew very early, e pecially in a theoretical atmosphere influenced by cultural ecology.

Asia Canada reveals an interesting diversity of research on this topic. Some of the literature concerns only geo-archaeological aspects, focusing either on the assessment of regional chert availability (see Lazenby I 980) , or on micropaleontological or geochemical characterization of raw materials ( ee Eley and von Bitter I 989; Julig et al. I 988, 1989; Lazenby l 980). Other studies are more archaeologically oriented toward some understanding of raw material procurement , exploitation and distribution/exchange pattern during the late prehistory of various parts of the Canadian territory ( ramly 1978; Hayden et al. 1996; McCaffrey 1989; Parker 1986; Plourde 1993; Plumet 1981).

Studies on raw material sourcing have been carried out at both extremities of this vast continent (i.e., Near East and Japan). 1f we start with Japan , only a few references in English are available (Wara hina I 992; Yamamoto 1990). Cherts do not seem to be an abundant raw material in this region. Method of analy is have been quite diversified, combining mineralogical and geochemical approaches. In the Near East, preliminary reports are now relatively abundant, yet rare are the tudies that follow a detailed geo-archaeological procedure to document regional chert availability and prehistoric exploitation patterns. First, chert-bearing formations eem to appear in most locations in southwest Asia , yet there are ome rare case where nonsedimentary rocks (volcanic areas) are pre ent. In thes cases, prehistoric ites are particularly interesting to study for their procurement patterns. Preliminary studies were thu carried out with this mindset, notably by Erella Hovers ( 1990) in the Golan Heights and by Alison Betts ( 1983a , pl. IA, 1984: 3 I , 34 , 199 I: 222 , 230 , I 998) in the Black Desert of Jordan. Distances involved in the transport of lithic raw materials is usually about 20 to 50 kilometers (cf. Betts 1991 ). Research on this topic ha focused on the Middle Palaeolithic Period (Henry 1992, 1995; Hovers 1990) and on the Epipalaeolithic Period (Delage 1997, 1999 , 200 I ; Goring-Morri 1987 , 1996; Goring-Morris et al. 1998; Ronen et al. 1994,

In the United-States , research on lithic sourcing tarted towards the end of the 19th century. Interest was timulated by the regular discovery of chert mines and quarries (see Butler and May 1984: xviii; Vehik 1985c: 265). The enthusiasm of that period faded quickly. It i only in the 1970s that renewed interest in these questions can be noticed. This situation is related to several factors. On the one hand, cultural ecology (with it strong emphasis on the complex relationships between humans and their natural environment) wa showing the potential of new applications in archaeology. ombined with models based on recent ethnoarchaeological inquiries , this paradigm offered a very stimulating theoretical framework to interpret human behaviors. New concepts were developed , such as those of lithic "curation" or of lithic procurement strate g ics, with it s

6

alternatives: direct/indirect, embedded/ specialized (Binford 1977 , 1979, 1980). On the other hand, large projects of Cultural Resource Management were occurring in various parts of the country, in which numerous contract archaeology companies were involved. This new trend saw the development of detailed research on the regional level. As a part of these projects , the assessment of chert availability, based on systematic geo-archaeological surveys, took a crucial position (Butler and May 1984: xviiixix). The State of Illinois is one of the best examples of the range and intensity of research performed in this direction (Odell 1984, 1996). As opposed to these efforts in the field amJ the theoretical advances , the characterization of chert types and their provenance was becoming a more and more controversial topic , since techniques used were leading toward increasing interpretive problems rather than establishing reliable observations. The choice and nature of the analytical procedure were essential topics to discuss if any scholar were to argue convincingly for the geographical and geological source area exploited in a specific period and region (see Blakeman 1977; Luedtke 1978 , 1979). In her doctoral dissertation ( 1976), Barbara Luedtke tested the validity of the geochemical technique of chert characterization using trace elements in order to identify well defined sources of raw materials. Her exceptional research , focusing on several thousand samples , thus made some progress toward these goal , even thou gh numerou s problems (geological cartography , sampling , etc.) were still present (Luedtke 1992: 123-147). In this very dynamic context , several conferences took place early in the 1980s, in order to create a platform for researchers to exchange their viewpoints and gain a broader knowledg e of the information already available (Butler and May 1984 eds.; Vehik 1985 ed.). At about the ame time , a publication focusing on extraction site and lithic procurement systems was published (Ericson and Purdy 1984 eds.) .

1996; see papers in Carr 1994 ed. ; Ellis and Lothrop 1989 eds.; Odell 1996 ed.; Torrence 1989 ed.) . If we consider the example of Paleoindian groups , for decades scholars have considered them as freely wandering in vast territories (Storck and von Bitter 1989: 181 ). These speculations were based notably on the interpretation that most rocks found at Paleoindian sites were of non-local origin. Recent surveys carried out in the surroundings of some of these sites revealed the presence of chert nodules. However, these lithic raw materials were not outcropping in primary sedimentary deposits but rather in secondary ones , in river streams or conglomerates. This new evidence seriously challenges the picture of lithic availability that was previously taken for granted and opens new perspectives on mobility and natural resource exploitation patterns (Andrefsky 1991 , 1994a , 1994b ; Lavin and Prothero 1981, I 992). In other parts of the Americas , this research topic has been investigated very little. In Central America , lithic raw material sources seem relatively well known (Graham 1987) , yet no details on the geological sequence and lithology or on the methodology applied in the field to map these sources ar e availabl e . Geochemical analysis of some of these lithic materials have been published (Tobey et al. 1986). Jn South America , the rare publication s concern Chil e and Argentina , where two tudies have tried to assess the origin of the siliceous rock s present at various Paleoindian sites (Nami 1991; Nami and Case 1988).

Australia This continent is the last one where some individuals , among certain groups of huntergatherers , still practice flintknappin g or were doing so in the very recent past. Therefore , ethnoarchaeological studie have been quite abundant , given the ability to use aboriginal lithic technology a a main topic of res earch (Gamble 1993; Gould 1977 , 1978 ; McBryde 1991 a, 1991 b ). By contrast , studi es on thi s topic are still relatively rare regarding the regional prehistory (see Lourandos 1997 for a summary of available evidence). Lithic procurement and exploitation patterns at some specific sites or in a pecific region are the focus of the se studie s.

R cent observations in the field and about chert characterization have allowed some progress in the discussion of the concepts offered by Bin ford and the technique available. In the last decades , the analysis of the technological organization of production has become a dominant research topic , notably in relation to the mobility patterns of prehistoric groups and the constraints of chert availability (Amick 1995 , 1996 ; Andrefsky 1994a ; Bamforth 1986; Kelly and Todd 1988; Odell 1996 ; Parry and Kelly 1987; Stothers

7

CHERT PROCUREMENT: GEO-ARCHAEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS studies consist of assessment of the geographical distribution of a specific raw material from its sourc e area ; others focu on the types of raw materials present in an archaeological assemblage and try to determine their origin (Caspar 1984 : l 07 ; Luedtke 1992: 11 7) . Th e specificities of the e variou s perspective s are presented below .

Research on chert procurement and exploitation has resulted in a wide variety of approaches being applied. These may includ e short or lon g-term projects , with modest or ambitious , theoretical or empirical goals . Numerous archaeological studies hav e attempted to preci ely determine the geological context of chert-bearing sedimentary formations and th e chert availability of a specific geographical area (Munson and Mun on 1984 ; Odell 1984 ; Ray 1985; Turq 1992a). Barbara Luedtke (1993: 58-59) has recently reminded us that the number of publications regarding this type of evidence is still relatively small. More specialized analy es have been performed by prehistorians, geologists and physicists, in order to document the mineralogical , petrographic and /or geochemical nature of siliceous rocks and develop methods to assess their geographical origin (Hoard et al. 1992 , 1995; Luedtke 1978 , 1979; Seronie-Vivien and Seronie-Vivien 1987; Seronie-Vivien 1995; Tankersley 1985). Moreover , some studies have focused on correlating the nature of the lithic raw material exploited at a site (dimensions , texture , knapping quality , etc.) with reductional equences , in order to shed light on specific technological choice and differential treatment of raw material (Andrei: ky I 994a ; Binder et al. 1990; Demars 1982b ). Finally the identification of the siliceous rock present in an archaeological lithic assemblage and the assessment of their provenance can lead to important theoretical implications about the understanding of past human behavior: exploitation territory size , settlement and mobility patterns , the nature of lithic assemblage variability , long-distance exchange networks , relationships between close or distant groups, etc. (among others , Andrefsky 1994a ; Arnold 1990; Dibble 1991, I 995 ; Geneste 1988b ).

Dfffu s ion of lithi c mat erial s from a sp ecffi c source area This approach has been applied mainly in Eastern Europe and North America. Research interests focu ed at the beginning on extraction sites , such as quarries exploited by native Americans and mines used during the European Neolithic period. Following this early stage, scholars tried to understand and map where these extracted raw materials were transported. This perspective requires a detailed knowledge of siliceous rocks in their geological context (age of the sedimentary fomiation considered, geographical distribution of the outcrops, density of the ilicifications , etc.) and of their macro copic (color , texture , knapping quality , etc.) and geo-archaeological (mineralogical , petrographic , geochemical , etc.) featur s. Based on ome generally distinctive visual traits that the raw materials identified may reveal , it is possible to recognize quickly and easily their area of provenance. Thus scholars could circumscribe the area of geographical distribution of these specific rocks and compare the diffusion patterns from different periods , at the level of a site or a region (Schild 1987: I 37) . It is indeed interesting to document not only differences in the presence /ab ence of specific raw materials at any site under consideration , as well as the distances involved in the transport of thes e rocks , but also variation s in the nature of the product transported ( complete nodules , prepared nodule , unretouched b tanks , retouched tools).

I. TYPES OF APPROACHES The most famous example for Eastern Europe concerns the so-called "Chocolate Flint" , that is dated to the Jurassic stage and i outcropping in Central Poland (L ech and Lech 1984: 196-199 ; Schild 1971, 1976, 1979: 8 13, 1987: 142- 147). T hi ty pe of m ateria l ce m s to ha ve bee n

Based on the large amount of Iiterature available on lithic raw material procurement and exploitation , it is now po sible to identify several trend s in this type of research : som e

8

exploited during the Final Paleolithic and the Early Neolithic periods. During these periods, sites located at a distance of less than l 00 kilometers from the source yield generally large quantities of this material (more than 50 %). Beyond this distance , percentages decrease very rapidly. Another type of siliceous material, known as "Swieciechow Flint", has been studied in the same manner. Also outcropping in Poland , it is dated to the Lower Turonian (Balcer 1976: 190-196). Even though its exploitation goes back to the Mousterian period, its exploitation have been documented only for the Neolithic. Balcer identified three zones of chert distribution. In the first one (less than 60 km from the source area), archaeological assemblages are constituted mainly of this raw material. Beyond this point, two other zones have been arbitrarily described (60-180 km and 180-300 km) , in which observations of the shape and technological stage of the raw material reveals interesting patterns: sickle blades , retouched blades , as well as caches containing unretouched blades , have been found. Caspar ( 1984) mentions other examples of this type of approach , concerning the exploitation of phtanite and the quartzitic sandstone of Wommersom (GQW) during the Prehistory of Belgium. In the Vosges Mountain of Eastern France , Pierre Petrequin and his team discovered some quarries of black rocks exploited during the Neolithic. This complex located at Plancher-les-Mine allowed them to document the production process and distribution of poli hed axes during this period (Jeudy et al. 1995; Petrequin et al. 1993). In the United States , numerous case studies were carried out in the 1970s and 1980s where various discriminant lithological types of rocks were identified in variou parts of the country. Diversified means of characterization including petrography , micro-palaeontology, and geochemistry - were applied to define precisely these raw materials. A perspective , comparable to the one encountered in Europe , has also been applied in North America to document the transport pattern and distances involved in the distribution of a specific rock type from its source area (Amick I 994a; Clark 1984; McGregor I 993; LeTourneau 1992; Ray I 986-87; Vehik 1985c , 1986, 1988). Cherts present in the Monterey Formation (California) , studied by Jeanne Arnold (1987 , 1990), arc a good illustration of this kind of approach. In the Santa Barbara area of Southern California , this raw material type seem to be outcropping only on the Santa Cruz Island. Location with chert nodules are rather localized in the eastern part of the

island. Before A.D. 1300, aboriginal groups would have exploited these raw materials by direct procurement for domestic purposes. Archaeological sites dated of this period yield a variety of lithic artefacts that can account for every stage of the reductional sequences. After A.D. 1300, the situation changes. Only some categories of remains - notably microblades and microdrills - are present in occupation sites and sites specialized in bead production. Some groups would have had control over the access to chert sources. Lithic reductional sequences would have taken place essentially at the extraction sites. Moreover, production would have followed more normative and standardized technological schemes.

Origin of Raw Materials from Archaeologi cal Sites The emphasis of this approach rests upon the lithic assemblage(s) in one or several archaeological sites. "It essentially aims at completing the information relative to a site" (Caspar 1984: I 07, my translation). Whereas the previous perspective concerns generally technoeconomic contexts of human societies qualified as "more complex" , such as the European Neolithic or the Archaic period in North America , the present approach fits better with Palaeolithic and Epipalaeolithic period . The differential exploitation of the regional landscape appears les specialized than during the Neolithic period or among s dentary farming communities. Moreover , extraction sites are relatively rare during pre-Neolithic times (see Kozlowski 1991 ). This perspective implies several research phases. First of all, it is necessary to assess the range of raw material diversity present at the site( ) under consideration. The definition of criteria of observation (generally visual) allow us to identify well-defined lithic types and the inventory of raw materials (Keller I 982; Seronie-Vivien 1995). Based on these observations , it is th n essential to consider the regional geological context in order to offer suggestions about the origin of these artefacts. The lithic analyst can either include the contribution of a geologist who specializes in the geographical zone under tudy (Lenoir and Seronie-Vivien 1991 ; Straus et al. 1987) or undertake him/her elf the task of documenting the regional availability and characteristics of the rocks suitable for knapping (Keller I 982 ; Maraia 1984; Turq 1992a). This perspective has been widely applied all over the world , thus revealing its potential and u efulness in understanding prehistoric adaptive

9

patt rns in relation to specific natural environments. Som trans-cultural pattern appear to be striking, such as the preferential use of local resources. Various authors have referred to an attitude of "common sense" to make ense of this pattern (Blakeman 1977 ; Caspar 1984: 107-108; Luedtke 1992: 121). According to them , it would, therefor , be reasonable to argue for a local origin for any raw material type pr sent in large quantities at an archaeological site. This approach has nevertheles s ome limitation related to the specificities of each geological context (Butler 1984 : 299). ln the case, for example, of very early periods , such as the Middle Pleistocene, it is quite pos ible that raw material source , accessible at the time , would now be eroded or buried under more recent deposits. It is notably the hypothesis sugg ested by N . Toth for the Acheulean site of Ambrona in Spain (Toth 1991: 110). ln other context , homogeneous cherts from a single formation , outcropping over a wide region , will constitute the only available resources. The e repetitive features will seriously weaken pinpointing the geographical origin of the raw materials exploited and , a a consequence , the potential of this approach (Keller 1982: 166; Killick 1992: 119; McGregor 1993: 248). Another set of problem which has been rarely considered until recently , concern the secondary contexts of deposition from which lithics can be extracted. ln ome ca es, these deposits are relatively close to primary sources ; yet there are many cases where raw material can be found several hundreds of kilometers away from their original context (e.g., glaciers, very active river ) (Butler I 984: 299). It is generally difficult to identify all of these secondary deposits in the course of geoarchaeological survey . Neverthele ss, it is important to ke p in mind that these sources play an often esse ntial role in the Iithic procurement strategies implemented by prehistoric group . The fact that they have often not been taken into consideration has led so me prehi torians to argue for past huntergatherer high mobility and movement over long di tances (Andrefsky 1994a , 1994b ; Shackley 1998; Shelley 1993; Wyckoff 1993).

II. ARCHAEOLOGICAL COLLECTION

DATA

The choice and ampling of archaeological lithic assemblage constitute a first important tep of the ana lytical procedure . Thi s ste p is

established in relation with the set of questions and hypotheses as well a the methodological preferences and the techniques of characterization available. Regarding these latter ones , some techniques are destructiv e, as in the case of certain types of geochemical analysis or the practic e of making thin-sections for petrographic observations; others are nondestructive ( e.g. , visual observation, X-ray fluorescence , neutron activation). Some of the question that one plan to focus on in th lithic analysis may require sample constituted of the various technological categorie (cores , discarded by-product s, retouched tools) , whereas others may concentrate on some classes of artefacts only. Thus , cores (Demars 1982b) , unretouched blades (Hofman 1987) , projectile point (A mick 1994b , 1996; Custer l 986 ; Hill 1994 ; Hofman 199 I ; Tankersley J989 , 1991 ), burins (De mar s 1982b ), or the whole toolkit (Bergman et al. 1992), have been the subject of particular attention in the archaeological literature. Moreover , chipped stone assemblages can originate from either old or recent excavations, test pits , or surfac collections. These can be part of private or museum collections). It is therefore obviou that research goals and strategy will require ome adjustments in their definition and implementation according to these varied ituation . It i al o essential to define the criteria for sampling and observation. The orting out of artefacts should take into account which products can be used for destructive methods and which cannot (Luedtke 1992: I 18-119 ; Scronie-Vivien and Seronie-Vivien 1987 : 116; Shackley 1998 : 262). In the ca e of visual observation , another important guideline concern weathered and altered cherts , either by patina or by the action of fire. These artefacts reveal alterations of the surface to uch extent that it is rarely possible to recognize the initial color(s) and various features of the raw materials considered ( aspar 1984: I 09 ; Cowell and Bowman 1985: 36-37; Seronie-Vivien 1995). It is , therefore , necessary , on a methodological level , to set them aside. The s lection of burnt artefacts for geoc hemical analysis would not appear too problematic , s ince the trace element component does not eem altered by heating action (Hess 1996 ; Luedtke I 992: IO 1-103). By contra t, patinated objects should be avoided , as the weathering that affected their surface is of a chemical nature and thu modifi e the mineral composition of the e rocks (Cowell and Bowman 1985: 36-37; Luedtke 1992: I 07-111 ).

10

III. GEOLOGICAL COLLECTION AND AVAILABILITY

characterization (geochemical or isotopic analyses) does not seem justified, even though archaeologists make often excessive use of them. By contrast, when the geological layout of a region is varied ( e.g., as a result of various paleogeographic environments of deposition), the application of petrography can be of a great utility, before moving on to more costly and time-consuming methods (Killick 1992: 119).

DATA CHERT

This stage of the methodological procedure rests rather largely upon geological considerations (Henson 1985: 2; Vehik 1985c: 265). Indeed, it seems relatively difficult to analyze chert procurement or exchange patterns without any reference to chert nodules in their geological context. A good knowledge of regional chert availability is therefore an important research goal to achieve.

Survey and Fieldwork Strategies When fieldwork strategies are of concern, the viewpoint of a geo logist is usually different than that of a prehistorian. For instance , field observations recorded by a geo logist, whe11 they reveal some information about siliceous rocks, are generally partial or not relevant to the prehistorian. Therefore, nothing should prevent archaeologists from checking out lithic sources themselves in order to carry out their own observations (Butler 1984: 300; Luedtke 1993: 59). Geological locales yielding siliceous rocks are of diverse nature: natural sections , faults , conglomerates , alluvial terraces, moraines , road cuts , etc. In the North-American tradition , scholars have often searched for archaeological extraction ites , such as quarries or mines , that provide a direct evidence for chert exploitation in their natural environment. As a consequence , the lithic samples selected for archaeometric analy is originate sometimes from archaeological assemblages present at these extraction sites (Hoard et al. 1992 1995). Various scholars have now insisted upon a thorough mapping of sedimentary outcrops separated from the identification of human act1v1t1es, in order to avoid any confusion (Church 1995; Lavin and Prothero 1992 : 98100; Luedtke 1992, 1993).

Review of the availabl e geologica l literature and maps This work phase provides detailed information regarding some of the specificities of the sedimentary sequence, focusing on the chertbearing formations. Based on a thorough examination of the geo logical maps , it is then possible to assess the geographical distribution of these particular layers (Henson l 985; Ray l 985; Johnson and Meeks 1994; SeronieVivien and Seronie-Vivien 1987; Turq l 992a). Such a preliminary assessment allows one to draw a more preci e picture of the geological characteristics of the region under consideration. Moreover , it is a necessary step to narrow down and guide the following research phases, notably at the level of the research design and the choice of methodology to implement. As mentioned often in the lit erature, there is now a wide range of characterization techniques available: some of them reveal themselves as very useful on some raw materials , whereas others are unproductive. In addition , any geological province presents specific lithological features that define and differentiate it from others. lt is important not to choose blindly ome techniques of analysis , simply because they have produced compelling results in other geological contexts (Luedtke 1992; SeronieVivien and Seronie-Vivien 1987 ; Shackley l 998). This initial routine offers various advantages . First , it allows us to recognize the distribution and nature of the chert-bearing formations compared to the whole sedime ntary sequence. Then , it is pos ible to locate secondary sources (a lluvium , conglomerates , etc.) in relation to in situ outcrop . When geo lo gica l features appear "simple" (i.e., without post-depositional tectonic movements) and uniform (e.g. , one or two formations outcropping), the potential to identify chert sourc es can be limited. Therefore , the application of very ophi sticated techniqu es of

Geo-archaeological surveys are usually aimed at locatin g the source areas of raw materials present at a site. Often considered in relation to this approach is the idea that the identification and mapping of lithic sources should focus exc lusively on materials with good knapping abilities, i.e. fine-grained rocks with little or not inclusions (Amick 198 l: 48) . Such a viewpoint denies any kind of cultural diversity : the appreciation of how "good" a rock is for knapping is socially and historically determined and therefore, should vary from culture to culture . Survey mu t then aim at identifying , mapping and drawing the most complete picture a possible of chert availability in a specific region. Such a proposition can al o be justified on another level. As an example, let us start by considering that I ) any geographical area can be defined by some specific features (e.g.,

JI

Sampling

plants, animals, climate, topography, etc.), among which th geological substratum is an es ential component, and 2) humans make various choices and decisions toward this "nature" through their exploitation strategies and representations. In the specific case of the lithics prehistoric group have acquired, the raw materials available in their local environment, though non-exploited, should take a more important position in the understanding of lithic procurement patterns , besides the rock that were actually utilized. lt is indeed through a thorough mapping and inventory of siliceous resources of the surveyed area that one can document some of the choices and int ntions that have shaped prehistoric peoples' ways of thinking and acting on their natural surroundings.

Collecting samples of geological cherts is a crucial stage of the research . The size and nature of these samples should be strongly related to the research design. In principle , it is essential to assess as precisely as possibl the level of chert variability within any deposit (Biro 1993). Jf the archaeologist's concern is on nodule size , it is then necessary to collect nodul s representative of various sizes available from the smallest one to the largest one (Gatu 1983: 103). lf the focus is on the variations of chert color , texture (etc.) , the sampling will aim at collecting a many blocks as needed , reflecting the variability observed in the field (Luedtke 1993 : 57). Finally , what ever the context of deposition (primary or secondary) , it is always important to asses s the den ity of chert nodule s in a preci s locale. This criteria i generally of a subjective nature. However , several prehistorians have tried to introduce a way to quantify data , notably by counting the amount of chert pebbles present at various points along the course of a river (Amick 1981).

On another level , systematic geoarchaeological surveys should be carried out in order to l) check the various contexts of deposition and sediments e.g. primary or secondary sources , present in the zone under consideration, and 2) sample the major lithic raw materials recognized (Seronie-Vivien and Seronie-Yivien 1987: 115). Secondary sources have been neglected for the long st time due to various reasons. For many archaeologists, econdary contexts of deposition yield generally coarse-grained rocks with low knapping qualities that would have been used rarely or never by prehistoric group . Moreover these ources would be considered as difficult to identify and map (Lavin and Prothero 1992: I 00-1 0 l ). These last years , however, have witnessed a new trend where numerous studies have been focusing on these pecific context (Amick 1981 ; Andrefsky 1991, 1994b; Gatus 1983; Lavin and Prothero 1992; Shelley 1993). Cherts originating from these deposits reveal features discriminant enough visually or petrographically to di tinguish them. Various authors have notably concentrated their attention on the cortex that is often eroded and/or heavily battered (Amick l 981: 50; Masson l 982: 436). Recently, some scholars have discovered other phenomena related to secondary source , notably the infiltration of minerals (e.g., iron oxid ) which can be documented by red /purple pots / bands of irr egular shape observable in the siliceou matrix (Lavin and Prothero 198 l: 13-14, 1992: I 06-109). Overall, conglomerates , alluvial terraces and lope deposits can yield chert nodules of homogeneous texture and high knapping quality (John on and Meeks 1994: 70). These observations are confirmed by the presence of such cherts in prehistoric sites .

Lithotheca The geological chert sample thus collected can be grouped together and curated in a lithic reference collection , called "Lithotheca". Moreover it is pos ible at any time to add and complete a field research and knowledge of these raw materials progress. This reference collection serves a the basi for the next tages of laboratory research, such as the assessment of the characteristics and constraints of utilization of these raw materials (toughness , brittleness , knapping qualities . .. ) , some further archaeometric analyses ( e.g. , petrographic , micropalaeontological, geochemical, etc.) , the comparison with the archaeological material , or even the experimental replication of the chaines operatoir es recognized. The concept and potential of such a reference collection have been understood and applied in various parts of the world even if usually it has only rarely been de cribed as an important methodological pha e (Demars 1982a; Geneste 1985; Nale 1994). The long-term res arch project carried out by K. Biro in Hungary is a remarkable exception , as she has clearly shown use and intere t value of a lithothcca (see Takacs-Biro 1987; Takac -Biro and Tolnai-Dobosi 1990). A further and relatively new tep in the use of the lithotheca is the constitution of digital images of the visual appearance of raw material or of petrographic thin sections that could be stored either on CDROM or on specific webpages , availabl e for on-lin e con sultation throu gh the Internet.

12

IV. ASSESSMENT OF RAW MATERIAL PROVENANCE

An important research goal has been achieved when geological and archaeological lithic samples have been collected and sorted out. However the analytical procedure cannot be considered as complete at this stage. There is still the need to characterize precisely these various rocks in order to compare them and determine the geographical and/or geological sources of siliceous stones present at one or several sites.

Characterization Methods Visual Observation - This technique of observation aims at characterizing siliceous rocks and creating a list of specific types. It requires from the start a definition of precise macroscopic criteria , e.g. type of cortex , color of the siliceous matrix , possible inclusions , fossils , texture , etc. (Demars 1982a: 59-65; Henson 1985: 4; Holliday and Welty 1981: 203 ; Johnson and Meeks 1994: 68 ; Morala 1984: 109-121; Seronie-Vivien and SeronieVivien 1987: 115-123 ; Turq 1992a: 198-251). The lithic assemblage considered i then subject to a detailed description , following the analytical grid previously established. At this stage , it is possible to lump together various objects in larger ensembles , which can be identified as raw material "types" (Masson 1987: 296; Ray 1983: 9- l O; Seronie-Vivien 1995). A hierarchy of the traits observed on each piece is implemented to keep the most discriminant attributes of each type identified. These types will finally be organized into classes that correspond to a precise stratigraphic position and can eventually be attributed to a geographical (local or regional) area (Ray 1983 : 9-1 O; Seronie-Vivien and Seronie-Vivien 1987: 121; Wray 1948). This procedure aims thus at establishing a list of raw materials that can be used and useful only in the limited geographical area wher it was created (Butler 1984: 299-300). Nevertheless , numerous regions of the world have not yet witnessed the methodological and informative results of such a systematic effort (Vehik 1985c: 265).

visual observation appears as the most realistic method. Its use is also of very low cost and it implies limited technical means (Blakeman 1977: 72; Calogero 1992: 89; Demars 1982a: 30 , 59; Luedtke 1979: 745 , 1993: 59; Morala 1984 : 13). However , numerous cautious scholars have warned us that assessing lithic raw material sources based only on visual observations can be dangerous and misleading (Butler 1984: 300; Caspar 1984: 11O; Hoard et al. 1992 : 655-656; Luedtke 1979: 745, 1993: 56). Barbara Luedtke has been one of those who has most clearly identified the weaknesses and drawbacks of such an approach. First , the expertise of a prehistorian in this domain is the result of long experience. Such a specialist is able to "recognize lithic types through an unsystematic learning process that does not include any tests to verify the accuracy of our learning" (Luedtke 1993: 56). Second , his /her knowledge is of a rather impressionistic and subjective nature , and is, therefore , difficult to communicate (Luedtke 1979: 745). Analyses carried out by a scholar are rarely confirmed by those done by another scholar analyzing the same lithic assemblage (Calogero 1992 ; Luedtke 1979: 745 , I 993: 57). Moreover, chert variability within a geological formation or even within a specific locale can be relatively high. The prehistorian will become progressively knowledgeable regarding the main (most often encountered) stone types , but , according to Luedtke (1993: 57) , his/her errors will concern the identification of rarer types that are usually difficult to differentiate. Finally , in some specific geological contexts , some raw materials may reveal features (e.g. , color and texture) so diverse that some traits considered characteristic of one source area or a specific formation can al o be found in other localities , therefore reducing the potential accuracy of this technique (Kuhn and Lanford 1987: 58). In some other ca es , some raw materials appear too homogeneous and uniform on the macroscopic level for any attempt to a ses their provenance using this technique (Lavin and Prothero I 981: 4, 1992: IOI). Mineralogical /petrographic characterization The characterization of minerals is a procedure that can complement the vi ual observation. ln the case of certain rocks (e.g. , granite) , it is possible to recognize visually their components. By contrast , chert is a cryptocrystalline to microcrystalline rock, constituted of very fine well-organized minerals. Siliceous materials , therefore , require more detailed techniques , such as the observation of thin sections under a microscope or X-Ray diffraction . For the application of this latter technique , chert

Visual observation can provide very useful information in some specific contexts. Moreover , as a non-destructive method , it is the only way to analyze whole lithic assemblage . It is indeed rather unreasonabl e to sacrifice large quantities of artefacts for the need of de tructive methods , such as petrography or geochemistry. Therefore ,

13

samples are ground manually with a pest! . The powder is then hit by an X-ray beam. As a result, radiations are produced which can reveal the mineral composition of a rock based on spec ific wave lengths. This technique appears to be much more sensitive to the minera logical content of a rock than visual ob ervation under a micro scope (see Kars et al. 1990; Shipley and Graham 1987). Despite this, results can be relatively d ceptiv e since chert is constituted mainly of silica (Ca par 1984: l l 0). Thi might be mostly why the application of this techniqu e has been relatively limit d in the tudy of prehistory. The identification of min eral s pr ese nt in siliceous materials can be carried out directly with the help of a micro scope. Any rock sample selected for this kind of analysis must go through a specific procedure: sawi ng, thinning, and polishing. The observation of the end-product (generally called "thin s ction") is done under a microscope with polarized light that facilitates the identification of various minerals. The archaeological literatur e yields numerou s ca e studies where the potential of this technique has been tested and confirmed for the characterization of lithic raw materials (Masson 1981, 1982; Storck and von Bitter 1989 ; Tankersley 1985; Wray 1948). Nevertheless , thi s technique appears less effective if applied alone, as oppo sed to combined with other approaches. For in tance, Storck and von Bitter ( 1989) have also looked for the presence of discriminant microfossil s, whereas Tank ersl ey ( 1985 , 1989a) has combined th e u e of a polari ze d Iight microscope and scanning electron micro scope in hi analysis. However, this technique has also been criticized for the subjective validity of the determination s, its destructiv e nature , the cost for making thin sections, and the timcconsum ing proces to acquire the prop er expertise (Luedtke 1979: 746, 1992: I J 8- 119; Vehik 1985a: I, 1985c: 265). Moreover , trace elements are present in concentration too low to be reco gnized with such a techniqu e. Therefore, various cholar have raised some doubts that the observation of thin sections can yield any evidence relevant to determin e chert sources (Caspar 1984: I IO; Cowell and Bowman 1985: 36). Anoth er source of evidence in the observation of thin section s can come from petrographic analy is. This type of analy i can identify not only the min eral pr ese nt, but also var iou s other feat ur es that wou ld help to define "microfacies" . The emphasis wi ll thus be on grain siz , crystal morpholo gy, crystallinity , microfoss ils, etc. (Davis 1985: 33; Lavin and Prothero 1992: IO 1-102) , in order to

reconstruct the history of the rocks under consideration , as well as their stratigraphic and/or geographic origin. The replacement of dolomitic rhombs by calcite , the preservation state of micro-organism s (complete/broken, ... ), and the size of grains can be good indicator s of the palaeogeographic environment of deposition of these cherts. The work by Seronie-Vivien (Sero nie-Viv ien and Seronie-Yivien 1987; Seronie-Yivien 1995) is an excellent illustration of such an application in prehistory. Determination of micro-organisms - Even though siliceous rock can contain fossils of various dimensions (foraminifers , ostracods , sponge spicules, ... ), it is more acc urat e in general to talk about micro-organisms , since it ha s been demon trated that pol lens , microplankton (e.g. , dinoflagellates) , or ligneous fragment can also be present among the "impuritie " constituting iliceou s rocks (Brooks 1989; Cas par 1984: 110). Some cholars have earched for the presence of these micro-or ganisms in their analyses of thin sections under a polarized light microscop e. Work by K. Reid ( 1984) on lithics from Oklahoma , Missouri and Iowa (USA), by K. Tankersley (1985) on silic ous rock s from Southern Indiana (USA) , and by A. Masson ( 1987) on a Neolithic assemblage from the Aude region (France), are good illu trations of thi approach. These studies focused mainly on microfo ssils observable under a micro scope. The identification of plankton or pollen s requires most sophisticated analytical techniques. Thus chert samples are dissolved with acid to greatly reduce the amount of ilica. The conditions arc then met to identify various types of impuritie s when pr ese nt. Th is technique has been impl emented in various archa eolo gical contexts and seems to have produced highly valuable evidence for sourcing lithic materials (Brook 1989; Detlandre 1966; lonnidc l 995; Koerp er et al. 1992; Mauger 1983, l 984, 1985a, 1985b; Valensi 1955, 1960). Geochemical character ization of e lem ents (major , trace, rare earth) - Th characterization of element in cherts focuses on the very low concentrations of elements (parts per million [ppm] or per billion [ppb]) present in the impurities since generall y more than 95 % of these rocks are made of si lica . Numerous methods have been tested and applied since the 1970s. The focus in this section will be on three of them : X-ray fluorescence (XRF) , neutron activation (NAA) , and pla sma emi sion spectro met ry ( 1CP) . Regar din g X-ray fluorescence , this techniq ue is relativel y inexpensive, and it can be non-destructive when

14

sample sizes are small. The procedure is quite similar to that of X-ray diffraction. The beam hits the chert artifact and stimulates its electrons. Their movement produces radiations which correspond to differing wavelengths characteristic of various elements. T. Warashina (l 992) applied this technique to the characterization of jasper from the Tokyo area (Japan). In their case study , X-ray fluorescence alone did not provide results with enough accuracy. Yet , when they combined it with another technique (i.e., Electron Spin Resonance - ESR) , new observations led to correctly differentiate various lithic sources. By contrast, Kuhn and Lanford (1987) , in a preliminary analysis of lithics from the New England area (USA) , seem to have reached conclusive evidence implementing a similar application of this technique. Analyses based on neutron activation and inductively coupled plasma spectrometry allow us to measure a great number of elements usually present in extremely low concentrations with a higher degree of precision. Neutron activation analysis was developed in the 1970s (Aspinall and Feather 1972; deBruin et al. 1972; Sieveking et al. 1970; Luedtke 1976) . In the following decades , this technique became the most common approach for the determination of trace elements in siliceous rocks (Frachtenberg 1992; Frachtenberg and Yell in 1992 ; Hoard et al. 1992, J 995 ; Ives 1984; Julig et al. J 988 , 1989; Slater and Grunberg 1991 ; Tobey et al. 1986 ; Yellin 1995). Nevertheless , in the last years , the attention shifted toward plasma emission spectrometry (ICP-lnductively Coupled Plasma Spectrometry). The growing amount of literature in major journals of archaeological science (e.g. , Journal of Ar chaeologi cal S c i e n c e , A r c h a e om e t r y, Revue d'A rcheometri e) shows the recent interest in this technique. However , ICP is still relatively infrequently used to characterize siliceous materials. It is essentially used in the United Kingdom , the Netherlands and Scandinavia where its application has been ca1Tied out on lithics associated with Neolithic mines (Kars et al. 1990; McDonnell et al. 1991; Thompson et al. 1986). Preliminary re ults seem to clearly reveal the potential of this technique. NAA and ICP are relatively expensive. They are often destructive and their application has usually been limited to a few pieces only (Butler I 984: 30 I; Davi 1985: 33; Vehik 1985a: l ). These techniqu es present a great potential for analyzing the extreme variability of chert geochemistry (Cowell and Bowman 1985: 36) . Th e numerou factors involved in the complex patterns of element composition

are not yet fully understood. This situation has to do with serious problems related to our understanding of the nature/formation processes of chert nodules , as well as sampling procedures and the statistical treatment of results (Cowell and Bowman 1985: 33; Church 1995).

Lithi c Characterization : Which Techniqu e to Choose? When the main characterization techniques are known , it is easier to choose those most appropriate to the research design. First , it is essential to acknowledge that any analytical means can not only offer undeniable advantages, but also various drawbacks which usually limit its potential and application. In order to overcome this situation , any research project must combine various techniques which will complement each other. The decision process and justification of the characterization techniques chosen must take into consideration the analytical costs implied , the length of the project, the amount and size of objects to analyze, the option of using destructive or nondestructive methods , the collaboration with other specialists , the nature of the local geological context , etc. Vi ual observation seems to be the most appropriate technique for any study of lithic sourcing. Its application can be attractive for various reasons: the analysis is non-destructive and can focus on large sample of artefacts ; it is inexpensive and it can easily be combined with other techniques , generally more exp nsive , which have to be limited to small samples. Various scholars have shown that geochemical analysis of cherts , often con sider d as more "sci e ntific" by a number of prehistorians , is not always the most appropriate approach (see Church 1994: 61 ; Killick 1992: 117-118). Petrographic analysis can be better justified in the ca e of specific raw materials and/or geological contexts. It appears essential that prior to implementation an elaborate and well-thought methodological procedure be designed , where each analytical tep can be evaluated rigorously in order to produce coherent lines of evidence.

Compari s on of g eologi cal archaeological assemblages

typ es

and

Once the decision has been made to apply a specific technique , then the analysis can focus on the geological and archaeological materials. In most cases , the study will be carried on following the observation grid previously defined. This grid can include such a pect s as

15

the general morphology of chert nodule , their cortex, color, fossils, etc. (relevant for the visual observation); and texture, microorgani ms, etc. (for petrographic analy is). It is essential that the overall study relie on the same criteria for both geological and archaeological rocks (Seronie-Vivien and Seronie-Vivien 1987: 116-121) . Other analyses (e.g. , geochemical or mineralogical analysis) can provide a useful and/or necessary complement of information. The validity of the results will greatly depend on the comparison between these two categories of remain s. Thus it hould be pos ible to attribute a formation and a specific age to the lithic types identified among the archaeological assemblage. However , this step is not a simple and direct as it could appear. For in tance , geochemical analysi s ha recently been shaded by controversial i sue related to the application of very sophisticated tatistical treatment (Church 1995; Cowell and Bowman J 985 ; Hoard et al. 1995 ; Shackley 1998). Fewer methodological weaknesses seem to come out of macroscopic observation; this is partially due to the fact that the underlying principle are generally fuzzy ,

based on a gr ater ubjectivity by the scholar in his/her asse sment of lithic sourcing. The situation is equally complicated when dealing with the geographical origin of raw materials. Often cholar are confident in their determination of a source area , as soon a archaeological and geological a semblages yield specific featur s or fingerprints (macroscopic , geochemical , ...) that match (Hoard et al. J992). Yet it is essential to search for potential clues that will help assess the context of depo ition. These clues are generally obvious not only when chert artefacts preserve some cortex (fresh , rolled , battered) but al o when infiltration of iron oxide can be observed in the siliceous matrix (Lavin and Prothero J 992 ; Seronie-Vivien 1995; Turq 1990b ). Efforts to document long-distance movem ent of chert s must alway be eriousl y re-evaluated in the light of local geomorpholo gical contexts . A uch , it appear s now es ential to tak e into con ideration secondary source in order to provide a rigorous picture of lithic raw material availability in any specific region , but also to determine th geographical origin of the rocks tran ported to a prehistoric site (Andref ky 1991, 1994b; Shelley 1993; Shackley 1998).

16

LITHIC RAW MATERIAL ECONOMY: ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR

As is often detailed in the specialized literature, any analysis of human behavior, in terms of mobility, settlement or chert exploitation patterns , is meaningful only when based on rigorous and reliable determination of chert sources. The previou section reviewed the abundant geo-archaeological literature on this topic. Yet, many studies , while allocating their efforts to collect detailed empirical data , have neglected to push further the archaeological reasoning and address the anthropological implications of documenting prehistoric economic strategies (Ives 1985: 211-212). By contrast , a relatively large number of publications have focused on interpreting human behaviors related to lithic raw material procurement and exploitation. The present section will discuss various interpretive approaches developed by prehistorians from their observations , rather than detail the procurement patterns characteristic of each chronological period or geographical area (see Feblot-Augustins 1997 and paper in Montet-White and Holen 199 l eds).

I. LITHIC RAW TERRITORY

MATERIALS

AND

The precise geographical location of lithic sources is generally problematic. For the Lower and Middle Palaeolithic periods , evidence of human action on the environment are rare or absent since early hominids mainly collected rocks on the ground (outcrops, river beds , ... ) (Caspar 1984 : I 08). Therefore , Alain Turq suggested the consideration of "two geographical origins. The first one corresponds to the distance between the site and the closest currently known source ; the second one [refers to the distance] between the site and the closest outcrop of the geological formation ( ...). For each type of chert two different sources are available ; as such , we uggest two kinds of territories: one that is maximal (related to the clo est currently known source) and the other one that is minimal (related to the distance between the site and the closest geological outcrop bearing this type of material)" (Turq 1990b: l 08-109 , my translation). For more recent periods , notably during the Neolithic , fieldwork can be oriented differently toward the identification of "extraction tructures" (Masson 1982: 431). Thus , E. May (1981: 112-113) defined two types of chert sources: a geological one which corresponds to the area . of chertbearing sedimentary deposits (bedrock , conglomerates , ... ); and an archaeological one which must reveal evidence of prehistoric exploitation (workshops , quarrie , mines).

Many approaches have tried to interpret raw material procurement in reference to the natural environment , or to settlement patterns and strategies of resource exploitation. Thus , a previously mentioned , types of Iithic materials are differentiated within an archaeological as emblage; a comparison of their characteristics with those of geological samples then allows the suggestion of a geological formation and /or a geographical origin for the lithic artefacts under consideration. At this stage only is it justified to speculate about the distances involved in the transport of the identified raw material , the direction of this procurement , the size of the territory , the intensity of exploitation strategics , tc. (Caspar 1984: I 08-109).

The next issue to discus would then concern the level of accessibility to and the quality of extraction of the chert nodules at the outcrops. The nature of these contexts of depo sition have generally not changed ince the prehistoric period under consideration. A very hard dolomite had the same specificitie I 0,000 and I 00 ,000 y ars ago. By contrast , the access to lithic sources may have greatly varied , in relation mainly to climatic variations , either seasonal on a yearly basis or on the long term. For instance , Tankersley ( 1995) was able to document the exploitation of lithic sources during the summer and fall in the northeast region of the USA , since the e location were buried under a thick snow cover in the winter. Over the long term , climatic modifications

17

difficult ta k of precisely identifying the degre e of mobility , on the individual and/or group level (Demars 1982a: 27; Meltzer 1989 ; Turq 1992b: 307). Yet there could be another option to explain the presence of non-local rocks at a site. When these tone have a single geographic origin, they could be a witness to the region pr viously visit d by the prehistoric gro up in the course of their annual cycle (Morala J 990; Turq 1990b ).

during the Quaternary era have had an enormous impact on the type of vegetation, the rate of sediment erosion, and soil formation in any specific geographical context. Thus, these climatic tran formations have had a major role in uncovering or burying deposit potentially rich in chert nodules (Caspar 1984: 108; Turq 1989: 186188). Regarding the movement of chert types present at an archaeological site, the di tances involved may vary greatly according to the chronological period considered and the regional lithic availability. 1t appears that durin g early time period lithic procurement took advantage primarily of the local environment , i.e. , ea rly hominid rar Iy went beyond a few kilometers from th ba se camp to collect rock (F ' blot-Augustins 1990 ; Pott 1991; Stile et al. 1974; Toth 1985). During the Middl e Palaeolithic and es pecia lly the Upper Palaeolithic , di sta nc es increased considerably, some stones being transported over everal hundred kilometers (FeblotAugu tins 1993, 1997; Gene te 1985, 1988b , 1989 ; Turq 1989 1990a). Neverthele s, it is not until the Neolithic period that long distance movement of lithic artefacts becomes a common phenomenon (Borkowski et al. 1991 ; Petr quin et al. 1993 ; Schild 1987 ; Zalewski 1991 , 1995). The e considerations require som precision about procurement strategies of the so-called " xotic" rocks. It is u ually a rather problematic i u to interpret these strategies, notably in terms of direct v . indirect procurement. Indirect acquisition (usually through trade or exchange) is generally difficult to document rigorou Iy. onetheless it see m relativ e ly rare in the case of Palaeolithic mobile hunter-gatherers. By contrast, archaeologists hav e found stronger vidence for more complex spatial organization durin g the eolithic period . A such, it has been interpreted a centralization and control over extract ion site and artifact production by certain specialized groups. Regarding direct procurement , Binford ( 1979) argued that among mobile hunt r-gat herer , lithic raw material procurement was embedded in ub istence activities: for instanc e, hunter would collect rocks to manufacture tool in the course of their hunting expe dition s. Yet , some case studie s from Australian aborigines have I d R. Gould ( 1978) to suggest that specialized group composed of a few individuals could travel ome distance precisely to obtain particular lithic raw material from primary ource area . Thi controversial i , ue reveals , in fact , the

Thu far, the focus of attention ha been on non local or "exotic" raw material . Yet, these rocks rarely represent more than 5-10% of any lithic assemblage. All along human evolution , local environments have been the main so urce for plants , animals and minerals. Geneste ( 1988c , 1989 , 1990) sugg ested a model where five kilometer would define the maximum extension of a local territory. This model ha been justifi d in term of minimization of en rgetic co ts during transport (Demars 1990a; Geneste 1988a ; Montet-White 1988): "One of the table [features] in the trategie of raw material exploitation corresponds to the " law of the least effort". Humans have found most of the materials they used ... in the environment surrounding the site" (Maraia et Turq 1990: 407). Finally, it al o appears important to take into consid ration the kind of site considered and the duration of occupation . If we are dealing with seasonal and specialized sites or camps occupied for longer periods of time , the inventory of raw material types might vary (G ne te 1983, 1985; Turq 1989, 1990a).

II. LITHIC RAW TECHNOLOGY

MATERIALS

AND

Another et of questions con ider technological a pect in relation to raw material types. Be ide identifying the source of lithic raw materials present at a site , it can be interesting to document whether any differential treatment of raw materials could be related to the distance of the rock transported. Arc there any variations in the pattern s of raw material introduction to the site ? It is pos ible to identify whether a lithic type wa carried around a a complete nodule or on just tested a prepared core , as unretouched blanks or as retouched tool (Caspar 1984: I 09 ; Perlc s I 990: 3-4). uch an original approach wa elaborated in the mid-80s, in particular by J.-M. Geneste ( 1983, 1985; ee Dibble 1995; Jelinek 1991; chlanger 1994). It built upon the theoretical advances related to the definition of the "chafoe

18

operatoire" (Lemonnier 1983; see Karlin et al. 199 l ; Pelegrin et al. 1988) and the empirical advances in experimental flintknapping (Boeda 1982; Collective 1984 ; Flenniken 1984 ; Pelegrin 1991a , 1991b). This new methodology rested upon simple principles: any chipped artifact present at an archaeological site preserves certain features characteristic of a specific core reduction sequence. Moreover this artifact reveals a particular moment of this sequence. Geneste , for instance, defined and divided the chaine operatoire of Levallois method into various distinct phases and sub-phases (Geneste l 983 , 1985). Modification of Geneste's work have appeared recently in the study of other Mousterian sites (see Turq 1990b) , but this approach has also been applied to other chronological periods , such as the Upper Palaeolithic (Chadelle 1990: 385-386) and the Neolithic (Deramaix I 990: 63 ; Perles 1990: 510). Let us now turn to some archaeological case studies. lt appears that the Middle Palaeolithic Period has been subject to the most numerous and detailed analyses. Differing strategies have been clearly documented over the past two decades regarding the lithic transport and exploitation patterns. Thus , following Alain Turq's suggestion ( 1990b: 1 13), it appears that certain categories of artefacts could be interpreted as "mobile" whereas others could be considered more "sedentary". Levallois products and sidescrapers notably would be mobile objects , made in raw materials which can be collected in distant locations; by contrast , notches and denticulates are usually taking advantage of local rock s (Genestc 1988a , 1989 , 1990). With th Upper Pala olithic period , a greater variability and flexibility seem to characterize the exploitation of various sources , when distances played a

role not as constraining as in earlier periods (Turq 1992b). Decrease in mobility (sedentism) in the early Holocene in various parts of the world sees the threshold of new economic strategies as applied to chert procurement and utilization. On the one hand , the procurement of raw materials is limited to a few specialized extraction sites (mines and quarries) and the exchange of retouched products between neighboring communities becomes more intensive , leading to the transport of raw materials over long distances (Schild 1987 ; Zalewski 1991, 1995). On the other hand , the organization of lithic production becomes more "expedient" , as illustrated by the presence of amorphous cores and products Ii ttle standardized (Parry and Kelly 1987). In the Anglo-Saxon literature , the theoretical discourse about lithic assemblages usually refers to disconnected dimensions of the technical process , but rarely to a holistic view of the phenomena involved (Nelson 199 l ; Simek 1994 ; Stark I 998 ; Torrence I 994 ). The variability of lithic industries can thus be interpreted in relation to settlement patterns , site types and duration of occupation, the degree of curation , etc. As such , the raw material availability and specific chert features hold a dominant position in the interpretation of chipped stone artefact . These dimensions are generally considered as limiting factors in the understanding of lithic production , tool use and maintenance (Holliday and Welty 1981 ). Aspects , such as the size and shape of chert nodules , their abundance , and their knapping quality , are con idered essential to comprehend the nature of tool assemblages (Amick and Mauldin 1997 ; Andrefsky 1994a; Bamforth J 986 ; Binford 1979; Biro 1993; Demar s 1992; Holliday and Welty l 981; Toth I 99 l ), despit e the key role also played by individual knowhow , cultural norms , functional aspects , etc .

19

20

- CHAPTER2-

GEOLOGICAL STUDIES ON CHERT: A BIBLIOGRAPHY

21

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ABDEL -WAHAB , Antar , Alaa M.K. SAL EM and Earle F. McBRIDE J998 "Quartz Cem ent of Meteoric Origin in Silcrete and Non s ilcrete Sand s tone , Lower Carboniferous, We stern Sinai , Eg ypt". Journal of African Earth Sciences, 27/2, pp 277-290. AB ER, Jam es A. J 993 "Chert Gravel, Drainage Developm ent, and Sinkhole s in the Walnut Ba sin, South -Central Kansa s ". Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science, vol. 95, n°J-2, pp 109-121.

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BARTON, Donald C. 1918 "Note s on the Mississippian Chert of the St. Louis area". Journal of Geolog y, vol. XXVI, pp 361-374.

BADIE!, Jalil 1981 Correlation and Comparison of the Lost River Chert of the Ste. Genevieve Formation in south-Central Indiana and North-Central Kentuck y . Unpubli hed M.A. Thesi s. Terre Haute, IN: Geography and Geology Department , Indiana State University. 81 p.

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