Shamanism in Siberia and European Russia 9781463233822

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Shamanism in Siberia and European Russia

Analecta Gorgiana

972 Series Editor George Anton Kiraz

Analecta Gorgiana is a collection of long essays and short monographs which are consistently cited by modern scholars but previously difficult to find because of their original appearance in obscure publications. Carefully selected by a team of scholars based on their relevance to modern scholarship, these essays can now be fully utilized by scholars and proudly owned by libraries.

Shamanism in Siberia and European Russia

By

V. M. Mikhailovskii Translated by

Oliver Wardrop

2012

Gorgias Press LLC, 954 River Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA www.gorgiaspress.com G&C Kiraz is an imprint of Gorgias Press LLC Copyright © 2012 by Gorgias Press LLC Originally published in 1895 All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise without the prior written permission of Gorgias Press LLC. 2012

ISBN 978-1-61143-905-2

ISSN 1935-6854

Reprinted from the 1895 London edition.

Printed in the United States of America

Shamanism in Siberia and European Russia, being the second part of " Shamanstvo," by Professor V. M. MIKHAILOVSKII, of Moscow, Vice-President of the Ethnographical Section of the Imperial Society of Natural History, Anthropology, and Ethnography. 1 Translated by O L I V E R WARDUOP ( P a r t i ) .

Shamanism in Russia at the present day.—Hitherto the word shamanism has been used in a narrow and strictly defined sense, geographically and ethnographically. The term has been applied especially to certain phenomena in the life and philosophy of our foreign fellow-subjects, in particular the inhabitants of Siberia, and therefore, when we enter upon a wider consideration of the question, and consider shamanism as a phenomenon characteristic of many peoples, scattered throughout many parts of the world, we must begin by examining it in the region where it was first observed and studied, i.e., among the Asiatic and European tribes of Russia. Since it is our intention to regard this phenomenon from the point of view of universal ethnography, we shall not give an exhaustive account of all the facts collected by Russian enquirers, but shall limit our investigations to those data sufficient 1 Professor MikTiailovskii's essay forms the twelfth Vol. of t h e Proceedings of the Ethnographical Section, and was published in 1 8 9 2 .

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to furnish, materials for a characterisation of shamanism in Russia in order to compare it with similar institutions in other lands. Shamanism among the Siberian peoples is at the present time in a moribund condition ; it must die out with those beliefs among which alone such phenomena can arise and flourish. Buddhism on the one hand, and Mohammedanism on the other, not to mention Christianity, are rapidly destroying the old ideas of the tribes among whom the shamans performed. Especially has the more ancient Black Faith suffered from the Yellow F a i t h preached by the lamas. B u t the shamans, with their dark mysterious rites, have made a good struggle for life, and are still frequently found among the native Christians and Mohammedans. The mullahs and lamas have even been obliged to become shamans to a great extent. Many Siberian tribes who are nominally Chrisiians believe in the shamans, and have recourse to them. The Yakuts, for instance, when called upon by the government to give information about their customary law, in the third decade of the present century, insisted on excluding shamanism from the question of any particular profession of religion. They said, " Shamanism is not the faith or religion of the Yakuts, but an independent set of actions which take place in certain definite cases." And they endeavour to explain and justify the attachment of Christian Y a k u t s to their shamans. 1 The names applied to Shamans by the various Siberian tribes.— Shamans, though of a degenerate type, are to be met with throughout the whole of Siberia, and they are known by various names. The word shaman is only found among the Tunguses, Buryats, and Yakuts. 2 I t is only among the Tunguses t h a t this is the native name ; the Buryats, like the Mongols, also call their shamans bo, and the female shamans odegon or utygan,3 Among the Yakuts, a shaman is called oyun, a female shaman udagan,4 The Altaians use the term Kam, and call the shaman's dealings with spirits kamlanie, i.e., kam-ing. The Samoyeds called their shamans tadibei,5 Despite the different names, the performances of the shamans are the same among all these peoples, though all acknowledge t h a t the modern shamans are less powerful than the ancient. The first Shamans and, their origin.—There are some curious tales about the first shamans and the origin of shamanism. Mr. Shashkov has copied down among the Buryats of Balagan a long legend about the cause of the deterioration of the shamans. The first shaman, Khara-Gyrgen, had unlimited power, and God, desiring to prove him, took the soul of a certain rich maiden, and she fell ill. The shaman flew through the sky on his tambourine, seeking the soul, and saw it in a bottle on God's table. To keep the soul from flying out, God corked up the bottle witli one of t h e 1 2 3 4

Samokvasov : " Sbornik obychnago prava sibirskikh inorodtsev," 218-219. Shashkoy, 80. Agapitov and Khangalov, 41. Pot an in, iv, 61. 5 Pripuzov, 64. Radio® : " Aus Sibirien," ii, 16.

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fingers of his r i g h t h a n d . T h e c u n n i n g s h a m a n c h a n g e d himself i n t o a yellow spider, a n d b i t G o d on t h e r i g h t cheek, so t h a t , i r r i t a t e d b y t h e p a i n , h e c l a p p e d h i s r i g h t h a n d to his face, a n d l e t t h e soul o u t of t h e b o t t l e . E n r a g e d a t this, Grod l i m i t e d K h a r a G y r g e n ' s p o w e r , a n d t h e n c e f o r t h s h a m a n s h a v e been g e t t i n g w o r s e a n d worse. 1 T h e legend w h i c h w e s u m m a r i z e is i n t e r e s t i n g f o r t h e glimpse i t gives of t h e coarse ideas of a n e a r l i e r period, u n d e r l y i n g t h e m o d e r n m a s k of m o n o t h e i s m . T h e g o d r e f e r r e d t o is b u t one of t h e s p i r i t s of t h e a n i m i s t i c epoch. T h e B u r y a t s also h a v e t h e f o l l o w i n g s t o r y a b o u t t h e a p p e a r a n c e of s h a m a n s a m o n g m e n : — I n t h e b e g i n n i n g t h e r e w e r e only t h e good s p i r i t s ( t e n g r i ) of t h e west, a n d t h e evil s p i r i t s of t h e e a s t . T h e w e s t e r n tengris c r e a t e d m e n , w h o were a t first h a p p y , b u t a f t e r w a r d s , t h r o u g h t h e w i c k e d n e s s of t h e evil spirits, t h e y b e g a n to f a l l sick a n d die. T h e n t h e good tengris d e c i d e d to g i v e a s h a m a n t o m a n k i n d , t o aid i n t h e s t r u g g l e w i t h t h e evil s p i r i t s , so t h e y m a d e t h e e a g l e a s h a m a n . M e n did n o t p u t f a i t h i n a m e r e b i r d , a n d , besides, t h e y d i d n o t u n d e r s t a n d its l a n g u a g e ; t h e eagle t h e r e f o r e p r a y e d t h e w e s t e r n tengris e i t h e r t o allow t h e p o s t of s h a m a n t o be g i v e n t o a B u r y a t , o r t o b e s t o w h u m a n s p e e c h u p o n t h e eagle. B y t h e will of t h e good spirits, t h e f i r s t s h a m a n became t h e o f f s p r i n g of t h e eagle and a B u r y a t woman.2 T h e Y a k u t t r a d i t i o n is t h a t t h e first s h a m a n w a s of e x t r a o r d i n a r y s t r e n g t h , a n d w o u l d n o t a c k n o w l e d g e t h e chief god of t h e Y a k u t s , f o r w h i c h r e a s o n t h e w r a t h f u l d e i t y b u r n e d h i m u p . A l l t h e b o d y of t h i s s h a m a n c o n s i s t e d of c r a w l i n g reptiles. O n e f r o g escaped f r o m t h e fire, a n d f r o m it issued t h e s h a m a n demons, w h o still s u p p l y the Y a k u t s w i t h f a m o u s s h a m a n s , m a l e a n d female. 3 T h e T u n g u s e s of t h e T u r u k h a n r e g i o n , t h o u g h t h e m i r a c u l o u s e l e m e n t is n o t w a n t i n g in t h e i r s t o r y , h a v e a less f a n t a s t i c a c c o u n t of t h e first s h a m a n . A c c o r d i n g to t h e i r version, t h e first s h a m a n w a s f o r m e d i n c o n s e q u e n c e of his p a r t i c u l a r fitness f o r t h i s occupation, a n d by t h e aid of t h e devil. T h i s s h a m a n flew u p t h e c h i m n e y of t h e yurta ( h u t ) a n d c a m e b a c k a c c o m p a n i e d b y swans. 4 T h e stories a b o u t a n c i e n t s h a m a n s , a n d t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l a p p e a r a n c e of p e r s o n s destined t o e n t e r i n t o i m m e d i a t e i n t e r c o u r s e w i t h s p i r i t s a n d gods, arose, o n t h e one h a n d , f r o m t h e desire of t h e s h a m a n s to g i v e a special s a n c t i o n to t h e i r p r o c e e d i n g s ; on t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e y a r e d u e t o t h e p e c u l i a r c h a r a c t e r of t h e i r d o i n g s , w h i c h p r o d u c e d a n e x c e e d i n g l y p o w e r f u l i m p r e s s i o n on t h é m i n d s a n d i m a g i n a t i o n s of u n c i v i l i s e d people. Forms of " kamlanie " and exorcism among the Tunguses.—Among t h e v a r i o u s p e r f o r m a n c e s of t h e s h a m a n s , t h e m o s t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of all is t h a t w h i c h is n o w g e n e r a l l y called kamlanie. T h e presence of a s h a m a n a t a festival, as p r i e s t a n d sacrificer, is b u t of s e c o n d a r y i m p o r t a n c e , a n d is n o t of t h e essence of s h a m a n i s m . Scenes of kam-ing a m o n g t h e v a r i o u s f o r e i g n peoples i n R u s s i a h a v e b e e n 1 2 3 4

Shastkov, 81. Agapitov and Khangalov, 41-42. Pripuzov, 64. Tretyakov : " Turukhanskii krai," 210-211.

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described in detail by ancient and modern travellers, especially Gmelin and Pallas. I n Argunsk, Gmelin saw the juggling, as ho calls it, of a certain Tungus shaman. The kamlanie took place at night, in the open air, by a fire. T h e spectators sat round the fire ; the shaman stripped, and then p u t on his shaman costume of leather, h u n g with pieces of i r o n ; on each of his shoulders was a toothed iron horn. B u t this particular shaman had as yet received no tambourine from the demons, of which there are a vast number ; each shaman has its own demons, and he that has most is considered the cleverest. The kamlanie consisted of running round in the circle, and singing, in which, he was supported by two assistants. Another Tungus shaman, seen by Gmelin, had a tambourine ; h e made a speech in a drawling chant, and the Tunguses present chimed in. The language of the shaman's utterances was unknown ; he then cried out in the voices of various animals, and drove back spirits. The spirits did not say anything to him, but tormented him a great deal. 1 Among the Yakuts.—The description of kamlanie by a Yakut oyun is especially remarkable; this oyun seems to have made a great impression on Gmelin. The ceremony took place in a birchbark yurta, in f r o n t of which a fire was burning. W h e n it was dark, a shaman, with long black hair, undressed in the yurta, and put on a coat h u n g with iron; he left on his breeches, b u t changed his stockings for others which were embroidered, and are only worn by shamans during the kamlanie. H e took his tambourine, sat down with his face to the south-west, and began to beat the tambourine and cry out. The spectators did not join in chorus. H e sat thus for a while, grimacing, shouting, and beating the tambourine. Gmelin's companions told him t h a t the man was summoning the spirits. Suddenly the shaman leaped to his feet, the beating on the tambourine became faster, the shouts louder, hi3 black hair was flying while he rushed about the yurta. A t last the shaman was overcome, and fell fainting. Then two chiefs seized him, for if the exorcist falls on the ground while he is delirious, misfortunes will happen to the whole people. A f t e r wards, while a third chief was holding over his head a flint, and sharpening a knife on it, the shaman looked round for a moment, and again became delirious; whilst in this state, he often stopped, fixedly looked upwards, and grasped at the air with his hand. Then followed his prophecies, and when all was over, and t h e shaman had doffed his dress, he declared t h a t he remembered nothing. 3 K l a r k describes the kamlanie of a Yakut shaman in terse but impressive language, and declares t h a t the sound of the tambourine, the convulsive antics of the shaman, his fierce screams, his wild stare in the dim light, all strike terror into the hearts of semi-savage people, and powerfully affect their nerves. 3 1 2 3

G-melin, ii, 44-46, 193-195. Gmelin, ii, 351-356. Klark : " Vilyuisk i ego okrug.

139. VOL. XXTV.

Zapiski Sibirskago otdyela," 1864, i n . TU, F

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In the " Syevernyi Arkhiv " for 1822, there is a description of the healing of a sick person by a Yakut shaman. There we find him playing another p a r t ; that of the leech, driving away evil spirits which possess the sick and cause illness. His performance consisted of two parts ; first of all he did not put on his dress, but took a piece of tinder in his hand, twisted into tufts some hairs from a horse's mane, then embraced the patient, and thus took into himself the demons that caused the illness, found out what village they came from, and designated a sacrifice. When the animal destined for sacrifice was brought, the second part of the ceremony began ; the shaman put on his professional costume, went up to the beast, and conveyed into it the demon that had entered him from the sick man. This process had a terrifying effect upon the animal; it seemed to be paralyzed. After the beast was killed, the head and flesh were eaten, and the skin and bones were hung on a tree. 1 Among the Samoyeds of Tomsk.—In Western Siberia also, among the Tomsk Samoyeds, the shaman alone has access to the dark world of spirits ; according to Castren, he performs his functions in a place specially prepared. He sits down in the middle of the room, on a bench or trunk, in which there must be nothing of a •dangerous nature, neither knife, nor bullet, nor needle ; behind the shaman, and beside him, are ranged the numerous spectators ; but nobody must sit in front of him. The shaman's face is turned to the door, and he af£ects to see and hear nothing. I n his right hand he holds a stick, smooth on one side, and on the other, covered with mysterious signs and figures; in his left hand are two arrows with the points upwards ; on the point of each a little bell is fixed. The raiment of the conjurer has no distinctive character ; he generally dons the clothes of the enquirer or patient. The Itamlanie begins with a song, summoning the spirits, and during this the shaman heats with the stick on the arrows, and the bells ring out the measure, while the audience sit devoutly silent. As soon as the spirits begin to appear, the shaman stands up and begins to dance, accompanying the dance with very difficult and ingenious movements of the body. Meanwhile the song and the sound of the bells go on without pause. The subject of the song is a conversation with the spirits, and it is sung with varying degrees of excitement. When the singing has become exceptionally enthusiastic, the spectators also join in it. After the shaman has learned from the spirits all he wants to know, he declares the will of the gods. When he is consulted about the future, he divines by means of the stick, which he throws down ; if the side marked with signs is downwards, this foretells misfortune, if it is uppermost, good fortune. To convince their fellows of the reality of their intercourse with spirits, the shamans have recourse to the following plan: the ghost-seer sits down in the middle of a dry reindeer skin which is stretched on the floor, and has his hands and feet t i e d ; then the shutters are closed and the shaman summons the 1

" Syevernyi Arkhiv," 1822, 2 7 4 - 2 7 7 .

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spirits subject to him. In the various corners of the dark yurta, and even outside, different voices are heard, there is a sound of scratching and drumming in time on the dry skin, bears growl, snakes hiss, squirrels jump. When the noise ceases, the unbound shaman goes out of the yurta, and the audience are convinced that the whole performance has been the work of spirits. Farther to the north, the Samoyed shamans, to prove their mysterious power, ask to be shot in the head.1 Among the Ostyaks.—As early as the days of Peter the Great, Novitskii, in his description of the Ostyaks, near akin to the Samoyeds, portrayed picturesquely the manner in which an Ostyak shaman conjured. When the natives wish to make enquiries about matters affecting their daily wants, fishing, hunting, or the like, they lead the wonder-worker into a dark hut, and there bind him firmly; they themselves sit down and play on reed pipes ; the captive shouts out necromantic words, invoking his ally, Satan. The performance always takes place by night, and, after some hours of invocation, a stormy and noisy spirit enters the hut. Then the spectators flee, and leave the wizard alone with the spirit. The spirit takes him, raises him up and lets him down again, and torments him1 in all kinds of ways. Some hours later, the demon makes his revelation to the shaman, and then leaves h i m ; the shaman communicates the message to the enquirers. 2 Tretyakov has given the substance of some of the sacred songs of the shamans among the Ostyaks and Yurak-Samoyeds. An Ostyak shaman sings that he is raising himself to heaven by means of a rope let down to him ; he pushes aside the stars that block his way. In the sky, the shaman floats in a boat, and then sails down a stream to the earth, with such rapidity that the air blows through him. Afterwards, with the aid of winged devils, he descends below the earth, and asks the dark spix-it " A n a , " or the shaman's mother, for a cloak. (At this moment the bystanders throw a cloak over his shoulders.) Finally the shaman informs each of those who are present that his happiness is secured, and tells the patient that the devil is cast out. Among the Tazovsky Ostyaks and Yuraks, the shaman sings of his jonrneyings, and tells how he flies amid blossoming wild roses, and rises to the sky, where he sees on the tundra seven larches; there his grandsire formerly made his tambourine. Then the shaman enters ail iron hut and falls asleep, surrounded by purple clouds. He comes down to earth on a river, and then adoring the heavenly deity the sun, the moon, the trees, the beast of earth—the ruler of the world, he prays for long life, happiness, &c.3 Among the Ghukchis and ICoryaks.—Passing to the extreme side of Siberia, on the Pacific coast, we find, among the tribes there, similar phenomena. Among the Chukchis, according to Litke, the Castren: " Reiseberichte vind B r i e f e , " 1845-1849, 1 7 2 - 1 7 4 . " Kratkoe opisanie o nnrodye ostyatskom," Grigoriya Novitskago, 1715g. Izd. L . Maikov, 1884, 4 8 - 4 9 . 3 Tietyakov, 2 1 7 - 2 1 8 . 1

2

F 2

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shaman, in his kamlanie, began by retiring behind a curtain, then were heard groans, and gentle tappings, with a thin whalebonp, on the tambourine; opening the curtain, he was seen swaying from side to side, the shouts and drumming became louder, he threw off his coat, and stripped himself to the waist. The performance concluded with jugglery. First of all, the shaman took a smooth stone, gave it to Litke to hold, then took it between his hands, rubbed one palm on the other, and the stone disappeared; it was found in a swelling near the elbow, and was cut out. The last trick of the shaman, before retreating behind the curtain, was to cut his tongue with a knife until blood flowed.1 The Koryak shamans, according to Krasheninnikov, had no special dress, and were only remarkable as healers of the sick and performers of tricks, e.g., they thrust a knife into the stomach. In healing diseases they designated the kind of animal which ought to be sacrificed. In their kamlanie the tambourine played an important part.3 Among the Kamchadals.—Among the Kamchadals there were no special shamans, but their place was taken by women ; these were chiefly old, and they cured diseases by whispered charms. Their chief form of shamanism consisted of two old women sitting in the corner and ceaselessly whispering. One of them tied round her leg a garland of nettles ornamented with red wool, and shook her leg about. If the leg rose easily this was a good omen, but if it rose with difficulty misfortune would happen. But the kamlanie did not terminate with this. The female shaman summoned the devils -with the words, " g u t ! gut!" and gnashed her teeth, and when the devils appeared she met them with laughter and cries of " hoi! hoi !" Half an hour afterwards the devils departed, and when this happened the witch cried " ishki," i.e., no. Her assistants were all the time whispering and telling her not to be afraid, and to notice everything and not forget the response. Some, adds Krasheninnikov, say that in time of thunder and lightning the bilyukai, spirit, comes to the women shamans and enables them to give responses.3 Although Krasheninnikov, in his account of shamanism among the Kamchadals, declares that this tribe consider all women, especially old ones, capable of kamlanie, yet from the facts he gives we arrive at the conclusion that it is only certain women, exceptionally gifted, who can call up spirits, and become united with them. Among the Gilyaks.—The Gilyaks carefully conceal all information about their shamans, and it is therefore very interesting to find that a merchant named Ivanov has given a detailed account of them, published in the " Sibirskii Vyestnik " for 1866. Mr. Ivanov lived on the Amur river from 1855, managed a Gilyak school, and had close relations with the Gilyaks of the Amur and of Sakhalin Island. A shaman, out of friendship, allowed him to be present at 1 2 3

Erman : " Archiv," 1843, 459. Krasheninnikov, ii, 158-159. Kraslieninnikoy, ii, 8 1 - 8 2 .

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a hamlanie. At ten o'clock Mr. Ivanov reached the yurta. " As soon as I entered," says he, " he began to put on his shaman costume, h u n g with heavy iron rattles, took in his hand a tambourine covered with fish skin, and beat upon it with a hair-brush. On his head he had long wood shavings, and to the sound of t h e tambourine he began dancing about the yurta, and shouting in a wild voice, endeavouring to show the spectators t h a t he possessed t h a t inspiration which is the mark of his profession. Among his various gymnastic feats and tricks, he took in his right h a n d a knife and in his left hand an axe, and going over to t h e door, where there was no light, placed the knife against his stomach and struck with the axe on the handle of the knife until the blade of the knife h a d penetrated his entrails, then turning to the spectators he showed them t h a t the blade had entered his stomach. All the bystanders went up to him to see ; one of them took hold of the handle and pulled it away From the blade ; the latter, according to the shaman, was left in his stomach, and thence he afterwards produced it." Mr. Ivanov afterwards detected the shaman's trick, and exposed him. 1 Among the Mongols.—Shamanism was especially developed near Baikal Lake and in the Altai Mountains. I n these classic lands of t h e Black Faith, capable enquirers like Tadrintsev, Potanin, and Hadloff have laboured. There, in the south of Siberia, we find not only examples of the productions of the shamanist mind excited by an inflamed imagination, but whole mystery plays in which t h e conjurers up of spirits are the actors, plays distinguished by a strong dramatic element. Among the ancient Mongols, as early as t h e time of Chingis K h a n and his immediate successors, the shamans were at the height of their power ; they were priests, leeches, and prophets. As priests they need not occupy us at present. F o r healing purposes, the ancient Mongol shamans employedthemethods which are still used in Siberia. W h e n the exorcist of the spirits guilty of causing the illness could not fall into a state of delirium, the spectators tried to excite him by clapping of hands, shouts and songs ; this custom is called togokha by the Mongols. As soothsayers, they either foretold the future, or divined according to the flight of arrows, or by the shoulder-blade ; they burned the shoulderblade of a sheep, and made responses to enquirers according to t h e cracks caused by the fire.2 Among the Buryats.—Among the Alarsk Buryats, the shaman, when called in to heal a sick person, makes a diagnosis, i.e., he enquires into the cause of the illness, and decides what has happened to the patient's soul, whether it has lost itself, or has been stolen away and is languishing in the prison of the gloomy Erlik, r u l e r of the underground world. A preliminary liamlanie decides this question. If the soul is near at hand, the shaman, by methods known to_ him alone, replaces it in the body, if t h e soul is f a r a w a y , h e seeks it in every p a r t of the world ; in the deep woods, on the 1 2

" Sibirskii Yyestnik," 1866, No. 18. Banzaroy, 114-115.

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steppes, at the bottom of the sea, and when he has found it, restores it to the body. The soul frequently escapes from its pursuer ; it runs to a place -where sheep have walked, so that the shaman cannot discover its traces, which are mixed with the footprints of the sheep, or it flees to the south-western spirits, where it is safe from the wiles of the shaman. I f the soul is not to be found anywhere within the limits of our world, the shaman must seek it in the realm of Erlik, and perform the toilsome and expensive journey to the underground world, where heavy sacrifices have to be made, at the cost of the patient. Sometimes the shaman informs the patient that Erlik demands another soul in exchange for Bis, and asks who is his nearest friend. I f the sick Buryat is not of a magnanimous disposition, the shaman, with his consent, ensnares the soul of his friend when the latter is asleep. The soul turns into a l a r k ; the shaman in his hamlanie takes the form of a hawk, catches the soul, and hands it over to Erlik, who frees the soul of the sick man. The friend of the Buryat, who recovers, falls ill and dies. B u t Erlik has only given a certain respite ; the patient's life is prolonged for three, seven, or nine years.1 The famous Berlin ethnographer Bastian describes the hamlanie of a Buryat shaman, at which he was present. An old shaman, in the company of three of his pupils, who assisted him, by night, in a yurta half lighted up by a fire, flung himself about, stamping wildly, and, while performing his dance round, summoned the spirits in a monotonous chant with a rhythmic cadence. When the shaman reached his pupils they fell down prostrate before him, and he touched their heads with two wands which he waved during his performance. Bastian's guide asked a question about a box that had been lost on the road. One of the pupils carefully laid a shovel on the coals, and filled it with thin splinters of wood, keeping up the fire so that the whole surface of the shovel would be on fire at the same time ; then he reverently carried over the shovel full of flaming chips to his master, who spat on it several times and eagerly noticed the crackling of the burning wood, at the same time groaning and twitching convulsively. Unfortunately the response was indefinite and obscure.2 Mr. Pozdnyeev gives, among his specimens of the popular literature of the Mongol tribes, an interesting wizard song of a Buryat shaman. I t was sung, apparently, before a Buryat set out for the chase, and reminds him of his duties towards the Russian Government. " Tree of the western rock Spread in thy youth, Taking a blue colour, Bloom with blue blossoms." " Father heaven, O take ! Thou must make a ramrod, Thou must kill the roebuck's mate, Thou must pay tribute to the Tsar, Thou must do carting for the Kazaks." 1 2

Potanin, iv, 86-87. JBastian : " Q-eographisehe und ethnologische Bilder," i, 404-406.

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" Tree of the southern rock Spread out from, thy root; Taking a blue colour, Bloom witli blue blossoms." " Father heaven, O take! " &c. " Tree of the northern rock Spread out from thy branches, Taking a blue colour Bloom with blue blossoms." •' Father heaven, O take ! " &C.1

Mr. Pozdnyeev lias copied from Castren's Buryat grammar another specimen of a shamanist prayer. It differs from the foregoing in that it was tittered at public, worship ( kerek ) and was not called forth hy a private accidental demand. It begins by referring to various gods giving authority to the shaman's invocation. Then it goes on as follows : " At this was present (here the name of a spirit invoked is given). ? " At the invocation bylp (a certain spirit). " We invoke long life, W e invoke long prosperity, W e invoke a skin a chetvert thick. W e invoke life strong as iron, W e invoke the effectiveness of sacrifice, Entrance into a happy fate, W e invoke the driving away of infection, The healing of sickness, W e invoke wealth in flocks, W e invoke a numerous progeny." " Make ready at once ! " 2

Among the Altaians.—In various corners of the Altai Mountains, among the Turkish tribes, Teleuts, Altaians and Chernev Tatars, the hams, or shamans, tenaciously preserve all the traditions and ceremonies connected with their calling. Mr. Potanin was fortunate enough to observe several cases of kamlanie. A very curious instance was that of a young shaman named Enchu, who lived in an aid on the river Talda, six versts from Angudai. His kamlanie consisted of four parts : 1. Before the fire, sitting with the face towards i t ; 2. Standing with the back to the fire ; 3. A pause, daring which the kam, leaning on the side of his tambourine, narrated all that the spirits had said or done ; 4. Finally, he kam'd with his back to t h e fire, in front of the place where the tambourine always hangs, and undressed himself. Enchu said he did not remember what had happened to him while he was dancing with his back to the fire. At that time he madly twisted his body without moving his feet ; he squatted down, writhed and straightened himself out again, as if imitating the movements of a snake. Owing to the rapid movement of the upper part of his body, the twisted handkerchiefs sewed on his dress spread out and whirled in the air, forming exquisite wavelike lines. Meanwhile he beat the tambourine in various ways, 1

Pozdnyeev, i, 289.

2

Pozdnyeev, i, 280.

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and produced the most varied sounds. Sometimes Enchu held the tambourine upside down, holding it horizontally, and struck it violently from underneath. Potanin's Angudai guides explained that the shaman was collecting spirits in the tambourine. When the ham sat with his back to the fire he was much quieter; sometimes he interrupted his beating of the tambourine, conversed with somebody, laughed, thus indicating that he was in the company of the spirits. At one time Enchu sang slowly and pleasantly, while producing on the tambourine sounds similar to the trampling of horses' f e e t ; the spectators explained that the shaman was riding with his guards. On the Elegesha, Potanin was present at the Jcamlanie of an old female shaman in the aul of Uryankhai. The yurta (or hut) was very close. The shamanka's husband helped in the preliminary part of the ceremony: he gave her dress to her, dried the tambourine before the fire, threw juniper branches into the fire, &c. The distinctive features of this performance, as compared with Enchu's, were delirium and spasms ; throwing away her tambourine, she began to drag herself towards those who were sitting in the yurta, showing her teeth, and stretching out her fingers to make them look like the claws of a beast; then she fell with a crash on the ground, and her head almost struck the hearthstone. As she lay on the floor she twisted herself about, and tried to gnaw with her teeth the hot stones around the hearth. Her husband held up her head, and muttered : " Stinkard ! " According to the Altaians, the procedure varies among the different hams} A shaman's journey to Fjrlih's realm.—But Erlik, the malicious ruler of the underground realm, always plays an important part, and Mr. Potanin has written down, from Father Chivalkov's account, a story giving a full and dramatic description of a ham's journey to Erlik's abode. The shaman begins his travels from the place where he is performing. He describes his entry. The road runs southward. The ham passes through the neighbouring districts, climbs over the Altai, and describes, in passing, the Chinese land with its red sand ; then he rides over a yellow steppe across which a magpie cannot fly. " W i t h songs we shall traverse i t ! " cries the ham to his followers, and drawls out a song; the young braves mount with him, and accompany him in song. After the yellow steppe comes a wancoloured steppe, over which no raven has ever flown, and the learn again incites his followers to make merry with song. Beyond these two weary steppes is the iron mountain, Temir Shaikha, whose summit reaches heaven; the ham tells his followers that concord is necessary for this dangerous ascent. Then the learn describes the difficult asceftt of the mountain, pretends to climb, and when the top is reached breathes heavily. On the mountain he sees the bones of hams who have failed to reach the summit for want of power. " On the mountains men's bones lie heaped up in rows ; the mountains are piebald with the bones of horses." Then, leaving the mountains behind, he rides up to a hole which leads 1

Potanin, iv, 60-62.

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into the underground world, " the jaws of the earth." On entering h e finds a sea, over which is stretched a hair. To give a visible representation of his passage over this dangerous bridge, the shaman totters from side to side, and seems sometimes to be on the point of falling. A t the bottom of the sea he views the bones of many fallen shamans, for a sinful soul cannot cross the hair bridge. W h e n he reaches the other shore, the ham, meets several sinners suffering punishments corresponding to their guilt, e.g., an eavesdropper is fixed with his ear against a pillar. Finally the shaman rides up to Erlik's abode ; he is met by dogs ; at first the porter will not let the ham pass, but he is at length appeased with presents. Before the ceremony begins, pots of home-brewed beer, boiled beef, and skunk skins are prepared for this purpose. A f t e r receiving the gifts, the porter lets the traveller into the yurta of Erlik. Hereupon the learn goes up to the door of the yurta in which the performance is taking place, and affects to believe t h a t he is approaching Erlik, who is sitting at the other end of the yurta; he bows, and puts his tambourine against his forehead, saying, " Mergu! mergu ! " and then tells whence and why he has come. Then the ham cries o u t ; this means t h a t Erlik has noticed him, and has cried out from anger at his coming. The alarmed ham runs back to the door, and then again approaches Erlik's throne. H e repeats this manoeuvre three times, and then Erlik says, " Those t h a t have feathers fly not hither, those t h a t have bones walk not h i t h e r ; thou black, ill-smelling beetle, whence comest thou ? " The sage shaman explains who he is, and treats the lord of hell to wine; in doing this, he pretends to take wine from the pots, fills his tambourine, and presents it to Erlik-Khan. Then he represents the Khan drinking the wine, and hiccoughs in his stead. A f t e r slaking the Khan's thirst, he offers him an ox, which has been previously killed, and the use of a collection of furs and clothes taken from the chests and h u n g on a rope; touching these things with his hand, the sorcerer hands them over to the khan, and says, " May this tolu of varied shapes, which cannot be lifted by a horse, be for clothes on thy neck and body." But these things are left with the master of the house. As each thing is handed over, the tambourine is tapped. Erlik becomes drunk, and the ham mocks the drunken god. The propitious deity now gives his blessing to the suppliant, promises to multiply cattle, and even reveals what mare will bring f o r t h a colt, and how it will be marked. The ham joyfully returns homeward, not on a horse, as before, but riding on a goose, and he walks about the yurta on tiptoe, as if he were flying'. H e imitates t h e cry of a goose. The hamlanie comes to an end, the shaman sits down, somebody takes the tambourine out of his hands, and beats on it thrice. The ham goes on beating his palm or his breast with his drum-stick, until it is taken away from him. A f t e r this the ham rubs his eyes as if he were awaking. He is asked, l i W h a t sort of ride had you ? How did you get on ? " And he replies, " I have had a successful journey! I was well received ! " l 1

Potanin, ir, 64-68.

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Ceremonies and Songs of an Altaian Kam while Sacrificing to BaiYulgen.—The a c t i v i t y of t h e ham as a sacrifice!-, a c o n j u r e r u p of spirits, a n d a soothsayer, is m a n i f e s t e d most brilliantly in t h e ceremonies a t t e n d i n g a g r e a t sacrifice to t h e celestial deity, BaiYulgen, w h o dwells on t h e golden m o u n t a i n in t h e sixteenth heaven. All t h e songs and invocations were w r i t t e n d o w n in t h e fifth decade of t h e p r e s e n t c e n t u r y , a t t h e Altai mission, a n d were published by t h e priest V e r b i t s k i i . M r . Radloff m a d e a translation, and gave a f u l l account of this festival, w h i c h is kept f r o m t i m e to t i m e b y every family. T h e festival takes place i n t h e evenings of two or t h r e e days. On t h e first evening begins t h e p r e p a r a t i o n for t h e sacrifice. T h e kam selects a spot in a birch t h i c k e t in a l i t t l e meadow, a n d t h e r e he places a n e w a n d o r n a m e n t e d yurta. In the yurta t h e y p u t a y o u n g b i r c h w i t h t h e foliage on i t ; t h e lower b r a n c h e s a r e lopped off close t o t h e t r u n k ; on one of t h e t o p m o s t b r a n c h e s a flag is h u n g . A t t h e b o t t o m of t h e t r e e t h e y cut on t h e t r u n k , with, a n axe, n i n e steps ( t a p t y ) . R o u n d the yurta a penfold is made, as if f o r c a t t l e ; opposite t h e door of t h e yurta is t h e e n t r a n c e of t h e courtyard, and by t h e e n t r a n c e is a birch stick w i t h a noose of horse-hair. T h e n t h e y choose a horse agreeable to t h e deity; a n d t h e ham h a s i t h e l d by a special person chosen f r o m a m o n g those present, and called Bash-tuthan histci, i.e., holder of t h e head. T h e s h a m a n takes a birch t w i g a n d w a v e s i t over t h e horse's back, t h u s driving t h e soul of t h e sacrificed a n i m a l t o Y u l g e n , a t t h e same t i m e t h e B a s h - t u t k a n ' s soul accompanies it. T h e assembling of spirits in t h e t a m b o u r i n e t a k e s place w i t h g r e a t s o l e m n i t y ; t h e ham s u m m o n s each spirit separately, a n d w i t h a g r o a n replies, " H e r e am I also, ham! " a t t h e same t i m e m o v i n g t h e t a m b o u r i n e as if t a k i n g t h e spirit into it. W h e n h e h a s assembled these assistants, t h e ham goes outside t h e yurta, sits down on a scarecrow in t h e f o r m of a goose, a n d moving b o t h a r m s rapidly like wings, he slowly sings in a loud voice: " Below t h e white sky, Above the white cloud, Below the blue sky, Above the blue cloud, Mount, O bird, to the sky ! "

To all t h e speeches of t h e s h a m a n t h e goose replies b y q u a c k i n g , " TJngai gah gah, ungai gal;, haigai gah gah, haigai gak." The s h a m a n himself, of course, does t h i s imitation of t h e goose's voice. On his f e a t h e r e d steed t h e ham p u r s u e s t h e soul, pura, of t h e sacrificed horse, a n d neighs like a h o r s e ; finally, with t h e aid of t h e spectators, he drives i t to t h e penfold, to t h e b i r c h stick w i t h t h e noose w h i c h represents t h e g u a r d i a n of t h e a n i m a l ' s soul. T h e ham neighs, kicks, a n d m a k e s a iioise as if t h e noose were c a t c h i n g h i m by t h e throat, pulls, a n d sometimes t h r o w s down h i s t a m b o u r i n e as a sign t h a t t h e horse h a s f r e e d itself a n d r u n away. Finally, h a v i n g r e c a p t u r e d t h e pura, he f u m i g a t e s i t w i t h j u n i p e r a n d discards t h e goose. T h e n t h e animal destined f o r sacrifice is b r o u g h t , t h e ham blesses it, and, w i t h t h e aid of some of t h e

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bystanders, k i l l s . i t in a most cruel manner. The bones and skin become the sacrifice, and the flesh is eaten up, w i t h various ceremonies, the ham receiving the choicest portion. The most important part of the performance takes place on the second day, after sunset; it is then that the ham must display all his power and all his dramatic art. A whole religious drama is performed, descriptive of the ham's pilgrimage to B a i - Y u l g e n in heaven. A fire burns in the yurta, the shaman feeds the lords of the tambourine, i.e., the spirits, personifying the shamanistic power of his family, w i t h the meat of the offering, and then sings : " Accept tliis, O Kaira K h a n ! Master of the tambourine with six bosses, Come to me amid the tinkling !

If I cry ' Chokk!' bow thyself ! If I cry ' Me ! ' accept this ! "

W i t h a similar invocation he addresses the masLer of the fire, representing the power of the family of the owner of the yurta, the organiser of the festival. Raising a cap, the ham with his lips makes a noise as if invisible giiests had assembled and were drinking, and he cuts up the meat into morsels and gives them to the spectators, who greedily gulp them down, as representatives of the unseen spirits. F u m i g a t i n g with juniper nine garments, hung on a rope and decked w i t h ribbons, which the master of the house offers to T u l g e n , the ham sings : " Q-ifts which no horse can carry, Alas! Alas! Alas! W h i c h no man can lift, A l a s ! Alas ! Alas ! Garments with threefold collars, Turn them oyer three times and look at them, L e t them be a cover for the racer, A l a s ! A l a s ! Alas ! Prince Y u l g e n full of gladness ! Alas ! A l a s ! Alas ! "

W h e n the ham, has donned his shaman's dress, and carefully fumigated his tambourine, he sits down on a bench, and, striking his tambourine, summons many spirits, primary and secondary ; on behalf of each he answers " Here am I, ham ! " ' Towards the end of this invocation the shaman addresses himself to Merkyut, the bird of heaven : " Celestial birds, the five Merkyuts ! Y o n with mighty brazen claws, T h e claw of the moon is of copper, A n d the beak of the moon is of ice; Mighty is the flapping of the broad wings, T h e long tail is like a fan, The left wing hides the moon, T h e right wing hides tlie sun ; Thou, mother of nine eagles, W i t h o u t straying thou fliest over Y a i k , Thou art not wearied over Edil. Come to me with song ! Sporting, approach my right eye ! Sit on my right shoulder! "

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The shaman imitates the cry of this bird, and says : " Kagak, kak kale! karri, here I am ! " H e then bows down Ins shoulders, as if crushed by the weight of a huge bird. As the number of the spirits assembled increases, the ham beats more loudly on the tambourine, which becomes so heavy t h a t he staggers under it. A f t e r having collected such powerful protectors and helpers, the shaman walks several times round the birch placed in the yurta, then kneels in f r o n t of the door, and asks the porter spirit to grant him a guide. A favourable answer being given, h e noisily comes out into the middle of the yurta, and sharply beats his tambourine ; the upper part of his body is shaken with convulsive movements, and a n unintelligible muttering is heard. Then, with a peculiar motion of his drum-stick, the shaman pretends to scrape from the back of the master of the house all that is unclean, and thus liberates the soul, which, according to the belief of the Altaians, is in the back, from the influence of the wicked Erlik. Then he embraces the host, the hostess, their children and kinsfolk, in such a way that the tambourine touches the breast of each, while the drum-stick is held behind their backs. The shaman thus, with the aid of all the spirits collected in the tambourine, purifies them f r o m all ills and misfortunes t h a t the hostile spirit could bring upon them. After this purification, the people return to their places, and the shaman drives all the potential misfortunes out of doors. Then he puts his tambourine close to the host's ear, and with blows on this sacred instrument drives into him the spirit and power of his forefathers, thus preparing him to receive and understand the succeeding prophecies of the shaman. Indicating in pantomime t h a t he is investing the host, hostess and all the members of the family with breast-plates and hats, the ham passes into a state of ecstasy ; he jumps, knocks against those who are present, and suddenly places himself on the first step cut out of the birch t r u n k , at the same time raising the tambourine, t h u m p i n g it w i t h all his might, and shouting " gok, gok ! " All the shaman's movements indicate t h a t he is rising to the sky. In a joyous ecstasy he runs round the fire and the birch, imitating the sound of thunder, and then with convulsions he runs up to a bench covered with a horse-cloth. This represents the soul of the pura, the sacrificial horse ; the ham mounts it and cries : " I have mounted one step, Aikhai! aikhai! I have attained one zone. Shagarbata! I have climbed to t h e top of the tapty Shagarbata! I have risen to the full moon. Shagarbata! "

(the birch steps),

T h e shaman passes through one zone of heaven after another, and orders the Bash-tutlcan to hurry. I n the third zone, the pura is tired out, and, to relieve it, the ham calls the goose, which he mounts. But this temporary relief is of no avail; the shaman, on

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behalf of the Bash-tuthan, makes a long speech in a tearful tone, telling of his exhaustion, and t h a t of his steed. I n the t h i r d space of heaven there is a halt, and the shaman tells the audience of all he has seen and heard in t h a t zone; here it is t h a t information is given about approaching changes in the weather, impending sickness and epidemics, misfortunes that are to befall neighbours, sacrifices to be offered by the district. I n foretelling rainy weather, for instance, the ham sings : " Kara Shurlu with six stares, Drips on the low ground, Nothing "with hoofs can protect itself, Nothing w i t h claws can uphold itself."

The ham may also make similar prophecies in other regions of t h e sky, at his discretion. A f t e r the Bash-tuthan is rested, the journey is continued; before each heaven, the shaman mounts on the n e x t step of t h e birch tree. To give variety to the performance, various episodes are introduced : first the harahush, a black bird in t h e service of the ham, is treated to a pipe of tobacco, then the harahush chases the cuckoo ; during this, the shaman coo-cooes, and imitates the report of the harahush's gun ; in the third place, he waters t h e pura horse, and imitates the sound of a horse drinking. I n the sixth sphere of heaven takes place the last episodical scene, and this has a comic tinge. The shaman sends his servant K u r u l d a k to track and catch a hare that has hidden itself. F o r a time the chase is unsuccessful, new personages are introduced, and one of them, Kereldei, mocks Kuruldak, who, however, at last succeeds in catching the hare. The fifth heaven is particularly interesting, for there the ham carries on a long conversation with the mighty Yayuchi (supreme creator), who reveals to him many secrets of the f u t u r e . Some of these things the shaman communicates aloud, others he mutters rapidly. In the sixth heaven he bends before the moon, who dwells there, and in the seventh, before the sun. I n a similar manner the ham makes his way to the eighth, ninth heaven, &c. The more powerful t h e ham is, the higher h e mounts in the celestial regions; there are some, but few, who can soar to the tenth, eleventh, twelfth, and even higher. W h e n he has reached the summit of his power, the ham stops, drops his tambourine, and, gently beating with his drum-stick, invokes Yulgen in a humble p r a y e r : " Lord to whom three ladders lead, Bai-Yulgen, owner of three flocks, The blue slope which has appeared, The blue sky which shows itself, The blue cloud which whirls along. Inaccessible blue sky, Inaccessible white sky, Place a year's journey distant from water, F a t h e r Yulgen thrice exalted, W h o m the edge of the moon's axe shuns, W h o uses t h e hoof of t h e horse. Thou, Yulgen, hast created all men,

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Who are stirring round about us, Thou, Yulgen, hast endowed us with all cattle, Let us not fall into sorrow! Grant that we may resist the evil one ! Do not show us Kermes (the evil spirit that attends man) G-ive us not oyer into his hands ! Thou who the starry sky Thousands and thousands of times hast turned, Condemn not my sins! "

From Yulgen the shaman learns whether the sacrifice is accepted or not, and receives the most authentic information concerning the weather, and the character of the coming harvest; he also finds out what sacrifices are expected by the deity. On such an occasion the shaman designates the neighbour who is bound to furnish, a sacrifice, and even describes the colour and appearance of the animal; Mr. Radloif remarks that the ham is not wholly disinterested in these cases. After his conversation with Yulgen, the ecstasy of the shaman reaches its highest point, and he falls down completely exhausted. Then the Bash-tuthan goes up to him, and takes the tambourine and dram-stick out of his hands. The shaman is quite motionless and silent. After a short time, during which quiet reigns in the yurta, the shaman seems to awake, rubs his eyes, stretches himself, wrings out the perspiration from his shirt, and salutes all those present as if after a long absence. Sometimes the festival ends with this great ceremony, but more frequently, especially among the wealthy, it lasts another day, which is spent in libations to the gods, and feasting, during which an enormous quantity of humys and other strong drink is consumed.1 The account, given above in an abridged form, of the journeyings and spirit-raising of an Altai shaman, is taken from Mr. Radloff's detailed description, and is the most exhaustive and complete picture we have of the fantasy of the Siberian shamanists, and is consequently of great value for the comparative ethnographical study of our subject. The tambourine and drum-stich.—The shaman, as mediator in dealings with the spirit world, must, during his functions, bear outward sigjis to distinguish him more or less from other people. The most important appurtenances of the profession are the tambourine and drum-stick, and the various parts of the shaman's dress. The tambourine is met with amongst almost all the Siberian tribes who have shamans ; besides its power in calling up spirits, it has the miraculous power of carrying the shaman. Mr. Potanin dwells in detail on the shamans' tambourines among the Altaians, and compares them with the tambourines of the other Siberian peoples. All the tambourines seen by Mr. Potanin were circular; but, according to Mr. Yadrintsev, all those used among the Chernev Tatars are oval. The tambourine consists of a hoop or rim, of a palm in breadth, with skin stretched over it on one 1

Radlofi : " Aus Siberien," ii, 20-50.

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side; on the concave side of the tambourine two vertical cross pieces of wood and one horizontal iron cross piece are fixed. The wooden cross piece is called by the Altaians bar, bnt other tribes give it other names. The bar has the form of a spindle broadening at the upper end (the broad part is shaped like a human head), at the lower end it forms a fork, resembling legs. 1 On the uptier part, eyes, a nose, mouth and chin are marked. The iron cross-piece is called krish (bow-string) among the Altaians; it is an ironrod on which, are iron rattles, called kungru in A l t a i a n ; the number of these rattles is greater or less according to the rank of the kam. Their number corresponds with that of the chains, or spirits, subject to the shaman. Besides the kungrus, there are small sword-shaped trinkets fixed on the inner side of the tambourine, to the right and left of the head of the bar. On the outside of the hoop or rim are bosses about the size of a bean, and sometimes smaller. On the bow-string, under the beard of the bar, are fastened bands of narrow cloth, and these are called yalama. On the skin of the tambourine, sometimes on both sides, sometimes on the inner side only, are drawings in red paint. According to Mr. Yadrintsev's description, the tambourines of the Chernev and Kumandinsk Tatars differ from those of the Altaians ; the vertical cross-piece has no representation of a human face, and is only a plain piece of wood. On the outer side of the tambourine of the Chernev Tatars there are drawings of animals and trees. A horizontal line separates it into two unequal parts ; the npper part is the larger, and on it is figured a bow, the ends of which rest on the horizontal belt. Within the bow are two trees, and on each of them sits a karagush bird; to trie left of the trees axe two circles, one light, the sun, the other dark, the moon. Under the horizontal stripe are frogs, a lizard, and a snake ; on the cross stripe and the bow are stars. 3 A certain ham gave Mr. Klements some curious explanations of the pictur-es on a tambourine. (J4) Lower part of the tambourine. (1) Bai-kazyn (painted in white), literally " t h e rich birch." This is the name given to the birches at which the yearly sacrifices take place. (2) Ulug-bai-kazyn (in white paint). Two trees that grow in Ilkhan's kingdom. (3 and 4) Ak-baga (white frog), Kara-baga (black frog), servants of Ilkhan. (5) Chzhity-us, certain spirits with seven nests and seven feathers. (6) Chzhity-kys (seven maidens), who let loose seven diseases against man. ( 7 ) Ulgere ; he is invoked in case of diseases of the teeth and ears. (8) Ot-imeze, signifying " mother of fire." 1

2

Figs, b and e on p. 18, Yol. ii of Radloff's " Aus Siberien."

Potanin, iv, 42-43.

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Upper part of the

tambourine.

(translated by the ham, as " dawn " ) .

(2) Kyun, the sun.

(3) Ike-haragus, two black birds; they fly on errands from the shaman to the devils. (4) Aba-tyus (bear's tijus, whatever that may mean). (5) Sugyznym-haragat, the horses of Ilkhan. (6) Kyzyl-hikh-khan. He is invoked when men set out for the chase.

The remaining figures, painted with white colour, are the beast3

chased by kyzyl-Mkh-TfTian.

These pictorial representations on the tambourines have a peculiar interest for u s ; they are intimately connected with shamanist beliefs, and would throw light on the mysteries of shamanist necromancy, but, like all pictorial signs, these drawings need to be explained by persons intimately acquainted with the ideas and facts to which they refer. We have as yet but few materials of this kind, and must restrict ourselves to the vaguest conclusions, e.g., that the terrestrial and underground worlds are portrayed on the tambourine, separated by a horizontal band. Mr. Potanin notes such a division in the Ostyak tambourine of which he gives a drawing in his book.2 If we were in possession of more of these pictorial materials, and texts like that published by 0 . Verbitskii, light might be thrown on this important question, but so far, all explanations have been rather of the nature of guess-work. Among the Buryats, the tambourine has been almost supplanted by the bell, and Mr. Khangalov only saw a tambourine in the hands of one shaman, who was an inexperienced beginner. If we may judge from this specimen, the Buryat tambourine has the dimensions and shape of a sieve; horse-skin is stretched upon it, and fastened behind with small straps ; there were no drawings on it, either inside or outside, but the surface was bespattered with some white substance. According to Khangalov, the tambourine among the Buryats has a symbolic meaning; it represents the horse which can convey the shaman whither he will. The Yakuts make their tambourines of a lengthened circular form, and cover them with cowhide. On the inner side are two iron cross-pieces', arranged crosswise, and forming a handle. The tambourine is hung with little bells and rattles; it serves the Yakut, like the Buryat shaman, as a horse on which he rides to the spirit realm. 4 But it is not all shamans who attain the high honour of having a tambourine; frequently a long time passes during which the spirits will not allow this magic instrument, to be made. Gmelin, for instance, says that many Buryat shamans are not permitted by 1 Elements : " Nyeskolko obraztsov bubnoy minusinsMkh inorodtsev. Zap. Vos. Sib. Otd. I. G-. O. P . , " y, 2, 26. 2 Potanin, iy, 680. 3 Agapitoy and Khangalov, 4 t. 4 Pripuzoy, 65.

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the demons to have a tambourine, and during their kamlairie use two long sticks, striking them crosswise against each other. 1 Perhaps it is to this cause that we must attribute the fact that Mr. Khangalov saw 110 tambourines among the Buryat shamans, excepting in one instance. W i t h the decline of shamanism, the number of persons able to make this sacred instrument, duly observing all the unknown ceremonies necessary, becomes smaller; the process of kamlanie is simplified, and the will of the spirits is made the excuse. As regards the mallet with which the tambourine is beaten, it is sufficient to observe that this instrument is encased in skin of some sort, so that the sound may not be too sharp. Among the Altaians, for instance, the mallet is covered with the skin of a wild goat or a hare. 2 Among certain tribes, e.g., Buryats, Soiots, Kumandintses, Yakuts, they use for divining and for summoning spirits, a peculiar musical instrument giving out a feeble, jarring sound. 3 Despite all these, the tambourine continues to occupy the first place among shama.nist instruments. STiamanist dress and horse-sticks.—The shamans put on a special dress only when they are engaged with the spirits; in private life they are not distinguished from other people by any outward signs. Shashkov considers the following list to comprise all those articles of dress which are common to all the Siberian tribes : 1. An outer caftan ; some of them are made of cloth, others of beasts' skins. They are hung with various rattles, rings, and representations of mythical animals. 2. A m a s k ; among the Samoyed fadibeis, its place is taken by a handkerchief with which the eyes are covered, so that the shaman may penetrate into the spiritworld by his inner sight. 3. A copper or iron breast-plate. 4. A hat, one of the chief attributes of the shaman. 4 Gmelin describes the costume of a Tunguz shaman, and points out that, in addition to the ordinary shaman's dress, he also put on an apron hung with iron plates, bearing figures either sunk or in relief. His stockings were of leather, and trimmed with iron. He had no hat, for his old one had been burnt, and the deity will not give a new one. This shaman put on his dress over his shirt. 5 The Y a k u t shamans adorn their fur coats with representations of a sun with holes in it, and a half moon, thus indicating the twilight that reigns in the spirit land. The coats are liung with monstrous beasts, fishes, and birds, as a sign that there are monsters in the spirit world. Behind hangs an iron chain, which, in the opinion of some, shows the strength and endurance of the shaman's power, while others think it is the steering gear for the journey to the spirit land. The iron plates serve as a protection against the blows of malevolent spirits. The tufts sewed on the fur coat signify feathers. 6 The travellers of the eighteenth century 2 Potanin, iy, 48. Gmelin, iii, 26. 4 Shashkoy, 86. Agapitov and Khangalov, 43. 0 Gmelin, ii, 193. 6 Pripuzov, 65. Mr. Pripuzov's description agrees in tlie main with tliat given by Mr. Shchukin in his " Poyezdka v Yakutsk," 1833, pp. 200 201. VOL. XXIV. Cr 1

3

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p a i d g r e a t a t t e n t i o n t o t h e d r e s s a n d accessories of t h e s h a m a n s . P a l l a s describes in d e t a i l t h e c o s t u m e of a B u r y a t s h a m a n k a t h a t h e saw ; s h e w a s a c c o m p a n i e d b y h e r h u s b a n d a n d t w o B u r y a t s , each w i t h a m a g i c t a m b o u r i n e . S h e h e l d in h e r h a n d s t w o sticks, ornam e n t e d a t t h e u p p e r end w i t h a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a h o r s e ' s h e a d , a n d h u n g w i t h s m a l l bells. F r o m h e r s h o u l d e r s t h e r e h u n g d o w n h e r b a c k to t h e g r o u n d a b o u t t h i r t y s n a k e s m a d e of b l a c k a n d w h i t e f u r , sewed t o g e t h e r i n s u c h a w a y t h a t t h e s n a k e s l o o k e d as if t h e y w e r e f o r m e d of b l a c k a n d w h i t e r i n g s . O n e of t h e s n a k e s w a s d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e a t t h e end, i t is t h e r e f o r e called lyuga, a n d is considered t o be a n i n d i s p e n s a b l e o r n a m e n t of e v e r y B u r y a t s h a m a n k a . H e r h a t w a s covered by a n i r o n h e l m e t , f r o m w h i c h rose h o r n s w i t h t h r e e a n t l e r s , like t h e h o r n s of a deer. 1 G m e l i n visited t h e yurta of a m u c h r e s p e c t e d B u r y a t s h a m a n k a n e a r Selenginsk. H e r d r e s s consisted of all t h e r a g s she could h a n g r o u n d h e r ; m o s t of t h e r a g s w e r e m o r e t h a n a y a r d l o n g a n d a b o u t 7 i n c h e s w i d e ; a l m o s t every r a g w a s a d o r n e d w i t h emb r o i d e r e d images, a n d h u n g w i t h silk s t r i n g s a n d tassels. A box w h i c h stood in t h e yurta w a s f u l l of clouts, flints a n d m e t e o r i t e s . A l l these t h i n g s s e r v e d for h e a l i n g p u r p o s e s ; t h e r e w a s also a felt b a g f u l l of f e l t idols of v a r i o u s shapes. 3 T h e s h a m a n ' s costume, h a n g i n g in t h e yurta, was, s h e declared, i n c o m p l e t e . T h e s e s c a n t y d e s c r i p t i o n s of f o r m e r t r a v e l l e r s m u s t be c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e scientific i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of m o d e r n e t h n o g r a p h e r s . I n t h e e x h a u s tive w o r k of M M . A g a p i t o v a n d K h a n g a l o v t h e r e is a s y s t e m a t i c a c c o u n t of a n a n c i e n t c o s t u m e of t h e B u r y a t s h a m a n s , w h i c h is h a r d l y ever m e t w i t h n o w a d a y s . 1. A n i n d i s p e n s a b l e p a r t of a s h a m a n ' s b e l o n g i n g s was a f u r cloak o r orgoi, w h i t e f o r a w h i t e s h a m a n w h o dealt w i t h good spirits, a n d b l u e f o r a black s h a m a n , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of evil spirits. T h e orgoi is m a d e of silk or C j t t o n stuff', a n d does n o t d i f f e r in c u t f r o m a n o r d i n a r y f u r c l o a k ; on i t are s e w e d m e t a l l i c figures of horses, birds, &c. S o m e c u p s , r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of a c e r t a i n a n i m a l , a n d a n idol i n a r h o m b i c f r a m e , w h i c h h a v e been f o u n d , m a y , a c c o r d i n g t o A g a p i t o v a n d K h a n g a l o v , w i t h p l a u s i b i l i t y b e c o n s i d e r e d as b e l o n g i n g to t h e n u m b e r of such a d o r n m e n t s . 2. T h e h a t a m o n g t h e s h a m a n s of t h e p r e s e n t d a y is of l y n x skin, w i t h a t u f t of r i b b o n s o n t h e t o p ; a p e a k e d c a p is e v e n w o r n sometimes, b u t t h e t u f t is indispensable. A f t e r a fifth a b l u t i o n t h e s h a m a n receives a n iron h a t 3 ; i t h a s t h e f o r m of a c r o w n a n d consists of a n i r o n hoop to w h i c h t w o h a l f - h o o p s are fixed c r o s s w i s e ; on t h e t o p of one of t h e m is f a s t e n e d a small i r o n p l a t e , w i t h t h e t w o e n d s t u r n e d u p to look l i k e t w o h o r n s . W h e r e t h e half hoops j o i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l hoop t h e r e a r e f a s t e n e d , in t h r e e places, t h r e e hholbohho, i.e., conical p e n d a n t s , a n d a t t h e b a c k of t h e h o o p is a c h a i n of f o u r l i n k s u n i t e d b y s m a l l r i n g s ; on t h e end of t h e c h a i n h a n g o b j e c t s r e s e m b l i n g a spoon a n d a n a w l . 3. H o r a e 1 3

Pallas, iii, 181-182. Kg. 3 in PI. I l l , Agapitoy and Khangalov.

2

Gmelin, ii, 11-13.

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sticks are met with among all the B a i k a l B u r y a t s ; among those of B a l a g a n s k t h e y do not exist. T h e shaman has two horse-sticks ; they are made either of wood or iron. 1 T h e iron sticks are acquired by the shaman, like the iron cap, only a f t e r the fifth ablution. T h e wooden sticks are prepared on the eve of the first dedication ; they are cut out of a growing birch ; an endeavour is made to perform the excision in such a way t h a t the birch will not wither. I f the tree from which the stick is taken dies, it is considered an ill omen for the shaman. A birch is selected from among those that grow in the wood set apart for the burial of the shamans. T h e top of the stick is decorated with a horse's head; at some distance from the lower end a horde's knee is cut out, and the bottom has t h e form of a hoof. Some bells are fastened to the horsesticks, and one of them is larger than the others. These sacred sticks are adorned with hollow Icholboko cones, ribbons of four coloui-s (blue, white, yellow, and red), skins of ermine, squirrel and skunk, and to make them still more like horses, small stirrups are hung on them. T h e iron sticks do not essentially differ from en • wooden ones. T h e Olkhonsk B u r y a t shamans have also a » uYp, i.e., shrine. T h i s is a box about 3 ft. 6 in. in length and 14 in. in height, to the top of the lid, having the form of a roof with a double slope. T h e box stands on legs about 2 8 in. h i g h ; it is decked with ribbons, bells and skins, and on one of t h e long sides are painted in red, or carved, representations of men, animals and other things. 3 Usually, at the end, on the r i g h t side, is a picture of t h e sun, and on the left, the moon. T h e sun has the form of a wheel, and in the middle of t h e moon is a human figure grasping a tree. T h e central part of the plank is occupied by three human figures ; one of them is a woman, t h e other two are m e n ; these are the inferior deities to whom t h e y offer libations of wine several times in the year. I n a line with these are drawn two quivers, a case for a bow, a bow and a sword, and under each human figure is a horse. I n the shire are kept the horse-sticks, tambourine, and various sacrificial instruments. Nil, Archbishop of Yaroslavl, mentions two other o b j e c t s : abagaldei, a monstrous mask of leather, wood or metal, with a huge beard painted on it, and toli,a metallic mirror with figures of twelve animals ; it is worn on the beast or neck, and is sometimes sewed on to the shaman's dress ; at the present t i m e these two objects are hardly ever used by B u r y a t shamans. 3 F r o m Mr. Potanin's investigations.it would seem t h a t the special dress of the Jcams has been b e t t e r preserved among t h e A l t a i a n tribes than among the other Siberian peoples, and he gives some very curious information about this costume. T h e shaman's dress consists of the skin of a wild goat or reindeer; the outside is almost covered with a multitude of twisted handkerchiefs of various sizes, 1 3 3

Fig. 2 in PI. I I r , Agapilov and Kliangalov. Figs. 4 and 5, PI. I l l , Agapitov and Khangalov. Agapilov and Kliangalov, 4 2 - 4 4 . G 2

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w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s n a k e s ; t h e y a r e embroidered w i t h cloths of several colours, and sometimes w i t h brocade. Some of t h e handkerchief.? a r e not sewed to t h e dress b y t h e end, b u t in such a w a y t h a t t h e u p p e r e n d r e m a i n s free, a n d looks like t h e head of a snake. On t h i s a r e sometimes sewed i m i t a t i o n s of eyes ; on t h e t h i c k e r rolls, t h i s e n d is slit, so t h a t t h e s n a k e ' s j a w s a r e open. T h e tails of t h e l a r g e r snakes a r e forked, a n d on each end h a n g s a t a s s e l ; somet i m e s t h r e e snakes have a h e a d in common. Besides these twisted handkerchiefs, n a r r o w s t r a p s of reindeer skin a r e sewed on to t h e d r e s s in b u n c h e s of nine. I t is said t h a t rich Jcamr, h a v e a t h o u s a n d a n d seventy snakes or t w i s t e d handkerchiefs. T h e small t w i s t e d h a n d k e r c h i e f s are called manyak by t h e A l t a i a n s ; t h i s n a m e is also applied to t h e whole dress. Besides t h e t w i s t e d h a n d k e r c h i e f s a n d s t r a p s , i.e., t h e manyaks, m a n y o t h e r symbolic signs and r a t t l e s a r e fixed t o t h e dress. S r i r r u p - s h a p e d triangles of ii'on are often m e t w i t h , on one of t h e corners of which iron t r i n k e t s are put, a small bow fitted w i t h an a r r o w t o f r i g h t e n a w a y evil spirits f r o m t h e s h a m a n d u r i n g his kamlanie, a n d some klwlbogos. O n the back, t w o r o u n d copper p l a t e s are sewed ; sometimes t w o others are sewed on t h e breast,. S k i n s of small animals, s u c h as ermine, s t r i p e d squirrel a n d flying squirrel, are also sewed on w i t h t h e manyaks. I n t h e case of one ham, Mr. P o t a n i n noticed f o u r tobacco-pouches sewed o n ; t h e s e were f e i g n e d to be full of tobacco, t h o u g h t h e y were e m p t y ; t h e kam gives away t h i s tobacco t o t h e spirits d u r i n g h i s w a n d e r i n g s i n t h e i r country. T h e collar is t r i m m e d with a f r i n g e of t h e feathers of t h e w h i t e owl or brown o w l ; one s h a m a n h a d sewed to his collar seven small dolls, and on t h e h e a d of each was a p l u m e of brown owl's f e a t h e r s ; these dolls, t h e s h a m a n said, w e r e t h e celestial maidens. I n some dresses, t h e many ales do n o t cover t h e whole dress f r o m t h e collar to t h e waist, but a s h r e d of cloth of some particular colour, e.g., red, is sewed on, a n d to it are f a s t e n e d r o u n d copper plates, Jchulbngos, a n d f r e q u e n t l y little R u s sian b e l l s ; t h e wealthier ka-ms have nine bells. T h e noise t h e y m a k e is asserted to be t h e voice of t h e seven maidens sewed t o t h e collar, calling t h e spirit to come to t h e m . T h e h a t of an A l t a i a n s h a m a n is a square or four-cornered piece of y o u n g reindeer's s k i n ; t h e f r o n t is covered with cloth, or some o t h e r bright-coloured material. On one side are sewed t w o brass b u t t o n s , on t h e o t h e r are two b u t t o n holes. M r . P o t a n i n saw a hat t h e u p p e r edge of w h i c h was adorned w i t h f e a t h e r s f r o m a golden eagle or brown owl, a r r a n g e d in t u f t s ; on t h e lower p a r t w a s a f r i n g e of cowrie shells h u n g on s t r i p s of skin. This piece of skin is laid w i t h its lower edge on t h e brow ; t h e sides are t u r n e d to t h e back of t h e h e a d , and i t is buttoned a t t h e back, t h u s f o r m i n g s o m e t h i n g l i k e a E u r o p e a n tall hat. If t h e s t r i p of skin is n a r r o w a n d stiff, t h e u p p e r p a r t of it sticks s t r a i g h t up, and t h e p l u m e gives t h e headdress t h e a p p e a r a n c e of a diadem. Some Teleut s h a m a n s m a k e t h e i r h a t s of brown owl's s k i n ; t h e wings a r e l e f t as ornaments, a n d sometimes the bird's head is l e f t on too. I t is not all s h a m a n s who h a v e t h e r i g h t to wear t h e manyak a n d t h e b r o w n owl h a t ;

Anthropological Miscellanea and New Boohs.

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d u r i n g the c e r e m o n y of kamlanie t h e s p i r i t s r e v e a l t o t h e i r f a v o u r i t e s t h a t t h e t i m e h a s come w h e n t h e y m a y p r e p a r e t h i s p r o f e s s i o n a l dress. A m o n g t h e C h e r n e v T a t a r s , t h e s h a m a n s s o m e t i m e s u s e a m a s k (hocho), m a d e of b i r c h b a r k a n d o r n a m e n t e d w i t h s q u i r r e l t a i l s to r e p r e s e n t e y e b r o w s a n d m o u s t a c h e . A m o n g t h e s a m e ppople M r . Y a d r i n t s e v r e m a r k e d t h e u s e of t w o c r u t c h e s ; one of t h e m w a s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e a staff, t h e o t h e r a horse, l i k e t h e h o r s e s t i c k s of t h e B u r y a t s h a m a n s . 1 A l l t h e s e p a r a t e p a r t s of t h e dress of S i b e r i a n s h a m a n s , a n d t h e i r o t h e r p r o f e s s i o n a l b e l o n g i n g s , h a v e a t h r e e f o l d significance, b o t h sepai'ately a n d c o n j o i n t l y . T h e s h a m a n s , b y t h e o u t w a r d a p p e a r a n c e of t h e i r costume, i n consequence of i t s o r i g i n a l i t y , endeavour to produce a strong impression on t h e spectators ; t h e sound of t h e bells, m e t a l t r i n k e t s , a n d r a t t l e s on t h e t a m b o u r i n e , a n d t h e sticks w h i c h a r e s t r u c k a g a i n s t each, o t h e r , a g i t a t e s t h e a u d i e n c e , a n d p u t s t h e m i n t o a p e c u l i a r s t a t e of m i n d . F i n a l l y , all t h e o b j e c t s a n d o r n a m e n t s b e l o n g i n g t o t h e s h a m a n h a v e t h e i r definite m e a n ing, sometimes even of a m y s t i c c h a r a c t e r , i n t e l l i g i b l e o n l y t o s h a m a n i s t s , a n d closely c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e i r p h i l o s o p h y . Sow the rank of shaman is attained.—It is n o t e v e r y o n e who c a n become a s h a m a n , a n d t h e p o s i t i o n is b e s t o w e d , a m o n g t h e S i b e r i a n tribes, e i t h e r b y h e r e d i t a r y r i g h t or i n c o n s e q u e n c e of a special p r e disposition m a n i f e s t i n g itself i n a boy or y o u t h c h o s e n b y t h e s p i r i t s f o r t h e i r service. A m o n g t h e T r a n s - B a i k a l T u n g u s e s , h e w h o wishes to b e c o m e a s h a m a n declares t h a t s u c h a n d s u c h a d e a d s h a m a n h a s a p p e a r e d to h i m in a d r e a m a n d o r d e r e d h i m to be h i s successor; in addition, everyone before becoming a s h a m a n " s h o w s himself t o be crazy, s t u p e f i e d a n d t i m o r o u s . " 2 A c c o r d i n g to t h e s t o r i e s of t h e T u n g u s e s of T u r u k h a n s k , t h e m a n w h o is d e s t i n e d t o b e c o m e a s o r c e r e r sees in a d r e a m t h e d e v i l " lchargi " p e r f o r m i n g s h a m a n i s t rites. I t is a t t h i s t i m e t h a t t h e T u n g u s l e a r n s t h e s e c r e t s of his c r a f t . 3 T h e Y a k u t s h a m a n s a n d s h a m a n k a s do n o t r e c e i v e t h e m a g i c t a l e n t b y i n h e r i t a n c e , a l t h o u g h t h e r e is a t r a d i t i o n t h a t if a n e c r o m a n c e r a r i s e s in a f a m i l y t h e d i g n i t y is n o t t r a n s f e r r e d ; t h e y a r e p r e o r d a i n e d to serve t h e s p i r i t s w h e t h e r t h e y wish i t or n o t . " E m e k h e t , " t h e g u a r d i a n s p i r i t of t h e d e a d s h a m a n , e n d e a v o u r s t o e n t e r i n t o some one a m o n g t h e k i n s f o l k of t h e deceased. The p e r s o n d e s t i n e d to s h a m a n i s m b e g i n s b y r a g i n g like a m a d m a n ; s u d d e n l y h e gabbles, f a l l s i n t o unconsciousness, r u n s a b o u t t h e woods, lives on t h e b a r k of t r e e s , t h r o w s himself i n t o fire a n d w a t e r , l a y s h o l d of w e a p o n s a n d i n j u r e s h i m s e l f , so t h a t h e h a s t o be w a t c h e d b y his f a m i l y ; b y t h e s e s i g n s t h e y k n o w t h a t h e will be a s h a m a n ; t h e y t h e n s u m m o n a n old s h a m a n a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e a b o d e s of t h e a e r i a l a n d s u b t e r r a n e a n spirits. H e i n s t r u c t s h i s p u p i l in t h e v a r i o u s k i n d s of spirits, and t h e m a n n e r of s u m m o n i n g t h e m . T h e c o n s e c r a t i o n of a s h a m a n a m o n g t h e Y a k u t s is acconi1

Potanin, iv, 49-54. Sibirskii Vyestnik," 1822, 39-40.

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