Shahr-i Zohak and the History of the Bamiyan Valley, Afghanistan 9780860547204, 9781407348698

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Shahr-i Zohak and the History of the Bamiyan Valley Afghanistan P. H. B. Baker and F. R. Allchin Ancient India and Iran Trust Series No.1

BAR International Series 570 1991

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 570 Shahr-i Zohak and the History of the Bamiyan Valley, Afghanistan © The authors individually and the Publisher 1991 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860547204 paperback ISBN 9781407348698 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860547204 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Tempvs Reparatvm in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 1991. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

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Shahr-i Zohak and the History of the Bamiyan Valley Afghanistan

CONTENTS

List of illustrations Foreword Preface Chapter 1

1.1 1.2 1.3 Chapter 2

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Chapter 3

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 Chapter 4

4.1 4.2 4.3

Chapter 5

5.1 5.2 5.3 Chapter 6

Bibliography Index

iii vii ix

Barniyan before the Mongol conquest

Introduction The pre-Islamic period The Early Islamic period Shahr-i Zohak: Introduction and History of Research

Introduction The name of the site Early notices of Shahr-i Zohak Previous archaeological studies of Shahr-i Zohak Raverty's identifications of Shahr-i Zohak Shahr-i Zohak: the Fortress

General description The Approach The Triangular Plateau The southern slopes and 'citadel' Discussion Pottery from Shahr-i Zohak

Description Discussion Catalogue of sherds

1 1 4 22 35 35 36 37 40 43 47 47 53 60 85 91 101 101 106 111

Introduction Description of sites Discussion

157 157 157 195

Conclusions

201

Other Sites of the Barniyan Area

205 215

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

The original photographs were taken by Allchin or Codrington, unless otherwise stated.

Map

Fig.

1 2 3

General map of places named in the text. The surroundings of Bamiyan and Shahr-i Zohak. Archaeological sites of the Bamiyan area.

1

Shahr-i Zohak from the north-west, August 1977 (photo: Baker). Frontispiece

Following page Page

Chapter 1. Bamiyan Fig.

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5

xi 1 199

Page

The Bamiyan valley from Shahr-i Ghulghula (photo: Baker). Map: The valley of Bamiyan (after Tarzi, 1977: A7). The 55m. Buddha (photo: Baker). Niche of the 38m. Buddha (after Tarzi, 1977: Al). Carved wooden door from Shahr-i Ghulghula, in Kabul Museum (photo: Baker).

2 15 16 31

Chapter 2. Shahr-i Zohak, Introduction Fig.

2.1 2.2 2.3

'Ruins of Zohauk'. Lithograph after drawing by Sturt (?1839). (Sale, 1846). Sealing from Shahr-i Zohak (after Ghirshman, 1948: fig. 66). Figure 03 from the niche of the 38m. Buddha (after Tarzi, 1977: Al).

34 42 42

Chapter 3. Shahr-i Zohak Fig.

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3 .10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16

Triangular Plateau, from south. Plan of site. Aerial photograph, 1:20 000. General view from north. General view from north. General view from north-west. Approach, from north-east. Approach, from south-east. Approach and Citadel, from north. Approach. Approach, Tower 6. Approach, Towers 9, 11, 13. Approach, Tunnel. Tower 11 Eastern outer wall of Triangular Plateau, with Entrance, from above. Eastern outer wall of Triangular Plateau, with Entrance, from Tower 11.

iii

46 48 49 50 50 51 52 52 54 54 56 57 57 58 58 59

3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20 3.21 3.22 3.23 3.24 3.25 3.26 3.27 3.28 3.29 3.30 3.31 3.32 3.33 3.34 3.35 3.36 3.37 3.38 3.39 3.40 3.41 3.42 3.43 3.44 3.45 3.46 3.47 3.48 3.49

Rooms G and F, plan and section. Rooms B-E, north walls. Rooms G-F, entrance passage. Corridor linking entrance passage with Room A. Corridor linking entrance passage with Room A. Ramp and corridor adjoining Rooms C-D. Ramp adjoining Room A. Room B, exposed section. Room A, section. Room B, section and plan. Objects excavated. Room E, section. Walls at south-west corner of Triangular Plateau, from south-east. Room E, niche. Room P, section. Range of rooms from the Main Gate to Q, from south-west. Building Q from north-north-west. Building Q from north-west. Building R, section. Building R, from south-east. Room H, from east. Cliff path, and Tower 15, from north-east. Building Y, from east. View west over Tower 16. Upper slopes and Citadel, from north-west. Citadel, from west. Wall west of 37, from west. Building Z, wall footing. Building Z, brickwork. Towers 41-42, from east. Block 42, from south-east. Yamchun, plan (after Stein, 1928: Plan 47). Balandy 2, plan and section (after Tolstov , 1962: fig. 101).

62 63 63 64 65 65 66 66 68 70 73 74 75 75 76 78 79 79 80 82 82 83 84 84 86 88 88 89 89 90 90 93 97

Chapter 4. Pottery from Shahr-i Zohak Fig.

4.1-16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22 4.23 4.24 4.25 4.26 4.27 4.28 4.29

Catalogue of pottery. Sherds of Ware Group I. Sherds from painted vessels, Ware Groups I Sherds of Ware Group II. Sherds of Ware Group Ila. Sherds of Ware Group Ilb. Sherds of Ware Group III. Sherds with incised decoration, Ware Group Sherds showing other decorative techniques, Sherds of Ware Group IV. Miscellaneous sherds, Ware Group IV. Sherds with moulded decoration. Glazed sherds. Selected sherds from Qal'a Ahangaran (after

iv

115-145 147 and Ila. 147 148 148 149 149 II. 150 Ware Groups II and III. 150 151 153 153 154 Leshnik, 1967). 155

Chapter 5. Other sites of the Bamiyan Area Fig.

5.1 5.?

5.3 5.4 5.5

5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17

5.18 5.19 5.20 5.21 5.22 5.23 5.24

Site Site Site Site Site

4, Topchi I, from south. 5, Topchi II, from north. 11, Bulola South, from east. 12, Bulola North, from west. 10, Paimuri, from north-east.

Site 13. Sarkoshak. General plan. View from south-west. View east from Building D. Building F, plan. Building B, from north . Cave, interior. Typical caves, plan. Building A, plan and section . Tash Rabat (after Strzygowski, 1918: Abb. 642). Building A, entrance. Building A, zone of transition in south-eastern square room of main floor. Building A, vault. Building E, plan and section. Building E. Building E, zone of transition. Building C. Building D. Glazed pottery from Sarkoshak. Painted pottery from Sarkoshak.

5.27 5.28 5.29 5.30 5.31 5.32 5.33 5.34 5.35 5.36 5.37

Site 14. Turgai Mazra . General plan. a) domed room, section. b) Haibak, Cave 3. View from south. View from north-east. South wall. Domed room. Decorative brickwork. Loopholes. Ground floor, north room. First floor, south and east rooms. East tower, interior. East tower, second floor. Small domed building.

5.38 5.39 5.40 5.41 5.42 5.43 5.44 5.45 5.46

Site Site Site Site Site Site Site Site Site

5.25 5.26

15, 15, 18, 19, 18, 23, 24, 24, 24,

Jalmish, from east. Jalmish, squinch. Doab I. Doab II, from east. Doab I, pottery. Barfak I, from west. Barfak II. Barfak II, vaulting. Barfak II, vaulting.

158 158 160

160 161 164 165 166 167 168 168 169 170 171 172 172 173 174 175 175 176 177 178 178 180 180 180

181 181 182 182 183 183

184 184 185 185 187

188 188 190 190 192 193 193

194 194

V

l

FOREWORD

The history of the research which lies behind the present volume is sufficiently unusual to deserve telling: it spans nearly half a century and involves several distinct phases. In the early 1940's, K. de B. Codrington spent a period in Afghanistan during which he visited Bamiyan and Shahr-i Zohak. As is clear from from the lecture which he afterwards gave to the Royal Geographical Society (Codrington, 1944), he was particularly interested in Shahr-i Zohak, describing it as a "site of the greatest importance". With characteristic intuition he also formed a definite view that both the construction of Shahr-i Zohak and the great bulk of the work at Bamiyan were to be ascribed to the period of Western Turk domination in northern Afghanistan, rather than, as Hackin and others had argued, to a considerably earlier date. In 1951, I accompanied Professor Codrington to Afghanistan as a research student, spending three months in all there. Although our main aim was to travel widely in both the north and south of the country, we made Shahr-i Zohak a special target and spent eighteen days working either at the site or in its vicinity. To assist us we had Codrington's old associate, Mir Ahmed Shah from Peshawar, a retired jemedar of the Indian Army, who acted as driver, cook, factotum and general informant. The plan of work was as follows: Codrington made a detailed architectural study, while I made a survey plan and architectural drawings and carried out a number of what we called at the time "microexcavations", cleaning exposed sections and carefully recording all finds. Together we made the surface collection of pottery that is recorded below. Mir Ahmed too was enlisted to help and filled several notebooks with traditional histories of Shahr-i Zohak, taken down in Dari from a man of Topchi village. These unfortunately have disappeared. By modem standards we were ill-equipped for the work. I had an old pre-war camera whose lens left much to be desired. We developed our films in the camp on the river bank below the site, and often the wind rose while they hung to dry in the tent, leaving a dense layer of dust over all. In this way many photographs were lost. I soon found that both the dumpy level and plane table were too cumbersome to use on the precipitous screes and slopes of the outlying fortifications, and made use of an old nineteenth century prospector's prismatic compass and an ex-anny Abney level for levelling! It was Codrington's and my own original intention to write up the results after returning to Britain, but for me the first priority was to complete my Ph.D. thesis, based on the fieldwork my wife and I had done in South India following our visit to Afghanistan. This occupied two years and it was not until 1955-56 that I had an opportunity to tum to the Afghan materials. During that year I completed the plans and architectural drawings, and with a small group of helpers completed the drawings of the pottery and small finds. I also wrote the first draft of several chapters of the report, dealing with the excavations, the pottery and other finds, the surface collections, and a gazetteer of sites visited in the Bamiyan valley; and I made the plans and drawings of the great fortified palace of Sarkoshak. Finally I wrote a draft concluding chapter discussing all the sites and their relations with the caves at Bamiyan. Towards the end of that year and when Codrington returned from a visit to Nepal, I showed him what I had done. It was agreed that he would contribute the detailed architectural descriptions of Shahr-i Zohak and Sarkoshak. Time passed and no further progress was made. I had scant data from which I could supply the missing sections of the report, and finally I put the whole material on one side, intending one day to find an opportunity of returning to Shahr-i Zohak to complete the work myself. This brings to an end the first part of the story. It was not until 1979 that a fresh start was made in bringing to publishable form all the data we had collected and prepared in the fifties. In 1978 Piers Baker completed his Tripos in archaeology at Cambridge and, proposing to carry out a campaign of fieldwork studying early Muslim and pre-Muslim defensive structures south of Kabul, took up a research fellowship at the British Institute of Afghan Studies. He had already visited sites in the Bamiyan area in 1975 and 1977 and had made an extensive photographic record. In the light of the developing political situation his plans proved impossible of realization, and on his return to Cambridge as a graduate student we agreed that he should use whatever vii

Shahr-i Zohak materials were available for his dissertation for the Ph.D., and that thereafter we should consider joint publication. I should like to make it clear that throughout his dissertation he was very scrupulous in acknowledging references to Codrington's and my own original fieldwork, and quotations from my field notebooks and 1955 typescript. In December 1979 I gave a lecture to the Society for Afghan Studies in London summarising the work that Codrington and I had done in the fifties. In this I put together for the first time whatever fragmentary field notes were available to me on the architecture of Shahr-i Zohak and sought to relate them to the photographic record. Baker worked independently to produce his own description of the architecture, basing himself mainly on the photographs, and only when he had completed his account did we collate the two and add a few details from my own. Thus his dissertation progressed and as is usual in such cases I, as his research supervisor, read each chapter as it was completed, making comments and discussing matters that arose. It was only after the completion of Baker's Ph.D. examination in 1983 that the final stage of the work could begin, that of preparation of the text for joint publication (circumstances have further conspired to delay the publication until now). Chapters 1 and 2 are almost entirely Baker's, with minimal additions, alterations and comments by myself. Chapters 3 to 5 are conflations of the original data and field notes, my own manuscript of 1955, and Baker's fresh study. In places the latter amounts to a major reinterpretation of the data, particularly in the description of the pottery and with the addition of the Munsell colour coding. Baker has also enlarged and updated the comparative material in these chapters. Chapter 6 is again almost entirely Baker's, but it incorporates a number of fresh ideas from myself. I have dwelt at some length on the way in which the work was done, because I wish to protect Baker against any suggestion that his doctoral dissertation was not in every way his own work, and myself against the charge that I have unjustifiably added my name to his work. The present publication is, I am happy to say, very much the result of a close and fruitful collaboration, and it brings to publishable form and therefore to a fruitful conclusion a matter which has remained in suspense for many years.

F. R. ALLCHIN

viii

PREFACE The Buddhist antiquities of Bamiyan have long been known to the Western world. The colossal figures of the Buddha, the largest in the world, and the wall-paintings in the caves around them, have been visited by countless tourists, and have for the last 150 years been studied in increasing detail by, among others, French, American, Gennan, British, Japanese and Afghan scholars. Yet, in concluding the latest major work on the subject, Tarzi (1977: 129) is able to speak of "les divers problemes historiques et culturels de Bamiyan". In fact, although the history of the Bamiyan region has been touched upon in various historical studies of the Eastern Iranian, Central Asian and Indian worlds, this material has never been brought together to provide a continuous history of Bamiyan, except in the articles in successive editions of the Encyclopedia of Islam (Barthold, 1913; Barthold & Allchin, 1959) and in the historical section of Nancy Dupree's guide book (1967: 9-21), both small in scope. Kohzad recognised this: "la fameuse vallee n'est generalement connue que sous son aspect archeologique et bouddhique" (1955: 7), but his short article on Bamiyan's history lacks citation of sources and is insubstantial. In fact, for "archaeological" one could read "art historical", since the only aspects extensively studied have been the paintings and architecture of the monastic caves and the niches of the Buddha figures. Nor have the various strands of historical and cultural infonnation that have been obtained been brought together and interrelated: articles and monographs have tended to treat in isolation individual aspects of the valley's past, and there has tended to be a complete division between the pre- Islamic and Islamic periods. In view of the great interest in the valley which has been generated by its Buddhist antiquities, a study which sets out to remedy this would seem overdue without the additional motivation provided by the present work on Shahr-i Zohak, a fortress overlooking one of the main routes into the valley. Accordingly, Chapter 1 endeavours to present a unified account of all the available historical material - textual, numismatic, documentary, art-historical and archaeological concerning Bamiyan in the pre-Mongol period. As has been observed, most of the work published has been concerned with the Buddhist paintings, and attempts to establish their date. Chapter 1 therefore reviews in some detail this work, and in particular the most recent study, that by Tarzi. We have prefaced the description of Shahr-i Zohak with a general introduction, including discussion of the occurrence of the site in local legend; the significance of its name; its mention in early western accounts of Afghanistan; and the previous work undertaken at or concerning the site (Chapter 2). There follow chapters describing the topography, architecture and excavated sections (Chapter 3), and the pottery recovered (Chapter 4). These chapters also discuss the wider significance of the architecture and pottery respectively. Chapter 5 contains a description and discussion of a number of other sites in the Bamiyan area observed by Allchin and Codrington in 1951. The concluding chapter briefly draws all this material together.

References to modem works follow the Harvard system. Citations of Persian, Arabic and classical texts follow the standard system of reference for such works (i.e. author, chapter, section). All dates are A.D. unless there is an indication to the contrary, and with the exception of the dates given for historical events in the Islamic period, where the fonn adopted is A.H./A.D. The system of transliteration used for Persian and Arabic names generally follows that of the Cambridge History of Iran, though without either diacritical marks or indications of long vowels. The familiar English fonn is occasionally used for place names, most notably in the instance of Shahr-i Zohak (for Zal)l:lak) itself. ix

We wish to acknowledge the assistance and encouragement of many people. First must be the debt we owe to the late Professor K. de B. Codrington, who in a very real sense was the inspiration of our interest in Shahr-i Zohak and whose fine photographs are so major a part of this work. Next must be Professor Romila Thapar and Mrs. Harry Simon who spent many hours working on the original drawings of the pottery in the 1950' s. In particular we regret that it has not been possible to use the beautiful water-colour illustrations of the glazed wares made by Romila Thapar. At that time Allchin also had the benefit of the advice of the late Professor S. P. Tolstov, who came to Britain as a pioneering ambassador of Soviet archaeologists working in Central Asia, and first directed attention to the close similarities of both pottery and architecture from that region with our material. More recently we have benefited greatly from discussions with Professor Sir Harold Bailey, M . Paul Bernard, Mr. J. Cribb, Professor Dr . Klaus Fischer, M. Frantz Grenet, Dr. Helen Rendell and others. Dr. A. D. H. Bivar, Dr. Yolande Crowe and Mr. Ralph Pinder-Wilson all read and commented on parts of an early draft of the text and contributed many helpful suggestions. Dr. Geza Fehevari arranged access to pottery stored at the School of Oriental and African Studies, and he and Dr. Bivar put up with our periodic occupation of their workroom. Baker had the privilege of visiting the late M. Gregoire Frumkin in Geneva, where the latter allowed him to consult his remarkable library of Soviet publications. We would also like to acknowledge the assistance we have had from Major D. B. Baker, who read the text and made a number of valuable suggestions; from Mr . Leon Vilaincour who 'humanized' several of the drawings; and from both our wives, who helped and encouraged us in many ways. Finally, we are most grateful to Mrs. D.B. Baker and to the Trustees of the Ancient India and Iran Trust for their generous contributions to the costs of publication of this volume.

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Map 3. Archaeological sites of the Bamiyan area visited by Codrington and Allchin 199

terrain for fortification on the required scale. On the other hand, smaller structures like the Bulola forts may genuinely have been sited to control a road, for there the valley is so narrow that arrows and boulders could have been very effective against a body of men trying to force a passage. The analogy with Crusader castles may not be pressed too closely. The castle builders in Latin Syria, like those other prolific castle builders, the Normans in England and in the South, were foreigners using the castle as an instrument of establishing and consolidating control over a potentially hostile indigenous population, while we have postulated a continuity in the local control of Bamiyan through repeated changes in the overlordship of the Afghan area in the middle of the first millennium. Nearer to hand, the proliferation of 'castles' in the Berkut Kala oasis in the 7th - 8th centuries, which is coupled with a disappearance of open villages, is generally taken to represent a complete breakdown in security. Nearer still, the numerous strongholds of Ghur may be attributed to the many local chieftains who remained disunited until the rise of the Shansabanis in the latter half of the 11th century. Should the fortified places of the Bamiyan area be seen as the strongholds of local 'barons', those on the main routes perhaps seeking to benefit from the merchandise carried past? The accounts of Hiuen Tsang and Hui-ch'ao both suggest an easy passage through an area controlled by, at least in the time of Hui-ch'ao, a strong king; but this situation may not always have prevailed. If the sites described were not precisely contemporary, they might reflect shifts of the north-west boundary of the kingdom of Bamiyan, perhaps at the time of the earliest Arab incursions (see above, pp. 21 ff.). This might help to account for the slight differences in the architecture of Doab I (18), which are possibly indicative of a slightly earlier date than that of the other sites discussed, but Doab I does nevertheless seem to belong to much the same period on account of its pottery and general architectural features. Whatever their precise chronology and function, the occurrence of so many sites along the Bamiyan - Surkh-Ab valley, through which led the only motorable route through the Hindu Kush between Kabul and the Amu Darya valley before the construction of the Salang Tunnel, does indicate that this was in ancient times also a route of considerable importance, and to a much greater extent than was accorded it by Foucher (1942-7: 19). Minorsky (1970: 340 and map ix) considered it the usual route between Tukharistan and Bamiyan in the 10th century 22• While the use of such a route between the Amu Darya and Kabul valleys might not have contributed to the development of Bamiyan, the route would have been the logical one to follow between, for example, Bamiyan and Qunduz, which in the 6th and 7th centuries was the local centre of power of the Western Turks (cf. p. 6 above). Without further exploration, little can be said of the length of the life of these buildings. The lack of glazed sherds suggests that they were no longer used by at least the 11th or 12th centuries, and the lack of evidence for alterations or re-building (except as discussed at Turgai Mazra and as suggested by Le Berre at Doab I) indicates a comparatively short life. This is in marked contrast to the clear evidence for repeated rebuilding and refurbishment of the fortifications at Shahr-i Zohak. On the other hand, the presence of occupation deposits of 1 - 2 m. in depth at Turgai Mazra does imply a lengthy period of use. No firm conclusions can be offered concerning the demise of these sites. Further fieldwork may help to elucidate their relationships with the later, minor fortifications that we have mentioned in passing, and with the sites of Barfak II and Sarkoshak. A detailed study of the latter site, together with study of the minor fortifications of later date, may be expected to throw an equal light on the historical geography and archaeology of the Bamiyan valley in the early Islamic centuries, culminating in the period when Bamiyan became a capital of the Ghurid dynasty.

22

If the Darra Shikari gorge was indeed impassable before the opening of the motor road earlier this century (cf. Foucher, 1942-7: 19), it is possible that a traveller proceeding south from Doab could have turned up the valley running west from Sarkoshak, before turning south over a pass into Bamiyan. Certainly an old track exists between Sarkoshak and Bamiyan (cf. N. Dupree, 1967: 86). However, the presence of the two fortifications at the confluence of the Bamiyan and Shibar rivers might be taken to indicate a meeting of ancient routes.

200

6. CONCLUSIONS

In the absence of archaeological and architectural material for Bamiyan in the period of the construction of the colossal Buddha figures and the neighbouring caves, apart from such material as pertains to the figures and caves themselves, Shahr-i Zohak and the other sites of the Bamiyan valley described above provide valuable information concerning the area in later pre-Islamic times. Although the analogies indicated for the architectural and ceramic material from these sites cannot provide any precise dating, it is clear that Shahr-i Zohak and the smaller sites related to it are 'pre-Islamic' structures, and that they may be assigned to the middle of the first millennium AD. We place 'pre-Islamic' within inverted commas since Islam took hold at Bamiyan much later than in surrounding lowland areas, and not until at least the early Ghaznavid period. From our historical sources, Bamiyan flourished as a Buddhist kingdom from at least the 6th century until certainly the 8th and possibly as late as the 10th century; and while the dating of the Buddha figures and the wall paintings remains controversial, the 6th century has been accepted provisionally as the jioruit of this remarkable artistic activity. The hypothesis has been advanced that throughout the later preIslamic period the kingdom remained under the control of native Iranian rulers, albeit that they acknowledged the overlordship of the succession of powers that controlled the wider area of which Bamiyan formed a part: Chionites and Hephthalites, Turks, Chinese and finally Arabs and Iranian Moslem dynasties. The construction of Shahr-i Zohak has therefore been assigned to this native ruling house, and the same ascription is quite possibly also true of the related fortified sites described in Chapter 5. It has further been suggested that the construction of these strongholds and fortified places may have been undertaken at the time of the main artistic activity at Bamiyan, taking this to have been a time of particular prosperity for the valley. The construction of some at least may have preceded the artistic activity, being an expression of the local ruler's greater importance as trade through Bamiyan began to blossom. On the other hand, it is possible that the strongholds may have developed when this prosperity, and perhaps also central authority, began to decline for a time at the beginning of the 9th century; this, however, would necessitate raising the dates of the 'early period' architectural features and associated burnished pottery beyond the time spanned by the comparative material. We accordingly favour an interpretation of Shahr-i Zohak as a fortified residence and stronghold of the semi-independent rulers of Bamiyan in the middle of the 1st millennium. It is not possible to be certain of its relationship with the neighbouring fortified places in the same architectural tradition. They may have been established as instruments of control over a wider area while the authority of Bamiyan remained strong, and they may then have helped to perpetuate such control; alternatively, or at other times, they may have been more independent strongholds. These sites all seem to have had comparatively short lives, with the exception of Shahr-i Zohak itself, which continued to be occupied and refortified until at least Timurid times, though perhaps with something of a hiatus in the Ghurid period, when Sarkoshak was in use. Although it is always inconclusive to base an argument on negative evidence, it may be that the apparent lack of parallels for such an important architectural element at Shahr-i Zohak as the paired circular rooms implies a purely local development peculiar to the somewhat isolated region of Bamiyan. A similar suggestion has been advanced with regard to the pottery from the site (p. 110 above). Herein lies something of a paradox: Bamiyan owed much of its prosperity to its position on a major trade route, and its Buddhist art is highly cosmopolitan in nature; yet at times its isolation was of greater significance, not least in the centuries when Islam had taken control of the surrounding low-lying areas but had not yet penetrated the mountains (cf. p. 22 above). This partial isolation may perhaps be explained to some extent by the problems of communications in winter months - at least before the construction of modern roads - with the passes into the valley being blocked for up to half of each year. Nevertheless, the paradox remains. While their association with the rulers of Bamiyan is not conclusively proved, the existence of the sites described in Chapter 5 does clearly indicate the importance of the

201

route along the Bamiyan and Surkh Ab valleys between Bamiyan and Doshi in pre-Islamic times. The existence of the later sites which have been observed along this route, and notably the Ghurid fortress of Sarkoshak and the impressive building at Barfak II, demonstrate its continuing importance in later times; further study of these remains may be expected to provide additional data for the history of the Bamiyan valley after the establishment of Islam, similar to those which Shahr-i Zohak and its related sites have provided for the history of Bamiyan in the pre-Islamic period.

202

BIBLIOGRAPHY

This bibliography is not exhaustive, being limited to works cited in the text. The following abbreviations are used: A/ON AMI BGA BSOAS CHI CRAI E&W

IA JAJAS JASB IRAS KSIIMK KT MIA MDAFA NC SA SAA 1973 Stupa Tab TKAEE ZDMG

Annali, Istituto Universitario Orientate di Napoli. Archaologische Mitteilungen aus Iran. Berlin. Bibliotheca Geographorum Arabicorum, ed. M.J. de Goeje. Leiden. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. London. Cambridge History of Iran. Comptes rendus des seances ... , Academie des inscriptions et belles lettres. Paris. East and West. Rome. Journal Asiatique. Paris. Japan-Afghanistan Joint Archaeological Survey. Kyoto. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Calcutta. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. London. Kratkie Soobshcheniya lnstituta lstorii Material' noi Kultury. Moscow. Kara Tepe, ed. B.Ya. Stavisky, 1965-. Moscow. Materiali i lssledovaniya po Arkheologii SSSR. Moscow . Memoires de la Delegation Archeologique Franr;aise en Afghanistan. Numismatic Chronicle. Sovetskaya Arkheologiya. Moscow. South Asian Archaeology 1973, ed. J.E. van Lohuizen-de Leeuw and J.M.M. Ubaghs. Leiden, 1974. See Dallapiccola, 1980. Tabaqat-i Nasiri. Sec Raverty, 1881. Trudy Kirgizskoi arkheologo-etnograficheskoi ekspeditzii. Moscow. Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlandischen Gesellschaft. Leipzig .

Adamec, L.W., 1985. Kabul and Southeastern Afghanistan. Graz. Akharov, I. and Z.I. Usmanova, 1978. "Novye dannye k istorii Bukhary". In ed. Obel'chenko, 1978: 98-106. Album, S., 1976. "Samanid oversize dirhams of the fourth century A.H. (tenth century A.D.)". N.C., 248-254. Allchin, F.R ., 1959. "Poor men's thalis: a Deccan potter's technique'. BSOAS, 250-57. 1968. "Archaeology and the date of Kanishka: the Taxila evidence". In Basham, 1968, 4-34. 1972. "A cruciform reliquary from Shaikhan Dheri". In P. Pal, Aspects of Indian Art, 1-26. Leiden. 1978. "The archaeological significance of a modem Indian potter's technique". In ed. D. Chattopadhyaya, History and Society, 1-14. Calcutta. 1979. "Monuments in the Bamiyan Valley". Lecture to the Society for Afghan Studies, London. 10th December. Allchin, P.R. and N. Hammond, 1978, eds. The Archaeology of Afghanistan. London. Altheim, F. and R. Stiehl, 1970. Geschichte Mittelasiens in Altertum. Berlin. Andrae, W. and H. Lenzen, 1933. Die Partherstadt Assur. Leipzig. Auboyer, J., 1968. The art of Afghanistan. Feltham. Aurenche, 0., 1977. Dictionaire Illustre Muftilingue de l' Architecture du Proche Orient Ancien. Lyon . Ayalon, D., 1956. Gunpowder and Fir earms in the Mamfuk Kingdom. London. Babacv, A.D., 1973. Kreposti Drevn ego Vakhana. Dushanbe. Bachhofer, L., 1938. Review of Coomaraswamy and Rowland, 1938. Art Bulletin, 230-32. Ball, W., 1982. Archaeological Gazetteer of Afghanistan. 2 vols., Paris. Barbier de Meynard, C.A.C., 1861. Dictionaire geographique, historique et litteraire de la Perse et des contrees adjacentes, extrait du Mo' djem el-Bouldan de Yaqout .... Paris. 205

Barthold, V.V., 1906. "Zur Geschichte der Saffariden". In Orientalischer Studien zu Th. Noldeke gewidmet, i, 171-91. Gicssen. 1913. "Bamiyan", Encyclopaedia of Islam, I, 643-4. 1929. Review of Godard and Hackin, 1928. Iran, III, 241-6. Leningrad. [In Russian.] 1977. Turkestan down to the Mongol Invasion, 4th edition. London. Barthold, V.V. and F.R. Allchin, 1959. "Bamiyan". Encyclopaedia of Islam, new edition. Basham, A.L., 1968, ed. Papers on the date of Kanishka. Leiden. Beal, S., 1884. Si-yu-ki. Buddhist records of the western world. London. 1911. The Life of Hiuen-Tsiang. 2nd edition, London. Belenitsky, A.M., 1973. Monumental' noe iskusstvo Pendzhikenta: zhivopis', skul'ptura. Moscow. 1980. Mittelasien: Kunst der Sogden. Leipzig. Bentovich, I.B., 1953. "Keramika Pendzhikenta". MIA, 37, 133-45. 1964. "Keramika verkhnego sloya Pcndzhikenta". MIA, 124, 265-98. Besenval, R., 1984. Technologie de La Voute dans l' Orient Ancien. 2 vols. Paris. Bivar, A.D.H., 1969. "The Nomad Empires and the Expansion of Buddhism"; "Sassanians and Turks in Central Asia"; and "The Ascendancy of Islam". In Central Asia, ed. G. Hambly. London. 1971. "Hayatila". Encyclopaedia of Islam, new edition. 1971a. "Petroglyphs and Buddhist remains of Jaghuri District, Afghanistan". In C.E. Bosworth (ed.), Iran and Islam, in memory of V. Minorsky", 79-89. Edinburgh. (Cf. Verardi, 1981, for the Buddhist remains [Verardi's Tepe Senawbar]). 1974. "A Mongol Invasion Hoard from Eastern Afghanistan". In Near Eastern Numismatics, Studies in Honour of George C. Miles. Ed. D.K. Kouymjian. Beirut. 1976. Review of Mitchiner, 1973 & 1973a. BSOAS, 451-453. 1978. Review of Fussman and Le Berre, 1976. BSOAS, 177-8. Blurton, T.R., 1980. "The Stupa and Vihara at Kandahar". Lecture to the Society for Afghan Studies, 24th October 1980, London. Bosworth, C.E., 1961. "The early Islamic history of Ghur". Central Asiatic Journal, VI, 116-133. 1965. "Ghurids". Encyclopaedia of Islam, new edition. 1968. Seistan under the Arabs. Rome. 1968a. "The political and dynastic history of the Iranian world (A.D. 1000 - 1217)' In CHI, 5, 1-202. 1973. The Ghaznavids, their empire in Afghanistan and eastern Iran, 994-1040. 2nd edition, Beirut. 1975. "The Tahirids and Saffarids". In CHI, 4, 90-135. 1977. The later Ghaznavids. Edinburgh. Boyle, J.A., 1958. The History of the World Conqueror, translation of Juwaini, 2 vols. Manchester. 1968. "Dynastic and Political History of the 11-Khans". In CHI, 5, 303-421. Brett, T., 1970. Afghan Expedition 1970. Report of an expedition from Bristol University (unpublished). Bristol. Brough, J., 1965. "Comments on third-century Shan-Shan and the history of Buddhism". BSOAS, 28, 582-612. Bulatova, V.A., 1978. "Tepe Chillya-Mazar". In ed. Obel'chenko et al., 1978. Byron, R., 1937. The road to Oxiana. London. Carl, J., 1959. "Le Tepe Kalan du Koh-i-Pahlavan (1940)". In Hackin et al., 128-132. Carl, J. and J. Hackin, 1959. "Le monastcre bouddhique de Tepe Marandjan". In Hackin et al., 7-12. Chavannes, E., 1903. Documents sur les Tou-kie occidentaux. Paris. Codrington, K. de B., 1944. "A geographical introduction to the history of Central Asia". Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, CIV, 27-39, 73-91. Colledge, M.A.R., 1977. Parthian Art. London. Creswell, K.A.C., 1932, 1940. Early Muslim Architecture. 2 vols. Oxford. 1952. "Fortification in Islam before A.D. 1250''. Proceedings of the British Academy, Vol. 38, pp.89-125. 206

Cribb, J.E., 1981. "Gandharan hoards of Kushano-Sasanian and Late Kushan coppers". Coin Hoards, VI, 85-108. Cunningham, A., 1840. "Notes on Captain Hay's Bactrian Coins". JASB, IX, 530-542. 1842. "Second notice of some new Bactrian coins". JASB, XI, 130-137. Curiel, R. and D. Schlumberger, 1953. Tresors monetaires d'Afghanistan. (MDAFA, XIV.) Paris. Dagens, B., M. Le Berre and D. Schlumberger, 1964. Monuments pre-Islamiques d' Afghanistan (M DAF A, XIX). Paris. Dallapiccola, A.L., 1980, ed. The Stupa. Its Religious, Historical and Architectural Significance. Wiesbaden. Darke, H., 1960. The Book of Government or Rules for Kings, translation of The Siyasatnama or Siyar al-Mulk of Nizam al-Mulk. London. Deydier, H., 1950. Contribution a l' etude de l' art de Gandhara. Paris. Dupree, L., 1958. "Shamshir Ghar: historic cave site in Kandahar Province, Afghanistan". Anthropological Papers, American Museum of Natural History, 46.2. Dupree, L. and C.C. Kolb, 1972. "Ceramics from Aq Kupruk, Darra-i-Kur, and Hazar Gusfand". Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, (4), 33-42. Reprinted in Afghanistan , 27.4, 47-69 (1975). Dupree, N.H., 1967. The Valley of Bamiyan. 2nd edition, Kabul. 1977. An Historical Guide to Afghanistan. 2nd edition, Kabul. Dupree, N.H., L.D. Dupree and A.A. Motamedi, 1974. The National Museum of Afghanistan, An Illustrated Guide. Kabul. Enoki, K., 1955. "The origin of the White Huns or Hephthalites". East and West, n.s. VI, 231 ff. Erdmann, K., 1951. "Die Entwicklung des sasanidischen Krone". Ars Islamica, XV-XVI, 87 ff. Fischer, K., 1956. "Archaeological remains of Jainism in West Pakistan and Afghanistan". The Voice of Ahinsa, 6, 3/4. 1966. "Indo-Iranian contacts as revealed by mud-brick architecture from Afghanistan". Oriental Art, 12, 25. 1969. "Preliminary remarks on archaeological survey in Afghanistan". Zentralasiatische Studien, III, 327-408. 1974. Dacher, Deeken und Gewolbe indischer Kultstatten und Nutzbauten. Wiesbaden. 1978. "From the rise of Islam to the Mongol invasion"; "From the Mongols to the Mughals". In Allchin & Hammond, 1978, 301-355; 357-404. Foucher, A.C.A., 1923. Letter to the President of the Societe Asiatique, dated "Kaboul, 30 xii 1922". Journal Asiatique, 354-368. 1925. "Notes sur l'itineraire de Hiuan Tsang en Afghanistan". In Etudes Asiatiques, Ecole Fran~aise d'Extreme O1ient, I, 257-84. Hanoi. 1942-7. La, Vieille Route de l' lnde, de Bactres a Taxila (MDAFA, I). Paris. Frumkin, G., 1970. Archaeology in Soviet Central Asia. Leiden. Frye, R.N., 1946. "Observations on architecture in Afghanistan". Gazette des Beaux Arts, 29, 129-38. 1946a. "Notes on the History of Architecture in Afghanistan". Ars islamica, 21-22, 200-202. 1975. The Golden Age of Persia: the Arabs in the East. London. Fuchs, W., 1938. "Huei-Ch'aos Pilgerrcise durch Nordwest-Indien und Zentral-Asien um 726". Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Fussman, G., 1974. "Nouvelle Dccouverte a Bamiyan". Afghanistan, 27 (2). 1974a. "Ruines de la Vallee de Wardak". Arts Asiatiques. 30, 65-130. Fussman, G. and M. Le Bcrre, 1976. Monuments bouddhiques de la region de Caboul, I: Guldara. (MDAFA, XXII). Pa1is. Gabain, A. von, 1954. "Buddhistische TUrkenmission". Asiatica, 161-73. 1961. "Der Buddhismus in Zentralasien". In Religionsgeschichte des Orients in der Zeit der Weltreligionen, Hand bu ch dcr Orientalistik, I.viii.2, 496-514. Leiden. Gardin, J.C., 1957. "La Poterie de Bamiyan". Ars Orientalis, 2, 227-245. 1957a. Ceramiques de Bactres (MDAFA XV). Paris. 1963. Lashkari Bazar, I/, Trouvailles. (MDAFA, XVIII). Paris. 207

Gardin, J.C. and B. Lyonnet, 1987. "Ceramique et Chronologie". Annex, in Le Berre, 1987: 97-118. Gerard, J., 1833. "Continuation of the route of Lt. A. Burnes and Dr. Gerard from Peshawer to Lahore". JRAS Bengal, II, 1-22. Gettens, R.J., 1938. "The Materials in the Wall Paintings of Bamiyan, Afghanistan". Technical Studies, VI (3), Jan. 1938, 186 ff. Ghirshman, R., 1946. Begram. Recher ches archeologiques et historiques sur Les Kouchans (MDAFA, XII) . Cairo. 1948. Les Chionites-Hephthalites (MDAFA, XIII). Cairo. Giles, H.A., 1923. The travels of Fa-hsien. Cambridge. Gobl, R., 1967. Dokumente zur Geschichte der iranischen Hunnen in Baktrien und Indien. Wiesbaden. Cf. reviews by Allheim & Stiehl, 1970: 690 ff.; Rumbach, 1970: 119; Kieffer, 1968: 56-67. 1981. "Iranisch-Hunnische Mi.inzen, 1. Nachtrag". lranica Antiqua, XVI, 173-82. Godard, A., 1949. "Khorasan". Athar-e Iran. IV, 1, 1-150. 1951. "L'origine de la Mosquee et du Caravanserail a quatre !wans". Ars Islamica, 1516, 1-9. 1962. L' art de l' Iran. Paris. Godard, A., Y. Godard and J. Hackin, 1928. Les antiquites bouddhiques de Bamiyan. (MDAF A, II). Paris. Golombek, L., 1969. "Abbasid mosque at Balkh". Oriental Art, 15, 173 ff. Gray, J.A., 1895. At the court of the Amir. London. Griffith, W., 1847. Journals of Travels, ed. J. Mac-Clelland. Calcutta. Hackin, J., 1932. "Les demicrcs dccouvcrtes d'Afghanistan (1930)". In Etudes d' orientalisme publie par le Musee Guimet a la memoire de R. Linossier, II, 287-91. Paris. 1935. "Repartition des monnaics ancicnnes en Afghanistan". Journal Asiatique, 226, 287-92. 1939. Recherches Archeologiques a Begram (MDAFA, IX). Paris. 1939a. Bamiyan: L' Art Indien en Asie Centrale. Paris. 1940. "The Buddhist monastery of Fondukistan". Journal of the Greater India Society, VII (1-2), 1-14, 85-91. 1959. "Fondukistan"; "Bamiyan, 1933"; "Fouilles de Kunduz". In Hackin et al., 1959. Hackin, J. et al., 1954. Nouvelles recherches archeologiques a Begram (MDAFA, XI). Paris. 1959. Divers recherches archeologiques en Afghanistan (1933-1940) (MDAFA, VIII). Paris. Hackin, J. and J. Carl, 1933. Nouvelles recherches archeologiques a Bamiyan (MDAFA, III). Paris. Hackin, J. and R. Hackin, 1934. Le site archeologique de Bamiyan. Paris. Translated as: 1939. Bamian, Fuhrer zu den Buddhistischen Hohlenklostern und Kolossalstatuen. Paris. Hackin, R. and A.A. Kohzad, 1953. Legendes et Coutumes Afghanes. Paris. Hallet, S.I. and R. Samizay, 1980. Traditional architecture of Afghanistan. New York. Hart, F., 1965 . Kunst und Technik der Wolbung. Mi.inchen. Hart, L. W. and J. Atkinson, 1843. The Character and costume of Afghanistan. London. Hay, W., 1840. "Account of Coins found at Bamcean". JASB, IX, 68-69. Hayden, H.H., 1910. "Notes on some monuments in Afghanistan". Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, II. 10, 341-49 & Pl. XII. Helms, S., 1979. "Old Kandahar Excavations 1976". Afghan Studies, 2, 1-8. Hennequin, G., 1970. "Grandes Monnaies samanides et ghaznavides de l'Hindu Kush, etude numismatique et historique". Annales lslamologiques , IX, 127-177. Cairo. Herberg, W. , 1976. "Topographischc Fcldarbciten in Ghor. Bericht tiber Forschungen zum Problem Jam-Feroz Koh". Afghanistan Journal, III, 57 ff. 1981. "Neue Forschungen zur Baugeschichte von Ghor". In Neue Forschungen in Afghanistan, ed. C. Rathjcns. Opladcn. Herzfeld, E.E., 1941. Iran in the Ancient East. London. Higuchi, T., and S. Kuwayama, 1970. Chaqalaq Tepe. Kyoto.

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INDEX

Adzhina Tepe 9, 195 Ahangaran (Bamiyan valley) 157 Ahangaran (Ghor) 44, 107 Arab conquests 6, 10 Balandy 95, 98 Ballch 10, 92, 197 Bamiyan, Arab conquest of 22 Bamiyan, battle of (1840) 39 Bamiyan, Buddhist art and its chronology 12 ff. Barak Tam 196 Barfak 92, 191 Begram 3 Berkut Kala 196 Bernard, P . 43 Buddhist religion, history of 7 Bulola 161 Burnes, Lt. Alexander 38 Chaqalaq Tepe 108 Chihil Burj 35 Chionites 5 Chugundor -Baba 163 Codrington, K. de B. 41 -2 Danestama 92, 191, 197 Darra-i Nigar 14 Dilberjin 197 Doab -i Mekhzarin 189 Domes, history of 95 Dukhtar -i Nushirvan 14 Eshpushta 191 Fa Hsien 4 Fiwar 45 Fondukistan 8, 9, 20-1, 157 Foucher, A. C.A. 40 G(h)andak 179 Ghazna 9 Ghaznavids 24 Ghorband valley 157 Ghurids 27 Griffith, William 39 Guldara 8 Hadda 8-9 Haibak 8, 9, 198 Hephthalites 5, 10- 1 Hindushahis 10 Hiuen Tsang 1, 4 Hui-ch'ao 5 Huns 5 Iranians 12 Istakhri 1, 23 Jalmish 98, 189 Juzjani 1 Kadas (Kadis) 45

Kafir Qala, Dara -i Ahangaran 196 Kakrak 11, 157 Kalu Valley 159 Kandahar 9 Kanishk.a 4 Kara Bulak 3 Khwarazmshahs 30 Kidarites 5 Kushan period 4 Lashk.ari Bazaar 163 Le Berre, M. 35, 43, 157 Mandesh 43 Masson, Charles 38 Mongol invasion 32 Moorcroft 38 Mt. Mugh 7, 100 Muqaddasi 1 Nilab 157 Paimuri 159 Qal'eh Ahangaran (Ghor) 107 Qol-i Nader 8 Qundu z 6 Saffarids 7, 23 Saka 197 Sakavand 24, 98 Samangan 191 Samanids 23 Sangah 43 Sarkoshak 109, 161 Sassanians 5 Shah-Nama 36 Shahr -i Ghulghula 3, 21, 30 Shir (king of Bamiyan) 12 Silk Road 1 Sturt, Lieutenant 39 T'ang dynasty 6 Tash Rabat 179 Tepe Kalan (Kuh-i Pahlavan) 8 Tepe Kalan (Kuh-i Pahlavan) 8 Tepe Sardar (Ghazna) 9 Tillya Tepe 3 Tola Barfak 191 Topchi 159 Turgai Mazra 98, 179 Turki Shahis 6, 10 Turks 6, 11 Vaulting, history of 94 ff. Walkh 45 Wood, John 39 Yamchun 91 Zestovsky, Pavel

215

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