Shaping Neighbourhoods: For Local Health and Global Sustainability [3 ed.] 2020058420, 2020058421, 9780367336912, 9780367336929, 9780429321245

Citation preview

shaping neighbourhoods What they said about the second edition, 2010: ‘We deal with masterplanning in places like Nigeria and Abu Dhabi. I have never come across a publication with functional checklists as featured in your work… very helpful to evaluate designs or existing settlements. You have also addressed the allocation of public facilities and catchment areas… highly appreciated by planners.’ Michael Vogt, Albert Speer and Partners, Germany ‘The book is a treasure trove of practical advice on bridging the gap between health and planning. Special attention is given to mechanisms for engaging local communities and the lessons apply to the whole process of delivering successful local planning.’ Adam Le Dieu, Chair of NHS London Healthy Urban Development Unit, for the RTPI ‘The book bridges the gap between research evidence and practice… It is beautifully produced with colour diagrams and photographs… Each chapter has case studies that bring the principles to life.’ Margaret Douglas, Consultant in public health, and Chair, Scottish HIA Network ‘This compact, constructive and holistic handbook provides practitioners and students with an action checklist… The fresh emphasis on health and wellbeing gets right to the heart of the matter: healthy places are successful, creative and sustainable. This book is attractive, accessible and indispensable.’ David Lock, CBE, Vice-president of the Town and Country Planning Association, formerly Chief Planning Advisor to the UK Government What they said about the first edition, 2003: ‘Shaping Neighbourhoods builds on the principles previously explored in the WHO handbook Healthy Urban Planning, providing a comprehensive and practical guide to creating local environments… and invaluable resource for practitioners and communities everywhere.’ Agis Tsouros, Director, WHO Europe Healthy Cities ‘There are very few texts that bridge the gap between community planning and spatial planning. Shaping Neighbourhoods is the exception, and is essential reading for communities seeking to influence the planning process.’ Alison West, Director, Community Development Foundation ‘Shaping Neighbourhoods should be read, assimilated and put into practice by everyone engaged in neighbourhood planning, renewal and management. It should be open on every planner’s desk, ready for use.’ Derek Taylor, Director, Global to Local Ltd. Review in Town and Country Planning ‘This book is a remarkable achievement, telling us how to re-inhabit local environments while also keeping an eye on the global context and impacts of human settlements. I strongly recommend this beautifully presented book to all who want new tools to create a sustainable world.’ Herbert Girardet, Co-founder and Director of Programmes, World Future Council

The digital version of Shaping Neighbourhoods allows readers to move seamlessly between topics in planning, design, health and sustainability. To enable this, the authors have prepared a unique web of cross-references. Readers can use these links to bring complex subjects alive in new ways. These hyperlinks make Shaping Neighbourhoods highly accessible as both a reference and working document. All readers will find this version invaluable when developing a better understanding of this comprehensive text, whether they need to research a specific topic in more depth, or want to weave a thread through many topics led by their own interests.

shaping neighbourhoods for local health and global sustainability

Third edition Hugh Barton, Marcus Grant and Richard Guise

Third edition published 2021 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN and by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2021 Hugh Barton, Marcus Grant and Richard Guise The right of Hugh Barton, Marcus Grant and Richard Guise to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. First edition published by Routledge 2003 Second edition published by Routledge 2010 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Barton, Hugh, author. | Grant, Marcus, 1958- author. | Guise, Richard, author. Title: Shaping neighbourhoods : for local health and global sustainability / Hugh Barton, Marcus Grant and Richard Guise. Description: Third Edition. Identifiers: LCCN 2020058420 (print) | LCCN 2020058421 (ebook) | ISBN 9780367336912 (hardback) | ISBN 9780367336929 (paperback) | ISBN 9780429321245 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: City planning–Environmental aspects. | Neighborhoods. | Sustainable development. | Community development, Urban. Classification: LCC HT166 .B38653 2021 (print) | LCC HT166 (ebook) | DDC 307.1/416–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020058420 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020058421 ISBN: 978-0-367-33691-2 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-367-33692-9 (pbk) ISBN: 978-0-429-32124-5 (ebk) Typeset in Linotype Ergo by Winslade Graphics, Stroud, UK Publisher’s Note This book has been prepared from camera-ready copy provided by the authors

iv

the authors Hugh Barton Hugh is well known for his long history of innovation for healthier and more sustainable places. He is an urban planner and Emeritus Professor of planning, health and sustainability at the University of the West of England, Bristol. In the early 1980s he co-founded the Urban Centre for Appropriate Technology, now the Centre for Sustainable Energy. Later he was Director of the WHO Collaborating Centre for Healthy Urban Environments, working with cities across Europe. He is also a prolific author. Early publications include Sustainable Settlements and Sustainable Communities. In 2000 the WHO commissioned him to write the ground-breaking Healthy Urban Planning; more recently he has published The Routledge Handbook for Health and Well-being and City of Well-being: a radical guide to planning. In ‘retirement’ Hugh is a trustee for environmental charities, composes music, directs choirs, climbs mountains and enjoys his extended family. Marcus Grant With a background in ecological systems and urbanism, Marcus is an urban designer and landscape architect. In practice since 1986, he worked on rural and urban projects for a range of clients. Following almost twenty years at the World Health Organisation’s Collaborating Centre for Healthy Cities, culminating as deputy director and Associate Professor, he went on to found Cities & Health, a Routledge journal. He specialises in spatial frameworks and neighbourhood interventions to support healthier lives, planetary health and reduce health inequalities. He has worked as expert advisor with the WHO and UN-Habitat, with communities and local authorities across Europe and on the inaugural public health NIHR scientific funding panel. Marcus is a Fellow of the Faculty of Public Health by distinction. Richard Guise Richard Guise is an architect and town planner, principal of his urban design consultancy Context4D, based in Bristol. He is known for his evocative and perceptive drawings. Formerly, Course Leader of the MA Urban Design programme at the University of the West of England, his career fuses professional and academic aspects of urban design. Richard is co-author of Characterising Neighbourhoods, Sustainable Settlements and two volumes of Streets for All for English Heritage. He now works mainly for local authorities, producing design guides, urban character reports, urban design frameworks and training. Richard is an Academician of the Academy of Urbanism, a Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts and a member of the Design West design review panel.

v

contents Acknowledgements The authors Foreword to the third edition Forewords to previous editions Preface How to use this guide

viii v ix x xi xii

Chapter 1

Chapter 2

Chapter 3

ORIENTATION AND PRINCIPLES

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PLANNING PROCESS

PROVIDING FOR LOCAL NEED

Chapter 1 places neighbourhoods in the context of global issues of climate and ecological emergency and the fundamental principle of planning for health, equity and wellbeing. It defines the spatial concepts that inform policy and design.

Chapter 2 is about the process of creating a neighbourhood plan. It shows how to engage with stakeholders and the wider community in an inclusive way while tackling problems and devising plans with systematic rationality.

Introduction 1.1 Local global planning 1 1.2 Neighbourhoods for real 4 1.3 Powers, professions and processes 7

Overview 2.1 Purpose and scope 2.2 The seven-stage process 2.3 Collaborative communities

With an emphasis on health equity, physical activity and social wellbeing, Chapter 3 examines the varied nature of local communities and describes how to increase opportunity for all in relation to housing, work, local facilities, recreation and movement.

Policies and agendas 1.4 Sustainable development 1.5 Health and wellbeing 1.6 Health and place equity 1.7 Climate emergency 1.8 Ecological crisis 1.9 Spatial planning at the crossroads

Getting going 2.4 Stage 1 – Taking the initiative 67 2.5 Stage 2 – Defining a shared vision 69

The neighbourhood as habitat 1.10 The ecosystem approach 1.11 The Settlement Health Map 1.12 The natural human habitat

11 14 20 24 27 30 34 36 39

The neighbourhood in focus 1.13 Defining neighbourhoods 43 1.14 Town, neighbourhood, homezone 46 1.15 Neighbourhood design principles 48 Case studies 1.a Three neighbourhoods in Algiers, Algeria 1.b Polimipara project, Rocinha, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 1.c Hammarby Sjöstad, Stockholm, Sweden 1.d Utrecht, The Netherlands

vi

51 52 54 56

57 60 63

Creating a strategy 2.6 Stage 3 – Understanding the locality 2.7 Stage 4 – Developing ideas 2.8 Stage 5 – Agreeing a co-ordinated programme

84

Making it happen 2.9 Stage 6 – Taking action 2.10 Stage 7 – Learning lessons

89 92

Case studies 2.a Sweet Home Farm, Cape Town, South Africa 2.b The Spectrum approach, Houndwood, Street, England 2.c Stroud Neighbourhood Plan, Gloucestershire, England The neighbourhood checklist

76 79

95 96 98 100

People and community 3.1 Putting people first 3.2 A diverse population 3.3 Housing for all 3.4 Strong communities 3.5 Neighbourhood identity

103 106 111 116 120

Local enterprise 3.6 Access to jobs 3.7 Resilient local economies 3.8 Town and local centre vitality

124 128 132

Access to local facilities 3.9 Planning local accessibility 3.10 Accessibility criteria 3.11 Educational facilities 3.12 Community health 3.13 Recreational space

138 143 146 150 154

Planning for travel 3.14 Neighbourhood travel strategy 3.15 Pedestrians first! 3.16 Planning for the cyclist 3.17 Public transport 3.18 Taming cars and vans

160 164 168 175 180

Case studies 3.a UN Rapid Planning Studio, Kenya, the Philippines, Saudi Arabia 3.b Vauban, Freiburg, Germany 3.c Mandela Gateway and Mandela Market Place, Oakland, USA 3.d Mulberry Park, Bath, England

185 186 188 190

Chapter 4

Chapter 5

Chapter 6

WORKING WITH NATURAL SYSTEMS

NEIGHBOURHOOD STRATEGY

NEIGHBOURHOOD DESIGN AND PLACEMAKING

Dealing with the critical resources of energy, water, food, materials and biodiversity, this chapter sets out the principles and practice of sustainability at the local level.

This chapter sets the principles and policies of previous chapters in an integrated spatial context, moving from fundamental issues of land, location, form and the process of urban change to guidance on collaborative planning of healthy neighbourhoods.

Chapter 6 explores the shaping neighbourhoods project from the perspective of urban design. It examines the physical dimensions of placemaking, then presents a coherent design process from development brief to realisation and review.

Overview 4.1 The local global system 4.2 Implementing an integrated strategy

191 194

Energy 4.3 Neighbourhood energy planning 197 4.4 Energy-efficient layout and landscape 204 4.5 Sourcing, distributing and storing energy 211 Water 4.6 Neighbourhood water planning 4.7 Local supply and treatment 4.8 Flooding, drainage and run-off Food and soils 4.9 Neighbourhood planning for food and soils 4.10 Soil care and food growing 4.11 Food retail access Waste and materials 4.12 Local waste and materials planning 4.13 Domestic resource recovery Biodiversity 4.14 Neighbourhood biodiversity planning 4.15 Biodiversity framework 4.16 Urban trees

219 225 227

233 240 245

247 254

260 265 271

Case studies 4.a GWL Terrein, Amsterdam, the Netherlands 276 4.b Vesterbro, Copenhagen, Denmark 278 4.c Honkasuo residential extension, Helsinki, Finland 280

Overview 5.1 Orientation 5.2 Land governance

281 283

Understanding the locality 5.3 Location, location, location 5.4 Neighbourhood appraisal 5.5 Understanding local urban form 5.6 Change and renewal

286 288 292 295

Key spatial elements 5.7 Land use and activities 5.8 Graded density 5.9 Street networks 5.10 Green infrastructure

299 302 308 311

Developing ideas 5.11 Local assets and potential 5.12 Land needs 5.13 Devising the spatial framework

315 319 321

Integrated spatial strategies 5.14 Linear principles 325 5.15 Planning compact neighbourhoods 329 5.16 Studies of intensification 332 Healthy places: making it all happen 5.17 Working together 337 5.18 Integrated assessment 341 Case studies 5.a Freiburg, Germany 5.b Nesselande, Rotterdam, the Netherlands 5.c The Pearl District, Portland, Oregon USA

344 346 348

Overview 6.1 Placemaking and design for health Placemaking principles 6.2 The structure of space and place 6.3 Walkability, conviviality and community hubs 6.4 Built form and plot structure 6.5 Shaping the homezone 6.6 Character and coherence The design process 6.7 The development process and design 6.8 Appraising the site and its context 6.9 Appraisal methods 6.10 Developing design concepts 6.11 The scheme and its implementation 6.12 Tactical change and adaptation 6.13 Post-occupancy: closing the circle Case studies 6.a Arabianranta, Helsinki, Finland 6.b Marmalade Lane, Cambridge, England 6.c Point Chevalier, Auckland, New Zealand The development project checklist Bibliography Index and key terms

349 352 356 359 363 366

368 370 372 375 377 383 386 388 390 392 393 398 408 vii

acknowledgements The authors would like to thank again the many people whose contributions helped to make the first two editions such a success, including the funders, advisors, consultees, and all those groups and organisations which were involved with us in developing ideas and collaborative processes. They have already been extensively acknowledged in print. For this new edition we express our thanks to all those who have provided us with material, contacts, support and advice, including: Charlotte Bates, City of York Daniel Black, planning consultant James Bruges, The Southern Trust Sarah Burgess, Planner, Brisbane Pamela Carbajal, Salvatore Fundarò and Jia Cong Ang at UN-Habitat Laurence Carmichael, UWE, Bristol Kevin Cranston, Mayor, Stroud Town Elina Eskelä, Helsinki Planning Rebecca Faith, photography. UK Nick Falk, urbanist, URBED Trust Alice Ferguson and the staff at Playing Out Brian Ford, Emeritus Professor of Architecture Camilla Hale, Stroud Preservation Trust Trevor Hancock, Victoria University Thiago Hérick de Sá, WHO, Geneva Petri Hoppula, Helsinki Planning

Steve Hurrell, photographer, Stroud Yazid Khemi, Portsmouth University Sophie Leguil, botanist, London Barry Lewis, architect, South Africa David Mickhail, architect, London Simon Roberts, CSE, Bristol Leonora Rozee, ex-planning inspector David Rudlin, urban designer, URBED Paddy Tillett, architect, Portland Catalina Turku, urban designer, UCL Valentina Warren, Curo, James Webb, FSH, Miriam Weber, Utrecht West Midlands RTPI Claire Wilks, urbanist, Bristol Frances Wright, We are Town Hadi Zadeh, Politecnico di Milano

Special thanks to Bruce Winslade for his work on the graphic presentation of the book. His unfailing good humour and sheer skill have been greatly appreciated. Personal thanks Hugh thanks Val Kirby, for her enduring support and amazing tolerance throughout what has been almost a lockdown in more senses than one, and for the concern and hope expressed in every phone call, WhatsApp and Zoom from Chris, Rachel, Michael and Sam. Marcus thanks Vicky Meadows, who had to live through Marcus spending long hours on this project, and daughter and son, Jesse Meadows and Ashley Grant, who had to endure a somewhat distracted father. Richard: huge thanks to my sons Oliver and Elliot Guise, for their unstinting support and their help in all matters technical! Finally: a mutual thanks to each other, for amazing tolerance, good humour and positivity, especially over periods in 2020 when we could not meet in person. Our monthly then weekly Zoom meetings a pleasure, full of trenchant analysis, laughter and creativity. Figures and images are all the authors’ own work unless otherwise indicated. Acknowledgements of third party work is provide next to figures. Maps based on material from Ordnance Survey (Crown copyright) are reproduced under licence 100057481. For photos and illustrations, all attempts were made to contact original copyright holders to obtain their permission for use of material. The publishers apologise for any errors or omissions and would be grateful if notified of any corrections to be incorporated in future reprints of this book.

viii

foreword to the third edition Howard Frumkin In the nearly 20 years since the first edition of this book the world has changed dramatically. Many people have achieved better lives. Rising prosperity, urbanisation, and improved health went hand-in-hand. But many social and health trends are worrying. Across the world there has been worsening hunger, rising chronic diseases and population dislocation. Urbanisation often brings sedentary lifestyles, air pollution, noise, and unhealthy dietary shifts. And progress has come at the cost of the planet. Climate change is battering agricultural outputs, threatening cities and deepening poverty. In that context, this third edition is more timely, and more needed, than ever. Well-designed human habitats can’t solve every problem but can make remarkably far-reaching contributions. ‘If there is one over-riding hope for the guide,’ the authors write, ‘it is to enable planners, designers, politicians and developers, who are making decisions about the urban environment, to see clearly how to put the long-term health and wellbeing of people first.’ For a health professional like me, this is the foundational claim of Shaping Neighbourhoods. Putting people first is as radical a proposition as it is simple and intuitive. It means designing for both human thriving and the lightest possible environmental footprint.

Howard Frumkin, MD, DrPH, is Professor Emeritus of environmental and occupational health sciences at the University of Washington School of Public Health, former Director of the National Center for Environmental Health at the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and former Head of the Our Planet Our Health initiative for the Wellcome Trust.

How do we know what kinds of places lead to human thriving? This is ultimately an empirical question. A great strength of the book is its grounding in evidence. Those who create human habitats need to demand evidence, assist in producing that evidence, and act on the basis of evidence. Research in recent years has made clear that health varies dramatically from place to place. Life expectancy in adjacent neighbourhoods can differ by more than ten years, influenced by disparities in housing, greenspace, access to jobs and facilities. Policies for equity and justice are needed, and are woven throughout this book. Another strength of Shaping Neighbourhoods is its systems approach. For example, vegetation patterns in urban parks and streets have complex, interacting effects, on the response to extreme heat, stormwater, biodiversity, physical activity and social interactions, that in turn determine human wellbeing. No problem can be solved in isolation; efforts to shape neighbourhoods must always address multiple problems at once. The challenges of our times are intersectoral: we need to advance health and wellbeing; equity and fairness; prosperity and security; and environmental sustainability. This edition of Shaping Neighbourhoods is a signal contribution to people-centred placemaking that will help advance each of these goals.

ix

forewords to previous editions Extract from the Foreword to the 2nd Edition, 2010 Neighbourhoods and communities are the building blocks of people’s lives. The impacts of the material and social world directly on our physical and mental health are profound. Planning is one of the mechanisms which can help to shape the nature of localities. This authoritative and comprehensive text provides helpful guidance on this very important public health issue. Its careful outline of the key areas and concepts as well as its very practical orientation and informative maps, plans and illustrations will provide a framework for the consideration of the factors involved in development and planning of the physical and social places in which we live and work for years to come. It’s a great piece of work. By Professor Mike Kelly Former Director of the Centre for Public Health Excellence at the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence UK

Extract from the Foreword to the 1st Edition, 2003 Shaping Neighbourhoods manages to set a lot of important technical material in the context of an inclusive collaborative process, and provides clear signposts to involving local partners and people in the development of neighbourhood sustainability strategies. In that respect, it has the potential to make a profoundly empowering contribution to this critical debate by helping community groups to become even more focused and effective in their campaigns for better places to live, work and play. By Sir Jonathon Porritt Director of Forum for the Future and former Chairman of the UK Sustainable Development Commission

x

preface Salus populi suprema lex esto The health and welfare of the people should be the highest law – Cicero Eighteen years after the first edition of Shaping Neighbourhoods, our agenda remains the same: to promote an holistic view of human settlements in the global context, showing how to make neighbourhoods healthy and sustainable. But in that time the world around us has changed. Most governments and policy-makers now recognise that there is a crisis, with official rhetoric about the climate and ecological emergencies and concern for health and health equity – especially during the COVID-19 pandemic. The UN and WHO have brought the world’s attention to the need to adopt a set of interlinked ‘sustainable development’ goals, together with challenging targets, such as net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. Converting rhetoric to effective action, however, is another matter. Despite the impressive scope and depth of evidence now available, most cities and neighbourhoods within them continue to evolve in unhealthy, unsustainable ways, driven by the inertia of market and institutional conventions, land ownership patterns and neo-liberal politics. The basic message of the book is simple: that both personal health and global health are dependent on the local human habitat, our towns, cities and urban landscapes. We need to put people’s wellbeing, local communities and city ecology at the heart of urban planning, fully recognising global environmental limits. Converting the message to reality is complex and multi-dimensional. The book provides detailed guidance on all the relevant dimensions, whether social, economic, environmental or organisational, and consolidates them through developing practical spatial planning and placemaking skills. It is designed as a desktop handbook for built environment professionals and all those who work for healthy, sustainable settlements. This third edition goes beyond the earlier ones in a number of ways. Firstly, we offer more research evidence, to convert the doubters and convince the decision-makers. Secondly, we speak directly to public health professionals, concerned about unhealthy lifestyles and environments, providing them with tools to engage with settlement planning, as once they were before. Thirdly, we have broadened the scope of the book to include more on social inclusion, urban design, the strategic context of neighbourhoods, new forms of travel and updated material throughout. Fourthly, we have provided evidence and case studies to increase the relevance to countries around the globe, in the knowledge that while the climatic, political and cultural contexts vary, the principles of healthy neighbourhoods do not. The sense of all being in this together has been hugely heightened by COVID-19. Fundamental long-standing problems of health inequality have become obvious and shocking. Local housing, transport, employment, service and greenspace differentials are part of the problem. They could be part of the solution. The pandemic has taught us that local communities, city authorities and national governments can find the will to act together to a degree which previously seemed inconceivable. We hope this book helps galvanise effective action for healthy urban environments.

Hugh Barton, Marcus Grant, Richard Guise

xi

how to use this guide PURPOSE AND SCOPE Shaping Neighbourhoods is the only practice guide for planning and design that attempts to examine all facets of urban neighbourhoods and small towns, from community health to carbon emissions, from economic viability to biodiversity. It also presents socially inclusive, evidence-based approaches to making local decisions, with helpful techniques and examples. The guide is radical. It follows through the principles of sustainable development and healthy environments to their logical conclusion, recognising the profound shift in general practice that needs to occur, showing how this is practical as well as necessary. The manual is designed for desktop use by a wide spectrum of people: planners, designers, engineers, developers, local politicians, health professionals, environmentalists and community groups. It provides an integrated picture of sustainable, healthy neighbourhoods, with a wealth of specific detail to help get to grips with the issues and see the practical way forward. As authors based in Britain, many of our specific guidelines reflect British towns, behaviours and geographic context. However, we have been at pains to set out the principles by which people may apply the lessons and tools to other countries, whatever their income levels or latitude. Focusing on the physical fabric of neighbourhoods The guide is concerned with how the planning, design and management of the physical environment can enhance local and global health. Three themes run through this book:  The

neighbourhood as the local human habitat, providing a healthy, equitable, convivial and environmentally sustainable living environment.

 The

management of that habitat by co-operation between all stakeholders involved, including public, private and community sectors, with the professionals and vested interests working together out of their silos.

 Decision

processes that engage with the whole cycle of design and development, recognising there is no end point.

It is not about social programmes or economic policy as such, but does deal with their implications for and interactions with space and place. It epitomises the integrated approach to town planning advocated by the EU and the UN, known as ‘spatial’ or ‘territorial’ planning. The UN Sustainable Development Goals provide a global agenda for local planning. Converting rhetoric to reality The guide represents a staging post in a learning process. It cannot provide you with everything you need to know and makes no claim to infallibility. It tries to set out clearly the direction of change that is desirable, and the options available to achieve it. Equally, however, the guide attempts to distil the best knowledge and experience. The research background is extensive, and often points the way unequivocally. Examples are not just from Europe but from around the world. We aim to synthesise diverse perspectives into coherent, integrated urbanist strategies. Lip service is commonly paid to the goals of sustainable development and healthy communities. If we are to get beyond rhetoric and token gestures, then this guide provides a road map, challenging decision-makers to take effective action.

xii

Scope of the guide Theory

Chapters

1

2

3

4

5

6

 Contents

lists are designed for quick and precise pathfinding

Health and climate issues Eco-systems and Health Map

 Index

at the end of the book provides a finer topic net

Neighbourhood planning principles Process

Collaborative decision-making

 Page

layout provides easy access to each section

Problem/opportunity analysis Spatial planning frameworks

 Cross-referencing

links one topic

to another

Design briefs and masterplans

 Checklists

in chapters 2 and 6 cover process and product

Plan and project appraisal Policy and Practice

Pathways through the guide

Housing and community issues

 Evidence

base can be followed up through the bibliography

Local work and facilities Planning for travel Energy, water, food and waste Biodiversity Mixed use and density Neighbourhood form and location Greenspace and recreation Urban renewal Detailed homezone design Prime content

Applications and examples

The guide is relevant to…

It is useful for…

It can help with…

 existing

 planners,

 defining

 market  urban

urban neighbourhoods towns and large villages

regeneration projects

 new

urban extensions

 new

settlements

 town

and district centres

designers, engineers and surveyors in local authorities or the private sector

 commercial

developers, house builders and housing associations

 community

and environmental groups concerned about their neighbourhood

 public

health, environmental and sustainability agencies

 infrastructure

providers: transport, housing, education, health, water, energy

 policy-makers  students

at national and local levels

of planning, urban design, human geography, sustainability and public health

what neighbourhoods are, or

could be  planning

the natural ecology of settlements, coping with climate change

 clarifying

the full health and sustainability agenda

 working

out a collaborative process for a neighbourhood plan

 preparing

a spatial plan for an urban district or town

 preparing

development briefs and masterplans

 developing

skills of placemaking

 appraising

the sustainability of development projects

 tackling

problems of social exclusion, unhealthy lifestyles and mental illness through the built environment xiii

l ecosystem Globa ural environment t a N t environment Buil A cti v i tie s al economy c o L m un Com t ity Lifes yle

People

orientation chapter and principles

1

introduction CONTENTS

1.1

LOCAL GLOBAL PLANNING

MANIFESTO Neighbourhoods are the localities in which people live. They imply a sense of belonging and community, grounding our lives in a specific place we call home. They are the building blocks of towns and cities. Aspirations for neighbourhoods are surprisingly consistent among people with very different backgrounds. We want neighbourhoods that are attractive, safe, healthy and unpolluted, with high-quality local facilities, access to green spaces, and excellent connections to other areas. We would like the opportunity for convivial social activity and friendship. There is recognition that how we live locally must work in harmony with nature, with the flow of natural cycles and with global ecology. Neighbourhoods sit in the front line of actions to support healthier lives and more sustainable lifestyles. They should be planned so as to: provide a healthy local human habitat enable all people to flourish physically, mentally and socially enhance local and global biodiversity and natural assets work towards net carbon neutrality The challenge Society shapes neighbourhoods and neighbourhoods shape people’s lives. The long-term trend has been the progressive decline in significance and quality of neighbourhoods, as economic globalisation, technological innovation, and urban change have altered people’s behaviour. The choices we are making, corporately or individually, are in turn threatening personal and planetary health. On the one hand there are increasing problems of obesity, mental illness, social exclusion and inequality; on the other hand, unsustainable greenhouse gas emissions and biodiversity loss.

INTRODUCTION 1.1 Local global planning 1.2 Neighbourhoods for real 1.3 Powers, professions and processes POLICIES AND AGENDAS 1.4 Sustainable development 1.5 Health and wellbeing 1.6 Health and place equity 1.7 Climate emergency 1.8 Ecological crisis 1.9 Spatial planning at the crossroads THE NEIGHBOURHOOD AS HABITAT 1.10 The ecosystem approach 1.11 The Settlement Health Map 1.12 The natural human habitat THE NEIGHBOURHOOD IN FOCUS 1.13 Defining neighbourhoods 1.14 Town, neighbourhood, homezone 1.15 Neighbourhood design principles CASE STUDIES 1.a Three neighbourhoods in Algiers, Algeria 1.b Polimipara, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 1.c Hammarby Sjöstad, Stockholm, Sweden 1.d Utrecht, the Netherlands

We see that microcosm and macrocosm are interdependent. Individual lifestyle and wellbeing are connected to earth ecology. Spatial planning, in particular the integrated planning of neighbourhoods and towns, plays a critical role in the chain connecting the personal to the global. Decisions about the physical development and renewal of localities – housing, workspace, transport, facilities, greenspace – can go either way, compounding the problems or creating healthy, convivial, low-carbon 1

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

Introduction

1.1 The role of this guide This guide is designed to bridge the gap between rhetoric and action, between research and policy; between social, economic and environmental priorities. It adopts a radical and challenging stance, offering evidence, effective policies, spatial strategies and design solutions that work towards healthy, inclusive, sustainable and net-zero carbon communities. It recognises that neighbourhood initiatives may stem from civil society, private investors and/or the local authority, and the key is to find ways to work together. The guide is concerned with reality, not vain hopes. It is about socially and economically feasible policies for everyday towns and urban neighbourhoods.

neighbourhoods. This book offers the insight, knowledge and skills to enable the latter to happen: local global planning. GOALS FOR THE LOCAL HUMAN HABITAT This guide is about enhancing the quality of neighbourhoods as places to live, work and play. It advocates an inclusive, environmentally responsible model of neighbourhoods. There are three overarching goals: Health and quality of life for all Following the World Health Organization (WHO) lead, we define health as a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing and not merely absence of disease or infirmity (WHO Charter 1946). The physical environment of neighbourhoods affects health and wellbeing both directly, through the quality of housing, facilities and public space, and indirectly, through impact on behaviour and the sense of community. A key theme is the degree to which neighbourhoods provide for all groups – young and old, rich and poor, whatever their ethnicity or abilities. Environmental sustainability

The design of a place enables people to start living in new ways: car-free street in Freiburg, Germany.

The ecological footprint of settlements in terms of resource use and pollution is great, continues to grow in many respects, and ought to be greatly diminished. Central to this agenda are the interlinked emergencies of climate change, with the need to achieve net carbon neutrality, and the loss of habitat, species and biological diversity across the globe. Planning sustainable neighbourhoods means reworking the development conventions of the recent past. We advocate local neighbourhoods taking greater responsibility for the health of the global commons – climate, land, water, biodiversity. Economic and civic vitality Localities should not be mere dormitories. Their rejuvenation as healthy, thriving and sustainable neighbourhoods can only be achieved if there is both local dynamism and appropriate spatial policy context. Part of the local energy comes from the vitality of the local businesses and services, investing in people and places; part comes from political commitment, plus effective partnerships between community, voluntary, public and private sectors. HEALTH AS THE PULSE AND HEART OF PLANNING If there is one over-riding hope for the guide, it is to enable planners, designers, politicians and developers, who are making decisions about the urban environment, to see clearly how to put the long-term health and wellbeing of people first. In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic there is recognition that public health is a huge motivator for political, business and public action. For the future it should be the motivation for creating and sustaining towns and cities that provide high quality of life for all.

2

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

Introduction

1.1 The WHO Healthy Cities network has been promoting this idea since 1990, pointing out that good health is not primarily about illness services (such as the NHS in Britain) but about healthy environment, healthy work, equitable access to housing and services, long-term climate and ecological sustainability. Public health professionals – who take centre stage during pandemics – should now focus their minds on the continuing human need for healthy environments. This should be the starting point for urban planning and design, re-energising the alliance of planning and public health from the beginning of the twentieth century, when the dire effects of poor environments on health were all too evident. The subsequent severance of built environment professions from health, and from each other, due to the creation of legal, institutional and professional silos, can be healed.

CHECKLIST World Health Organization 12 healthy urban planning principles Case study 1.d Utrecht, the Netherlands

Do planning policies and proposals promote and encourage: 1. healthy lifestyles 2. social cohesion 3. housing quality and access for all 4. employment and education opportunities 5. accessibility to facilities 6. access to healthy low-impact food 7.

a safe and attractive public realm

THE IMAGE OF A GOOD NEIGHBOURHOOD

8. social and health equity

When we have run ‘visioning’ workshops for varied participants, the aspirations for neighbourhoods are surprisingly consistent. They do not necessarily reflect the choices that people have actually made in their lives, but rather the ideal they hold in their hearts. They want neighbourhoods that are attractive, safe, healthy and unpolluted, with high-quality local facilities, access to green spaces, and excellent connections to other areas. They would like the opportunity for convivial social activity and friendship. There is recognition that for some people – particularly the young and old, and those who are home-based throughout the day – the neighbourhood is vitally important for health and wellbeing. The first quality listed below is the first point made by most of those involved. The list has been ordered and expressed by us, with some poetic licence.

9. good air quality 10. clean water and sanitation 11. conserving resources of land, soils, minerals and materials 12. sustainable climate and global ecology SOURCE: adapted from Barton and Tsourou 2000

Top ten qualities of a good neighbourhood 1. A place where birdsong, rustling leaves, running water and (for some) children playing can be heard, rather than the sound of traffic or industrial processes.

6. Buildings and infrastructure designed for clean air, minimum energy use and net-zero carbon, including solar roofs, multiple bike and car charging points.

2. A socially mixed and inclusive community, especially in terms of age, with varied housing opportunities which are suited to a range of incomes and types of household.

7. A green environment, with trees throughout the area, and plenty of greenspace with varied habitats, rich wildlife, pure streams and ponds, beautiful flowers.

3. Diversity of use – housing, business, shopping, social, cultural, educational and health facilities, offering easy accessibility, opportunity and choice for all. 4. A pedestrian-friendly human-scaled public realm which makes walking around a pleasure, safe and convenient, where casual meetings on the street reinforce the sense of community. 5. The neighbourhood integrated into the city, inter-connected by all travel modes – offering freedom of movement by bike, public transport, car and foot;

8. Local working, educational and volunteering opportunities supporting all-age learning, including those with disabilities, and an engaged, caring community. 9. Multiple opportunities for play, recreation, social and civic engagement, with coffee shops, pubs and meeting rooms, and where children are able to roam free. 10. An aesthetically-attractive physical environment, including older buildings, streets and features that root the area in time and place, giving the community spatial identity. 3

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

Introduction

1.2 1.2

NEIGHBOURHOODS FOR REAL

RECOGNISING THE DIFFICULTIES

An iconic, pedestrianised main street with mature trees helps create the atmosphere that allows the town centre to flourish: Cheltenham, England.

A classic European urban square, once full of traffic, now a place for social activity, hospitality and events.

The reality is often very different from the image above. High mobility and economic change have undermined the significance of locality in people’s lives. Where once children played on the street, front doors were left unlocked and there was a close local community, people now travel out by car to dispersed activities or rely on virtual connections. As a result, local shops and facilities cease to be viable. Without local amenities there are fewer people on the street and a spiral of decline sets in. While the changes may represent choice and opportunity for some, others find their lives impoverished. Poorer households and less able households experience tough conditions in the housing market and in access to opportunities. Lifestyles have become less healthy. At the same time, we are using resources unsustainably and exacerbating the climate emergency. Public policy: sometimes part of the problem These trends are in part the response of the market to perceived consumer preferences, but they have often been reinforced by official policies for transport, schools, hospitals, libraries, post offices and swimming pools that demote the significance of local accessibility. The modernist images of the twentieth century still pervade much political and commercial thinking. In many countries, planning authorities in alliance with developers have been promoting single-use residential estates and business parks, at relatively low densities and poorly located so that they are inevitably car-dependent, land-hungry and polluting. The trends not only affect the quality of the environment, but also worsen problems of social exclusion, discourage exercise and restrict the potential for local economic activity. In run-down areas people can get the sense of powerlessness – unable to influence the decisions that are degrading their own environment. Varied contexts, different problems Experience varies in different countries, different cities, different parts of a city region. The varied geographical, economic, cultural and political contexts of localities lead to a wide variety of planning issues. Here are some varied contexts for which we hope the guide will prove relevant.

A small town high street in New Zealand providing a vital service and social centre, but car-dependent.

4

Inner city older housing: in older towns and cities the industrial revolution led to an explosion in residential development, mostly high density terraced development, with areas of large detached villas. Despite renewal last century of the worst housing, these inner areas typically have concentrations of poverty, inadequate open space, high exposure to traffic and poor air quality. Where extensive gentrification has occurred, neighbourhoods have revived, but

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

Introduction

1.2 sometimes at the expense of poorer households who are priced out of the market.

INTERNATIONAL ADVOCACY FOR NEIGHBOURHOODS

Traditional suburbs: suburban expansion in the mid to late twentieth century resulted mostly in lower density housing with more greenspace around, but often lacking local facilities within easy walking distance. Social segregation, with large estates of social housing, persists to this day. Huge supermarkets, retail strips, business parks and campus-style hospitals and higher education establishments are premised on car access and extensive hinterlands, undermining neighbourhood functions.

WHO Healthy Cities Network Neighbourhoods offer shared activities that provide a focus for social life and are especially important for the health and wellbeing of old and young people, and disadvantaged groups. Neighbourhoods should provide varied, affordable housing, excellent pedestrian accessibility to local facilities and greenspaces. (Barton and Tsourou 2000)

United Nations: the New Urban Agenda UN-Habitat envisages human settlements that provide for basic needs of clean water, sanitation and housing, promote civic engagement, engender a sense of belonging and ownership, prioritise safe, inclusive, accessible, green, high quality environments that are friendly for families, foster social interaction, cohesion, inclusion in peaceful and pluralistic societies, where the needs of all inhabitants are met.

Planned new suburbs: urban extensions at moderate densities, ideally based around tram or train stations (transit-oriented development) but more often car-based and lacking easy access to facilities. In the twentieth century such new suburbs tended to be a class monoculture – all social housing or owner-occupied. Comprehensive renewal areas: extensive inner city areas that were originally sub-standard housing, industrial, quayside or railway zones have been or are being renewed, often transforming the street pattern and including high rise development. In central areas typified by ‘loft living’ and a monoculture of younger lifestyles. After poor design in the post-war years, some such areas have been redeveloped twice.

(United Nations 2016)

International review of the role of cities in improving health Some of the boldest attempts to improve population health in cities have been fuelled by the involvement and leadership of local people. City governments can harness the assets, resourcefulness and creativity of communities by creating the conditions for active citizenship and acting as a catalyst of locally led initiatives.

Pioneer suburbs: in North America, Australasia and some more recently urbanised societies, housing has been developed at very low densities, facilitated by major road investments, giving everyone a large plot, but requiring one car or more per adult to get to dispersed locations for work, learning, shopping, playing and socialising. Issues of obesity and loneliness are common, especially among the poor.

(Naylor and Buck 2018)

American Planning Association (APA) The APA cites research showing that demand for traditional auto-oriented suburbs is plummeting. People value walkability, travel options and proximity to key facilities. They want to live in a diversity of neighbourhood settings, from small towns to urban centres.

Historic towns: while large towns exhibit similar patterns to cities, small towns (often with historic character) can function as single large neighbourhoods, with pedestrian and cycling access to the centre. However, many such towns have lost their original economic base, and/or become commuter settlements, and the centre is undermined by peripheral car-based services. Rapidly growing cities: in middle- and low-income countries the hectic pace of urbanisation can sometimes lead to unplanned informal settlement for the urban poor planned alongside new car-based suburbs for the affluent. Both may be at high densities, though of completely different character. Typically such cities exhibit all the problems of cities in rich countries – congestion, air pollution, social exclusion, poor accessibility, lack of open space – but are experiencing them in double-quick time. Sometimes they also have fundamental health issues related to water supply, sewage treatment, overcrowding and poor building construction – issues often exacerbated by climate breakdown.

(APA 2014)

Case study 1.b Polimipara, Brazil

UK Localism Act 2011 Introduced neighbourhood planning as a formal part of the planning system, with new rights and powers to allow local communities to shape development and improve their local environment. Wales Future Generations Act The Wellbeing of Future Generations Act requires public bodies in Wales to think about the long-term impact of their decisions, to work better with people, communities and each other, and to counteract persistent problems of poverty, health inequalities and climate change.

5

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

Introduction

1.2 New settlements: planned new towns can in theory provide an ideal healthy environment. However, they all-too-easily fail to deliver. Their location may be decided on the basis of land ownership rather than economic rationale and sustainable travel. Their size may be inadequate to support essential town facilities. Their layout may be determined more by conventional market preferences than the principles of healthy, sustainable planning and design. The opportunity for net-zero carbon development is lost. NEIGHBOURHOOD RENAISSANCE In many contexts it is difficult for neighbourhoods, in the sense of local place communities, to exist. Commentators in the 1960s foresaw a time when place and locality would be submerged by the ‘non-place’ urban realm. However, recurrent suggestions of the death of neighbourhoods are misplaced. Grass-roots activism, especially in run-down localities, can be a trigger for renewal. When community dynamism meets municipal policy re-direction, change can be profound. Cities can successfully re-invent themselves. Neighbourhood Renaissance begins when people take over the street. Margaret Bond, the oldest resident in this Bristol street, only became visible once the cars were cleared out and street parties happened. Her wealth of stories became part of the oral history of the street, Bristol, England.

While almost all cities were going in the same highly-motorised direction in the 1960s, inspired by modernist dreams, cities at the forefront made a political decision at some point in the last 50 years, to give priority to pedestrians, cyclists and public transport instead of the car. Squares given over to car parking are again vibrant social spaces; residential rat-runs are now traffic-free so children can play. In parallel some cities have planned greenspace networks for health and sustainability. The positive impacts on the feel of the urban environment, levels of physical activity and air quality have been huge. In particular, neighbourhoods flourish because people are out on the street, not in vehicles. The neighbourhoods of the future need to reflect cultural shifts, new technology and global priorities. We cannot nostalgically return to the localism of the past. Rather, neighbourhoods must be open, varied, egalitarian and connected places – providing more choice, opportunity and beauty, supporting healthy living and healthy ecology. Ironically the COVID-19 pandemic, by revealing to many people the attractions of home-working, may be a lever for neighbourhood renaissance. A neighbourhood is not an island Except for isolated settlements, far from the influence of major cities, neither small towns nor urban neighbourhoods are islands of potential self-sufficiency. Inhabitants are dependent on the city or town region of which they are a part. Job markets, city-wide services and many varied social networks, link between places. Cycleways, public transport services, roads and virtual networks make up the web of connectivity that enable social and economic development. The location of the neighbourhood in relation to that web is critically important. Only if the strategic planning of transport, land use, housing and economic development is correctly aligned can a place hope to be healthy.

6

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

Introduction

1.3 Neighbourhoods as testbeds

Bottom–up creativity

Neighbourhoods can be pivotal to positive change and have a special role in the transition to sustainable settlements. They are small enough to reflect personal lifestyles, social networks and quality of life, yet they are also of sufficient size to affect the environmental impacts and economic function of towns and cities. Following the UN’s New Urban Agenda, they are a vital element in a bottom-up approach to sustainable development. Individual neighbourhoods or small towns can act as testbeds for innovation and experimentation.

This can be a valuable resource in change and renewal. The somewhat run-down and neglected Stokes Croft area in Bristol has seen the emergence of vibrant community life and entrepreneurial activity. This has been supported by local initiatives including the ‘People’s Republic of Stokes Croft’, which have helped mobilise city council action to improve the area.

1.3

POWERS, PROFESSIONS AND PROCESSES

WHO SHAPES NEIGHBOURHOODS? There is no simple answer to this question. In most situations the process of urban change and renewal is incremental and disjointed. New investment in infrastructure or buildings occurs when an investor (private, public or voluntary sector) makes the decision to act. Some of the people investing may be local, but others are far removed from the locality – commercial or institutional agencies with their own agendas. Policies and plans approved by democratically accountable bodies (including neighbourhood and parish councils) can help shape investor decisions but cannot necessarily determine them. Direct action by residents can sometimes galvanise authorities and investors to act – see ‘Bottom-up creativity’ and ‘ Harnessing activism’. People and organisations come to any planning process with different perspectives, often quite narrow, driven by personal experience, by vested interests (e.g. property), by institutional remits, by political/environmental values and/or professional training. Community, professional and institutional change Given the plurality of interests involved, co-operation is vital. No one interest or profession has a monopoly of wisdom. New institutional ethics need to be adopted, reflecting the new paradigm, so that consistent overall strategies work towards healthy, net-zero carbon environments that contribute to global sustainability. This section highlights the roles of different actors, stressing the need for professional. institutional and community development. It is a call for all involved to: come out of your silos! see personal and organisational interests in the context of social and environmental priorities put people’s health as a prime motivation for action take a holistic, integrated approach No magic wand, but clarity, co-operation, integration.

Harnessing activism

The energy and enthusiasm of young people in housing need were critical to the renewal of Spangen, Rotterdam, the Netherlands. Years of dereliction and crime wer carefully turned round by a renaissance programme backed by the municipality with an innovative programme that included self-building and co-housing.

It is vital to recognise that we cannot achieve local global planning of healthy neighbourhoods by simple bolt-on measures – such as wind turbines or 20mph (30kph) zones – useful as they may be. 7

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

Introduction

1.3 KEY TERMS DEFINED This set of definitions is provided in order to help develop a common understanding between the many interests and professions which are involved in neighbourhood planning. Neighbourhood This is commonly used in the generic sense of the localities in which people live, but here we have normative definitions based on an easily walkable catchment for local facilities, or areas of shared (named) identity. Section 1.13 goes into detail. Shaping In the title this word is intentionally used in two senses: ‘shaping’ as a decision-making process; shape as in the physical form of neighbourhoods. All chapters deal with process to some degree, but chapter 2 is entirely devoted to it, and provides context for the others. Chapters 3–6 all examine aspects of physical form, linking to social, economic, ecological and aesthetic variables. Health While many health professionals use a biomedical definition of health (the measurable physical/physiological condition of a person), the definition here is the broader one adopted by the World Health Organization (WHO), which equates health with a state of physical, mental and social wellbeing. See section 1.5 for the way this is related to public health and the built environment. For greater depth see ‘Demystifying health: Valuing Nature Programme’ (Lovell, 2018). Local/urban/population health In this book we are concerned with local neighbourhood health. This is a subset of city-wide or local authority area health. Contrasts between wards within an urban area and between authorities can be very illuminating. Population health simply refers to overall (not individual) population health at any particular scale. See sections 1.5 and 1.6. Global sustainability This takes a holistic global ecological perspective, concerned with climate, air, water, soils, wildlife, genetic diversity and natural resources – and the effect of human actions upon them. ‘Planetary health’ is used to embrace both the health of the natural world and the health of humankind. See sections 1.4 and 1.8.

8

The changes needed are much more fundamental. They relate to all policy areas and all levels of decision-making. Implementation through planning and design of neighbourhoods only works when broad strategy and local interventions reinforce one another. They work when the key policy makers, the local communities themselves and the investors who implement development are all pulling together. People, professions, firms, institutions and elected representatives need to erode conventional barriers and escape from silo thinking, building the potential for co-operation through identifying shared values, and agreeing on ‘who are we working for?’ Shared values: almost everyone accepts the central importance of planning an environment that is good for human health and wellbeing, and recognises the overarching need for climate and biodiversity action. Agreement on these can help build trust and co-operation. Who are we working for? Some may initially look no further than the client who is paying them, the possible profit margin or their agency role. Acceptance of a broader social and environmental responsibility is vital. We are working for the whole community and the environment on which the community depends. Chapter 2 lays out processes and techniques that can help build collaborative communities. It identifies three possible launch pads for neighbourhood planning: the local community, the local planning authority and large private or public developers. The guide as a whole provides powerful arguments for change, backed by scientific evidence, and shows how healthy, sustainable settlements are both possible and highly desirable. Below in this section we set out briefly the plurality of forces, local and strategic, affecting neighbourhood evolution, and pointers to their specific responsibilities. ACTORS IN NEIGHBOURHOOD FUTURES Local neighbourhood actors, if they are to achieve real change, have to recognise that the critical decision-makers are often not local at all. In capitalist democracies the rules of the game are set by government. As we have seen in the COVID-19 crisis, governments can in the last resort make dramatic change happen. The set of policy-makers below include central and local government, and two sets of professionals that advise and can sometimes shape policy. The gap between policy and action can, however, be great. Sometimes the real decisions are being taken by the private and public firms/agencies with money to invest in the built environment. All this makes for a complex tangle of influences that local people have to try to disentangle. National and municipal policy-makers National and state governments The state politicians who make policy and frame the options open to neighbourhoods, may well espouse noble social and

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

Introduction

1.3 environmental goals – such as tackling air pollution, obesity and carbon emissions. The test is whether they convert rhetoric into action. In relation to the health and sustainability of neighbourhoods, this action needs to encompass, for example, sustainable, active transport investment, strong local authority powers and a balance of private and community property rights, enabling healthy decisions locally. For a discussion of some of the issues, see chapter 5.

KEY TERMS DEFINED (Continued)

5.2 Land governance

Spatial planning This is the generic term we use to embrace the planning of all human elements of the physical environment, including housing, transport, economic activity, facilities, open space, utilities, landscape, human settlements from farmsteads to conurbations. It is based on an understanding of the needs and behaviours of people, markets and institutions. Alternative terms (town, urban, territorial planning) have broadly similar meanings.

Local government councillors In most countries, decisions about significant change within any neighbourhood will be made by councillors at municipal, city or county scale. This could include decisions about local transport, employment, housing, services and green infrastructure which profoundly influence the quality and healthiness of the urban environment. The ability to make good decisions will be affected by the powers that local authorities have, and the resources available. Local politicians need to be working for the health and wellbeing of the whole population, recognising global climate and ecological priorities. In order to do this, they need a clear understanding of the spatial dynamics of settlements in relation to healthy household behaviour.

Urban design This is the design and management of the built environment, especially in terms of the three-dimensional relationship of buildings, spaces and networks and their relation to behaviour, aesthetic perception and development processes. Urban design overlaps with spatial planning. See illustrations throughout the guide and especially chapter 6.

Built environment agencies and professionals Planners, urbanists, designers, civil engineers and surveyors have a huge responsibility to advise politicians and developers on how to plan places that are good for health and sustainability, conversely on how to avoid counter-productive decisions, even when they superficially seem the easiest and most economically productive. It is vital that these professions’ initial education and mid-career training emphasise deep and up-to-date understanding of the health/environment interplay. No politician wants to make decisions that are declared to be unhealthy. This clutch of professions, working together, hold the levers and skills to make visions into reality. Organisationally and individually they could be proactive, taking on a place-based leadership role. Public health agencies and professionals The public health agencies at national and city levels have until recently largely ignored spatial planning as a key health determinant. But they could act as powerful forces demanding healthy city policies and development decisions. Public health agencies should be devoted to influencing the decisionmakers in the city council, in the major private enterprises, economic development and transport authorities, so that the large investment decisions and wide-area plans support healthy, convivial lifestyles, good air quality and net-zero carbon strategies. This then provides the positive platform for neighbourhood activists, planners and designers to achieve healthy neighbourhoods. Public health professionals can reinforce this by contributing their specialist knowledge.

Net carbon-neutral strategy The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) recommends that by 2050 the world must reach the point where any residual carbon emissions are balanced by carbon absorption. See section 1.7.

The planning system While spatial planning is a ubiquitous and integrated activity, planning systems – the legal powers given to central and local government to control land use – vary widely between nations, even between states or countries within one nation (e.g. in Germany, the UK and the USA). They can be prone to manipulation and abuse. Property rights between private, public and community interests are key. See section 5.2.

5.17 Working together

Healthy planning A clear distinction must be drawn between planning health facilities (e.g. hospitals, health centres) and planning a healthy built environment. The former is discussed in section 3.12. The latter is the rest of the guide! Public health, environmental health and planning professions all originated in the modern era from concern for unhealthy 19th-century urban environments, and are now re-building connections.

9

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

Introduction

1.3 The key investors In practice, many of the critical decisions affecting the future of localities are taken by the private enterprises and public agencies who invest in urban development and renewal. Often they are not party to the discussions of the main policy-makers, yet are effectively making policy by their decisions. It is essential that these interests are brought ‘on board’, working strategically and locally with the policy-makers. Some of the relevant groups are: Transport authorities. Investment in transport infrastructure by national, regional and city authorities is one of the key determinants of the way towns and neighbourhoods evolve, affecting locational and development decisions. Part of this is the way public transport services are structured and managed. Economic development agencies. The decisions of public economic investment units are also critical. If their decisions favour dispersed locations and car-oriented designs with large car parks, then neighbourhoods in the area will struggle to achieve sustainable environments and healthy lifestyles. Commercial land investors and speculators. Plans by themselves cannot control future urban development. Land ownership is a more powerful lever, and investment in land with the hope or expectation of development profits is a shaper of settlements. House builders. Private sector house-builders and public sector social housing providers are highly influenced by land values and development costs. The easiest options (often greenfield sites) are not necessarily the best. Health and Education departments. The accessibility of schools, colleges, hospitals and health centres is critical to achieving healthy urban environments. They are major sources of employment as well as providing services for people. Water, parks, recreation and wildlife agencies. Agencies which plan aspects of green infrastructure are assuming more and more importance in the context of climate and ecological emergencies. Recognition of the importance of a city-wide green network influences what is appropriate at neighbourhood level. The local community 2.1 Purpose and scope

10

The uncertainties and complexities of urban change in a pluralist society make the task of local people, trying to influence the future of their immediate environment, challenging. It is essential to make powerful allies – political, professional and/or commercial. Chapter 2 focuses on the process of neighbourhood planning. It gives three possible starting points: community action, local authority initiative or commercial development. Whichever path occurs, collaboration and shared learning between the interests are necessary.

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

Policies and agendas

1.4

policies and agendas 1.4 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT There are many global agendas espousing the mantra of sustainable development that cities sign up to. However, the rhetoric may remain at mayoral or city level with neighbourhoods gaining little benefit. Currently we have networks of resilient cities, smart cities, sustainable cities, liveable cities, 15 minute cities, slow cities, 85cm cities, healthy cities, child-friendly and age-friendly cities… and the list goes on. While there is a role for all of these, in Shaping Neighbourhoods we advocate the use of the UN Sustainable Development Goals twinned with a place-based approach to health as an holistic way to capture the aspirations of all these initiatives. Defining sustainable development The classic Brundtland definition (see side column) makes it clear that the focus is on people – on equity for current and for future generations. Sustainable development is about maintaining and enhancing the quality of human life – social, economic and environmental – while living within the carrying capacity of supporting ecosystems and the resource base. The trefoil diagram makes the point that it is not a question of choosing one of the three aspects of sustainability over the others but searching for solutions that marry all three. There is continuing and growing pressure placed on our planetary resources by human activity – and in particular the nature of much of that activity. Some of the primary impacts are clear at a global scale, for example the challenges we now face from more extreme weather, desertification and loss of soil fertility, increased extinction rate and loss of biological diversity. Other impacts are severe in particular regions, including air pollution, water shortage and flooding. The impact on the biosphere is now so profound that a new epoch of geological time has been proposed, referred to as the Anthropocene (Waters et al. 2016).

The Brundtland definition ‘Sustainable development is development which meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.’ (WCED 1987)

health and quality of life

economic vitality sustainable development

ecological sustainability Figure 1.1 Searching for sustainable development The trefoil diagram does not imply a weak trade-off between social, economic and environmental priorities, but the need to find solutions that marry all three.

UNITED NATIONS 2030 AGENDA The holistic nature of sustainable development was powerfully reinforced by the UN in 2016, when it produced the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. This aimed to provide a shared blueprint for ‘peace and prosperity for people and the planet’. At its heart are 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). As a set these recognise that ending poverty and inequality between and within nations must go hand in hand with strategies to promote education and health and spur economic growth, while tackling the climate emergency, the loss of biodiversity and environmental degradation. The 2030 Agenda has been adopted by all the United Nations member states, and the 17 SDGs are being used by countries and organisations across the globe as a means 11

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

Policies and agendas

1.4 UN Sustainable Development Goals Listing the sections in the guide which are most relevant to each goal: 1.

No poverty 1.6 Health and place equity; 3.3 Housing for all; 3.6 Access to jobs; 3.14 Neighbourhood travel strategy

2.

Zero hunger 4.9 Neighbourhood planning for urban food and soils

3.

Good health and wellbeing 1.5 Health and wellbeing; 3.4 Strong communities; 3.12 Community health; 3.13 Recreational space.

4.

Quality education 3.11 Educational facilities.

5.

Gender equality 6.3 Walkability, conviviality and community hubs.

6.

Clean water and sanitation 4.6 Neighbourhood water planning

7.

Affordable and clean energy 4.3 Neighbourhood energy planning

8.

Decent work and economic growth 3.6 Access to jobs

9.

Industry, innovation and infrastructure 3.7 Resilient local economies; 3.14 Neighbourhood travel strategy

10. Reduced inequality 1.6 Health and place equity; 3.3 Housing for all; 3.9 Planning local accessibility 11. Sustainable cities and communities 1.10 The ecosystem approach; chapter 5 Neighbourhood strategy; and chapter 6 Neighbourhood design and placemaking 12. Responsible consumption and production 3.7 Resilient local economies; 4.13 Domestic resource recovery 13. Climate action 1.7 Climate emergency; 3.14–3.18 Planning for travel; 4.3 Neighbourhood energy planning; chapters 5 and 6 14. Life below water 1.8 Ecological crisis 15. Life on land 1.8 Ecological crisis; 4.14–4.16 Biodiversity; 6.2 The structure of space and place 16. Peace, justice and strong institutions 1.9 Spatial planning; 2.3 Collaborative communities; 5.2 Land governance 17. Partnerships for the goals Chapter 2: A neighbourhood planning process.

12

of shaping and legitimising policy. The strength of the set is that they do encompass a very full range of social, economic and environmental concerns, challenging policy-makers to find patterns of development that can knit them together. Neighbourhood planning may impinge on all of them. The side column lists all 17 goals and the sections of the guide where they are most relevant. Four key goals for neighbourhoods are set out below. SDG 11 – Sustainable cities and communities SDG11 is central to all aspects when shaping neighbourhoods. The SDG text points to the big picture – that well over half of humanity (5 billion people) will live in cities by 2030, with most of the growth in cities occurring in low- and middle-income countries. A quarter of the current urban population live in slums. Rapid urbanisation is putting huge pressure on fresh water supplies, sewage treatment, the living environment of people, and the quality of the air we breathe. All this adds up to a public health crisis. At the same time, cities account for most energy use and 75 per cent of carbon emissions. Cities are challenged to create jobs and prosperity, to make cities safe, inclusive, resilient and sustainable, and to solve the problems of congestion, housing, infrastructure and services without straining land and resource use. Clearly neighbourhoods within towns and cities are critical to this goal – whether affluent suburbs, high-density city renewal or marginalised informal settlements. Neighbourhoods provide the physical setting for sustainable communities, and clusters of neighbourhoods make up the sustainable city. SDG 3 – Good health and wellbeing The UN recognises that ‘ensuring healthy lives and promoting wellbeing for all at all ages is essential to sustainable development’. While the main focus is understandably on eradicating communicable diseases and the availability of health services, the target is also to reduce premature deaths due to

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

Policies and agendas

1.4 noncommunicable diseases by one-third by 2030, highlighting issues of ambient pollution and sanitation. The WHO Healthy Cities network goes much further in stressing the importance of settlements that promote physical activity, healthy food, social capital and mental wellbeing. Shaping neighbourhoods is central to these agendas, and supports universal health coverage.

Universal Health Coverage defined

SDG 13 – Climate action

The resolution calls on Member States to adopt a multisectoral approach and to work on the social, environmental and economic determinants of health to reduce inequities and enable sustainable development.

Reducing the speed and impact of global warming has been central to the idea of sustainable development since the 1980s. SDG 13 highlights the nature of the emergency, pointing out that the poorest and most vulnerable people are already being seriously affected. The challenge for every country is to implement the Paris Agreement to work to limit temperature rise to less than 2 degrees centigrade. That challenge has since been ratcheted up by the IPCC Report of 2018. Climate action could go hand in hand with ensuring a more equitable society. The nature of buildings, the public realm, green infrastructure and travel patterns in neighbourhoods and between neighbourhoods are central to tackling climate breakdown and creating resilient communities. SDG 15 – Life on Land This goal (along with SDG 14 – Life below water) stems from the international Convention on Biological Diversity signed at the Earth Summit in Rio in 1992. Following generations of destruction, the goal is to protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss. Planning nature-based solutions in every neighbourhood involves growing food locally, planting trees, biodiversity action, soil protection, and robust green and blue infrastructure plans.

The United Nations resolution on Universal Health Coverage states that health is an important cross-cutting policy issue on the international agenda, as it is a precondition and an outcome and indicator of all three dimensions of sustainable development.

SOURCE: UN 2012

English policy: the NPPF The key statement of sustainable development policy in England (there are equivalents in Scotland and Wales) is the National Planning Policy Framework, last up-dated in 2019. It is explicit about the social, economic and environmental aims of spatial planning, including putting health centre-stage. It contains sound guidance on most facets of policy. However, it also contains weasel words in relation to delivery which mean that market interests in land can often take precedence over healthy, sustainable development. See section 5.2 on land governance.

SDG 17 – Partnerships for the goals A successful sustainable development agenda requires partnerships between governments, the private sector and civil society. Urgent action is needed to unlock investment in sustainable infrastructure, energy and transport, and this can only be done if people work together. While the UN’s prime emphasis is at the national and international level, nowhere is partnership more relevant than at the level of the neighbourhood.

Wales: seven overarching goals Major projects have to demonstrate that they are in line with these goals to the Commissioner of the Future Generations of Wales.  a prosperous Wales

PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER

 a resilient Wales

The difficulties of achieving all the SDGs are profound. The language of United Nations bodies and national governments is general and establishes broad aspirations for nations and regions. At the level of town or city region planning the preconceptions of councillors, the vested interests of residents, businesses and institutions, skill gaps among professionals and the arbitrariness of some governmental decisions all mean that the quality of local authority action is often severely compromised. As neighbourhood

 a more equal Wales  a healthier Wales  a Wales of cohesive communities  vibrant culture and thriving Welsh language  a globally responsible Wales

13

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

Policies and agendas

1.5 plans and development projects sit within the context set by local government, they are likely to be compromised too. This guide translates the UN principles into actions for neighbourhoods. The central point is that one SDG should not be sacrificed on the altar of another – for example climate action marginalised in the interests of economic growth. There needs to be progress across the board. Simplifying back to the basic concept of sustainable development (figure 1.1), the wellbeing of the whole population depends on: a sound economy – satisfying needs, offering useful work and adequate income an attractive local environment that supports healthy lifestyles while reducing global climate and ecological impacts a just, healthy and inclusive society – social networks, social provision, community cohesion and empowerment Despite much poor practice, signs of hope can be found across the globe, as our case studies in each chapter illustrate. However, these examples are mainly limited to specific cities or isolated exemplar developments. The lessons from such places are not easy, involving difficult political decisions. If we are to achieve more sustainable settlements, then local authorities need power: specifically, power over budgeting and land (PRP et al. 2008; Hall 2014).

1.5 HEALTH AND WELLBEING The idea of sustainable development, with its multiple, apparently competing, dimensions, can lead to confusion and irresolution. The WHO Healthy Cities network, with its core message of ‘health in all policies’, sees health and wellbeing as the lens through which to address sustainable development. The health of the whole population depends on all three overlapping circles of sustainable development: a sound economy satisfying needs and offering useful work; a healthy environment, locally and globally, that facilitates physical and mental wellbeing while reducing risk; and social networks, social provision, community cohesion and empowerment. Defining health ‘Health is not only the absence of disease but a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing. The enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health is one of the fundamental rights of every human being, without distinction of race, religion, political belief, or economic and social conditions.’ (WHO 1946)

14

3.1 Putting people first

PUTTING PEOPLE AT THE CENTRE Planning and design shape the buildings, streets, greenspaces, activities, and aesthetic qualities of neighbourhoods. These are the tools, or the means available. But the ends are about people. Putting people at the heart of planning: people of all ages, genders, abilities and cultural backgrounds; people living in the neighbourhood, those in settlements around, future residents, future generations. Success is measured through assessing health, wellbeing and quality of life. Planning an urban environment that works towards health for all provides an aspiration that everyone can vote for.

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

Policies and agendas

1.5 HEALTHY PLACES, HEALTHY LIVES There are various ways of expressing the idea of healthy environments (see figure 1.2). As noted in the side column, WHO expressly states that health is not simply the absence of disease. It is about the positive concept of wellbeing. The Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion states that: ‘Health is created and lived by people within the settings of their everyday life; where they learn, work, play and love. Health is created… by ensuring that the society one lives in creates conditions that allow the attainment of health by all its members.’ (WHO 1986, p.7)

Understanding the health-environment link The relationship between personal health and the environment is multifaceted. Figure 1.3 gives a fair impression of this, linking characteristics of the urban environment to a very wide range of physical and mental illnesses. At a simpler level the relationship is also a matter of quite intuitive understanding.

Obesity Cardiovascular disease Mental ill health Increased mortality

Depression Lack of motivation and ine˜ective learning time associated with lack of adequate daylight in school pupils

Figure 1.2 The neighbourhood’s role in health

Asthma Depression Cardiovascular disease Fatigue Accidents Reduced cognitive performance in children

Physical Health

Meningitis, tuberculosis, slow growth and development, and wheezing in childhood Respiratory disease and poor medical well-being

Noise

Light

Safety Design

Space

Humidity Accessibility BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Prolonged recovery time from illness Mortality in elderly people, hypertension. Overall child development Adverse physical and mental health e˜ects in prisoners, and patients and sta˜ in hospitals

Physical Activity

Maintenance

Locality

Air Quality Distance

Housing Improvements Appearance

Reduced physical functional health Poorer mental well-being Reduced life expectancy

Mental Health

Some unintended adverse e˜ects: increased mortality due to increased costs Negative self-reported health outcomes in short-term respiratory symptoms

SOURCE: Rao et al., 2007

Arthritic problems Increased mortality in elderly people Ischaemic heart disease, stroke Hypothermia Bronchospasm

Temperature

Immediate Surroundings Availability

Figure 1.3 The impact of aspects of the urban environment on health problems

Respiratory problems: asthma, rhinitis, alveolitis, Eczema Depression

Social Networks Lower physical well-being in elderly people Poor mental well-being

Leisure injuries and home accidents: falls, burns, scalds, and deaths Obesity Road accidents Poorer mental well-being Poor child development

Obesity Cardiovascular disease Hypertension Diabetes Colon cancer Osteoporosis Stress, anxiety

Social Health

Obesity Increased anxiety

Obesity Hypertension Stress Road-tra°c injuries

Respiratory diseases including asthma, lung cancer, asbestosis, eye, nose and throat irritations Premature deaths due to e˜ects of respiratory and cardiovascular systems

15

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

Policies and agendas

1.5

Planning and Design

Existing urban structures

Economic conditions, social norms

The Urban Environment

Human Behaviour

Service provision and quality

Individual characteristics and choices

Figure 1.4 The planning-health connection Planning is only one of the factors influencing healthy lifestyles. SOURCE: Barton 2017

Health and Well-being

Over and above transmissible and vector-borne diseases, most people recognise, for example, that poor air quality, inadequate sanitation or water quality, damp housing or persistent noise will cause our health to suffer. Such conditions are recognised as ‘environmental bads’, and have matching ‘goods’. There are also other environmental ‘goods’ which support or even ‘create’ health. These include environments which encourage physical activity, support family life, friendships and social networks, make housing choice affordable, or make healthy food accessible. The neighbourhood is the basic setting for our lives from infants through to old age. It was only in the ‘noughties’ that the full realisation of the relationship of place to health struck home, and research underpinned what intuitively we recognise anyway. Critical literature reviews across multiple studies consistently find evidence indicating an association between the built environment and health and wellbeing. Relevant studies include early work on neighbourhoods (Croucher et al. 2007; Rao et al. 2007), that with a policy remit (RCEP 2007; Rydin et al. 2012; WHO 2018) and environmental epidemiology (Nieuwenhuijsen et al. 2020). How significant is the urban environment for health?

Environment and behaviour It is unreasonable to expect large proportions of the population to change their behaviours when the environments where they live discourage such changes. Schmid et al. 1995

Figure 1.5 Factors affecting an individual’s health outcomes SOURCE: Adapted from a model developed by Robert Wood Johnson Foundation and University of Wisconsin Population Health Institute (Bookse et al. 2010)

The degree of significance of the built environment for health and wellbeing is a contested area. Our estimate is that the built environment may contribute as much as 25 per cent to health outcomes (expressed as 50 per cent length of life and 50 per cent quality of life). This is based on our adaptation of a model used for county health rankings in the USA. In this we reapportion back to the built environment the impact that poor planning and design have on diet/exercise, access to meaningful and local employment access, spatial access to family/informal social support and community safety.

Health behaviours 25%

Socio-economic factors 30%

Clinical care 20%

Built environment 25%

Smoking 10%

Education 10%

Access to care 10%

Environmental quality 5%

Diet/Exercise 5%

Income 10%

Quality of care 10%

Built environment 5%

Alcohol use 5%

Employment 5%

Diet/Exercise 5%

Poor sexual health 5%

Family/social support 2.5%

Employment 5%

Community safety 2.5%

Family/social support 2.5% Community safety 2.5%

16

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

Policies and agendas

1.5 Reducing the incidence of disease When shaping neighbourhoods, therefore, we are not primarily concerned with the services that treat illness, but the qualities of place that promote wellbeing (see also Lovell 2018). The physical quality of neighbourhoods can support healthy behaviour, relieving the burden on health services. Systemic planning and public health action can combat diseases such as heart disease, respiratory problems, obesity, type 2 diabetes, mental illness and even some forms of cancer, reducing risk factors such as lack of opportunities for everyday exercise, poor air quality, inadequate access to fresh food and fragmented social cohesion.

Salutogenesis and the promotion of wellbeing The important role of health-promoting environments for human wellbeing was discussed by Antonovsky in his classic book Health, Stress and Coping (1979). In this he coined the term the salutogenesis as the medical approach focusing on factors that support human health and wellbeing, in contrast to pathogenesis, which focuses on factors that cause disease.

THE ECONOMIC CASE Build-in health or build more hospitals? It is morally right to work for healthy places that reduce human suffering. It is also economically right, reducing the cost of health services and supporting local economic prosperity. Tackling avoidable noncommunicable disease reduces health care demand, supporting universal health coverage. Evidence is accruing from both academic research and official studies. The health economics case is that interventions for prevention of illness at the population level are a more effective way to use scarce health finances than treating each individual once they get sick (Masters et al. 1997; WHO 2018a). Here are some indications of the potential savings: Obesity: the UK Foresight Report, Tackling Obesity (Butland et al. 2007) calculated that extra treatments and care resulting from people being obese or overweight cost the NHS £6.3 billion in 2015. Air pollution: WHO estimate that seven million people across the world die prematurely because of air pollution (WHO 2016d). The UK Parliament estimates the cost to the UK is around £16 billion p.a, similar to the estimate for smoking (House of Commons 2011). Greenspace: one study found that Londoners avoid £950 million p.a. in health service costs due to public parks, which create the opportunity for people to exercise, socialise, relax and enjoy semi-natural surroundings (GLA 2017). Cycle infrastructure: a study in New York concluded that investments in cycle routes were exceptionally good value because they addressed multiple public health problems, and the cost per individual was far less than the threshold which triggers individual medical interventions in the UK (Gu et al. 2017). Fuel poverty: a health-energy coalition found it financially cheaper to solve the health problems arising from fuel poverty (asthma, respiratory diseases) by topping up a government scheme to provide new heating and insulation rather than picking up the predicted costs treating a family’s ongoing illnesses (Preston et al 2014).

It is more cost effective to treat the causes than the symptoms In the competition for resources between ‘Sick individuals or sick populations’ as Rose (2001) pointed out, we risk forever treating people when they are ill, instead of focussing on whole populations and ‘treating’ places themselves. Using an environmental model of prevention for public health, Chokshi and Farley (2012) showed that it can be far less expensive to alter an environmental element that many people are exposed to, than to interact with each person directly.

Wealth is not measured by GNP ‘The gross national product does not allow for the health of our children, the quality of their education, or the joy of their play. It does not include the beauty of our poetry or the strength of our marriages; the intelligence of our public debate or the integrity of our public officials. It measures neither our wit nor our courage; neither our wisdom nor our learning; neither our compassion nor our devotion to our country; it measures everything, in short, except that which makes life worthwhile.’ Robert F. Kennedy, University of Kansas, March 18, 1968

17

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

Policies and agendas

1.5 Property agencies support healthier cities

Supporting economic prosperity

‘Better designed cities could save our society and the UK economy an estimated £15.3bn by 2050 – and make us all happier and healthier.’

The health of the economy is not just an economic issue, but a key determinant of people’s health, in the sense of providing income, activity and a role in society. A sound economy is about physical and mental wellbeing.

British Land et al. 2015, p.8

‘There are many important intangibles which contribute to (property) value. Because markets do not trade explicitly in these things, it is hard to identify and quantify their value. Intangible factors in the area of health, happiness and wellbeing, for example, have the potential to keep the cost of health services affordable and are only now becoming better recognised.’ RICS 2016, p.45

Assessing wellbeing City leaders around the world are using regular assessments of wellbeing to evaluate progress and identify problems. These ‘quality of life’ or ‘State of the environment’ reports, have agendas strongly overlapping with health. They include mapping analysis which reveals exactly where problems lie and how neighbourhoods compare. Typical factors examined are:  air quality  road accidents  access to greenspace  unemployment rates  housing conditions

Assets of vulnerable communities ‘As well as having needs and problems, our most marginalised communities also have social, cultural and material assets. Identifying and mobilising these can help them overcome the health challenges they face.’ Foot and Hopkins 2010

18

Tackling obesity: the same Foresight study as above estimates that if present trends continue, the cost of obesity to the UK economy in terms of days of work lost, reduced productivity, disability benefit, early retirement, will become greater than the entire current cost of the NHS (Butland et al. 2007). The walking environment: a comprehensive review found that making places better for walking can boost footfall and trading by up to 40 per cent and raise retail rents by 20 per cent (Lawlor 2013). Walking and cycling: in terms of return on investment the economic benefits of walking and bicycling interventions can be highly significant averaging 13:1, and some countries as high as 19:1 (Davis 2010). Physical activity: cities with physically active residents are more productive as well as healthier (Sallis et al. 2015b). Specific local projects: horticultural projects, wood stations and exemplar energy projects can provide social benefits, training, employment and small businesses opportunities. Greenspace ecosystem services: it has been estimated that green spaces in London reduce health risks by providing £2.8m storm water alleviation and £126.1m in pollution removal per year (GLA 2017). Converting the evidence to action The economic case is clear. However, there are three barriers to change. First, the political and policy focus of the health sector remains trapped in an illness and service delivery model. Second, the built environment investors and developers tend to have a conservative attitude relying on ‘tried and tested’ approaches that have yielded profit in the past at the expense of people’s health. Third, and most fundamentally, the standard economic measure of success – gross national product – distorts political decision-making (see Kennedy quote in side column on p.17). Without a concerted focus by all built environment professionals on the impacts they are having on health through their interventions in neighbourhoods, supported by enlightened politicians and a radical public health movement, the costs of running a health service will spiral out of control. Such a focus is part of the WHO ‘health in all policies’ principle. It equates to the ‘fully engaged’ scenario developed in a report for the UK Treasury looking at future health funding up to 2050 (Wanless 2004).

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

Policies and agendas

1.5 A WHOLE LIFETIME APPROACH FOR NEIGHBOURHOODS

Measuring the life-course

The WHO promotes a life-course approach to an individual’s health. When shaping neighbourhoods we need to treat the physical environment as an essential enabler of healthy and independent life (Green and Tsourous 2008). Figure 1.6 illustrates the ‘dependency’ threshold. At the start of life, young children are totally dependent. A child-friendly environment is one that will best support them on their journey to independence. Towards the end of life, some – but not all – old people become heavily dependent on social support because of illness or disability. At any age, a few people may experience illness or disability for a range of physical or mental reasons. The aim for neighbourhood planning is to create a situation where fewer people sink below the dependency threshold, and even if they do, the neighbourhood environment is supportive.

There are several measures of health that relate to the life-course, and may be available at neighbourhood, town, ward, parish or commune level.  The most basic and widespread is the straightforward measure of life expectancy.  The second, and more illuminating is Healthy Life Years (HLY), i.e. the number of years men and women live without any kind of life-limiting illness or disability.  The difference between the two varies greatly between population groups, rich and poor.  A third measure combines these two as QALYS (Quality Adjusted Life Years), used often as an economic evaluation to assess treatment or intervention options.

The intergenerational neighbourhood Neighbourhoods should be places where all generations mix. This principle is explored in detail in chapter 3. This is for two reasons. First, that as household status evolves, from young singles and couples through family raising to empty nesters and old age, it should be possible to stay in the same familiar place and community. Second, social interaction between generations, especially the old and the very young, can be good for all, and enhanced by careful location and design.

Habits established in childhood persist in later life. If children spend all their time indoors, or persistently over-eat, these behaviours will often be carried right through, with obesity the result. The culture of children’s independence has been in decline since the 1870s in virtually every continent (Kyttä et al. 2015). For younger children, the safety, attractiveness and conviviality of the immediate environment near the home are critical to parental permission to go outside and play. The street, the playground, greenspace and walking/cycling routes to school are all central to neighbourhood planning, boosting physical activity and social contact. Poor dietary habits can also be discouraged by the absence of fast/sugary food outlets near schools. Chapter 3 explores all the issues.

Local environment determines height of dependency threshold

Mid life

Later life

independence and ability to support others

graded dependency threshold

Range of functioning individuals

dependence with need for social support

Age

Figure 1.6 The degree of individual independence through the life course People’s functional capacity changes through the life-course. However, the quality of the local environment affects the degree of independence or dependency – especially among poorer groups. SOURCE: Adapted from Kalache and Kickbusch 1997 and WHO 2000

Healthy ageing The urban environment profoundly affects the physical and mental health of older adults. Living in walking-oriented neighbourhoods with easy access to essential services and strong social networks contributes to healthy ageing. Getting out and about on foot is associated with fewer visits to the doctor (Cairncross 2016). Ageing in place is desirable. It means ‘being able to remain in one’s current residence even when faced with increasing need for support because of life changes, such as declining health, widowhood, or loss of income’ (Greenfield

Personal functional capacity

Child-friendly places

Early life

3.2 A diverse population

Active ageing defined Active ageing is the process of optimising opportunities for health, participation and security in order to enhance quality of life as people age. WHO 2002

19

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

Policies and agendas

1.6 et al. 2012, p.1). Drastic change late in life, such as relocation, can lead to poor health outcomes. However, many places are not well suited to older people if their mobility impairments increase. The quality of the neighbourhood becomes more important as walkable distance and driving ability decline, and can help reduce isolation and loneliness (Yen et al. 2009). Mental health and physical health are codependent especially for the elderly. Research has found that the quality of ‘buildings and surroundings,’ ‘community facilities and amenities,’ and ‘social attributes of a place’ are important for older people to feel at home and comfortable in their localities (Sun et al. 2020). The process of neighbourhood planning should aim to actively engage older residents, including the ‘oldest-old’ (people aged 85+). COVID 19 At the time of writing it is not clear what the longer-term impact of Covid 19 will be. For those who contract the virus, the most severe complications occur for the frail elderly and people with hypertension, diabetes, chronic lung and heart disease. Being overweight is a risk factor for middle-aged people. There is also gathering evidence that air pollution is a factor. The future of neighbourhoods after extended lock-down is very uncertain. People may well permanently reduce travel, relying more on virtual connections. Some predict that while city centres are likely to suffer decline and vacancy, smaller town and local centres could benefit from people working from home and spending social and leisure time locally. But home-based life could have serious downsides, with children getting out of the habit of outside activities and becoming even more attached to their phones and iPads.

1.6 HEALTH AND PLACE EQUITY This section concentrates on three critical health issues, which are interlinked and all impacted by the quality of the urban environment, to a degree often not recognised: health equity and health inequalities physical wellbeing – especially related to obesity mental wellbeing, happiness and depression Long-standing political concerns for social justice have been sharpened by the growing recognition that in most countries there are huge health inequalities by income in terms of life expectancy, healthy life years (without disability) and the incidence of illness. Health inequality is closely related to income inequality and also to problems of obesity, stress and mental illness. It severely damages the prospects and happiness of some of the poorest in society, depresses productivity and prematurely undermines the ability to work. Health equity implies that everyone should have a fair opportunity to attain his or her full health potential and that no one should be disadvantaged from achieving this potential. Health and place inequality Inequality is spatially organised. People living in localities with lowest average incomes, shortest healthy lives and highest unemployment also experience the most adverse environmental conditions: poor air quality, high noise levels, traffic danger, poor housing, little greenspace along with high drug dependence and crime levels (Allen and Allen 2015). Place equity is therefore an important element in health equity. Neighbourhood planning has a vital role in attempting to reduce the spatial inequities through housing, transport, greenspace and placemaking policies.

20

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

Policies and agendas

1.6 Health Equity defined

The World Health Organization places as much emphasis on health equity as on supporting health itself. Improvements in aggregate population health outcomes must not be achieved at the expense of those ‘at the bottom’. In other words, everyone should have a fair opportunity to attain their full life potential. The degree of health inequity is measured by differences of life expectancy, years of disability-free life or healthy life years, and/or the incidence of particular illness between groups or areas. Data is often available on a disaggregated basis, down to neighbourhood, ward or village level.

PLANNING EQUITABLE NEIGHBOURHOODS The planning of neighbourhoods and cities is part of the problem and can be part of the solution. There are a number of critical factors: Household disposable income is a very important determinant of health. Housing costs (rent or buy), transport costs and energy costs are major items that help determine the income available to poor households for other living costs, including food (Barton 2017).

WHO 2020

Worse USA

Index of health and social problems

The disparity between rich and poor countries is marked. In 2013 life expectancy ranged from 46 years in Sierra Leone (before Ebola) to 84 years in Japan. Even within rich countries inequality can be alarming: in the UK socially and economically deprived populations spend a third of their shorter lives with physical or mental disability. Within cities, the situation can be shocking: the Birmingham example in the side column is not exceptional.

The World Health Organization defines health equity as the absence of avoidable, unfair, or remediable differences among groups of people, whether those groups are defined socially, economically, educationally, demographically or geographically.

Portugal United Kingdom Greece Austria Denmark Finland

Germany

Canada

New Zealand Australia Italy

Spain

Switzerland Netherlands

Sweden Japan

Better Low

Income Inequality

High

Figure 1.7 Health and social problems in relation to income inequality SOURCE: Barton 2017, based on Wilkinson and Pickett 2009

Inequality in Birmingham

The housing market – for social housing, private rent or owner occupation – needs to be managed so that living space is affordable to all.

The scale and form of neighbourhoods, and the quality of placemaking, can ensure that local facilities are viable and accessible by foot and pedal, increasing household options and helping to enable a vibrant local community.

Belgium

Norway

The priority is to plan the location and spatial arrangement of housing, employment and transport so that every household can gain access to housing and has easy access to a wide range of jobs, facilities and greenspace without the need for a car.

Socially mixed neighbourhoods lead to better health outcomes for poorer households than equivalent households in one-class ghettos. Planning can try to ensure diversity of housing supply while protecting reservoirs of cheaper housing from being gentrified.

Ireland France

3.3 Housing for all

In Birmingham, England, life expectancy for all neighbourhoods was increasing, and the divergence between rich and poor reducing, until 2011. Since then the poorer areas have experienced both falling life expectancy and reducing healthy life years (HLY). Men in the poorest wards live with physical and/or mental disability from 50 on average, by comparison with 72 in rich areas. Women in the poorest wards live with disability 14 years longer than those in rich wards. SOURCE: Birmingham City Council 2017

Dwellings and neighbourhoods can be designed or retrofitted to reduce running costs for heating, cooling and electricity, avoiding the health impact of fuel poverty. 21

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

Policies and agendas

1.6 Obesity defined

OBESITY AND OBESOGENIC ENVIRONMENTS

Obesity is normally measured by Body Mass Index (BMI). This is a person’s weight (kg) divided by their height (m).

An overconsumption of energy intake in relation to energy expended in daily activity has led to a global trend towards being obese and overweight, with attendant health risks (see side panel). Obesogenic local environments have been long recognised as contributory factors (Swinburn et al. 1999). Worldwide obesity has nearly tripled since 1975. In 2016, more than 1.9 billion adults, 18 years and older, were overweight; of these, over 650 million were obese. Most of the world’s population now lives in countries where overweight and obesity kill more people than underweight. The trend affects children too. Some 340 million children and adolescents aged 5–19 were overweight or obese in 2016 (WHO 2020).

Classification

BMI

Underweight

40

There is a complex web of causal factors, but the evidence for the crucial significance of the built environment for obesity in relation to both physical activity and food is progressively becoming stronger. In all countries, local environments and global drivers interact to produce a complex causal web (Swinburn et al. 2011). The arguments are well rehearsed in Barton et al. 2015, and most particularly Townshend et al. 2015.

Obesity and overweight increase the risk of these nine diseases  type 2 diabetes  cancers  respiratory effects  reproductive function  coronary heart disease and stroke  osteoarthritis  hypertension  dyslipidaemia  liver and gall bladder disease SOURCE: Butland et al. 2007

Environmental obesity strategy Progress towards change in policy and practice is always slow; however, there are valuable opportunities for health and planning professionals to work together and forge a desperately needed whole systems approach to tackle obesity at the neighbourhood level (Townshend & Lake 2017).

3.15 Pedestrians first!

Increased car dependency and reduced active travel (walking and cycling) are critical factors. The spatial design of cities and neighbourhoods, their food environments and the way we plan our travel networks are all significant determinants. Each additional hour spent in a car is associated with a 6 per cent increase in the likelihood of obesity. Each extra kilometre walked a day is associated with a 4.8 per cent reduction in the likelihood of obesity (Frank et al. 2004). One research review suggested that the decline in walking in itself can account for most, if not all, of the increase in obesity (Davis et al. 2007). Tackling obesity through neighbourhood planning does not depend on one aspect of policy, but the way the whole place functions and influences behaviour. A built environment that is compact (with relatively high population density) tends to be one where people are more active because of the ease with which they can reach places and people (Garden & Jalaludin 2009). But density by itself is insufficient. Shaping towns and cities for daily physical activity involves the pattern of mixed uses, the permeable network of streets, the quality and safety of pedestrian and cycling routes, and the accessibility of attractive open space. To a limited extent diet can also be influenced by the environment. While diet is largely a cultural, habitual matter, bad habits are reinforced if fast food and sweet food outlets are all that is available – especially for children at the end of the school day (Townshend et al. 2015). Such outlets can be forbidden close to schools, while fresh fruit and vegetable outlets encouraged in neighbourhood centres.

22

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

Policies and agendas

1.6 MENTAL WELLBEING AND DEPRESSION Halpern’s seminal work ‘Mental Health and the Built Environment: More than Bricks and Mortar?’ (1995) stimulated empirical work that continues to this day. Both physical and social urban environments cause mental stress, as can having no say to changes made to the local environment.

People’s response to environmental features Recent real-time experiments with portable brain wave recorders (Neale et al. 2020) or mobile user feedback devices (Ellard and Montgomery 2011) confirm much intuitive knowledge. For example:

Depression is one of the leading factors causing disability. Suicide is a leading cause of death among 15- to 29-year-olds.

 long, featureless façades lead to people being bored, while active and open façades are appealing

People with severe mental health conditions die prematurely (WHO 2019).

 people have a positive response to safe green spaces

Urban environmental effects associated with poor mental health vary by disorder but include psycho-social stresses of the urban environment (such as traffic jams, fear of crime, getting lost), low quality housing, anti-social neighbourhoods, reduced access to green space, and air and noise pollution (Flies et al. 2019). In Libby Burton’s analysis, many facets of the built environment have an impact, but it is the way streets, dwellings and spaces are designed, not a tick-box exercise (Burton 2015).

 urban traffic noise results in symptoms of stress  in dense urban areas, even a small space for respite from noise and crowds such as a quiet churchyard can provide psychological benefit

Social, physical and health variables are related to each other. Neighbourhoods that are characterised as more walkable are associated with increased physical activity, increased social capital, fewer weight problems, lower levels of depression, and less alcohol abuse (Renalds et al. 2010). Social inclusion features very highly in supporting positive mental health. A systemic review found the following features boost social relations through improvements in community infrastructure (Bagnall et al. 2018):

3.4 Strong communities

community hubs and places for people to gather. changes to neighbourhoods that helped promote sense of belonging and community pride. green and blue spaces interventions that increased shared access, activity and healthy eating. The degree and nature of social mix are also key factors. People are less likely to get depressed if they live close to others like them (Halpern 1995). This is a complex issue, explored in chapter 3. Happiness, environment and health Happiness is a subjective measure of wellbeing, assessed through social survey. Studies have found an intimate relationship between the social and physical character of places and subjective feelings of happiness. The ability of cities and localities within them to offer safe environments, enjoyable amenities and meaningful services that people value not only directly affects happiness, but also health and social connectedness (Goldburg et al. 2012).

23

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

Policies and agendas

1.7 1.7 CLIMATE EMERGENCY The prognosis for human health is intimately connected with planetary health. This can be seen starkly in both the global climate and ecological emergencies which each have dire consequences for our health. However, these are not two separate agendas. Both are ensnared in current economic structures of conspicuous consumption, unsustainable economic activity and globalisation.

Figure 1.8 Carbon dioxide emission scenarios To hold down temperature rise to 1.5°C above the pre-industrial level by 2050, there needs to be 50 per cent reduction by 2030, plus 40 per cent reduction of other greenhouse gases, and net-zero emissions by 2050. SOURCE: McKinsey 2020

THE CLIMATE BREAKDOWN Responding to the climate emergency has profound implications for the future of neighbourhoods. The widely accepted goal of becoming net-carbon neutral by 2050 implies a radical shift in lifestyles, in the way energy is generated and used, and in the way people travel. Urban areas also need to develop coping mechanisms to deal with the predicted impacts of climate change. This includes ways to mitigate hotter temperatures, manage water supplies and prevent flooding. There is an umbilical link between local personal behaviour and global ecology: microcosm and macrocosm. Neighbourhoods act as a key links in the chain which connects the two: neighbourhood planning as local global planning. The problem of climate change

Decentralised energy planning In Denmark each settlement has the responsibility of ensuring it depends on fossil fuel as little as possible. Town councils form partnerships with energy companies and construct wind turbines (or other renewables) close by. The town owns the problem, and solves it.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) – the most authoritative source available – revised its predictions in 2007, 2012 and 2017, mostly in an upward (i.e. worsening) direction. It pointed out that atmospheric carbon levels are at their highest for three million years, and global temperatures have increased by 0.9°C in the last 150 years. It is convinced that human activity is causing the emission of higher levels of greenhouse gases than can be absorbed by Earth’s metabolic processes, and thus is contributing to observed and predicted climate change. The median predictions are: 4°C temperature rise by 2100 CE an increase in extreme weather events sea-level rise of at least one metre significantly different climates in most countries The uncertainties of the predictive techniques, reflecting uncertainties in our understanding of global ecology, mean that there are risks of much more severe impacts – particularly on sea levels. The observations of melting glaciers in Greenland and the reduction of the north polar sea ice give added cause for concern. The likely ecological impacts of 4 degrees temperature rise are severe, with major shifts of wildlife habitats, threatening species extinction, and of human activity. The WHO considers global

24

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

Policies and agendas

1.7 warming, given current trends, to be the world’s biggest threat to health. The problems already evident include: Growing exposure to air pollution – 7 million deaths worldwide in 2016. Increased exposure to extreme weather events, such as wildfires, flooding and hurricanes. Heat causing uninsured economic losses, with a third more potential work hours lost than in 2018 – with a severe human health toll. Increased exposure of vulnerable elderly to heatwaves. Future unquantified risks include poverty exacerbation, migration especially due to sea level rise, violent conflict and mental illness. Without accelerated intervention ‘the life of every child born today will be profoundly affected by climate change’ (as reported in The Lancet Countdown, Watts et al. 2019, p.1). Net-zero carbon emissions by 2050 In the face of the accumulated evidence, the international community at the Paris Climate Change Conference in 2015 set the aim of keeping global temperature rise well below 2 degrees above pre-industrial levels. The 2017 IPCC report strongly recommended that 1.5 degrees would be far preferable to 2 degrees, in terms of the level of risk: floods, droughts, extreme heat waves in the tropics, changes to natural ecosystems. However, current national pledges are insufficient to achieve 2 degrees. The report states we need very substantial cuts in carbon dioxide emissions by 2030, and net-zero carbon emissions by 2050. The McKinsey study of 2020 estimates that by that date carbon emissions of one-tenth the current level would need to be compensated by an equivalent level of carbon sequestration, through re-forestation and carbon capture, use and storage. We also need urgent action on methane emissions and other greenhouse gases. The McKinsey report highlights that for methane the biggest current problem is ‘fugitive’ emissions from fossil fuel industries, which would decline as those are phased out. Action would also be needed to reduce methane from ruminants (cows and sheep), from rice paddies and from waste disposal. Some countries have declared a climate emergency and adopted the 2050 target. The IPCC says, if we are to achieve that, we need: effective carbon pricing renewable electricity substituting for fossil fuels diets less reliant on greenhouse-gas-intensive foods an increase in forest and soil carbon sequestration

Heat wave illness and deaths More intense urban heat waves are only one of several ways that a warming climate will affect health. The main impacts on health are through:  Emergence of infectious diseases  Extensive heat causing dehydration, heat exhaustion and heat syncope  Respiratory difficulties, heat cramps and heat-related mortality  Circulatory and cerebrovascular effects like heat exhaustion, heat collapse and heat stroke  Increase in morbidity and fatality, especially for those working in outdoor conditions Melbourne averaged approximately 200 heat-related deaths in 2013, in comparison to the state road toll of 242 deaths. By 2030, the number of deaths as a result of heat is expected to double. Commonwealth of Australia. 2013

In the USA, heat waves kill more people than any other weather-related phenomenon, with around 1,300 deaths each year. McDonald et al. 2020

‘Pursuing place-specific adaptation pathways towards a 1.5°C warmer world has the potential for significant positive outcomes for wellbeing in countries at all levels of development.’ IPCC 2017

‘Without societal transformation and rapid implementation of ambitious greenhouse gas reduction measures, limiting warming to 1.5°C will be exceedingly difficult if not impossible to achieve’. IPCC Summary for policy-makers, chapter 5, 2017

demand-side management and behavioural change transformative systemic change in finance, government systems, energy, land, industry and urban systems 25

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

Policies and agendas

1.7 Holiday travel 12%

Personal car travel 29%

The IPCC believes that these changes would be consistent with poverty alleviation, improved energy security, purer air and healthier lives. If we fail to hold down the rise in temperature to 1.5 degrees above pre-industrial levels, the risks disproportionately affect disadvantaged and vulnerable populations – with food insecurity, loss of livelihoods and population displacement.

Other travel 2%

NEIGHBOURHOOD CARBON-NEUTRAL STRATEGIES Space heating 30%

Cooking 3% Appliances 9% Lighting 4%

Water heating 11%

Figure 1.9 UK carbon emissions 2019

Radical national and international action is essential to send the right legislative and financial signals. In that context every city, town, neighbourhood and village is the place where the mitigation battle will be lost or won. Each area or settlement is different and carbon budgets may vary widely from the norm. The UK example in the side column shows transport as the biggest carbon emitter, with home heating in second place. The main culprits are coal, oil and gas. In the next 40 years it is necessary to ween ourselves off fossil fuel dependence. Here are some of the policies developed in the guide: All new buildings to be heavily insulated, draught-proofed, and orientated so as to make good use of passive solar gain, photovoltaics and solar hot water.

Since 1990 there has been a 45 per cent fall in overall greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, mainly due to dramatic change in power station fuels and sharp decline in other GHG emissions.

A massive programme to retrofit all old buildings, including listed buildings, to near carbon-neutral standards. A renewable energy strategy maximising the potential for solar and wind power or other renewable sources locally available – together with combined-heat-and-power (CHP) schemes using waste products that are incapable of reuse or recycling. A local food strategy encouraging local organic production, composting of organic waste matter and fostering attitude change to locally-sourced, low-carbon diets.

545

A progressive shift from diesel and petrol vehicles towards electric vehicles, facilitated by rapid re-charging points and flexibility in home charging provision.

298 230 145

Road Tra˜c

Farming (livestock)

Residential Commercial and institutional

99

Industrial

Figure 1.10 Stroud District CO2e emissions In this mainly rural area with small towns the balance of emissions is very different from the UK average. CO2e stands for ‘CO2 equivalent’; these estimates include methane as well as carbon dioxide.

62 Aviation

20

9

Solid and liquid waste

Rail and water transport

A travel and route network strategy that transforms the convenience, safety and attractiveness of walking, cycling and public transport. A land use strategy that increases the local provision of facilities, the opportunity for multi-purpose trips and the quality of the public realm so as to reinforce the desirability of active travel. A green infrastructure strategy that increases tree cover and natural green cover (including on roofs), while reducing design based on hard heat-absorbing surfaces. Resilience in the face of climate change Given climate change, it is vital to increase the resilience of neighbourhoods. Depending on location, the key risks are

26

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

Policies and agendas

1.8 The co-benefits of taking action on climate change.

higher temperatures, more powerful storms, increased runoff and consequent flooding, and conversely, drought, soil erosion and water supply problems. Coastal settlements are also at risk from sea-level rise. There is likely to be a wide variation in maximum temperatures between high density, hard surface parts of a city and major green spaces, with suburbs somewhere in-between. Resilience strategies overlap with mitigation: A green infrastructure plan which increases the amount of greenspace and tree-cover, including street trees, creating green networks that break up the urban heat island, and offer shade where needed. Improving the storm-water holding capacity of the settlement, slowing the speed of run-off and reducing flood risk with green roofs, sustainable drainage systems, permeable hard surfaces.

 Health and wellbeing are improved as a result of improved air quality through reduced use of combustion engine vehicles, increased activity from people walking or cycling more, as well as through reduced fuel poverty from more energy efficient homes. 4.16 Urban trees

 Equity and social cohesion are improved through moving towards an environment which reduces household costs, encourages conviviality, as well as the factors above.

4.8 Flooding, drainage and run-off

 Investing in initiatives to reduce carbon emissions can create economic opportunities and jobs in the low carbon economy.

Land use plans that protect and increase the capacity of floodplains, and anticipate the threat of rising sea level and more violent storms. Management of natural habitats and other greenspaces allowing for the gradual evolution of flora and fauna as the climate changes.

 Biodiversity and natural systems are greatly enhanced by the emphasis of greenspace, tree planting and environmental resilience. 4.14 Neighbourhood biodiversity planning

New and renovated buildings designed to insulate against heat and/or cold, and maximise the potential for in-situ water capture and re-use.

1.8

ECOLOGICAL CRISIS

The evolution of the human species was only made possible through millennia of development of a complex biosphere on which its continued flourishing depends. The biosphere, which has been referred to as Gaia, creates the stability in environmental conditions and the abundance of resources that permits human civilisations to flourish.

Biological diversity defined The term ‘biodiversity’ is defined as an aggregate measure of the diversity of the gene pool, of species and of habitats.

The evolution of that balance of complexity and stability is now being challenged. In effect we have made the planet sick. The symptoms of the illness are evidenced in the mass species extinction, loss of habitats and system shifts away from ecological stability that we now see globally – so much so that some scientists now claim we live in a new archaeological era – the Anthropocene. Human impact on our planet’s biosphere There is widespread consensus among scientists that human activity is accelerating the extinction of many animal and plant species through the destruction of habitats, consumption of resources, and the elimination of species that humans view as threats or competitors (Vignieri 2014). In 2017, a statement signed by over 15,000 scientists from 184 countries asserted 27

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

Policies and agendas

1.8 The sixth mass extinction

that humanity had unleashed a mass extinction event, the sixth in roughly 540 million years, wherein many current life forms could be annihilated or on the path to extinction by the end of this century (Ripple et al. 2017).

Current rates of species extinction are at their highest since the last great period of extinction 65 million years ago – around 100 times higher than normal rates found in the fossil record, with future predicted rates of 1000 and more (MEA 2005a). ‘Even with all our medical technologies, we cannot have well humans on a sick planet. Planetary health is essential for the wellbeing of every living creature. Future healthcare professionals must envisage their role within this larger context, or their efforts will fail in their basic objective.’ Thomas Berry 1992, p.61

The nature of living for many in high-income countries requires the resources of several planet earths to deliver. Using National Footprint and Biocapacity Accounts, every year Earth Overshoot Day is calculated as the date on which we have used up the total annual planetary resources (GFN 2020). That date tends to creep back further each year. However, in the unique year 2020, due to COVID-19, many governments restricted what they termed ‘unnecessary economic activity’, bringing a relief to planetary rundown and the date moved from late July to 22 August. This certainly raises the issue of the incompatibility of ‘unnecessary economic activity’ and planetary health. HUMAN DEPENDENCE ON THE BIOSPHERE

Ecological public health defined We need to link environmental and health explicitly. The idea of ecological public health is that health depends on successful co-existence of the natural world and social relationships. Analysis of human and natural systems should be integrated, and health professionals need to think ecologically if they are help shape healthy local and global environments.

It is impossible to overstate humanity’s total dependence on the Earth, our habitat. Yet the value of natural systems in sustaining healthy human activity is often taken for granted, and therefore ignored in decisions about the direction of economic and urban development. Services provided by natural systems (‘ecosystem services’) happen at all scales, from the global to the local. The UN has conceptualised and audited these services in its publication Living Beyond Our Means: Natural Assets and Human Well-being (MEA 2005b), and continuing to

SOURCE: Lang and Rayner, 2012

Figure 1.11 Examples of adverse health impacts from ecosystem impairment

Climate change Stratospheric ozone depletion

1

Direct Health Impacts

Floods, heatwaves, water shortage, landslides, increased exposure to ultraviolet radiation, exposure to pollutants.

Forest clearance and land cover change

SOURCE: based on MEA 2005

Escalating

human pressure

on goal environment

Land degradation and desertiÿcation Wetlands loss and damage Biodiversity loss

2

‘Ecosystem-mediated’ health impacts

Altered infectious diseases risk, reduced food yields (malnutrition, stunting), depletion of natural medicines, mental health (personal, community), impacts of aesthetic/cultural impoverishment.

Freshwater depletion and contamination Urbanisation and its impacts Damage to coastal reefs and ecosystems

3

Indirect, deferred and displaced health impacts

Diverse health consequences of livelihood loss, population displacement (including slum dwelling), con˜ict, inappropriate adaptation and mitigation.

This ÿgure describes the causal pathway from escalating human pressures on the environment through to ecosystem changes resulting in diverse health consequences. Not all ecosystem changes are included. Some changes can have positive e°ects (e.g. food production).

28

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

Policies and agendas

1.8 develop the concept, dividing the part that biodiversity has in supporting human wellbeing into four ‘roles’: supporting roles. E.g. soil formation, plant growth, nutrients provisioning roles. E.g. food, fresh water, fuel, wood and fibres regulating roles. E.g. stability related to climate and disease cultural roles. E.g. aesthetic, spiritual, educational, recreational Neighbourhood ecosystem services All these roles are strongly interrelated with multiple links to health and wellbeing. At the level of the neighbourhood there are multiple ecosystem services that the population depends on. These are explored in chapter 4.

Case study 1.c Hammarby, Sweden

air quality and pollution absorption water availability and quality – surface and/or ground water drainage management and flood risk the fertility of soils greenspace, vegetation, local wildlife natural energy sources: solar, water, wind, geothermal Rebuilding the biosphere Counteracting the prevailing social and economic forces depends on major change. Aspirations, lifestyles, consumption of material resources and the treatment of natural habitats have to become ’sustainable’. All the policies listed above in relation to the climate crisis have equal positive relevance to the ecological crisis. In addition, at the level of towns and neighbourhoods, we can emphasise:

4.9 Neighbourhood planning for urban food and soils

4.14 Neighbourhood biodiversity planning

Safeguarding areas of special habitat or rare species, and planning new reserves where opportunities arrive within the green network. Ambitious tree planting programmes using indigenous species and creating wildlife threads, nodes and reservoirs so that the overall ecological capacity is progressively increased. Developing a local materials strategy based on reuse and recycling, including community composting, thereby reducing overall resource use. Promoting local food production, exchange and retailing, preferably with organic agriculture and gardening principles. Designing new developments and renewals/extensions to support biodiversity through features such as bird nest boxes, wildlife gardens, insect-friendly planting and boundaries that are permeable to small animals’ movements.

29

o r i e n tat i o n a n d p r i n c i p l e s

Policies and agendas

1.9 1.9

Issue

Scale

Climate change; biodiversity Air and water pollution standards

UN / WHO / EU

Land and development law (private v. community rights)

Country Region / Province

Population change Economic development strategy Major infrastructure investment

Sub-region / City region

Settlement pattern Housing; Service provision Employment distribution Countryside conservation Urban form and density Transport networks Land use and facility distribution Spatial health and equity

Settlement / Urban area

Neighbourhood

Design of the public realm Siting and design of buildings

Key message The future of neighbourhoods and small towns cannot be divorced from broad questions of strategic planning. No place is an island. The spatial pattern and the size of the eco-footprint are influenced by location, density and transport networks as well as by culture, income and social position. Hovering behind options in strategic and neighbourhood planning is a bigger question: who is making the main decisions? In many contexts private sector companies, motivated primarily by profit, or public sector transport agencies, trying to keep traffic moving, are making the critical decisions. A different approach is necessary if we are to develop healthy places. PLANNING AND THE MARKET

Green infrastructure Urban conservation and renewal Street and block layout; plot size

SPATIAL PLANNING AT THE CROSSROADS

Plot / Building

Figure 1.12 Interlocking spatial scales Spatial issues and scales showing the range of matters relevant to planning and design, from building plot to globe. SOURCE: Barton 2017

‘The future role of spatial planning is contentious. On the one hand, there are hopes that planning will prioritise healthy and sustainable living environments: fulfilling international obligations on air quality, climate change and biodiversity; responding to issues of population change, housing need, employment, congestion and obesity; satisfying public aspirations in relation to environmental quality and heritage. On the other hand, there are powerful societal moves, evident in many countries, to ‘lift the burden’ of planning off the back of the market, trusting in competition and consumer choice to produce the environment we want’ (Barton 2017, p.13). Two aspects of political and societal thought underpin the belief in market solutions: the first is the dominant economic philosophy of neo-liberalism; the other is the value put on private ownership of land, and private development rights. The balance between personal rights and community rights is a vexed one – central bureaucracies rarely deliver locally sensitive results, but neither does the globalised market system. The alarming increases in obesity and health inequalities across the globe are evidence of something profoundly wrong.

Learning from history The Algiers case study (1.a) illustrates the value of traditional neighbourhood forms by comparison with recent market-led developments. Further reading about historical precedents, see Barton 2017, chapter 3.

Shifting minds, motivating the market The answer is not in any way to suppress the market, but rather to establish ground rules that both shape market options aright and recognise local community interests. There are four aspects to this: 5.2 Land governance

2.8 Agreeing 2.8 Agreeing a co-ordinated a co-ordinated programme programme

30

6.11 The scheme and its implementation

The ability of local authorities to assemble land and provide infrastructure in locations that are ‘sustainable’ rather than in locations dictated by market interests. Some form of land value capture for infrastructure costs is critical. The mechanisms used to shape and coordinate land development and redevelopment so that diversity of provision and healthy placemaking occur. See section 2.8 and chapter 6.

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

Policies and agendas

1.9 Financial arrangements and cost/profit relationships that offer incentives to investors. See below.

Planned sprawl

Car-centric sprawl in Atlanta, USA, did not come from an absence of planning, regional and federal forces planned it carefully. An examination of the process of writing a 1975 regional development plan for the metropolitan area of Atlanta provides a case example of the role of planning technologies in shaping regional planning.

Education and mid-career training for surveyors, estate managers as well as built environment professions that emphasise design for health and wellbeing, not just the bottom line. Financial costs and benefits Innovation is always expensive, but once that hurdle is overcome the cost of constructing healthy places need be no more than unhealthy places. Extra quality of the public realm, for example, can be paid out of savings of land and structures for car storage. Calculation of land value also needs to factor in necessary social and physical infrastructure costs. In countries where healthy development is currently untypical there is added sales value in places that are well located and designed, highly walkable and green. People prefer such places (Sallis et al. 2015a; 2015b). Housing, office properties and rental apartments have higher value in walkable locations (Pivo & Fisher 2010; Lawlor 2013).

Atlanta Regional Commission staff adapted a large-scale urban model to produce a set of region-wide population, employment, and land-use projections, for a 30-year horizon (1970—2000). The Commission then encouraged the building of a vast, low-density landscape, to match the model’s predictions. A number of participants argued that the model had distorted the process, privileging motorisation policies that inevitably resulted in sprawl.

Places that are already getting it right Social-democratic countries such as Denmark and Sweden, where the wise balance of central, community and market forces is enabling healthy places to be created. Places where geographical circumstances force effective planning, as in the Netherlands and Hong Kong. Individual cities where land powers and strong leadership have allowed radical approaches. STRATEGIC POLICY ISSUES Below are four areas of strategic policy debate that are alive at the political, investor and professional levels, shaping the options open now or in the future to neighbourhoods. Economic development vs. sustainable development Economic interests (public sector investors as much as private sector developers) tend to conservatism, looking to capitalise on the successes of previous years. In terms of development, this can be a force for policy inertia. The traditional recipe involves the state improving the road system and commerce (backed by the banks) choosing greenfield locations on main highways. The result is to undermine basic principles of healthy development. It makes achieving net-zero carbon by 2050 impossible. Neighbourhood planning struggles to find room to make a difference, especially in poorer areas.

SOURCE: Basmajian 2010

Case studies in every chapter Barriers to change Due to high levels of uncertainty and upfront finance required, developers’ financial models are very risk-adverse and slow to adopt new practice. Health and sustainability need to be built in at the earliest stage in a neighbourhood proposition, so that any extra costs can be factored into the land value. It is precisely at this point where the resistance to doing so is strongest. By developing health and sustainability measures at the start of a project, any extra capital outlay as compared with ‘business as usual’ can be minimised.

It takes strong state or city action to redirect infrastructure and commercial investment. It is, however, essential to treat market and institutional interests not as enemies, but as allies, working with them to devise sustainable solutions. Instead of motorwaybased use-segregated development, rail/tram stations and bikeways can become the triggers for sustainable development. 31

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

Policies and agendas

1.9 Compact city versus dispersal Dispersal of urban activities has been the general pattern since the 1960s in developed countries and increasingly in developing countries. Urban activities have decentralised to car-based locations in suburban and exurban sites. Even around cities like Milan and Barcelona, held up as models of concentration, there is an extensive low density residential and business penumbra. Covid-19 has encouraged such dispersal as home-working has flourished, and households find more space and contact with nature in the countryside. But dispersal leads inevitably to high vehicle use, undermining health and sustainability strategies.

Densification Within urban areas the pursuit of compact city principles has led to infill and redevelopment at higher densities, wherever the market can support it. The progressive reduction in household size has also been an influential motive. More dwellings per hectare allows the population level to be maintained, helping to support the viability of local services and community vitality. However, the blanket adoption of high density on every urban redevelopment site ignores the variation in accessibility. Sites which are poorly served by public transport and far from local services should not be intensively redeveloped for either housing or commercial purposes.

The strong consensus of policymakers and researchers is that the ‘compact city’ is the answer: supporting active travel, viable public transport, good accessibility, vibrant centres, shorter journeys, lower car use, lower infrastructure costs, and lower carbon emissions. It is critical, then to make the urban areas attractive. We support the principles of the compact city: New development should use brownfield sites and greenfield sites closely knit into the town or city. 5.3 Location, location, location

Changing preferences in the USA

Where demand is high, new settlements can be considered. Location is critical, and should be based on innate economic logic, with excellent public transport connections to nearby towns.

A recent study of 21 65-year-olds in the USA found that consumer preferences had shifted, away from traditional, auto-dependent, carbon-intensive suburbs, towards settings which are pedestrian-friendly, offer good local access to services and transport options. Only 10 per cent favoured the car-oriented suburbs, despite many living in them.

Urban extensions and new settlements should be planned at a sufficient scale to ensure that they become a town or urban district, not simply a commuter village or dormitory estate. Brownfield versus greenfield development

American Planning Association 2014

5.11 Local assets and potential

Assessing urban potential A technique designed to find the best sites for urban development is presented in chapter 5. It treats brown and greenfield sites on a similar footing, based on locational and character analysis.

Settlements need to be planned so as to avoid the obvious risks of congestion, air pollution, social segregation and the loss of greenspaces.

While developers often prefer the simplicity and lower costs of developing the open fields, governments tend to favour reuse of previously developed land where possible. This is not quite the same argument as compact versus dispersed, because many old industrial and mineral workings are not in urban areas. Brownfield development in-city has potential benefits: Reclaiming land that would otherwise lie derelict, and decontaminating land that has been polluted, bringing new life into decaying neighbourhoods. Locating new housing conveniently, where there is a wide range of jobs/services accessible by public transport, foot and pedal. Protecting valued open countryside from development. Conversely, development of brownfield sites is completely counter-productive when it leads to: ‘Sporadic’ development on isolated rural sites (e.g. worked out quarries or old airfields) which would lead to dispersal and should be returned to agriculture, forestry or nature.

32

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

Policies and agendas

1.9 Development on flood plains, urban playing fields, parks, allotments or long-derelict sites that have become nature reserves – unless innovative design can enhance the existing human or natural functions. Smart city: does technology have the answer? The term ‘smart city’ can be used in a very general sense, but here it refers to the use of technology to provide information and manage urban functions and activities. Sometimes it seems to be the application of I.T. almost for its own sake, but sometimes it is expressly technology in the service of achieving sustainable development. Systems already in use include ventilation control, energy systems, recycling systems and ‘intelligent’ buildings, capable of responding to human instructions at a distance. The novel concept making waves is the autonomous electric vehicle, able to be hailed on the smart-phone, move in traffic and park without the necessity for a driver.

Cyber quarter in New York

Hudson yards describes itself as ‘the nation’s first quantified community’. Constructed over 24 acres of rail yards on the Manhattan periphery, it is one of the biggest real estate developments in the USA, with a mix of commercial, residential and civic space. It has access to the New York High Line and a new subway stop. Embedded sensors assist auto vehicle movement, integrated management of energy, garbage and recycling. There will be internet city ‘labs’ helping to manage social care, social services and community collaboration. Buildings will be highly adaptable and very energy-efficient. It aims to be a testing ground for smart, sustainable development.

There are developments aimed at enhancing centralised data analysis, including a burgeoning sector looking a ‘smart health’. Sidestepping direct patient and surgical applications, the role of smart systems in monitoring people’s health and wellbeing is already being felt. On an individual level, people can monitor many physiological functions. There are also plans for whole neighbourhoods relying on embedded sensors and ‘the cloud’ to manage traffic systems, assist crime prevention and monitoring healthy environmental indicators. This could lead to ‘wired’ cities. Some of the smart city trends see top-down central control rooms monitoring and responding to the ‘physiology’ and functioning of a whole city. A counter-trend is for citizen-collected smart data to inform decisions. Communities are developing and installing air quality monitors on babies’ buggies and in school playgrounds to capture more vulnerable exposure. People are using their mobile phones to record neighbourhood noise and tranquillity. However, there are possible disadvantages: The whole emerging IT-based world is dependent on reliable electricity and potentially vulnerable forms of communication. There is the real worry that centralised information will enable centralised control – Big Brother is watching you! Autonomous vehicles, acting as taxis, will travel much further, creating more traffic, than private vehicles currently. See section 3.18.

3.18 Taming cars and vans

If energy, heating, cooling, ventilation, water, waste, doors and windows are all cyber-managed, this removes consciousness from the users, which can result in inflexibility and vulnerability. Direct manual control of systems requires users to understand them, get out of their armchairs and gain incidental exercise. At the building, neighbourhood and city level there is the issue of privacy. Pervasive cameras and sensors could be needed to monitor movement and behaviour. 33

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

The neighbourhood as habitat

1.10 Promoting the ecosystem approach  Barton, Davis and Guise (1995) ‘Sustainable Settlements’  EU Expert Group on the Urban Environment (1995) ‘European Sustainable Cities’  Hough (1995) ‘Cities and Natural Processes’  Tjallingii (1995) ‘Ecopolis: Strategies for Ecologically Sound Urban Development’ 1995 – a critical year in the development of sustainable development concepts.

Earlier ideas Many writers have articulated the ecosystem principle, if not the term. In ancient times Plato showed remarkable insight into the relationship between tree-cover, sustainable water supply, climate and human activity. Hippodamus, Hippocrates and Vitruvius all understood the interdependence of people and environment. Much more recently, Ian McHarg famously developed a multi-layered method for integrating human settlement design and land use with natural catchments, systems and cycles in ‘Design with Nature’ (1967).

Figure 1.13 The settlement as ecosystem SOURCE: Forest of Dean 1998

34

the neighbourhood as habitat 1.10

THE ECOSYSTEM APPROACH

The ecosystem approach provides a coherent philosophy to underpin the principle of planning for health and sustainability. The neighbourhood is an ecosystem in the sense that it is the essential local habitat for humans, providing not only shelter but also social networks and opportunities for a wide range of leisure, cultural and economic activities. It is also a natural habitat, where humans and other species live in a symbiotic relationship. Physical systems – part natural, part constructed – control energy and water flows, affect soil and air quality, and influence climate. The idea of the settlement as ecosystem has a long heredity. Plato used the idea (if not the phrase) with remarkable insight when describing the decline of Greek settlements in the fourth century BCE (in Critias). The Chicago urban ecologists early last century (Burgess, Hoyt and others) applied ecological principles to the process of urban change. Towards the end of the century the urban ecosystem concept was developed as a means of articulating the principle of sustainable development. ECOSYSTEM CONCEPTS The central insight of the ecosystem approach is that cities ‘are not simply human artifacts, but part of the natural world, affecting it and depending on it’ (Barton 2017, p.135). The settlement is a system embracing its people, their activities, the built environment and the natural environment, its biosphere. There are synergies

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

The neighbourhood as habitat

1.10 Figure 1.14 The interplay of ecological processes and spatial planning SOURCE: Barton et al. 2000

and feedback loops within the settlement. There are inputs from and outputs to the wider world. The object of sustainability is to progressively increase healthy synergy within the settlement, while avoiding the exploitation of the wider environment. Ecological niche and diversity The ecological niche of a natural organism is the functional role that it plays within an ecosystem. The concept has validity for humans too. Every neighbourhood is a complex ecosystem supporting a diversity of niches within the locality for human and non-human life. Good planning and design attempt to provide a niche for all the various inhabitants so they can live more or less in harmony with each other and with the wider world. In terms of non-human and abiotic factors, the land of the neighbourhood, its water systems, soils, flora and fauna, the air above it and its micro-climatic character all contribute to the quality of a neighbourhood ecosystem. The interaction of all these with planning and development decisions is complex (see figure 1.14). Chapter 4 focuses on the implications for neighbourhood planning and design. For local people to flourish, we must recognise their diverse needs and interactions with each other, the built and natural environment. This is a complex ecology, with different ages and life stages, different income levels, varied ethnic, household and family groupings, different cultures, lifestyles and levels of mobility. We need to recognise not only the needs of residents but workers, providers, visitors, business people, social and cultural 35

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

The neighbourhood as habitat

1.11 entrepreneurs. People are responsible for satisfying their own needs, but the spatial design of the neighbourhood can either support this self-reliance or restrict and frustrate it. A key principle of neighbourhood planning is to open up choice, providing a congenial, health-giving and sustainable habitat for everyone. The concept of the ecological niche, for human and non-human needs, informs many of the spatial recommendations in the guide, for example wildlife havens, flood water management, affordable housing, parks and playgrounds, industrial service areas. The dovetailing of different functions and needs becomes the art of planning and design. It means intervening in the land market so that activities that provide no rent, those that are vulnerable or cannot compete with high rent-paying activities are given protection. Symbiosis and succession Neighbourhoods are dynamic places. Habitats evolve, the mix of species changes, households grow and move, businesses come and go, buildings age and are replaced. The physical form needs to be able to adapt. In some localities new social groups start buying up property and gradually taking over from an older population – as in gentrification or ethnic change. In urban ecology this is called succession. At the extreme, rich incomers can effectively push poorer local households out, leading to housing stress, and the false impression of improvement. Such processes need managing to avoid social dislocation and social monoculture. The ideal is to achieve symbiosis, so different groups and interests flourish together, complementing each other, and living lightly upon the earth.

1.11

THE SETTLEMENT HEALTH MAP

The Settlement Health Map is a way of organising our thoughts about, and our analysis of, the human habitat. It integrates the ecosystem approach (with its emphasis on the bio-physical environment) with analysis of the social determinants of health and wellbeing. It therefore embraces everything from the personal to the planet. The Settlement Health Map has been widely welcomed as a means of linking spatial planning, public health and environmental sustainability. We advocate its use as a means of grappling with policy impacts and the complex interactions within settlements.

The Settlement Health Map is being used worldwide in policy documents, project workshops and in teaching.

36

The map puts people at the heart. It is the health and wellbeing of people, now and in the future, that we are concerned with. The global ecosystem goes right round, enfolding the settlement, providing critical life-support functions, some of which are threatened by human activity. The sequence of spheres between is carefully arranged to mirror the sequential impacts (or

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

The neighbourhood as habitat

1.11 Figure 1.15 The Settlement Health Map SOURCE: Barton and Grant 2006. developed from the model by Dahlgren and Whitehead, 1991.

knock-on effects) of change within any particular sphere. The key insight is that all the elements that go to make up the human, built and natural ecosystem of the neighbourhood, town or city, also impinge systematically on people’s health and wellbeing. WAYS TO USE THE MAP The map can be used for many different purposes, from assessing the impact of a development project to analysing the social determinants of health; from providing an ice-breaker for discussion to appraising the characteristics, strengths and weaknesses of a neighbourhood. Different arcs can be taken as the starting point depending on the issue being examined. Here are some examples.

The Settlement Health Map is a flexible tool for use in bringing people together for shaping cities, towns and neighbourhoods.

Analyse the effects of a development project This is a critical use of the model in the context of this guide. Adopting the built environment version, the model gives a clear

2.7 Developing ideas

UN-Habitat workshop, Xiamen, China.

37

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

The neighbourhood as habitat

1.11

B A L E CO S YS T E M G LO R A L E N VIR O N A N TU M E NVIR O N M E N T B UILT EN T T I I E V I S T AC E CO N O M Y Y CO M M U N IT Y LIF E S T YL E P E O PL E

agenda for evaluating planning policies and specific development projects, encompassing all the relevant issues. The analysis can be quite complex because of knock-on effects. For example, changes to travel behaviour caused by the development could affect air pollution and lifestyles, for good or ill. What natural assets of land, water, materials and energy would be used? What implications for air quality? Health and Wellbeing

What likely impact on landscape quality, tree cover, natural habitats and protected species? How will it directly or indirectly affect the quality of the public realm – streets, squares, open spaces? How will it impact on the building stock?

Figure 1.16 Analysing health impact

How will it affect the process of urban renewal of neighbourhoods, and the conservation of valued built heritage? What activities are provided for, and have potential synergies with existing uses been recognised? What implications for travel? What implications for sustainable existing businesses, economic development and job creation?

B A L E CO S YS T E M G LO R A L E N VIR O N A N TU M E NVIR O N M E N T B UILT EN T T I I E V I S T AC E CO N O M Y Y CO M M U N IT Y LIF E S T YL E P E O PL E

How will different groups, communities be affected? Will social capital be enhanced? Will the level of physical activity (for travel, exercise, recreation) or the dietary habits be affected? Health and Wellbeing

Are individuals and households directly affected? In what way? What implications for greenhouse gas emissions in construction, in use, in knock-on effects? Analyse health impact

Figure 1.17 Analysing the effects of a development project

Once planning and environmental professionals have predicted the nature and scale of effects, there can be a public health analysis of the impact of those likely changes on the health and wellbeing of people. In both this and the previous stage public engagement is likely to improve judgements. Such a Health Impact Assessment (HIA) could be a major contributor to decision-making.

B A L E CO S YS T E M G LO R A L E N VIR O N A N TU M E NVIR O N M E N T B UILT EN T T I I E V I S T AC E CO N O M Y Y CO M M U N IT Y LIF E S T YL E P E O PL E

Analyse the factors affecting physical activity

Age Sex Genetics

The map can be used to analyse the characteristics that affect particular aspects of behaviour. Here we illustrate the question of the level of physical activity, using the public health version of the map to provide structure to the analysis. On the one hand age, gender and genetics will be important. On the other hand, the culture of family and community, the nature of work and income levels, the quality of the built and natural environment and climatic conditions – all will affect the exercise that people get. Analyse the ecological footprint

Figure 1.18 Analysing physical activity

38

Here the analysis goes outwards to the natural environment arc and the global ecosystem, rather than inwards to people. It might be undertaken in relation to a specific project (as above),

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

The neighbourhood as habitat

1.12

Scoping entry-points for health to influence planning The map has been used under UN and WHO auspices in workshop settings in a range of countries with cross-professional groups and decision-makers. At supra-national, national, city and local scales, participants can use the map to identify the multiple points where health goals and skills should be employed to support better planning outcomes. Stakeholder analysis The map is an ideal vehicle for graphically displaying and discussing the roles and goals of participants in a project. Participants can share the significance of their work, identifying a particular arcs or areas on the map. The question of ‘who is missing’ from the process is also visually revealed.

B A L E CO S YS T E M G LO R A L E N VIR O N A N TU M E NVIR O N M E N T L I U B T EN T T I I E V I S T C A E CO N O M Y Y CO M M U N IT Y LIF E S T YL E P E O PL E

or the current condition of a neighbourhood or a city. Given the political concerns about the climate emergency and loss of biodiversity, this use of the Settlement Health Map reminds us of our dependence on the biophysical environment.

Population

Figure 1.19 Analysing the ecological footprint

Engage the public and/or councillors in neighbourhood planning The map is a useful way of breaking the ice and encouraging participation. It can be used to launch a debate about what factors are affecting health and wellbeing in a particular place, and thus lead on to a discussion of possible improvements. An assets-based approach to neighbourhoods planning This method uses the map to encourage local people to identify the human, constructed and natural assets that the locality already has, and to recognise their value and potential. The analysis can then move on to identifying gaps in provision, skills or qualities and possible ways of plugging those gaps.

1.12

THE NATURAL HUMAN HABITAT

In the urban realm we experience the natural elements in our habitat as filtered through the designed and built environment. To the ecologist, any urban greenery, woodland or open water is ‘semi-natural’ – a blend of human and non-human influence, although here we knowingly use more colloquial term ‘natural habitat’. This natural habitat contains many elements that are determinants of health – the Settlement Health Map lists air, water, land and soils. in this section we concentrate on the value of nature and greenspace for health, on air quality and the significance of noise as a determinant of health.

Figure 1.20 Project workshop outcomes Top: Action planning to use a community farm as an asset for a healthier neighbourhood. ISUH, Kampala, Uganda. Bottom: Assessing the neighbourhood implications and actions of a national air quality initiative. NCKU, Tainan, Taiwan.

39

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

The neighbourhood as habitat

1.12 NATURE AND HEALTH The natural world is increasingly viewed as being salutogenic. It creates and supports health. Humankind evolved within landscapes of great biodiversity and now increasingly creates and inhabits an environment of bio-deficiency. Evidence of the effects on health and self-fulfilment of what has been an incremental change for hundreds of years is difficult to interpret. There are theories of biophilia (Wilson 1984), placing contact with nature at the centre of human identity and wellbeing. Health benefits from contact with nature Contact with nature is the medicine A web platform called the information hub for Park Prescriptions was initiated by a director at the Golden Gate National Parks Conservancy. It helps doctors write their patients prescriptions for time in nature. The initiative is driven by evidence between time spent outdoors in nature and health outcomes (Zarr et al. 2016).

There are physical health impacts too. Street trees were found to be associated with a lower prevalence of early childhood asthma (Lovasi et al. 2008).

3.13 Recreational space

Recent empirical studies point to a strong relationship between contact with nature and human health. Even small amounts of green near home can reduce the risk of dying prematurely as shown in the findings of a systematic evidence review of over 8 million adults across seven countries, followed for up to seven years (Rojas-Rueda et al. 2019). Urban green space can help mitigate negative impacts of urban living and provide positive effects on citizens’ mood, health and wellbeing. Emotional responses correlate to levels of biodiversity the participant perceives around them and to the presence of birds (Cameron et al. 2020). In a classic study Hartig et al. (1991; 2003) found that natural spaces have a restorative effect, helping people recover more quickly from attention-demanding tasks. They also can play a role in recovery from stress and can benefit concentration and mood (HCN and DACRSPNE 2004; Hartig et al. 2014). We also know that walking in natural environments produces stronger short-term cognitive benefits than walking in the residential urban environment (Gidlow et al. 2016). Several studies have found that people with access to nearby nature are generally healthier than those without (WHO 2016a and 2017a). Contact with nature provides opportunities for personal development and wellbeing, stimulating feelings of relaxation, autonomy and competence. (HCN and DACRSPNE 2004). However, with generalised findings such as ‘populations in urban areas with greenspace and gardens have fewer health problems’ we need to be cautious and assess causality. Can people with fewer health problems better afford to live in places that are greener, or do greener places lead to fewer health issues? Many studies now attempt to control for influencing factors. For example, it has been found that the percentage of greenspace in a person’s residential area is positively associated with their perceived general health, and that this relationship is strongest for lower socioeconomic groups (Mitchell and Popham 2008) and that a 10 per cent increase in greenspace in the living environment can lead to a decrease in health complaints equivalent to a reduction in age of five years (de Vries et al. 2003).

40

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

The neighbourhood as habitat

1.12 AIR QUALITY Breathing fresh, uncontaminated air is valued by everyone and contributes to a sense of wellbeing. Polluted air – by particulate matter, ozone, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide and benzine – causes respiratory problems, heart disease and cancer. Weakened lungs due to past exposure to air pollution have contributed significantly to the rampant spread of COVID-19. Air pollution is a huge international problem, with 7 million deaths attributed to it worldwide each year (WHO 2020). It is a disease of cities, caused by energy production, industry, transport and heating/cooling of buildings. Across the EU air pollution shortens lives by 8 months. 400,000 premature deaths are attributed to particulates (PM2.5) and 70,000 to NO2. The reduction in pollution when industry closed down and vehicle use reduced due to the Coronavirus, meant that by April 2020 it is estimated there were 11,000 fewer EU deaths (SALUS 2020). Exposure to air pollution displays an inequitable distribution at both national and local levels. In 2015, more than 99 per cent of deaths due to household air pollution and approximately 89 per cent of deaths due to ambient air pollution occurred in lowincome and middle-income countries (Landigran et al. 2018). Air pollution also exacerbates local health inequalities. The most deprived wards in England were also those with the highest concentrations of pollutants (Walker et al. 2003). North American studies have shown that the neighbourhoods where low-socioeconomic-status communities live experience higher concentrations of critical air pollutants. Many European studies show a similar trend as does research from Asia, Africa, and other parts of the world (Hajat et al. 2015). 98 per cent of urban areas in low-income and middle-income countries with populations of more than 100,000 people fail to meet the WHO global air quality guideline for PM2·5 pollution (Landigran et al. 2018). Traffic pollution is often the most critical factor. A number of studies show that children living close to busy roads have approximately a 50 per cent increased risk of respiratory illness, including asthma (RCEP 2007). Air pollution places a strain on health care services and the wider economy. For example, in the UK where every year 40,000 people die prematurely due to poor air quality, and the cost to UK society in healthcare and lost production is estimated to be of the same order as for smoking and obesity (House of Commons 2011).

Living near major roads is not healthy

A large cohort study in Ontario, Canada, found that living close to heavy traffic was associated with a higher incidence of dementia due to air pollution and noise. The study suggested that improvements in environmental health policies and land use/transport planning aimed at reducing traffic exposure could have considerable potential for prevention of dementia. These findings were confirmed by a study using Swedish national data. People continuously exposed to air pollution are at increased risk of dementia, especially if they also suffer from cardiovascular diseases. SOURCES: Chen et al. 2017 and Grande et al. 2020

Integrated resource management in Linkoping, Sweden

In the 1970s the city was suffering from air pollution, partly because of its diesel buses, and having to pay high prices for the imported fuel. It decided to switch bus fuel to methane-rich biogas derived from local industry, agriculture and sewage waste. In addition to reducing air pollution, the volume of landfill and waste incinerated has been cut. Solid wastes from the process are re-used as fertiliser, returning nutrients to the soil. An incidental benefit is the reduction of methane emissions into the atmosphere. SOURCE: UN-Habitat 2012b

Controlling air quality Moves away from fossil fuels to reduce climate change emissions also improve air quality. Pollution from industrial processes and energy generation is subject to regulation in many countries, and can be tackled at source with better engines, different power sources, cleaner processes. Other means of achieving purer air are: 41

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

The neighbourhood as habitat

1.12 Smoke-free zones, where coal burning is forbidden.

HushCity: Citizen sound science

HushCity is a smartphone application. It allows communities to record noise levels and stores that data in a global map. The sound recordings, photos and associated data from all users can be viewed and accessed by all.

5.7 Land use and activities

Land use zoning, to separate noxious industry and plants relying on heavy lorry movements from residential and recreational areas. Avoiding the construction of ‘canyon’ streets, such as Oxford Street in London, which concentrate fumes. Progressive investment in electric and hydrogen vehicles (see section 3.18). Promotion of a sustainable travel strategy increasing walking, cycling and public transport (section 3.14).

4.16 Urban trees

Planning urban green networks with plenty of trees, breaking up the pollution dome over the city, reducing the impacts of road traffic and industries and improving air quality in urban residential areas (Bowler et al. 2010). SOUND AND NOISE The ‘sound of the city’ maybe an evocative term. Positive sounds for many can be children playing, birdsong, wind through trees and human voices. Tranquillity – a perception of the absence of sound – can also be restorative. However, unwanted or excessive sound, known as noise, has negative impacts on human health and wellbeing and is of growing concern. In cities where zoning separates noisy industrial processes and regulation controls commercial and residential noise, transport is the main source of harmful and chronic noise. Rail and aircraft are of concern in some areas, but the main source is road traffic. The distribution of harmful urban noise is not equal across the population with evidence of racial/ethnic and socioeconomic differences in noise exposure (Casey at al. 2017).

In contrast to municipal sensors, sound is recorded by local people wherever relevant. Municipal authorities can use this citizen data to complement traditional assessment. Calibration of decibels and sensitivity of frequency range are not as accurate as with professional devices, but this form of citizen-led science can play strong role in local advocacy and decision-making.

Urban zone Hospitals and villas Residential, schools and rural Mixed-use Industrial Road sides

Daytime limit

Nighttime limit

50dB

40dB

55dB

45dB

60dB 65dB 70dB

50dB 55dB 55dB

Figure 1.21 Chinese noise standards In China urban areas are defined and categorised into five general zones in respect of noise regulations.

42

Critical health outcomes can be serious and include: cardiovascular disease, long-term annoyance, sleep deprivation, cognitive impairment, hearing impairment and tinnitus. Noise levels tend to be expressed as maximum or average decibels. An informed approach to noise will control both general levels and night-time levels, according to different sources, and attuned to the function of an area. The principles for addressing this neighbourhoods should be to: Promote interventions to reduce exposure to noise: reduce traffic speeds, discourage through traffic. Conserve quiet areas: map urban tranquil zones so they can be protected within long-term strategic spatial planning. 6.5 Shaping the homezone

Coordinate approaches to control noise sources: use architectural, urban design and landscape measures to reduce noise emission or shield communities. Examples include low noise road surfacing, acoustic walls and bunds, building design and window orientation. Inform and involve communities affected by noise exposure: Using citizen science apps, an initiative that help communities assess local noise.

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

The neighbourhood in focus

the neighbourhood in focus 1.13

1.13

DEFINING NEIGHBOURHOODS

No easy answer Most neighbourhoods are not separate units but interconnected parts of the urban continuum, often merging into one another, their edges ‘fuzzy’. There is no generally accepted basis for defining neighbourhoods. If a local authority or a community forum wishes to identify different urban neighbourhoods for purposes of public debate and planning, then they will first need to agree what they mean by the term. Localities may be defined: administratively: by ward or parish boundaries aesthetically: by distinctive character or age of development socially: by the perceptions of local residents, often associated with a named area functionally: by catchment areas for local services Given these varied interpretations, it is vital for stakeholders to agree the main purposes of a neighbourhood exercise before defining areas on the ground. In the next section we suggest a straightforward approach which is then used in the rest of the guide. THE ALTERNATIVES EXPLAINED 1. Administrative convenience Using existing ward or parish boundaries is a pragmatic, simple way of defining localities. It has the advantage of tying into local democratic processes and thereby clarifying political responsibility. The local ward councillors, the parish or town councils are given clear obligations and added legitimacy. Wards and parishes are also the units for census and health analysis, ‘state-of-the-environment’ or ‘quality-of-life’ reports. Assessing problems, measuring progress and comparing different areas thus become relatively straightforward. The major disadvantage with reliance on administrative boundaries is that they may be historical accidents unrelated to people’s own perceptions, functional linkages or aesthetic character. If so, then reliance on them can compromise both the level of public involvement and practical value.

Figure 1.22 Named city neighbourhoods are often quite different from retail catchment areas Gloucester Road area, Bristol, England.

2. Areas of distinctive character These can be defined by analysis of maps, aerial photographs and ‘Street View’, along with personal knowledge. Typically building age and dominant building form give the distinctive character. For example, early 20th-century detached villas or 21st-century terraced town houses. They may have an estate name. Special quality could be a factor: localities that are 43

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

The neighbourhood in focus

1.13 defined as conservation areas. Such areas often do not relate to administrative, social or functional neighbourhoods – in inner urban areas and small towns they may be quite small. But they can be valuable for analysis of physical change and urban capacity (see section 3.5). 3. Resident perceptions Social surveys and/or community workshops can be used to find out what the people living in an area perceive as their own neighbourhood. Often people associate with a particular neighbourhood name. The Ipswich study shown here (undertaken as part of the city expansion project) illustrates a surprising degree of resident consensus. While residents had varying views about neighbourhood size, the boundaries they chose provide a strong pattern, often following barriers formed by rivers, railways, main roads and open space. For the most part the perceived neighbourhoods were not centred on local shops and facilities. Rather they were bounded by them, because retailing was concentrated along main roads. Local centres can thus be the place where people from different neighbourhoods mingle.

Figure 1.23 Ipswich, England: residents’ perceived neighbourhoods

4. Local catchments and planned neighbourhoods

The thickness of line denotes the frequency of mention by residents

The conventional image of a neighbourhood – derived from many new estates and new towns – is that of a local catchment area, with residential areas grouped around a local service centre or primary school. The Harlow town plan illustrates this principle, defining two levels of neighbourhood, equating with ‘neighbourhoods’ and ‘urban districts’ in the section that follows.

SOURCE: Shankland, Cox and Associates 1968 Original base map © Crown copyright

Low traffic community areas

Catchments may be identified empirically by pedestrian surveys and time/distance mapping. The term ‘ped-shed’ (like ‘watershed’) has been coined for the area within a 5- or 10-minute walk of the local centre (Llewelyn Davies 1998). Such ped-sheds are not normally the same as perceptual neighbourhoods. But they do offer a very useful analysis, and a prompt for action where barriers or cul-desac layouts impede accessibility.

These are areas where the local quality of environment, safe pedestrian movement and safe cycling for young children take precedence over traffic circulation – as in Buchanan’s ‘environmental’ areas. According to Buchanan et al. (1963), traffic flows in such areas should be held below 300 passenger car units per hour. This is a sound principle, to which should be added a speed limit of 30kph (20mph). Both policies can be achieved through a combination of careful planning of road hierarchies, street closures, street design and provision for pedestrians and cyclists. Low traffic areas may approximate to perceived, named neighbourhoods.

In this guide we adopt criterion 3 (i.e. neighbourhoods defined primarily by the perceptions of residents). But analysis will need to be based on the most relevant criterion for the purpose in hand. NEIGHBOURHOOD AND COMMUNITY

3.4 Strong communities

44

There are seeds of confusion in the way these two terms are used: they are not interchangeable, as neighbourhood is about place while community is about people. The neighbourhood, in terms of its streets, houses, facilities and greenspaces, may be consciously planned. Communities – in the sense of networks of mutual support and friendship – cannot be planned in the same way, but occur through people’s choices and actions. Most communities are based around shared interest or identity rather than closeness. Many communities of interest (to do with work, education, leisure pursuits, politics or culture) are spatially wide-flung, though most

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

The neighbourhood in focus

1.13 still have a specific local base somewhere. With high mobility, individual lifestyle choice and ‘virtual’ meetings, proximity is not a prerequisite for community.

CHECKLIST Neighbourhood variables The typology list in the main column is heavy on data. Here is a list of variables which could be used by a community group on a more impressionistic basis:  the social composition of the area and how it is changing  the current housing stock, tenure pattern, density, quality and condition  social networks and the distinctive local culture  the level of economic activity, retail, social. Health and educational facilities available locally  the quality of networks for walking, cycling and public transport, problems of safety or barriers to access  the spatial character of the area, the pattern of land use and activity  the relationship of open/greenspace and outdoor recreational activity  the ecology of the settlement: water, energy, wildlife, food supply, etc. All these are explored in detail in subsequent chapters.

None the less, the locality still provides the focus for a number of overlapping interest communities and activities – children in school, youth groups, baby-sitting circles, surgeries, local shops, pubs, allotments, places of worship. Together with casual meetings in the street, these can create the sense of a diverse, evolving local community. The opportunity for such communities to flourish is profoundly affected by public policy and design – for example, through the provision of local facilities and the perceived safety of the streets. The existence of such communities is important for health and wellbeing, particularly among young families, retired people, and those out of work (see chapter 7 in Barton 2017). RESIDENTIAL AREA TYPOLOGY Residential areas, whether defined as ‘neighbourhoods’ or not, can be typified by a range of characteristics. The list here serves to introduce many of the issues which are later examined in detail. We have focused mainly on spatial variables, but the list could be extended to reflect more social and economic variables. Any list devised for a particular place will depend on the information available.

Size

Area in hectares. Deciding on boundaries – what to include or exclude – can be awkward. See above

Population

Total number of residents. This may be elaborated in terms of age structure, household types and ethnic mix. See 3.2

Streets

Degree of pedestrian and cycling priority, convenience and safety locally. See 3.14–3.16

Built form

Detached/semi-detached/terraced/low rise apartments/high rise apartments. See 6.4 and 6.6

Movement

Pedestrian, cycling and traffic flows; the quality of public transport services. See 3.14-3.18

Housing

Total number of dwellings; size of dwellings (square metres/bedrooms); owner-occupied/ private renting/social/ co-operative. See 3.3

Age and character

Age of the area; general age and character of the buildings: recent construction or renewal. See 6.4

Density

Population per hectare, dwellings per hectare and average persons per dwelling. See 5.8

Condition

General condition of the buildings, the gardens, open spaces and streets. See 6.4

Location

Inner city/suburban/x-urban estate/ free-standing town or village. See 5.3

Health

Life expectancy of men and women and/or healthy life years. See 3.1

Shape

Gated style/compact ‘cell’/integrated part of urban fabric/sprawling/linear. See 5.5

Employment Proportion unemployed, in part-time work and full-time work, men and women. See 3.6

Networks

Hierarchical/grid/loop and cul-de-sac/ segmented/irregular. How permeable? See 5.9

Greenspace and wildlife

Land uses

Level of non-residential uses: educational, retail, health, social and greenspace. See 3.9–3.13

Proportion of the area which is accessible to greenspace; tree cover; wildlife networks. See 3.13, 4.15 and 4.16

Utilities

The source and quality of water supply; the degree of local renewable energy supply. See 4.3 and 4.6

Connectivity Distance and quality of public transport, cycling and road connections to main activity centres. See 3.17 and 5.3

Figure 1.24 Neighbourhood spatial variables

45

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

The neighbourhood in focus

1.14 1.14 From city-region to window-box Christopher Alexander (1977) proposed an holistic design approach that flows seamlessly from regions, through cities, local centres and neighbourhoods, to streets, houses, gardens, trees and even window boxes. It is critical to recognise the interaction between these nested scales.

TOWN, NEIGHBOURHOOD, HOMEZONE

SCALE IS VITALLY IMPORTANT Towns and cities vary tremendously in size, form, density and character. There is no universally applicable template for neighbourhoods. But it is crucial to understand the significance and relevance of different scales, ranging from a whole small town or urban district to the immediate vicinity of the home. This guide structures policy and design at three distinct levels. Small town, urban district A small town or a district in a city should be large enough to support a full range of local facilities and a good level of employment opportunities. The median population, valid in many developed countries, is about 25,000 – though In practice the population may vary widely, from, say, 12,000 to 40,000. Facilities could include a district or town centre, one or more superstores, several secondary schools and, depending on policy, a library, leisure centre, cottage hospital and technical college. The figure of 25,000 is the population recommended by one UK report as the minimum viable size for a free-standing new settlement (Breheny et al. 1993).

The basic unit of land: a PLOT The plot is a unit of land normally defined by ownership or a specific development. It may be sold, rented or transferred. Plots are often very long-lasting, over centuries. They come in many sizes, usually occupied by one house, shop, school, playing field or other function, but sometimes amalgamated into more extensive ownerships, especially through comprehensive redevelopment. They can be a key tool of planning policy.

This scale is equivalent to many existing rural or market towns, especially if the dependent hinterland population is included. The planning principles are often clearer for towns than for urban districts because of their physical detachment from other settlements. Within cities, districts are rarely distinct, and may include several neighbourhoods. Neighbourhood The definition of ‘neighbourhoods’ adopted in this guide is one based on resident perceptions. As such they are normally residential areas of distinctive identity, often distinguished by name, and bounded by recognisable barriers or transition areas such as railway lines, main roads, parks, and the age or character of buildings (often associated with social or land-use differences). Neighbourhoods thus defined vary in size very widely according to local circumstances, but a typical population might be 4,000–5,000 people. They are often large enough to include a primary school and some local shops. However, as noted in Ipswich and illustrated in figure 1.22, they may not coincide with local catchment areas. The local high street with its wider range of township facilities will sometimes be at the edge of the neighbourhood. Home zone The home-zone is the individual street, square block or cul-de-sac that people commonly feel is home territory. Often the dwellings have shared identity or character. They may be clustered round a common access. Together the home zones make up the

46

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

The neighbourhood in focus

1.14 patchwork of the neighbourhood. They are critically important in residents’ feelings of security or insecurity, and often have a particular social character. Increasingly, this scale is seen as a useful unit for urban design – offering the potential for Dutchstyle ‘Woonerfs’ or British play streets, where safety for play and social exchange is paramount, and traffic is either excluded or calmed to 10kph (5 or 10mph). NESTED SCALES, GRADED FUNCTIONS

DEFINING TERMS From small scale to large scale Building The single dwelling, school, shop, block of flats or offices occupying a plot. May be renewed or rebuilt on the same plot. Home zone A cluster of dwellings, often built at the same time and with similar character, grouped along a street or around a square or block. Perimeter block Dwellings, often in terraces, facing out to the surrounding streets, sometimes with semiprivate shared facilities in the centre. See the home-zone drawing. Neighbourhood A mainly residential area as identified by residents, and often with a distinctive identity and name. Other related terms are ‘urban village’ (often historic, with a bustling centre) and ‘urban quarter’ (often defined by a common activity, as in Birmingham’s jewellery quarter). Urban district An area/sector of town or city large enough to have a wide range of facilities and jobs, often centred on a ‘district’ shopping and social centre. Catchment area The accessible urban or rural hinterland to a facility (school, shopping centre, etc.). In this guide we refer in the main to the pedestrian catchment area, as defined by walkability. City region

Figure 1.25 Nested scales: home zone, neighbourhood, district/small town

This includes the city and its hinterland(s), an area which is likely to include many settlements, and is an appropriate scale to plan transport and urban form. The term sub-region may be used when there is no one dominant settlement.

47

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

The neighbourhood in focus

1.15 1.15

NEIGHBOURHOOD DESIGN PRINCIPLES

THE NEED FOR ROBUST PRINCIPLES The neighbourhood vision presented at the beginning of the chapter set up formidable aspirations for neighbourhood planning and design. In themselves, the objectives are difficult to argue with, but many people would see tension between them – they would seem to be difficult to achieve all at the same time. Equivalently, the ecosystem philosophy presented above (1.10) may seem admirable in theory, providing a holistic and integrated approach, but difficult to interpret in practice. It is for these reasons that we believe it is important to try to identify robust principles of spatial planning and design that cut right across the divergent objectives and demonstrate the practicality of the ecosystem approach. We have identified six such principles that seem to stand every test we have subjected them to. They underpin the detailed advice given in the guide. In summary they are: stakeholder involvement increased local autonomy connectivity diversity response to place adaptability – lifetime neighbourhoods 1. STAKEHOLDER INVOLVEMENT 2.3 Collaborative communities 2.5 Defining a shared vision 3.4 Strong communities

The active involvement of the local community and locally relevant actors in the process of decision-making is widely recognised as essential if sustainable development is to be achieved. The process (set out in chapter 2) is designed to build consensus, gain the commitment of decision-makers and investors, and build community capacity to be able to work together towards shared goals. 2. LOCAL AUTONOMY

3.8 Town and local centre vitality 3.10 Accessibility criteria 4.2 Implementing an integrated strategy 5.2 Land governance

48

The principle of local autonomy runs counter to powerful trends in government and in commerce. Nevertheless, it is key to realising many of the elements of a healthy and sustainable community. One way of expressing it is that decisions, services and activities should be managed at the lowest feasible level, with higher levels acting in facilitating and enabling roles. In this guide we advocate neighbourhoods or towns should take as much responsibility as possible for their ecological footprint, in terms of energy, water, waste, carbon emissions and biodiversity. The principle also applies to the general provision and management of services. The more facilities are available,

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

The neighbourhood in focus

1.15 accessible and viable at the neighbourhood level, the more people will be encouraged to walk to them, meeting people, forming social networks, all good for healthy life and reduced car reliance. 3. CONNECTIVITY Connectivity is about easy connections both within the neighbourhood and between neighbourhoods, linking to the wider world. Supporting greater local autonomy does not imply isolation of one neighbourhood from another. Connectedness is essential for vitality, viability and choice. The principle applies across many areas of policy: the connections and permeability of the street network the integrated management of the natural and recreational environment, both within the neighbourhood and out from it the association of retail, social, health, leisure and educational facilities the interdependence of adjacent neighbourhoods and links to the city centre the reciprocal relationship between each neighbourhood and environmental systems at local, regional and global levels

5.9 Street networks

6.2 The structure of space and place

3.13 Recreational space

4.14 Neighbourhood biodiversity planning

5.7 Land use and activities 5.13 Devising the spatial framework

4. DIVERSITY The principle of diversity is in response to the failures of conformity. The tendency of markets and governments to seek economies of scale and standardisation has led to large singleclass, single-use estates, social polarisation, land use apartheid, traffic domination and visual monotony. The solution is to value diversity over conformity within neighbourhoods, for example: diversity of housing types and tenures diversity of households, incomes, ethnicity diversity of local work and service opportunities diversity and real choice of modes of movement diversity of wildlife habitats variety of aesthetic character Spatial planning and design cannot determine how people choose to live, or who chooses (is able) to buy in a locality, but can try to ensure that options are available, opening up choices for all.

3.3 Housing for all 3.2 A diverse population 3.7 Resilient local economies 3.14 Neighbourhood travel strategy 4.15 Biodiversity framework 6.6 Character and coherence

5. RESPONSE TO PLACE Every place is unique, in terms of location, topography, drainage, and cultural landscape. Responding to the special qualities of each place is essential. Often standard development solutions have been applied irrespective of the characteristics of the place concerned. This can lead to resource inefficiency, characterlessness and functional isolation. Rather, we should: 49

O R I E N TAT I O N A N D P R I N C I P L E S

The neighbourhood in focus

1.15 6.8 Appraising the site and its context

capitalise on the specific environmental assets such as streams, ponds, woods, and wildlife habitats

4.4 Energy-efficient layout and landscape

assess and respond to the local physical characteristics such as slopes, solar aspect, wind direction and natural sources of heat or cold

3.5 Neighbourhood identity

build new developments to reflect the best of what is already there, cultivating ‘local distinctiveness’

3.13 Recreational space

develop spatial policy so that the location and links enable integration with the wider area, not segregation. 6. ADAPTABILITY: THE LIFETIME NEIGHBOURHOOD Neighbourhoods, like wildlife habitats, are not fixed and unchanging. People come and go; initiatives are born, grow, mature, and die; buildings are extended, used for different purposes, redeveloped. The human habitat has to adapt to changing conditions or decay. Currently we are threatening our own long-term habitat quality by ignoring global ecology. The aspiration for every existing neighbourhood is that it should evolve steadily and ‘naturally’ so as to provide a healthy, convivial environment for residents and users, while playing its part in promoting sustainability. This means, for example:

4.8 Flooding, drainage and run-off

robust systems of drainage and flood management adaptable building forms, so uses can change

6.12 Tactical change and adaptation 3.16 Planning for the cyclist 4.15 Biodiversity framework

keeping long-term options open for a more localised society a street pattern that can adapt to new movement priorities historic areas that can evolve, not preserved in aspic linked greenspaces that allow flora and fauna to adapt to climate change. Lifetime neighbourhoods more specifically means planning for all ages, so people can grow up, grow old, in the same place if they choose to, ensuring that homes and other buildings can be adapted to the needs of children, young adults, older households and to disability. The environment around buildings, the private and the public realm, is equally important. Neighbourhoods, once built and occupied, should not be treated as ‘finished’, but able to respond to predicted and unpredicted needs and challenges.

50

1.a

Three neighbourhoods in Algiers Algeria Learning from the past

A cautionary tale design principles often follow architectural and development fashions, rather than the logic of creating healthy places. A study of three development styles in Algiers, North Africa, demonstrates the lessons of the vernacular city in relation to thermal comfort and street life, lessons either adapted or ignored by subsequent generations of planners. The Casbah – historic core of Algiers – is a World Heritage Site, characterised by a dense network of narrow streets which can be seriously overcrowded. Shade is ensured by the narrow streets, rarely wider than 3 metres, and hanging vines. The streets are oriented towards the Mediterranean Sea, funnelling the fresh sea breezes into the area. Fountains are used for drinking, street cleaning and refreshing the open spaces. The human scale and mixed uses of the spaces foster social interaction, a sense of community and thereby an attachment to the place. This encourages residents to collaborate to enhance their neighbourhood through street art and beautification projects. Bab El Oued neighbourhood originated in the colonial period and was designed according to the principles of Haussmann, who transformed much of 19th-century Paris. It is characterised by a formal orthogonal street layout, including boulevards, planted avenues, arcades and fountains in public spaces. The compact urban form provides a shady comfortable microclimate which encourages walking. There is a rich urban life throughout the day, including chatting, resting, browsing and informal commercial activity. People across a wide age range and both genders use the spaces at different times of day for a variety of social and sporting activities, making it lively, inclusive and safe.

The Casbah – the historic core of the city. Narrow streets provide shade and due to their orientation, funnel cooling sea breezes. Streets work their way uphill diagonally for ease of gradient.

Bab el Oued – a district laid out during the 19th century, following the then current French urban planning norms. This provided treeplanted squares and avenues, enclosed by ‘walk-up’ blocks, with arcaded street-level shops.

Cité Belle Vue, Ain Benian, is a recent self-contained neighbourhood in West Algiers, designed following Modern Movement principles. It is a gated community solely zoned for housing, with parallel blocks of apartments and some medium-rise blocks. The wide spaces between buildings, the few trees and poor maintenance of the public realm result in an uncomfortable microclimate unsuited to outdoor activity. The gated compounds restrict access, making the semi-privatised spaces vacant and lifeless. There is little evidence of social interaction and children playing. Designing for pedestrians, conviviality and community The different levels of thermal comfort and social interaction of these areas can be predicted from their design principles and layout, together with locational and development characteristics. Getting it right is not rocket science, but it can be challenging for governments, developers and designers in the modern, motorised era.

Cité Belle Vue – a recent gated community on the western outskirts of the city. Large blocks and towers surround spacious areas of parking and play areas. The open layout and lack of tree planting create very little shade and coupled with the single use nature of the development, result in few opportunities for social interaction. SOURCE: Mohamed Yazid Khemi, Portsmouth University, personal communication 2020

51

Polimipara project

1.b

Rocinha, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Chensiyuan

An holistic approach to slum upgrading

One hundred years of Incremental and unregulated housing growth on the hillsides and valley to the south west of Rio.

Health and infrastructure The lack of basic infrastructure and the inefficient waste and water management are correlated with the problems of poor health and disease in this favela. In Brazil the rate of tuberculosis is 37.5 cases per 100k people, in Rocinha the figure is 380 per 100k. Very few houses have running water and sewage running through the streets makes the area prone to viral diseases spread by the mosquitoes that proliferate in the area. Water contamination, flooding caused by the obstructed drainage networks and piles of waste create an urgent need to provide basic infrastructure

Rocinha is the largest informal settlement in Brazil, covering 2km2, with a population of almost 200,000. Many projects have attempted to address the multiple issues that arise in slum development. Here, there is an acute shortage of water, lack of waste and sanitation services, few urban green spaces, and poor access to adequate nutrition and housing. The Rocinha community has one of the highest rates of tuberculosis in the world. Crime and social unrest are major issues. The favela, 15km south of the city centre, is disconnected socially and physically from the city. The Polimipara initiative has been selected as it demonstrates many of the aspects we recommend for shaping neighbourhoods.

solutions. Research also points to ill-health from poor diets which mainly affects children and youth, as a traditional healthy diet is replaced by highly processed food. Holistic approach To address a complex tangle of issues, the entry point used was the spatial urban analysis. Four main themes (waste, food, mobility, energy and water) were used to understand the problems and potential solutions as a connected system. With such a large favela, three smaller zones inside Rocinha were selected as a focus for pilots. The technical analysis was Typical cross-section indicating some of the proposed solutions for food, water, electricity and waste. No single approach or intervention can ‘solve’ all issues prevalent in informal urban settlements. Interlinked sets of problems require systemic solutions.

Location for a variety of sustainable urban drainage features to ameliorate storm water run-off damage and deal with sewage issues.

IMM Design Laboratory

Proposed rain water infrastructure. Proposed sewage infrastructure linking into existing network. Food growing of vegetables and fruit with school students and greengrocers. This area links to proposed rain infrastructure and will also host an aquaponic system. Solar panels and electrical network. Indicative local electric grid. Solid waste collection point.

52

1.b

Polimipara project Rocinha, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil An holistic approach to slum upgrading

Stakeholders The relevant stakeholders were involved such as the public administration, academic institutions, civil society, nongovernmental organisations and informal businesses. Using an assets-based approach, the skills and experiences of local entrepreneurs, including already established local collectives and co-operatives, were identified as having potential to both support, and benefit from, the project. Mobility and the public realm: With this densely packed steep hillside development, houses had been incrementally extended to cover and constrain pedestrian routes, where stairs, paths across rooftops and tunnels were unsafe, damp, unpleasant and had restricted accessibility. Solutions can require selective demolition and relocation of businesses and homes. Careful negotiation with all those affected often led to significant benefits. One benefit has been improvement to the public realm, creation of new public spaces and the social interactions that can result from these. Analysing the steepness of potential cycle routes has also helped identify how to construct a workable cycling network.

Lessons By activating a local trigger, a project like Polimipara Rocinha has the capacity to improve the environmental and social performance across a wider area. The main challenge here is to raise awareness of the authorities to use what has been learnt here across this and other favelas. A valuable lesson of this case study is rediscovering the assets and potential, both people and place-based, offered by informal settlements. In general these are underrated. In terms of dense urban living in all countries, a lot can be learned about meeting the SDGs, in an integrated manner, from studies and intervention for shaping neighbourhoods in urban slums. IMM Design Laboratory

underpinned by Integrated Modification Methodology, developed at the Politecnico di Milano as a tool for built environment change for Sustainable Development Goal 11.

Analysis of slopes for cycle routes.

Waste and energy: Local collectives already involved in aspects of the waste stream were involved in designing and running new services such as biogas production from organic waste. The main energy strategy was to make better use of the sunlight, an underused local resource. Food: The project included several integrated actions to improve accessibility to fresh and healthy food. Local fresh food production was supported through aquaponics production managed by local social enterprises, community gardens/urban agriculture and small rooftop food productions. Education and training promoted healthier diets for children, youth and women, including information on health risks from consuming highly processed food.

Solar panels and green roofs.

Sewage and flooding: The existing sewerage system is limited serving only a small number of households; grey water and foul water are mixed with unmanaged stormwater from intense rainstorms. Catchment mapping contributed to sewerage system design and provided valuable information for preventing environmental hazards and managing runoff. Community gardens: Studies proposed a series of community gardens to simultaneously produce food and involve communities. Involving children with food and growing.

53

1.c

Hammarby Sjöstad Stockholm, Sweden Neighbourhood resource cycles

The touchstone for this innovative project has been to ‘close ecocycles’ at the smallest appropriate scale. Sponsored by the local authority and three utility companies, it represents a significant step forward in terms of resource reduction for a new build neighbourhood.

An integrated approach to resources underpins the design and planning of this new urban district in Stockholm, housing some 20,000 people in 10,000 apartments. It also has about 6m2 of workspace per inhabitant. Hammarby equates to an urban district, with neighbourhood zones within it. The aspiration was to integrate technical infrastructure, mobility and communication infrastructure, building infrastructure and to some extent green-blue infrastructure. In developing a resource strategy, the energy, water and waste utilities collaborated and used interdisciplinary planning based on resource system principles. Innovative solutions arose from new working methods and partnering between research, industry, national and local government organisations and environmental groups. Providing for local need municipal and commercial services were completed in phases in step with population growth. These include a primary school, a nursery school, convenience stores, a health-care service and other local facilities. There is a central library with meeting rooms and in the larger neighbourhoods there are facilities for holding meetings, throwing parties, local clubs and hobbies. Excellent pedestrian accessibility combined with good public transport and helpful information systems minimise the need for private cars and low traffic volumes. Public transport takes priority, with both a tram service and a boat service to the city centre.

Sjöstad means lake city.

Main shopping street with tram stop.

Repurposing of former industrial buildings. Inner courtyard with communal garden.

54

1.c

Hammarby Sjöstad Stockholm, Sweden Neighbourhood resource cycles

Urban environment Proximity and accessibility are important design considerations. There are mixed-use local centres in addition to a core nucleus for the whole district. Development is based on a range of densities from 4–6-storey ‘inner city’ apartments to more open housing layouts. The waterside location gives a sense of space and contact with the wider environment. Resources The aim was to halve negative environmental impacts, compared with other modern developments. Although new technology and innovative design were part of the solution, the commitment of the residents is also seen as essential. They have the ability to monitor their own energy and water consumption via an internal data network. Energy: demand is reduced by efficiency in all appliances and plant, e.g. lifts, fans, pumps, and lights. Technology further reduces consumption, for example lighting and ventilation are switched off in uninhabited rooms. District heating and cooling are provided and energy is generated from solar panels, heat pumps and biofuels. Water: the local water cycle has been integrated into the model. Hammarby Sjöstad has its own sewage treatment plant, wastewater is treated, heat is recovered and nutrients recycled to agricultural land. Sustainable drainage systems control quantity and quality of surface water.

Vacuum waste collection system and food waste. Concept and reality.

Food and soils: there is some provision for local food to be grown, with soil fertility being improved by the use of locally produced composts. Materials and waste: household organic waste and sewage produce biogas, residual solids are used in agriculture. Leadingedge technologies are being piloted – urine separation for nitrogen recovery and vacuum system waste collection. Biodiversity: the district is linked to the natural environment by an ‘Ecoduct’, a 50m-wide tree-lined pathway that is a conduit both for wildlife and for non-motorised movement.

General arrangement of blocks for some of the neighbourhoods. Urban eco cycling concept This model for energy, waste and water management is known as the Hammarby model. It was developed jointly by Birka Energi, Stockholm Vatten and Skafab.

55

Utrecht

5.b 1.d

The Netherlands Health in spatial development strategy

With a population of some 500,000 Utrecht City is the fourthlargest city of the Netherlands. It is located in the eastern corner of the polycentric Randstad conurbation which connects Rotterdam, Amsterdam and The Hague. A whole administration policy in 2015 placed ‘Health at the heart of urban development strategy’ with five basic principles: 1. taking a positive approach to health 2. preventing problems and helping people to lead ‘normal lives’ 3. reducing health inequalities 4. enabling everyone to live in dignity 5. monitoring public health Starting from robust and well-understood principles of healthy urban planning, the city was able to create a strong ‘Health in All Policies’ momentum, both within the administration and the citizens. By 2017 the activity had spread to several policy areas such as innovation, health economy and infrastructure. This journey of spreading health across many policy areas, continues with several ambitious projects and goals for 2030.

Vast differences between neighbourhoods in life expectancy.

are distinct in demonstrating the positive influence that a health The Health Hub Utrecht is a network of different partners lens approach has brought to their planning and design. The and municipalities across the whole Utrecht city region who global aspect, in terms of impact of development across the UN have adopted a bottom-up approach to health. Partners work Sustainable Development Goals, is also integral to the strategy. together to keep healthcare affordable and accessible to everyone. With a long-term programme, Issue map showing the wide reach of a ‘Health in all policies’ approach. the focus is not only on health as the absence of sickness, but also on wellbeing and happiness. This links to a wider determinate of health approach looking at financial health, social health, mental health and environmental health. WHO Healthy City The Utrecht approach has been influential in the WHO European Network of Healthy Cities, of which they are a member. The healthy city element sees spatial development, promoting health via: healthy, sustainable, local food; and healthy lifestyles with the promotion of active travel and public transport. The urban planning and design elements are particularly well developed with health appraisal of policies and proposals being completely mainstream. Several renewal and new build city development projects 56

LOW ION T OLU E S E R G IMA

© afdeling Onderzoek & Advies, gemeente Utrecht

Health Hub Utrecht

l ecosystem Globa ural environment Nat t environment Buil Activities al economy Loc mmun Co st ity Life yle

People

a neighbourhood planning chapter process

overview 2.1

PURPOSE AND SCOPE

This chapter is about how to consult, collaborate, analyse and take effective decisions at the neighbourhood or township level. It is therefore not so much about what to do but how to do it. It encompasses both the political and technical processes:  a

collaborative process of decision-making and implementation

 an

integrated and systematic appraisal of problems, policy and development opportunities

These two processes are entwined but distinct. Effective collaboration between all stakeholders and decision-makers is indispensable to the implementation of effective strategies. But collaborative processes without dispassionate analysis can lead simply to negotiated agreements between established and vested interests. If the needs of under-represented groups, future generations, biodiversity and response to climate crisis are to be recognised, then political expediency must be married to inclusive rationality. Clearly in some areas there will be no or little impetus for a neighbourhood strategy. Even in relatively stable areas, however, each modest incremental change affects the trajectory towards or away from sustainability. A strong spatially specific strategy, backed by the significant local players and the community, is desirable.

2

CONTENTS OVERVIEW 2.1 Purpose and scope 2.2 The seven-stage process 2.3 Collaborative communities GETTING GOING 2.4 Stage 1 – Taking the initiative 2.5 Stage 2 – Defining a shared vision CREATING A STRATEGY 2.6 Stage 3 – Understanding the locality 2.7 Stage 4 – Developing ideas 2.8 Stage 5 – Agreeing a co-ordinated programme MAKING IT HAPPEN 2.9 Stage 6 – Taking action 2.10 Stage 7 – Learning lessons CASE STUDIES 2.a Sweet Home Farm, Cape Town, South Africa 2.b The Spectrum approach, Houndwood, Street, England 2.c Stroud Neighbourhood Plan, Gloucestershire, England THE NEIGHBOURHOOD CHECKLIST

WHOSE PROCESS? The impetus for some kind of neighbourhood plan may come from municipal, private, voluntary or community sectors. Whatever the trigger, however, the decision process needs to follow a transparent and inclusive pathway if it is to gain the support of the local partners and have a chance of promoting healthy development. In chapter 1 we described how health, wellbeing and responses to climate emergency are compatible and convergent aims. The process described in this chapter, and outlined in section 2.2, is for a neighbourhood-level community strategy. The focus is on the physical development of the area. This first section discusses three common sources of initiative and the mechanisms involved. 57

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PL ANNING PROCESS

Overview

2.1 Power to the people This guide advocates neighbourhood, urban township and rural town plans where local communities are empowered to take responsibility for a range of service delivery, detailed land use and development management. Achieving such local control depends on appropriate legal frameworks, resources, legitimacy and capacity-building.

Case study 2.c Stroud Neighbourhood Plan

COMMUNITY-LED PROCESSES Under some planning regimes local communities are able to initiate official neighbourhood plans (e.g. in the UK). When that is not the case, community campaigns may be triggered by frustration or anger at the current condition of the area or development threats to it. The main purpose of such campaigning is to influence the authorities and the development market. Credibility depends heavily on the network of contacts and the level of demonstrable community support. If the community-led plan has official status, then the process of producing it should follow the track set out in the next section (2.2), similar to a plan produced by the local planning department. Across the world specifics may be different, but the process has the same basic, necessary stages. Winning friends and influencing people If the starting point is a community campaign, then building alliances is a key aim. The ambition is to form partnerships that enable effective and implementable decisions. To achieve that, the community initiative group needs to:

Community involvement A community notice board allows up-dating and views to be expressed on a regeneration scheme, in a process facilitated by the local council, Merthyr Tydfil, Wales.

 articulate  attract

the aims and character of the initiative clearly

attention by appropriate publicity

 build

grassroots membership to help with the work and increase credibility with local authority/funding organisations

 develop

a pilot project (if appropriate) to demonstrate the group’s capability and prepare the ground for more ambitious schemes

Cautionary tale A community forum decided to create a plan for a declining town centre. Almost everybody joined in – except for the local authority. Visions and strategies were produced, enthusiasm was high, but five years later nothing had happened.

 build

a constituency of support among local politicians, the local press, local groups and the community at large, capable of shifting policy or development decisions

 form

partnerships with private and public sectors to make development project (if desired) viable.

Clearly something went wrong early on. Without a key partner on board, the initiative was ineffective.

Case study 2.a Sweet Home Farm

MUNICIPALITY-LED PROCESSES Every local authority should work towards adopting an integrated approach to spatial policy in every urban township, rural town or development zone, so that incremental infrastructure and development decisions have a clear policy framework geared towards wellbeing, equity and sustainability, with full community involvement. There is often a profusion of official initiatives affecting neighbourhoods: education provision, health services, housing actions, community safety, traffic schemes, regeneration programmes, energy supply, internet networks, etc. The risk of conflict, duplication and unintended consequences is high. Co-ordination can occur via a number of mechanisms:

58

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PL ANNING PROCESS

Overview

2.1 Community strategies Town or urban district community strategies provide an opportunity for co-ordination between local service providers of all kinds – in relation to health, social services, transport, education, training, leisure, etc. They should also link to policymakers and development agencies, especially in areas of rapid change. Neighbourhood plans Growing settlements and regeneration areas need integrated planning for economic development, housing, facilities, transport, green infrastructure and land use. A healthy neighbourhood, town or urban district will depend on positive partnerships with the parish/town councils, investors, service providers, and the community. Climate emergency responses If a local authority is serious about working for zero-carbon, and at the same time adapting to changing climate, then a vital part of that is to engage with business, institutions and the community at the neighbourhood level. Neighbourhood plans that involve local stakeholders in tackling energy, building and transport issues offer a real opportunity to make progress. INVESTOR-LED PROCESSES Where a development site is large enough to have a significant impact on the future of a neighbourhood, then the investor (or master developer) has a responsibility to promote a collaborative decision-making process. This is not only a question of sustainability ethics; it is also enlightened self-interest. The major investor can, and should, follow the same set of planning steps as planning authorities. This includes working with local stakeholders to consider problems, needs and opportunities, and preparing a spatial framework that knits the new development into the old.

Examples of investors who should initiate collaborative processes Case study 2.b Spectrum approach, Houndwood

 a house builder with an option on urban fringe land  a hospital trust selling off a redundant facility  a housing association developing a major regeneration scheme  railtrack selling unwanted sidings in the inner city

Potential benefits to the investor:  Reducing

conflict by listening to local people’s concerns and responding to them appropriately.

 Improving

the function of the scheme by early discussion with relevant transport, education, health, etc. agencies.

 Reaching

an acceptable scheme more quickly, avoiding costly

redesign.  Reducing

the risk of planning application refusal, and increasing the strength of any subsequent appeal if it were to be refused.

 Positive

publicity and improved profile.

Investor-led community engagement This process at Street, Somerset, UK, employed the Spectrum approach and is reported in Case Study 2b, at the end of the chapter.

59

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PL ANNING PROCESS

Overview

2.2 2.2

BASIC PRINCIPLES Any process of spatial policy-making or major development affecting a locality needs to be RITE: Rational, Inclusive, Transparent and Effective.

deÿning shared vision

taking the initiative 1

2 learning lessons

THE SEVEN -STAGE PROCESS

 Rational:

7

in the sense that there is a real attempt to understand the nature of the problems, to analyse the merits of different solutions, and learn from the process of implementation.

understanding the locality

3

 Inclusive:

in the sense that important stakeholders – whether they are local people, voluntary associations, private/public sector agencies – are actively involved.

 Transparent:

6 taking action

4

developing ideas

in that information is readily available and verifiable and the sources of power and influence are visible and open to challenge.

 Effective:

in that decisions, once taken, are capable of being acted on; that responsibilities are clear, the programme is realistic and co-ordinated.

5 agreeing a Figure 2.1 The seven-stage process

programme

THE SEVEN STAGES IN OUTLINE

The seven stages in this circular process give structure to the rest of this chapter.

When is a plan needed?

1. Taking the initiative 2.4 Taking the initiative

Only if significant change is expected:  due to commercial or political pressure for new housing or industry  due to local need for better facilities and healthier environment  due to the requirement to plan regeneration in a coherent way

The initiative for a neighbourhood-wide project may come from the local authority, an investing organisation or the local community. Effective and sustained leadership by the initiator is vital, but equivalently it is vital to recognise fully the other interests involved. Early and open consultation may well reveal problems or opportunities that lead to redefinition of the project. Initial scoping of the project should aim to answer these questions:  What  Is

 and when there are mechanisms available which can put the plan into practice

the initiating organisation capable of pursuing it?

 Which  Is

is the purpose and scope of the project? stakeholders should be involved?

the project consistent with broader goals and strategies?

2. Defining a shared vision 2.5 Defining a shared vision The Spectrum approach Whoever initiates the process, it is important to ensure consistency of approach at all stages, and in an inclusive, collaborative way. Spectrum is just such an approach. It offers an open and holistic way of tying together all the strings of appraisal and evaluation. For an overview of Spectrum see the Houndwood case study at the end of this chapter.

60

The first milestone for collaborative neighbourhood planning is the development of a shared vision. Techniques of visioning can help. The vision must be both highly motivating and practical, so that potential partners want to ‘buy into’ it. As a start, making a healthy place is a goal most will endorse. The vision should then be reflected in a collective statement which sets out:  the

aims, scope and intended outcome

 the

way the project will be managed

 the

collaborative and consultative process

 the

process of appraisal and policy-making.

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PL ANNING PROCESS

Overview

2.2 3. Understanding the locality A careful appraisal of the neighbourhood (or the project) and its context is essential before fixing on specific policies or proposals. This is to avoid repeating past mistakes and open up the possibility of synergy/collaboration in solutions. A neighbourhood appraisal should:

2.6 Understanding the locality

 Be

undertaken with stakeholders, to broaden the base of understanding and engender a sense of shared ownership of the initiative.

 Use

the appraisal as an opportunity to build community capacity and strengthen the partnership, identifying shared training needs.

 Involve

a quick but systematic scan of all the levels of analysis in the Settlement Health Map: people, community, economy, activities, place and networks, natural resources, the wider context and global ecology.

 Focus detailed attention where there are real difficulties, tensions

or uncertainties, bringing on board others who need to be involved, looking for opportunities as well as assessing problems. 4. Developing ideas It is important not to lurch prematurely into supposed ‘solutions’ to local problems. The established policies of service providers, developers and planning authorities have often failed (or not attempted) to deliver healthy local environments or recognise the climate emergency. It is therefore vital to examine radically different options. Ideas may be triggered simply by the process of inter-group collaboration, and also by a deliberate search for best practice in the field, learning from experience elsewhere.

2.7 Developing ideas

SOURCE: Barton 2017, fig.ure 17.7

Managing vested interest and strengthening partnership Agencies or groups with a vested financial, bureaucratic or NIMBY (Not In My Backyard) interest in the future of an area can all too easily dominate partnerships.

In some situations a formal evaluation process may be required, such as sustainability appraisal or health impact assessment. The purposes of such evaluation, and who should do it, are key issues for discussion. The process of evaluation should be seen as part of a creative process, pushing ideas forward, not an end in itself.

One study of regeneration partnerships and governance states: ‘Partnerships (may) represent little more than the key players suppressing mutual loathing in the interests of mutual greed.’ (Rowe and Davanne 2003, p.375)

5. Agreeing a co-ordinated programme A local neighbourhood plan – whatever form it takes – serves not only to identify policies but also to win commitment from key implementing organisations. The process of gaining political support and influencing investors is critical. Without backing the plan will flounder. The core document is therefore a programme as well as a plan. It needs to be tied into the legal context. It should be explicit about the agreed vision for the area, the development priorities, and the way in which the often-unpredictable process of change is to be handled. The roles and tasks of contributing agencies need to be spelt out and agreed, with staging posts for co-ordinated review. Desired outcomes should be stated. A central element of the plan is a ‘key diagram’ or spatial framework which specifies locational patterns and networks, giving guidance for individual site briefs.

Figure 2.2 Defining the scope of a plan and potential alliances

2.8 Agreeing a co-ordinated programme

To confront this situation, the authors argued there is a need to:  challenge the existing way of delivering services  engage different voices in decision-making  acknowledge that just putting different people around a table, without acknowledging the domination of existing hierarchies and markets, does not necessarily constitute a new way of working It follows that meeting the training and capacity building needs essential for partnership working should be identified early in the process (see stage 3).

61

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PL ANNING PROCESS

Overview

2.2 6. Taking action 2.9 Taking action

Even well-prepared plans can fail. The process of converting plan into reality is incremental and often disjointed, over an extended timespan. Effectiveness depends on:  Long-term

consistency of vision and strategy (this can be tough for local and national politicians who work to election timetables!).

 A

creative, pro-active stance from the decision-making authority – setting the parameters for specific site development in line with the plan.

 Reinforcement

of the strategy by key agencies, especially transport, housing and economic development departments.

 Seizing

opportunities when they emerge, for example when land ownership changes and brings forward sites unexpectedly.

 Responding

to concerns and sharing problems by flexibility in design solutions, and networking with other stakeholders.

Figure 2.3 The UN-Habitat planning process with health as an input

 Maintaining

the sense of shared ownership and decisiontaking, through regular information exchange and meetings involving community representatives and local councillors.

Representation of the technical four-phase planning process. Health needs to be an input for every phase.

Effectiveness also depends on subsequent management. It needs to be crystal clear in the neighbourhood plan: who is going to manage any community facilities? Is the local authority able to pick up the tab? If not, does a Community Trust or residents’ management committee exist which could manage on behalf of users?

SOURCE: The International Guidelines on Urban and Territorial Planning. WHO and UN-Habitat 2020

A model to learn from The WHO Healthy Cities movement has since 1987 provided a model for collaborative working at the levels of both the neighbourhood and the municipality. For analyses of the Healthy Cities programme phase IV, see Green and Tsouros (2008); Tsourous et al. (2015a) for an overview of evaluation of phase V; Grant (2015) for healthy urban planning progress in phase V and De Leeuw and Simos (2017) for a global overview of the Healthy City movement.

7. Learning lessons 2.10 Learning lessons

On-going monitoring and review should reflect three levels: 1. Assessing policy impact – i.e. how far have policies been implemented and with what success? If there are undesirable side effects, or hiccups in delivering the policy, then what can be done? 2. Assessing health and sustainability outcomes – i.e. what are the trends in quality of life for residents/workers in the area? How is the neighbourhood changing? Has the plan as a whole addressed the issues? 3. Assessing the effectiveness of the process – have the collaborative and policy-making processes worked? Could they be fairer, more inclusive, more efficient? What lessons for elsewhere, or next time round?

Bringing stakeholders together around health and sustainability.

62

a neighbourhood pl anning process

Overview

2.3 2.3

COLLABORATIVE COMMUNITIES

THE CO-OPERATIVE PRINCIPLE An effective neighbourhood initiative will depend on the active commitment of local stakeholders and decision-makers. Public, private and community sectors need to pursue common purposes. This co-operative principle is not about romantic community idealism; it is about co-ordination. It may mean working in partnership with other bodies, sharing ownership of a neighbourhood project, or it may simply mean open/ effective information exchange and consultation.

Reasons  Health

and sustainable development Collaboration is necessary in order to understand problems and to promote effective solutions. For example, a sustainable energy project, a regeneration scheme or a local healthy food strategy will rely on co-operation between many interests. rights In many countries there are legal rights for households and businesses to be consulted about planning policies and decisions that affect them.

SDG 17: Revitalise the global partnership for sustainable development For Sustainable Development Goal 17, the UN states that inclusive partnerships are required at the global, regional, national and local levels. It also says that these need to be built upon principles and values, and upon a shared vision and shared goals, placing people and the planet at the centre. However, in implementation, we notice that the neighbourhood, as a locus of action, is often missing from SDG processes. We assert that without a focus on partnerships at the neighbourhood level, there is little chance of shaping human settlements for health and sustainability.

 Human

attitudes and behaviour Mutual education and consciousness-raising can occur when different interests engage in dialogue. Local groups become more aware of shared communities of interest, and may be willing to alter their behaviour, when sustained public debate occurs.

Process

Solution

 Shifting

social inclusion Collaborative processes that reach out to marginal groups and build social capital and stronger community networks help support vulnerable people, reduce anomie and depression (Gilchrist 2000).

Adversarial No attempt to find common ground

No net gain

Conflict

 Strengthening

WHO IS INVOLVED Recognition of the range of stakeholders in neighbourhood/ town development is essential and provides a means of assessing the appropriateness of any consultation or decision process. The simple model given here and elaborated later (section 2.5) distinguishes four groupings: The planning or development authority The planning authority is responsible for overall policy, plan-making, and making development decisions in line with approved plans. In many countries it has little direct power of implementation, relying on co-ordinating other partners. In some countries, however, planning authorities can purchase development land for regeneration and manage the development process.

Consultative Some common ground explored for self-gain

Trade-offs

Compromise

Inclusive Common ground fully explored to find options for mutual gain

Win-win

Consensus

Figure 2.4 Build on common ground Adversarial approaches to development decisions can be counter-productive.

63

a neighbourhood pl anning process

Overview

2.3 Investors and providers These are the private-, public- and voluntary-sector organisations who are the main agencies of change. This sector includes transport and economic development departments, major employers, private developers, non-profit developers (such as social housing providers), and varied public transport, health, education and social service providers. These agencies normally have quite specific remits, which they often pursue completely independently of neighbourhood participatory processes.

The local planning authority

Investors and providers

The neighbourhood

Community groups

Other bodies Public health units have a critical role to play in ensuring health and wellbeing priorities are fully integrated into the planning process. They can provide a wealth of information, and are often working with vulnerable populations in the locality. In many countries statutory bodies representing environmental protection, water issues or nature conservation will need to be involved because of their specific remits.

The local people

Figure 2.5 Stakeholder groups in neighbourhood planning

Community and voluntary groups

This simple map of the stakeholders forms the basis for subsequent guidance.

This includes local voluntary organisations include campaigning groups (such as civic societies), and a host of social, religious and recreational clubs and associations. Certain groups may see participation in community development projects as central to their mission, but most will not. Many will have a remit and catchment much broader than any specific neighbourhood. Politically active local groups are central to the development of a neighbourhood strategy. However, they do not necessarily provide an adequate proxy for the views/needs of the whole population. The people of the area 3.4 Strong communities

These are the users of the neighbourhood – the real owners. They include all the residents, together with local business people, workers, and those dependent on local leisure/retail/education/ health facilities but who live outside the area. Typically, about 10 per cent of local residents are members of organised groups, so 90 per cent are unrepresented except through the ballot box. Consultation processes often fail to reach (or motivate) the most vulnerable or marginalised groups. Children and young people are often not represented at all, except indirectly. NEIGHBOURHOOD GOVERNANCE

5.2 Land governance

64

Investment depends on the investors. If a co-ordinated process of renewal is to be achieved, those investors need strong guidance. Is there the political will to make a healthy strategy and achieve effective collaboration between all the local partners? Issues of land ownership loom large, and are discussed in chapter 5. Realism in relation to where power lies is a prerequisite for success. There are a wide variety of possible mechanisms for local change management, with varying degrees of local democratic control, for example:

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PL ANNING PROCESS

Overview

2.3  Parish

and town councils, directly elected, with powers delegated by the local authority or specified by government.

 Area

or neighbourhood committees of the local authority, responsible for the co-ordinated delivery of local authority services. forums, with cross-sectoral membership, creating potentially good conditions for partnership working, but lacking much power.

Neighbourhood-level characteristics

7.

An elected neighbourhood council with substantial powers, legally and ÿnancially independent of local authorities.

6.

Community Development Trust or parish/town council with substantial responsibilities delegated by the local authority.

Autonomous powers

 Neighbourhood

 Community

Development Trusts, with strong private sector and community representation, able to buy land and undertake development projects.

The relationship between the government and local people is critical. The ladder of citizen participation is a neat way of conceptualising different degrees of people power or powerlessness. At the bottom are rungs which deny effective community involvement. At the top are rungs which can imply local control, though heavily depending on who owns and controls land. Rungs four and five – 'Genuine consultation’ and ‘Partnership’ – may be more realistic aspirations in many situations.

Delegated powers

5.

Partnership

Neighbourhood Forum or regeneration agency with power-sharing between local authority, business and citizens’ groups.

4.

Public meetings, stakeholder groups, web votes, focus groups, planning for real, etc., a real attempt to encourage local debate and respond to it.

3.

Good quality information from authority to citizens and from citizens to authority via community newspapers, social surveys, etc.

Genuine consultation

Place-based leadership Leadership is a vital ingredient for success of any initiative. It is not simply about chairing meetings and allocating jobs, but also shaping emotions and inspiring actions to achieve common goals. A neighbourhood initiative may benefit from several different sources and kinds of leadership (Hambleton 2015): locally elected politicians, public officials such as planners and public health practitioners, volunteer professionals with relevant expertise, community leaders and local entrepreneurs. The shared task is to recognise and value the strengths of different people, and facilitate creative co-operation, not competition for pre-eminence. Tactics to trigger action When there is community inertia or local councils do nothing despite obvious needs, leadership may take the form of direct action. For example, a group of parents might get permission to temporarily close a street for traffic and make a play-street, and this raises awareness of the issue of safety and children. Or a retired professional might undertake a study of a longterm derelict site, and inspire the local council to launch a neighbourhood plan to tackle the problems.

Two-way information

2.

Tokenism

1.

Spin

Consultation too little, too late, going through the motions.

A public relations exercise: decisions made and publicised, but no consultation considered necessary.

Figure 2.6 A ladder of citizen participation Source: Barton 2017, freely adapted from Burns, Hambleton and Hoggett 1994, itself based on Arnstein 1969

65

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PL ANNING PROCESS

Overview

2.3 Figure 2.7 The Learning cycle: planning healthy urban environments SOURCE: key terms originally from Curtiss and Warren (1973). This version adapted for a new context from training manuals.

UNDERSTANDING WHERE PEOPLE ARE COMING FROM People in leadership roles may need to analyse why they and others are taking particular positions. The concept of the learning cycle is a useful way of developing understanding and (potentially) shared insight. Given the goal of achieving a healthy and net-zero carbon urban environment, honest self-assessment is called for, and recognition where others lie in the cycle. 1. Unconscious incompetence. A house builder may be stuck in the old paradigm that only the ‘bottom line’ matters. A traffic engineer may believe that facilitating traffic flow is the main goal. A resident may have a defensive NIMBY attitude, ignoring social and environmental needs. None of their aspirations are irrelevant, but they may be encouraged to take a broader or new view by engaging in debate with others. 2. Conscious incompetence. New awareness is gained, but old habits die hard. The traffic engineer, for example, has to recognise that he lacks some skills. Mid-career training is needed to understand pedestrian and cycling behaviour and technical requirements, then gain practical experience. 3. Conscious competence. Reorientation is complete and skills gained. Policy-making and implementation proceed cautiously, learning all the time. The traffic engineer has renamed herself a travel engineer. 4. Unconscious competence. Trained intuition allows greater efficiency and speed. Shared understanding blossoms. But there remains a risk of being over-confident of direction and solutions, which in time may lead back to unconscious incompetence. This is corrected at regular intervals by returning to basics – self-critical evaluation. 66

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PL ANNING PROCESS

Getting going

2.4

getting going 2.4

STAGE 1 – TAKING THE INITIATIVE

KEY PRINCIPLE Whether the process is initiated by the local authority, a major developer or a community/NGO alliance, the same principle applies: the goal should not be narrow and self-interested but holistic – in the interests of the long-term health and wellbeing of the whole community. There is both a moral obligation and a necessity to identify, and where appropriate work with, local stakeholders, if this goal is to be achieved.

Who is taking the initiative? Any new neighbourhood plan needs a driving force and champions if it is to succeed. As noted in section 2.1, the motivation may come from resident concerns/aspirations, or commercial profit, or statutory obligation and political vision. Whatever the context there needs to be a critical number of core actors, willing to carry the initiative through. In situations where consultants are employed, or a planning team is set up within the local authority, it must be clear what their remit is, to whom they are directly responsible. Who is in charge? Who will back them when the chips are down? SCOPING The purpose of ‘scoping’ is to set the initiative in context and review its purpose and scope before formal commitments are entered into. Effective scoping by the initiating organisation safeguards against false perceptions, blind alleys and blinkered vision. It can save time and energy, and help ensure that appropriate partners and stakeholders are identified early. Scoping typically involves  round-table  informal

discussion/brainstorm/visioning

discussion with key organisations and opinion-formers

 quick

review of relevant legislation, policy documents or guidelines; and

 a

A scoping workshop Using the Health Map to assess the significance of the project for environment, health and wellbeing.

dispassionate visual appraisal of the area involved

Scoping seeks to answer these questions: What are the purpose and scope of the plan or proposal? What is the need for the plan? What are the aspirations and are they in principle achievable? Clarity about aims is half the battle! Scoping should set the plan in the wider context and identify the range of possible means of implementation. What is the organisation’s capacity? Capacity to pursue the initiative depends on commitment, time and skill. If the organisation does not have the capacity, then what key partnerships could be forged to enable effective progress? 67

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PL ANNING PROCESS

Getting going

2.4 CHECKLIST Golden rules There are at least five golden rules for initiating organisations to follow in formulating a clear participation strategy:

1. Clarity of purpose – What are you trying to achieve? – Why is consultation or collaboration needed?

The original idea of the project needs to evolve in such a way that it has the potential to fit into the broad goals and strategies of the relevant strategic plans, and also to satisfy the three criteria of sustainable development: economic viability, health/social justice and environmental sustainability. There may be links or symbiosis with other projects that can help. WHICH STAKEHOLDERS SHOULD BE INVOLVED?

– Does the approach fulfil legal requirements?

Whichever organisation is the initiator, it is vital to draw in other stakeholders as soon as possible, and develop a shared mode of leadership. The potential value of a plan is as much in the process as in the product. If some of the major players are not on board then the effectiveness of any output in shaping policy will be severely hampered. At the outset, therefore, the strategy should be devised to reach out to people within other groups and organisations. The intention should be to build a constituency of support, sharing ownership of the project so that effective collaboration is possible.

– Have you got the capacity to see it through?

Working with stakeholders is necessary to ensure that:

– Who are you targeting?

2. Fitness for purpose – What are the participating approaches suited to the task? – Will you successfully engage hard-to-reach groups?

– Have the other participants got the capacity to see it through?

3. Avoiding false expectations

 people

and businesses directly affected by the plan have a chance to have their say

 local

expertise is tapped, and local demands understood

– Are you clear about your ‘bottom line’?

 organisations

– Are the plan boundaries explicit?

 creative,

– Have you got something of value to offer the participants?

 decisions

– Have you got on board the key agencies that can deliver improvements?

4. An open, inclusive process – Can you give leadership without patronising participants? – Can you share ownership of the process with the other stakeholders? – Are the channels for involvement clear and inviting? – Is information about the process as it evolves available for scrutiny?

5. A positive process – Have you a programme for developing a shared vision? – Can you orientate the process towards problem solving and win–win solutions? – Can you avoid the dangers of polarisation and entrenched views?

68

Is the initiative consistent with broader aims?

key to implementation are actively involved

integrated solutions are devised are transparent and have legitimacy

 trust

between the local community and official bodies is built up

 local

social capital is fostered through the process

Partners, participants and consultees The scoping exercise should identify who needs to participate and in what way. It is useful to distinguish between three levels of potential involvement: Partners – who share the decision-making and accept responsibility for making things happen. Partnerships may involve formal contractual agreements and the dovetailing of investment programmes. Participants – who actively join in the decision-making process, but are not prime movers. Participants are likely to be involved in consensus-building processes in the context of stakeholder forums, focus groups, citizens’ juries, etc. or they may be official bodies which keep close tabs on progress Consultees – who are formally asked for their views about current problems and possible solutions but do not engage in the collaborative forums. Consultation implies the opportunity for twoway flows of information but maybe only limited dialogue. Typically, as well as any statutory consultees, all local private and public organisations would have this opportunity, plus all local people.

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PL ANNING PROCESS

Getting going

2.5 2.5

STAGE 2 – DEFINING A SHARED VISION CHECKLIST

KEY PRINCIPLE An effective neighbourhood plan depends on developing a common view about its aims, scope and the process of getting there. This takes time and effort. Somehow disparate interests have to be welded into a collaborative team. It is vital that the initiating group opens membership as wide as possible, and devises a participatory process that is focused, transparent and deliverable. A shared vision does not mean an idle dream. It is about a practical plan of campaign that can be encapsulated in a formal project brief.

Visioning stages in outline 1. Imagine the kind of neighbourhood you would like in twenty years’ time. 2. Identify the features of the present that are unsatisfactory. 3. Work out barriers that make it difficult to get from the unsatisfactory present to the idealised future. 4. Explore the levers that could enable some of the barriers to be overcome. 5. Develop a strategy (or alternative strategies) for making progress.

Community visioning A community visioning workshop is a constructive way of broadening the community base and sharing ownership at an early stage. The process needs to be managed by a skilled facilitator, preferably independent of any of the main organisations. It can take a day. One purpose of visioning is to find and enlarge the common ground between participants; another is to get to know people; a third is to develop new, creative ideas together. All this can help engender mutual understanding, trust and enthusiasm. The workshop is about gathering insight and momentum, leading to a clearer plan of campaign, which can be captured in the form of a project brief.

6. Identify first steps on the path, and who will help take them.

THE PROJECT BRIEF Agreement on the project brief is a pivotal milestone in any neighbourhood planning exercise, and can be drafted after a visioning workshop. The purpose of the brief is to set out clearly the context, aims and scope of the project, to specify the process of plan-making and decision-taking and show the way that stakeholders and the public will be involved in that process. Joint ownership of the brief is key to partnership. Transparency of the process is key to legitimacy. Preparing the brief The preparation of the project brief offers another opportunity to draw organisations, voluntary groups and local people into engagement with the idea of a neighbourhood plan. After meetings and workshops with a wide range of interests, it falls to the lead group to produce a first draft of the brief, taking into account the views expressed informally by potential partners, and showing how other interests might be affected. The draft can then be shared and debated, modified and eventually approved by a meeting of potential partners and participants. It is important that the lead organisation keeps a tight rein at this stage to avoid losing momentum.

6.7 The development process and design

Neighbourhood organisations can take control and communicate directly with local people.

Community initiatives Where a community group is promoting the ideas of a neighbourhood plan, it is obviously not possible to move straight to a draft brief. Instead, getting to the point where a brief can be drafted becomes a prime goal. The drafting must involve the main agency (the local authority, for example) that has the power to deliver.

69

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PL ANNING PROCESS

Getting going

2.5 CHECKLIST What should the brief include?  the broad legal and policy context  the purpose and scope of the project  draft objectives (e.g. health, wellbeing, zero-carbon, etc.)  the provisional area concerned  management – in terms of leadership, resources, timescale  decision-making: the role of partners and stakeholders  the stages of wider public consultation  the process of gathering information, working up policies and proposals and evaluating them  the form of final outputs

Clarity of aims is critical. Potential partners need to be honest and explicit about their own motives and aspirations. Fudge and waffle have no place: they can lead to misunderstanding and store up problems for later. Conversely, premature prescription (of policies or site development) must be avoided. The project brief is not about lurching to answers, but making sure the way answers will be found is clear. The final brief, once agreed, is the basis for collaboration. If there are to be partners in the project, then the brief acts as part of the formal agreement. It is also the basis for initial publicity, and is available for public scrutiny. THE STAKEHOLDER GROUP For neighbourhood projects the stakeholder group or forum is a central part of the planning process. Its role, membership and modus operandi should be set out and agreed in the project brief. The group meets on a regular basis, and exists to:  share

ownership and engender commitment

 exchange  identify

information and contacts

problems and develop project ideas

 participate  help

in health and sustainability assessment

build a wider constituency of support

 manage

public engagement

 facilitate

co-ordination and implementation.

The stakeholder group needs, if possible, to involve all potential partners and participants who are able and willing to give regular commitment. It may be used as a way of building towards partnership. If led by a Community Forum, then garnering expertise from local groups and residents is important. To be effective the group needs reasonably stable membership, able to develop common understanding and momentum. Do not be tempted to use it as a catch-all for transient interests or debates. Volunteers should be welcomed! Invite others to join the stakeholders’ group as soon as possible after the scoping exercise, with clear guidance as to the essential purpose and rationale for the plan or project. However, the lead organisation should avoid premature forming of a group, except on a consultative basis, until the context and direction are clear. It is all too easy for a fragile initiative to get derailed and meander down a branch line. Figure 2.8 The stakeholder forum: illustrative membership This ideal of cross-sector membership is hard to achieve because the much broader commitments of many interests mean they do not find the time. In one recent successful plan led by a local town council, the stakeholder group was made up of voluntary groups and residents, with one regular attendant from the local authority.

70

Conversely, it is vital that the partners/participants join in soon enough to influence the shape of the project – both to engage their interest and to give the opportunity for better (more integrated) strategies to emerge. If possible stakeholders should contribute to the project brief. Agreeing objectives It is vital to agree objectives, so that all the members of the stakeholder group recognise the range of interests involved. Given sometimes conflicting starting points, this may be challenging. The

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PL ANNING PROCESS

Getting going

2.5 objectives need to be devised so that they include all the legitimate interests and are clear and concise. They are then subject to debate and revision as necessary. Individual agencies are happy so long as they can see their interests properly represented in the list. The process of discussion helps build mutual understanding and (hopefully) trust. Developers discover what is really important to residents. Residents appreciate the realities of market pressures. Both learn about statutory obligations from local authority representatives and official bodies. Those representatives get a much more rounded understanding. The need of future generations Sustainable development is about intra-generational and intergenerational equity. When decisions are being made by people with quite specific interests and concerns in the present day, it is all too easy to sideline unrepresented groups (such as children and young people) and discount future generations. National and international guidelines for assessment encourage proper recognition of both. It is the job of professionals involved in the process to ensure this happens. In our experience, local people and businesses will normally recognise this broader picture as valid. Building alliances Many neighbourhood planning exercises founder because of lack of clarity about who should be actively involved: false expectations raised; key players ignored. Others founder because key agencies are unwilling or unable to participate. A central part of the participation strategy (whoever is the initiator) is therefore about trying to ensure that the appropriate stakeholder group is brought together. The art is to woo potential collaborators, and build alliances that have the practical and political clout to carry projects through.

5.17 Working together

Empowering stakeholders Here a shared vision is summarised as a newspaper front page; below community members use simple images displayed on a notice board to articulate and share their various objectives for the plan.

KNOWLEDGE AND IDEAS EXCHANGE The participation map in figure 2.9 shows how all those involved in the neighbourhood plan can be interlinked by varied participatory processes. There needs to be a range of participatory processes at different levels running in tandem. Each process or technique has specific benefits and limitations. The starting point will be different depending on who is initiating the plan. For example, a major renewal project led by a development agency no doubt starts by reaching some accord with the local authority. A consortium of community groups might start with a lot of local networking, to build support. But beyond that, a full range of participatory processes is important, including:  a

public conference as a launchpad

 consultation

with the Parish and District Councils (or equivalents in different governance systems)

 discussions  meetings

with key businesses and institutions

leading to a local residents’ focus group 71

a neighbourhood pl anning process

Getting going

2.5 Figure 2.9 The participation map

ns

p aig

an

d

cam

c

m u n it y g r o u p s

l nci

ou

d

ups

e

s

s g ro

bourhoo

com

st ak

s: public/ priv gencie ya ate ke i c l / b p u r p

ivate neg ot ia ti

ca

cu

ig h

ion ltat nsu co voting in elect and ion s

 social

is h

For further information on the Healthy Cities approach, see de Leeuw and Simos (2017). The Health Promotion International special issue ‘Intersectoral Governance for Health and Equity in European Cities, Healthy Cities in Europe’ (Tsouros et al. 2015b) provides many articles on interest, in particular see de Leeuw (2015) for a discussion of network governance. Barton and Tsourou (2000) established the parameters for Healthy Urban Planning.

lo

 surveys

par

4. Investment in formal and informal networking and co-operation, continually deepening understanding and building capacity for co-operation.

fo

e

3. Commitment to developing a shared vision and plan which can cement shared ownership and consistency of purpose.

tiv

2. Establishment of new organisational structures to manage change. A specific steering group is a requirement.

ne

lt a

1. Explicit political commitment at the highest level to the principles and strategies of the project.

collaborating communities

consu

The experience of the WHO Healthy Cities movement suggests that success in these cross-sectoral projects relies on four ways of working:

s on

ion at ip

Forging partnerships

com mu nit y le publ ic pa rt ic r forums/net lde wo o r eh artnership s dp n a

ips tnersh par d an

ks

CHECKLIST

local authority the

er ad

Different sectors require different approaches to make contact and build understanding. The participation map illustrates the diversity of participatory processes on offer, from formal democratic procedures to informal consultation and focus groups. No one technique reaches all the community partners.

co m mun

it y

i

ia nit

tiv

e l r ss t h e pe o ple e si ne i s d ent u s and small b

s

of people’s attitudes in key public locations

media blogs and traditional media circulars

 consultation  sample

with unrepresented interests

surveys of households

Collaboration costs time and effort. It needs to be undertaken with commitment. But the investment can reap rewards later in the process if it results in barriers being lowered which allow quicker and more effective implementation.

WORKING WITH LOCAL PEOPLE Local residents, business people and other users are the real owners of a locality. They have a right (sometimes statutory) to be involved in major decisions that affect their environment or livelihood. But effective, inclusive participation is notoriously difficult to achieve. This section briefly sets out a range of techniques available, with special emphasis on the ‘focus group’. Matching purpose and method It is important to specify the intention of participation clearly and then match intention with the best method available. If, for example, the purpose is to find and motivate the active members of the community, then a well-publicised public meeting in a central location, with a display showing the proposed area and aims, plus plenty of opportunity for discussion, could be effective.

72

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PL ANNING PROCESS

Getting going

2.5 If the purpose is to find out the attitudes and behaviour of residents, then rather than asking the select few at a public meeting, it would be better to widen the reach by social media and street surveys. If the purpose is to raise public consciousness about climate and health issues, then consider focusing on a key issue which links both and motivates people, such as ‘safe walking and cycling routes to school’ as a way in to the broader issues, then work with local groups, schools or the health authority to promote a media event or competition. LOCAL NEIGHBOURHOOD COLLABORATING GROUPS

Initiators, designers and policy makers: driving the project forward, making key decisions

PR O JECT GR O U P

Informal, open and occasional meetings – a key part of effective consultation (sometimes more)

N EI G HB OU R HO O D G ATHER I N G

S T AK EH O L D ER FORUM

Figure 2.10 shows a desirable set of local groups and their relationship to each other.  The

project group is the active core of people who are driving the process, and may be reporting to a regeneration partnership, the local authority, the master developer or, as in this model, the stakeholder forum.

 The

stakeholder forum is taking responsibility for the overall management and direction of the project, and is described in the previous section.

Partners and participants meeting regularly to guide the project and co-ordinate between agencies/interests

F O CU S GR O U P

Small resident/local business group that gets involved actively in the decision-making process

Figure 2.10 Various neighbourhood planning groups and their roles

 The

neighbourhood gathering is an open public meeting which occurs at key stages through the process, informed and facilitated by the project group.

 The

residents’ focus group is a sample of local people, preferably emerging from the neighbourhood gathering, acting as a proxy for local people, and feeding regularly into the stakeholder forum.

The neighbourhood gathering: avoiding the pitfalls These open consultative meetings can occur at the launch of the project, at the stage of defining problems and opportunities, when options are being considered and when a final plan is on the table. They are not decision fora, but simply a key part of the community engagement strategy. They must be widely advertised and may draw people from both within and without the area. Public meetings are not always easy. Sometimes local people perceive participation as having only marginal influence on events, so attendance is desultory. Or sometimes there are very talkative individuals who have quite specific concerns, not shared by many others. Either way there is a risk of discussion being dominated by articulate minorities who are not necessarily representative. Therefore:  Prepare

carefully for any public meetings, ensuring the chair-person is capable of handling controversy calmly and constructively.

 Identify

one or two individuals (probably from the project group, but not the meeting chair) who act as ‘thought leaders’, hoping to inspire with their ideas.

The neighbourhood gathering This is an open meeting of residents, local businesses, voluntary sector group members and the project group to discuss the planning issues, emerging ideas and proposals.  It meets at the outset of the project and key stages thereafter, in an accessible venue, widely advertised.  It is voluntary and open to anyone, designed not to be a clique.  Its purposes are information exchange, two-way awareness raising, challenge and debate, gaining support for the overall process.  It is supported by community enablers who chair meetings so as to ensure everyone can have their say.  Discussion is encouraged, consensus is sought, but minority views respected.  It can delegate members to a focus group or to the stakeholder forum.  It can act as a channel for volunteers who then help with the development of the plan.

73

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PL ANNING PROCESS

Getting going

2.5 Managing community gatherings  Hold meetings on neutral territory.  Avoid any appearance of experts talking down to the community.  Use roundtable or cabaret style layouts to encourage engagement.  Prepare any visual display material so it is easily digested – keeping it simple, avoiding small print or over-detailed plans.  Keep to time and sum up at the end, with ‘next steps’.

 Value

and respect the views of others, creating opportunities for open debate of issues, maybe through workshop activity (see the later list of techniques).

 In

successive meetings, seek to broaden attendance, especially from unrepresented groups.

 Search

for common ground and build progressively on that.

Focus groups The role of the focus group is to act as an intermediary between the wider community and the stakeholder group. Membership may be by vote at a neighbourhood gathering, by volunteering or by invitation. It is important that the group has the trust of the majority of people at the gathering, and is not perceived to have been manipulated by the organisers.  The

ideal number of people is 8–12. The group should if possible reflect the diverse elements within the community in terms of age, gender, ethnicity, background and main interests. Continuity of membership is important to allow understanding and expertise to grow.

 The

group meetings should normally be attended by key professionals involved in the whole process, who are able to speak with authority about the context of the plan and attitudes of the major players. The professionals are there to support and enable the group, not to dominate it.

 The

Table talk at a focus group meeting.

meetings could take workshop form – story-telling, visioning, planning for real.

 The

focus group then sends members to the stakeholder group meetings, raising resident issues, responding to proposals as they emerge, generating new ideas for testing by the main agencies.

 The

group’s views need to be taken seriously by other stakeholders. If there is a positive, creative attitude by participants then innovative solutions can emerge which help to shape the final plan.

 Focus

group members should be able to report back to neighbourhood meetings when they occur, especially on controversial questions, and possible solutions.

74

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PL ANNING PROCESS

Getting going

2.5

deÿning shared vision

taking the initiative 1

2 learning lessons

7 understanding the locality

Figure 2.11 Public participation toolkit

3

A selection of techniques useful for developing and evaluating ideas, in relation to the seven-stage process. 6 taking action

4

Further information on these and many more techniques: www.participatorymethods.org

developing ideas

5 agreeing a

programme

Technique

Use

Plan stages

Description and contacts

Workshop with round-table discussions

To discuss ideas and compare perspectives, looking for common ground, identifying areas of tension for future work

1, 2, 7

Structured workshop with many participants from a variety of organisations and interests, distributed in café-table format, ideally providing a non-hierarchical context in which all contributions can be heard and valued. Each table reporting back in plenary sessions.

Local mapping

To reveal and record local impressions and behaviours in the area. Helps people to realise the variety of perspectives, and inform the plan-makers

2, 3

An event using maps of the area and its surroundings, inviting participants to identify valued features, walking routes, problem places, the quality of facilities, their perceived own neighbourhood – and discuss the different views. Can be used to create a Parish Map for visitors.

Roadshow

To share information, and garner views on issues, options and the final plan

3, 4, 5

Travelling exhibition manned by people centrally involved in the plan process and able to answer questions. Allows convenient access for people, who are invited to write comment sheets which subsequently are summarised in a report. May include video recording and coincide with cultural entertainment, attracting more people.

Scenario visioning

To explore the desired future, the barriers to getting there, and ways of overcoming the barriers

2, 3, 4

A managed all-day workshop, with a wide range of participants, often in café-table format with plenaries. Requires skilled leadership.

1, 2, 3, 5

Simple models of the site and the buildings/land uses proposed are the focus. Participants are invited to explore design decisions by using the model, expressing their preferences. An intensive interactive forum over several days that aims to produce a non-binding design for a development area. It brings together the technical team and a consultation group, searching for a mutually satisfying and feasible scheme.

Planning for real Identifying spatial issues, creating options, evaluating draft schemes Enquiry by design, and charettes

To produce a masterplan for a new development, with skilled professional input

3, 5, 6

The Spectrum Approach

To work through from initial multi-stakeholder engagement to final scheme review in a consistent and systematic way

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 An holistic impact assessment of a potential site, alternative schemes or final proposals from a health and sustainability perspective. It does not weight one criterion against another (which implies trade-offs) but rather identifies an acceptable bottom line in relation to each criterion. See case study 2b, at the end of this chapter. 75

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PL ANNING PROCESS

Creating a strategy

2.6

creating a strategy

Spectrum appraisal – a form of Health Impact Analysis (HIA)

2.6 STAGE 3 – UNDERSTANDING THE LOCALITY BASIC PRINCIPLES Neighbourhood appraisal is a systematic review of the attributes, problems and potential of an area, undertaken as an essential part of neighbourhood plan-making or a major development proposal. Detailed information on every issue is not so important as awareness of the whole community agenda. Involving residents and understanding local perceptions are vital. Appraisal can proceed hand in hand with stage 4, ‘developing ideas’, as part of a progressive and collaborative learning process.

The Spectrum approach requires a baseline health and sustainability appraisal of the area (akin to that needed in a formal EIA or SEA process). The stakeholder forum can assist in this process, debating the objectives and identifying issues. There is huge benefit in pooling the knowledge of the members. The Project Team can learn from the exchanges. The process pinpoints aspects of the locality that need to be investigated and understood more deeply. See case study 2.a.

The neighbourhood baseline appraisal process  May

be tackled at different levels of sophistication depending on specific needs and resources but must encompass all the spheres of the neighbourhood model. Where time pressures and lack of resources dictate, it can take the form of a quick but comprehensive scan of all the issues, drawing on the knowledge of stakeholders. Part of the purpose of the scan is to identify where detailed research is needed.

The key stages 1. Agree objectives: the objectives should embrace social, health, economic and environmental variables, so that the appraisal is as rounded as possible, and all interests are represented.

 Should

build upon, and contribute to, wider review processes such as quality-of-life reports, urban capacity studies, community health profiles and local plan review.

2. Quick baseline appraisal: the objectives provide the agenda for assessing the current situation, based initially on published sources and round-table discussion. Measurement should be quantitative where possible, but often qualitative judgements need to be made. 3. Fill important knowledge gaps: undertake surveys or more in-depth investigation of information sources. This takes time. It should not be allowed to hold up overall progress. Individuals should be delegated to tackle the gaps and report back. 4. Responding to policy ideas: new questions will arise as alternative policies and site options (stage 4) emerge. This can lead to the need for further assessment.

 Involves

collaboration between stakeholders and this can be as important to effective action as the product itself.

 Rarely

occurs in a policy vacuum. Often there are already specific ideas and proposals. But it is vital to suspend judgement on those proposals and open the mind to other possibilities. The appraisal becomes, effectively, part of the evaluation process, tying in with any SEA or EIA.

SHARING OWNERSHIP AND DEFINING SCOPE 5.4 Neighbourhood appraisal 6.8 Appraising the site and its context

A neighbourhood baseline appraisal needs to be co-ordinated by the Project Group or Stakeholder Forum. It can be seen as a way of forging working relationships between a range of stakeholders. The scope of the appraisal should be defined by the stakeholder group and capture the specialist input from, for example, the transport department, the health authority, housing and education departments. Each can supply part of the picture. Local voluntary groups should get involved in specific surveys which deepen knowledge – such as pedestrian counts or open space surveys. Looking at the wider area Neighbourhoods cannot be treated as isolated. It is vital that the appraisal encompasses the surrounding areas, including local retail streets, industrial areas, secondary schools, parks and open land. Often this wider context is critical in relation to pedestrian and cycling routes to facilities, and public transport networks to the sub-region.

76

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PL ANNING PROCESS

Creating a strategy

2.6 BASELINE APPRAISAL

Making sense of statistics

The purpose of the baseline appraisal is two-fold:

If possible, make the area of study coincide with one or more wards, parishes or communes. This greatly simplifies the analysis of data and links with indicators collected at a wider scale. It also makes clear which local councillors, parish or community councils should be involved.

 to

understand the character of the area and the way it works

 to

identify issues and concerns relevant to the main project

6.9 Appraisal methods

The objectives agreed at the outset of the exercise (in the project brief) help to give the scope of the appraisal. So too does the Settlement Health Map.  People

basic population information quality-of-life indicators health and deprivation status  Lifestyle

qualitative information about how people behave levels of physical activity: walking, cycling, play, recreation  Community

stock-take of community groups, activities and participation community engagement  Economy

local entrepreneurial activity, work opportunities, training access to wider job markets

3.1 Putting people first Figure 2.12 The Scottish Place Standard Tool Many aspects of the appraisal are about people’s perceptions of their environment, not about statistics. The star diagram from the Scottish Place Standard Tool is one way of comparing and summarising many views. Each person ‘scores’ facets of the neighbourhood against 14 criteria, which are then amalgamated to construct the diagram.

 Facilities

housing stress, housing availability and quality local retail, social, cultural, recreational opportunities educational health, police and social services  Land

use and movement the pattern and condition of land use and buildings, the street pattern, movement and accessibility neighbourhood potential and regeneration

 Aesthetics

and conviviality aesthetic audit of spaces and places social interaction and safety in the public realm identifying the physical assets value by the community

 The

resource base energy and water services and sustainability local food production and recycling biodiversity and wildlife habitats

 Global

ecology buildings and energy supply carbon footprint transport carbon emissions

This list is amplified in chapter 5, section 5.4 and some aspects developed in detail in chapter 6. Community appraisal A valuable way for residents and community activists to assess their own local living environments is through a simple walking appraisal (NZTA 2010). Although each person may be familiar with their local neighbourhood, this very familiarity can make us blind to everyday barriers to healthier lives for ourselves and importantly for more vulnerable members of the community. A group should prepare to walk together with the specific intention of asking these two questions as they walk around: 77

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PL ANNING PROCESS

Creating a strategy

2.6 Neighbourhood Health Walks Several neighbourhood health walks have been conducted in Bristol, England, to help local residents assess which elements in the local environment contribute to their health, and which detract from health. These often focussed on communities where there were high levels of deprivation, some in areas away from the city centre with poor access to local amenities. The focus of others, triggered by paediatric concerns, was on the urban environments in which the new Somali migrant communities found they were having to raise their young children.

 What

is supporting our health?

 What

are the barriers to our health?

And this question following the walk:  What needs to be done and by whom? Preparation is important, best results come from a group that ideally contains some political representatives, some people who hold important roles in the community (such as local school heads, police officers or local traders association representatives) and council planning, transport and public health officers, in addition to local people. An ideal preparation is to first discuss how people view the local determinants of health and wellbeing using the Settlement Health Map. THE USE OF AN APPRAISAL The appraisal is intended to assist understanding of the people and the place, and to validate policy formulation. Its purpose is to show:

The standard format was to take a long morning, ending with a light lunch and discussion to develop an action plan to address ‘What needs to be done and by whom?’

 What  How

effective are current policies at tackling those problems?

 What

We found that 25 participants was a good number. This enables five separate pre-planned routes, covering different kinds of local environment, with five people on each route. A final discussion with all 25 comparing the five routes and developing the action plan was very fruitful.

 How

are the current problems and how serious are they? is the local significance of broader trends/pressures?

are the various issues and policies interconnected?

 What

are the opportunities for change and development?

 Which

organisations need to be involved in policy-making?

The political dimension The process is far from being value-free. The questions above imply a set of objectives and criteria. The appraisal is a means of articulating local and societal values, hopefully consistent with sustainable development. There may be implications for land owners and tenants. It is therefore highly politically charged. The involvement of councillors at an early stage is critical. The help of community leaders and the local press/media should be actively sought. From the outset the process needs to be seen as an opportunity not a threat. An holistic approach

Somali mothers on a walking audit in Barton Hill, Bristol. They are assessing their local neighbourhood together with a paediatrician in terms of physical activity, social connections and food environments to assess fitness for raising under-fives.

The outcomes from these walks have fed into council funding priorities and urban regeneration proposals and create an agenda for action that local groups can use for advocacy.

78

5.5 Understanding local urban form

The typical approach to appraisal at present is based on narrowly defined problem solving. For example, there is pressure to find more housing land: so potential sites are identified by asking landowners and house-builders what they could most easily develop. This is not adequate. The appraisal should be used to give a rounded view of the dynamics of a settlement so that individual sites are seen in context. Map-based systems and GIS Mapping is essential for converting general concerns into specifics: where it is pleasant to meet? Which trees and buildings are valued? Mapping allows the incorporation of specific data on land, building, activities, social and environmental capital in a context which assists forward planning. The approach can be adopted at different levels of sophistication. It is suited to Geographical Information Systems (GIS) which can facilitate and speed up careful analysis.

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PL ANNING PROCESS

Creating a strategy

2.7 2.7

STAGE 4 – DEVELOPING IDEAS

BASIC PRINCIPLES Policy ideas and specific development proposals may be put forward by a wide range of organisations at any stage in the process. These may well have different (sometimes conflicting) objectives. This is not in itself a problem – it can help sharpen and broaden awareness of what might be possible. Any idea must be tested and developed using a common approach. There are three essential principles:  Policies

and proposals should provide answers to the uncertainties and problems raised by the appraisal, and reflect the aspirations in the project brief. should be subject to systematic evaluation – both in terms of reaching agreement between key players, but also ensuring fundamental social and environmental goals are achieved.

How is this problem related to others? What theoretical options are there?

The problem

 They

 The

process of evaluation should be used to help refine and dovetail policies and proposals, so that a consistent and integrated plan eventually emerges.

Avoiding premature conclusions It is all too easy for a particular agency or a key individual to present a proposal in answer to recognised problems without adequate analysis of the situation. For example, a self-evident solution to a congested traffic junction might be to increase capacity, or the answer to providing more office space might be a brand new business park, but such decisions need cool, dispassionate evaluation, separated from the particular financial or political issues at stake. Such evaluation relies on greater understanding through a neighbourhood (or township) appraisal, and a willingness to compare alternative solutions. Avoiding prevarication and delay It is, of course, also important to make progress. There is a balance to be struck between knowledge and speed. Events (including political/market pressures) often require decisions in the teeth of uncertainty. So all technical and collaborative processes need to be pragmatic, while avoiding superficiality.  How

much do we need to know to make progress?

 What

decisions can be taken now without foreclosing desirable longer-term options?

 What specific enquiries can be made to reduce key uncertainties?

EXPLORE AND TEST OPTIONS It is important to present real options to local people and decision-makers. This is just as vital when the options are basic (‘do nothing’ versus ‘do something’, for example) as when they

What has worked elsewhere?

What range of ideas do stakeholders have?

Can the problem be redefined as an opportunity?

Figure 2.13 Back to basics! There are always choices. Make sure you look at choices in the round, avoiding unnecessary exploration of one avenue when a different approach is obvious when you stand back.

is the social impact healthy and equitable?

*

is the scheme economically viable?

is the local and global environmental impact benign? Figure 2.14 A quick test of sustainable development Use the trefoil symbol of sustainable development as a ‘quick and dirty’ analytical tool. All three criteria need to be achieved. If they are not, then search for another solution that could perform better.

79

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PL ANNING PROCESS

Creating a strategy

2.7 Bridging vision to policy

are complex. Options should be compared for their likely impacts and practicality:

It is often not too difficult to agree on broad objectives. They need to be specific to the locality. Here are five aims agreed by stakeholders for the neighbourhood plan for the centre of an English market town:

 Social

impact: does the option improve the likelihood of healthy lifestyles, offer more local opportunities, overcome inequities in provision?

 Environmental

impact: does the idea improve the local environment, enhance wildlife opportunities, reduce greenhouse emissions and cope with climate change?

1. sustaining the economy 2. improving access 3. strengthening the social and cultural fabric 4. enhancing the town centre environment 5. creating a healthier centre The difficulties arise when converting aims into policy and specific proposals. In this case the degree of pedestrianisation proved particularly contentious, but improving the safety of road crossings, creating pedestrian priority (without excluding traffic) and improving access routes into the centre, all won general approval.

5.13 Devising the spatial framework

 Economic

feasibility: are market or institutional players in a position to deliver the proposal, so that it has a good chance of happening?

Win-win-win 6.10 Developing design concepts

Policies and proposals do not normally spring from nowhere; they evolve, they respond to new pressures or opportunities. As they are doing so, it is easy to lose the sustainability focus. The normal confrontational approach to policy debate, where one interest is pitted against another (e.g. keeping green fields versus providing new housing) is unlikely to lead to sustainable development. So the questions are:  How

can the different interests be successfully reconciled?

 How

Testing by making parklets and pocket parks In order to test local options about converting car parking space to pedestrian space, a researcher constructed an example of what a local ‘parklet’ might look like. Such temporary interventions may be left in place for several weeks, to become a venue for discussion, and recording people’s response.

can we devise creative policies that fulfil social, economic and environmental priorities?

It is not a matter of either/or, but of both/and. The process therefore needs to be inclusive, drawing different (sometimes competing) interests into mutual engagement, forming alliances, negotiating collaborative programmes, tackling problems in the round. A committed search for solutions, together with a willingness to challenge vested interest, can lead to success. One example is a shopping centre where traders believe is it vital that shoppers can park outside their shops. The evidence does not back this. On the contrary, the promotion of walking: creating a safe, convenient and attractive pedestrian environment, has clear health, community, environmental and local economic benefits. It is fundamental to good neighbourhood planning. The questions are therefore not whether to improve the pedestrian environment and curtail driver freedom, but how, so that all interests are recognised. Plan coherence and dynamic action will only happen if a common philosophy is accepted by the main interests involved: i.e. an acceptance of key goals and willingness to work together to achieve them. Synergy

Parklets are formed when a few parking spaces are converted into space for people to linger and meet. They often include seating and planting – there are more examples in chapter 6.

80

Policy failure, from the sustainable development viewpoint, often occurs because implementing agencies are hamstrung by their institutional or financial conventions. Conversely, when agencies collaborate for mutual benefit, new doors are opened. For example, joint recreational provision by Education Authorities and Leisure or Parks Departments (‘dual use’) can benefit everyone and cut costs.

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PL ANNING PROCESS

Creating a strategy

2.7 Local testing by experiment One way to generate and test ideas is to plan a community event and actually implement for a day, a weekend or a week or two, some ideas for physical change to the local environment. This is also a great way to collect a wide range of responses and generate support. Physical change to the urban realm can be very costly. Local stakeholders and decision-makers can get a good feeling of a possible change through a community making temporary and relatively inexpensive interventions in situ using readily available materials.

6.12 Tactical change and adaptation

EVALUATE THROUGHOUT THE PROCESS Key principle Evaluation is not just an end-point test of a scheme, when the big decisions have often already been taken. It should be part of the process of developing and improving the proposal, policy or programme. It is a learning exercise. Evaluation is therefore not something to hand over to some external consultancy or sideline by giving it to a junior member of staff. Its value will only be realised if:  key

Assessment tools

decision-makers are actively involved in the process

Strategic Environmental Assessment – SEA

 other

stakeholders assist in ‘scoping’ – identifying problematic impacts and proposing solutions

Environmental Impact Analysis – EIA Health Impact Assessment – HIA

 experts/specialists

are used with discretion to explore those problematic impacts and advise on better schemes

Social Impact Analysis – SIA Sustainability Appraisal – SA

 evaluation

occurs as part of a cyclic process of policy development

 the

It is common to commission an assessment when a scheme is substantially complete. At that stage mitigation measures may be required, but the overall shape of the scheme or plan has already been decided. The assessment is seen as an administrative hurdle to be jumped. But the original intention of all these tools was that they inform decisions from the outset.

evaluation takes an holistic, integrated viewpoint

The limitations of specific formal evaluation techniques It is vital that the testing of policy/proposals does not get preempted by partial evaluations. These partial evaluations are often demanded by statute (e.g. Environmental Impact Analysis, Habitat Directives) or by particular concerns (e.g. Cost-benefit analysis, Social Impact Assessment). In some situations they are necessary and/or appropriate. But they must be seen in context of an holistic understanding of the locality/town. The objectives agreed in the project brief and used to assess the current state of the neighbourhood, should also be employed to scope the issues raised by policy/spatial options. Synergy and consistency Major development projects cannot be considered in isolation. They always have knock-on effects. Equivalently the elements of a town or neighbourhood plan are part of the complex social/ economic/spatial/ecological system of the settlement. Developing an understanding of synergistic effects is essential.

5.18 Integrated assessment The danger of EIA Some major development projects require Environmental Impact Analysis. It is dangerous on two counts. First, it is normally done at too late a stage to challenge the basic principle of the proposal. Second it hugely underplays the impacts on human health - and often on climate issues too. The impact on the health of, say, badgers, is in effect given more weight than the impacts on human health.

81

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PL ANNING PROCESS

Creating a strategy

2.7 THE SPECTRUM APPROACH TO STAKEHOLDER EVALUATION EXCELLENT

The criterion is fully satisfed

GOOD

The criterion is generally satisfed

NEGOTIABLE

Success depends on further work and negotiation

PROBLEMATICAL

Not likely to be satisfactorily fulflled without major reassessment

UNACCEPTABLE

The criterion cannot be satisfed

Figure 2.15 Spectrum grading Spectrum adopts a threshold approach to assessment; rather than weighting the relative importance of criteria, it assesses the seriousness of impact. An orange or red grading on any one criterion demands a rethink of the policy or proposal being assessed – the problem is too severe for compensation or mitigation. Stakeholders with varied perspectives find this an easier test to accept than weighting, which places one set of values above another, and may conceal significant bad impacts within the overall score.

The Spectrum approach to policy-making and evaluation is a form of Health Impact Assessment (HIA), extended to include all relevant social, economic and environmental factors (Barton and Grant 2008b). Once the Stakeholder Forum has agreed objectives, then these are used as criteria to evaluate policies and site proposals. The Forum should do this at several stages in the process. Each evaluation is a spur to action. The assessment is in relation to relative success or failure – there is no score that can be added up, because each and every criterion is important. In this, Spectrum differs fundamentally from methods which apply weighting to each objective, such as in BREEAM (BRE 2020). Weighting means that there will be trade-offs between objectives. Some objectives will not be achieved, but this will not matter if the overall score is good enough. Spectrum demands such issues are explicit – and addressed (Barton and Grant 2013). The Stakeholder Forum discusses policies and site proposals against the criteria and recommends to the project team which grade is appropriate. Imagining the case of a major regeneration scheme, here are some possible indicators for each grade in relation to the criterion of ‘pedestrian accessibility to local facilities’:  Blue,

excellent – existing facilities are within 400 metres along safe, legible, attractive routes, for 95 per cent of the population.

 Green,

good – local facilities are within 800 metres along attractive routes for 95 per cent of the population.

 Yellow,

negotiable – local facilities may be within 800 metres and with attractive routes, but the design has not yet reached a stage where this can be assessed.

 Orange,

problematic – few local facilities exist within the planned 800-metre threshold, and it will be up to other organisations (market and state) to decide whether to invest.

 Red,

Case study 2.b Spectrum approach, Houndwood

unacceptable – existing facilities are not within easy walking distance, and the design does not provide for new ones.

The assessment is thus not only about intention, but the likelihood of delivery. The stakeholder group, learning from each other, can track achievement as the project develops. In the case of the negotiable grading, it is a matter of the core team progressing their design, to see if they can achieve the objective – the evaluation is, in a sense, pending. In the case of the problematic judgement, some critical negotiations are needed with other bodies, and if possible commitments entered into. Analysing complex interactions Another (complementary) approach is to use the Settlement Health Map to analyse primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary impacts. This is appropriate when there is one big proposal, and the impacts can be followed through systematically. It may not be possible or appropriate to give quantitative

82

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PL ANNING PROCESS

Creating a strategy

2.7 Direct impacts

the landscape, farmland and habitats through which the bypass goes.

Climate cha nge

 On

i

PEOPLE

s

Age, g , sex,, hereditary factors

ic lit

 On

the pattern of accessibility and therefore on travel patterns: some rerouting of vehicle movements; some transfer to car from other modes; some newly generated trips.

ot

he r ot Nei he gh r R bo eg ur io ho ns od s

Po y, es omforc n co l -e ba ro lo ac G

M

iversity Biod

Direct impacts

Land ater, ,W utes Air s, Ro ee t L e a r n in g Str , g yin Pla ets k r Ma ks twor Ne Balance et, Di

The example used here is the proposal for a new bypass around a market town. The assessment of impacts (summarised below) is based on an actual case.

BAL ECOSYSTEM GLO AL ENVIRONME N TUR NA ILT ENVIRONMEN T U T B C TIVIT IE S A in g E C ON O ov M CAL M LO MMUNIT Y CO ESTY Y F I L L E ty

Natural h abit at s Building s, P la c es in g , S ho p p k r o i ng W , Wealth c rea ti o Social Ca n pi Physical ac tal tiv

forecasts, but it does greatly increase understanding. Through stakeholder discussion the analysis estimates the relative scale of positive and negative impacts.

The determinants of health and well-being in our neighbourhoods

Secondary impacts As a consequence of changed travel patterns and accessibility there are a series of impacts:  increased

carbon emissions because of extra, often longer, car

trips

abit at s Building s, P la c es , g S n i h k o r p pi n Wo g, Wealth c rea ti o Social Ca n pi Physical ac tal tiv

economic prospects near bypass junctions, uncertain economic impacts on the town centre

Natural h

 improved

Climate cha nge

 increased

 reduced

active travel as people switch to car and use more distant facilities that are now accessible round the bypass.

Health impacts

ot

he r ot Nei he gh r R bo eg ur io ho ns od s

Po y, s m rce no l fo o ec a o- ob cr Gl

abit at s Building s, P la c es , g S n i h k o r p pi ng Wo , Wealth c rea ti o Social Ca n pi Physical ac tal tiv

Natural h

it

cs

i lit

Po y, s m rce no l fo o c -e ba ro lo ac G

PEOPLE

Age, g , sex,, hereditary factors

iversity Biod

Climate cha nge

The determinants of health and well-being in our neighbourhoods

Land ater, ,W utes Air s, Ro ee t n in g Str , L ea r g yin Pla kets r Ma ks twor Ne Balance et, Di

In this case many of the impacts were negative because the bypass was proposed in isolation from any overall transport and sustainability strategy. Utilising the Spectrum grading a Red grading would be appropriate in relation to both ‘carbon emissions’ and ‘healthy lifestyles’. The current bypass plan is unacceptable. It should be abandoned, and alternative plans drawn up.

Age, g , sex,, hereditary factors

BAL ECOSYSTEM GLO AL ENVIRONME R N TU NA ILT ENVIRONMEN T U T B C TIVIT IE S A in g E C ON O ov M CAL M LO MMUNIT Y CO ESTY Y IF L L E y

M

DECISION TIME

s

a

M

Health impacts Once the likely effects have been assessed, including the degree of confidence or uncertainty in the assessment, then the health map can be used to assess the impacts on human health. In this case changes in every sphere could potentially have an impact on health, from increasing the threat of climate change to reducing active travel. Conversely there might be a positive impact on job opportunities (employment is important for health), albeit in carbased locations.

PEOPLE

ic lit

Tertiary impacts These include the reduction in use of local facilities because people can get more easily to bigger facilities, and the knock-on effect on local viability and local social interaction. For simplicity these are not illustrated in the diagrams here.

i

iversity Biod

BAL ECOSYSTEM GLO AL ENVIRONME N TUR NA ILT ENVIRONMEN T U T B C TIVIT IE S A in g E C ON O ov M CAL M LO MMUNIT Y CO ESTY Y F I L L E ty

Land ater, ,W utes Air s, Ro ee t n in g Str , L ea r g yin Pla kets r Ma ks twor Ne Balance et, Di

air pollution near the bypass junctions, possibly reduced air pollution in the town centre, depending on other measures

Secondary impacts

ot

he r ot Nei he gh r R bo eg ur io ho ns od s

The determinants of health and well-being in our neighbourhoods

Figure 2.16 Direct, secondary and health impacts of a proposed town bypass

83

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PL ANNING PROCESS

Creating a strategy

2.8 2.8

STAGE 5 – AGREEING A C0 - ORDINATED PROGRAMME

BASIC PRINCIPLES The partners and stakeholders should, after due consultation, agree a package of commitments that encompass not only broad aims and policies but also specific mechanisms for implementing and co-ordinating change, and for subsequent monitoring. A central part of this is an agreed spatial framework, working towards health, wellbeing and effective climate action. It is vital that the plan as a whole is fully integrated, so that the aims and intentions match the policies and spatial framework, and they in turn recognise the realities of how change happens ‘on the ground’.

5.17 Working together

6.11 The scheme and its implementation

The commitment package described below could be appropriate for an area of major change: a regeneration area or urban extension. Many of the elements would also be necessary in an area of only modest change, such as an evolving urban district or market town. 1. Vision and strategy The starting point for the plan should be an agreed vision for the future of the area, with a clear overall strategy on how it might be implemented. The vision and strategy should have been subject to extensive consultation, accepted if possible by all the major players, including potential investors, service providers and the various policy-making bodies. Broad public and political support is essential, to avoid subsequent derailing, and help bring players not yet signed up on board. The strategy needs to be in accord with wider policy statements for the whole city or sub-region.

Figure 2.17 Main elements of a co-ordinated plan

1

Aims & intentions……

An integrated plan……

Implementation programme……

4

2

Development briefs and design codes

Neighbourhood vision and strategy

3

The spatial framework

5

Masterplans

8

9 84

6

Planning and design policies

Investment decisions

Proposals

Monitoring and review

7

Service provision

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PL ANNING PROCESS

Creating a strategy

2.8 Figure 2.18 Sketch spatial framework for a major urban extension for Bridgwater, Somerset, UK The ‘bubble diagram’ format is a useful technique to get down spatial ideas quickly and in draft, for consultation. Premature depiction of precise detail can suggest that all decisions are finalised and there is only one solution possible. This sketch spatial framework highlights the overall structure of neighbourhood development, the floodplain requirements and associated open space, the accessibility of local facilities, and bus route potential. Original base map © Crown copyright

85

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PL ANNING PROCESS

Creating a strategy

2.8 The Spatial Framework

2. The spatial framework

What it is not:

This is the crucial tool for planning sustainable towns and neighbourhoods. It is a land use/movement strategy which specifies the big picture, working to create a coherent, spatial pattern for healthy, low-carbon settlements. Its basis is the logic of spatial relationships set out in the following three chapters. It therefore needs to have the robustness and clarity associated with Dutch urban extensions or British new towns.

 a superficial sketch  a fixed blueprint  a detailed site guide  prematurely certain about investments which are uncertain What it should do:

The need for a good spatial framework applies equally to regeneration as to greenfield development. Indeed, it could be argued that it is most necessary in situations of gradual renewal – where incremental decision-making can all-too-easily distort policy intentions and pre-empt the future shape of settlements.

 articulate the ‘most sustainable’ pattern of land use and movement  specify main public transport, walking/ cycling and vehicle networks  specify landscape, ecological and resource assets

The spatial framework plugs the gap between policy and design. It is a vital co-ordinating mechanism that gives a clear spatial context for more detailed development decisions. Without such a plan it is difficult, in a democratic marketbased society, to achieve inclusive, carbon-efficient, healthy environments.

 identify zones for different land uses, sometimes mixed  determine the pattern of density  guide the priorities for infrastructure investment  guide new residential commercial and institutional investment  assist the long-term planning of service providers  identify sites committed for public or community use  identify areas/objects of valued, distinctive character  specify where pedestrian or cycling connectivity and safety should be improved  identify phasing or priorities for investment and development

Masterplans and design frameworks The term ‘masterplan’ is often used very loosely, applying to a wide variety of scales and varying from initial sketch to detailed layout. It is also has unfortunate connotations of control and patriarchy. Here we avoid the term, using ‘design framework’ to indicate the urban design stage of the implementation process.

86

5.13 Devising the spatial framework

The area for a spatial framework should where possible encompass the whole of a small town or an urban district within a city. It is, in other words, bigger than most neighbourhoods. This is in order to ensure that median-level services such as leisure centres, superstores, comparison shops, secondary schools and major parks, are considered as well as very local facilities. It is not, however, a precise land use guide. Rather, it is a broad co-ordinating mechanism, to be used in concert with criteriabased policies (see below). The degree of site specificity depends on levels of certainty. Firm commitments (for example, an agreed site for a new health centre, or a firm reservation for a new tram route) can be shown precisely. But less certain proposals should not be prematurely identified. The framework should provide the context within which future decisions can be taken, allowing for the fact that development needs and opportunities cannot be entirely foreseen. It provides the setting for design frameworks, detailed masterplans (areas of major change) and site development briefs. 3. Planning and design policies The criteria on which future development proposals are judged should be as explicit as possible. This is the main role of policy, helping to reduce uncertainty for those making proposals, as well as for those evaluating them. Criteria can be devised for all facets of development, from location to design. There should be policies for housing, commerce, open space, movement, energy, water, biodiversity, etc. Higher-level city or sub-regional plans may provide generic criteria which can be refined to reflect the specific vision and strategy of the township/town. Chapters 3 and 4 provide specific criteria in relation to most aspects of local planning.

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PL ANNING PROCESS

Creating a strategy

2.8 4. Development briefs and design codes Development briefs are normally prepared by the local authority, interpreting the requirements of the spatial framework and the policies into site specification. Design codes may apply to the whole of the plan area, and guide a wide variety of design elements, attempting to achieve consistent quality and character. They may also be prepared in the context of a masterplan for a development area. Section 2.9 gives more details of what they might do. 5. Design frameworks Urban design frameworks (or masterplans) are applicable to specific major development sites or a regeneration area where a specific agency – public, private or voluntary sector - has a dominant say over what happens. They may be prepared in accord with a development brief and/or design code defined by a local authority, or may themselves make use of such tools. They are part of the process of implementation, converting broad policy and the spatial framework into practical schemes. How they are used depends heavily on context. Section 2.9 presents more detailed ideas on detailed masterplans.

CHECKLIST Commitments may be needed from:  the planning department  the transport/engineering department  the main public transport operator(s)  the health authority  the education authority  the parks/leisure department  economic development agencies  community development trusts  major employers and the chamber of trade  house-builders and developers  the housing department and/or housing association  the police authority  social services

6. Investment decisions The coherence of a plan will often depend on key investments being made in good time. The plan should be specific about commitments entered into by public, private and voluntary organisations, or, if that is premature, the process by which commitments will be made. For example, the logic for commercial development in a particular location may depend on the construction of a tramway extension. The tram company therefore needs to have construction of the extension in its investment programme. The funding sources need to be clear – including a contribution from the commercial developer who stands to benefit. A plan has little value if the means of implementation are not clear. The importance of this reinforces the need for key agencies to be involved in plan preparation at an early stage. If it is to work, it must become their plan.

Examples of criteria-based policies  A comprehensive network of safe, direct and attractive facilities for cyclists must be provided.  Easy access for cycle storage and recharging shall be provided for every household.  All new housing must be within 400m actual walking distance of a bus stop  All new buildings must be designed to maximise the potential for solar-electric roof panels.

7. Service provision Local authorities conventionally have separate departments and separate plans for land use, transport and municipal services such as education and open space management. There may be separate agencies altogether – say for health, energy and water. But people in general do not think in silos. They see the neighbourhood more holistically. So the town or neighbourhood strategy needs to encompass the provision and quality of services, with commitments from providers, taking concerns on board and using land use decisions to trigger change. The planning of a new facility, such as a secondary school, could provide an opportunity for co-funding so that the community could share use of – for example – swimming pool and library. A

Hand drawing as a planning tool This outline plan illustrates the value of drawing as a key tool in the development of a plan. It is quick, flexible, and particularly useful when involving the public in a design exercise. While digital mapping follows preconceived patterns, drawing allows the designer to synthesise more creatively.

87

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PL ANNING PROCESS

Creating a strategy

2.8 neighbourhood centre for decentralised local authority services in a renewal area might require retail space. The plan can facilitate and help manage such changes. 8. On-going management, monitoring and review It is all too easy to produce impressive schemes and policies which subsequently fail because nobody is clear how they will be implemented or managed. For example, the management of a new greenspace will depend either on the municipality or a charitable trust or a residents’ association. If the latter, then a legal agreement among residents is essential, making clear who is entitled to use the space. The agreed programme has to anticipate these problems and be realistic in its expectations.

Figure 2.19 Dealing with future uncertainty Inevitably not everything will be known when it comes to making a decision. There are three main areas of uncertainty; of values (UV), of the external environment (UE) and of related actions and decisions (UR). Don’t let uncertainty delay or compromise a collective rational decision. Use the scheme presented here to identify, describe and thus address uncertainties when making a decision. SOURCE: Adapted from Friend and Jessop 1969

6.12 Tactical change and adaptation

A plan is not a blueprint, set in aspic and guaranteed to deliver. It is a continuous evolving process – a circular process as in figure 2.3. Implementation may occur unevenly or in a series of stages. Changes to the public realm may be tried experimentally, for example with temporary blocks to traffic to try out pedestrianisation before investing in permanent and expensive new hard landscapes. It is essential to monitor change, to establish whether change is happening in accordance with the plan and working as intended – or going off course and requiring review. The monitoring and review process should be specified in the plan. TAKING THE LONG VIEW Contingency plans and uncertainty The one certain thing about the future is that it is filled with uncertainty. The plan helps to reduce uncertainty. It sets the scene for decisions by firms, agencies and households. It needs to have a sure sense of its remit – its area of responsibility – and be crystal clear on objectives, policies and spatial framework, so that others can make their decisions with sure footing. Nevertheless, some predictions will go awry. Uncertainty comes in three forms:  Uncertainty

of the environment – e.g. the speed of climate change, and the effect that will have on the locality; the state of the world economy and interest rates.

 Uncertainty

of values and related behaviour – e.g. the degree to which the internet will affect shopping habits; local public and political attitudes to car parking charges.

 Uncertainty

of related decisions that are outside the control of the stakeholders involved – e.g. the decision of a multinational company to close a branch factory; or of the education department whether to invest in a new school.

Figure 2.20 Contingency planning A simple model of planning and plan review in a condition of uncertainty.

88

Understanding which form uncertainty takes in each case is a major step in starting to manage uncertainty and prepare contingencies. The plan should be capable of adapting to a range of scenarios.

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PL ANNING PROCESS

Making it happen

2.9

making it happen 2.9

Players in the development game:

STAGE 6 – TAKING ACTION

Investors and their agents

The process of implementation tends to be disjointed and incremental, as opposed to the neat world of analysis and strategy. Proposals may come forward from a wide range of interests, reacting to circumstances that are often unpredictable. The task is to match this bottom-up process of implementation with the top-down principles embodied in plans. The planning authority need to ensure that it is ahead of the game, not just reacting to events. Within the context of the spatial framework and criteria-based policies, there are many tools available for site-by-site co-ordination: these include development briefs, design codes, detailed masterplans and planning application requirements.

 landowner  estate agent  finance company  investment advisors  builders Policymakers and regulators  planning, transport, housing, conservation, etc. professionals  development managers, water and environmental regulators  politicians at different levels Operators and providers  transport, education, health, housing, leisure, retail, businesses

THE DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION FRAMEWORK The purpose of the design framework is to realise the health and sustainability ambitions of the community and put the spatial framework into practice. The central principle is placemaking. All new developments should contribute to the creation of places that satisfy user needs, encourage healthy lifestyles, and can be efficiently constructed and managed. The three tools of design co-ordination outlined below may be appropriate separately or together, depending on the context.

 building and property managers

6.11 The scheme and its implementation

One acid test of the spatial planning process is the quality of planning applications. In the context of a collaborative approach the onus is on the prospective investors – households, firms or institutions – to come forward with appropriate schemes. The planning regime should encourage and facilitate this by the clarity of its requirements and the usefulness of the tools and information provided. Chapter 6 develops each of the following mechanisms in detail, and illustrates the way that investors can respond through their development applications. Development briefs: being ahead of the game Briefs for development on specific sites should be produced by neighbourhood planners within the context of a spatial strategy or masterplan. The brief sets the context for any subsequent development proposal. It interprets policy at the site level, and affects site value. The main purpose is to trigger an appropriate development response. The brief can invite competition in areas of high demand, or offer development incentives where demand is low. Briefs are most useful where they co-ordinate the policy and advice from various interested departments and agencies: planning, highways, utility companies, conservation agencies, for example. Objectives, site and context appraisal may be 89

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PL ANNING PROCESS

Making it happen

2.9 accompanied by an indicative layout and built form guidance – especially on access, desire lines across site, mix of uses, density, key building heights, views, trees, management of communal space, and so on. However, the brief should not be used as a rigid aesthetic control tool. It is important to give freedom of interpretation to the designer.

CHECKLIST The development brief The contents of a brief for a major development site might include:  the purpose of the brief, and the urban context

It is essential that briefs are compiled early in the development process, before sites are purchased or as a condition of purchase. At this stage the developer can assess the value of land in relation to the requirements of the brief.

 the site area  the status of the brief – is it simply advisory, or adopted by the local authority, thus having more authority?

A vital part of the requirements will be a legal planning agreement, setting out expectations for contribution to public transport infrastructure, schools, parkland, off-site road junctions, etc.

 preferred uses, the density, the amount of public space and greenspace  requirements for site and context appraisal in any application

Design codes

 urban design objectives and criteria (if not in a more general Design Code)

Design codes can be used in the context of a city plan, a spatial framework or a specific masterplan. They are a method of streetmaking: that is a creation of coherent set of design rules which address the character of the street, the buildings on either side, and the plots on which the buildings sit. The code aims to deliver:

 health and sustainability criteria

 a

 off-site financial commitments – e.g. for contribution to extra transport investment

 low  a

convivial, pedestrian-orientated public realm

 submission requirements and contacts

 a

good orientation and aspect for home and garden

 access and route requirements  wildlife habitat requirements

locally distinctive and attractive environment

 bike  an

6.11 The scheme and its implementation

crime levels and a sense of safety

and vehicle access and parking

appropriate drainage and biodiversity regime

Design codes can be a huge assistance when many small developments are involved. The case study of Vauban (3.b) illustrates its use in co-ordinating residents' co-operatives, small builders and individual households to create a convivial, low-carbon living environment. Detailed design frameworks The term 'masterplan' is used rather confusingly in different situations. Here we restrict its use to what are sometimes called 'detailed masterplans'. Such a masterplan establishes a three-dimensional framework for buildings and public spaces. It is needed for any area of major change – such as an urban extension or a regeneration area. The masterplan is more detailed and prescriptive than the spatial framework or old-fashioned zoning plan. It is a tool of urban design and implementation. The masterplan should be prepared for or by the agency which has the power to deliver. This normally means the prime landowning or funding organisation. However, it is essential that other stakeholders are involved and preparation is seen as a collaborative exercise, with shared ownership and commitment.

90

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PL ANNING PROCESS

Making it happen

2.9 There is also much more chance of a masterplan being grounded in the realities of neighbourhood planning if it is developed with the continuous involvement of the local community. The masterplan for a regeneration area or new urban extension is likely to be a package rather than a single plan, and acts to draw together all the strands which guide and control development. It should consist of four main parts: the appraisal, the design strategy, the design code, and the implementation plan.

This masterplan or design framework for a greenfield neighbourhood in north Bristol, England, includes perimeter housing blocks with internal parking areas, a local semipedestrianised centre with primary school, a network of streets with traffic calming and connections to greenspace. It is rather cut off from main public transport routes.

Image courtesy of Powell-Dobson Urbanists, Cardiff

The planning authority should be involved in drawing up the scope of the masterplan, in its final approval and monitoring its

Figure 2.21 A masterplan on a greenfield site

91

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PL ANNING PROCESS

Making it happen

2.10 The limits of masterplanning Masterplans should be both ambitious and deliverable. Beware of glossy images where they have no clear means of realisation. Implementation relies on the ownership of land, the availability of capital and a supportive planning and neighbourhood context. In areas of slow or unpredictable change, masterplans are not the answer. Rather it is better to rely on the spatial framework, criteria-based policies and design guidance. These can provide a good basis for negotiations with developers but should be flexible enough to survive the uncertainties of the development process. Such guidelines should identify the ‘bottom line’ and articulate the opportunities without being prematurely prescriptive.

implementation. The vision and quality of many masterplans can be eroded in the implementation, without effective development management. Implementing masterplans  Phasing

strategy – shows the sequence of building and the allocation of development sites or parcels. It should also include a strategy regarding short-term use of ‘fallow’ sites for future development.

 Ownership

and tenure statements – show the projected residential tenure distribution (owner-occupied, self-build, housing association, shared equity, private rented, etc.), and the land owned by major developers/financial institutions, public ownership, and so on.

 Management

plans – these could include:

– waste management plan – biodiversity strategy – water management plan – energy strategy – areas subject to covenants/legal restrictions – public realm management strategy  Individual

sites within the masterplan area – these may need more detailed guidance, for example in the form of development briefs. Specific guidance may be needed for environmentally sensitive areas.

The acid test of the planning and design process is whether it results in good planning applications and healthy development. Chapter 6 examines this in detail.

2.10

STAGE 7 – LEARNING LESSONS

BASIC PRINCIPLE Monitoring is not an optional extra. It is fundamental to the whole process – the basis on which success or failure is assessed and policy is revised. The monitoring and review process should be:  broad

ranging – covering local quality of life, policy impacts and the effectiveness of the decision process

 practical

– simple enough to be handled for each neighbourhood, ward or parish despite very limited resources

 motivating

– examining the factors that matter to people with the involvement, as appropriate, of local stakeholders and decision-makers

92

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PL ANNING PROCESS

Making it happen

2.10 Monitoring occurs not only through formalised data collection by local authority officials, but also through the awareness and alertness of local community groups, and parish/town/ district councillors. Local planning officers have a particular responsibility to be sensitive to the way neighbourhoods are changing physically. Effective channels of communication between local people, elected representatives and relevant agencies are vital.

Some local Indicators of wellbeing, often available at ward or parish level: 6.13 Post-occupancy: closing the circle

 citizens’ degree of satisfaction or happiness with their locality  longevity  healthy life years  levels of obesity  crime levels

ASSESSING POLICY IMPACT

 unemployment levels

The main responsibility for assessing the direct impact of policies and development schemes rests with those who are implementing them – though others, particularly those directly affected, should be involved in the process. The key questions are:

 income levels

1. How far have policies or proposals been implemented? For example, if the township strategy proposed new bikeways, how many have been constructed or firmly programmed? Are there mechanisms in place to ensure future progress?

 the proportion of unfit homes  the proportion of income spent on housing  proportion of trips by walking and cycling, especially children to school  educational achievement  air quality  water quality

2. Have policies delivered the expected or desired results? For example, where new bikeways have been realised, are they being used as intended? Have they led to increased cycling and less car travel? Have they proved safe? Are they liked by cyclists and other street users? Have they resulted in any unintended consequences?

 levels of noise pollution

3. If there are problems with implementation, what are the causes? For example, is there a lack of money or key personnel? Has the policy been deflected or highjacked by events? How could the barriers be overcome?

Compare this list with the more general UN Sustainable Development Goals.

 average distance to greenspace  distance to good public transport, educational, health, retail, leisure and social facilities  average time spent on the journey to work

4. If the results are disappointing where things have happened, then why? For example, if the cyclists are not choosing to use the bikeways, or there has been no increase in cycling or transfer from car, then is this because of poor choice of route? Poor design? Perceived dangers? Lack of knowledge? Lack of reinforcement by other policies? ASSESSING HEALTH AND SUSTAINABILITY OUTCOMES The monitoring agenda is essentially about updating and reviewing the neighbourhood appraisal on a regular basis. It is concerned with the full range of topics listed in section 2.6: people, community, activities, place and resources. The purposes of assessment are the same. Practicality While during the initial preparation of a neighbourhood strategy there may be extra resources and money to undertake detailed appraisal work, on-going monitoring is more difficult to resource. It is essential to put clear, simple mechanisms in place that are both practical and effective. 93

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PL ANNING PROCESS

Making it happen

2.10 Social landlords: environmental monitoring

This list, derived from Vale Housing Association, UK, is a helpful guide. Vale recognise they have a responsibility to their tenants and the wider environment. An independent organisation carries out six-monthly checks on:  tenants’ energy consumption  association energy consumption  staff use of transport  tenants’ water consumption  quality of new buildings  wildlife impacts  the amount of landfill waste  the proportion of purchasing items that are recycled and are capable of recycling These provide incentives to improve performance, for example, to install energy-efficiency measures to benefit tenants’ bills and reduce carbon emissions.

The household survey There should be at least 50 households surveyed per ward in order to provide a significant sample. Where there are very different socio-economic, ethnic or cultural groups within one ward or parish, there may be justification for sampling 50 of each group.

City quality of life or wellbeing indicators Social, economic and environmental variables are routinely collected and publicised by the local authority. This menu of indicators should be designed by the local authority to be relevant to the neighbourhood level – allowing comparison between neighbourhoods and facilitating prioritisation for action. For this purpose it is normally necessary to rely on ward-based data. Neighbourhood groups, parish and town councils can then extract the data for their own wards and see their area in context. Social survey While much quality of life information may already be collected by official agencies and collated by local authorities, published annually, it is recommended that local authorities supplement such statistics with a sample survey of households every two or three years. The survey can identify trends in travel behaviour, use of local facilities, levels of satisfaction, changing attitudes and specific concerns. It acts as an objective record of actual behaviour and residents’ views. It thus offers an invaluable cross-check on the views expressed by local community groups, businesses and councillors, and will in turn influence those views. Physical trends It is also important to monitor physical change within the neighbourhood: renewal processes, densities, land uses, routeways, aesthetic character. Increasingly, in richer countries, this information will be held on GIS software and collated as part of urban capacity or potential studies by the local planning authority. In that context community groups can perform the vital role of reviewing and reporting on the evolving pattern of the area against sustainable development criteria. ASSESSING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE PROCESS It is important to observe and learn from the experience of a particular neighbourhood initiative both to improve that initiative itself and to pass on lessons to subsequent projects elsewhere. Has the process been effective?  Has

it achieved progress in charting the way forward to health and sustainable development?

 Did

it enable decisions to be reached efficiently and timely action to be taken?

 Did

it succeed in involving all relevant stakeholders, including the population at large?

 Has

it managed to sort problems and overcome institutional and commercial barriers?

 Has

it enhanced the social capital and capacity for action of the local community?

94

Sweet Home Farm

2.a

Cape Town, South Africa Participatory planning in an informal settlement

Sweet Home Farm is a community of 17,000 people living in about 3,000 self-build shacks on 22 hectares of land that was previously a dumping ground. Occupancy is nearly 6 per dwelling and density is very high, at 770 ppha. The City of Cape Town put in some basic infrastructure in 2006 but it was not until 2014, after community protests, that an informal settlement up-grading was planned. The City proposed a standard rectilinear street layout with singlestorey houses that would have resulted in more than half the community having to move out. A group of urbanists with previous experience of shanty towns, Ubule Bakha Ubuhle (UBU), was appointed by the City to manage ‘facilitation’ of the project. UBU determined to involve people actively in the planning and design process. They held a series of workshops for different parts of the settlement. Initially people were reticent about giving their ideas. UBU built confidence with detailed 1:100 maps of the area, inviting participants to find their own shack, then giving them building blocks to shape the environment they wanted. There was consensus that the City’s solution was unacceptable: ‘we don’t want anyone to leave.’ Two key ideas emerged from the building block exercises: firstly, that the reconstruction should create inward-looking ‘villages’ with quiet semi-pedestrianised

inner streets and playspace at the heart, so that kids did not have to ‘dance with the traffic’; secondly that density should be increased by building two-storey houses. The overall scheme was designed at 110 dpha, retaining over 75 per cent of the population. The City Design Team Planner required 0.5 hectares at the centre of the settlement for community and commercial uses, and that each ‘village’ should contain an early childhood development centre and allow spaza (small, informal) shops. The development goalposts then moved. 100 per cent population retention became obligatory. UBU and the community had to start again. UBU are hoping to achieve an incremental in-situ up-grade, co-producing a re-blocking scheme with the residents, experimenting with a communitybased building team, changing the land holding pattern to private ownership of dwellings and communal ownership of public space to allow house-holders to progressively up-grade properties as they can afford it. UBU’s conclusion from the whole process is that when community members are exposed to key design and development parameters, they are best placed to come up with layout principles and concepts, which can then be interpreted by professionals. ‘Nothing about us, without us’. Source: Barry Lewis, UBU, personal communication 2020

The two ideas that became the key concepts of the plan: two storeys, and a sense of enclosure.

95

The Spectrum Approach

2.b

Houndwood, Street, England Collaborative planning of the design framework

EXCELLENT

The criterion is fully satisfed

GOOD

The criterion is generally satisfed

NEGOTIABLE

Success depends on further work and negotiation

PROBLEMATICAL

Not likely to be satisfactorily fulflled without major reassessment

UNACCEPTABLE

The criterion cannot be satisfed

As discussed in section 2.7, Spectrum is a collaborative planning tool that works through from initial objectives and appraisal to final plan. This case – undertaken by the authors as members of the World Health Organization Centre at the University of the West of England – exemplifies the approach. It concerns a regeneration site in the small town of Street, in Somerset, England, where the owners eventually gained planning precision for 400 homes and associated open space.

The process The effectiveness of the process was greatly helped by the fact that the site was owned by one firm – Clarks Shoes – with a commitment to social and environmental sustainability. There were a series of workshops through the process which led eventually to a sustainability report evaluating the qualities of the scheme. A full spectrum of stakeholders was involved, including  local

people, civic and environmental groups

 parish  local  the

councillors

authority officials (planning, housing and transport)

site owners and prospective developers

 planning

consultants and the design team

The sequence of actions and events is shown in the figure opposite. Building mutual trust and understanding

Spectrum grading sheet (extract) In the plenary, grades were recorded as 'blobs' from the relevant break-out group, and then after discussion, by number of individual votes.

96

The early stages of the process are all about shared experience and building mutual understanding between the disparate groups. The values inherent in the idea of sustainable development were the starting point, specified by Clarks. Trips out to exemplary projects allowed shared learning. The initial list of 22 objectives, proposed by the WHO Centre and then adjusted through workshop discussion, were comprehensive in scope, including economic viability as well as social and environmental criteria. The essential principle was that all interests could clearly identify where their own aspirations or concerns were represented in the list, and at the same time accept the legitimacy of the other interests, even where these might conflict with their own. Achieving consensus on the objectives – which are then used to evaluate schemes and structure the sustainability appraisal, is critical. The objectives are not weighted. Each is valued for itself, and all need to be achieved to a reasonable degree. Triggering new ideas through the appraisal process The evaluation workshops were structured so as to ensure everyone could participate effectively, with a combination of

2.b

The Spectrum Approach Houndwood, Street, England Collaborative planning of the design framework

small group discussions around subsets of the objectives (with an obligation to reach consensual recommendations) and plenaries where each individual had a vote in relation to all objectives. This resulted in a rich diet of information which then went to inform the technical report. The aims of the discussions were not only evaluation but also shared learning and creativity. The Spectrum grades identified which objectives were not being achieved and therefore needed further work or a design review. The investors and their professional team learnt from the insights and ideas of the other stakeholders. Because the discussions were about levels of impact on a given objective, not about relative importance, it was also surprising how far agreement was possible. Early table-top site planning workshop.

Sustainability appraisal The preferred scheme, having been subject to a stakeholder appraisal workshop, was then evaluated by the UWE team. This evaluation drew on three elements: specialist reports commissioned by the developers (e.g. on transport, the housing market, wildlife and landscape); the consensual and individual arguments/votes of the stakeholders; and the ‘best practice’ expertise of the team. The report was presented to the design/development group. It formed part of the supporting documentation given to the local authority along with the planning application. This case study is written up in more detail in Barton 2017, chapter 17.

Shared visit to Bedzed; building understanding and capacity among the participants. Photographs provided courtesy of Alan Pearce, Alder King Planning Consultants, responsible for co-ordinating the Houndwood project.

The six stages of the Spectrum process at Houndwood Source: Barton and Grant, 2008

optional extra iterations

97

Stroud Neighbourhood Plan

2.c

Gloucestershire, England A community initiative gaining official backing

Plan content

If a neighbourhood, parish or community plan is to gain real traction, it has to become part of the legal planning framework for the area. Only then can it influence investment. The process may be obvious if the official planning units are small (e.g. rural communes in France). If not, then the neighbourhood plan must fit into and be approved by a more strategic body (e.g. the local authority in the UK). Either way the process is not simple. This case study illustrates the complexity of reality.

1. General policies, guiding development anywhere in the plan area. 2. Zonal policies, applying to specific parts of the plan area. 3. The Spatial Framework: a map showing street and greenspace classification, safeguarded pedestrian routes, development sites, etc. 4. Design code, design requirements for new buildings and the public realm.

Stroud Town Council (STC) has delegated authority over part of an English market town. In UK law it is entitled to prepare a Neighbourhood Development Plan (NDP). STC decided to make a plan for the town centre, which serves a population of around 30,000, and won approval from Stroud District Council for the specific area of the plan.

5. How it will happen, spelling out the mechanisms and the commitments of partners. 6. Advocacy policies, for topics, such as traffic management, which are beyond the legal remit of the plan.

ft

cro Row

Local volunteers steer the plan process

Ra i

lw ay

Ch

ea

ZP2a

ps

ide

St at io n

Volunteers from the town were centrally involved, persuading the town council that action was needed and then forming the Neighbourhood Plan volunteer group to steer the process and create the plan. The diagram opposite illustrates the whole process, distinguishing the roles of the three main bodies. The wider community was involved at each stage – through exhibitions, public forums, street interviews, and local media. The views of people both in the parish area and from further afield were influential, balanced with physical survey information, technical analysis, best practice principles and official consultations. The main stages were:  Taking

the initiative: STC decides the scope and area of the plan, and gains approval through a launch event and from the District Council.

 Vision

and understanding: these happened in parallel, informing each other, supported by the ‘issues consultation’ event.

Can a

l

Extract from the Spatial Framework Identifying a 0.4 hectare site for development, by the canal. Source: Stroud Town Council 2016, p.56, and Barton 2017, p.264

 Developing

ideas: volunteers and the community who were consulted found it difficult to move from issues and aims to specific policies, partly because there was perceived conflict between creating a healthy pedestrian-friendly environment and sustaining the town centre economy. Professional help was important to find positive ways of promoting both.

 Agreeing

the plan: the volunteer group and STC wrestle with how to make the plan robust in the context of English planning law, and what uses to plan for particular sites, but eventually submitted to the District council. After an official independent test the plan won 93 per cent approval on a referendum.

 Taking

action: STC were galvanised by having their own plan, formed a special committee and employed extra staff to implement projects within the plan and consider planning applications.

 Learning

lessons: the plan was approved in 2016. At the time of writing (2020) it is being reviewed and its scope and effectiveness evaluated, especially in the light of the climate emergency.

98

Stroud Neighbourhood Plan

2.c

Gloucestershire, England A community initiative gaining official backing

Plan process diagram Stroud Town Council

Neighbourhood Plan Volunteer Group

Stroud District Council

Ch heapside Neig ghbourh hood Opportunitiies Report

The Stroud Neighbourhood Plan process SOURCE: prepared for the Stroud NDP team, and printed in Barton 2017

Decission to o pro ogreess wiith h a to own n centrre NDP N

Fo orm matiion of th he NDP Stee eeriing Grou oup

Agreeed

Pro oposed NDP boundary r ry

Agreeed

Launch eveent July l 2014 ly Preeviious studies feeeding in: Co ommunity t Planning ty Co onfeereence T wn To n Ceentree Management Plan Shop Frrontss Policy c cy Public Realm Stra ateegy g Academy my of m Urbanism Report

Agreeed by b Strroud To T wn n Co ouncil

Isssues consulta atiion Septeember 2014

Eviidence gath heriing and analy l si ly siss

Dra aft Stroud Local Plan Infrastructuree Deliveeryy Plan

Vis ision/ on/o on/ /obj b ectiivees consulta atiion Noveember 2014 Optiions consulta atiion Marcch 2015

Wiider areea plans:

Gloucesteersshiree Local Transp Tr s ort Plan sp

Susta ainability t ty appra ais i al Dra aftt Plan

Public Co onsulta atiion Octo oberr–Noveember 2015 Agreeed by b Strroud To T wn n Co ouncil

Plan submitteed aftter nal reeviiew in th he lig ght of consulta atiion

Receiveed by b Strroud Dist strrict Co ouncil Fin inal consulta atiion periiod E aminatiion by Ex b an independent insp s ecto sp or

If appro oved ed Strroud To ed, T wn n Co ouncil pro omotee and implement

Refeereendum of Strroud to own n reesidentss If appro oved ed becomes part ed, of th he Deveelopment Plan fo or Strroud To T wn n Ceentrre 99

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PL ANNING PROCESS

The neighbourhood checklist

the neighbourhood checklist PURPOSE This checklist offers a quick test of the health and sustainability of a neighbourhood, urban district or small town or village. It is intended for:

 community groups

 local councillors

assessing the current situation in their town or neighbourhood and wishing to evaluate future plans.

and planners concerned with establishing partnerships and appropriate policy frameworks.

 involved professionals

(planners, designers, social workers, public health professionals) setting a neighbourhood agenda, preparing plans, or comparing different localities.

COLLABORATIVE PLAN-MAKING 1. Starting up

2.4

 Is

there an identifiable need for a town, district, neighbourhood or village strategy?

 Is

there already some form of sub-local-authority policymaking (e.g. within the Development Plan) that could provide the starting point for community planning?

 Is

there a sufficient initial community of interest among a range of political/voluntary/public/private sector groups to warrant launching an initiative?

 Are

there widely recognised problems, opportunities and aspirations which can act as a motivator for other groups and interests to get involved?

 Is

the suggested area on a scale large enough to address the problems, and defined so as to avoid, on the one hand, the premature exclusion of interested parties, and on the other, loss of focus by including too much?

 Is

there a lead organisation (maybe the local authority itself, a parish/commune council, a development agency or a formally constituted community forum) able to take the leadership role and having a clear, widely accepted idea about what needs to be done, and in what way?

2. Getting going

2.5, 2.6

 Has

the wider context – of locational characteristics, policy documents, public sector commitments, major investments etc – been understood and recognised?

3. Creating a strategy  Have

major policy options been clearly identified and evaluated by stakeholders against fundamental health and sustainability criteria?  Where there are gaps in knowledge, have studies been undertaken or commissioned to reduce the uncertainties and build a platform for effective plan-making?  Has a long-term spatial framework been developed which can work towards a healthier and more sustainable environment, providing an effective context for short-term decision-making?  Have detailed policies been worked out that are capable of shaping development decisions, and standing up when challenged on appeal. 4. Making it happen

the local authority – especially the planning department and (if public property is involved) the asset management unit – supportive of the plan?

 Are

local political representatives, at different levels, actively supporting the plan and its implementation?

 Have

and shakers’ in the public, private and voluntary sectors, together with effective representation of the interests of residents, vulnerable/marginal groups and the wider (global) public interest?

 Have

there a project brief, agreed by all the main stakeholders, which defines the remit and the scope of the project, how local people are to be involved, how work will be organised and what outputs are expected?

 Are

there effective mechanisms for inclusive public involvement that offer the opportunity for real participation at appropriate stages in the plan process?

 Has

a ‘neighbourhood appraisal’ been undertaken (including detailed spatial analysis and residents’ views) encompassing social, economic and environmental issues in a format appropriate for policy-making?

100

2.9, 2.10

 Is

 Does the stakeholder group include most of the relevant ‘movers

 Is

2.7, 2.8

local people given their backing to the plan? In Britain this can be through a referendum of all residents. influential agencies (such as the transport department, economic development unit, health and education authorities, and major employers) committed themselves to fulfilling their part in the overall strategy?

 Where

there are major development sites, urban extensions or regeneration areas, have development briefs and masterplans been prepared as appropriate?

 Are

specific development proposals coming forward, and being evaluated, in the context of the spatial framework and other policy guidance?

 Are

there mechanisms for assessing the on-going success of the plan, and eventual review?

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PL ANNING PROCESS

The neighbourhood checklist

7. Access to facilities, jobs and greenspace

HEALTH AND WELLBEING

3.6–3.13

 What

The starting point for any evaluation of a neighbourhood is the people of the area: their health, quality of life, living conditions, social networks and the issues that concern them. Convenient, enjoyable, safe and carbon-neutral access to work opportunities and a wide range of facilities are critical to wellbeing, equity and environmental sustainability. This section illustrates the kind of questions that need asking. They may be answered in a variety of ways, according to context: through professional appraisal of statistics, such as those in state-of-the-environment reports, through mapping analysis and social surveys, through public consultation, or collaborative policy-making processes. 5. People

2.3, 3.2, 3.5

 Who

lives in the area, especially in terms of social and racial groups, types of household, age groups, and income levels? Is there a diverse, reasonably balanced community, or is it dominated by one group?

 How

is the population changing? Is there much migration in and out? If so, of what kind? And what factors are causing it?

 What

‘quality of life’ do residents enjoy – especially in terms of health, employment, social stress, mobility?

 What

perceptions do residents have about the quality of their area? What do they like? What do they dislike? What priorities for urgent action?

 Who

else (besides residents) rely on the facilities of the neighbourhood, for example: entrepreneurs, workers, shopkeepers, people socialising or playing in the area, visitors?

6. Community and housing

3.3, 3.4

 Is

there a thriving local community - in terms of local associations, community initiatives and friendship networks that are vital for mental health, especially for groups such as children and retired people? there specific places – facilities or external spaces – which are important for maintaining/building the sense of community?

range of facilities (food stores, convenience shops, civic, leisure, social, cultural, healthcare and educational facilities) are available in or close to the neighbourhood, within walking or cycling distance?

 What

are the perceptions of local people about the ease of gaining access to these facilities, especially but not only, on foot or bike?

 What

new facilities are needed locally, and could provision in nearby areas help compensate for local shortfalls?

 Is

there a good range of locally available jobs and opportunities for training, matching the needs of the population?

 Can

people get conveniently to more distant employment opportunities and higher level facilities, without reliance on the car?

 Do

all households live within close proximity of attractive greenspace and facilities for play, outdoor recreation, relaxation and food production?

8. Healthy movement

is the current balance of different travel behaviours – walking, cycling, moped, bus, car – for particular purposes: to local shops, schools, work places, social trips, leisure activities?

 Which

streets are dangerous, or unhealthy, in terms of air quality, accidents and assaults, especially for pedestrians and cyclists, and what has been done to reduce the dangers?

 Is

the neighbourhood/town part of a sub-regional area with an integrated plan for sustainable transport, which could affect people’s travel choices towards low-carbon modes? If not, how could it be prompted?

 Is

there a local strategy for the progressive improvement of conditions for pedestrians, for example through car-free areas, pavement widening, safe crossings, new connections, safe routes to school?

 Is

there a safe, convenient cycle network for everyday use? If not, has the potential been identified, including for e-bikes, together with a programme of implementation?

 Are

 How

 Is

 Are

there civic engagement on the part of local people, including engagement with the neighbourhood plan?

 Is

there a good mix of different types of housing in terms of tenure, size and affordability which can reduce the problem of rich and poor ghettos, and promote social inclusion?

3.14–3.18

 What

easy is it – particularly for frail and less mobile people, children and teenagers - to get to a wide range of places by public transport, with frequent services? the levels of traffic, congestion and air pollution rising or falling? Is there an area-wide strategy for traffic reduction, with a programme of investment in traffic management and the promotion of alternatives?

 Are

specific housing needs, identified by local surveys and Housing Authority lists, being provided for in such a way as to avoid the creation of ghettos and to recognise locational needs (such as sheltered housing close to a local centre)? 101

A NEIGHBOURHOOD PL ANNING PROCESS

The neighbourhood checklist

SPATIAL SUSTAINABILITY

maintaining, enhancing or up-grading places as appropriate?  Where new or infill development is proposed, is this guided by the

Decisions about the urban environment not only affect the behaviour and wellbeing of people directly, but global sustainability and resilience, with profound long-term implications for human health. This section asks questions about physical planning, design and management from sub-regional scale down to individual buildings and natural features.

principle of facing and overlooking the street, so as to safeguard the aesthetic quality and the natural surveillance of the street?  Do

new blocks or streets incorporate a variety of built forms allowing for some diversity of user and adaptability between users (e.g. from house to corner shop or office)?

11. Green infrastructure

Chapter 4, 5.10, 6.2

 Is

The checklist emphasises the need for a robust spatial framework for each urban township or country town – the scale at which many services are viable. The purpose of such a framework is to sustain, revitalise, reshape, and provide a context within which neighbourhood plans can make sense, and individual development decisions can be properly taken. Every development or greenspace decision has impact on the broader picture. It is difficult to exaggerate the importance of buildings and their use in relation to energy, water, raw materials, recycling; and the importance of greenspace in relation to carbon, water, wildlife, food production and mental wellbeing. The design of the public realm is critical to way people experience their home territory, to the degree it is pedestrian-friendly and earth-friendly. 9. Spatial strategy

2.8, Chapter 5

 Is

there a spatial framework for the district/town, as part of an integrated city region or sub-regional strategy, based on the principles of health and sustainability?

 Is

the framework structured around the twin priorities of car-free accessibility (public transport, walking, cycling) and sustainable green infrastructure?

 Do

policies for housing, transport, density, commercial development, retail, cultural and leisure activities all reinforce each other, and are they consistent with the overall strategy?

 Are

the processes of urban renewal and regeneration in line with the overall strategy? Does that strategy facilitate renewal so that areas and communities that experience economic and social decline are triggered into revival?

 Where

new urban extensions or estates are proposed, are they located and designed so that public transport, walking and cycling are encouraged?

 Are

environmental assets – including flood plains, water catchments, soils, trees and woodland – being safeguarded and enhanced? (see below)

10. Urban design

Chapter 6

 Throughout

the area, is there a programme for the progressive enhancement of the public realm, improving safety, reducing the impact of traffic, greening the environment, providing and maintaining opportunities for play, relaxation and social contact?

 Is the distinctive character of streets, spaces and localities, as seen

by local residents, recognised and surveyed? Are there policies for 102

there a long-term strategy for creating, enhancing and linking multifunctional greenspaces as part of a green infrastructure approach which also improves access to greenspace for communities lacking it?

 Given a warming climate, are water courses, drainage systems and

flood plains being protected and improved, while being planned as accessible aesthetic, recreational and biodiverse amenities?  Are

urban trees being planted and managed as part of a healthy neighbourhood strategy, with concern for their wildlife, energy and pollution functions, their aesthetic and psychological value?

 Are wildlife havens and corridors, along with green buildings, being

planned/enhanced as part of an overall biodiversity strategy?  Is

sustainable local food production and organic composting being encouraged by accessible local allotments, smallholdings, city farms?

12. Eco-development

4.3–4.8, 6.5

 Is

there an integrated energy strategy, working in harmony with energy agencies, aimed at maximising the energy efficiency of buildings, the use of renewables, and where appropriate, the promotion of carbon-efficient district heating?

 Are

all new and rehabilitated buildings being designed to be as close to energy self-sufficient as possible, minimising the need for heating or cooling, generating electricity from the sun?

 Is there an effective programme of action for increasing the

energy efficiency of the older housing stock, particularly that occupied by low-income households, so as to reduce fuel poverty?  Are

buildings being constructed out of low-carbon and/ or locally sourced materials? Are construction wastes being effectively re-used and recycled?

 Are

pure water supplies available to all households, schools, etc., with water demand reduction measures incorporated in all new and refurbished developments, and where appropriate on-site water catchment?

 Is

all development incorporating sustainable drainage measures aimed at recharging groundwater?

 Are new residential developments being oriented so that back

gardens and/or balconies are good for home-growing – towards the sun in cool climates, and in the shade in hot climates?  Is

there space in new and renovated dwellings for household recycling and recycling initiatives in the neighbourhood?

l ecosystem Globa ural environment t a N t environment Buil A cti v i tie s al economy c o L m un o C m t ity Lifes yle

People

providing for local need chapter

3

people and community 3.1

PUTTING PEOPLE FIRST

OVERVIEW The essence of sustainable development is providing for people’s needs, now and in the future. This chapter takes the people of the neighbourhood as the starting point. It gives guidance on the way to approach questions of new housing provision and social mix. It looks at ways in which local community networks and enterprises can be promoted. It examines the way decisions about land use and location affect access to, and quality of, local jobs, shops, schools, health centres and open spaces. It discusses the planning of the local environment so that people choose to walk and cycle, and vehicle movement is reduced. Underpinning all the guidance is concern for people’s physical and mental wellbeing, and a belief that good neighbourhood environments can support wellbeing.

NEIGHBOURHOOD PRINCIPLES The neighbourhood design principles set out in Chapter 1 (1.14) provide a useful way of articulating the goals of a humane, healthy, convivial, sustainable neighbourhood.  Stakeholder

involvement The surest way to understand different needs and aspirations is to ask the people involved. Residents understand their area in a way which visiting professionals cannot. Their knowledge and insight are vital. There will often, though, be contradictory views (e.g. between car users and pedestrians). The context set by the organising group – working for health and sustainability – can help orientate discussion. Policy stakeholders (planning, transport, public health officials, etc.) can help ground discussions with relevant evidence. The principles of public engagement have been developed in Chapter 2.

CONTENTS PEOPLE AND COMMUNITY 3.1 Putting people first 3.2 A diverse population 3.3 Housing for all 3.4 Strong communities 3.5 Neighbourhood identity LOCAL ENTERPRISE 3.6 Access to jobs 3.7 Resilient local economies 3.8 Town and local centre vitality ACCESS TO LOCAL FACILITIES 3.9 Planning local accessibility 3.10 Accessibility criteria 3.11 Educational facilities 3.12 Community health 3.13 Recreational space PLANNING FOR TRAVEL 3.14 Neighbourhood travel strategy 3.15 Pedestrians first! 3.16 Planning for the cyclist 3.17 Public transport 3.18 Taming cars and vans CASE STUDIES 3a UN Rapid Planning Studio, Kenya, the Philippines, Saudi Arabia 3b Vauban, Freiburg, Germany 3c Mandela Gateway and Mandela Market Place, Oakland, USA 3d Mulberry Park, Bath, England

 Increased

local autonomy Neighbourhoods cannot be – and should not attempt to be – self-sufficient in work and services. But there is tremendous value in increasing the proportion of daily and weekly needs that can be satisfied locally. This is especially true for children and young people, retired people, home-workers and those wanting part-time work. Surveys find that the availability or otherwise of local facilities is a key issue for residents. Where 103

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

People and community

3.1 Physical activity and health A central theme of this chapter is physical activity: ensuring that as towns and cities evolve there are ample opportunities and incentives for people to choose to be physically active. Neighbourhood-level planning is key to this. Physical activity has benefits in relation to cardio-vascular disease, diabetes, cancer, hypertension, obesity, depression and mental illness, osteoporosis and premature death. Many academic studies have summarised these relationships, e.g. Crowther et al. 2004, Warburton and Bredin 2017. For a succinct overview of the research and recommendations, see Barton 2017, chapters 6–8.

The World Health Organization’s Global Action Plan on Physical Activity advocates these action points for city leaders:  Create active environments.  Integrate urban and transport planning policies.  Improve the walking and cycling infrastructure and universal access.  Improve road and personal safety for pedestrians, cyclists and less mobile people.  Strengthen access to good quality greenspaces and recreational/sporting opportunities for all.  Strengthen the policy, regulatory and design frameworks at all levels to ensure housing, work and public facilities are designed for everyone to be physically active. SOURCE: WHO 2018a

local facilities are available, then people generally choose to use them, depending on distance, safety and environment. Local use has benefits in terms of health, social inclusion, economic vitality and environmental sustainability; but local provision will only work if the strategic policy preconditions support it.  Social

stability The goal is to create opportunities for social contact, social stability and ‘community’, which depends in part on shared local activities and life on the street. It also depends on the sense that different kinds of people are accepted in the wider community. The objectives are community safety, inclusivity and social cohesion.

 Connectivity

Connectivity applies to the pattern of streets: creating a permeable environment that increases accessibility, especially by foot and pedal. A connected approach to provision means agencies working together to deliver shared facilities: for example, the education and leisure departments working with community groups to provide a better hall, library or hard pitch than they could separately; or small businesses and volunteer organisations sharing serviced office space and café and yard.  Diversity

Within a neighbourhood, and even more a town or urban district, choice and opportunity can be increased by achieving requisite variety: a ‘balanced’ population in terms of age, family status and wealth; a wide variety of housing stock; a diversity of economic niches and type of service provision. The object is to achieve and maintain diversity and opportunity within a stable overall pattern.  Response

to place

Place is not only important in terms of function and connectivity but also in terms of people’s perceptions: the local cultural landscape. Places are valued for their history and associations, their smell, touch, sound and visual quality. As much care needs to be taken in aesthetically mundane or tawdry environments as in conservation areas. Each new project should make a positive contribution to the identity and quality of place.  Adaptability

The increasing challenge of climate breakdown will mean adapting towns to warmer and more unpredictable weather. Decisions taken now will affect local resilience. Adaptability also encompasses the idea of the ‘lifetime neighbourhood’, accommodating changing needs through an individual’s life and to changing social/economic patterns. It means overt consideration for future generations – for example, options for second generations’ homes. It means recognising the neighbourhood as providing for a dynamic community, avoiding unnecessary constraints on market and lifestyle innovation. 104

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

People and community

3.1 LOCAL ENVIRONMENT, WELLBEING AND EQUITY It is important to have a clear perspective on any neighbourhood, urban district or town, to be able to compare it to other places, and so help to justify policy and prioritise actions. The question is, how best to characterise the health of a neighbourhood, in terms of people and place? While there are many Indicators on specific topics suggested throughout the guide, we advocate three headline indicators, respectively about health, physical activity and spatial equity. Any such indicators must be easy to collect and understand. Different countries will have different data easily available. The first indicator here is likely to rely on centrally collected information. The second can be analysed locally. The third makes use of generally available census data feeding in to local analysis.

Multi-generational exercise, fun and social contact in a green park. Quanzhou, China.

Three headline indicators 1. Healthy life years This is the age that men and women reach on average before experiencing poor physical or mental health. It is more illuminating than the simple measure of longevity, giving a real insight into health inequalities, relating both to multiple deprivation and to poor environments. Spatial planning influences healthy life years through housing, transport and environmental factors. The data may or may not be available at local level. In some UK cities men living in the poorest communities have only about 55 years of healthy life, and the remaining third of life spent in poor health. By contrast, men in the richest communities may average healthy life spans of over 75 years, and little more than 10 per cent of life in poor health. 2. Walkable neighbourhoods This is a mapped measure of local accessibility, and therefore of the likelihood of residents walking to get to places. It is both about the benefits of daily active travel and about reducing carbon emissions. At its simplest it can identify the circular areas which are within a given distance of specific facilities. More precise analysis takes account of actual routes, slope, traffic danger and attractiveness. Examples amenable to GIS analysis and explored in this chapter are:

Catching the walking habit The lock-down early in the COVID-19 crisis meant for a while cars were left unused and people (if allowed) walked or cycled to open spaces and food shops. If we can evolve neighbourhoods so that people have the realistic option of living more of their lives locally, with active travel, then health and wellbeing, social inclusion and low-carbon lifestyles are all much more likely to be achieved.

 areas within 800 metres of a local centre offering a good range of services  areas within 400 metres of greenspace  areas within 400 metres of good public transport services 3. Spatial equity Building on the walkability indicator, this is a measure which can drill down into the social variability within neighbourhoods as well as between. It assesses which social groups have the benefit of good accessibility and which do not. In many cities poor households have poorer quality local facilities and are

1.6 Health and place equity

105

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

People and community

3.2 more distant from greenspace than affluent households. The measure of social character will depend on the information available: it could be through household status, ethnic data, income data, housing sector or car ownership level.

M

F

Other useful measures of spatial equity or inequity are areas subject to poor air quality or high noise levels.

80+ 75 – 79 70 – 74 65 – 69 60 – 64 55 – 59 50 – 54 45 – 49 40 – 44 35 – 39 30 – 34 25 – 29 20 – 24 15 – 19 10 – 14 5–9 0–4

3.2

BASIC PRINCIPLES At the scale of the urban district or small town, and where possible in every neighbourhood, there should be a long-term, carefully monitored strategy to achieve a diverse, balanced community, and to plan for varied needs. The dimensions of difference are many:  age

0

groups and types of household

 cultural,  income

ethnic and lifestyle groups

levels and socio-economic groups

 different

levels of personal mobility and confidence

 long-term

A balanced age profile, signifying continuous, even population renewal

17%

A DIVERSE POPULATION

40%

43%

1

2

Car ownership: cars per household household Car ownership, per

and short-term residents

Reasons  Social

inclusion: the opportunity for people, whatever their income and attributes, to find accommodation in every town or part of the city, according to their specific needs, allowing them to minimise the need to travel.

 Lifetime

neighbourhoods: providing for people at every stage of their lives, so that if they want to stay within the same community, they can, and the community benefits from social continuity and living history.

 Economic

81% 15% Owned

4%

Rented Social Housing mix: tenure

Figure 3.1 Analysis of an urban ward This well-established UK neighbourhood shows a reasonably balanced age/sex profile, signifying a steady process of population renewal. But the patterns of both car ownership and housing tenure suggest a skewed social mix, with lower-income groups experiencing exclusion.

106

provision of services: avoiding the ‘leads and lags’ of social provision which occur with unbalanced populations – where, for example, on a new estate there is initially a dearth of primary school places, then a lack of secondary places, and later a long-term under-provision for the elderly.

 Tolerance

and appreciation of difference: ensuring that children, in particular, have the chance to experience a varied, well-rounded community, not a one-class ghetto or dormitory suburb, and have the opportunity to see different kinds of people at work and play.

 Less

need to travel: increasing the likelihood that people can find housing conveniently located for family connections, local work, local services, specific activities, and thus increase the amount of active travel and reduce the need to travel by vehicle.

 Adaptability to changing needs:

pressures and opportunities will change over time as society evolves. Migration on a wider scale might be triggered by war, climate change and sea-level rise.

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

People and community

3.2 Age groups

Babies and toddlers Young children Older children Teenagers Young adults Mature adults Retired and able-bodied Frail elderly

The most basic category. Each age group has distinctive needs, which may require special places (think of recreation, for example). Groups such as teenagers should not be ignored.

Households and families

Single people Couples Adult groups Founding families Maturing families Empty nesters

Households are commonly linked to housing needs. But beware a simplistic equation of household size with dwelling size. The market doesn’t work like that.

Gender and sexuality

Female Male Heterosexual Gay and Lesbian Bisexual and transgender

Except where strong cultural traditions oblige, the urban environment should not build in assumptions about gender behaviour. Development per se has limited influence on sexuality.

Disability

Mobility-impaired people Wheelchair users Blind and partially sighted Those with learning difficulties Dementia sufferers Those with emotional trauma

It is important to recognise each of these special needs in the design of the public realm. NB. Planning for wheelchairs also helps in relation to push-chairs.

Ethnicity and culture

Colour Cultural background Traveller communities Religion

It is often said that planning is, or should be, colour-blind. But there are specific needs e.g. for travellers and for different faith communities. More fundamentally, inequities in the built environment often affect people of colour disproportionately

Income and employment

Low income Medium income High income Employed Self-employed Home-workers Unemployed Retired Student

Housing needs/demands vary according to income, and all groups need accommodation for a rounded community. Students (living away from home) are a particular issue. All types of employment need consideration. More home-workers implies larger units.

Movement

Pedestrians Cyclists Non-car owners One-car owners Two-plus car owners Delivery/service van owners

Planning for people as pedestrians and cyclists is top priority. Non-car-owners are vulnerable in car-based societies. Car users need easy access to destinations for frail/disabled people and small children.

Figure 3.2 Social need groups The range of people who live in any particular neighbourhood can be very wide. This checklist can be used to assess the degree to which everyone has been considered. SOURCE: Adapted from Barton 2017, figure 8.4

Planning is political. It is about the allocation of land, buildings and environments between different groups and people. It affects racial, income, age and gender equity.

107

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

People and community

3.2 PLANNING FOR DIVERSITY

Inclusive neighbourhoods People of any age may have disability: loss of hearing, sight or mobility. The design and management of the public realm need to recognise the difficulties people experience. Design for wheelchair users is essential, and also benefits young parents with prams and the frail elderly. See sections 3.15 and 6.3.

6.3 Walkability, conviviality and community hubs

Achieving diverse populations in every urban district or suburban town is difficult. Market trends, often reinforced by official housing and planning policies, have tended to differentiate sectors of the city and other settlements by class and age. Very high land/property values in one locality ensure exclusivity, while in another the market demand is notable by its absence, becoming a ghetto of poverty. Young adults and some retired people may be attracted by flats in the inner area, while families occupy houses in the outer suburbs. Achieving diverse local populations in this context relies on sustained commitment and inter-sectoral co-operation. Regeneration of low-prestige zones, for example, depends on integrated strategies that tackle existing problems and create the right conditions for a change in market attitudes. Intergenerational timescale The time-scale for planning balanced communities and generational change is long. In areas of major change (brownfield regeneration, urban extension or new town) the minimum time period should be a generation (say 25–30 years): that is, the period needed to even out peaks and troughs of demand for local facilities such as schools. Any such new development should be seen in the context of potential sharing with adjacent neighbourhoods. This can help even out demand if each area is following a different trajectory. Distance is critical. Are facilities accessible by foot and bike?

MIGRANTS TO A NEW NEIGHBOURHOOD

80+ 75 – 79 70 – 74 65 – 69 60 – 64 55 – 59 50 – 54 45 – 49 40 – 44 35 – 39 30 – 34 25 – 29 20 – 24 15 – 19 10 – 14 5–9 0–4

Figure 3.3 Changes in age profile in a new neighbourhood An unbalanced profile from a new growth area, leading to peaks and troughs of demand for local facilities. Over the next decades the peaks and troughs move up the age profile, only being slightly diluted by further migrations.

108

TEN YEARS ON

An adaptable physical fabric The neighbourhood can also be future-proofed by building adaptability into the physical fabric so that buildings and spaces can be easily reused in new ways. Varied and adaptable buildings could enable young adults leaving home to stay locally, or ‘empty nesters’ wanting to downsize. Clever design of buildings on main streets could enable houses to become shops, or shops to convert back to houses. Examples of adaptability include:  Design

main routeways generously to permit later changes – such as the insertion of tramways or bike lanes.

 Building

types capable of adapting to new needs: houses that can be turned into flats (or vice versa), the ground floor of buildings on main streets having high ceilings so they can be shops, offices, workshops or homes.

 Gaps

in the urban framework available for eventual development if the need arises, but meanwhile occupied by, for instance, short-term storage sheds, car parking (pending public transport improvements) or simply lawn.

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

People and community

3.2 NEIGHBOURHOODS FOR LIFE If we plan well for children and older people, we will plan well for everyone. This principle is in line with the life course approach and has informed the guidance in the chapter as a whole.

1.5 Health and wellbeing

Planning for healthy children For a child’s healthy development, lifestyle is key. In chapter 1 the critical issue of child obesity was highlighted. To what extent, we may ask, is the urban environment a factor in shaping parental and child decisions about physical activity, social interaction and diet? A central issue is the freedom for children to roam, play, explore, meet up with friends, experience nature, feel relaxed and safe in the external environment (Brown et al. 2019). This freedom has been drastically curtailed in many countries as rising traffic levels and perceived stranger danger have influenced parental permission, cutting kids off from their community and environment. Recently other forces – mobile phones, computer games, social media – have combined with the external threats to induce a sedentary and isolated lifestyle. Children’s physical and mental wellbeing are at stake. The aspiration is for an environment where children feel free to roam – ‘free range kids’, the ‘playful city’. This starts immediately outside the home, in the street where they live.  Housing

with garden space or playspace immediately accessible from home, including homes in flats.

 Streets  Active

which are safe for children to play in.

travel (i.e. walking and cycling) to school.

Children at the allotments: exercise, fresh food, community, education, contact with sun, air and plant-life.

 Outdoor

play and socialising for every age group encouraged by close greenspaces, playgrounds, sports facilities.

 Casual

daily contact with nature at all stages of child development.

 Opportunity

for challenging activities and skill development – such as swimming, skate-boarding, climbing.

 Fast

foods, sweets and sugary drinks removed from easy availability outside school gates.

 Opportunities

for children’s voices to be heard when making planning and design decisions.

Planning for children involves creating environments that help establish life skills and lifestyles that increase their ability to have a long and healthy life – such as riding a bike, growing and harvesting food, establishing social connections.

3.13 Recreational space

‘In Bogota, our goal was to make a city for all the children. The measure of a good city is one where a child on a tricycle or bicycle can safely go anywhere. If a city is good for children it will be good for everybody else.’ Enrique Penalosa, Mayor of Bogota 1998–2001 and 2016–2019

Planning for elderly people ‘Elderly’ is a relative term. Many elders are as physically and mentally fit as middle-aged people. However, older people may experience hearing, eyesight or mobility problems, and reduced mental alertness. Many elderly find themselves increasingly isolated and lonely when partners and friends have died, family 109

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

People and community

3.2 members have moved away, or they lose the ability to drive yet live in locations without local facilities. The ability of health and social services to reach them becomes paramount. Spatial planning affects the options older people have:

CHECKLIST Older people with dementia prefer:  mixed-use, compact, local neighbourhoods

 In

terms of housing affordability: the availability of smaller units, single-storey units, elders’ flats, sheltered accommodation and nursing homes.

 short, gently winding streets with wide pavements and good visibility  varied buildings, distinctive architectural and natural features

 In

terms of location: easy access to town or neighbourhood centres offering good social, retail, health and leisure facilities, and public transport routes giving wider access.

 visual landmarks – historic, civic  quiet, pedestrianised streets and welcoming open spaces

 In

relation to environment: greenspaces, pleasant streets and social meeting places with well-maintained public seating and toilets.

 places, spaces and buildings whose functions and entrances are obvious  simple, explicit signs with large, dark unambiguous graphics and a light background  easy-to-use street furniture in styles familiar to them  smooth, plain, non-slip, non-reflective paving SOURCE: Michell and Burton 2006, as quoted in WHO 2017b

3.15 Pedestrians first!

Being physically active can extend years of independent living, reduce disability, improve mental health and the quality of life for old people (Lee et al. 2018). As people age, their desire to go outdoors does not diminish, but barriers to doing so increase. Research in a variety of urban environments demonstrates the importance of safe, good quality routes and attractive local open spaces in encouraging older people to spend more time outdoors and reducing their call on health facilities (I’DGO research 2013). Dementia is increasing in prevalence as populations age. Living with dementia can undermine the confidence of older people to navigate and master the outdoor environment, putting them at risk of social exclusion and loneliness. But often they can still participate in community life if the context is supportive. The list of environmental features in the side column illustrates the degree to which planning for dementia is planning for all. Generational mixing

Old people need opportunities to walk to local facilities and socialise. Men playing scrabble in Turkey.

110

Both elderly people and children can benefit from close acquaintance. In Tokyo a project was initiated which merged a nursery school and home for the aged. By 1998, the concept had spread to include 16 other similar facilities in Japan. There are now many examples and different models of deliberate intergenerational mixing worldwide. In Nesselande (see case study 5b), there is a carefully orchestrated physical mix between the local school and housing for elders. Studies have shown that elderly people who are part of an intergenerational care scheme are not only engaging with the children, but engaging with each other and smiling more as a result of the children’s visits (Morita and Kobayashi 2013). The young children also develop respect and empathy for the elderly, which enhance their social and personal development.

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

People and community

3.3 3.3

HOUSING FOR ALL

OPENING UP ACCESS TO HOUSING Housing is a key determinant of health. The broad housing goal of enabling every households to find appropriate and affordable accommodation in a convenient location, needs to be reflected at the more local level. In every part of a town or city there should be a mix of housing opportunities in terms of tenure, size and affordability. In new or renewed places there should be opportunities for self-build, small builders and co-housing. This policy needs to be agreed by the housing authority, the planning authority and house builders, and fully understood by councillors and neighbourhood leaders. Reasons  To

free the various housing markets (social housing/rental/ first-time buyers/mid-range/‘executive’ housing) from limited options because of social status differentiation.

House as investment or home? In the view of the World Economic Forum, ‘the price of housing is tearing our society apart’. Housing is too often treated as an investment, not simply as a home. The problems of second homes left empty most of the time, and international capital distorting markets in major cities, are well known. Only governments and strong city authorities can tackle such issues (Fidler and Sabir 2019).

 To

allow households of all kinds and incomes the maximum opportunity to select locations convenient to their needs, thereby promoting social inclusion, and potentially increasing active travel, reducing total travel cost/distance and consequent pollution.

Housing Provision Self-build & community

 To

avoid peaks and troughs of demand for local facilities (especially in relation to different age groups), which lead to alternating problems of shortage and surplus, with consequent extra public or private costs.

 To

maintain a balance of rich and poor, growing households and shrinking households, over time – so that local shops and businesses remain viable and bus services are supported.

 To

increase the potential for mutual support, surveillance, and learning between age groups – for example, real or acting grannies assisting young families; informal surveillance of streets, imparting a sense of safety; teenage role-models for younger children; young working adult role-models for teenagers.

Market

State

Figure 3.4 Three principal housing sectors SOURCE: Barton 2017, figure 14.4

 To

ensure the local availability of a wide range of skills and professions, easing job-filling and job-search problems, and reducing the need to travel. This is particularly important for part-time workers and carers (see Barton et al. 2000: pages 90–2 for a fuller discussion).

111

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

People and community

3.3 Vienna: most liveable city One reason Vienna repeatedly tops the ‘liveable city’ index is the way it manages housing. City housing accounts for 70 per cent of total stock and is excellent quality. It is aimed at middle income as well as poorer households. Housing Associations and municipalities manage both subsidised and not-for-profit sectors. Tenants’ rights (including private tenants) are protected and rents regulated, so reducing the pressure for house price inflation.

The degree of housing mix varies with scale  At

the level of the urban district, small town or large village housing mix is essential. There should be a wide range of housing options (see section 3.4 for a fuller discussion).

 At

the level of the neighbourhood, housing mix is normally desirable, depending on context. Less essential when a neighbourhood is part of a wider township, more essential if standing alone.

 At

the level of the home-zone or street, housing mix is not critical. A sense of identity and cohesion is promoted through some degree of social uniformity.

ASSESSING LOCAL HOUSING NEEDS Regular reviews of housing need and provision in each town or urban district should involve partnership between the Neighbourhood Council (or equivalent), the Municipality, and house builders/providers. Each partner brings distinctive understanding to the table. The review contributes to the development plan and the overall city or municipal strategy. Neighbourhood Council

Figure 3.5 Neighbourhood housing mix

A bottom-up appraisal of local housing needs should be instituted by the parish, town or neighbourhood council. This appraisal should encompass not only the need for social housing but identify other needs as well, as perceived by residents and local community organisations. From time to time it may justify a local household survey.

Source: Barton et al. 2000, figure 8.1, adapted from MKDC 1992

The original patchwork of housing sites in one grid square in Milton Keynes, UK. ‘Every grid square neighbourhood of 2000–4000 people has a mix of housing. The home-zones were developed by different agencies or housebuilders and in this example they range from 9–130 units. The pattern of housing within the grid squares is designed to ensure that the elderly, disabled and those least likely to have cars are conveniently located at or near a local centre. To attract the more affluent residents the high-priced dwellings are located to ensure an attractive approach and the opportunity for larger gardens’.

112

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

People and community

3.3 The local authority The bottom-up appraisal should to be married with a top-down appraisal undertaken by local government. This will identify needs over a wider area which are not necessarily obvious locally. It will take account of regional trends, employment opportunities, migration patterns, birth and death rates which are beyond the control of the community. House builders and providers Housing developers (building firms, housing departments and housing associations) and estate agents have knowledge of local demands and also of the degree to which specific sites are developable and marketable.

Innovative net-carbon-neutral housing may need sites set aside and protected from conventional market development. This is the BEDZED estate in South London, which is energy-self-sufficient and run as a co-operative.

RECOGNISING DIVERSE NEEDS Accepting that each town or urban district should provide for all legitimate local needs, ensuring housing access for all, then there are questions to consider:  Can

single people, young or old, find suitable accommodation – e.g. flats with balconies?

 Can

founding families find affordable first homes?

 Can

larger families find affordable larger homes?

 Can

rich households find up-market residences?

 Are

there houses with big gardens, or close to allotments, for potential gardeners?

Health benefits of housing mix Case study 3.b Vauban, Freiburg

A Canadian study found that in neighbourhoods of mixed income, the less affluent have better health and quality of life compared to those living in poor neighbourhoods (Hou and Myles 2004).

 Are

sites available for co-housing, community land trusts and self-build eco-schemes?

Social and special needs housing  Has

there been a strategic needs assessment that can underpin the case for non-market, social and special needs housing provision?

 Are

there people who are homeless, household-sharing or in sub-standard dwellings, who qualify for social housing or could benefit from shared equity homes?

 Are

there households and key workers who have been forced out of the area by high rents/prices, but want to move back in?

 Can

poorer, elderly and/or infirm households find dwellings close to facilities, with safe walking routes and bus services, so that car ownership is unnecessary?

South-facing slopes in higher latitudes are valuable for close-knit housing with solar gain and views out. Cliftonwood, close to centre of Bristol, England.

 Is

there an unmet need for hostel accommodation, halfway houses or other special requirements?

113

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

People and community

3.3 DECONSTRUCTING THE GHETTO Where long-established planning policies and house-price differentials are still reinforcing housing monocultures, it is important to develop an explicit strategy for diversification. This is needed in affluent commuter exurbs/villages, poor inner areas, peripheral council estates, and middle-class suburbs of ‘family’ housing. The municipality can identify ‘unbalanced’ localities and set out a strategy and targets for diversification. The strategy could involve:  Expressly

outlawing the ‘more of the same’ convention, whereby social housing attracts more social housing, sheltered housing is unnaturally clustered, and up-market estates maintain exclusivity.

Conspicuous failure of the policy of social polarisation: the demolition of a 1960s social housing estate.

 Using

local-plan density guidelines to diversify housing opportunities rather than as a covert policy of social exclusion.

 Requiring

Social polarisation in ‘third world’ cities Many cities in poorer and intermediate income countries exhibit extreme social polarisation, with extensive informal low rise shanty towns near developer-planned high rise estates for the new middle class – and never the twain shall meet. To make space for new expensive development, the shanty towns are often demolished by the city authority, destroying their social and economic networks. Residents are moved to newly constructed ghettos. See UN-Habitat 2017 for guidance on the human rights approach to housing and slum up-grading; and UN-Habitat 2014 for guidance on planning slum up-grading programmes.

every application over a certain size to contribute appropriately to the diversity targets: for example, if the town lacks flats, or has a shortage of social housing, then sites in appropriate locations could be required to provide them. Such policies need precise articulation so that land values recognise them.

Taking responsibility locally Achieving better community balance can run counter to established market practice, raise house-holder fears about lost local amenity and run the gauntlet of social prejudice. Top-down imposition of quotas may be political dynamite. A collaborative community approach, developing a shared strategy, would involve a general recognition that every ‘community’ has a responsibility for helping to tackle housing stress across a city region. This can then be complemented by neighbourhood- or town-level analysis of need by local stakeholders. The sense of threat sometimes felt by home owners in relation to social housing can be reduced by discussing the spatial scale for diversification: i.e. at the neighbourhood and township level, not street. Market resistance

Rapid Planning Studio Case study 3a illustrates an approach to collaborative decision-making in third world countries.

114

In areas of low market potential (e.g. hard-to-let council estates or under-occupied inner city areas), private sector development may be unprofitable – i.e. the potential sale value may be less than the cost of rehabilitation/new build. Such areas are priority for regeneration funding, which can be used to pump-prime as well as directly improve the lot of existing residents. If such pump-priming of the market is to avoid sending good money after bad, then it needs to be part of a very radical reshaping of the area, sufficient to challenge public preconceptions and the assumptions of investors, perhaps enabling innovative housing and cultural groups to find a niche.

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

People and community

3.3 HOUSING QUALITY AND SUSTAINABILITY

Gentrification: curse or blessing?

This is a huge issue, and is normally a matter for national, provincial or strategic planning bodies, for example through building regulations. However, there are issues which may be influenced locally.

In some older housing areas, with an ageing population, lacking recent investment, low rents attract young people, often with a creative inclination, in turn encouraging middle-income families to move into the area. The existing population may gradually be forced out by rent rises. What had been a reservoir of cheaper property is lost. This is the process of gentrification.

Every housing development – extension, conversion or new-build – should be designed with rooms at least the size approved nationally for social housing, have adequate natural lighting and direct access to external space. Every new development (whether on brownfield or greenfield sites) should provide lifetime homes, so that people do not have to move when old and frail; for all buildings it should achieve net-carbon neutrality in relation to heating, cooling and electricity. Extensions, conversions and renovations, including those involving listed buildings, must work towards high energy efficiency and low carbon emissions. Access to external space New houses and ground floor flats should provide private gardens or patios. Minimum size for British conditions would be 25 square metres. In cool climates it is vital that all or part of the space receives sunlight for at least 6 months of the year. In hot climates shade is equally essential. New apartment blocks should provide balconies for all units, normally with a minimum size of 2 sq. metres.

6.5 Shaping the homezone

At one level it is very positive, diversifying the population, bringing money and investment into a decaying locality, supporting more and better facilities, normally to the benefit of all. But if the transition goes too far, then it is simply the replacement of the ghetto of the poor by the ghetto of the rich. Local authorities have a vital role in ensuring affordability in every urban quarter or town, working with the community, through rent controls, social housing provision, community land trusts, co-operative housing, protection of smaller units and community benefit agreements. For more on these and other mechanisms, see Voorhees 2015.

Where balconies are not feasible, such as in conversions of historic warehouses or high rise office blocks, access to outside space, normally shared, remains critical. Such space must be attractive and well-maintained, available for children’s play, with parental supervision from windows if possible. Carbon neutrality and fuel poverty The issues of fuel poverty and climate change are critical for the retrofit of existing housing and the construction of new. Net carbon neutrality for new buildings can be achieved through combinations of high energy efficiency, passive solar design, photovoltaic roofs, heat pumps, ventilation with heat recovery, and siting which recognises sunlight and/or shade requirements. The retrofit of all older dwellings may need grant-aid to ensure poor owner-occupiers and private rented dwellings are included. The object is to minimise the dependence on carbon-based fuels, make cooling unnecessary and make heating affordable to all, eradicating fuel poverty. This principle should apply to listed buildings of architectural and historic merit as well as ordinary building stock.

Figure 3.6 Duncombe Barracks, York, England This is a courtyard scheme of 34 new Passivhaus, mixed tenure homes. The development is net-zero carbon in operation, meaning it will generate as much energy as it uses per year. The scheme promotes active travel, provides a food-growing landscape and creates places for residents to socialise.

115

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

People and community

3.4 3.4

STRONG COMMUNITIES

Starting points The existence of local social networks of mutual support and trust is important for health and mental wellbeing. Policymakers, including public health and social workers, have a responsibility to co-operate with local organisations to ensure that their decisions facilitate those networks. This social responsibility applies across the board – to the private sector as well as to the public and voluntary sectors. Planners, engineers and designers have a particular responsibility to structure the public realm in such a way that social networks are supported and fostered, not undermined. Caution: there is no magic wand that can create community

THE IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNITY ‘Community’ is generally perceived as a Good Thing, but the nature of community has changed dramatically since the mid-twentieth century. Communities of interest and identity (linked to work, hobbies, religious belief or political activity, etc.) have for many people replaced communities of place. Such interest communities may have a very wide geographical spread (facilitated by car, phone and internet), but most also have a specific locus as well – school, pub, club, office, place of worship – tying them to a locality. Poorer and less-mobile people often rely heavily on locally based networks – for example, young children in a playgroup, the elderly infirm in a day-care centre. The absence of such neighbourliness exacerbates problems of isolation and social exclusion; it also increases the need to travel (with consequent environmental damage) in order to satisfy social needs.

Local community links are forged by the people themselves and by the groups they form. Deterministic design solutions achieve little without the positive choice of residents. However, planners, developers and service deliverers have an obligation to ensure that they make it easy for people and remove barriers to local association, supporting ‘meetingness’. Aspects of social capital  informal networks of friends and neighbours  local identity and sense of belonging  norms of mutual trust and support  community networks and pressure groups

Social capital

 the level of civic engagement SOURCE: After Putman 1993, and Atkinson and Kintea 1998

Case study 3.c Mandela Market Place

This is a measure of the residents’ sense of community and their ability to act together to pursue shared objectives. It is characterised by civic identity and engagement, trust and reciprocity of actions, and networking between individuals, groups and agencies. The approach taken by official, market and/or voluntary agencies impacts on social capital, affecting the level of engagement of local people with decision processes and their sense of power or powerlessness. ACTION TO SUPPORT LOCAL COMMUNITY Educational provision at all levels: providing local educational facilities at nursery, primary, secondary and further education levels. This is especially important for villages and smaller neighbourhoods where the primary school is a critical network builder for children and their parents. In small towns and urban districts the secondary school can create a real sense of community.

116

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

People and community

3.4 Integrated service delivery: co-ordinated planning of decentralised public services at the heart of the neighbourhood. This can include health, housing, social services, police, job centre, leisure centre and library – and by providing a one-stop service provision for deprived and vulnerable groups. Capacity building: neighbourhood and wider area plans developed in collaboration with local communities, encouraging effective participation and supporting initiatives from civil society, households and businesses. In areas of regeneration, consider the appointment of a community development officer to connect with hard-to-reach groups and facilitate active involvement. Planning policies Planners, engineers and designers can give support with:  A

spatial framework that supports the viability of local retail, social, leisure and public transport facilities, and thus the range and number of places where people will meet informally.

 A

permeable, safe, attractive pedestrian and cycling network, which encourages people onto the street, with convivial meeting places at network nodes.

 Regeneration

and land use schemes which protect and extend the opportunities for small-scale local employment and commercial services, including local serviced offices, reinforcing social networks and home working.

Social esteem and the urban environment Townhill Neighbourhood, Swansea Funded by URBAN (EU), this project is set within an area of acute social, physical and environmental deprivation. The drab environment and unkempt front gardens were indicators of low morale and in turn reinforced the lack of self-confidence and self-esteem. A comprehensive package is involved: priorities are employment, education, training, environment, crime detection and prevention, health and housing. Environmental projects were aimed at encouraging participation and selfrealisation, through training and work, including those particularly in need. The environmental projects involved improving safety, quality of life, enhancing wildlife and landscape, and traffic-calming measures. The involvement of local people in the environmental improvement of their area has also resulted in an improvement in social capacity and health.

 Varied

housing provision, responding to the needs of different household types, single people, the elderly, etc, with lifetime homes adapted for the full life-span of residents, and homezones providing a sense of safety and security.

 Availability

of indoor and outdoor spaces for events and assembly: community halls for public meetings, social clubs and activities; open spaces (green and grey) for events, competitions, games, and more casual gatherings.

SENSE OF SECURITY AND HOUSING MIX There is tension between the need to provide a mix of housing and the need to safeguard feelings of security. The social identity of a local area – in terms of the social class and ethnicity group in the streets near home – help to determine feelings of security. People like to live next door to people like themselves. If they feel cut off from their own social group, that can increase anxiety and fear and mental illness, and fewer local people are in a position to be able to support them (Halpern 1995). The patchwork neighbourhood The important scale for this feeling of security is very local – not the neighbourhood as a whole but the street, the home-zone. The home-zone represents the safe territory or ‘social niche’.

Council-funded notice boards, if well managed, can help connect people together.

117

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

People and community

3.4 Community spaces

There should be a limited range of housing within it. Historic towns frequently exhibit a patchwork pattern which has survived for centuries and provides diversity with identity. More recent experience also suggests that income types can be mixed successfully in adjacent streets (Duany and Plater-Zyberg 1991; Milton Keynes Development Corporation 1992).

Community spaces in accessible locations are essential if community activities are to flourish. They can be provided in many different ways:  local authority/parish council halls  school halls

Pepper-potting

 church/faith halls

This phrase has been used to describe a policy of sprinkling social housing throughout a development area. It rather conflicts with the concept of a patchwork neighbourhood. Haphazard sprinkling should therefore be avoided. Many housing providers believe that clusters of social dwellings work better for both residents and managers. Over a whole town or urban district there should be many kinds of housing opportunities (see the housing section above). The mosaic of home-zones, each with its particular character, go to make up a neighbourhood which is physically and socially diverse.

 pub function rooms  shared club spaces  leisure centre/library hall The ingredients of a good facility are appropriate size, pleasant outlook, kitchen, toilets, easy booking, cheapness and devoted caretaking.

TRAFFIC FLOWS AND SOCIAL NETWORKS

6.3 Walkability, conviviality and community hubs

Studies in California and England have shown that there is a strong relationship between traffic levels and community. Where traffic flows are high, so as to make crossing the road awkward and normal conversation difficult, then the number of neighbours known by residents is low. Conversely a peaceful street, where children can play in reasonable safety and chatting is a pleasure, leads to much more social contact. This also relates to the sense of ownership of space. Where traffic dominates the street, people feel their own territory is just their dwelling. But where people can flow out onto the street without intimidation, their sense of territory can include their street. Design for human-friendly streets The social impacts do not have to mean no housing along busy streets, or that houses should turn their backs in a protective gesture. That leads to ‘dead’ streets and a lack of eyes on the street, increasing risk. Rather it means siting buildings and designing streets carefully:  Placing

family homes on low-trafficked streets, where it is possible for children to play.

 Placing

commercial properties on more busy roads, with flats above them likely to be occupied by young adults, who typically have non-place-based social networks.

 Keeping

Viennese street designed for people.

118

buildings well back from busy roads, with wide pavements and space for street trees that give a sense of physical and psychological separation from traffic.

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

People and community

3.4 "we have some good neighbourhood friends"

"people stay for a while and put down roots" "there is really a sense of community – we look after each other"

"there's good communication between the houses and a feeling of togetherness"

LIGHT TRAFFIC: 140 VEHICLES PER DAY 5.35 friends per person/6.1 acquaintances "people don't trust one another like they used to"

"it's not so friendly – you barely see anyone"

"we tend to only know people who live near us, because it's busy"

"local chatting is quite a thing"

Figure 3.7 Social interaction and traffic This survey of three similar streets in Bristol, UK, with very different traffic levels, found huge variations of interaction. Lines represent friendships and acquaintances; dots represent places people stop and chat. SOURCE: Hart 2008, based on a methodology from Appleyard 1981

MEDIUM TRAFFIC: 8,420 VEHICLES PER DAY "people don't communicate unless they have to"

2.45 friends per person/3.65 acquaintances

"quite anonymous – we only know our immediate neighbours"

"the traffic is like a mountain range cutting you off from the other side of the road"

"people just go from their cars to their houses"

"ordinary quiet people"

HEAVY TRAFFIC: 21,130 VEHICLES PER DAY 1.15 friends per person/2.8 acquaintances

Well-planned and well-managed playgrounds in low-traffic areas can be great generators of child and adult socialising.

119

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

People and community

3.5 How do we perceive our neighbourhood?

3.5

 Mental maps: how do we define our neighbourhood? What are the key routes, edges and centres of activity?

KEY PRINCIPLE The sense of local identity, especially for long-term residents, is associated with the physical character of the neighbourhood. This character is about sights, sounds, smells and feel. It is also about personal and community history. It is an expression of culture and continuity, strengthening the personal identity of many people living there. The evolution of the area needs to conserve and enhance facets which are valued locally, while aspects that detract are remedied. Planning for the enhancement of neighbourhood character should be applied generally, not limited to special conservation areas.

 Access and safety: how safe does it feel to move about, for people of all ages and abilities?  Image: what images and associations do we have of the neighbourhood; and why?  History: what features do we value as giving a sense of continuity with the past?  Community: do we feel part of a community? Do we feel at home?

Local distinctiveness The organisation Common Ground has been exploring and developing the concept of local distinctiveness since the 1980s. Below is what they see as the four key elements of the concept: 1. Detail We need the nourishment of detail, in things as ordinary as rumples in a field, detail in doors and windows, dialect, local festival days, seasonal variation in the goods on sale in the market, to subtly stimulate our senses and sensibilities. 2. Authenticity The real and the genuine hold a strength of meaning for us. 3 Particularity The point here is not to be preoccupied by difference, but by appropriateness to and expressiveness of time and place. 4. Patina Age has to be recognised as having been gathered, hence the paradoxical vitality of patina. Local distinctiveness must be about history continuing through the present (not about the past) and it is about creating the future.

NEIGHBOURHOOD IDENTITY

Case study 3.d Mulberry Park, Bath

While conservation areas are distinguished by special (‘outstanding’ or ‘rare’) historic or architectural merit, all communities have an equal right to expect that the aesthetic quality and cultural heritage of their locality is enhanced, not destroyed. The policy (possibly unintended) of allowing ugly neighbourhoods to absorb further ugly or discordant built elements, often compounded by a lack of care and maintenance of open spaces, is clearly inequitable. It is also unwise, reinforcing a sense of exclusion. LOCAL DISTINCTIVENESS Neighbourhoods in towns and cities are organic, evolving entities; they are the expression of the interaction of a number of social, economic and physical factors:  the

people who live there and who have lived and/or worked there

 the

functions of the neighbourhood and the types of economic activities (past and present) carried out

 the

topography of the area, its streams and woods

 the

location of the neighbourhood in relation to the centre of the urban area, main routes and other settlements

 the

type and size of the building plots, which often last for many centuries while the buildings on them change

 the

pattern of streets and urban spaces, which, like plots, tend to be long-lasting

 the

townscape of the area: compact/enclosed/spacious, formal/informal, varied/repetitive, hard-edged/soft-edged

 the

age and style of the buildings

 the

materials, whether homogeneous or diverse

 ownership,

120

rental patterns and property costs

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

People and community

3.5 ANCHORING THE NEIGHBOURHOOD The design of the built environment cannot create a neighbourhood in the sense of a fully functioning community. However, good urban design can create the conditions where a sense of identity and belonging is more likely to develop. Localities need to be ‘anchored’ to a place or community if they are to feel like ‘neighbourhoods’. This can only develop over time. To generate that sense of rootedness and continuity, it is essential to use all the possible anchoring devices, subverting criticisms of anonymity and alienation often levelled at and experienced in many developments. Involving the local community The more that the local community is engaged in a neighbourhood plan or the design of a major scheme affecting the neighbourhood, the greater likelihood there is of evolving a place that has local relevance, and where new proposals have a higher chance of acceptance through the approvals process. The perception of value of planners and architects may be quite different from the attitudes of local people, which themselves may vary. The process of engagement therefore requires openness, clarity and commitment, creating dialogue and reducing suspicion about remote professionals.

6.6 Character and coherence

Inspiration from Vienna: distinctive quality enlivening an inner suburb, initially controversial but then loved, and generating activity. Buildings with roof gardens, designed by Hundertwasser.

Re-use of existing buildings and structures Existing redundant or vacant buildings are a positive resource that will lend character to new development as well as valuable accommodation. Matching older buildings with compatible new uses, avoiding expensive conversion where possible, is a valuable skill. Existing buildings and structures represent resources in several ways:  Cultural

value: for example, buildings of special architectural or historic interest (‘listed’ buildings or ancient monuments in the UK). These may be of national or local importance. Existing names (of streets, areas, fields, farms) may have local resonance.

 The

local vernacular: where common-place buildings or spaces reflect local design traditions, materials derived from local geology, or the history of local industry, all giving a sense of local identity.

 Spatial

resource: older buildings may offer forms of accommodation which are likely to be more expensive to build and rent as new, for example small terraced houses, or small shop or business units. They may not be as ‘tidy’ as brand new buildings, but contribute a useful pool of cheap accommodation.

Finding new uses for old buildings: 19th-century Corn Exchange converted to a library: an excellent example of a new use matching the characteristics of the building, i.e. central location, easily identifiable building, top-lit main space. The new work to accommodate the library reflects good practice in conservation in that it does not pretend to be ‘olde’ and is largely removable. Sudbury, Suffolk, England.

121

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

People and community

3.5 Re-use of building materials or elements Where older buildings are (exceptionally) beyond repair and adaptation, then the building could be dismantled carefully in order to re-use as much of the materials and other architectural features as possible. It is likely that in any building materials used prior to about 1920 are virtually irreplaceable. They may be ‘natural’ or from long-defunct local industrial sources. Retention and incorporation of these into new buildings will help to reinforce local distinctiveness and minimise the resource use and environmental footprint of construction. Use of the existing land form A main criticism of so much contemporary volume housing is that it ignores its context: that standard building forms are designed to a standard layout of roads and plots; that the resultant development is so placeless it could be anywhere. If we want development to incorporate local distinctiveness, it has to be designed as if the site really matters, so that the features, orientation, topography and location of the site have a major influence on the layout of the site and the character of the built form. Recovering lost but remembered patterns There are many cases of redevelopment in the twentieth century where the original street pattern was destroyed. As those redevelopments themselves fall into disrepute (and maybe were never loved), there is the chance to recover some of the traditional streets, making connections which were lost, using original names which carry a memory of the history of the place. This can be particularly relevant if the first redevelopment resulted in a less permeable environment. The revived street pattern can promote an accessible, walkable neighbourhood. POLICIES FOR NEIGHBOURHOOD QUALITY The ideal is to care for every area, place a value on (and value the place of) every community. Some neighbourhoods almost look after themselves – the environment is attractive and the population affluent. Others may be dull and boring or have grown up in haphazard ways. Given the variety of local environment, policies for neighbourhood quality may be classified under four heads:  Conserve:

New houses and streets can be distinctive and incorporate sustainable placemaking principles of clearly defined entrances, ‘defensible space’ front gardens, well overlooked, and pleasant pavements. Street trees enhance outlook and provide shade. Poundbury, Dorset, England.

122

enhance the existing neighbourhood quality, protecting and reinforcing local distinctiveness. This might apply to many stable, well-served residential areas as well as formally designated heritage areas.

 Rejuvenate:

in areas which are perceived as dull, with few memorable buildings, promote more variety and contrast, and demand high standards. This might apply to some commercial enclaves as well as extensive residential estates with few points of interest and no local facilities.

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

People and community

3.5  Integrate:

where development has been sporadic and disjointed, require infill and re-development that joins up and coalesces the urban environment. This could apply in ‘fracture zones’ around city centres, or urban/rural fringe areas where there has been dispersed car-based development. It is about intensifying so as to create a more integrated and attractive environment.

 Light

touch: in areas which are undergoing social and ethnic change, adopt a more casual stance to allow local taste and culture to be expressed. This could occur where the residents wish individual creativity to flourish. It does not, however, imply a laissez-faire attitude to the spatial fundamentals of use, density, street networks or greenspace.

While policies for heritage areas are well-established, the other policies above may require deliberate and radical intervention. As well as being intended to enhance local distinctiveness, they are also part of overall renewal strategies. In chapter 5 they are placed alongside other dimensions of renewal, such as density and land use. In chapter 6 there is guidance on how achieve neighbourhood quality in practical terms.

Figure 3.8 The components of character SOURCE: Guise and Webb 2018

Community Assessment of Neighbourhood Quality Community maps A survey undertaken by the community in a parish or neighbourhood to record and celebrate its locally distinctive character, history, culture, customs and activities. Largeformat maps often take the form of collages of detailed work contributed by individuals. This allows different people to share and combine their views into a collective whole. Neighbourhood plan design guide As part of a community-led neighbourhood plan there can be a careful analysis of the character of existing buildings and public realm. On that basis the team can establish guidelines for sensitive new development and placemaking. Heritage Area appraisals Although the prime responsibility of the Municipality, local communities should also be involved in defining what is valuable in Heritage areas – not only visual character, but also the mix of uses, history, current issues and programmes for improvement. In countries where only individual buildings and monuments are identified, we advocate taking an area approach, seeing the special features in context.

123

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

Local enterprise

3.6

local enterprise 3.6

The gig economy and health The nature of work is as important as its availability. Part-time work and the gig economy suit the needs of some people. But overall part-time work, shift work and temporary work are associated with job insecurity, increased alcohol misuse, increased risk of depression and lower levels of selfesteem among young adults. Unpredictable work patterns are related to increased drug use, inadequate sleep and exercise, and poor nutrition.

Journey to work and health Travel distance and travel mode to work affect health. Long commutes by car increase stress. Active travel increases levels of physical activity, particularly among women, and improves mental wellbeing (Jaocob et al. 2019). If walking or cycling to work increases physical activity by just one or two hours a week, this can result in a measurable reduction in absenteeism and improvement in productivity (Davis et al. 2007).

Job ratio While local jobs do not necessarily mean they are taken by local people, there is a relationship, especially for common and non-specialised work. The town or urban district job ratio is a useful measure. It is defined as the number of job opportunities in an area divided by the number of people available for work. A job ratio of 0.5 means there are twice as many working people as there are local jobs. Many suburbs have a very low job ratio, which restricts employment options and increases travel-to-work distance.

ACCESS TO JOBS

Employment for all who want or need it is vital for household income and the sense of having a role in society. On both counts, employment is important for health and wellbeing. Economic development policy, set at national or regional level, prioritises job creation partly for those reasons. Plans and policies at a local neighbourhood or market town level can only influence the big picture to a small degree, but opening up opportunities at local level is important. BASIC PRINCIPLES Every town or urban district should offer a good range of job opportunities generally matching the character of the local work force. Equivalently, each should offer a range of workspaces for small businesses, located so as to maximise walking/cycling access by employees and minimise the environmental impact of freight movement. There should be opportunities for local service industries in every area. The possibility of home-working should be actively promoted by the planning system.

Reasons The availability of local work and local workspace opens up diverse employment options – particularly for those wanting part-time work, who need to be close to home or who cannot afford travel, such as carers, house-parents and teenagers. Local work allows people to walk or cycle to work, reducing their carbon footprint and improving air quality. It supports the viability of local shops, cafés, pubs. Local services, including shops, schools, surgeries and social facilities, typically provide at least 30 per cent of total employment, sometimes much more. Local office, workshop and industrial space reduces the need for worker and client travel, increases the opportunity for mutual support and the practicality of setting up new small businesses. Local service industries – such as vehicle repairs, builders yards, electrical and computer maintenance – are often ignored in forward planning, but critical to smooth functioning of a locality. Home-based working is a growing trend in terms both of telecommuting and sole trading. Local therapy, trading and cultural networks begin to flourish, all reinforcing the strength of the community. Opening up the job market There are two polarised myths about the local job market. One is that the creation of local jobs solves unemployment problems. This is an exaggeration. Employers will normally advertise vacant posts city-wide and get the best person for the job: hence the importance of training, and of public transport links between localities and main employment centres.

124

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

Local enterprise

3.6 The other myth is that people do not like living near their work and that local job provision has no value. This is equally untrue. While many workers’ job-search areas have increased dramatically as transport options have improved, others are still very localised, for quite pragmatic reasons. And some are now actively searching for more local work to reduce stress and climate impacts. THE RIGHT BUSINESS IN THE RIGHT PLACE Promoting local employment does not justify a locational free-for-all. Location should be related to likely employee and customer catchments and enable people to avoid long commutes, which are generally bad for health. Some businesses also need easy freight access. Businesses that draw on a citywide or regional market, and/or rely on frequent inter-city trips, should be located centrally. Conversely some activities by their nature serve a more local clientele and may draw on local workers. They should be located so that people can access them by foot, bike or local bus. The chart below concentrates on office and industrial uses. Other activities are dealt with in later sections of the chapter. See section 3.17 for an explanation of A, B, C and D locations.

Suburban business parks typically rely on very heavy car use (90–95 per cent) and profligate use of land. They should not be permitted. Swindon, England.

3.17 Public transport

 Large

offices with regional connections: locate only in centres with centrality for public transport and inter-city rail connections (‘A’ locations).

 Medium

offices serving the urban area: locate in urban district or town centres where public transport services converge and bike access is good (‘B’ locations).

 Small

offices offering local or internet-based services : locate on a bus route in a neighbourhood centre (‘C’ locations).

 Large

factories and distribution centres: locate where national road access is excellent, there is rail or water freight potential and residential areas are protected from heavy traffic (‘D’ locations).

 Workshops

and service industries: locate in local industrial estates or scruffy areas (see below).

Small workshops/offices can be combined with housing in accessible locations. Manchester, England.

 Backyard

workshops and sole traders: locate anywhere subject to normal ‘good neighbour’ criteria.

DIVERSITY OF ECONOMIC NICHE Within any town or urban district we need to ensure diversity of economic and service opportunity. While land-use zones are appropriate for industry and distribution centres that may be noisy and rely on heavy goods traffic, other economic activities should be in mixed use centres. We also need intentional planning of a range of economic niches for more local businesses. Examples of niche uses: 125

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

Local enterprise

3.6 Zoning policies need care

1. Small workshops within residential curtilages, including double garages sold with ready-made change-of-use permission for working space when households reduce car ownership.

Land use zoning was introduced in the early twentieth century to separate noxious industry from homes. It remains a valuable tool, to protect residential areas from fumes, noise and heavy vehicles, and protect vulnerable uses such as playing fields, allotments and low rent zones. But in other situations – such as town centres – strict zoning can inhibit innovation and diversity. Flexibility is particularly important in residential areas, to encourage homeworking and small-scale workshops.

2. Ground floor space in three- and four-storey terraces along neighbourhood spine roads, with ceilings high enough and wide span designed for retail, office, workshop or residential use. 3. Secondary and tertiary shopping areas (where lower rents permit more marginal businesses) allowed to switch between uses, including workshops and charitable uses, but protected from comprehensive redevelopment. 4. In-town ‘scruffy zones’, where building re-use and temporary constructions are protected by zoning from comprehensive redevelopment (see below). 5. Seedbed business premises with small size-adjustable units for low starter rent (e.g. in railway arches, or old mills). 6. Serviced community workspace for professionals and sole traders, with shared reception/IT services/coffee room/electric vehicle hire, etc. 7. ‘Solicitors’ row’: highly accessible on or adjacent to the main street, with attractive setting and buildings. 8. Craft workshops in association with exhibition/meeting space and café, behind the main street frontage (rents being lower), in old school or industrial building. These economic niches to support local enterprise can be facilitated by positive, non-bureaucratic official attitudes, plus judicious financial support for start-ups and non-profit activities. Community networking helps create the right environment for initiative. Creating or maintaining low rent opportunities Left to itself, the market for new development tends to create a monochrome world of high rent uses such as business parks, retail malls or housing for sale. By contrast most older towns have areas – such as the ‘lower’ high street and aging industrial estates – which provide opportunity for less profitable (often very local) enterprises. Creating or maintaining these economic niches in boom times relies on determined community action. The survival of some of the uses above might depend on planning permission being refused for redevelopment. It may sometimes be better to have some temporary untidiness in the environment rather than sacrifice any economic diversity.

Small enterprises accommodated within railway viaduct arches. Newcastle upon Tyne, England.

‘Scruffy’ zones 5.15 Planning compact neighbourhoods

126

A basic principle is that every small town and every large urban neighbourhood or district should have one or more small-scale industrial estates, or service zones. Such estates were commonplace in earlier eras but have been ignored more recently. They are rarely planned as part of major new developments.

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

Local enterprise

3.6 Given rigorous official protection from higher-rent-paying activities, a laisser-faire attitude to use and building quality can be allowed to prevail – scruffy zones. They can provide for a wide range of local services, workshops, recycling activities, builders merchants, small-scale manufacturers, repairers, starter units and mucky/noisy uses. These estates should if possible be located so that commercial vehicles can access them without passing through residential areas. But they should be close enough into the town to permit easy access by non-motorised means, and to make necessary vehicle trips for collection of large or heavy items as short as possible. These scruffy zones provide for local economic vitality and the useful services without which any settlement is incomplete. MICRO BUSINESSES AND HOME WORKING Home-based working is commonplace in some cultures, increasing in western societies, especially in the creative industries, and a key part of any strategy for local economic diversification. Managed office space within a neighbourhood offers an option to sole traders who either have no spare room or want home/work separation. Local coffee shops offer a change of scene and the opportunity for small-scale meetings. The benefits of home or shared offices are:  opening

Work habits are changing: a coffee shop with informal meetings and solo workers. Prague, Czech Republic.

up work and lifestyle choices for individuals

 creating

extra custom for local shops and services, reinforcing local social networks

 creating

the opportunity for reduced travel for work purposes

High speed internet access is progressively making locally-based micro-businesses and telecommuting more attractive. However, location still matters. Most workers, whether self-employed or linked to a big organisation, still want regular face-to-face meetings. Isolated village locations may be desired by some micro-entrepreneurs, but should be discouraged. They normally rely on long distance travel by car for meetings or for clients, which will increase the carbon footprint, not reduce it. Policies for micro internet-based businesses  Promote

opportunities for shared, managed office space in locations conveniently close to local facilities, especially coffee shops or equivalent.

 Recognise

the importance of local retail/social/leisure facilities as support for local economic activity and the circular economy.

 Abolish

tenancy, leasing, rating and zoning ordinances which restrict the possibility of home-working.

Home-working post COVID-19 Contrary to expectations of the pundits at the turn of the century, home working has not in normal times replaced working in office or factory, though has been steadily increasing.  14 per cent of the UK workforce in 2018 either worked from home or were primarily home-based (e.g. tradespeople).  5.2 per cent of the US workforce in 2017 were home-workers. However, during the pandemic millions more people have learnt to work from home, and organisations have found ways to cope. The longer-term effect could be a step change in the prevalence of home-working. This could have a profound impact on housing needs and the relative importance of local centres.

 Incorporate

high band-width infrastructure alongside other services in new or renewed development areas.

 Support

the provision of dwellings with adequate space for office or workshop use. 127

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

Local enterprise

3.7 3.7 ‘Economic resilience is the capacity of an economic system to adapt to both short-term and long-term changes, while supporting the community to thrive.’ Greenham et al. 2013

RESILIENT LOCAL ECONOMIES

KEY PRINCIPLE Every town and every sector of a city needs a strategy for achieving or maintaining a strong and resilient local economy, that can attract investment while maximising local economic self-sufficiency, reduce the risk of major firms or institutions closing down, and respond to the challenge of climate change. Part of this is a question of making good places to live. Part of it is about greening business practices. Part is about building networks of businesses that mutually support each other in a circular economy. Explanation Long-term resilience of the economy, its ability to support jobs, is sustained by investment from local and external agencies, at the same time diversifying so that the settlement is not overdependent on one firm or institution (especially a global business), which might move or close. Entrepreneurs will usually invest in places they like, so the environmental and social quality of a place is economically important. Resilience also means recognising and responding to the challenge of the climate emergency. Each enterprise should take responsibility for its carbon and biodiversity impacts. Local resilience also means developing a co-operative approach, so that businesses support each other and progressively reduce the ecological footprint of distant trade – for example in relation to ‘food miles’. The WHO has identified many health co-benefits as we move towards a green economy (WHO 2011a, 2011b). Local authorities and neighbourhood councils can trigger circular economy initiatives, which also strengthen local economic diversity. THE LOCAL MULTIPLIER AND THE CIRCULAR ECONOMY Local supply networks, which circulate money locally between companies and consumers, reinforce a virtuous cycle. This is the so-called multiplier effect. Much of the money is re-spent in the local area rather than leaking out to other places. According to one calculation the local multiplier effect for a given turnover of an organic vegetable box company is twice that of a supermarket which is part of a national chain (Ward and Lewis 2002).

Figure 3.9 The local circular economy for food

128

Figure 3.9 illustrates the circular economy for food, and the way the formal money economy and the informal social economy interact and reinforce one another. The manufacturing diagram (figure 3.10) takes the idea a bit further, showing the potential richness of economic activities and skills that can be involved in local supply chains, offering a wide range of job opportunities. There will always be imports from and exports to other cities,

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

Local enterprise

3.7 other countries, but in this example the locality benefits by adding value to the original raw materials and being a net exporter. This draws wealth into the community, widely shared because of the internal multiplier. Local employment and community stability are greatly helped if companies and institutions give first preference to local applicants over more distant applicants. If employees then spend some or all of their income locally, this strengthens the multiplier effect. Employing local people reduces travel distance, carbon emissions, and travel time/stress for the employee. The informal economy As with the food example above, the economic wealth of an area is not measured purely in terms of finance, but in total transactions of goods and services. Mutual help, self-help, barter systems, charitable activity and volunteering create an informal economy, breaking down barriers between social, recreational and economic activity, and benefiting local people in many ways. The informal economy is a great local multiplier. Initiatives for informal economic activity come primarily from individuals and groups choosing to exchange or share assets and skills and work together. However, local authorities and business can seek to support such initiatives through grants, space and flexible interpretation of regulations. The essential attitude of officials is responsiveness – responding to requests for help, facilitating contact-making, co-ordinating the authority’s stance.

Figure 3.10 The local multiplier effect This manufacturing example shows how local supply chains keep money circulating locally, while export profits and fees bring wealth into the community.

REVIVING FAILING NEIGHBOURHOODS There are particular issues when developing a regeneration strategy for a deprived settlement or neighbourhood. Residents typically have low incomes and therefore little spending power. This can result in a chronic dependence on external support. Much of the money (earned or from social security) is sucked back out of the community by external suppliers. In this situation radical measures to diversify the population and introduce new impetus are essential. This might be through initiatives by the local authority or the voluntary sector or major nearby employers:  Local

employment policies pursued by business or institutional investors: certain jobs can be specified as local, advertised locally (not across the city or region), and linked to training and regeneration initiatives.

 Local

training and adult education, benefiting the skills of local people and their employability. If offered by the local technical college or special-needs charities, this can increase work opportunities for client groups and boosts social interaction. Training ‘on-the-job’ provided by local employers is particularly valuable.

5.6 Change and renewal Case study 3.c Mandela Market Place

Employment in a broken neighbourhood

A publicly funded neighbourhood nursery school in a hard-to-let Glasgow suburb employed part-time untrained parent assistants, previously unemployed, to work with an experienced childcare person. The spin-offs were many: boosted confidence for the helpers, especially in caring for their own wayward kids, income for families, socialisation and shared play for children, social contact and parental support networks, improved homecare and child behaviour. SOURCE: personal contacts, HB

129

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

Local enterprise

3.7  Engagement,

advice and support: a radical approach in a broken neighbourhood, with under-employment, would be to initiate a challenging neighbourhood regeneration plan, hoping to stimulate normally dormant locals into action. Then co-opting them and supporting them in devising their own plan for economic and physical revival.

 Supporting

community initiative. Regeneration can be fostered from within by mutual aid. For example, action groups, credit unions and informal exchange mechanisms, can help. The attitude of local businesses or public institutions is critical. It is important they respond, welcome and support such initiatives, helping them to grow and flourish.

Shop local: strengthening local communities.

ETHICAL BUSINESS In the current climate, businesses need to recognise that their responsibility is not simply to owners, shareholders and customers, but to wider social and environmental priorities, including:  health

and wellbeing of employees

 healthy

lifestyle impacts on clients and customers

 sustainable  avoiding  low

use of resources

any pollution of air, water or soil

carbon production, operation and transport

 green

products and services

Some private businesses are trail blazers in this field. Public institutions and voluntary sector agencies can and should lead by example, sharing their experience in commercial or civic forums. For example, a school, surgery or charity could publicise its stress management approach for workers, its reuse and recycling credentials, its active travel strategy for students and clients (gaining wider credit thereby). Land use plans can also help: setting aside accessible industrial or office development land expressly for ethical businesses. The power to do this is greatly helped if the owner of the land is the local authority. Green business can take many forms, spanning all sectors of the economy, for example: renewable energy, low energy products, water management, low impact processing, reuse and recycling (including retail, wholesale, processing and manufacture), organic food production and distribution, crafts using locally available materials, environmental services, IT tools for sustainability and charitable services, etc. In the industrial and commercial spheres the change to green approaches can result in improved brand value, access to new markets, and in some cases cost savings and better productivity. 130

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

Local enterprise

3.7 Environmental and social auditing

Air and water pollution

Apart from the product or service on offer, there are issues about how a business’s own activities impact on the environment, the climate, human rights and wellbeing. Neighbourhood and municipal authorities can encourage ethical behaviour, for example through creating a green business zone which can act as a demonstration of what is possible. An audit should include analysis of the current situation and an action plan for improvement:

In countries where environmental controls are weak, industrial air pollution is a major issue, and a major killer. Local land use planning can mitigate this to some extent by zoning dirty industrial processes away from residential areas. But the real solutions are in the hands of national legislators and the businesses themselves.

 Energy,

its efficient use in buildings and processes, renewable sources.

 Water,

its sourcing, efficient use, reuse, treatment and drainage.

 Pollution

controls safeguarding the quality of air, water and

soils.  Purchasing

policies and their environmental and ethical implications, including likely impacts on poor communities, biodiversity and fragile environments in both the home country and elsewhere.

 Reuse

and maintenance regimes, recycling and waste disposal.

The Greenhouse Gas Protocol This international framework for auditing and reporting on business and institutional greenhouse gas emissions involves estimating direct emissions and indirect emissions through electricity use, purchases, disposals and travel. It is promoted by ICLEI, the World Bank and other bodies as a means of motivating and celebrating progress.

 Transport

of raw materials and goods to and from the enterprise.

 Low

carbon travel choices for employees and clients.

 Biodiversity

on site, and habitat implications of processes.

 The

maintenance and enhancement of buildings and spaces

 The

overall carbon and greenhouse-gas footprint.

Travel plans For many organisations the biggest environmental impact is the way in which people access the business, as employees, clients or customers. Travel plans may be required as part of a neighbourhood plan. Businesses and institutions should:  Choose

a location that maximises the potential for using public transport while minimising the average distance to be travelled, and gives an opportunity for lunchtime and post-work sustenance, socialising, recreation and shopping.

 Support

active travel, ensuring excellent provision on site for cyclists and walkers, including bike parking and showers, working with others to improve walking/cycling facilities in the locality.

 Penalise

car travel by clear financial signals such as car park charging for employees/owners, and clients/customers; and a progressive release of car parking space for other more productive uses.

131

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

Local enterprise

3.8 Terminology: high streets While in Britain and New Zealand (for example) linear retail areas are called ‘high streets’, other terms are used elsewhere: ‘main street’ in the USA. Trip chaining Multipurpose trips, where one thing leads to another. For example, the journey to the bank also allows someone to drop in on the newsagent, then meet a friend for coffee. Healthy high streets Public Health England advocates measures that can increase the inclusivity and pleasantness of high streets, benefitting physical and mental wellbeing:  diversity of stores and facilities  restrictions on the number of gambling, pay-day loan, drinking and fast food outlets  street trees, pocket parks and ponds  calmed traffic and pedestrian priority  freedom from street furniture clutter  accessible toilets, seating  design which deters crime SOURCE: Public Health England 2018

Retail strips, retail parks, high streets These three forms all involve clustering of retail outlets, which has the benefit of allowing shoppers to visit several shops in one trip (‘trip chaining’). But their characteristics are very different.  Retail strips: car parking attached to each outlet; pedestrians and cyclists inadequately provided for; poorly related to residential areas; high carbon; low physical activity; land hungry.  Retail parks: one car park serving a group of shops; normally not well related to housing; high carbon; low physical activity but can walk between shops; low-medium density.  High Streets: linear cluster of outlets along a main pedestrian route; often some on-street parking; embedded in the residential area; low-medium carbon; encourages physical activity and social contact; higher density.

3.8

TOWN AND LOCAL CENTRE VITALITY

Context Many town, district and local shopping centres are declining as a result of internet shopping, an increasingly mobile society and consolidation of retail trade into fewer and larger outlets. COVID-19 has reinforced the trend, obliging households and firms to rely on on-line purchase, while tech companies distribute from huge automated warehouses. Some post-pandemic scenarios paint a very gloomy picture of the future of retailing. Yet these centres have traditionally performed a vital economic and social role – they are centres of community life. They may give a sense of local cultural identity. When they decline, with vacant properties and unkempt appearance, then the morale and wellbeing of the wider community are affected. Action to reverse decline is vital. The increase in home-working may be their saving, and help to make local shopping fun, social and varied. BASIC PRINCIPLES Town, district and local centres should be valued not simply as retail centres but as hubs of community life, employment and essential services. Social, retail and service facilities should be clustered together in compact centres or high streets to reinforce their viability, provide choice and encourage trip chaining. Their locations should be at the hub of pedestrian, bike, and public transport networks and well served by vehicle routes. Centres should be attractive, safe and convivial places to spend time on foot. They should be supported by housing, home-working and density policies which maximise the catchment population.

Potential benefits  Centres

as thriving hubs of community, strengthening the sense of local identity.

 Opportunities

for planned and casual meetings, supporting mental wellbeing and social networks.

 Viability

of commercial, leisure and social facilities enhanced by mutual association and propinquity.

 Employment  Facilities

opportunities locally available.

accessible by active travel.

 Public

transport viability helped by the concentration of passenger demand.

 Shorter

trip-length and fewer motorised trips to superstores cut pollution, traffic danger and climate emissions.

132

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

Local enterprise

3.8 CENTRE HEALTH CHECK Various indicators can be used to provide an insight into the performance of a neighbourhood or town centre and offer a framework for assessing vitality and viability:  Patterns

of use – listing all the outlets and services. How are the functions changing over time? The hope is that as retail uses decline they are replaced by personal services, hospitality, community and leisure uses.

 Footfall

(pedestrian flow) – measures the number and movement of people on the streets. Footfall is a critical indicator for prospective retailers.

Footfall measures social opportunity as well as retail viability.

 User

survey – assessing the views. priorities and attitudes of local people using the centre. What would attract increased use?

 Rental

values – provides a measure of the relative attractiveness of different locations within the centre and between centres. Often rents reflect historic expectations (from a few years back) rather than current reality, so potentially excluding more marginal users and contributing to vacancy.

CHECKLIST Local and town centre use categories Every centre performs one or more or all of the following functions. The questions are: which function or functions determine its reputation and use? Which functions (old or new) could help it thrive?

 Vacancy

rates – particularly street-level vacancy rates in main shopping streets; upper-storey vacancy (often flats) and secondary street vacancy are also important indicators.

 Convenience shops (e.g. grocer, baker, newsagent, pharmacist).

 Occupier

attitudes – both their expressed views and intentions, and as evidenced by investment in the property and the quality of frontage/display.

 Personal services (therapy, hair-dresser, nail bar, take-aways, betting shop).  Second-hand or temporary outlets (charity shops, market stalls, pop-up shops).

ARRESTING DECLINE The long-term decline of local facilities experienced in many urban neighbourhoods and towns is partly caused by changing patterns of consumer choice (e.g. internet shopping and high car reliance). Market and institutional interests have responded to these changes, but also forced them by progressively seeking economies of scale. This can be seen in the growth of huge superstores and hospitals. The increasing unit size of facilities leads to longer trips, more car use and poorer local accessibility. In some outlying estates and rural settlements this trend has effectively disenfranchised whole sections of the population who do not drive or own cars, or who lose their mobility. It is therefore vital to have a clear and flexible strategy for reversing the trends and for taking best advantage of opportunities that present themselves. There are potentially some powerful levers: service providers – particularly education and health – need to adopt user accessibility as a key objective. Briefs for major brownfield or greenfield residential development should be designed for active travel and require facility provision – not simply site allocation – with the principles written into the spatial plan.

 Comparison shops (clothes, shoes, hardware, furniture, jewellery, phones).  Hospitality providers (cafes, coffee shops, pubs, hotels). 5.7 Land use and activities

 Business services (banks, post offices, estate agents, solicitors).  Holiday shops – geared to the requirements of visitors, not locals.  Speciality shopping – (heritage, crafts).  Cultural, social and leisure activities (library, hall, gym, social club).  Education and health service providers. Benefits of pedestrianisation Studies in Germany and the UK have shown that pedestrianised areas have the potential to bring about an increase in footfall for retail services of 20 to 40 per cent (Davis 2011).

133

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

Local enterprise

3.8 Sometimes there are local characteristics which hasten the slow death of a centre. Falling population levels (as household size declines), and a concentration of poorer households in the immediate catchment can condemn a centre, leading to high vacancy rates, a predominance of fast-food outlets, betting shops, and down-at-heel retailers. Local people are doubly disadvantaged: relative poverty and few facilities. Local shops and consumer co-ops The village shop and neighbourhood corner shop are important contributors to local convenience and the social fabric, but have had their viability undermined by changing shopping habits. Local consumer co-ops can rebuild community use, especially when dedicated to local produce. Local authorities could support such initiatives with tax breaks. Markets, food-carts, stalls, containers A flexible approach to retail innovation can facilitate new initiatives, diversify local centres and help revival:  Outdoor markets at points of high pedestrian flow. These can be very important symbols of local identity, generating social activity, supporting adjacent retail outlets.  Food carts and pop-up street stalls could be allowed wherever space is available – for example next to car parks.  Freight containers, allowed on underused land, to provide small workshops, craft shops or vegetable clubs linked to local producers.

STRATEGIES FOR REVIVAL Neighbourhood centres, small and large, should be supported by a planning strategy that recognises their changing nature and maximises their accessibility and attractiveness: 1. Increasing catchment population In areas that have lost population, it is essential through development policies to reverse that decline. If the area is also poor then attracting more affluent households, so as to create socially mixed communities will help increase local spending power. Re-claim upper storeys and promote higher density housing close to the centre. 2. Improving pedestrian and cycling flows Local shopping centres flourish on streets with the greatest connectivity to surrounding areas, where the footfall is naturally highest. Policy should work to increase pedestrian and cycle connectivity further by creating new links and overcoming severance effects (e.g. by heavy traffic flows). 3. Public transport networks Historic centres are normally at the hub of local bus routes. New or revitalised centres should be too, giving the option of bus travel to those people travelling from further away. Where possible bus stops should be located at the heart of the centre. 4. Visibility and passing trade Shops should not be hidden away in inward-looking neighbourhoods (where they are likely to fail), but open to the general view of passing bike, car and bus travellers, increasing the potential market. Local shopping centres on or next to distributor roads or tram stops simplify casual purchases on the way to or from home. 5. Creating an attractive, safe, convivial environment The feel of the street or square has a significant impact on use. Attractiveness is sometimes because of classic and characterful buildings. But even quite mundane buildings can be transformed by the quality of shop-fronts and sense of convivial, coffee shop activity. The taming of traffic, ensuring ease and safety of road crossings, with pedestrian zones where use is highest, plus well-maintained pavements, plants and attractive street furniture, all add to the sense of place. Seating, placed conveniently for peoplewatching, is a bonus.

134

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

Local enterprise

3.8 6. Core retail and community areas The point when residents feel they have arrived in a local shopping centre is important in relation to footfall, turnover, and perceptions of distance walked to ‘get to the shops’. If at all possible, maintain active retail/hospitality/community frontage from that point on. Continuous frontage on one side of the street is better than the same number of outlets discontinuous on both sides. 7. People-based diversification With the decline of local retail, it is vital to promote diversity of uses. The criteria for desirable activities should be peoplebased: i.e. activities which attract and provide for quite a number of people. Diversity also encourages reinforcement of one use by another, as visitors walk around and trip chain (for example libraries benefit from being near to shops). One journey fulfils a number of purposes, and creates social opportunities too, while reducing the need to travel.

Toxic high streets Townshend (2017) suggests that some decaying shopping streets in poor neighbourhoods are harmful to physical and mental health. He refers to streets where fast food takeaways and ‘all you can eat’ buffets tempt people with high calorific fare; where money lenders charge extortionate rates; betting shops, cut price alcohol and tobacco and tanning salons encourage unhealthy spending by households which have little to spend.

Figure 3.11 A toxicity survey in a high street serving a deprived community (Townshend 2017) Chillingham Road 'toxicity survey' ! ( ! # * (

8. Changing business needs The economics of business are not static. Individual retailers and hospitality providers may find that they need to move, or change their space, as their market, rent or personal situation changes. Flexibility in the rules governing building extensions, and opportunity for changing location, are important. Linear shopping zones which can extend or contract and the use of side streets alternating between housing and retail use on the ground floor, allow choice to entrepreneurs.

! ( ! ( ! ( ! ( ! (

Educational facilities are particularly important because of the number of people served. Where possible the scale of a school adjacent to a centre should roughly match the catchment of the centre. So a primary school could be next to a local neighbourhood centre, drawing people to the facilities there; a college for older teenagers and young adults could be in a town centre or major district centre.

! ( ! ( ! (

! ( ! ( ! ( ! (

Takeaway/energy dense food

# *

Imminent change of use

Off-licence/cut price alcohol Gambling/betting shop Vacant unit

! ( ! (

# *

! (

! ( ! ( ! !( ( ! ( ! ( ! ( ! ( ! ( ! ( ! ( ! ( ! ( ! ( ! ( ! (

Hospitality, social, cultural and personal care uses As shopping, working and living habits change, the importance of non-retail facilities grows. The active retired, people working from home, office workers socialising after work, parents entertaining kids after school, want a variety of opportunities: cafes, coffee shops, pubs, meeting rooms, serviced hot-desk centres, hair-dressers, gyms, libraries, faith centres, health centres, performances spaces… The more these can be integrated into neighbourhood and town centres, the more those centres are likely to thrive, promote wellbeing and reduce travel needs.

Legend

! ( ! (

! (

^

Chillingham Road

0

25

50

100

150 Meters

! ( ! ( ! ( ! ( # * ! ( ! (

City centre

©Crown Copyright/database right 2014. An Ordnance Survey/EDINA supplied service

Such an audit could provide the starting point for community planning and public health officers to engage the local community – is this the place they want? How could things change?

135

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

Local enterprise

3.8 Working collaboratively A concerted effort on the part of the local authority, local residents and other interested parties through a communityplanning exercise could provide the momentum for neighbourhood renewal. In larger centres there may need to be a formal public/private sector partnership, which would:  Develop

a shared vision based on a realistic analysis of the competitive position and local attitudes/trends. Leading to an agreed strategy and action.

 Appoint

a dedicated town manager or regeneration officer, able to co-ordinate local stakeholders and work creatively with the planning and design departments and politicians to implement the agreed strategy.

Raising the game! Centres only thrive if people support them. Revival depends on local community and entrepreneurial activity. The more successful centres now are about social enjoyment not simply shops and services: people meeting up intentionally or casually, people making festivals, people choosing to buy locally, people choosing not to get into their vehicle.

 Seek

public realm investment to radically upgrade quality, provide pedestrian/cycling routes into and around the centre; and support innovative events (e.g. a farmers’ market) so as to transform the image of the centre and attract new visitors.

 Small

is beautiful! When renewal occurs, ensure that small units at a modest rent are available, well related to the permeable pedestrian network, encouraging local initiatives.

FOOD STORES

4.11 Food retail access

Food stores generate significant footfall because of the frequency of shoppers’ visits. In particular larger supermarkets are key generators of local activity. They often provide a diversity of retail/service functions under one roof. They have an important social function for casual and planned meetings. Many shoppers visit them several times a week, like a traditional corner shop. In the long term, with internet shopping, their role may change, but for the moment they are vital ingredients of local culture, and potentially by far the most important starting points for local food strategies. In this context any further development of supermarkets needs to be seen, not least by the retailers themselves, as an opportunity for moves towards net-zero carbon in relation to organic and locally-produced food, re-usable packaging, walking, cycling and e-transport. Locating superstores in-centre

Suburban supermarket at the heart of the neighbourhood, with apartments above and parking below, minimising land needs, maintaining density. Freiburg, Germany.

When superstores are centrally located in town centres or urban districts, they can encourage a substantial proportion of local access on foot or bike (contrary to the general impression). In UK suburbs 40 per cent of people living within one kilometre walk or cycle to them (see figure 3.12). In the Netherlands the proportion is much higher. Location and the quality of pedestrian networks are critical. E-bikes with trailers offer potential for greater levels of active travel. The scale of supermarket appropriate to any particular centre should vary according to the natural catchment of the centre. A

136

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

Local enterprise

3.8 Superstores kill small stores

large superstore requires a theoretical catchment population of 20,000+ people, so equates to a market town or district centre. If major stores are separate from local centres they will poach custom from the smaller shops and may kill them off. But a supermarket at the heart of a centre, if well designed, increases consumer choice, encourages walking trip chaining to nearby facilities, reduces general trip lengths and cuts retail/employment leakage out of the town.

Research on market towns and district centres shows that following the development of large edge/out-oftown-centre food stores, the traditional convenience sector declines 21–75 per cent in market share. Hillier Parker 1990

Integration in-centre  Site

the supermarket as a key ‘anchor store’ within the centre, with a legal obligation to avoid trading in competition with specific locally strong retail trades.

 Integrate

the store into the active retailing frontage, not set back behind a car park. Create an attractive, convivial frontage which links the store visually with adjacent shops and services.

 Ensure

the car park is available for non-supermarket users (time-limited), with pedestrian access in all directions. Save land by placing car parking below or above the store.

 Plan

convenient bike parking and bus-stops close to the main entrance. Provide e-charging points for bikes and cars.

Proportion of walking / cycling trips to superstores and non-food services, by distance

Figure 3.12 Proportion of walking/cycling trips to superstores and non-food services, by distance

100%

FO NNO

A major superstore depends on a large catchment population. The optimum accessibility threshold, allowing for that, is 1500 metres. Within that distance investment should be making walking and cycling trips progressively safer and more convenient.

80%

O

SH O

D RS PE SU

SE RV ICE S

People choose the nearest superstore

m 00 48

m 00 40

m 00 32

0m 00 28

m

0m 00 24

00 20

m 00

m 00 12

0m 80

0m 40

0m

20%

TO RE

Superstore and district centre threshold

Local centre threshold

40%

PS AN D

16

60%

Where a superstore offering wide choice is locally available, the majority of people choose it in preference to travelling to reach other brands. Where stores are well separated, up to 90 per cent of people choose their most local store. In other words, brand loyalty is then less important than propinquity. SOURCE: Solutions 2009

137

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

Access to local facilities

3.9

access to local facilities 3.9

What is local?

People want access People’s preferences often conflict with the assumptions of the development industry. Research has shown that people prefer to live in places where they can walk to shops, to see friends, have access to a range of amenities, with nature close by (Sallis et al. 2015a; 2015b). Housing, office properties and rental apartments have higher value in walkable locations (Pivo & Fisher 2010, Lawlor 2013).

PLANNING LOCAL ACCESSIBILITY

5.5 Understanding local urban form

Access to local facilities is fundamental to the concept of a neighbourhood. In the UK it is often held that for a village to be a village it needs a place of worship, a shop, a pub or cafe and a primary school. A small town, or an urban district within a city, needs more. It needs the full range of social, retail, educational, health and recreational facilities to allow people – especially those of limited means or mobility – to carry on daily life. That means that the main food/convenience stores and durable (though not specialist) stores; banks and post offices; health centres, secondary school, library and leisure centre; playgrounds, parks and playing fields – should all be local. Accessibility is the central concern: accessibility by foot or bike, e-scooter, motorised wheelchair or local bus. The benefits are not only in terms of active travel and low carbon travel, but also conviviality, social inclusion and gender equality. BASIC PRINCIPLES Local provision of facilities to permit access by foot, bike and local bus should be fundamental to the planning of every neighbourhood, urban district or small town. This means having a sound understanding of the evolving needs of market and institutional providers and investors. It also means knowing, through active public engagement and survey, how people currently behave, where they go, how they get there, what they feel about the facilities available.

Figure 3.13 How much do people use local facilities? This chart shows percentage of trips made to services when and if they are provided locally. Note that it is culturally specific, based on peripheral estates in the Bristol sub-region – often designed primarily for car use and having very high levels of car ownership. Taking the two categories ‘within the development’ and ‘close to the development’ together, the use of local facilities was sometimes surprisingly high – for example 93 per cent of primary school trips, 95 per cent of health centre trips and 97 per cent of supermarket trips, where these facilities are locally available. Conversely it is clear that the locally available leisure and open space facilities are not meeting the needs of many people. SOURCE: Barton et al. 2000, based on Winter and Farthing 1997

138

It is important to plan for viability through clustering of facilities, flexible catchment size and access by all modes. Specific standards of accessibility (detailed in section 3.10) should be agreed with service providers and, where possible, market interests. Where local facilities are missing or in decline, then strategies for neighbourhood revival are essential for health and sustainability.

Reasons for local provision  Meeting

publicly expressed desire for local services.

 Physical

exercise in the form of active travel – good for physical and mental wellbeing.

 Casual

and planned meetings on the street and at facilities, building social networks and good for psychological health.

 Social

inclusion, permitting ease of access for all, without the necessity of a car.

 Local

job opportunities, recycling money locally.

 Low-carbon

travel and potential reduction in air pollution due to less motorised traffic.

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

Access to local facilities

3.9 THE SYSTEMATIC APPROACH

In brief

A proactive stance must be taken by local communities and municipalities to reverse the long-term trend in most areas towards increased car dependence and loss of local facilities. The strategic planning of economic development, land use and transport within a city or region is key. Aspects of this are explored in Chapter 5. Local knowledge and political pressure are vital. The main elements of a systematic neighbourhood or town assessment are listed below:

 As part of the stock-take, ask social providers and local businesses about their own experience.  The results of a sample survey can reveal behaviours and attitudes that are different from those expressed by the people who come to public meetings.

5.4 Neighbourhood appraisal

 In trying to understand accessibility do not rely on crude circles on a map, but analyse the actual routes taken, which may be indirect or hilly or interrupted by fast traffic.

 Do

a stock-take of local facilities – their location and quality – and identify the gaps in provision, the nearest alternative provision, and the kind of catchment the facilities may depend on for their viability.

 Seek to increase permeability and reduce barriers to movement by foot and bike, making routes safer, more attractive and direct.

 Do

a household random sample survey (at least a hundred households, preferably more) to establish how people currently behave: the facilities they use, the way they get to them, the amount of trip chaining (i.e. visiting several facilities on the same trip).

 Look to facilitate clusters of local facilities, so that people can visit several in one trip and the viability of facilities is supported.

 Run

public meetings or focus groups to discover what people think about their local facilities, which they value most, what they feel about the walking/cycling routes (are they safe? Convenient?); what other facilities they would really like to see locally available.

 Map

all the facilities and routes, working out how far people are travelling to get to facilities, how far they are currently walking or cycling, and comparing this with theoretical standards suggested in this chapter. This can be done by hand or by using geographical information systems (GIS).

 Make

% of trips

a plan: working with stakeholders (providers, businesses, users), decide on policies and standards appropriate for the area, identify barriers to walking and cycling that need to be removed, develop a longer-term strategy, including how to influence broader policy agencies that affect the town or neighbourhood; work with local voluntary groups to realise smaller, easier, quick wins.

Comparing trip distance across the twelve areas – Arranged by percentage of trips under 1600m 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%

9

9 16

32

25 22

35

5

28 44 12 8

31

32

30 19

13

34 13 8

23

16

25

24

25

10 39

18

13

32

48

31

31 22

16

15

19

14

12

10

26

14 9

17

18 5

29 7

12

51

20

36

45 38

21 13

24

8

14 5 7

CONTRASTS IN EXISTING LOCALITIES The significance of undertaking specific local surveys can be appreciated if we study the huge discrepancies between different places. The charts in the side column are derived from a study (2005–9) of suburban neighbourhoods and satellite settlements in four English city regions: London, Bristol, Newcastle and Cambridge. About 130 households responded in each area, on average a healthy 30 per cent response rate. They were asked what local facilities they used and how they got there. The journeys included in the survey were for food shopping, other retail services, schools, inside and outdoor leisure activities (see Barton et al. 2018).

3200m+ 1600–3200m 800–1600m

Figure 3.14 How far people travel to access local facilities

400–800m 0–400m

12 neighbourhoods contrasted.

139

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

Access to local facilities

3.9

% of trips

Comparing modal split in twelve areas – Arranged by level of walking/cycling 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%

33 4

61

32 19

46

31 13 18 37

41

35

5

13

51

51

48

45

6 5

8

41

46

52

55

58

5 5 41

36

59

6 37

32

How local is local?

47 70 19 33

29

Personal motorised

Figure 3.15 Travel mode for access to local facilities

Public transport Cycling Walking

How the percentage of trips using non-motorised means varies for trips of different distance, differentiated by study area – Bristol areas 100

Active travel choices The variation between communities is also marked in terms of modal choice (Figure 3.15). The range of car dependence is from 33 to 70 per cent, while the proportion of active travel (walking and cycling) is from 65 to 29 per cent. Public transport accounts for between 1 per cent and 19 per cent. It is noteworthy that two communities, both in Cambridge, have a much higher share for cycling. The difference in rank order between this and the previous chart is significant. For instance, the households in the Barking neighbourhood (in East London) had relatively low levels of income and car ownership, and therefore high levels of walking. Many people had to walk considerable distances to get to some essential facilities. The third chart (Figure 3.16) shows the fall-off in active travel as distance increases. It also illustrates the perhaps surprising consistency of behaviour across the three Bristol study areas, despite contrasts in social and physical character. This was not the case across all twelve. People in Barking perforce walked longer distances. People in Broxbourne were not prepared to walk far at all, resorting to their cars.

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Cars, culture and form

0

0200m 200 400m 400 600m 600 800m 800 1000m 1000 1200m 1200 1400m 1400 1600m 1600 3200m 3200 4800m 4800 6400m

percentage of trips using non-motorised

By neighbourhood.

Figure 3.14 illustrates the variation in the distance residents have to (or choose to) travel in order to access common-place facilities. Taking the distance of 1,600 metres or one mile as signifying ‘local’, the people of one neighbourhood satisfy 75 per cent of these needs locally, while at the other extreme the figure is 26 per cent. The average figure across all twelve localities is 50 per cent. If we take 800 metres or half a mile as the ‘local’ distance, then the range is 9–47 per cent, and average use is only 26 per cent. These figures show both the degree to which generalisations are dangerous, and also the conspicuous failure of many places to provide for local need.

NB SMALL SCALE

NB LARGER SCALE

Trip distance category

Figure 3.16 Active travel by distance How the percentage of walking/ cycling trips varies by distance in three Bristol settlements.

All twelve areas together Bradley Stoke Filton Ave Thornbury

There are three principal reasons for the differences in behaviour. These are the level of car ownership (which itself is affected by income and location); the distinctive culture of the population; and the physical form and land use/movement pattern. In some situations culture (or attitude, or preference) can be very significant. For example, the Dutch have a completely different attitude to cycling from the British. Some Dutch towns have 60 per cent of trips by bike. The populations of some American cities, by comparison, neither cycle nor walk significant distance. The car is always the default means of travel, even for 400 metres. The urban form reflects this choice, and in turn drives it. Within the majority of British neighbourhoods as indicated by this study, form is a critical factor in determining the amount of walking. People may also self-select the location of their home to reflect their preferences. Though the housing market heavily constrains their selection. The difference between, say, Filton

140

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

Access to local facilities

3.9 Avenue and Bradley Stoke in Bristol is largely accounted for by location, the nature of the street network (convoluted or direct) and the presence or absence of local facilities. Density is not a key factor in these suburban locations. Higher density of itself does not lead to active travel, unless combined with pedestrian- and cycling-friendly networks and accessible facilities. Key thresholds of pedestrian accessibility Recognising that particular places may well be different, and also that behaviour can change over time, the third chart does nevertheless begin to give a basis for selecting general accessibility thresholds based on walkability:  75

per cent+ of trips on foot – up to 600 metres

 50

per cent+ of trips on foot – up to 1000 metres

Such thresholds can be useful starting point for policy. The oft-quoted ‘pedshed’ threshold of 800 metres equates to about 10 minutes at average walking pace and 60 per cent of trips on foot. The time walking is a critical factor in the decision to walk or not to facilities, when people have other options available. There is some evidence of similar average thresholds in some other rich countries and in intermediate countries.

5.11 Local assets and potential

However, such thresholds also come with a series of cautions:  Culture

plays an important role. Note the difference between the USA, the UK and the Netherlands.

 Culture

also varies within a given community, with a sharp divide between the more sedentary and the more active people.

 However,

culture is mutable. Many European cities have demonstrated that people change when the environmental and financial contexts change.

Figure 3.17 Catchment populations at different densities

 The

hilliness of routes, ease of crossings and the sense of safety on the streets affect the choices made, especially by people who are less physically able and by parents giving or refusing children permission to go out alone.

N.B. For the sake of this chart, bendy route catchment radii equate to three-quarters of the direct line radii, giving 56 per cent of the catchment population.

Catchment area radius 200 m

600 m

400 m

800 m

1,000 m

Direct routes

Bendy routes

Direct routes

Bendy routes

Direct routes

Bendy routes

Direct routes

Bendy routes

Direct routes

Bendy routes

30 ppha

375

210

1,500

850

3,400

1,900

6,100

3,400

9,600

5,300

40 ppha

520

280

2,000

1,130

4,600

2,500

8,200

4,600

12,000

7,000

60 ppha

780

420

3,000

1,700

6,900

3,800

12,000

6,900

19,000

10,600

80 ppha

1,000

500

4,000

2,260

9,000

5,100

16,000

9,000

25,000

14,000

100 ppha

1,300

700

5,000

2,820

11,300

6,300

20,000

11,300

31,000

17,500

Gross residential density

ppha = persons per hectare

141

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

Access to local facilities

3.9  Different

trip purposes are associated with different thresholds. People walk less far to a superstore, an intermediate distance to local shops and significantly further for school and outdoor recreation trips.

MEASURING CATCHMENT POPULATIONS Despite the fact that people sometimes choose not to use local facilities, it remains a vital planning goal to give everybody the option. Policy is likely to rely on assumptions about catchment populations and appropriate accessibility standards. The accompanying tables illustrate the degree of variation of catchment population with different assumptions about density, distance and route directness. Note that:  Catchment

population varies directly in proportion to gross residential density (i.e. including all the local land uses). Net residential density is not a good indicator.

 Modest

increases in access standard result in major changes of catchment (e.g. 600m gives more than double 400 m).

 Actual

routes are not normally direct, and this dramatically reduces the catchment population – if average distances are a third longer, then the catchment radius is 75 per cent of the direct-line radius, and the population is 56 per cent of the direct-line catchment.

 Population

and facilities are not evenly distributed across an urban area, and the urban area itself is varied in pattern and shape. In some areas it may be impractical, for the moment at least, to set rigorous accessibility standards.

Figure 3.18 Catchments are not circular!

FLEXIBLE CATCHMENTS

Catchment analysis of Stroud, England: the 800m ‘pedshed’ along pedestrian routes from the town centre, revealing the quirks in accessibility due to landform, barriers (river, railway, main road) and the street network.

Twentieth-century planners argued about the ideal population for a neighbourhood, and based the catchment needed to support local facilities. That discussion was misplaced. As illustrated below, catchment populations vary very widely by facility, and they also may change over time. The principle of consumer choice, and the fact of high mobility, mean that local people may or may not choose to use local facilities. Some facilities, when available locally, are very heavily used – for example supermarkets and health centres. Other facilities much less so – for example places of worship and leisure facilities – because people’s choices are more discriminating or specialist.

Original base map © Crown copyright

5.14 Linear principles 5.15 Planning compact neighbourhoods

142

The pattern of neighbourhoods and networks must therefore be planned for flexible choice – permitting ease of access between neighbourhoods as much as within them. Chapter 5 offers a guide to wider area strategy. Changing patterns of service provision and of retailing also point to the need for a flexible and open system of land-use control. New commercial initiatives (e.g. coffee shops, hairdressers, filling station shops, private nursery schools, technology services) which enhance provision need to be welcomed.

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

Access to local facilities

3.10 3.10

ACCESSIBILITY CRITERIA

Accessibility criteria should be used to ensure facilities are as walkable as possible. The actual standard chosen, however, cannot just reflect the distance people are willing to walk. It also needs to consider the scale of the facility, the number of people required to support it, the density of the area and the vagaries of geography. Criteria adopted will vary with context. In older settlements they may simply be a marker for the future. In new areas they could be a requirement. Standards for common facilities are given in figure 3.19.

Local facility

Illustrative catchment populations (to be adapted to local conditions and policies)

Minimum reasonable accessibility standards at different gross densities (assuming bendy routes) 40 ppha 60 ppha 80 ppha 100 ppha

Nursery/first school

2,000

600 m

500 m

400 m

400 m

Primary/middle school

4,000

800 m

700 m

600 m

500 m

Secondary school

8,000

1,200 m

1,000 m

700 m

700 m

Secondary school (large)

16,000

1,500 m

1,200 m

1,000 m

1,000 m

Health centre (4 doctors)

10,000

1,200 m

1,000 m

900 m

800 m

Local shop

1,500

500 m

400 m

400 m

300 m

Pub

6,000

1,000 m

800 m

700 m

600 m

Post office

5,000

800 m

700 m

600 m

600 m

Community centre

4,000

800 m

600 m

600 m

500 m

Local centre

6,000

1,000 m

800 m

700 m

600 m

District centre/superstore

24,000

1,900 m

1,500 m

1,300 m

1,200 m

Leisure centre

24,000

1,900 m

1,500 m

1,300 m

1,200 m

Figure 3.19 Minimum accessibility criteria for compact settlements These are illustrative figures, varying according to facility and gross residential density, to help give scale to a complex issue.

How to use accessibility criteria In major urban extensions it is reasonable for the community to expect developers and service providers to achieve good standards of local facility accessibility. Appropriate standards can be agreed and incorporated into the spatial strategy and subsequent development briefs. In fully built-up areas the ability to achieve any standards is highly constrained by existing morphology and ownership. This is particularly the case in hilly or poorly planned settlements. Standards cannot be mandatory but may be a starting point for negotiation. Infill or redevelopment projects may be guided by accessibility standards. Service providers – health services, education authorities, library services, etc. – should identify gaps in provision and seek to fill them. 143

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

Access to local facilities

3.10 ILLUSTRATIVE CRITERIA FOR A TOWN Accessibility criteria need to reflect:  gross

density – current or planned

 catchment  siting

populations needed to support different facilities

requirements (scale, vehicle access, etc.)

 morphology  street

network, its directness, safety and permeability

 behavioural  need

Figure 3.20 Illustrative accessibility criteria (in metres) These criteria are suggested as starting points for discussion. They are judgements based on the factors listed above. Some are explained more fully in other sections.

for a transparent, easily understood system

3000

re

to nt

re

ate

chn

re nt ce ur e Le is

ail ,C

ult ur a

CI

TY

k 3000

5000

8000

144

or

l

n th

Pri

e

Gr

ma

ee

ry

ery

sch

Ne

tw

oo

l&

2000

M

ajo

rr

et

1500

icka

to ss ce ts

a

1000

&k

en

are

H

800

und

lay

,w

l ta

pi os

600

tm

r’s p

E

A&

400

gro

lo

dle

em

ith

Play

Al

Tod

jor

Ma

ym plo

e tc

300

pace

reens

Bus stop

200

e ntr

l

hal

ark / g

100

6th F

nt l ce

p Local

THE HOME

e

lig

a

100

lleg ical co

ht

i ra

re,

Loc

200

Major natural greenspace

or

Tr

300

p

to

ls

am

400

rs ce

Ac

pe

Su re

l est

/ Te ollege orm c

Surg

OR

RIC T

&

U RB AN

e

600

D OO RH OU

DIS T

s

800

tr stria

1000

l

en

tc

oo

ric

st

sch

di isu

en

1500

ry

or

da

n Le Indu

2000

B GH EI N

on

g feld

Sec

SM A

N Playin

LL

W TO

w

Adapted from Barton et al. 1995

characteristics of users

5000

To

The deep blue arrows indicate the ideal standards. However, they may only be possible if the urban area is very even in spatial character. The pale blue arrows suggest more realistic standards which should be achievable for all households.

and general shape of the settlement

LA EP M HO

CE

bou

t ar

ea

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

Access to local facilities

3.10 FLEXIBILITY IN APPLICATION Looking at the ‘neighbourhood’ segment of the spiral diagram, there is a cluster of facilities which should in theory be viable within easy walking distance of homes. These include local convenience shops, social facilities, primary school, health centre, access to the citywide greenspace network and (in larger cities) a tram or rail stop. In this context the principle of an 800-metre pedshed is a useful criterion. But it is not necessarily achievable in low to medium density areas, or where cultural norms and market trends, as well as environmental factors, inhibit it. A more nuanced approach to analysis and policy is often needed. Cycling and local bus services offer choices, and in most cultures many people choose to walk further than 800m. Figure 3.21 therefore distinguishes four grades of catchment. The specified distances will vary with local geographical and cultural conditions. 1. Primary area – within easy walking distance up to the 800 metres threshold, taking about 10 minutes for the able bodied, undertaken by a substantial majority of those surveyed in English suburbs. 2. Secondary area – a longer walk, up to 2 km, for the active citizen – 10–25 minutes; and a very easy bike ride – possible for almost all cyclists, whatever their age, so long as safe routes are available.

Figure 3.21 Sustainable catchments (See main text for explanation)

3. Tertiary area – with a frequent bus or tram service to the centre, overlapping with zones 1 and 2 but extending beyond. 4. Fourth area, a wider cycling catchment, away from good bus services, is likely to be dominated by car users, but also possible for keener cyclists, especially with electric bikes. The town should ideally be designed so that almost all trip are within zones 1–3, and the use of car or other motorised vehicle would only be necessary for a small minority. The sections on travel later in this chapter explore the factors involved.

When cycling is made easy, efficient and safe, the active travel catchment of town centres is greatly increased. Cycle parking needs careful planning. Freiburg, Germany.

145

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

Access to local facilities

3.11 CHECKLIST Education providers should:  Agree locational objectives for schools that give high importance to local pedestrian and cycling accessibility.  Recognise schools as key elements in local neighbourhoods, towns and urban districts, avoiding closure, planning new schools embedded within communities.  Promote safe routes to school for walkers and cyclists and public transport users.  Avoid the ’fortress school’ philosophy, instead promoting the ‘community school’ principle, supporting life-long learning and cultural activities.  Promote dual use of facilities with the local community – use of the hall, swimming pool, hard pitch, library.  Consider ways, long-term, of reducing educational land needs in urban areas, through buildings of several storeys, hard pitches instead of grass pitches, etc, thus increasing neighbourhood densities and releasing capital.  Integrate technical colleges and 16+ education as fully as possible into the cultural and sporting life of the area.

3.11

EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES

BASIC PRINCIPLES A healthy educational environment is one that conceives the whole experience of a place as stimulating, informing and raising awareness in people of all ages. In that context, the provision of nurseries, schools, colleges and training opportunities that are local and accessible is important. Their contribution goes beyond conventional educational functions. Such institutions can:  instil

appreciation of and contribute to local culture(s)

 develop

understanding of the landscape, wildlife and the built environment

 encourage

healthy lifestyles, healthy travel habits

 foster

social inclusion, tolerance and friendship

 create

flourishing communities around them

The educational environment The whole environment of a city or town contributes to the developing knowledge, understanding and behaviour of individuals, particularly children. If buildings are designed, for example, so that the stairs, rather than the lift or the escalator, are the convenient and attractive route up, this gives a clear message, and largely determines choice. Equivalently, if the routes to school by foot and pedal are safe and direct, generous and pleasant, then parents will be less inclined to take the child to school by car. More broadly, appreciation of nature, of other people (even when ‘different’), of beauty, of history and so on, is shaped by the physical and social environment. Here we focus mainly on schools, and the responsibility of educational providers and municipalities to create a healthy and accessible environment. FORTRESS SCHOOLS VS. COMMUNITY SCHOOLS The reaction of some schools to perceived ‘stranger danger’ has been to take stringent security precautions. The school becomes an exclusive domain, with one controlled access. This forces some children into longer journeys than necessary, with concomitant reduction in walking. It also cuts the school off from the social and economic benefits of shared local use and the sense of the school being at the heart of the community. The integration of school and community makes good use of resources and can reduce vandalism, graffiti and anti-social behaviour in and around the school. For example, opening school playgrounds after school can increase the amount of children’s play activity by comparison with locked playgrounds (Cooper 2009). It’s not only the children who benefit from this approach. Schools may well have facilities that can be given over to community use

146

PROVIDING FOR LOC AL NEED

Access to local facilities

3.11 U.S. kids aren’t walking to school

outside school hours. Classrooms, art rooms, school kitchens and gymnasia can become venues for adult evening education and club meetings. In Nesselande, in the Netherlands, flats for elderly residents have been built above a junior school, giving views out over the playground. A community café on the ground floor is shared with staff and parents.

A survey in the U.S. found that only 10 per cent of schoolkids were walking to school. By comparison 85 per cent of their grandparents walked. ‘Children used to walk regularly to school, which gave them exercise, independence and a connection to their community… Now they are almost always driven, partly because communities are not designed to be walkable, on a human scale’

CHOOSING TO WALK AND CYCLE Worldwide, long-term trends show active travel to school has been declining – now down to 50 per cent in Britain, only 10 per cent in the USA. A growing number of children are missing out on the regular exercise of getting to school. The decline of walking is not only due to parental choice and longer distances to school (evidence suggests most parents still choose a school close by), it is also due to highly car-based lifestyles and the withdrawal of parental permission for children to be on the streets alone. The side-effects of air pollution, congestion and carbon emissions are well understood. But even more serious is the long-term effect on the children. The patterns of physical activity established in childhood are key determinants of adult behaviour (Kuhl and Cooper 1992). This includes the habit of cycling. Only about 2 per cent of children cycle to school in the UK, compared with 60 per cent in Denmark. In Odense, Denmark, even some 5-year-olds cycle to school without parents, but with friends.

Children who walk to school see it not as a fall-back position but as having positive benefits: exercise, independence, meeting friends (Osbourne and Davis 1996). Parents walking with young Figure 3.22 Education catchment and land needs

Number of pupils

Implied catchment population

Typical land needs (range)

50–100

500–1,000

0.3–0.6 ha

PRIMARY 1-class entry

150–200

c.2,000

0.5–1 ha

PRIMARY 2-class entry

300–400

SECONDARY 11–16year olds, 4-class entry

500–600

SECONDARY 11–18year olds, 8-class entry

1,200–1,400

COLLEGE 6th-form/technical

The school trip in the UK  Only 2 per cent of children now cycle to school compared to 60 per cent in Denmark.

3.16 Planning for the cyclist

 Less than 10 per cent of 7–8-year-olds are allowed to walk to school, unaccompanied by a parent – down from 75 per cent in 1970.  At 800 metres 80–95 per cent of children walk or cycle, depending on where they live.  At 1500 metres 65–80 per cent of young people walk or cycle, depending on where they live.

 20 per cent of a.m. peak-hour traffic is associated with school trips.

Child independence in Australia

Typical UK figures

PRIMARY with shared classes

3.15 Pedestrians first!

 Half the car journeys to primary school serve no other trip function.

Social, health and educational effects

Kind of school

SOURCE: Steuteville 2019

c.4,000

1–2 ha

The proportion of young children (