Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in Northern Oman Peninsula: A multi-tiered approach to the analysis of long-term settlement trends 9781407310954, 9781407340661

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BAR S2483 2013

British Foundation for the Study of Arabia Monographs No. 13 Series editors: D. Kennet & St J. Simpson

AL-JAHWARI

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

SETTLEMENT PATTERNS, DEVELOPMENT AND CULTURAL CHANGE

B A R al-Jahwari 2483 title.indd 1

A multi-tiered approach to the analysis of long-term settlement trends

Nasser Said Ali Al-Jahwari

BAR International Series 2483 2013 19/02/2013 10:42:17

British Foundation for the Study of Arabia Monographs No. 13 Series editors: D. Kennet & St J. Simpson

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula A multi-tiered approach to the analysis of long-term settlement trends

Nasser Said Ali Al-Jahwari

BAR International Series 2483 2013

ISBN 9781407310954 paperback ISBN 9781407340661 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407310954 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

BAR

PUBLISHING

British Foundation for the Study of Arabia Monograph Series Series editors: D. Kennet & St J. Simpson British Foundation for the Study of Arabia Monograph Series (formerly Society for Arabian Studies Monograph Series) was launched in 2004 with the intention of encouraging the publication of peer-reviewed monographs on the archaeology, early history, ethnography, epigraphy and numismatics of the Arabian Peninsula and related matters. Creating a specific monograph series within the British Archaeological Reports International Series is intended to allow libraries, institutions and individuals to keep abreast of work that is specifically related to their areas of research. Whilst research and conference volumes in the series will all be peer-reviewed according to normal academic procedures, the decision was taken to allow the publication of doctoral theses, field reports, catalogues and other data-rich work without peer review where this will permit the publication of information that, for one reason or another, might not otherwise be made available. Already published: BAR –S1248, 2004 Sasanian and Islamic Pottery from Ras al-Khaimah Classification, chronology and analysis of trade in the Western Indian Ocean by Derek Kennet with a contribution by Regina Krahl. Society for Arabian Studies Monographs No. 1. ISBN 1 84171 608 1. BAR –S1269, 2004 Trade and Travel in the Red Sea Region Proceedings of Red Sea Project I held in the British Museum October 2002 edited by Paul Lunde and Alexandra Porter. Society for Arabian Studies Monographs No. 2. ISBN 1 84171 622 7. BAR –S1395, 2005 People of the Red Sea Proceedings of Red Sea Project II held in the British Museum October 2004 edited by Janet C.M. Starkey. Society for Arabian Studies Monographs No. 3. ISBN 1 84171 833 5. BAR –S1456, 2005 The Tihamah Coastal Plain of South-West Arabia in its Regional Context c. 6000 BC – AD 600 by Nadia Durrani. Society for Arabian Studies Monographs No. 4. ISBN 1 84171 894 7. BAR –S1661, 2007 Natural Resources and Cultural Connections of the Red Sea Proceedings of Red Sea Project III held in the British Museum October 2006 edited by Janet Starkey, Paul Starkey and Tony Wilkinson. Society for Arabian Studies Monographs No. 5. ISBN 9781407300979 BAR –S1776, 2008 La Péninsule d’Oman de la fin de l’Age du Fer au début de la période sassanide (250 av. – 350 ap. JC) by Michel Mouton. Society for Arabian Studies Monographs No. 6. ISBN 978 1 4073 0264 5 BAR –S1826, 2008 Intercultural Relations between South and Southwest Asia Studies in commemoration of E.C.L. During Caspers (1934-1996) edited by Eric Olijdam and Richard H. Spoor. Society for Arabian Studies Monograph No. 7. ISBN 978 1 4073 0312 3 BAR –S2052, 2009 Connected Hinterlands Proceedings of Red Sea Project IV held at the University of Southampton September 2008 edited by Lucy Blue, John Cooper, Ross Thomas and Julian Whitewright. Society for Arabian Studies Monographs No. 8. ISBN 978 1 4073 0631 BAR –S2102, 2010 Ports and Political Power in the Periplus Complex societies and maritime trade on the Indian Ocean in the first century AD by Eivind Heldaas Seland. Society for Arabian Studies Monograph No 9. ISBN 9781407305783 BAR –S2107, 2010 Death and Burial in Arabia and Beyond Multidisciplinary perspectives edited by Lloyd Weeks. Society for Arabian Studies Monograph No. 10. ISBN 9781407306483 BAR –S2237, 2011 Water Management: The Use of Stars in Oman by Harriet Nash. Society for Arabian Studies Monograph No. 11. ISBN 978 1 4073 0799 2. 32.00. BAR –S2346, 2012 Navigated Spaces, Connected Places Proceedings of Red Sea Project V held at the University of Exeter September 2010edited by Dionisius A. Agius, John P. Cooper, Athena Trakadas and Chiara Zazzaro. British Foundation for the Study of Arabia Monographs 12 ISBN 9781407309293.

Potential contributors Please contact the editors in the first instance: Dr Derek Kennet: Department of Archaeology, Durham University, South Road, Durham, England DH1 3LE [email protected] Dr St John Simpson: Department of the Middle East, The British Museum, London, England WC1B 3DG [email protected]

Contents CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������1 Research Aims������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������1 Investigating Patterns and Long-term Trends �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������1 The Problem of Quantiying Settlement in Arabia�������������������������������������������������������������������������������3 Peculiarities of the Arabian Environment �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������3 Traditional Survey Methods ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������5 The Need for a Solution ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������6 A Developed Methodology����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������6 A Broader Level of Analysis �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������6 Hafit Cairns and Beehives������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������6 Scope and Research History of the Study Area ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������6 The Study Area (Fig. 2)����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������6 Research History��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������7 Why Wadi Andam?����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������7 Book Layout ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������7 Glossary����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������8 CHAPTER TWO GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENT ������������������������������������������������������������������10 Geography����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������10 Geology��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������10 The Hajar Mountains�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������10 Deserts����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������10 Gravel Fans��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������11 Abu-Dhabi Coast�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������11 The Batinah Coast����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������11 The Eastern Coast����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������11 Palaeoenvironment���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������11 Modern Climate��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������12 Water Resources�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������14 Flora�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������14 Fauna������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������14 Subsistence Economy�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������15 Agriculture����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������15 Hunting and Livestock-Herding�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������15 Marine Resources�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������16 Minerals and Other Resources���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������17 Trade�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������17 Sites’ Database Defined Sub-Regions (Fig. 13)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������17 Musandam and the Northern Emirates (MNE)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������17 The Abu-Dhabi Coast (ABDC)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������17 The Hajar Mountains (HM)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������18 The Batinah Coast (BTNC)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������18 The Eastern Coast (ESC)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������19 Central Oman (CNO) ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������19 CHAPTER THREE DEFINITION OF CHRONOLOGICAL PERIODS�������������������������������������������20 Stone Age�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������20

i

Hafit Period��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������22 Umm an-Nar Period�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������25 Al-Hajar Oasis Towns ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������27 Wadi Suq Period�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������27 Iron Age-Hellenistic-Parthian Periods ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������29 Iron Age��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������29 Hellenistic-Parthian�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������30 Samad Period�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������32 Summary�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������33 Sasanian-Early Islamic���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������33 The Abbasid Period (9th – 10th/early 11th century AD)������������������������������������������������������������������������34 The Islamic Periods (Middle Islamic to Recent Times) ������������������������������������������������������������������������35 Conclusion����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������35 CHAPTER FOUR THE WADI ANDAM SURVEY ������������������������������������������������������������������������������36 Section One The Research Methodology�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������37 Sample Units Selection��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������37 Methodology and Survey Levels �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������37 Level 1 Literature – Previous Archaeological Conclusions and Regional Long-term Trends���������������37 Level 2 Literature–Sub-regional Long-term Trends������������������������������������������������������������������������������38 Level 3 Literature– Local Area Long-term Trends and Survey Projects Review ���������������������������������38 Level 4: Wadi Survey�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������39 Level 5 The Sampling Technique and Investigated Areas ��������������������������������������������������������������������39 The State of the Archaeological Evidence ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������39 The Sampling Technique ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������40 Areas and Units of Survey ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������42 The Pottery Collection Areas (PCAs) (Fig. 14 & 23)����������������������������������������������������������������������������42 OVAs Other Villages Areas (Fig. 14 & 18-19) ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������43 UWA The Upper Wadi Andam Survey���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������43 Level 6 Pottery Classification and Revisiting Sites�������������������������������������������������������������������������������44 Recording Archaeological Sites/Features ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������44 Sites Typology ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������44 Section Two Quantifying Levels of Activity in the Wadi Andam ���������������������������������������������������������44 Aims and Questions ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������45 Quantified Levels of Activity ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������45 1- Long-term Trends from in and around the wadi villages ������������������������������������������������������������������47 Long-term Trends from Pottery Collection Areas (PCAs)����������������������������������������������������������������48 Long-term Trends from Other Villages Areas (OVAs)����������������������������������������������������������������������51 Long-term Trends according to Type of Evidence from the PCAs and OVAs ����������������������������������52 2- Long-term Trends from the Upper Wadi Andam (UWA)������������������������������������������������������������������53 Long-term Trends by Type of Evidence from the UWA ��������������������������������������������������������������������55 Conclusion����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������56 Section Three Description of the Evidence �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������56 The Hafit Period (ca. 3500/3400–2500 BC) �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������56 1- Hafit Cairns ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������56 ii

Survey Areas (Fig. 32-33)�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������56 Description of Evidence��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������56 2- Beehive Tombs ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������61 Survey Areas (Fig. 44-45)�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������61 Description of Evidence��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������61 Summary�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������64 Umm An-Nar Period (c.2500–2000 BC)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������65 Sites (Fig. 48)�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������65 Description of Evidence��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������65 1- PCAs��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������65 2- Major Sites�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������65 3- Minor Sites�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������75 Summary�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������75 Wadi Suq (ca.2000–1300 BC) ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������76 Sites (Fig. 71)�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������76 Description of Evidence��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������76 Summary�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������80 Early Iron Age (ca.1300–300 BC)����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������80 Sites (Fig. 81)�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������80 Description of Evidence��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������80 Summary�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������84 Late Iron Age/Samad Period (ca. 300 BC–200 AD) �����������������������������������������������������������������������������85 Sites (Fig. 97)�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������85 Description of Evidence��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������86 1- PCAs��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������86 2- Major Sites�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������86 3- Minor Sites�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������91 Summary�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������93 Sasanian-Early Islamic Periods (ca. 200/100–900/1000 AD)����������������������������������������������������������������94 Sites (Fig. 115 )���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������94 Description of Evidence��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������94 Summary�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������95 Middle Islamic Period (ca. 900/1000 – 1300 AD)................................................................................ 95 Sites (Fig. 117 )���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������95 Description of Evidence��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������95 Summary�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������96 Late Islamic Period (1300–1800 AD)����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������99 Sites (Fig. 125)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������99 Description of Evidence��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������99 Summary�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������99 Recent Times (1800 AD Onwards)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������100 Sites (Fig. 128)�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������100 Description of Evidence������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������101 Conclusion �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������101 CHAPTER FIVE LOCAL AREA QUANTIFIED LEVEL OF ACTIVITY���������������������������������������105 Geographical Extent of the Study Area������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������105 Site Identification and Defintion����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������105 Survey Projects Review�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������106 The Harvard Expedition ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������106 British Archaeological Expedition �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������108

iii

The German Archaeological Mission���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������109 The Al-Hajar Project ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������112 Other Survey Projects���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������114 The Omani–German Project ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������115 Omani–German Project Surveys����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������115 1- Al-Hamra (Fig. 142 )������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������115 2- Ibra (Fig. 142)����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������115 3 Izki (Fig. 142)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������116 4 Nizwa Area ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������117 The Jebel Akhdar (Fig. 142) ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������117 Nizwa (Fig. 142) ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������117 Summary of Evidence from Omani-German Project Surveys�������������������������������������������������������������118 Quantification of Sites �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������118 Characteristics of Settlement����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������120 Conclusions������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������122 Review of Survey Methodology�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������122 The Quantified Level of Activity ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������124 Characterisations of the Nature of Settlement- Period by Period Comparison with the Wadi Andam Survey ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������125 1- Stone Age (Earlier than 3500/3400 BC)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������125 2- Hafit Period (ca. 3500/3400–2500 BC)�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������125 3- Umm an-Nar Period (ca. 2500–2000 BC)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������127 4- Wadi Suq Period (ca. 2000–1300 BC)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������127 5- Iron Age (ca. 1300–300 BC)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������128 6- Hellenistic–Parthian Periods (ca.300 BC–200 AD)�������������������������������������������������������������������������129 7- Sasanian–Early Islamic Periods (200–900/1000 AD)����������������������������������������������������������������������129 8- Middle Islamic Period (900/1000–1300 AD)����������������������������������������������������������������������������������129 9- Late Islamic–Recent Times (1300 AD onwards)�����������������������������������������������������������������������������130 Conclusion��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������130 CHAPTER SIX QUANTIFIED REGIONAL AND SUB-REGIONAL ACTIVITY �����������������������131 Aims of Analysis����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������131 Geographical Extent�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������131 Methodology and Database Structure��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������132 Quantification of Sites��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������135 General Regional Levels of Activity ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������135 Sub-Regional Levels of Activity �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������137 Site Density�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������145 Types of Site������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������148 Relationship between Settlements and Tombs��������������������������������������������������������������������������������150 Conclusion��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������151 CHAPTER SEVEN DISCUSSION AND INTERPRETATION ���������������������������������������������������������153 Archaeological Conclusions ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������153 The Stone Age��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������153 Previous Archaeological Conclusions (Level 1)�����������������������������������������������������������������������������153 Wadi Andam Conclusion (Levels 4–6)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������154 Local Area Conclusion (Level 3)����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������155

iv

Regional and Sub-Regional Level Conclusion (Levels 1–2)����������������������������������������������������������155 Summary�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������155 Hafit Period �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������155 Previous Archaeological Conclusion (Level 1)������������������������������������������������������������������������������155 Wadi Andam Survey Conclusion (Levels 4–6)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������155 Local Area Conclusion (Level 3)����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������156 Regional and Sub-Regional Level Conclusion (Levels 1–2)����������������������������������������������������������156 Summary�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������156 Umm an-Nar Period ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������156 Previous Archaeological Conclusion (Level 1)������������������������������������������������������������������������������156 Wadi Andam Survey Conclusion (Levels 4–6)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������158 Local Area Conclusion (Level 3)����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������159 Regional and Sub-Regional Level Conclusion (Levels 1–2)����������������������������������������������������������159 Summary�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������159 Wadi Suq Period ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������161 Previous Archaeological Conclusion (Level 1)������������������������������������������������������������������������������161 Wadi Andam Survey Conclusion (Levels 4–6)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������161 Local Area Conclusion (Level 3)����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������162 Regional and Sub-Regional Level Conclusion (Levels 1–2)����������������������������������������������������������162 Summary�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������163 Iron Age (Early Iron Age)�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������166 Previous Archaeological Conclusion (Level 1)������������������������������������������������������������������������������166 Wadi Andam Survey Conclusion (Levels 4–6)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������167 Local Area Conclusion (Level 3)����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������167 Regional and Sub-Regional Level Conclusion (Levels 1–2)����������������������������������������������������������167 Summary�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������168 The Hellenistic–Parthian (Late Iron Age/Samad)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������170 Previous Archaeological Conclusion (Level 1)������������������������������������������������������������������������������170 Wadi Andam Survey Conclusion (Levels 4–6)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������170 Local Area Conclusion (Level 3)����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������171 Regional and Sub-Regional Level Conclusion (Levels 1–2)����������������������������������������������������������171 Summary�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������171 Sasanian–Early Islamic������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������171 Previous Archaeological Conclusion (Level 1)������������������������������������������������������������������������������171 Wadi Andam Survey Conclusion (Levels 4–6)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������172 Local Area Conclusion (Level 3)����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������172 Regional and Sub-Regional Level Conclusion (Levels 1–2)����������������������������������������������������������172 Summary�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������172 Middle Islamic��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������172 Previous Archaeological Conclusion (Level 1)������������������������������������������������������������������������������172 Wadi Andam Survey Conclusion (Levels 4–6)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������172 Local Area Conclusion (Level 3)����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������173 Regional and Sub-Regional Level Conclusion (Levels 1–2)����������������������������������������������������������173 Summary�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������173 Late Islamic–Recent�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������173 Previous Archaeological Conclusion (Level 1)������������������������������������������������������������������������������173 Wadi Andam Survey Conclusion (Levels 4–5)��������������������������������������������������������������������������������174 Local Area Conclusion (Level 3)����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������174 Regional and Sub-Regional Level Conclusion (Levels 1–2)����������������������������������������������������������174 Summary�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������174 Conclusion��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������175 Main Contributions �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������175 Wadi Villages����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������175 Quantified Analysis of Settlement Trends ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������175 Nomadic and Sedentary Occupation����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������176 v

Recommendations for Further Work ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������177 Wadi Andam �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������177 Other Regions ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������177 APPENDIX A SITES GAZETTEER�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������178 APPENDIX B SITES/FEATURES TYPOLOGY��������������������������������������������������������������������������������216 APPENDIX C POTTERY CLASSIFICATION������������������������������������������������������������������������������������229 APPENDIX D SITES TRANSLITERATION���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������284 APPENDIX E OTHER FINDS DESCRIPTION����������������������������������������������������������������������������������290 APPENDIX F CHI-SQUARED TEST���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������295 BIBLIOGRAPHY������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������297

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List of Figures Fig. 1: Location of the Oman Peninsula in Arabia Fig. 2: The study area Fig. 3: Total number of recorded sites by period from Adams (1981) Fig. 4: General view of the high rocky hills surrounding Wadi Andam Fig. 5: General view of the high rocky hills surrounding Wadi Andam Fig. 6: General view of the low rocky hills and the flat wadi bed along Wadi Andam Fig. 7: General view from the low rocky hills showing the flat wadi bed and wadi villages along Wadi Andam Fig. 8: General view of the flat wadi bed and wadi villages along Wadi Andam Fig. 9: The daily minimum temperatures by month at six locations in the northern Oman Peninsula Fig. 10: The daily maximum temperatures by month at six locations in the northern Oman Peninsula Fig. 11: The total rainfall (mm) by month at six locations in the northern Oman Peninsula Fig. 12: The major copper deposits and metallurgical sites of southeastern Arabia and 3rd millennium BC settlements Fig. 13: The six defined sub-regions within the northern Oman Peninsula Fig. 14: The survey transect and the location of surveyed areas Fig. 15: Levels of survey: regional and sub-regional, local area, Wadi Andam, and individual site Fig. 16: The “cycle” of wadi agriculture Fig. 17: Pottery Collection Areas (PCAs) in the wadi village of ar-Rawdah Fig. 18: Hypothetical example indicating the relationship between PCAs and the two types of OVAs Fig. 19: Hypothetical example indicating how areas were defined and numbered according to PCAs and the two types of OVAs shown in Fig. 18 Fig. 20: Percentages of the total number of pre-Islamic and Islamic sherds collected from the whole survey Fig. 21: Percentages of the total number of sherds collected from each of the survey areas Fig. 22: Total number of sherds by period from the entire surveyed area Fig. 23: Sherd counts by period from all six surveyed villages, including PCAs and OVAs Fig. 24: Pre-Islamic sherd counts from all six surveyed villages, including PCAs and OVAs Fig. 25: Percentages of the total pre-Islamic and Islamic sherds from all six surveyed villages Fig. 26: Sherd counts by period only from the PCAs in all six surveyed villages Fig. 27: Total number of sherds of the pre- and Early Islamic periods only from the PCAs Fig. 28: Sherd count by period from OVAs Fig. 29: Sherd count for the Pre- and Early Islamic periods from OVAs Fig. 30: Comparison of the total number of pre-Islamic sherds between PCAs and OVAs Fig. 31: Sherds count by period from all sites at the UWA Fig. 32: Hafit survey areas with the approximate number of plotted cairns Fig. 33: Hafit survey areas with the approximate density of plotted cairns Fig. 34: Black Hafit cairn at the entrance of Al-Qaryatain village Fig. 35: Burial chamber with possible jammed entrance at one of the disturbed Hafit cairns at site CS.2.47 Fig. 36: Disturbed Hafit cairn at site CS.2.47 Fig. 37: Hafit cairn with white creamy soil at al-Khashbah site CS.5.13 Fig. 38 Location of possible platforms near Hafit cairns Fig. 39: Stone square and rectangular alignments of possible platform around Hafit cairns at site CS.5.15 Fig. 40: Rectangular stone alignment of possible platform close to Hafit cairn with white creamy soil at site CS.5.15 Fig. 41: Possible worked flint tool found at Site CS.1.2 north of al-Khurais Fig. 42: Flint arrowhead found within a disturbed re-used Hafit cairn at site CS.2.69.1 Fig. 43: Two worked flint pieces found at Site CS.2.69.2. Fig. 44: Distribution of Beehive tombs located during the survey Fig. 45: Location and density of Beehive tombs mapped during the survey Fig. 46: Beehive tomb with its eastern-oriented entrance from the al-Fulayj area, site CS.1.1 Fig. 47: Burial chamber of a Beehive tomb at site CS.2.42 Fig. 48: Distribution of Umm an-Nar sites and their archaeological features recorded during the survey Fig. 49: Sketch plan of the village of al-Khashbah (CS.5) and its associated archaeological sites Fig. 50: CS.5.2.1: large Umm an-Nar square tower

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Fig. 51: Umm an-Nar square tower at site CS.5.2.1 built with large boulder blocks and preserved to a substanial height Fig. 52: Rock drawings on the blocks of the large Umm an-Nar square tower at site CS.5.2.1 Fig. 53: Site CS.5.2.2: Umm an-Nar semi-square tower with four round corners Fig. 54: Site CS.5.2.3: Umm an-Nar round tower Fig. 55: Site CS.5.7: a badly disturbed Umm an-Nar tower Fig. 56: Umm an-Nar tomb with its concentric walls and burial chamber divided walls at the tomb field in site CS.5.4 Fig. 57: Topographic plan of site CS.2.52 and its archaeological remains Fig. 58: Site CS.2.52.1: a large Umm an-Nar round tower Fig. 59: The stone walls of the large Umm an-Nar round tower at Site CS.2.52.1 Fig. 60: Umm an-Nar rectangular stone structure within the L.I.A/Samad-type tombs at Site CS.2.52.3 Fig. 61: Site CS.2.52.4: an Umm a-Nar tomb field Fig. 62: Umm an-Nar rectangular stone structure at Site CS.2.52.5 Fig. 63: Fragment of Umm an-Nar chlorite vessel from Site CS.2.52.4 Fig. 64: Fragments of chlorite bowls from different sites Fig. 65: Sketch plan for Site CS.2.69 and its archaeological features Fig. 66: Hafit cairns with white creamy soil at CS.2.69.1 Fig. 67: Site CS.2.69.2: possible Umm an-Nar round tower with stone walls Fig. 68: Shell from site CS.2.69.1, Tomb 3 Fig. 69: A group of grave goods from different sites Fig. 70: Mudbrick building remains on top of a black rocky hill at site CS.9.2.1 Fig. 71: Distribution of Wadi Suq sites recorded during the survey Fig. 72: Possibly long oval subterranean Wadi Suq tomb at site CS.7.2 in Barzaman Fig. 73: Site CS.2.4: a disturbed cairn with concentric walls Fig. 74: Spindle-whorl and a fragment of chlorite vessel from Site CS.2.4 Fig. 75: Beads from several different sites Fig. 76: Badly eroded copper pin from Site CS.2.4 Fig. 77: Sketch plan for Site Khuwisi CS.2.11 and its archaeological features Fig. 78: Circular stone structure with double stones wall at site CS.2.11 Fig. 79: Remains of stone structures at site CS.2.11 Fig. 80: Hafit cairn tombs with white creamy soil at site CS.2.56.2 Fig. 81: Distribution of Early Iron Age sites and their archaeological features recorded during the survey Fig. 82: Fine painted Early Iron Age pottery sherds with a dusky red painted decoration on both sides Fig. 83: Fine painted E.I.A pottery sherd of a small bowl with a dusky red painted decoration on both sides Fig. 84: Fragment of chlorite vessel from possibly re-used Hafit cairn at site CS.4.3 at al-Qaryatain Fig. 85: Disturbed tomb of possibly re-used Hafit Cairn with white creamy soil at site CS.4.13 at al-Qaryatain Fig. 86: Beads from a possibly re-used Hafit cairn with white creamy soil (CS.4.13, Tomb 8) at al-Qaryatain Fig. 87: Two shells from CS.4.13, Tomb 9 (W.D.22) and CS.2.67.17 (W.D.25) Fig. 88: Chlorite perforated spindle-whorl from CS.4.13, Tomb 1 Fig. 89: Beads from different sites Fig. 90: Iron/copper earning from CS.5.10, Tomb 2 Fig. 91: A possibly re-used Hafit cairns with white creamy soil at site CS.5.13 in al-Khashbah Fig. 92: Beads from site CS.5.13, Tomb 2 Fig. 93: A possibly collapsed Beehive tomb at site CS.2.67 Fig. 94: Early Iron Age spouted chlorite bowl from site CS.2.67, Tomb 9 Fig. 95: A spouted chlorite bowl from site CS.2.67.9 Fig. 96: Two Iron Age fragments of chlorite vessels from site CS.2.67.9 Fig. 97: Distribution of Late Iron Age/Samad sites recorded during the survey Fig. 98: Sketch plan of site CS.2.50 and its archaeological features Fig. 99: Section plan of one of the excavated tombs at CS.2.50.1 Fig. 100: Examples of the pottery jars found within the excavated tombs at CS.2.50.1 Fig. 101: Mahleya-type tomb before excavation at site CS.2.50.1 Fig. 102: Covering slabs of one of the excavated tombs at Mahleya site CS.2.50.1 Fig. 103: Burial chamber of Mahleya Type tomb after excavation at site CS.2.50.1 Fig. 104: Sketch plan of site CS.2.51 and its archaeological features Fig. 105: Late Iron Age/Samad Mahleya-type tomb at site CS.2.51.2 Fig. 106: Remains of stone structures on the edge and slope of Wadi Mahram at site CS.2.51.6 Fig. 107: General view of site CS.2.43 shows the old agricultural fields, and part of the Umm an-Nar tomb field Fig. 108: Umm an-Nar tomb at site CS.2.43.2

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Fig. 109: Umm an-Nar tomb at site CS.2.43.2 Fig. 110: Remains of a square stone structures at site CS.2.20 Fig. 111: Semi-oval stone structure at site CS.2.57 Fig. 112: Rectangular stone structure at site CS.2.57 Fig. 113: Umm an-Nar and Late Iron Age/Samad wadi villages and adjacent settlement sites Fig. 114: Other Umm an-Nar and Late Iron Age/Samad settlement sites away from wadi villages Fig. 115: Distribution of possible Sasan–E.Islamic sites recorded during the survey Fig. 116: Possible Early Islamic Green-glazed pottery Fig. 117: Distribution of Middle Islamic sites recorded during the survey Fig. 118: Collection of Middle Islamic Sgraffiato pottery sherds Fig. 119: Mudbrick-stone structures at site CS.3.5.1 Fig. 120: Slag concentration at site CS.3.7.2 Fig. 121: Rectangular stone structure at site CS.3.7.3 Fig. 122: Stone structures on a black rocky hill at site CS.4.12.1 Fig. 123: Old agricultural fields at site CS.2.62 Fig. 124: Islamic cemetery at site CS.2.62 Fig. 125: Distribution of Late Islamic sites recorded during the survey Fig. 126: Falaj channel at site CS.5.8 Fig. 127: Falaj channel covered with yellow limestone slabs at site CS.5.8 Fig. 128: Distribution of recent sites recorded during the survey Fig. 129: Al-Qaryatain old quarter (CS.4.1.1) Fig. 130: Ruins of fortifications at ar-Rawdhah village Fig. 131: ar-Rawdhah main resorted fort Fig. 132: Defined local area within and around Wadi Andam Survey study area Fig 133: Percentage of the total number of sites, by period, recorded by the Harvard Archaeological Expedition Fig. 134: Total number of settlements against tombs recorded by the Harvard Project Fig. 135: Percentage of sites by period recorded during the British Archaeological Expedition Fig. 136: Total number of settlement and tomb sites recorded by the British Archaeological Expedition Fig. 137: Percentage of sites by period recorded by the German Archaeological Mission Fig. 138: Total number of settlements against tombs recorded by the German Archaeological Mission Fig. 139: Percentage of the total sites by period recorded by the al-Hajar Project Fig. 140: Total number of settlements against tombs recorded by al-Hajar Project Fig. 141: Total number of sites recorded by other surveys Fig. 142: The three project phases carried out by the Omani–German Survey Fig. 143: Total number of recorded sites by the Omani–German project by period and area Fig. 144: Percentage of the total number of sites by period recorded by the Omani–German Project Fig. 145: Total number of settlements and tombs recorded by the Omani–German Project Fig. 146: Total number of sites recorded by each survey according to period Fig. 147: Percentages of the total number of pre-Islamic, Islamic and undated sites recorded by all the survey projects Fig. 148: Total recorded number of settlement and tomb sites by period from all the previous surveys Fig. 149: Percentages of the total number of settlement sites by period recorded by each main project Fig. 150: Percentages of the total number of tomb sites by period recorded by each main project Fig. 151: Defined sub-regions for the purpose of the ‘regional database’ analysis Fig. 152: Relationship between the three tables within the ‘regional database’ Fig. 153: Total percentage of sites recorded in the whole ‘regional database’ by period Fig. 154: Pie chart showing percentages of the total number of pre-Islamic, Islamic and undated sites Fig. 155: Percentage of undated different types of sites recorded on the database Fig. 156: Total percentage and numbers of sites of each sub-region by period Fig. 157: Level of activity between the Late Stone Age and Hafit periods Fig. 158: Level of activity between the Hafit and Umm an-Nar periods Fig. 159: Level of activity during the Umm an-Nar and Wadi Suq periods Fig. 160: Level of activity between Wadi Suq and Iron Age Fig. 161: Level of activity during the Iron Age and Hellenistic–Parthian periods Fig. 162: Level of activity during the between the Hellenistic–Parthian and Sasanian–Early Islamic periods Fig. 163: Level of activity between Sasanian–Early Islamic and Middle Islamic periods Fig. 164: Level of activity between the Middle and Late Islamic–Recent Fig. 165: Percentage of the total area (km2) contributed by each sub-region Fig. 166: Percentage of total number of sites within each sub-region Fig. 167: Density of sites per km2 in each sub-region

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Fig. 168: Total percentage of settlement and tomb sites by period Fig. 169: Ratio of settlements to tombs for each sub-region by period Fig. 170: The main Hafit and Umm an-Nar sites and the trade routes Fig. 171: Recorded sites in and around the village of al-Fulayj (CS.1) Fig. 172: Stone structures at al-Fulayj site CS.1.4 Fig. 173: Hafit cairn on the tomb field at al-Fulayj site CS.1.4 Fig. 174: Sketch plan of the village of al-Fulayj CS.1.5 Fig. 175: Recorded sites in and around the village of al-Khurais (CS.3) Fig. 176: Sketch plan of the village of al-Khurais CS.3.1 Fig. 177: Shells from CS.3.8, Tomb 1 Fig. 178: General view of al-Qaryatain Village along the Wadi Qant Fig. 179: Recorded sites in and around the village of al-Qaryatain (CS.4) Fig. 180: Sketch plan of the village of al-Qaryatain CS.4.1 Fig. 181: Large Hafit cairn with white creamy soil at al-Qaryatain site CS.4.9 Fig. 182: Part of the burial chamber of the above large Hafit cairn with white creamy soil at al-Qaryatain site CS.4.9 Fig. 183: Recorded sites in and around the village of al-Khashbah (CS.5) Fig. 184: Recorded sites in and around the village of Barzaman (CS.7) Fig. 185: Sketch plan of Barzaman CS.7.1 Fig. 186: Barasti structures at Barzaman, CS.7.1 Fig. 187: Recorded sites in and around the village of ar-Rawdhah (CS.9) Fig. 188: Sketch plan of ar-Rawdhah CS.9 Fig. 189: Recorded sites along Upper Wadi Andam (CS.2) Fig. 190: Pre-Islamic tomb from the tomb field at Rubkah site CS.2.1 Fig. 191: Pre-Islamic tomb from the tomb field at Rubkah site CS.2.1 Fig. 192: Sketch plan of Rubkah CS.2.24 Fig. 193: Remains of fortified site built on a high rocky hill at Mahleya site CS.2.40 Fig. 194: Stone structures with possible chicken house (black arrow) at Al-Ghoryeen site CS.2.49 Fig. 195: Fragment of chlorite grinding stone from Mahleya site CS.2.51.1 Fig. 196: Shells from different sites Fig. 197: Three fragments of green glass from Mahleya site CS.2.51.8, Tomb 4 Fig. 198: Fragment of green glass bracelet from Mahleya site CS.2.51.8, Tomb 6 Fig. 199: Fragment of green glass bracelet from Mahleya site CS.2.51.8, Tomb 6 Fig. 200: Sketch plan of Mahleya CS.2.55 Fig. 201: General view of site Mahleya CS.2.55 and its archeological features Fig. 202: Square structure at site Mahleya CS.2.55.1 Fig. 203: General view of the old agriculture works and fields with stone structures at site Mahleya CS.2.55.2 Fig. 204: Old agricultural works and fields at site Mahleya CS.2.55.2 Fig. 205: Old quarter at site Mahleya CS.2.55.4 Fig. 206: A house at Mahleya’s old quarter , site CS.2.55.4 Fig. 207: Stone structures at Al-Ghoryeen site CS.2.60 Fig. 208: Shells from Al-Ghoryeen site CS.2.63 Fig. 209: Stone structures from Al-Ghoryeen site CS.2.64 Fig. 210: Umm an-Nar vessel bases: UMFW (A, D, E), UMGCCW (B, K, M), UMFGW (C), UMCGW (F-I) & UMTFRW (J, L) Fig. 211: Umm an-Nar body sherds: UMHFRW (A), UMPGW (B, C, F), UMFRPW (D) & UMFBPW (E) Fig. 212: Umm an-Nar vessel rims: UMFBPW (A), UMRYW (B), UMCW (C), UMTGW (D) & UMPGW (E, F) Fig. 213: Umm an-Nar vessel rims: UMPGW (A-B) Fig. 214: Umm an-Nar body sherds with painted decoration: UMPGW (A-C) Fig. 215: Umm an-Nar rim sherds: UMFRPW (A) & UMFBPW (B-I) Fig. 216: Umm an-Nar rim sherds: UMFRPW (A-G) Fig. 217: Umm an-Nar rim sherds: UMFBPW (A-G) Fig. 218: Umm an-Nar vessel bases: UMHFRW (A), UMRYW (B, D, E), UMCW (C), & UMFBPW (F) Fig. 219: Umm an-Nar vessel rims: UMFBPW (A-J) Fig. 220: Umm an-Nar vessel rims: UMFBPW (A-E) Fig. 221: Umm an-Nar pierced lugs: UMTFRW (A-B) Fig. 222: Umm an-Nar vessel bases: UMRYW (A-E) Fig. 223: Umm an-Nar vessel rims: UMFW (A), UMGCCW (B, G), UMFGW (C), UMCW (D), UMTFRW (E, H, I) & UMCGW (F) Fig. 224: Wadi Suq vessel bases: RYWS (A-B)

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Fig. 225: Wadi Suq bases: RYWS (A-B) Fig. 226: Wadi Suq rims: RPWS (A-B) Fig. 227: Early Iron Age vessel rims: FPEIA (A-D), VPBEIA (E), PEIA (F) & BREIA (G) Fig. 228: Early Iron Age vessel rims: THFEIA (A, C), LFEIA (B), CEIA (D, F) & VTCEIA (E) Fig. 229: Early Iron Age vessel bases: LFEIA (A), RLEIA (B), TREIA (C), FPEIA (D) & PEIA (E) Fig. 230: Early Iron Age rims: GMCEIA (A) & LFEIA (B-F) Fig. 231: Early Iron Age perforated spout (A) & pierced lug (B): LFEIA Fig. 232: Early Iron Age vessel bases: THFEIA (A), RYEIA (B), GSCEIA (C), RFEIA (D) & PEIA (E-H) Fig. 233: Early Iron Age rim with incised decoration: THFEIA Fig. 234: Early Iron Age body sherds: FPEIA (A-B), GSCEIA (C) & PEIA (D) Fig. 235: Early Iron Age vessel rims: VTCEIA (A), PEIA (B, C, E) & FPEIA (D, F, G) Fig. 236: Early Iron Age painted sherds: FPEIA (A-D) Fig. 237: Early Iron Age painted sherds: FPEIA (A-D) Fig. 238: Early Iron Age pierced lug: TREIA Fig. 239: Early Iron Age incised and projected decoration: GSCEIA (A-F) Fig. 240: Early Iron Age sherd with snake appliqué (A) & parts of bases (B-C): GSCEIA Fig. 241: Early Iron Age vessel bases: RBCEIA (A), CEIA (B-C), HFEIA (D) & GMCEIA (E-F) Fig. 242: Late Iron Age vessel rims: LGCLIA (A-F) Fig. 243: Late Iron Age/Samad vessel rim with incised wavy line decoration: LGCLIA Fig. 244: Late Iron Age/Samad body sherd with incised and projected decoration like the sun-flower: LGCLIA Fig. 245: Late Iron Age vessel bases: CLIA (A, C, D, G-I), CRYLIR (B, E) & TCLIA (F) Fig. 246: Late Iron Age body sherds: TCLIA (A-B) & CLIA (C-H) Fig. 247: Late Iron Age vessel rims: CLIA (A-D, F, H) & TCLIA (E, G) Fig. 248: Late Iron Age vessel rims: CLIA (A, C-E) & TCLIA (B) Fig. 249: Late Iron Age vessel bases: CLIA (A, C, E, G, I), TCLIA (B, D, F) & DGCLIA (H) Fig. 250: Late Iron Age/Samad vessel rims with nail print or pitted decoration: CLIA (A-B) Fig. 251: Late Iron Age/Samad body sherd (A) and part of handle or knob with dot and circle decoration (B): CLIA Fig. 252: Late Iron Age/Samad broken rim with incised or pitted decoration (A) and body sherd with dot and circle decoration (B): CLIA Fig. 253: Late Iron Age/Samad body sherds with incised and pitted decoration: CLIA (A-D) Fig. 254: Late Iron Age/Samad vessel rims: TCLIA (A-F) Fig. 255: Pottery sherds of possibly Early Islamic: GGEI (A-D) Fig. 256: Middle Islamic Nabhani ware NMIW Fig. 257: Middle Islamic Nabhani ware NMIW Fig. 258: Middle Islamic vessel bases: GWMI (A-B), SGRF (C) & YCWMI (D); and body sherds: GWMI (E-G, K) & SGRF (H-J, L) Fig. 259: Middle Islamic vessel rims: CMI (A-F) Fig. 260: Middle Islamic vessel bases: CMI (A-J) Fig. 261: Body sherds of Middle Islamic Sgraffiato ware SGRF Fig. 262: Body sherds of Middle Islamic Sgraffiato ware SGRF Fig. 263: Example of Late Islamic Combed ware Fig. 264: Chinese Blue-and-White Late Islamic bowl rims and bases (A-G) Fig. 265: Example of Late Islamic Chinese Blue-and-White Porcelain Fig. 266: Bahla Late Islamic vessel rims (A-D) Fig. 267: Bahla Late Islamic vessel bases (A-H) Fig. 268: Example of Late Islamic Bahla Ware Fig. 269: Example of Late Islamic Blue Bahla Ware Fig. 270: Example of Recent European Porcelain

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List of Tables Table 1: Important terms and abbreviations used in this publication Table 2: Proposed chronology for the Oman Peninsula adopted for the evidence from the Wadi Andam Survey Table 3: Proposed chronology for the Oman Peninsula adopted in the discussion of the levels of activity in Chapters Five and Six Table 4: Proposed chronology of the Hafit period and the related evidence Table 5: Chronological terms used by Cleuziou for the Bronze Age based on his work at Hili and Ras alJinz Table 6: Proposed chronology of the Umm an-Nar period and the related evidence Table 7: Proposed chronology of the Wadi Suq period and the related evidence Table 8: Relative periodization of Tell Abraq, Rumeilah, Shimal and Kalba 4 Table 9: Proposed chronology of the Iron Age and the related evidence Table 10: Proposed chronology of the Hellenistic–Parthian period and the related evidence Table 11: Proposed chronology of the Samad period and the related evidence Table 12: Comparative chronology for the Iron Age/Hellenistic–Parthian Periods Table 13: Rough plan of the different levels of investigation and survey and the type of evidence and approach that has been used Table 14: Total number of pre-Islamic and Islamic sherds collected from the whole survey Table 15: Total number of sherds collected from each of the survey areas Table 16: Total number of pre-Islamic and Islamic sherds from all the six surveyed villages, inclduing both PCAs and OVAs Table 17: Sherd counts by period from all six surveyed villages, including both PCAs and OVAs Table 18: Sherd counts by period only from the PCAs Table 19: Comparison between the total number and percentage of pre-Islamic sherds between PCAs and OVAs Table 20: Sherd count by period from only OVAs Table 21: Percentages and number of sherds by period from PCAs and OVAs including tombs and ‘other structures’ Table 22: All pottery by period from the main sites in the UWA Table 23: Total number and percentage of sherds by period from all the UWA areas Table 24: Location and number of Hafit cairns by area Table 25: Location and number of Beehive tombs located during the survey Table 26: Characteristics of Hafit and Beehive tombs Table 27: Summary of the level of activity Table 28: Number and percentage of settlements against tombs recorded by the Harvard Project Table 29: Total number of settlement and tomb sites recorded by the British Archaeological Expedition Table 30: Total number and percentage of settlements against tombs recorded by the German Archaeological Mission Table 31: Total number of settlements against tombs recorded by al-Hajar Project Table 32: Number and Percentage of sites by period from each of the surveyed areas by the Omani–German Project Table 33: Number and percentages of settlements and tombs recorded by the Omani–German Project Table 34: Characteristics of levels of activity, by period, from the surveyed areas by the Omani-German Project Table 35: Total number and percentage of sites, by period, recorded by each project Table 36: Total number of pre-Islamic, Islamic and undated sites recorded by all the survey projects Table 37: Total recorded number of settlement and tomb sites by period from all the previous surveys Table 38: Total number of settlement sites by period recorded by each main project Table 39: Total number of tomb sites by period recorded by each main project Table 40: Six defined sub-regions and their total area within the northern Oman Peninsula Table 41: Physical structure of the Site table as it appears in its ‘Design View’ Table 42: Types of sites recorded within the ‘regional database’ with their codes and description Table 43: Example of a recorded site within the Site table Table 44: Physical structure of the Location table as it appears in its ‘Design View’ Table 45: Example of a recorded site within the Location table Table 46: Physical structure of the Survey Project table as it appears in its ‘Design View’ Table 47: Example of a recorded site within the Survey Project table Table 48: Total number of pre-Islamic, Islamic and undated sites Table 49: Comparison of trends between the Wadi Andam Survey and the wider regional area Table 50: Total number and percentage of sites by period and sub-region Table 51: Summary of the trends in site numbers within each sub-region by period Table 52: Total area (in km2) of each sub-region

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Table 53: Total number of sites within each sub-region Table 54: Density of sites per km2 in each sub-region Table 55: Total number of sites by type and period Table 56: Total number and percentage of settlement and tomb sites by period

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Preface “Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula: a multi-tiered approach to the analysis of long-term settlement trends” is the title of this book. It represents the core of a two volume PhD thesis written by the author and submitted to the Department of Archaeology at Durham University in May 2008. The aim idea of this study is to examine, quantify and critically assess the settlement history of the northern Oman Peninsula from the Hafit period (late 4th/early 3rd millennium BC) to recent times. Many archaeological surveys have been undertaken in the region, but few of them have attempted to provide quantified settlement data. Their results are good in mapping settlement and in providing descriptive information, and when these results are combined it is possible to obtain a rough and sketchy picture of longer-term regional trends in the growth and decline of settlement intensity. However, the datasets that they provide are not quantifiable. This study attempts to achieve its aims by taking a multi-tiered approach to survey and settlement analysis. At the broadest level it examines sites known from the published literature from the whole of the northern peninsula and uses this information in a quantitative and qualitative way to look at broad regional and sub-regional trends. At the next level it takes a ‘local’ perspective, looking in greater detail at the results of published field surveys carried out within a defined study area in order to provide insight into localised patterns of development. At the next level it uses the results of extensive fieldwork carried out by the author in a single wadi system - Wadi Andam - to produce quantified settlement and funerary evidence at a macro level by utilising a methodology specifically designed for the task and this specific region. At the most detailed level, it examines the organisation and layout of a number of individual sites in order to provide insight into the social structure of the societies that inhabited this area. The conclusion attempts to integrate the data gathered at each level of survey into a coherent narrative outlining the longue durée development of settlement in the northern Oman Peninsula. While carrying out this study, a great many colleagues, institutions, friends, relatives and others too numerous to mention have provided their help and advice. Without their invaluable assistance, support and encouragement this study could not have been completed. Here, I wish to extend my appreciation to them. Particular thanks go to Dr Derek Kennet to whom I wish to express my deep appreciation of his priceless and tireless guidance, support and encouragement, as well as his useful comments and suggestions on drafting these chapters. I am, and always will be, indebted to him not only for his professionalism and academic contribution, but also for his friendship. I would like also to thank Prof. Graham Philip and Prof. Tony Wilkinson who made numerous invaluable comments on the first draft of my work, which have served to develop the different arguments within the book. A special thanks goes to Mr. William Deadman for editing the final version of this work; I am greatly indebted to him. I would like to express my gratitude to a number of organizations and staff, some anonymous, for their contribution. I am particularly grateful to the Sultan Qaboos University, the Historical Association of Oman and the Society for Arabian Studies in London who jointly funded my fieldwork. Very specific and sincere thanks go to Dr Jürgen Schreiber who offered me his invaluable assistance in identifying most of the Wadi Andam Survey pottery, without which this study would not have been possible. I would like also to thank Dr Christian Velde and Dr Peter Magee who also provided help and comments regarding the ceramics. I have also to extend my thanks to a great many colleagues. Their advice has always been appreciated. To all of them I would like to express my deep gratitude for their help, kindness and understanding which has made this study academically rewarding. A very special note of thanks must be extended to my friends: Nasser Al-Hanaei for his expert help in drawing the finds and maps, and Yaqoob Al-Rahbi for photographing the finds, as well as for helping in providing other information when it was needed. A word of thanks should also go to Mr John Martin for his help and most enjoyable company during the first season of xiv

fieldwork. For his unlimited support, encouragement and friendship, I am deeply grateful to Salah Al-Masrori. Most of all, I owe particular thanks and gratitude to all my family who everything possible to help me during the years I spent away from home. My deep appreciation goes to my great parents for their patience and sacrifices. Special thanks also go to my brothers and sisters for their unlimited support and encouragement. To all of you I dedicate this work with love. Nasser Said AlJahwari Muscat, Oman September 2009

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION This chapter outlines the research aims and questions of the investigation as well as the nature and importance of the selected study area of Wadi Andam and the reasons for selecting it for detailed study. It will also summarise the current state of archaeological research in Oman and discuss the problem of quantifying settlement in Arabia.

This ambitious aim shall be achieved partly through archaeological field survey and particularly by examining the small ‘wadi villages’ – agricultural settlements with access to water that are found scattered along the banks of Wadi Andam, in the surrounding foothills and on some of the gravel terraces. The key point that underlies the approach being taken here is that topography has been a major factor in defining and dictating the location and distribution of these villages. Accordingly, the settlement pattern in the Wadi Andam survey area is tightly constrained and presents a particular set of problems and opportunities for archaeological field survey (see below). Since their foundation the wadi villages have clearly played a significant role and being primarily agricultural in nature, they constitute one of the lowest levels in the local settlement hierarchy. As such they contain important clues to the economic, social and political development of the region.

Research Aims Investigating Patterns and Long-term Trends The ultimate aim of this research is to attempt to define the settlement history of the Oman Peninsula (Fig. 1) from prehistoric to recent times.1 Covering, in particular, the northern part of the peninsula, as the south (Dhofar) is known to have a very different settlement history (cf. Costa & Kite 1984; Zarins 1994, 2001; Cleuziou & Tosi 1999). The research is intended to examine continuity and discontinuity in settlement patterns, and to investigate the landscape of ancient agricultural settlements: from the wadi watersheds in the north to the flat gravel interfluves zones in the south (Fig. 2).

To the author’s best knowledge, no concerted attempt has been made to study and survey the smaller wadi villages such as these, with most archaeological survey

Fig. 1: Location of the Oman Peninsula in Arabia   The Oman Peninsula currently includes the Sultanate of Oman and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) 1

1

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 2: The study area concentrating on larger settlements (see Chapter Five). These include, for example, the work of the OmaniGerman project in the western Hajar from Wadi Bani ‘Awf through Balad Seet and al-Hamra, Izki, Manah, Bahla and Nizwa, Ibra and the coastal site of Tiwi (cf. Ibrahim & Gaube 2000; Häser 2000 & 2003; Nagieb et al. 2004; Schreiber & Häser 2004; Schreiber 2004, 2005, 2007ab). This neglect is potentially serious as the smaller wadi villages may represent an aspect of settlement history that is not reflected in larger settlements. In contrast, this research pays particular attention to this aspect of the settlement record. Especially in order to establish whether the history of the small wadi villages is comparable to

that of the larger ones, and to answer questions related to changes through time in the way that they have been settled. It is hoped that an understanding of these changes will help us to grasp settlement development over time and show how people adapted to their environment. Continuity or discontinuity of occupation in a specific locality can be understood through various means within archaeological survey. It can show whether or not there was a period of expansion or decline within a specific settlement, and when these occured. This can assist in defining the reasons behind the development of a settlement. When numerous examples are studied 2

Introduction

Fig. 3: Total number of recorded sites by period from Adams (1981). together changes in settlement density, development and organisation over large areas and long periods of time can be elucidated to provide a crucial insight into more general economic, demographic, political and cultural change.

The concept of a ‘site’ was developed in the relatively flat, ploughed fields of Northern Europe, the Mediterranean and Mesopotamia where, for the most part, it may be easily applied. However, the concept is not universally applicable due to differences in the nature of ancient occupation, surface geography and landuse, particularly agricultural techniques. All of these may have affected the preservation and potential recovery of archaeological deposits in any number of ways.

The Problem of Quantiying Settlement in Arabia Most surveys in Europe and the Mediterranean as well as other parts of the Near East apply the systematic methodologies of fieldwalking and surface-survey sampling techniques. One of the prime objectives of an archaeological field survey is to quantify settlement in a way that allows inter-period and inter-regional comparisons to be made. To this end systematic methodologies of sampling, fieldwalking and of defining and counting sites have been developed (see discussions in Bintliff & Sbonias 1999; Francovich, Patterson & Barker 2000; Wilkinson TJ 2003). Such methodologies have led to a much clearer understanding of settlement history in many parts of the world including the Near East. For example, the seminal work of Adams in Mesopotamia (1965; 1981) has identified periods of settlement growth, decline and intensification over long periods of time, adding enormously to our understanding of the history of settlement in that region (Fig. 3).

Peculiarities of the Arabian Environment It is difficult to apply these fieldwalking techniques in the cultivated areas of the Arabian Gulf, particularly in the wadi and mountain environment of the Oman Peninsula (Kennet 2002: 154). This is because of the vast differences in the nature of the landscapes. Unlike those regions where archaeological sites may be easily defined on the surface of a flat and easily-negotiable landscape, the arid environment of the Oman Peninsula presents very few suitable locations for settlement. It is largely characterised by high, rugged mountains and rocky hills, with very steep slopes and little or no soil cover (Fig. 4-6). These are intersected by wadis which are narrow and steep in their upper reaches and broader further downstream where they are associated with flat, arid interfluves with only limited soil. Very little of this environment is suitable for agricultural settlement, being either too steep, too narrow, or lacking in soil cover or water (Satchell 1978: 201-209). Those few areas suitable for agricultural settlement are generally to be found on the banks of the larger wadis where sufficient space is present between the wadi channel and the hill slopes (Fig.

The success of these methods depend on two factors. Firstly, the use of a systematic, probabilistic approach that allows the collection of statistically valid data, and secondly, the ability of the archaeologist to define and to count ‘sites’: discreet and definable areas of archaeological scatter with a discreet and definable period of occupation. 3

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 4: General view of the high rocky hills surrounding Wadi Andam

Fig. 5: General view of the high rocky hills surrounding Wadi Andam

Fig. 6: General view of the low rocky hills and the flat wadi bed along

4

Wadi Andam

Introduction

Fig. 7: General view from the low rocky hills showing the flat wadi bed and wadi villages along

Wadi Andam

Fig. 8: General view off the flat wadi bed and wadi village along

Wadi Andam

7-8). Such places tend to have been continually occupied, obscuring earlier settlement and making the discovery of individual sites with a limited chronological span highly unlikely. Therefore, instead of the landscape presenting a broad canvas onto which a clear settlement pattern may be drawn, there are usually a very limited number of potential locations that have repeatedly occupied throughout history (see the state of the archaeological evidence in Chapter Four, Section One & Fig. 16).

various archaeologists working in Arabia but has never been satisfactorilly resolved (e.g. Wilkinson TJ 1974: 123132; Costa & Wilkinson TJ 1987: 79-88; Kennet 2002: 154). Traditional Survey Methods Besides the problem related to the nature of geography, it is important to highlight the fact that numerous surveys have been carried out in Eastern Arabia but few have been concerned with collecting quantified or quantifiable settlement data (e.g. Humphries 1974; Hastings, Humphries & Meadow 1975; de Cardi 1977; de Cardi, Collier & Doe 1976; de Cardi, Doe & Roskams 1977; Doe 1977; Weisgerber 1980, 1981; Yule & Weisgerber 1988; Orchard

This situation is replicated in many other parts of Arabia where a similar geography prevails and means that the methodologies for site survey and counting in the European and Near Eastern sense may not be applied to this region. This problem has already been noted and discussed by

5

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula & Stanger 1994, 1999; Ibrahim & Gaube 2000; Häser 2000, 2003; Schreiber 2004, 2005, 2007a-b). Instead, for the most part, they have set out to locate, explore and describe geographical areas or known settlements or to answer specific research questions.2 They often provide excellent qualitative data on settlement and, when their results are viewed collectively it is possible to gain an anecdotal picture of long-term regional trends in the growth and decline of settlement intensity. Unfortunately however, the lack of systematic, probabilistic methodologies means that such trends are unverifiable and are potentially biased and misleading. While some surveys have attempted to use methodologies that result in statistically reliable data, they are in the minority (e.g. Costa & Wilkinson TJ 1987; de Cardi, Kennet & Stocks 1994; Kennet 2002). They were set out to serve different aims and cover only a small area. In contrast, the Wadi Andam Survey covers a large area of different geographical zones, concentrating on wadi villages and their environs as well as other areas along the wadi systems. No methodology of quantifiable field survey has been established for the region, and it is this problem that shall be rectified, amongst other aims, in this investigation.

two levels will allow comparisons to be made between the archaeological trends noticed across the wider area and those documented in Wadi Andam, while taking into account differences in project methods and research aims. Comparisons between the experimental and published data will be made period by period in order to compare and contrast the datasets over time. In order to achieve these aims, a site database was created from the published material. Hafit Cairns and Beehives A prominent archaeological feature within Wadi Andam is the frequent presence of cairn graves. These cairns represent an important aspect of the occupation of the area. They do not appear to be associated with settlements and are widely spread across the area. At the time that this research was undertaken in 2008 and to the best of the author’s knowledge, no systematic survey has so far been carried out in the Oman Peninsula to examine and attempt to understand their distribution over a large area. Only a small number of examples have been excavated, and those are thinly spread across the region (see below). No single study has attempted to excavate examples from a number of different areas in order to define regional differences and similarities. Furthermore, the dating of the cairns is one of the major current problems in Omani Archaeology. Despite the problems with the cairn graves, their high numbers and good preservation make them a potentially informative archaeological dataset worthy of detailed study. Accordingly, large tracts of the landscape within Wadi Andam were chosen in which to survey for these structures, in order to produce a rough distribution map of Hafit and Beehive tombs from the northern watershed to the southern gravel flat interfluves (Fig. 2). It is hoped that by roughly mapping the location of these tombs, that their distribution and density within the landscape will provide an insight into the society that constructed them. Archaeological inferences will be made based on the Wadi Andam Survey results and published material such as the few excavated Hafit cairns in northern Oman at Jebel Hafit and the Buraimi Oasis (Frifelt 1975a; Cleuziou 1976/7); Ibri (Frifelt 1975a & 1975b); and Tawi Silaim (de Cardi, Doe & Roskams 1977; de Cardi, Bell & Starling 1979). Hopefully the amalgamation of this data will enhance our understanding of these structures, providing insight into, for example, the differences between Hafit and Beehive tombs, and their development into the subsequent Umm an-Nar tombs.

The Need for a Solution A Developed Methodology Clearly, there is a definite need for a developed quantified methodology that is capable of taking into consideration the nature and peculiarities of the Arabian landscape. Accordingly, a sample area of Wadi Andam was selected in order to develop and apply this methodology. The aim of carrying out the Wadi Andam Survey was to employ a rigorous, probabilistic sampling technique in order to collect data that is free from period bias, testable and suitable for quantified analysis in order to allow analysis of activity and settlement intensity over time. To this end, a method of large-scale surface pottery collection was developed and tested through the survey of six selected wadi village, and their environs, along the banks of Wadi Andam and its tributaries. A Broader Level of Analysis In order for this research to be fully sensical and useful archaeologically, it must be discussed with regards to its broarder academic context. The results of the Wadi Andam Survey must be compared with the findings of other surveys carried out within the northern Oman Peninsula. A number of these surveys will be reviewed and an attempt will be made to quantify their results, both at a local level, and a regional and sub-regional level. The former will concentrate on fieldwork carried out in and around Wadi Andam. The latter will include the results of all of the surveys performed in the northern Oman Peninsula. The proper contextualisation of the research within these

Scope and Research History of the Study Area The Study Area (Fig. 2) During two seasons of fieldwork lasting together almost 23 weeks the author carried out this survey of Wadi Andam in ash-Sharqyiah, the Sultanate of Oman.3 Wadi

  For full details of the current state of survey in the region and methods, see Chapter Five (Conclusion, Review of survey methodology)

  For a fuller outline of the survey and its methodology, see Chapter Four, Section One

2

3

6

Introduction Andam is one of the larger wadis that cross the ophiolite complex of the Eastern Hajar Mountains (Jebel al-Hajar al-Gharbi). This wadi stretched for hundreds of kilometres across al-Sharqiyah, passing through the principal wilaya of Mudhaybi and Sinaw (El-Mahi & Al-Jahwari 2005: 57) (Fig. 2). It passes the majority of the villages in alMudhaybi and runs into the Wadi Halfayn basin, reaching the Arabian Sea close to the Hijj area in Wilayat Mahout. Its catchment area encompasses a large mountainous zone crisscrossed by several wadi tributaries and gravel plains that have formed the basis for human settlement.

early 1970s have problematic methodologies and results in terms of their suitability in providing a quantifiable settlement history. 3 A significant amount of archaeological investigation has already been completed in northern Oman and the northern Emirates, while far less has been undertaken in the area to the south. 4 The general reconnaissance carried out at the beginning of the project suggested that Wadi Andam had great research potential, with substantial archaeological wealth.

Research History

For these reasons, it was clear that Wadi Andam is the most suitable area to carry out this research.

The first archaeological investigations undertaken in the environs of Wadi Andam took place during the early 1970s when the Harvard Archaeological Expedition carried out an approximate survey using traditional methodology with the aim of locating settlement sites, particularly those dated to the 3rd millennium BC (see Pullar 1974; Humphries 1974; Hastings, Humphries & Meadow 1975; Meadow, Humphries & Hastings 1976). Similar investigations were carried out at this time by the British Archaeological Mission (see Chapter Five and de Cardi, Collier & Doe 1976; de Cardi 1977; de Cardi, Doe & Roskams 1977; Doe 1977) as well as the German Archaeological Mission in the Samad-Maysar area of ash-Sharqyiah region some years later (see Weisgerber 1980, 1981; Yule & Weisgerber 1988; Yule & Kazenwadel 1993; Yule 1993, 2001a). The latter project focussed on recording Late Iron Age/ Samad tombs in order to understand the distribution and chronology of activity of this period in the Central Oman. It is important to note that at two of these surveys focussed principally on recording sites of a specific period and it seems likely that this will have led to a biased picture of the settlement history of the area.

Book Layout This book consists of seven chapters in which CHAPTER ONE is an introduction to the study. CHAPTER TWO provides geographical and environmental background information regarding the northern Oman Peninsula. It briefly summarises the geography, topography and geology of the peninsula and, provides a breakdown of the characteristics of the subregions delimited for the purpose of this study. CHAPTER THREE provides a detailed and inclusive period by period discussion of the archaeological chronology of the Peninsula. It presents the different periodisations and terminologies in the sequences of different sites based on their stratigraphy and the dating evidence available. The chapter establishes the chronology utilised within the study and justifies this decision. CHAPTER FOUR presents the results of the Wadi Andam Survey. It is divided into three sections in which the first will introduce the sample area, its selected units and the reasons for their selection. The survey methodology is described in detail including the strategies used to define the survey areas and record sites, and the sampling methodology specially developed for the landscape of the northern Oman Peninsula. Section two will present the research questions and results of a quantified analysis based on the pottery collected during the survey. These results will be discussed in stages, starting with the general evidence from the whole survey and then narrowing the evidence down into the specific survey areas. The final section consists of a description of the archaeological evidence recorded during the survey and will discuss the main findings and their significance. The major sites and their archaeological features will be described by period, followed by a discussion of what the evidence may tell us about human activity over time.

Why Wadi Andam? There are a number of reasons behind choosing Wadi Andam as the study area for this research. Before this decision was made at the beginning of the project, several days of general reconnaissance were undertaken and the suitability of a number of different areas within the northern Oman Peninsula were investigated, including alBatinah, the al-Hajar Mountains and the gravel fans. Wadi Andam was chosen as it was found to be the most suitable under a number of criteria: 1 The terrain is very typical of northern Oman with a cross-section of the landscape from the desert in the south to the mountains in the north. This may be defined in the following four geographical zones (Fig. 2): a Watersheds and upper wadis in the far north. b The lower wadis. c Gravel hills and broad wadis. d The gravel flat interfluves zone in the south. 2 Wadi Andam provides a wide area that has yet undergone intensive archaeological investigation. The surveys that have been carried out in this area since the

CHAPTER FIVE provides an evaluation and review of some of the previous surveys in and around Wadi Andam in order to provide a wider framework for the results of the investigation and to provide a fuller understanding of human activity over time at a broader

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Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula CHAPTER SEVEN amalgamates each tier of this research, drawing together the major conclusions that have emerged from the investigation. Firstly, the evidence from each of the three levels data collection are reviewed: the first is based on previously published and known ideas or conclusions (Level 1); the second on the Wadi Andam Survey (Levels 4–6); and the third on the quantified data from the local area within and around Wadi Andam (Level 3) and the quantified data from the whole of the northern Oman Peninsula (Levels 1–2). Comparisions will be made between the findings at each of these levels and in turn, interpretations will be offered that explain the trends that emerge from the evidence. Finally the principal conclusions of the study will be summarised and some recommendations for further work will be discussed.

level. Next, the geographical extent of the study area and the reasons behind its selection are defined and discussed. The methodology applied to define the data used in the analysis is briefly summarised. This will be followed by a chronological review of the previous surveys, starting from the oldest and ending with the most recent research. The review will include a brief description of the nature of the evidence recorded by these surveys, as well as the method used to quantification their sites and problems encountered during this process. Finally, a review of the methodologies utilised and a discussion of the reliability of the results will be presented, together with a comparison between the settlement patterns evident from these surveys and the Wadi Andam research. CHAPTER SIX attempts to define the regional and subregional levels of activity by chronological period and based on the published quantified archaeological evidence in the northern Oman Peninsula using a comprehensive site database. The geographical extent of the area and the sub-regions under study is first defined . The methodology utilised in populating the database is described, as well as its structure. The results of this analysis are presented, providing a general picture of the archaeological evidence at both regional and sub-regional levels. The relationship between area and site density is discussed.

A list of all the materials used in populating the site database and in presenting the evidence within the chapters will be provided in the bibliography. The book is also supplied with appendices and illustrative materials (maps, figures and tables). Glossary Important terms and abbreviations used throughout this test are provided in Table (1). Appendix B consists of a comprehensive list and description of all archaeological sites and features recorded during this research.

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Introduction Term CS

Description A symbol chosen to refer to the Wadi Andam Survey. It is only used for the purpose of numbering system during the recording of sites. An artificial channel dug into the ground, or on the surface, and is either open or covered. It is used to Falaj gather underground water, spring water or surface water which is carried over long distances naturally through the falaj channel by gravity alone. The water carried by the channel is used mainly for land irrigation and domestic purposes. Hafit Survey Besides the survey within the PCAs, OVAs and UWA, a survey of Hafit and Beehive tombs was carried out over a wide landscape within the study area. This was made in order to establish a rough distribution and density of these tombs (see also Chapter Four, Section Three 4.3.2). Other Structures The term here used to refer to any other types of structure other than tombs such as settlements, stone structures, villages, towers, artefact scatters, earthworks, agricultural installations, etc (see Appendix B). OVAs This refers to the ‘Other Villages Areas’ where a survey was carried out in an area of potential interest around and beyond each wadi village (see Chapter Four, Section One 4.1.2.1.5.3.2.1). Two areas were chosen for investigation within this larger area of interest: 1) a preliminary, surrounding survey was carried out on foot around each wadi village to a distance of between 1 km2 and 2 km2 in order to check for archaeological features and collect pottery that might show the extent of each village. This included checking all agricultural and land-moving activities; and 2) a survey of around 5 km2 was carried out by car and on foot in randomly selected locations away from the wadi villages (ca. 1 km-2 km away from each village) in one direction of the area of potential interest. This survey was carried out in order to check for evidence of other types of occupation and activity unrelated to the wadi villages PCAs (see below and Appendix B) like artefact scatters, fortifications, agricultural installations, workshops, any traces of occupation, etc. PCAs This refers to the ‘Pottery Collection Areas’ of the survey carried out at the six selected small wadi villages within the study area where a number of arbitrary areas were selected and divided for largescale surface pottery collection sampling, each up to about 4 hectares in size and each of which was numbered (see also Chapter Four, Section One 4.1.2.1.5.3.1). Pers.Comm. Personal Communication Site Site mentioned in the thesis could mean any archaeological feature: PCAs, tombs, settlements, structural remains, earthworks, artefacts, etc. (see Chapter Four, Section One 4.1.2.1.5.6 and Appendix B). The Northern This term is used in this thesis to refer to the northern part of the peninsula which includes the entire Oman Peninsula peninsula to the north of Dhofar. The Oman This term includes the modern countries of the Sultanate of Oman and the United Arab Emirates. Peninsula UWA This refers to the ‘Upper Wadi Andam’. This is the area of the survey along the Upper Wadi Andam (UWA) conducted in order to provide supporting evidence to that yielded by the survey from the PCAs and OVAs. This survey covers an area around 39 km by 2 km along the wadi edges and its hills and gravel terraces. All types of evidence were recorded during the survey of these areas, such as stone structures, tomb fields, villages, towers, etc. (see also Chapter Four, Section One 4.1.2.1.2.3.2.2 & Appendix B). Wadi Village A village, mainly modern, along the water courses and near the foothills, wadi banks and its gravel terraces. It consists of a water resource such as a falaj, date palm groves, a group of houses and other related buildings such as public buildings, workshops, mosques/temples, agricultural land and installations, defensive buildings and towers, etc. This is different than the term ‘oasis’ that is loosely used nowadays by many archaeologists to refer to ‘wadi village’ (see also section 1.1.1 above).

Table 1: Important terms and abbreviations used in this publication

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CHAPTER TWO GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENT

Geography

shelf deposits of the Mesozoic–age Tethys Ocean (Pease & Tchakerian 2002: 418). The sequence of this ophiolite reveals several rock units such as extruded pillow basalts, intrusive gabbro, and a lower portion composed of the upper-mantle rock peridotite (ibid: 418). The Musandam Peninsula is located in the far north of the area, which forms part of the Arabian Shelf and consists of a thick sedimentary sequence of marine carbonates that formed during the Permian times (Carter 1997a: 15). In terms of geology, this peninsula includes high cliffs and drowned valleys, and a morphology related to incipient subduction beneath the Zagros (Garzanti et al. 2003: 574).

The Oman Peninsula is located between latitudes 16°40′ and 26°20′ north at the head of Musandam and longitudes 51°50′ and 59°40′ south-east at Ra’s al-Hadd (Ministry of Information 2002/3: 36) as well as between latitudes 22o50’ and 26o 5’ north and longitudes 51° and 55°25′ east of the U.A.E (Abdul Nayeem 1999: 45) (Fig. 1). Being located north and south of the Tropic of Cancer, it is located in a hot and arid geographical area. The peninsula is surrounded by three seas: the Arabian Gulf in the north; the Sea of Oman in the north–east and the Arabian Sea in the south–east. This location means that the peninsula has a notably long coastline that extends for 3,915 km: the coastline of the Sultanate of Oman extends for 3,165 km (Ministry of National Economy: 2007), and the U.A.E’s for 750 km. This coastal strip includes several natural seaports that have been exploited over time for fishing and local and regional trade.

Deserts The Oman Peninsula boasts two major deserts: the Wahiba Sands in the east along the Arabian Sea coast and the much larger Rub’ al-Khali in the western and southwestern areas. The Wahiba Sands are situated to the southwest of the Oman Mountains at the southeastern edge of the Arabian Peninsula and cover an area of around 16,000 km2 (Preusser et al. 2005: 396). The peninsula borders the Indian Ocean where the shelf is only 80 km wide (Radies et al. 2004: 1361). It is positioned in a local subsidence area between the Oman Mountains and south in the Huqf–Jebel Ja’alan anticline (Radies et al. 2005: 112). This formation has created the Wahiba Sedimentary Basin. This Basin covers an area of 10,000 km2 filled with up to 150 m of aeolian deposits (Radies et al. 2004: 1361–1362).

Geology Geologically, the Oman Peninsula may be divided into seven different zones. The Hajar Mountains This elongated mountain range extends across the area between the Batinah Coast and the gravel fans of Central Oman. It stretches across approximately 700 km2 from the Straits of Hormuz in the far north to Ras al-Hadd in the south–east and ranges in width between 30 and 130 km (Glennie et al. 1974: 19). The Hajar Mountains are enclosed within two of the sub-regions defined in this research (see Sites’ database defined sub-regions below): the Hajar Mountains sub-region (HM) and the Musandam and Northern Emirates sub-region (MNE) where the rugged mountains of Musandam (Rous al-Jibal) rise to 1800 m (Ministry of Information 2002/3: 38). The highest peak within these Oman Mountains is Jebel Akhdar that reaches around 3000 m. The mountains’ foothills contain several oases located on gravel plains and are often bounded by sand dunes in the west and higher mountains in the east (al-Tikriti 1981: 8). These plains consist of a combination of sand, gravel, silt and clay. They are cut by a number of wadis, which deposit differing levels of gravel and sand (ibid: 8).

Geomorphologically, the Wahiba Sands are divided into two to four different physiographic units (Goudie et al. 1987; Pease et al. 1999: 236; Pease & Tchakerian 2002: 416; Radies et al. 2004: 1363; Preusser et al. 2005: 396). It is beyond of the scope of this study to present these units in detail, but they can be combined within two broad units that represent the main geomorphologic features: the Northern and Southern Wahiba Sands. The first consists of a large mega-ridge system, while the second comprises active linear and transverse dunes, nabkha fields, and sand ridges (Pease & Tchakerian 2002: 416). It is suggested that the central and northern parts of Oman, including the Wahiba Sand Sea (see below) and the surrounding wadis might be one of the main suppliers of regional dust over the Arabian Sea (Pease, Tchakerian & Tindale 1998: 478). The field data results demonstrate that the Northern and Southern Wahiba sands do not originate from the same source (Pease & Tchakerian 2002: 416). The first comprises a high composition of mafic minerals and originate from local wadis that drain from

The Hajar Mountains are likely to have started rising during the late Oligocene epoch (ca. 30 million years ago) (Carter 1997a: 15). They form an ophiolite complex resulting from the emplacement of oceanic crust and

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Geography and Environment the Hajar Mountains, while the second consists of a high composition of quartz-rich minerals originating from the Oman coast or the adjacent sabkha plains (ibid: 416).

as one goes inland where they reach around 100 m or more, particularly at Liwa (ibid: 6). Gibb and Partners (1969: 17) believe that the sand dune layer was formed during the late Holocene and Pleistocene (Post–Tertiary Deposits).

The Rub’ al-Khali Desert extends over approximately 600,000 km2 (Pease, Tchakerian & Tindale 1998: 480). The desert contains several aeolian bedform types, such as linear, transverse, crescentic and star dunes (Goudie et al. 2000: 1011). The Oman Peninsula encompasses the eastern part of the Rub’ al-Khali Desert that reaches the oasis zone along the edges of the western piedmont of the Hajar Mountains, but it extends as far as the Gulf Coast in the western and northern parts (Carter 1997a: 19). Along the coast of the U.A.E to the southeast extends an area over 240 km2 of sabkha complexes (Pease, Tchakerian & Tindale 1998: 480). The large composition of the mineral content (e.g. carbonate & quartz) demonstrates that the sand sources are mainly the ultrabasic rocks forming the ophiolitic sequence of the Oman Mountains from the acidic rocks of Iran and from the coastal zone (Goudie et al. 2000: 1011–1012).

The Batinah Coast The Batinah plain stretches almost 280 km from Muscat in the southeast to Rus al-Jibal in the northeast of the peninsula (al-Tikriti 1981: 9) and covers an undulating and approximate 25 km wide coastal strip between the Hajar Mountains and the Sea of Oman (Ministry of Information 2004/5: 20). This plain was formed over millennia from the outwash from the mountains (al-Tikriti 1981: 9). The main sources of rainfall over this coast are the air winter-streams from the Mediterranean which blows over the Arabian Gulf and the Sea of Oman (Compiler 1981: 5). The annual average of rainfall in this region varies between 76 and 100 mm (ibid: 5). Additionally, groundwater is plentiful as a result of the runoff from the mountains; accordingly the area consists of large agricultural lands that are irrigated by wells and aflaj (al-Tikriti 1981: 9).

Gravel Fans

The Eastern Coast

The transitional area between the mountains and the interior lowlands is the inner foothill and wadi region (Compiler 1981: 8). Pease and Tchakerian (2002: 418) argue that, at present, large wadi and alluvial-fans drain most of the mountain basins south onto the lowland plains. Few rainfall records are available from this region, but generally most rain falls during winter and early spring (Compiler 1981: 8).

The Oman Peninsula is bordered in the northeast by the Sea of Oman and in the southeast by the Arabian Sea. In this southeastern corner of the Oman Peninsula lies the Ja’alan region that includes a large sandy coastal plain between the Eastern Hajar Mountains and the Wahiba Sands (Hawley 1995: 73). Palaeoenvironment

This part cosnsits of flat areas with an elevation varies between 50 and 250 m. These areas are underline by soft limestone, mainly Miocene in age, with a horizontal stratication mostly uninterrupted ever since sea deposition. The graval fans area outlines an enormous pediplain partly covered by a stratum of rocky debris. A huge inland depression, known as the um as Samin sabkhah, lies to the west of the graval fans zone lies (Le Métour et al. 1995: 15-17).

Although our knowledge of the palaeoenvironment in the Oman Peninsula has recently been augmented (e.g. Burns et al. 1998 & 2001; Fleitmann et al. 2003; Radies et al. 2005; Parker et al. 2006: 465-476; Parker et al. 2006: 125-130), it is fair to say that there is still insufficient data with palaeoenvironmental research of the region still in its infancy. Lacustrine sediments available from a number of areas within the Arabian Peninsula demonstrate that the early Holocene Period is characterised by pluvial conditions (Parker et al. 2006: 465). McClure (1976: 755) suggests that there are several lake beds in the Rub’ alKhali that he has dated to the mid–Holocene Sub–Pluvial (ca. 7000–5000 BC). In the Oman Peninsula, several lake beds have also been found including at Ain al-Faidha in the Buraimi/al-Ain Oasis, in the Wadi Dhaid Mountains in Sharjah, and in the seabed of the Arabian Gulf. All of them yielded evidence datable to the mid–Holocene Period (Carter 1997a: 24–25).

Abu-Dhabi Coast Abu-Dhabi consists of around 200 islands scattered along the coast (al-Tikriti 1981: 3). The main feature of this area is the flat sabkha that extends along the coast including Sabkhat Matti in the western part of Abu-Dhabi. It comprises sand, salt and lime, and stretches inland for about 90 km (ibid: 3). Abu-Dhabi is situated within a structural depression between the Arabian Shield in the west and the Oman mountains in the east. Moreover, the majority of its islands are sandy. They were probably formed by sea withdrawal and sedimentation, and are similar in geology to the nearby sabkha. However, some islands are composed of Cambrian Volcanic Miocene deposits (ibid: 5). Around half of the Abu-Dhabi area is covered by aeolian sands dunes, which began just few kilometres away from the coast. Their elevation increases

Recent fieldwork undertaken in the Wahiba Sands and in the northeastern part of the Rub’ al-Khali (see below), have provided some insight of the palaeoclimatic conditions within the region. Sedimentalogical fieldwork in the Wahiba Sands Sea has revealed remains of invertebrate and trace fossil assemblages suggesting environmental changes influenced by the Indian Ocean Monsoon variations

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Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula during the wet Early Holocene Period (ca. 9300–5500 years ago) (Preusser, Radies & Matter 2002: 2018–2019; Radies et al. 2004: 1359). At the onset of this period, a large increase in rainfall resulted in the development of the lacustrine sediments of the Central Sand Sea (Radies et al. 2005: 109). These sediments demonstrate that there was a short-lived but permanent lake supported by a climate that provided vegetation as well as enough moisture and an adequately low temperature within this “aeoliandominated ecosystem” (ibid: 122).

from Bat in Central Oman (Carter 1997a: 25). By the end of the 3rd millennium BC, an arid period had set in, at the transition from the Umm an-Nar to Wadi Suq periods. These conditions seem to have continued during the Iron Age, and may have necessitated the introduction of the falaj system, the use of which continues to the present day (Parker et al. 2006: 474). Modern Climate The present day climate in the Oman Peninsula is typically one of very high temperatures during the summer and very low and irregular levels of rainfall, most of which falls during the winter (Carter 1997a: 23). The climate varies between areas (Fig. 9-10), but generally speaking, it is hot and humid in the coastal areas and hot and dry in the interior. The major exception being the mountain areas, such as Jebel Shams and the Saiq Plateau (Fig. 9-10) where the temperature is much cooler than at lower altitudes. Generally, the temperature during the summer is around 31–48oC (June) while being pleasantly cool in the winter at around 20–25oC (January) (Ministry of Information 2000: 24, 164).

Additional recent evidence has been recovered from two palaeolake sites in Ras al-Khaimah, in the eastern part of the Rub’ al-Khali desert (Awafi and Wahalah). These basins have yielded significant evidence of climate change over the past 10000 years, known as the Holocene Period (Parker et al. 2006: 125). Speleothems from the Oman Mountains dating from about 10,000 years to 5,500 years BP, or the Early Holocene wet period, provide evidence of increased levels of rainfall during this timeframe (Fleitmann et al. 2003: 1737–1739; Radies et al. 2005: 122). Both strands of evidence suggest that, generally speaking, there was a wet phase during the Early Holocene. However, the Awafi sediments also suggest short intervals of increased aridity at 8200, 7900 and 7600 BP (Parker et al. 2006: 472). The speleothem evidence indicates that after an intensive wet period during the Early Holocene, precipitation gradual decreased up until 2700 years BP (Radies et al. 2005: 122). The Awafi research also indicates that at the end of the mid–Holocene (ca. 5500–5200 BP) there was major aridification followed by a wet phase during the Late Holocene (ca. 5200–4200 BP), from which time aridity has increased up to the present day (Parker et al. 2006: 472–474). Thus, the evidence shows that climatic conditions could have more than adequately supported human life during the Hafit and Umm an-Nar periods. This is supported by evidence from the Rub’ al-Khali desert and

There are local variations in the levels of precipitation across the Oman Peninsula (Fig. 11). There are two main sources of the present-day rainfall over Arabia (Glennie & Singhvi 2002: 853): (1) Atlantic late-winter depressions, moving eastwards over the Mediterranean Sea, southeast to the Oman Peninsula and southwest across the Rub’ al-Khali; and (2) Humid winds of the southwest monsoon that between about July and September blows parallel to Arabia’s southeastern coastline.

Fig. 9: The daily minimum temperatures by month at six locations in the Oman Peninsula (Data for Muscat, Abu-Dhabi, Dubai and Ras alKhaimah are obtained from the World Meteorological Organization (2007), while for Sur and Saiq are obtained from World Climate-Charts 2007) northern

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Geography and Environment

Fig. 10: The daily maximum temperatures by month at six locations in the Oman Peninsula (Data for Muscat, Abu-Dhabi, Dubai and Ras alKhaimah are obtained from the World Meteorological Organization (2007), while for Sur and Saiq are obtained from World Climate-Charts 2007) northern

Fig. 11: The total rainfall (mm) by month at six locations in the northern Oman Peninsula Data for Muscat, Abu-Dhabi, Dubai and Ras al-Khaimah are obtained from the World Meteorological Organization (2007), while for Sur and Saiq are obtained from World Climate-Charts (2007)

Regional seasonal monsoons and local winds are important sources for the transport of sand sediment from wadis and the coastline to the deserts, particularly the Wahiba Sand Sea (Pease & Tchakerian 2002: 416). Sediment analysis from across the Arabian Sea indicates that the highest levels of dust were measured during the winter and spring seasons, and that its sources are India/Pakistan/Iran and the Arabian Peninsula (Pease, Tchakerian & Tindale 1998: 477). The Arabian Peninsula, particularly Oman, are the major providers of the dust in the region throughout the year (ibid: 477). In Oman, several major dust-producing areas may be defined, including the alluvial/fluvial complexes at the foot of the Hajar Mountains in northern Oman, the Wahiba Sand Sea and the Coastal Lowlands (ibid: 478)

13

.

The average level of rainfall is around 100 mm/annum (Carter 1997a: 23), while in the coastal areas, particularly the Batinah coast, the annual mean of rainfall is 80 mm (Ministry of Communications 1975: 10). However, over the Oman Mountains rainfall exceeds 200 mm (Glennie & Singhvi 2002: 853), while in years with rare winter storms the annual rainfall reaches 450 mm (Garzanti et al. 2003: 574). This often results in wadi floods. Rainfall during the summer (June–September) can also be caused by sporadic Arabian Sea cyclones. Occasionally rain does occur in July as a result of the Asiatic monsoon (al-Tikriti 1981: 10). The interior of Oman, mostly the Jebel Akhdar, is more influenced by these monsoonal cyclones. Humidity is high along the coasts of the Arabian Gulf and the Sea of Oman, while the interior is less humid (ibid: 10).

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula Water Resources

Iron Age (Wilkinson JC 1977: 122–134 & 1983: 177–194; al-Tikriti 2002a: 137 & 2002b: 67; Magee 2005b: 225– 228; Häser 2004: 417–419), and possibly even earlier from the 3rd millennium BC (Orchard & Stanger 1994: 86–87 & 1999: 96–101). The quantity of water yielded by the falaj channels varies significantly. Some might produce more than 120 litres per second, but generally, the average falaj channel ranges between 15 and 20 litres per second (Wilkinson JC 1977: 92).

The rainfall level over the Oman Peninsula is insufficient for dry agriculture. Thus several irrigation methods have been developed, benefiting from both occasional surfacewater and groundwater (Compiler 1981: 29). The region is characterised by a very high aridity, which increases the water evaporation percentage (Ministry of Communications 1975: 19). Moreover, water is absorbed as a result of the high porosity of the sediments which cover the region (Carter 1997a: 17). The combination of these factors mean that around 80% of all rainfall evaporates, 5% flows into the sea and only 15% reaches groundwater stocks (Ministry of Information 2004/5: 24). The estimated annual average of runoff water within the majority of Omani wadis is around 85 million cubic meters per wadi (Compiler 1981: 30). The bulk of this water runs off rapidly, reducing the chance of being able to make use of it for agriculture (ibid: 30). A much more considerable flow of surface-water can occur during seasons of unusually heavy rainfall (Carter 1997a: 17). In the foothills, this flood surface-water can be used for crop irrigation by diverting it to the fields (Costa 1983: 286–287), using stone barrages or gabarbands. Evidence for these structures may even date back to the 3rd millennium BC (Meadow, Humphries & Hastings 1976: 111; Weisgerber 1981: 178 & 1983: 274).

On the Batinah Coast and the Arabian Gulf, groundwater is plentiful. On the Batinah, within a short distance of the coast it is readily accessible. However, further inland, wells need to be dug to a greater depth (Carter 1997a: 21). Aflaj can be found but irrigation methods are largely based around wells. Agriculture on the northern coastal plain along the Arabian Gulf is largely centred around wells where extensive date palm plantations may be found (ibid: 22). In the desert forelands, the availability of fresh water is largely dependent on sand distribution (Compiler 1981: 34). The sandy areas are subject to rapid penetration, low capillary rise, rapid fall off of evaporation rates below the surface, and high reservoir potential (ibid: 34). Water in this region is brackish or saline, and is accumulated in a saturated zone at the base of the dune. It is estimated that the total amount of water stored within all these shallow aquifers in northern Oman may be from 6 to 7 billion cubic meters annually (ibid: 34).

In the Oman Peninsula, both agricultural and domestic life is dependant on groundwater supplies from wells and falaj systems. Several large wadis flow over the alluvial-fans coming from the mountain basins towards the lowlands in the south (Pease et al. 1999: 236; Pease & Tchakerian 2002: 418). Other wadis run out from the mountains passing the Batinah region towards the Sea of Oman where they terminate (Compiler 1981: 7). In contrast, other wadis drain inland toward the Rub’ al-Khali, and others (e.g. Halfain and Andam) run from the central and southeastern parts of the Hajar Mountains toward the southeast coast near Masirah and Ras al-Hadd (ibid: 7). The majority of these wadis store groundwater underneath their surface (Ministry of Communications 1975: 45), particularly in the gravel and silt fill, which vary in depth and quality (University of Durham 1978: 9–10 & 37–41). An approximate estimation from the Nizwa and Halfain wadis indicates between 5 and 10 million cubic meters (Compiler 1981: 33). Larger volumes of water may be found in the alluvial and piedmont plains that have a high potential for storing underground water as they consist of coarse gravels to a depth of about 100 m, overlying clayey cemented conglomerates (ibid: 33).

Flora The flora of the Oman Peninsula consists primarily of desert and semi-desert species and is largely restricted to acacia trees and bushes (al-Tikriti 1981: 15). Due to water salinity and the shift to pump irrigation, soils in many areas of the peninsula, particularly the Batinah Plain, are encountering a soil salinity problem, which adversely effects cereal cultivation as well as other crops (Ministry of Communications 1975: 180–186). Since the 4th millennium BC, the Rub’ al-Khali desert has been inhospitable with regards to human occupation. However, during times of heavy rainfall, its fringes may be used by pastoralists (Carter 1997a: 19). Due to the hyperarid climate, many desert plants are short-lived annuals. Nevertheless, small plants and flowers such as northerntype flowers (e.g. tiny wild pansies and cowslips) appear after heavy rainfall seasons (Hawley 1995: 83). Many plant species have been identified within the peninsula and described in several publications (e.g. Satchell 1978: 212–214; Compiler 1981: 56–62; Hawley 1995: 83–85). Among the most important species are: Acacia, Ziziphus, Spina-christi and Prosopis.

The region along the western extreme of the mountains, between the foothills and the desert, benefits from the terminal out-wash of wadis draining from the highlands, providing a fresh underground water-table and surfacewater during wet periods (Carter 1997a: 18). Groundwater can be reached by digging wells and aflaj channels into alluvial-fans to tap the water-table (Compiler 1981: 36). These are a major source for water in both an agricultural and domestic context, and probably have been since the

Fauna The peninsula hosts a wide variety of domestic and wild animals including mammals, avifauna (around 372 species), herpetofauna and invertebrates (Satchel

14

Geography and Environment 1978: 214–218; Compiler 1981: 67–68 & Tables 3, 5–7, Appendix VI; Hawley 1995: 85–91). Mammal species include bats, rodents, wolves and hyaenas, the red fox, the sand fox, cats, the South Arabian leopard, the Arabian tahr, the Arabian oryx, gazelles, the Nubian ibex, wild goat and Asiatic mouflon. Herpetofauna consist of reptiles, geckos, lizards, vipers, a boa, snakes and toads. Invertebrates include molluscs, moths and butterflies and mammalian ectoparasites. There are also a large number of bird species, including, in the past, the ostrich as evidenced by rock art and egg-shells found at several sites. Hawks and falcons are the most common birds (al-Tikriti 1981: 22–24). Subsistence Economy

Island (Willcox 1995: 257–259), Maysar 1 (Weisgerber 1981: 191–197), Tell Abraq (Potts 1990c: 124), Shimal (Vogt & Franke-Vogt 1987: 57–96), Bat (Brunswig 1989: 27–28), and Rumeilah (Boucharlat & Lombard 1985). Among the floral remains found at these sites are barley (e.g. Hordeum distichon, H. vulgare & H.sp), emmer (Triticum dicoccum), wheat (Triticum aestivum or Trit durum.), wild jujube (Zizyphus sp.), date-palms (Phoenix dactylifera) and Acacia or Prosopis. Moreover, they yielded other remains indicating agricultural practices, including date stones, grinding stones, a high occurrence of dental caries, a socketed bronze hoe and charred edible fruits (e.g. Zizy pluses and Ziziphus), as well as traces of ancient field and terrace garden deposits.

Agriculture

Hunting and Livestock-Herding

Agriculture is the major economic sector in most parts of the peninsula, particularly the coastal strips of the Batinah Coast, along the foothills of the Hajar Mountains and in the interior of Oman as well as some desert and gravel zones. Cultivation is entirely based on irrigation from wells and afalaj that are the main sources for irrigating date palms, vegetables and fruits (Wilkinson JC 1977: 28–31). The total area of cultivated land in Oman exceeds 61500 hectares (Ministry of Information 2002/3: 162). The crop that is cultivated the most is the date palm, of which there is a wide range of types and quality (Wilkinson JC 1977: 29). Besides the date palm, there are other vegetables and fruits cultivated in the peninsula including banana, mango, lemon, melon and tomato.

There are several areas which provide grazing lands for the herdsmen, such as those within the mountains and desert zones where shepherding and husbandry are practised. Various domestic animals were, and still are, kept by the inhabitants, including goats, sheep, cattle, chickens, horses, donkeys, camels, dogs, rabbits and poultry. These animals are either used for domestic consumption in a self-sufficient household economy or for small-scale trade or exchange. They provide meat, milk, leather, wool, oil and other products. Other animals (camels, horses and donkeys) were and are still used for carrying goods as well as riding and racing. There is also exchange between the different zones of the peninsula in which livestock is among the goods exchanged (Wilkinson JC 1977: 17). It is also known that horses were largely exported from Oman (e.g. from Qalhat, Muscat and Khor Fakkan) to India (Hawley 1995: 89). Lorimer (1908) gave a detailed account of the major domestic animals kept and raised by the inhabitants of the towns that he had visited, sheep and goats being the most numerous. Wild animals (including gazelle, tahr, oryx, ibex and hare) were to be found in several areas and were hunted, featuring as part of the local economy (Carter 1997a: 17).

The Batinah Coast is the most populated region of the peninsula and consists of fertile lands that are suitable for agriculture. The most suitable soils are those located in close proximity to the ocean in which finer alluvial particles are deposited, while the less suitable soils for agriculture are those located further up the gravel-fans which comprise coarser material (Ministry of Communications 1975: 177). This coastal strip is plentiful in groundwater and accordingly extensive date palm plantations dominate the area (Carter 1997a: 22). This is also true for the northern coastal plain on the Arabian Gulf and Eastern coasts. In the interior, agriculture is also the primary source of employment where date palms and other food and animal fodder-crops are cultivated. On the slopes of Jebel Akhdar, terraced cultivation is utilised in which peaches, apricots and walnuts are planted on the upper slopes while the lower areas are planted with dates, onions and grain crops (Lawton 1980: 10).

Several excavated sites within the peninsula have provided evidence for the exploitation of both wild and domestic animals. Additionally, evidence from rock art depicts a wide range of animals including camels, horses, gazelles, ibexes, ostriches, oryx, dogs, goats, cattle, snakes and birds. (cf. Clarke 1975a-c, Preston 1976; Jäckli 1980). Excavated sites such as Ras al-Jinz (Bökönyi 1992; Cleuziou & Tosi 2000), Ras al-Hadd (Mosseri-Marlio 2002; Martin 2002), Suwayh (Méry & Charpentier 2002), Umm an-Nar Island (Hoch 1979 & 1995), Ghanadha Island (al-Tikriti 1985: 9–19), Hili 8 (Cleuziou 1989a: 79–80), Shimal (Vogt & Franke-Vogt 1987; Franke-Vogt 1991), Tell Abraq (Potts 1990c: 124), and Rumeilah (Boucharlat & Lombard 1985: 65) have provided large assemblages of domestic and wild animal bone of various species and from a number of periods. Among the domestic animals are goats, sheep, domestic dogs, donkeys, cattle and dromedaries as well as a domestic hen from the Ras al-Jinz (RJ-2) (Cleuziou & Tosi 2000: 43). The wild animals include gazelle, asses,

Archaeologically speaking, floral remains in the peninsula are scarce and have been found in only a small number of settlement sites dating from a range of periods. The most ancient floral evidence comes from Hili 8 settlement. This yielded naked six-row barley, bread wheat, date-palms, wild oats and melon from Hafit period context (Cleuziou 1989a: 79). Other evidence for agricultural practices has been found at both coastal and inland sites such as at Ras al-Jinz (cf. Costantini & Audisio 2000), Umm an-Nar 15

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula oryx, birds, the red fox and sand fox, wolves, rodents, and pigs.

Archaeologically, there is large body of evidence for the exploitation of marine resources along the coasts of the peninsula. Several coastal settlements, both permanent and tempory, have provided evidence for the exploitation of a number of species of marine animals and shellfish. These settlements range in date from the Late Stone Age up to the Islamic period. Their economy is mainly based on marine resources including fishing, gathering marine and mangrove swamp molluscs, pearling, hunting marine mammals and turtles, sea-faring and local, regional and overseas trade. Among these excavated sites are Kalba (Carter 1997a-b), Umm an-Nar Island (Hoch 1979), Ghanadha 1 (al-Tikriti 1985: 9–19), Shimal (Vogt & Franke-Vogt 1987), Tell Abraq (Potts 2000: 59–64), Ras al-Hamra (Biagi et al. 1984; Coppa et al. 1990), Dalma Island (King 1998: 47–66), Ras al-Jinz (Cleuziou & Tosi 2000: 41–42), Ras al-Hadd (Mosseri-Marlio 2002: 197–208), Suwayh (Méry & Charpentier 2002: 189; Martin 2002: 169) and al-Hamriyah in Sharjah (Jasim

Marine Resources Fishing in some coastal parts is almost the exclusive economic activity practised by the inhabitants. It is a seasonal livelihood practised during the winter while pearling is undertaken during the summer (Wilkinson JC 1977: 19). Mangrove swamps along the Gulf coasts provide a rich environment for different species of shellfish and breeding-grounds for fish (Potts 1990a: 389). During prehistoric times, fishing in the coastal settlements was not limited to merely harvesting the animals from the sea but the catch passed through several stages such as storing, preserving, packing and shipping for trade and exchange (Cleuziou & Tosi 2000: 24). Nowadays, the fishery sector is one of the principal national industries (Human Development Report 2003: 138).

Fig. 12: The major copper deposits and metallurgical sites of

southeastern Arabia (triangles) and third millennium settlements

(small circles)

16

Geography and Environment 1996: 1). These sites yielded evidence of marine animals and shellfish remains and large quantities of shell, bone, copper and stone artifacts.

Ibri is supplied with dried and salted fish from the Batinah and south–eastern coasts of Oman. Other goods such as dates and dried limes are exported (Lorimer 1908: 679). At present, oil, gas and fish are the most important export goods.

Minerals and Other Resources At present, the natural resources of oil and gas dominate the economy of the Oman Peninsula. They are exported to countries all over the world. The Hajar Mountains contain a number of different types of rocks that have been exploited since prehistoric times. They comprise different rock units with a number of copper deposits such as those from the Semail Ophiolite and Masirah Island (Weeks 2004b: 12–14). They also consist of other natural minerals such as silver, coal, asbestos, chromites, manganese, iron ore, lead, zinc, nickel, silver, gold, phosphate, limestone, chert, jasper, chlorite/steatite, marble, limestone, gypsum, salt, tin, carnelian, timber and radiolarite (cf. Compiler 1981: 27; Weeks 2004a-b).

Surveys and excavations along the coastal strips of the Arabian Gulf, the Sea of Oman and the Arabian Sea yielded several settlements that have relied on fishing and pearling, seafaring and local, regional and overseas trade. Overseas trade was practised during prehistoric times as is evidenced by the discovery of imported finds including pottery from the neighbouring regions (e.g. Mesopotamia, Indus Valley and Iran). During the Umm an-Nar period, foreign trade of copper and steatite contributed significantly to the economic system. Exports to Mesopotamia are attested in cuneiform texts, which indicate the imported and exported goods from Magan (Weeks 2004b: 14–17). Several commodities were imported from the neighbouring countries including luxury items from India, for example a carved ivory comb or a cast copper stamp seal with an inscription in Harappan writing (Cleuziou & Tosi 2000: 41).

The Oman Peninsula has, perhaps as early as the late 4th millennium BC, exported minerals, particularly copper, to neighbouring regions including Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley, Iran, central Asia and the Central Gulf (Potts 1990a: 84–85, 1993a & 2003; Weeks 2004b). Several ancient copper mines and sites (Fig. 12) have been discovered in the peninsula’s mountains, particularly in the Wadi Jizzi (e.g. al-Sayab, Arja, Semdah Site 7, Wadi Fizh 1 & Zahra Site 1) west of Sohar and between Buraimi and Sohar (e.g. Weisgerber 1978; Costa & Wilkinson TJ 1987); and in the Samad–Maysar area (e.g. Maysar M1, M2, M16 & M49) (e.g. Weisgerber 1978, 1980, 1981, 1983). Other sites that have yielded evidence for copper are the settlements on Umm an-Nar Island (Hauptmann 1995: 246–248), Hili 8 (Cleuziou 1978/9: 36 & 1989a: 73– 74), Tell Abraq (Potts 1990a: 122), Asimah (Vogt 1994a), and others (Weeks 2004b: fig.2.2: 11). The archaeological evidence also indicates that other natural minerals have also been exploited, and possibly exported, including lead, tin, sulfur, iron, arsenic, nickel and cobalt (Weeks 2004ab); limestone which was used as a building material (for example in tombs or buildings like Umm an-Nar towers); and chlorite (vessels and ornaments), as well as tools from lint, chert, jasper and carnelian.

Sites’ Database Defined Sub-Regions (Fig. 13) After setting out the general environmental and geographical background for the whole of the northern Oman Peninsula, the following brief description examines the six sub-regions defined for the purpose of the sites’ database analysis. This facilitates the making of comparisons between different areas and allows the evidence to be interpreted appropriately. The definitions given here are not intended to be used as a standard for future research. These sub-regional distinctions have been made on the basis of similarity in landscape and environment, though there is considerable variation within each area. The following descriptions include a definition of the geographical extent of each defined sub-region. Musandam and the Northern Emirates (MNE) This sub-region covers the northern part of the peninsula from the Straits of Hormuz in the far north to Dubai in the north–west along the Arabian Gulf and Fujairah in the north–east along the Sea of Oman. It covers two main areas (1) Musandam which includes the Musandam Peninsula and the Strait of Hormuz, and which consists of mountains in the southern part which overlook the Sea of Oman to the east and the Arabian Gulf to the west; and (2) the Northern Emirates which cover an area extending from Ra’s al-Khaimah in the north to Dubai in the north–west along the Arabian Gulf, and from Daba in the north–east down to the border of Fujairah.

Trade There is significant exchange between the peninsula’s different zones (e.g. coastal, mountain and desert zones) (Wilkinson JC 1977: 17). The goods exchanged between these zones include pearls, dried fish, dried fruits and livestock (including donkeys, camels, and horses) (ibid: 17; table 7: 67). Inland settlements are supplied with dried fish and imported goods from the coastal settlements where maritime trade has always played a vital role in the economy. Lorimer (1908: 65) remarked that the Ja’afarah, a section from the tribe of Bani Bu ‘Ali, catch sharks, seerfish and other fish, and salt them for export to Sur and Makalla. Moreover, a survey carried out by the University of Durham (1978: 70) in the northern Oman showed that

The Abu-Dhabi Coast (ABDC) This sub-region covers the area which extends from Dubai in the north–east to the border between the UAE and Qatar in the north–west along the Arabian Gulf. It also covers the inland areas to the south close to the border with Saudi

17

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 13: The six defined sub- regions within the northern Oman Peninsula Arabia. The southern limits of this sub-region and its border with Saudi Arabia extend from the Umm az Zumul desert and the Liwa Oasis in the south–east to the Sabkhat Matti in the south–west. This coast also includes a group of islands.

wadis and gravel plains; (2) the whole of Jebel Akhdar and its surrounding area (known as al-Jauf), which extends from the foothills down to the fringes of the gravel plains and includes major wadi villages such as Bahla, Nizwa and Izki; and (3) the Western Hajar that covers an area which extends from Buraimi in the north to the northern foothills of the Jebel Akhdar, and includes a mountainous area that is crossed by wadis and gravel or semi-sandy plains.

The Hajar Mountains (HM) This sub-region is the backbone of the peninsula and covers an area that extends from the Buraimi Oasis in the north down to the al-Mudhaybi area in the south. It includes a large mountainous area crossed by wadis and gravel plains that have formed the basis for human settlements. This sub-region covers three main areas (1) the Eastern Hajar, covering the area which extends from the southern foothills of Jebel Akhdar to the al-Mudhaybi area in the southeast of the peninsula, which consists of a mountainous area with

The Batinah Coast (BTNC) This long coastal strip covers the area that extends from Fujairah in the north down to As-Seeb in Muscat along the Sea of Oman. This sub-region also includes parts of the inland area between the Eastern Hajar Mountains and the coast. It is characterised by a long coastal strip of agricultural land, and a high population.

18

Geography and Environment The Eastern Coast (ESC)

Central Oman (CNO)

This sub-region covers the area which extends from Muscat in the north–east along the Sea of Oman to Sawqirah in the south–west along the Arabian Sea. The northern part of this coast covers an area extending from Muscat to the fishing port of Qurayat along the Sea of Oman, while its southern part covers the area that extends from Sur to Sawqirah along the Arabian Sea. The latter part includes a vast gravel plain and wadis, particularly the area around Ja’alan.

This sub-region covers a large area that includes gravel fans and vast deserts which are located mainly within the central part of the peninsula. The gravel fans cover an area extending from southern Buraimi in the northeast to the border of the Wahiba Sands at the south–eastern corner of the peninsula. This sub-region also covers the Wahiba Sands in the east of the peninsula close to the costal strip of the Arabian Sea, and the Empty Quarter (the Rub’ alKhali), a vast harsh desert along the border of Saudi Arabia.

19

CHAPTER THREE DEFINITION OF CHRONOLOGICAL PERIODS This chapter presents the chronology of the Oman Peninsula and the periodization generally used in the literature (Tables 2–3). The evidence that forms the basis of the chronology will be briefly reviewed. A presentation of the chronology and terminology adopted within this study will be made at the end of the discussion for each period, along with an indication for why the specific chronology has been chosen. It is important to point out that the timescale presented in this study (Tables 2–3) is set out only to serve as a broad chronology for the purpose of discussion and material interpretation.

Period Hafit Umm an-Nar Wadi Suq Early Iron Age Late Iron Age/Samad Sasanian–Early Islamic Middle Islamic Late Islamic Recent

Dating 3500/3400–2500 BC 2500–2000 BC 2000–1300 BC 1300–300 BC 300 BC– 100/200 AD 100/200–900/1000 AD 900/1000–1300 AD 1300–1800 AD 1800 AD onwards

Table 2: Proposed chronology for the Oman Peninsula adopted for the evidence from the Wadi Andam Survey (Chapter Four)

Stone Age The Stone Age covers the whole Post–Pleistocene to the Bronze Age, and its start cannot be precisely established (Uerpmann 1989 & 1992). Originally the term ‘aceramic’ was used to indicate the Late Stone Age sites in the Oman Peninsula (cf. Durante & Tosi 1977; Pullar & Jäckli 1978; Pullar 1985). However, Uerpmann (1992: 67) argued that this term should be avoided due to the fact that ‘Ubaid pottery has been found in some coastal sites and their contexts dated to the Late Stone Age’. Sites from the Early Stone Age are rare while for the Late Stone Age, a number of sites have been recorded in different parts of the peninsula (see below). However, it is difficult to interpret the evidence from these sites due to the limited nature of material remains and the lack of excavations at stratified Stone Age sites in the peninsula (ibid: 66).

shell-middens. Biagi (1988b: Table 1: p. 286-290; 1994a, Table 4: p. 23) published several radiocarbon dates from some of these shell-middens, indicating that they were probably occupied during the middle of the 5th millennium BC and that their number increased around 4000 BC. At Ra’s al-Hadd and Ra’s al-Jinz, the project yielded a group of surface shell/lithic scatters (e.g. HD96, HD97, RJ–2, RJ–16, RJ–32, RJ61, RJ65, and RJ84) that were tentatively assigned to the Late Stone Age based on typological comparisons of artefacts (Charpentier 1986/7; Usai 2000). The first excavated stratified sites from the Stone Age are those in the Ra’s al-Hamra–Qurum area in Muscat. Excavations at the shell-midden of Ras al-Hamra RH5 yielded a graveyard and settlement with six different stratified layers (Layers 0 to 6) corresponding to seven settlement phases, spanning the period from the last quarter of the 5th and a larger part of the 4th millennium BC (ca. 4100–3300 BC) (Maggi et al. 1985; Santini 1987; Gaggi & Gebel 1990; Biagi 1994a; Biagi & Nisbet 1992;

Fieldwork carried out by the Joint Hadd Project along the eastern coast of Oman between Muscat in the north, and Shuwayr in the south yielded evidence of human occupation during the period from the Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age periods (from the 6th to the end of the 3rd millennium BC) as represented by several aceramic Period Stone Age

Dating Earlier than 7000 to 3500/3400 BC

Hafit Umm an-Nar Wadi Suq Iron Age

3500/3400–2500 BC 2500–2000 BC 2000–1300 BC 1300–300 BC

Hellenistic–Parthian Sasanian–Early Islamic Islamic

300 BC– 100/200 AD 100/200–900/1000 AD 1000 AD onwards

Sub-periods Early Stone Age Late Stone Age ––– ––– ––– Early Iron Age Late Iron Age ––– ––– Middle Islamic Late Islamic–Recent

Dating Earlier than 7000 BC ca. 7000–3500/3400 BC ––– ––– ––– 1300–600 BC 600–300 BC ––– ––– 900/1000–1300 AD 1300 AD onwards

Table 3: Proposed chronology for the Oman Peninsula adopted in the discussion of the levels of activity in Chapters Five and Six 20

Definition of Chronological Periods Salvatori 1996 & Usai 2005). Moreover, the shell-midden of RH6 revealed a very detailed occupational sequence dated from the mid–5th to the early 4th millennium BC (Maggi 1990; Biagi & Nisbet 1992; Biagi 1994a: 21 & 1999). Excavations at RH10 also allowed the distinction of three main periods of occupation spanning the period from the late 7th to the 2nd millennium BC (Santini 1987). Dating these sites was based on typological comparisons of lithics, ‘Ubaid pottery from RH5 and a series of radiocarbon determinations from different samples of charcoal, carbonized seeds, ashy sediments, shells and fish bones (Biagi 1994a: 18–19, Table 1). C14 dates were also obtained from other sites in the Ra’s al-Hamra such as RH3 (4th millennium BC), RH4 (5000–3000 BC) and RH7 (late7th to 6th millennium BC) (Biagi et al. 1984: 57, Table 1; IsMEO 1983: 336, Table 2; Biagi 1994a: 19, Table 2).

Late Stone Age site from Sharjah is al-Buhais 18 which yielded burial grounds and settlement features dated by C14 determinations to the 5th millennium BC and flint artefacts of the so-called ‘Arabian Bifacial Tradition (ABT)’ (5200–4000 BC) (Uerpmann, Uerpmann & Jasim 2000; Kiesewetter, Uerpmann & Jasim 2000; De Beauclair, Jasim & Uerpmann 2006). Ten C14 determinations were obtained based on ashes and charcoal from several pits and around the graveyard; the dates cluster around 4700 cal. BC and range from about 4300 to 5100 cal. BC (Uerpmann, Uerpmann & Jasim 2000: 230). Other 5th millennium BC painted ‘Ubaid pottery sherds, together with lithic artefacts, have been recovered from Jazirat al-Hamra in Ra’s al-Khaimah (Sites 1, 4, 38, 40, 43, 45, 55, 56) (Jasim 1996: 9) and possibly from Akab Island in Umm al-Qaiwain (UAE) (Jousse et al. 2002). The Abu-Dhabi Islands Archaeological Survey (ADIAS) discovered a group of important Late Stone Age sites including Rumaitha (Kallweit & Hellyer 2003), Abu-Dhabi Airport sites (Kallweit 2004), Dalma Island (Flavin & Shepherd 1994; Beech, Elders & Shepherd 2000; Beech & Glover 2005), Marawah Island (Charpentier 2004; Beech et al. 2005) and Kharimat Khor al-Manāhil (Kallweit, Beech & al-Tikriti 2005; Beech et al. 2006). Several of these sites yielded lithic artefacts attributed to the socalled ABT. At Dalma, excavations at site DA11 yielded evidence for the ‘Ubaid period represented in a settlement with structures and middens. Two radiocarbon dates from carbonized date-stones were analysed, which, together with the ‘Ubaid pottery and flint artefacts, allowed the site to be dated to a period from the late 6th to the early 5th millennium BC (Beech & Glover 2005). Excavations at the Marawah Neolithic sites yielded different microliths and lithic industries dated from the 6th to the 5th millennium BC, supported by C14 calibrated dates and the recovery of painted ‘Ubaid pottery sherds (cf. King 1998; Charpentier 2004; Beech et al. 2005). Recently, work carried out by the Abu-Dhabi Culture and Heritage Authority (ADCHA) in the area of Khor al-Manahil (KAM) and Kharimat Khor al-Manahil (KHM) north of Umm az-Zamul in the South–Eastern desert of Abu-Dhabi has revealed Neolithic settlement sites.4 The dating of these sites was based on the recovered lithic tools which belong to the so-called ABT and on the use of Optical Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) on quartz grains within the sediment (cf. Kallweit, Beech & al-Tikriti 2005; Beech et al. 2006).

Sites excavated by the Joint Hadd Project at Ras al-Hadd and al-Jinz include the settlement sites at RJ–1 dated from the 4th to the 2nd millennium BC and HD–5 dated to the 5th and 3rd millennium BC (Cleuziou & Tosi 1996). Dating these sites was based on typological comparisons of artefacts, mainly lithics. Recent excavations by this project at the flint artefacts scatter of Ash Shāb 1 (GAS1) yielded some relatively well-preserved settlement structures, a cemetery and an assemblage dated to a period from the end of the 5th to the early 4th millennium BC (Tosi & Usai 2003; Gaultier et al. 2005; Usai 2006). This dating was based on typological comparisons of artefacts, mainly lithics, and on a single C14 date of a charcoal sample from Grave 4 (GX–17881: 5,127 ± 80 BP; 2 sigma: 4250–3700 cal. BC) (Usai 2006: 275). However, another charcoal sample from a safe archaeological context suggests that the site’s occupation continued until about 3650 BC (Beta–201729: 4860 ± 70 BP; 2 sigma: 3800–3500 cal. BC) (ibid: 275). The earliest dated sites by this project in the area of Ja’alān are those excavated at Suwayh–1 and Suwayh–11 (Charpentier 1998; Méry & Charpentier 2002), which yielded dwelling structures with remains of light architectural structures, indicating the earliest structures known so far in the Oman Peninsula (6th to 5th millennia BC). Suwayh–2 also yielded round structures outlined by postholes and dated to the second half of the 4th millennium BC. These structures were comparable to similar ones from RH 5 dated to the 4th millennium BC and from Dalma dated to the 5th millennium BC. Dating these sites was also based on typological comparisons of artefacts, mainly lithics, as well as on ceramics due to the recovery of Indus pottery sherds from Suwayh SWY–3 sites (Méry & Charpentier 2002: 193).

In an attempt to structure the evidence from the Stone Age of the Oman Peninsula, M. Uerpmann (1992) defined a number of facies for the Late Stone Age based on recovered groups of chipped stone artefacts as well as radiocarbon dates and observations on economy and ecology from sites located along the coast of Oman. She argued that there is evidence for human occupation in the region during the early Holocene. However, there is insufficient material

In the UAE, surveys in Sharjah (al-Qassimiya and Hamriyah), Ajman (al-Zuhra area) and Umm al-Qaiwain (Site 69) yielded sites with evidence of painted ‘Ubaidsherds and flints of the late 5th and 4th millennium BC (Boucharlat et al. 1984; Millet 1991; Haerinck 1991 & 1994; Jasim 1996; Spoor 1997). Dating was based on the presence of the ‘Ubaid-type pottery, lithic artefact comparisons and radiocarbon dates. Another important

  This project is formulated as a joint team from the Abu Dhabi Islands Archaeological Survey (ADIAS) and the Department of Antiquities and Tourism in Al–Ain. 4

21

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula for the first quarter of this era. By contrast, the second quarter of the Holocene witnessed occupation by a coastal population on the Sea of Oman with a chipped stone industry (Wadi–Wutayyah–Facies) contemporary with the so-called Qatar B blade–arrowhead group in the interior of the Oman Peninsula. This facies was replaced during the early 5th millennium BC by another group of facies called the Saruq–Facies which can be seen as a local alternative of the ABT. It is argued that the Late Stone Age coastal settlement reached its peak early in the 4th millennium BC from which different local facies have been found (e.g. Ra’s al-Hamra–Facies around Muscat and the Bir–Bira– Facies in the area around Sur). The final phase of the Late Stone Age is represented by the so-called ‘Bandar–Jissa– Facies’ which is characterised by aceramic occupation on the coast of the Sea of Oman and by the use of a simple stone tool industry alongside metal artefacts. This facies corresponds with the Early Bronze Age occupation of the Oman interior along the southern and south–western edges of the Hajar Mountains.

between the periods, in particular their shape and method of manufacture as well as the order of succession of stone industries. Dissimilarities between the Early and Late Stone Age assemblages are significant in terms of worked materials, particularly the different techniques of stone tool manufacturing. The Early Stone Age is characterised by flake-based technologies over blade bearing industries. In contrast, the Late Stone Age is largely characterized by chipped stone industries, particularly primary flake production, microliths and the Arabian Bifacial Tradition, with lithic tools of this type being recovered from many sites. Different groups of chipped stone artefacts have been categorised within this period such as the Wadi Wutayya–Facies/Qatar B blade–arrowhead group; Saruq– Facies/ Arabian Bifacial Tradition; Ra’s al-Hamra–Facies and Bir–Bira–Facies; and Bandar–Jissa–Facies (see above and Uerpmann 1992; Potts 1993d: 170–180). Moreover, the Late Stone Age is also characterised by the marine shell industry the products of which consist of three types of object: vessels, fish-hooks at different stages of manufacture, and beads. In addition, bone was also utilised in tool-manufacture including of points and fish-hooks (Biagi 1999: 63–66).

In 1993, Potts introduced a periodization of the prehistory of the Eastern Arabia in which three periods are related to the Stone Age: Late Prehistoric A (ca. 5000–4500 BC), Late Prehistoric B (ca. 4500–3800 BC) and Late Prehistoric C (ca. 3800–2800 BC) (Potts 1993d: 172–179; fig.1: 169).5 Sites which belong to the first period are those attributed to the Qatar B group and the Wadi Wutayyah facies. The second period is represented by a large number of sites classified as part of the so-called ABT from the coast and the interior. The third period is represented by the Ras al-Hamra–Facies (early 4th millennium BC), the contemporary Bir Bir’a–Facies and the Bandar Jissa– Facies.

There is also the fact that, so far, more sites have been identified from the Late Stone Age than the Early Stone Age. This is due to the fact that the early stages of the Stone Age are not easy to detect, and few finds have been discovered from these sub-periods. A significant level of evidence has been discovered in the excavation of several stratified sites (e.g. Ras al-Hamra, Ras al-Jinz/Ras alHadd; al-Buhais, etc.) which have furthered our knowledge of the chronology, economy and human-geography of the Late Stone Age. By contrast, no stratified site has so far been recovered for any period earlier than the Late Stone Age. The majority of these early sites take the form of lithic scatters, suggesting hunting and food gathering communities, with no evidence of tombs or pottery. In contrast, the Late Stone Age is represented by a variety of evidence including shell-middens, artefact scatters (e.g. pottery, stone, bones), simple structures, postholes, fireplaces and tombs. The evidence also includes human skeletal, faunal and floral remains, as well as stone, shell and bone tools for fishing and hunting. The presence of imported Mesopotamian (‘Ubaid) pottery indicates trade with overseas contacts .

Apart from this offering by Potts, no other chronological periodization has been suggested for the Stone Age in the Oman Peninsula. Uerpmann (1992) only defined a series of lithic industries (facies) which are more or less workable when examining the evidence from the eastern coast of Oman. The periodization set out by Potts covers the whole of Eastern Arabia, combining the evidence from different sites. However, many of the published sites do not present enough evidence to allocate them to any of the periods set out by Potts. Moreover, no evidence for the Stone Age occupation was gathered from the Wadi Andam Survey. Therefore, it was preferred in this study to use the general and widely-used term ‘Stone Age’ to present the evidence for this period of the Oman Peninsula. This term covers a broad timespan and so it was divided into two sub-periods: the Early Stone Age (before 7000 BC) and the Late Stone Age (ca. 7000–3500/3400 BC).

For these reasons, and the fact that there is almost complete agreement among scholars in defining and dating the Late Stone Age (ca. 7000/6000–3500/3400 BC), this study will group any evidence that does not belong to this timespan under the term Early Stone Age (earlier than 7000 BC). Hafit Period

Several factors have been taken into consideration in making this distinction between the Early and Late Stone Age. The dichotomy is mainly based on the technological and typological differences in the tools

The term ‘Hafit Period’ was adopted by a group of archaeologists researching the archaeology of the Oman Peninsula in a meeting held in June 1981 at Tübingen. It refers to the period between the late 4th and early 3rd millennium BC (Potts 1990a: 73, note: 66; Parker et

  The Stone Age includes only part of this period, lasting until around 3400 BC. 5

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Definition of Chronological Periods al. 2006: 473). The period is characterised by a large number of burial cairns that are scattered all over the Peninsula, but predominantly in mountainous areas. The first evidence for this period was brought to light by the excavations of a number of burial cairns carried out by the Danish Expedition at Jebel Hafit in the Buraimi area (Frifelt 1970: 355–383, 1975a–b). Frifelt (1970) dated the tombs to the late 4th/early 3rd millennium BC based on the recovery of Mesopotamian pottery of the Jamdet Nasr and Early Dynastic I-type (ED I) within these burials. These include small biconical, carinated, rounded and globular polychrome vessels with an everted rim and painted plumred, orange or buff sand-tempered micaceous ware. They include shoulder panels of black or dark-brown vertical bands alternating with cross-hatching, vertical lines and diamond patterns on a cream background. There are also unpainted small vessels with a very fine greenish or cream body (Frifelt 1970, 1975a–b; 1979b: 51–57; 1980a). This date has generally been accepted by scholars (Cleuziou 2002: 196).

outer plinth around the tomb (ibid: 76). She also argued that pottery assemblages from the Beehive tombs might represent wares of both the ‘Jamdet Nasr’ and the Umm an-Nar periods (ibid: 69). This transitional development has been accepted by several scholars. Al-Tikriti (1981: 81) and Cleuziou (1982: 17–18, 1984: 377) argue that it is possible that there was a local development from the Jamdat Nasr/Hafit to the Umm an-Nar burials. Their argument is based on the occurrence of these structures in the same locality around Hili. They indicate that the tombs located on Jebel Huqlah in various numbers and shapes suggest the presence of more than one period (al-Tikriti 1981: 81). They might also include the cemetery of Hili 8 settlement during the early 3rd millennium BC (Cleuziou 1984: 377). By contrast, Potts (1986: 132; 1990a: 78 & 1992: 67) argues that the few recovered finds from some of the excavated Beehive tombs seem to be questionable. Vogt maintains that the Hafit/Jamdat Nasr and the Umm an-Nar tombs are different types of a single architectural form built at the same period, and that there is no clear chronological or architectural difference between them (cf. Vogt 1985a: 58– 105). He argues that the different appearance between both types (e.g. cairns and Beehive) is due to the local stones used to build the tombs. The Beehive tombs are built using flat limestone slabs found in areas where it was easy to cut or break them. By contrast, cairns are built in locations where rounded gravel or stones are available. The same observation has recently been made by Schreiber (2007b: 123–124) at Izki.

Later, more cairns were excavated by other teams and their dating and cultural evolution has been widely discussed (Table 4). During–Caspers (1970 & 1971) reviewed and published similar pottery recovered by two amateur archaeologists from the Buraimi area. She argued that it resembled a type of pottery found in southern Mesopotamia during the Jamdat Nasr period and ED I times (Protoliterate c–d). Later, M. Tosi (1976: 81–92) attempted to bring the date of the Jamdat Nasr tombs in the Oman Peninsula forward by proposing a chronology between 2800 and 2600 BC based on biconical jars found in phases 8 and 7 at Shahr i-Sokhta in Seistan. This dating suggested by Tosi was rejected by the majority of scholars as they regard the limited amount of existing material and the non-stratified context in which it was found as being insufficient for arriving at an secure chronology (al-Tikriti 1981: 81–83; Cleuziou 1984: 372).

It was argued by Cleuziou (1980: 26) that it was impossible to avoid the problem of the lack of proper stratigraphy in the Oman Peninsula. He (1980: 26; 1982: 16) claims that the Hili 8 sequence provides this stratigraphy, which indicates that there is no gap between the ‘Jamdet Nasr Horizon’ of the Jebel Hafit (3400–3200 BC) and the construction of Building III at Hili 8. Excavations at the Hili 8 settlement provide a sequence that has been divided into three major periods subdivided into several phases (cf. Cleuziou 1980, 1982, 1984, 1989a–b, 2002). The dating of these periods and their phases was based mainly on pottery assemblages as well as C14 dates and other recovered materials. The earliest occupational level of this site is Period I (early 3rd millennium BC).6 Pottery from this period’s layers is very rare, and mostly from Phase Ib (Cleuziou 1989b: 49). Only three small jars of light brown paste show definite Mesopotamian potterytype characteristics, which have been compared with those vessels from southern Mesopotamian contexts dated to Jamdat Nasr or ED I–II (Cleuziou 1982: 3; 1989b: 75). This was confirmed by the C14 dates obtained from two charcoal samples (MC 2266 & MC 2267) from the hearths or fireplaces of Phase Ia both of which date to the very late

It is also accepted that the single-chambered Beehive tombs were constructed during the early 3rd millennium BC (Potts 1990a: 77). Their discovery was made at Bat by the Danish Expedition to Oman (Frifelt 1975a: 57–80; 1975b: 359–421; 1976c: 57–73) which provided evidence for the early 3rd millennium BC based on the typical Jamdat Nasr finds in Mesopotamia. These finds include one sherd, one fine black-on-buff jar with everted rim, and one biconical serpentine bead from two tombs (Frifelt 1975a: 69). This led Frifelt to propose that Beehive tombs were a possible link or transitional type between the ‘Jamdat Nasr/Jebel Hafit’ cairn burials and the Umm an-Nar collective tombs. In addition to the pottery discovered, opinions on the tombs’ development were based on the architecture of ‘Jebel Hafit’ cairns and the Beehive tombs. Frifelt (ibid: 57–80) argued that the Beehive tombs document an architectural transition in which the burial chamber of the tombs was widened in comparison to the ‘Jamdet Nasr’ tombs. Additionally, the burial chamber shows a similar characteristic to that of the Umm an-Nar tombs in that it is divided into two rooms by an inner wall and a similar

  This period is represented by a solid base of a square mudbrick tower with central well and hearths called Building III (Phase Ia) as well as other additions, including a smaller rectangular structure called Building VI (Phase Ib) and a single wall (Phase Ic), as well as a group of trenches or ditches. 6

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Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula 4th/early 3rd millennium BC (Cleuziou 1980: 20, Table 1: 32; 1982: 15–17; 1989a: 63–64; 2002: 195).

the Early Bronze Age. Several of the cairns discovered during the Wadi Andam Survey yielded Early Iron Age material, so it is difficult to say with certainty when they were constructed, or to say that they are Hafit cairns that were re-used during the Iron Age. The tradition of cairn tombs probably extends into the Iron Age, and possibly even later. This problem raises the question of whether we are able to date the large cairn fields to the Hafit period with any certainty. However, for the purposes of this research it will be assumed that the large concentrations of cairns across the area were constructed in the Hafit period. This is due to the fact that they were found at the same locations, they show similar construction and they are located in those areas where there is no evidence at all of other occupation. This suggests that the cairns belong to the same period. To date, those which have been excavated at, for example Jebel Hafit and Buraimi Oasis (Frifelt 1975a; Cleuziou 1976/7); Bat at Ibri (Frifelt 1975a & 1975b), Ra’s al-Hadd site HD–10 (Salvatori 2001), Cairn 1 at site RJ–6 at Ra’s al-Jinz (Cleuziou & Tosi 1990a–b), have produced evidence for the late 4th/ early 3rd millennium BC. It should, however, be noted that there are other locations for cairns like those on the wadi terraces and on low flat gravel hills/areas such as those found along the Wadi Andam which might be of a later date. In other words, a cairn’s location is a relevant factor in the data. At this point, an attempt was certainly made to look at the structure and location of the tombs, but until they are excavated it is impossible to say anything about their exact dating. From the surface they look like Hafit cairns, but when excavating them some appeared to be of

Based on this evidence, Cleuziou (1982: 18) suggested that Hili 8 shows continuity in the evolution of the Oman Peninsula during the whole of the 3rd millennium BC. This supports the chronology for the Jebel Hafit material proposed in 1986 by Potts who placed it between the end of Jamdat Nasr and ED I in Mesopotamia (Cleuziou 1989b: 51). Cleuziou (1982: 3, 1989b: 51) suggested that there is contemporaneity between Period I at Hili 8 and the Jebel Hafit horizon (Jamdat Nasr and ED I in Mesopotamia). This proposal could confirm the suggestion made by Frifelt in 1970 that the Beehive tombs at Bat are a possible link between the ‘Jamdat Nasr’ and ‘Umm an-Nar’ tombs of Oman Peninsula (Cleuziou 1982: 17; 1989b: 75). The ‘Hafit Period’ is largely distinguished by cairn burials and Beehive tombs. With regard to these structures there are two possibilities that have been suggested. The first considers the Beehive tombs as a transitional type between the earlier Hafit-type and the later Umm an-Nar-type. The second is that both Hafit and Beehive tombs were established during the same era, but each one represents a different type. It is also important to state that there are some uncertainties regarding the dating of these two tomb types. There is a problem regarding the dating of cairn burials distributed all over the peninsula, certainly some cairns might be more accurately dated to a point in time after Reference Dating Frifelt, 1970, ED I (3200–2,700 BC) 1975a–b; 1980a, 2002

Sites Type of Evidence Bat, Hili, Jebel Hafit 1– Ceramic parallels with Mesopotamia Umm an-Nar 2– Other finds comparison with foreign parallels: Beads with Mesopotamian contexts; Mesopotamian and Iranian finds such as a pin with a hammered–out flat part (Jamdat Nasr), a cylinder–seal impression from Umm an-Nar settlement (ED I, Period I at Shahr–I Sokhta; Yahya IV B, ED I). 3– C14 date from fireplace in Tower (1147e) at Bat (2,885– 2,679 BC) Two Hafit cairns in Painted carinated jars compared with Mesopotamian During–Caspers 3000–2900 BC (Jamdat Nasr or Protoliterate Buraimi examples from Jamdat Nasr or Protoliterate c–d contexts in 1970, 1971 c–d) southern Mesopotamia and the Diyala region. 2800–2600 BC ––– Biconical jars in phase 8 & 7 at Shahr i–Sokhts in Seistan, Tosi 1976 and Tepe Yahya sequences Hili 8 & Ras al-Jinz 1– C14 samples from fireplaces Cleuziou 1980, 3400–3000 BC 2– Architectural features & ceramic assemblages compared 1982, 1984, – Jamdat Nasr & ED I period – Hili Period I (Phases a–c) with local sites 1989a–b, – Oman Stage 1 or Point 1 3– Ceramic comparisons with Mesopotamian pottery 2002 4– Other finds: Mesopotamia long bead–spacer Potts 1990a Potts 1993b

Late 4th & Early 3rd mille BC Review materials of (3500/3400–2500 BC) published local & foreign sites Protohistoric A (3400–2900 Review materials of BC) & B (2900–2300 BC) published local & foreign sites

Ceramic parallels from Mesopotamia and Iran Ceramic parallels with Mesopotamian and Iranian contexts

Table 4: Proposed chronology of the Hafit period and the related evidence 24

Definition of Chronological Periods the Iron Age or even Parthian–Samad period. Examples of these include, for instance, those excavated in Fashgha and dated to the Iron Age around (900–500 BC), while those excavated north of Fashgha on the lower terraces of Wadi Umm al-Ghaf did not yield any diagnostic finds (Phillips 1987, 1997: 205–207). In other areas like Manal the cairns are located on top of an Iron Age settlement (personal observation, see also Elmahi & Ibrahim 2003). To conclude, dating these cairns is one of the big problems in Omani Archaeology which needs to be solved in the future by, for example, carrying out a systematic survey in different zones looking for cairn locations, structure, distribution, densities, and then excavating some of them.

rest of the Gulf (cf. Tosi 1976; Frifelt 1979a–b & 1995; Potts 1978, 1990c: 128, 1993a–d, 1994 & 2000, Cleuziou & Tosi 1989; Cleuziou 1989b & 2002). It is argued that the Oman Peninsula played an important role because of the copper that it produced and exported to neighbouring regions such as Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley, a process which has been confirmed by Mesopotamian textual sources (cf. Bibby 1969: 229–255; Cleuziou 1984: 387; Potts 1978, 1990a: 133–134, 1992, 1993c–d, 2000; Frifelt 1995; Weeks 2004b). At present, there are two well dated sites that have yielded evidence for the Umm an-Nar period: Hili 8 and Tell Abraq. They are dated by both relative (architectural and material comparisons) and absolute (C14) dates. Architecturally, both sites have yielded mudbrick and/ or stone tower buildings that have been compared with similar excavated buildings in the peninsula such as at Bat and Hili 1. The latter site also provided C14 dates in which four (SM–1236 to SM–1239) are dated to the Umm an-Nar period (cf. Potts 1997: 67, Table 2). At Bat, three C14 dates were obtained for Tower 1145 that range from cal. 2570 BC to cal. 2400 BC (Frifelt 2002: 107-108). Several ceramic and other archaeological finds from Hili 8 and Tell Abraq indicate both local and non–Omani origin in which there are parallels with foreign and local excavated contexts. The foreign finds are imported from Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley, Iran and the Gulf. Both sites provided C14 dates from charcoal, carbonised date stones and burnt reeds. Ten C14 dates from Hili 8 were published by Cleuziou (1980: 32, Table 1) and Potts (1997: 67, Table 1) in which five of them (MC 2261 to MC 2265) are dated to the Umm an-Nar period. They ranged in date from 2570 to 2,143 BC. Ten C14 dates from Tell Abraq were published by Potts (1993b: 126, Table 1), seven of these (K–5574 to K–5578 & K–5581–K–5582) were dated to the Umm an-Nar period (Potts 1994: 616–618). More C14 dates from Tell Abraq were published by Potts (1997: 68, Table 3) five of which (OZA–923U, OZA–924U, OZA–929U, OZA–930U & OZA–936U) fall within the Umm an-Nar period. Thus, it is argued that the ‘Umm anNar period’ is most accurately placed between 2500 and 2000 BC (Potts 1993a–d, 1994; Cleuziou 1989b & 2002). Potts (1993d) has proposed a chronological division for the dichotomizing the Bronze Age of the Oman Peninsula into two periods: Protohistoric A and B (3400–2900 and 2900–2300 BC) and Early Historic A (2300–2000 BC). This division does not clearly indicate the length of the Umm an-Nar period. The timespan of the Umm an-Nar

Not only do cairns imply dating problems. So do the Beehive tombs in which very few finds have been recovered that can be compared to those from the Jebel Hafit or which offer parallels with those from Mesopotamia. Thus, it is difficult to adopt any of these suggestions with certainty. However, for the purpose of this study, it is preferred to follow the first suggestion because, as indicated earlier, it has widely been accepted by many scholars working on the archaeology of the Oman Peninsula. Thus, in describing the results of the Wadi Andam Survey and the chronology adopted in the other parts of the study, this period will be based on the tentative chronology set out by Potts in 1990, which spans the period from 3500/3400 to 2500 BC (Potts 1990a: 62–91). Umm an-Nar Period Material remains from the Umm an-Nar period (ca. 2500– 2000 BC) were first discovered by a Danish Expedition in the late 1950’s on the eponymous island in Abu-Dhabi. Later, other Umm an-Nar sites were found in different parts of the peninsula. Since its initial discovery, the precise dating of the period has been argued over by several scholars (Table 6), who have attempted to build a chronology based on materials from surface collections (e.g. the Harvard and British surveys) or excavated contexts (e.g. Umm an-Nar Island, Hili, Bat, Tell Abraq, Maysar 25). Dating these artefacts was based on comparisons with similar foreign material, indicating trade contacts with neighbouring regions, as well as utilising architectural and material comparisons with other local sites within the peninsula, and thirdly by C14 dating. The exogenous material included ceramics, indicating trade with Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley, Iran, Central Asia, Bactria (northern Afghanistan and southern Uzbekistan) and the Oman Cleuziou & Tosi 1989 Point 1 (2900–2450 BC) Point 2 (2450–2100 BC) Point 3 (2100–1900 BC)

Hili 8 Cleuziou 1989a, 1989b Phases Ia–c Phases IIa–c1 Phase IIc2 Phases IId–e Phase IIf

Oman Cleuziou 2002 Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5

Period Hafit Umm an-Nar Umm an-Nar Umm an-Nar Umm an-Nar

Table 5: Chronological terms used by Cleuziou for the Bronze Age based on his work at Hili and Ras al-Jinz (after Cleuziou 2002: 203, Table 1) 25

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula Reference Frifelt 1968, 1979a–b

Dating 2nd part of the 3rd mill BC Stages 4–5

Sites Hili 1

Frifelt 1968, 1975a–b, 1995

2,700–2,200 BC (Phases 0–II)

Umm an-Nar

Frifelt 1975a–b, 1976c, 1979a–b, 1985, 2002

Mid of 3rd mill BC Bat (2570–1,610 BC) Stage 3

During–Caspers, 1970

Late EDIII to ca.2000 BC

Tosi 1976 Cleuziou 1976/7, 1980, 1984, 1989a–b, 2002, Cleuziou & Tosi 1989, 2000

Potts, 1978, 1990a, 1992, 1993a–d, 1994, 2000, Weeks 1997 & 2004b

Review materials of other local sites 2,200–1800 BC Review materials from local sites 2500–2000 BC Hili 8 & – Hili 8= Periods II Ras al-Jinz (Phases a–f) & III with review – Ras al-Jinz materials of Periods II–IV other local – Stages 2–5 sites

2500–2000: – Protohistoric B & Early Historic A – Tell Abraq Phases I, II & III: Phase I: 2300– 2,100 BC Phase II (tomb): 2,100–2000 BC Phase III: 2000–1900 BC (transition)

Tell Abraq with review materials of other local sites

Type of Evidence 1– C14 dates 2– Shape of the plano–convex mud–bricks has parallels from ED II in Mesopotamia 3– Ceramics comparisons with Mesopotamia and Iran 1– Ceramic parallels with Bahrain, East Arabia , Syria, south– eastern Iran, eastern Baluchistan, Mesopotamia (ED I–IIIA) & the Indus Valley 2– Architecture & ceramics comparisons with local sites, particularly Hili 8, Tell Abraq & Ras al-Jinz sequences. 3– Few C14 dates 4– Other foreign finds: a seal impression of Syrian origin; beads from Afghanistan, carnelian from India 1– Ceramics comparisons with local sites (e.g. Phases IIc2–d at Hili 8; Umm an-Nar Island; Tell Abraq) 2– Ceramics foreign parallels from the Indus Valley, Mesopotamia, Tepe Yahya (phases B, IVC to IVA) 3– C14 dates from fireplaces Ceramic parallels with EDIII contexts in Mesopotamia, Bampur IV–VI, Seistan, Mundigak, Shahi Tump and Kulli Ceramics parallels/imports from Bampur V–VI, Yahya IVB, Mundigak IV, and Shahr–I Sokhta IV, Sistan 1– Tower building & tombs architecture comparisons with local sites 2– Local pottery and other materials parallels from local sites 3– Imported pottery from Mesopotamia, Bulushstan, south– eastern Iran & the Indus 4– C14 from Phases IIe & IIf at Hili 8 (charcoal); Phases III & IV at Ras al-Jinz 5– Other archaeological finds foreign parallels: plano–convex mudbricks from ED II in Mesopotamia; Harappan pottery 1– Tower buildings & Tombs architecture comparisons with local sites 2– C14 dates from samples of charcoal, carbonized date stones, burnt reeds 3– Ceramics parallels with sites in Mesopotamia; eastern, south– eastern & south–western Iran; Bahrain; the Indus Valley, Susa, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Bactria (northern Afghanistan & southern Uzbekistan), Baluchistan 4– Local ceramic, stone and metals industries 5– Other foreign finds: Harappan weights & storage jar fragments; seals from Maysar 1 with parallels from the Indus civilization, Crete, Syria, Egypt and Central Asia; tin from Afghanistan; ivory & beads from Bactria & the Indus Valley 6– Textual evidence from Mesopotamia

Table 6: Proposed chronology of the Umm an-Nar period and the related evidence

can be noted within two of Potts’ periods: Protohistoric B and the Early Historic A. Protohistoric B includes part of the Hafit period (c.2900–2500 BC [see above]), and only the early part of the Umm an-Nar period (ca. 2500–2300 BC). Therefore, it is difficult to adopt this chronology. Alternatively, based on research at Hili and Ras al-Jinz, Cleuziou (2002) has subdivided the 3rd millennium BC into five sub-periods (Stages 1–5) of which the Umm anNar is placed in Stages 2–5 (Table 5).

These two sites provide us with a more convincing chronology with the Umm an-Nar period stretching from ca. 2500 to 2000 BC. This chronology will be adopted within this study. Both sites have yielded well-stratified contexts that include continuous evidence for the period from 2500 to 2000 BC. They also provide both relative and absolute chronologies using a variety of evidence that is in agreement.

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Definition of Chronological Periods Al-Hajar Oasis Towns

a tentative chronology for the Wadi Suq period (ibid: 233). Several sites and significant material remains of the period have since been discovered from numerous parts of the peninsula. Excavations at Hili 8 recovered painted pottery similar to that found by Frifelt and dated to Period III of the Hili 8 sequence (Cleuziou 1980, 1981, 1984, 1989a–b). Based on this discovery, Cleuziou (1981) concluded that this material belonged to the early 2nd millennium BC, indicating that there was continuity in occupation from the end of the 3rd to the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. This suggestion was confirmed by the site stratigraphy and the C14 dates (MC–2259–MC–2260) (cf. Cleuziou 1980: 26–32, Table 1 & Potts 1997: 67, Table 1). Thus, Cleuziou (1984: 389) concluded that the Umm an-Nar period was the “last known sedentary culture before the transition of eastern Arabia to full nomadism”.

For the sake of completeness it should be mentioned that Jeffery and Jocelyn Orchard have been working in the Hajar Mountains region, mainly the Wadi Bahla and the Wadi Malah, under the name of the ‘al-Hajar Project’. This project started in 1980/1981 as ‘The University of Birmingham Archaeological Expedition to the Sultanate of Oman’ before changing its name. Contrary to other scholars who are in broad agreement, the Orchards suggest that the 3rd millennium BC settlements located in the al-Hajar region do not belong to the Umm an-Nar period. Instead, they propose the existence of two distinct types of site the earlier being the al-Hajar ‘agriculture-based settlements’ or the so-called ‘aI-Hajar Oasis Towns’, part of the ‘aI-Hajar culture’ which is distinct from the Umm an-Nar culture.7 It is important to indicate that the term ‘culture’, a seriously contested concept, is only presented here as part of the ‘al-Hajar’ argument which distinguishes between two different periods within the 3rd millennium BC.

Since the expression of this theory, the results of new excavations (Shimal, Tell Abraq, Hili, RJ–1, Nud Ziba and Kalba 4) have challenged it (Table 7) and have revealed that a sedentary lifestyle was followed to some extent into the Wadi Suq period (Potts 1990a: 234). In 1986, excavations at the settlement site of Shimal revealed evidence for the later part of the 2nd millennium BC (Vogt & Franke-Vogt 1987; Franke-Vogt 1991; Velde 1991, 1992). Shortly afterwards, Potts (1990a–b, 1991, 2000) excavated a settlement at Tell Abraq, which was followed by an excavation carried out at the coastal site of Kalba 4 by Carl Phillips (Carter 1997a–b). These two latter sites have yielded substantial evidence for both monumental architecture and a ceramic sequence covering the entirety of the 2nd millennium BC, as well as evidence of the continuation of Umm an-Nar traditions into the Wadi Suq period (Carter 1997b: 87).

According to the Orchards, the ‘al-Hajar culture’ may be dated to the period from the end of the 4th to the end of the 3rd millennium BC, while the ‘Umm an-Nar culture’ is dated to the last few centuries of the 3rd millennium BC, perhaps extending into the 2nd millennium BC. A number of theories have been put forward during this research project including the claims that the earliest agricultural settlements in the Oman Peninsula (late 4th/early 3rd millennium BC) were established during a period of transition from an arid to a wetter climate; that sub-surface falaj-like irrigation systems were in place by the late 4th to early 3rd millennium BC; and that the population that constructed the AI-Hajar Oasis Towns were of a Yemeni origin (cf. Orchard & Stanger 1994: 87–88 & 1999: 96).

The assemblage recovered from Shimal, Tell Abraq and Kalba has led to the establishment of a complete chronology for the 2nd millennium BC. For Shimal, a chronological periodization was proposed based on ceramic parallels with local and foreign types (including Bahrain, Failaka, the Indus Valley and Iran), other material comparisons, and C14 dates from samples of shells and charcoal (RAK 1, RAK2 & RAK 3) obtained from layers 2 and 9 of the site (cf. Vogt & Franke-Vogt 1987: 15; Franke-Vogt 1991, Velde 1991 & 1992). This periodization covers the early and middle 2nd millennium BC (ca. 2000–1400 BC) and includes Phases 1, 2, and 3a–c (Velde 1992: 79–80) according to the site stratigraphy (cf. Potts 1997: 68, Table 3).

Most scholars do not accept these theories, and a number have been directly refuted (cf. Potts 1997; Magee 1999: 47–48; Cleuziou 2002: 197–198). So while the ‘al-Hajar culture’ theory may not be ignored while presenting the chronology of the Oman Peninsula in the late 4th to 3rd millennium BC, it is also impossible to integrate it, primarily because of the way it distinguishes al-Hajar and Umm an-Nar remains. Wadi Suq Period The first archaeological evidence of the 2nd millennium BC in the Oman Peninsula was discovered in 1972 when several tombs were excavated in Wadi Suq, Sohar and in Wadi Sunaysil, Ibri (Frifelt 1975b). These tombs yielded ceramics and steatite vessels that were previously unknown in the peninsula, but which were known from early 2nd millennium BC contexts in Bahrain (Potts 1990a: 232–233). This was the beginning of the establishment of

Potts (1993b & 1994) and Velde (1992: 90–96) set out a chronological periodization for Tell Abraq, which spans the period from 2000 to 1300/1200 BC. Potts (1990a: 234) divided the Wadi Suq period into two sub-periods: the early Wadi Suq (2000–1600 BC) and the late Wadi Suq (1600 –1300 BC). Recently, he created another chronological periodizaition for the whole of eastern Arabia and divided the Wadi Suq period into three sub-periods: Early Historic B (ca. 2000–1700 BC), Early Historic C (ca. 1700 –1500 BC) and Early Historic D (ca. 1500–1200 BC) (Potts 1993d). This sub-division was based on the evidence from

  See Jocelyn Orchard 1994: 63, for the different considerations suggested to distinguish between the two suggested cultures. 7

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Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula Reference Frifelt 1975b Cleuziou 1981, 1984, 1989a–b

Dating Sites Early 2nd mill. BC Wadi Suq & Wadi Sunaysil Period III, early Hili 8 & 2nd mill BC review (2000–1700 BC) materials from other sites

Type of Evidence 1– Ceramics comparisons with foreign parallels from Bahrain

1– Ceramics & other finds comparisons with local types 2– Ceramics comparisons with foreign parallels in the Indus Valley 3– Omani softstone at foreign sites: Iran and Bahrain 4– Mesopotamian textual sources 5– C14 dates from Hili 8 Shimal (Tombs 1– Ceramics & other finds comparisons with local types Vogt & Franke-Vogt 2000–1400 BC & Settlement) 2– Ceramics comparisons with foreign parallels in Bahrain, 1987; Franke-Vogt 1991, Phases 1–3a–c Failaka Indus Valley & Iran Velde 1992; de Cardi (Early–Mid 2nd 3– Other finds with foreign parallels in Bahrain (Socketed spear– 1986, 1988 mill BC) head at Sar), and the Indus Valley (a Harappan cubical chert–stone weight) 4– C14 dates from samples of shell, charcoal & carbonized dates Early 2nd mill BC Ra’a al-Jinz 1– Ceramics & other finds comparisons with local types Tosi 1982; Biagi et al. RJ–1; RJ–2 & 2– Seals from RJ–2 with parallels from Bahrain 1989; Monchablon et al. (2000 & 1700 BC) RJ–21 2– Ceramics comparisons with foreign parallels from the Indus 2003 Valley 4– C14 dates: from samples of charcoals and shells nd Early & Late 2 Tell Abraq & 1– Ceramics comparisons with local types Potts 1990a–b, 1991, mill review other 2– Ceramics comparisons with foreign parallels from Bahrain, 1992, 1993b, d, 1994, (2000–1300/1200 materials from Failaka, Eastern part of Saudi Arabia, Mesopotamia, Elam, South– 2000; Weeks 1997 BC): Omani sites western Iran & the Indus Valley Potts 1993b, 3– Omani ceramics and softstone at foreign sites: Elam & Bahrain 1994, Weeks 4– Other finds (e.g. seals, mudbrick size and shape) comparisons 1997: Tell Abraq with Mesopotamia, South–western & Eastern Iran, Central Asia, Phases I–IV Bahrain & the Indus Valley Potts 1993d: 5– Mesopotamian textual sources – Early Historic B 6– C14 dates from Tell Abraq – Early Historic C – Early Historic D Shimal Pottery and other materials petrographic and chemical analyses Méry 1991, 2000; Méry & 2000–1300 BC Settlement, indicate Mesopotamian and Indus Valley origin Schneider 1996 Tell Abraq & Hili 2000–1300 BC: Kalba & other 1– Ceramics & other finds comparisons with local types (e.g. Hili Carter 1997a–b – Classic Wadi Omani sites 8, Tell Abraq & Shimal) Suq (2000–1450 2– Ceramics comparisons with foreign parallels from Bahrain, BC) Mesopotamia, Elam and the Indus Valley – Late Wadi Suq 3– C14 dates from: from Nud Ziba, Hili 8 Period III and Shimal (1450–1300 BC) settlement (Appendix D, Table D.9). Or Kalba Phases 2a–b & 3 2000–1,250 BC: Shimal 1– Review already dated ceramics & softstone materials with Velde 1991, 1992, 2003 Wadi Suq (2000– Settlement, parallels from local & foreign contexts 1600 BC) & Late Tell Abraq & 2– Distinction between changes and differences in the material Bronze Age (1600 materials from culture –1,250 BC) other sites

Table 7: Proposed chronology of the Wadi Suq period and the related evidence

Tell Abraq (local and foreign objects, C14 dates, structural comparisons and Mesopotamian textual sources) and on reviewing material from other sites. Potts (1993b & 1994) provides a periodization of the Wadi Suq based on the evidence from Tell Abraq in which four Phases can be distinguished: Wadi Suq I Phase (2000–1900 BC), Wadi Suq II Phase (1900–1600 BC), Wadi Suq III Phase (1600 –1400 BC) and Wadi Suq IV Phase (1400–1300 BC) (cf. Weeks 1997). Six C14 dates are available for this dating ranging in date from 1,936 to 1,520 BC (cf. Potts 1993b: 126, Table 1 & 1997: 68: Table 3).

From the evidence recovered from Kalba 4, Carter (1997a: 131–137) classified the Wadi Suq period into two subperiods based on ceramics recovered from the site: the ‘Classic Wadi Suq’ covers both the Early and Middle Wadi Suq (Phase 2a–b: 2000–1450 BC), and is followed by the ‘Late Wadi Suq’ (Phase 3: 1450–1300 BC). This dating was also supported by other evidence including C14 dates, pottery and parallels from other local sites (Central Shimal Settlement, Tell Abraq & Hili 8) and from archaeology outside of the Oman Peninsula (ibid: 232–239). 28

Definition of Chronological Periods Recently Velde (2003: 104) has argued that there are “two completely different assemblages in the 2nd millennium BC, without a transitional phase between them”. Thus, he distinguishes two periods between 2000 and 1,250 BC: the Wadi Suq (2000–1600 BC) and the Late Bronze Age (1600 –1,250 BC) (ibid: 104).8

& Lombard 1985). Around five C14 dates were obtained from charcoal samples (ibid: 50) and resulted in calibrated dates ranging between 1,695 and 600 BC at 1 sigma (ca. 1,750 and 400 BC at 2 sigma). These dates, and local and foreign ceramic parallels, permitted the excavators to build up a tentative chronology for the site in which two major periods were suggested: Rumeilah Period I (ca. 1000/900–800/700 BC) and Rumeilah Period II (ca. 800/700–500/400 BC). This dating was later revised by the excavators upon the recovery of further C14 determinations (Boucharlat & Lombard 1991: 308–311) resulting in the following chronology:

Although there does seem to be a valid chronological division, it cannot be found in the published literature where the distinction is rarely made. Furthermore with regards to this research, this division cannot be made based on the material recovered from the Wadi Andam Survey because not enough pottery from this period was recovered and because the local variants of the period have not yet been researched sufficiently. It was also difficult during this survey to attribute the few pottery sherds to any specific phase of the 2nd millennium BC or to any of the various sub-periods mentioned. A mere 81 sherds were recovered and they were identified by Velde (Pers. Comm.) as possible Wadi Suq and/or Late Bronze Age. Moreover, the majority of these sherds were badly eroded, making precise identification difficult. These limitations make it prudent to use only the broad term ‘Wadi Suq Period’ to cover the stretch of time from 2000 to 1300 BC.

Period Rumeilah I Rumeilah II

Phase IA IB IIA IIB IIC

Date 1,350/1300–1,150/1,100 BC 1,150/1,100–1000/950 BC 1000/950–750/700 BC 750/700–500/450 BC 500/450–350/300 BC

Several sites excavated since this research (including Shimal, Tell Abraq, Kalba 4, Husn Awhala, Muweilah and al-Thuqaibah) have produced their own unique chronologies (Table 9) (Velde 1991 & 1992; Carter 1997a– b; Magee 1996, 1998a, 1999, 2003 & 2004). These sites have provided evidence for the Iron Age I phase (Magee 1996, Magee & Carter 1999). The evidence from Shimal resulted in the periodization of Iron Age I into four subphases: Phases 4a, 4b, 4c and 4d, ranging between 1200 and 800 BC (Velde 1992: 79–80). While excavations at Kalba 4 resulted in a more detailed chronology with four main phases (Carter 1997a: 137–144): Phases 4 (a–b) and 5 (1300–1,100 BC) and Phases 6–7 (1,100–600 BC). Excavations and C14 dating at Tell Abraq, and the reanalysis of C14 data from other sites such as Rumeilah and Shimal, led Magee (1996) to build up the following tentative chronology:

Iron Age-Hellenistic-Parthian Periods Due to some terminological problems regarding the period from 1300 BC until 200 AD, a brief summary of the three distinct terminologies used in describing this period will be presented. The chronology for each of these terminologies shall be outlined, as well as the the debate among the archaeologists researching the area. Finally the chronology to be used in the current study will be established. Iron Age Fieldwork has produced a large number of Iron Age sites distributed all over the Oman Peninsula, leading to the establishment of a number of chronologies for the period (Table 9). In central Oman, fieldwork by the German Mining Museum resulted in the discovery of what has been called the ‘Lizq Period’. This takes its name from the Lizq Fortress in ash-Sharqyiah where a new type of pottery was recovered which covered almost the whole of the 1st millennium BC (Weisgerber 1980, 1981 & 1982; Yule & Weisgerber 1988). This fortress yielded a C14 date (KN–3499, 5568 half-life) of 2,770 ± 160 BP that was calibrated to 1,210–800 BC (1 sigma) (cf. Yule & Weisgerber 1988: 32; Yule 2001a: 148, Table 6.4; Magee & Carter 1999: 173).

Period Iron I Iron II Iron III

Date 1300–1,100 BC 1,100–600 BC 600–300 BC

Shortly afterwards, Magee (2003 & 2004) altered the dating of Iron II to 1000–600 BC, based upon further reanalysis of C14 data from Tell Abraq, Muweilah, Husn Awhala, Raki 2, al-Thuqaibah and Hili 17, using the 4.3 probability method (Table 8 & see Magee 1998a: 114, Table 1; 1999: 45–46, Tables 1–3; 2003: 2–6, figs. 1–2, 5 & 6; 2004: 37–38, Tables 1–3). Many scholars have accepted this chronology for the Iron Age, although there

In the Buraimi Oasis, several important Iron Age sites have been found (including Hili 2, Hili 3, Hili 5, Hili 8, Hili H, Hili 14 and Rumeilah) (Potts 1990a: 365). The first Iron Age chronology in the peninsula was based on the evidence from the settlement of Rumeilah (Boucharlat

Rumeilah – Period I Period II

Shimal Phases 4a–4b Phases 4c–4d –

Tell Abraq Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

Kalba 4 Phases 4a–b & 5 Phases 6 –

Table 8: Relative periodization of Tell Abraq, Rumeilah, Shimal (Magee 1996: 244) and Kalba 4 (Carter 1997a: 137–144)

  However, he suggested that this dating can be argued ± 50 years (ibid: 102). 8

29

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula Reference Boucharlat & Lombard 1985, 1991

Dating 1985: Period I (1000/900–800/700 BC) & Period II (800/700–500–400 BC) 1991: – Rumeilah I ca. 1,350/1300– 1000/950 BC: IA= 1,350/1300– 1,150/1,100 BC IB = 1,150/1000– 1000/950 BC – Rumeilah II ca. 1000/950– 350/300 BC: IIA = 1000/950– 750/700 BC IIB = 750/700– 500/450 BC IIC = 500/450–350/300 BC Lizq Period Weisgerber 1980, (Early Iron Age) 1981, 1982; Yule & Weisgerber Yule & Weisgerber 1988: Lizq (1000–500 BC) 1988; Yule & Kazenwadel Yule & Kazenwadel 1993: (1200–200 BCE) 1993

Sites Rumeilah

Type of Evidence 1– Ceramics & other finds parallels from local sites 2– Ceramics parallels with foreign sites in Baluchistan, Eastern Arabia, Mesopotamia & South–eastern Iran 3– Other finds: incised arrowheads from western Iran; dirks & swords from western Asia, Mesopotamia & Iran; seals from Bahrain 4– C14 absolute chronology from charcoal samples

Lizq fortress 1– Ceramic comparisons from local sites: Dibba, Rumeilah & Hili 2– Ceramic foreign comparison from sites in Bahrain; Iranian influence of Bridge–spouted jars 3– Lizq Period free–standing (pillbox graves) 4– Other finds from local sites: Bronze arrowheads from Hili 2, Maysar, Qusais, Qarn Bint Saud & Samad; Iranian influence daggers with a mushroom–shaped grip terminal 5– C14 date Phases 4a–4b (Tell Abraq Phase 1) Shimal 1– Ceramics comparisons with local sites Vogt & Franke2– C14 dates Vogt 1987; Franke- Phases 4c–4d (Tell Abraq Phase 2) 3– Other finds: incised arrowheads from western Iran Vogt 1991; Velde 1991, 1992 – Phase 1 or Iron I: 1300–1,100 Tell Abraq 1– Ceramics & other finds parallels from local sites Magee 1996; BC 2– Ceramics parallels with foreign sites in Bahrain, Iran, 1998a–b, – Phase 2 or Iron II: 1,100–600 Mesopotamia Weeks 1997 BC 3– Other finds comparisons: bronze shaft hole axe (Oman – Phase 3 or Iron III: 600–300 BC & Iran), faience cylindrical seal (Iran, Mesopotamia) 4– Re–analysis of C14 data from Tell Abraq, Rumeilah & Shimal – Iron I: 1300–1000 BC Tell Abraq, 1– Ceramics & other finds parallels from local sites Magee 1998a–b, Rumeilah, 2– Ceramics functional analysis using a program of 1999, 2002, 2003, – Iron II: 1000–600 BC – Iron III: 600–300 BC Husn compositional analysis (PIXE–PIGME) on the ceramics 2004; Magee & Awhala, from Tell Abraq, Rumeilah, Husn Awhala, Muweilah & Thompson 2001 Muweilah, several other sites southeastern Iran Raki 2, Al– 3– Ceramics parallels with foreign sites in Iran, Thuqaibah, Mesopotamia & Bahrain Hili 17 4– Review C14 dates from Tell Abraq, Muweilah, Husn Awhala, Raki 2, Al–Thuqaibah, Hili 17 Phases 4a–b & 5= (Magee Iron I: Kalba 4 1– Ceramics & other finds parallels with local sites Carter 1997a–b 1300–1,100 BC) 2– Ceramics parallels with foreign sites in Bahrain, Iran & Phase 6= (Magee Iron II, 1,100– Central Asia 600 BC) 3– C14 from published sites

Table 9: Proposed chronology of the Iron Age and the related evidence AD) there was continuity in settlement, which may be seen in the archaeological evidence recovered from Hellenistic settlements (including ed-Dur, Mleiha and Samad) (Boucharlat 1991: 297). These sites and other archaeological contexts provided evidence indicating that from the beginning of this period, the population of the Oman Peninsula utilised iron on a large-scale (Potts 1990b: 272; Boucharlat 1991: 297). Two of these sites, ed-Dur and Mleiha, are important and have provided a significant quantity of Hellenistic–Parthian materials (Table 10), some imported and some imitated, from a number of neighbouring regions (cf. Boucharlat et al. 1984, 1985, 1986, & 1989; Bernard et al. 1988; Besancon

is some doubt as to the material definition of the Iron Age I period (Magee 1996, 1998a–b & 2003; Magee & Carter 1999). As this period is represented by only a few settlements including Tell Abraq, Shimal, Bithnah and Kalba 4 (Magee & Carter 1999). By contrast, the Iron Age II period is better defined than the Iron Age I (Magee 2002, 2003, 2004), while the Iron Age III period is still relatively unknown (Magee 1998b: 51). Hellenistic-Parthian It is argued that from the Late Iron Age to the Hellenistic– Parthian period (3rd century BC–1st/2nd century 30

Definition of Chronological Periods Reference Boucharlat et al. 1984, 1985, 1986; Bernard et al. 1988; Besancon et al. 1989; Barbier et al. 1990/2; Boucharlat & Mouton 1991, 1994 & 1998; Boucharlat 1991; Mouton et al. 1993/4; Mouton 1999; Benoist ,Mouton & Schiettecatte 2003

Dating Sites Mleiha – Phase I: c. Iron Age or later – Phase II: 3rd cent–1st half of the 2nd cent. BC – Phase IIIA: 2nd half of the 2nd cent–1st cent. BC – Phase IIIB: 1st cent–2nd cent. AD –Phase IV: 3rd cent–4th cent. AD

al–Qaisy 1975; Haerinck, 1st –4th centuries AD Metdepenninghen & Stevens 1991; Haerinck 1996 & 2003a; Whitehouse 2000; Zutterman 2003; Weeks 2004b; Daems 2004a–b

ed-Dur

Kennet 2005

Kush, Mleiha, ed-Dur

Period 1 (3rd century BC to 1st/2nd century AD)

Type of Evidence 1– Ceramic & other finds comparisons with local materials 2– Ceramic foreign comparisons: Glazed pottery from Mesopotamia, South & South–western Iran & the East Mediterranean countries; Roman skyphos glazed pottery; Greek amphorae from Rhodes; other pottery from Pakistan, India, Bahrain, Yemen, the Near East, Southern Iran, South, East & North–East Arabia, Egypt, eastern Saudi Arabia 3– Glass vessels from the Middle East (Egypt, Syria & Palestine), Europe & the East Mediterranean countries – South Arabian or Hasaitic aramaic inscriptions 4– East–African lamps 5– Metal objects: Iron arrowheads= Graves from Wadi Samad and Failaka, & a fragment of a hollow bronze horse from Jebel Kenzan, north–east of Hofuf, Sumail, ed-Dur, and a grave in the Wadi Samad 6– Stone vessels: alabaster lids for small unguent jars and stone pots from Yemen or Qaryat al–Fau and Thaj in Central Arabia 7– Coins: Athena, South Arabian & North–East Arabia 1– Ceramic & other finds comparisons with local materials 2– Ceramics foreign comparisons: Roman Eastern terra sigillata, Indian Red Polished Ware, Mesopotamian eggshell ware, glazed BI–ware, green–glazed Parthian vessels from southern Iraq or Khuzistan; a fine black– on–orange ware from Tepe Yahya, pottery from Iran and Central Asia 3– Glass objects: Roman blown & pillar–moulded glass vessels; vessels from Mesopotamia & the Mediterranean 4– Epigraphic finds: fragments of Aramaic inscription, an inscribed stone incense–burner with nine lines of Aramaic; a Greek alpha, and the letters (LNV), in Latin, incised on sherds 5– Metal objects: a bronze Roman lamp; lead weights with parallels from Bahrain; a lead knob with a Roman male head – Stone objects: limestone bird status; an inscribed stone incense–burner; two sculpted limestone eagles with parallels from Hatra 6– Coins: Greek Characene (southern Iraq & Khuzistan); few silver teradrachm of Seleucus III or IV; a gold aureus of Tiberius of the Pontiff Maxim type, a square Indian base–metal coin; north & south– eastern Arabian coins; two copper/bronze coins of the Nabatean king Aretas IV; an Indian coin; a denarius of the Roman emperor Tiberius Review materials from sites like Mleiha, ed-Dur

Table 10: Proposed chronology of the Hellenistic–Parthian period and the related evidence et al. 1989; Boucharlat 1991; Boucharlat & Mouton 1991 & 1994; Haerinck 1996 & 2003a; Benoist, Mouton & Schiettecatte 2003; Daems 2004a–b). These materials include ceramics from Bahrain, Yemen, southern, eastern and north–eastern Arabia, Mesopotamia, southern and south–western Iran, India, Pakistan, the Near East and the eastern Mediterranean. Among these ceramics are Roman skyphoi, Greek amphorae from Rhodes, Roman Eastern

terra sigillata, Indian red polished ware, Mesopotamian eggshell ware, glazed BI–ware, green–glazed Parthian vessels from southern Iraq or Khuzistan, and fine black– on–orange ware from Tepe Yahya. There are also other imported materials including glass from Mesopotamia, the Middle East (Egypt, Syria & Palestine), Europe and the eastern Mediterranean countries. Among these are Roman blown and pillar-moulded glass vessels. Metal objects 31

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula Samad Period

have also proved to have parallels from Failaka, Bahrain, Jebel Kenzan, the north–east of Hofuf and Greece. Based on the substantial number and variety of these imported objects, it is possible to propose a tentative date for the edDur and Mleiha settlements (Table 10) of between the 3rd century BC and the 4th century AD (Boucharlat 1991: 289; Mouton 1999). This is further supported by local, imported and imitated numismatic evidence, as well as fragments of South Arabian and Hasaitic Aramaic inscriptions.

In late 1970s, the German Archaeological Expedition to Oman discovered a number of handmade pots, iron objects and other finds from pre-Islamic cemeteries in the area of Samad–Maysar. These finds were dated to the so-called ‘Samad Period’ after the location of the first of these tombs (Yule & Kazenwadel 1993: 251). Since that time, the main aim of the expedition has been to establish a chronology for this period, and to provide evidence that fills in the gap between the Early and Late Iron Age (Yule 2001a: 494). Therefore, several excavations have been carried out in the ash-Sharqyiah region and in central Oman (cf. Weisgerber 1980, 1981; Yule & Weisgerber 1988, 1998 & 2001; Weisgerber & Yule 1999 & 2003; Yule 1993, 1995, 1996, 2001a & 2005).

This evidence allowed the excavators to formulate a periodized chronology for these sites. Excavation of the settlement and tombs at Mleiha allowed the reconstruction of a continuous stratigraphy of the site from the end of the 1st millennium BC to the 3rd/4th centuries AD (Mouton 1999: 15) with four occupation phases being established (Table 10 & cf. Boucharlat & Mouton 1991: 23–24; Barbier et al. 1990/2: 25; Mouton 1999: 15–19): Phase Phase II Phase IIIA Phase IIIB Phase IV

Based on this research Yule has consistently argued that the Samad period is unique and that it spans an extensive length of time (Yule & Kazenwadel 1993; Yule 1999, 2001a, 2005). Since its initial discovery, this period has been assigned to a number of periodizations, some narrowing and some expanding its timespan. It was first dated to c. 500 BC–600 AD (Yule & Weisgerber 1988: 7) which was later altered to c. 100 BC–893 AD (Yule 1993: 148–149). Still later, the chronology was expanded to cover the period from 300 BC to 900 AD (Weisgerber & Yule 1999: 97) and from 300 BC to 1000 AD (Yule 2001a & Yule 2005). Dating was based on ceramics and other finds which were compared with materials from local sites (Asimah, Wa’ab and also Samad, ed-Dur & Mleiha) and foreign sites (from the Gulf, Arabia, Bahrain, Mesopotamia, Iran and the Mediterranean) (Table 11). However, dating was primarily based on a large number of C14 determinations (cf. Yule & Kazenwadel 1993: 256, Tables 2-3; Yule & Weisgerber 2001: 36-38, Tables 6-8; Yule 1999: 142, 2001a: 148–151, Tables 6.4–6.6 & 2005: 309, Table 7).

Dating 3rd century – first half of the 2nd century BC Second half of the 2nd century – 1st century BC 1st century – 2nd century AD 3rd century – 4th century AD

Dating of the four occupational phases at Mleiha and those from ed-Dur allowed the formulation of a chronology for the whole of the Oman Peninsula from the 3rd century BC to the 4th century AD. Thus, four periods have been established, namely ‘Prē–Islamique Rēcent’ (Late PreIslamic) A, B, C and D (corresponding to phases II, IIIA, IIIB and IV of Mleiha) (Boucharlat & Mouton 1998: 18– 22; Mouton 1999: 15–19; Benoist, Mouton & Schiettecatte 2003: 59–60).

Reference Yule & Weisgerber 1988, 1991; Yule & Kazenwadel 1993; Weisgerber & Yule 1999; Yule 1993, 2001a, 2005

Dating Samad Period Late Iron Age Yule & Weisgerber 1988: (500 BC–600 AD) Yule 1993: (100 BCE–893 CE) Weisgerber & Yule 1999: (300 BC–900 AD) Yule 2001a: (end of 1st mill BCE–late 10th century CE) Yule 2005: (300 BC to AD 1000)

Sites Samad/Maysar Cemeteries & other sites

Type of Evidence 1– Tombs architecture comparisons & their contents 2– The appearance of large number of iron weapons & other metal implements, indicating a mastery of iron technology 3– Ceramic & other finds comparisons with materials from local sites (e.g. Asimah, Wa’ab and also Samad, ed-Dur & Mleiha) 4– Ceramic foreign comparisons from sites in Arabia, Bahrain, Mesopotamia, Iran and the Mediterranean 5– Metal foreign comparisons: bronze ‘Phoenician’ bowls in the Mediterranean region; Achaemenid bronze bowl, swords from South Asia & Iran, iron leaf–shaped arrowheads from the Seleucid fortress on Failaka; daggers in Iranian style; 6– Other finds foreign comparisons: stone vessels from south–west Arabian; Hellenistic glass bottles; Proto– Arabic (Old South Arabian letters) script signs of the pottery; imported beads 7– C14 determinations

Table 11: Proposed chronology of the Samad period and the related evidence 32

Definition of Chronological Periods A number of researchers have expressed their doubts and reservations regarding the Samad C14 dates (cf. Haerinck 2003b; Potts 2002 & 2004; Kennet 2007). Recently, Kennet (2007) has reviewed the evidence provided for this period, mainly the C14 dates and the material parallels. He concluded that all of the dates that place the Samad in and after the Sasanian period are either incorrect or are very problematic. It was further suggested that the vast majority of the Samad material should be dated to, or before, the 1st/2nd century AD, with only a few possible tombs which might include material from the 3rd century AD (ibid: 16–17). Kennet (ibid: 14–15) argues that several of these C14 dates are unreliable (for example, the six so-called ‘outlier’ dates from the Samad tombs, three from Amlah/al-Fueda and the 10th–12th century AD honeycomb cemetery in Bawshar). Among 23 published C14 dates, there are 10 (over 31%) which have proved to be incorrect, representing a high percentage that has led Kennet to suspect all the provided C14 dates. There is also an obvious contradiction between the suggested C14 dates and the chronology provided by the archaeological parallels (ibid: 15).

For the purpose of this study, the terminology used in describing the Wadi Andam Survey material is based on the identification of the survey pottery made by Schreiber. His identifications divided the Iron Age into two periods: Early Iron Age and Late Iron Age/Samad. The same chronology was applied to the material recovered from his surveys in Central Oman, including at Ibra, Izki and Nizwa (Schreiber 2007b). His dating for the Late Iron Age was based on the chronology suggested for the Samad period (Yule 2001a) material and the C14 dates, despite that fact that none of the material recovered from this period in Schreiber’s surveys yielded evidence later than 300 AD through the comparisons made with material from Mleiha and ed-Dur (Schreiber 2007 Pers. Comm.). There is also the fact that in ‘Central Oman’, no material from Iron I has so far been recovered, with the exception of C14 dates of charcoal samples from the excavations at Salut (Bahla BB-15) that range between 1300 and 800 BC (Iron I & II) (Avanzini, Sedov & Condoluci 2005: 351 & Table 1: 374). However, the pottery recovered from the excavations is Iron Age II (Magee 2007 Pers. Comm.). Therefore, it is possible that the Iron I pottery is in fact a ‘regional–coastal’ variant rather than a distinct period (Schreiber 2007 Pers. Comm.).

For the purpose of this study, the Samad period has been addressed separately due to the confusions and reservations noted above. The evidence presented by Kennet indicates that it is possible to consider the Samad period as ‘preSasanian’ (ibid: 17). In other words, the evidence indicates that this period appears to be dated to the Late Iron Age–Hellenistic–Parthian periods (ca. 300 BC–100/200 AD) and may therefore be seen as a local variant of the Hellenistic/Parthian material already described.

With all of this in mind, in describing the evidence from the Wadi Andam Survey the period from 1300 to 300 BC will be described as Early Iron Age and the period from 300 BC to 200 AD as Late Iron Age/Samad (Tables 2 & 12). This includes the so-called ‘Hellenistic–Parthian’ period. This periodization is workable only for the Wadi Andam Survey material, and has been made in order to solve any issues and misunderstandings in referring to the Iron Age, and particularly the Samad period. It has not been made with the intention of providing a standardised Iron Age chronology for the Oman Peninsula. Given the confusion regarding this period, this simple approach has been taken, even if, with more time and research, it may be possible to subdivide the Wadi Andam material into a finer chronological scheme. However, by nessecity the terminology used in describing the published archaeological evidence in Chapters Five and Six is, by necessity, based on the dating provided in the literature (Table 3).

Summary To summarise, excavations at Tell Abraq (Potts 1990c, 1991; Magee 1996), Kalba 4 (Carter 1997a–b) and recently at Muweilah (Magee & Thompson 2001; Magee 2002, 2003 & 2004), together with those at Rumeilah, have provided us with a good understanding of the Iron Age, and have allowed the establishment of three broad chronological periodizations within the Iron Age (Magee 1996 & 2003). It is now widely accepted that the beginning of the Iron Age in the Oman Peninsula can be dated to around 1300 BC, and its cessasation to approximately 300 BC (Boucharlat & Lombard 1991; Potts 1990a: 354–400 & 1990c; Magee 1996, 2003 & 2004). Despite this, there is substantial disagreement over terminology among archaeologists working in the U.A.E and Oman related to the so-called ‘Samad Period’. The most recent periodization/terminology for the Iron Age in the UAE has been set out by Magee who divided it into three periods: Iron I, II and III (Table 12). By contrast, based on research in Oman Yule (2001a) and Schreiber (2007b) have divided the Iron Age into two periods: Early (Lizq Period) and Late Iron Age (Samad Period) (Table 12). This situation complicates the adoption of any chronology given the overlapping dating.

Sasanian-Early Islamic Based on historical evidence, several scholars have argued that the Oman Peninsula from the 3rd century AD to the onset of Islam was under the control of the Sasanian regime (Wilkinson 1973, 1977, 1979; Williamson 1973; Potts 1990a: 328–340). However, archaeological investigation has revealed very few sites dating to the Sasanian–Early Islamic period (Potts 1990b: 296; Kennet 2007: 89). This may be related to a lack of concrete understanding with regards to the ceramics of the period (de Cardi, Kennet & Stocks 1994: 54).

33

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula Date 1300–1000 BC 1000–600 BC 600–300 BC 300 BC–200 AD 200–1000 AD

Magee (1996/2003) Iron I Iron II Iron III Hellenistic–Parthian ?

Yule (2001a) & Schreiber (2007b) Early Iron Age

Wadi Andam Survey (2008) Early Iron Age

Late Iron Age/Samad

Late Iron Age/Samad Sasanian/Early Islamic

Table 12: Comparative chronology for the Iron Age/Hellenistic–Parthian Periods Although several sites have been identified as Sasanian– Early Islamic, it has been argued that many of these were mistakenly attributed to this period (Kennet 2007). Kennet (ibid: 90–91, Tables 1–2) has provided a list of all the reliable and unreliable Sasanian–Early Islamic sites in Eastern Arabia, including the Oman Peninsula. He has also provided an evaluation of the Sasanian and early Islamic archaeology in the Oman Peninsula, and concluded that little of the published evidence is reliable and that the majority of it is either “erroneous or highly doubtful” (Kennet 2007: 86).

AD) from Phase W–04 (Kennet 2004: 14, Table 2) and from other finds including glass, beads, shell, bone and ceramics imported from Mesopotamia, Iran and southern Asia (Kennet 2005: 111). Apart from Period II, all the Kush sequence phases were dated based on the presence of pottery and other materials (Kennet 2001: 43–44). Kush also provided evidence for settlement continuity from the Sasanian to the Late Islamic period with two phases representing the Early Islamic period: Period III dated to the late 8th–early 9th centuries AD and Period IV from the 9th to the 11th century AD (cf. Kennet 2001: 43, Table 7; 2004: 14, Table 2).

Three important sites, however, have provided reliable evidence for large Sasanian period settlements: ed-Dur, Mleiha and Kush. Ed-Dur is a large coastal settlement with associated fort and tombs. It has provided evidence indicating that it was occupied between the 1st–early 2nd and 4th centuries AD. The dating of ed-Dur is based on Roman glass, as well as Mesopotamian and South Asian ceramics (cf. Boucharlat et al. 1989; Haerinck, Metdepenninghen & Stevens 1991; Haerinck 1996 & 2003a). The inland site of Mleiha is also a large settlement with a fort, and has produced evidence of occupation from the 3rd century BC to the c. 4th century AD (cf. Boucharlat et al. 1984, 1985, 1986; Boucharlat & Mouton 1991, 1994; Boucharlat 1991; Mouton 1999; Benoist, Mouton & Schiettecatte 2003). Upon excavation Mleiha fort yielded evidence indicating that it was first occupied during the late 2nd/early 3rd century AD (Phase IIIB or Period C), while its second phase is dated to the 3rd/4th century AD (Phase IV) (Benoist, Mouton & Schiettecatte 2003: 60). The evidence includes fragments of coin moulds as well as imported pottery and other finds from Iran, Mesopotamia, Egypt, southern Asia, southern Arabia and possibly Africa (ibid: 66–71).

Based on this evidence, a simple chronology will be adopted that places the Sasanian-Early Islamic period between the 3rd and 9th centuries AD for the purposes of this study. The Abbasid Period (9th – 10th/early 11th century AD) The Sasanian–Early Islamic period appears to have ended by the early 9th century AD. After this point a new pottery assemblage is dominant, the so-called ‘Samarra horizon’. This assemblage shows the developments in Islamic ceramic production with the introduction of opacified lead and possibly tin glazes with polychrome decoration (Kennet 2004: 31). The dating of this ceramic assemblage has come under lively discussion (Adams 1970; Kervran 1977, 1996; Whitehouse 1979; Tampoe 1989; Northedge & Kennet 1995; Kennet 2004). However, Kennet (2004: 83) has examined and evaluated the evidence for this period, and excavation data from Kush and survey data from Ras al-Khaimah suggests that the ‘Samarra horizon’ dates from the early 9th century onwards. According to his ‘Ceramic Periods’, this horizon dates between the 9th and 10th/early 11th century AD (Periods IIa [Samarran Abbasid] and IIb [Post-Samarran Abbasid]). The wares of this period are very distinctive (including cobalt decorated white glaze, plain opaque white glaze, splashed ware, monochrome lustre and early sgraffiato) (ibid: 32, Table 19). Despite their distinciveness, these wares are very poorly represented in the Wadi Andam area, and cannot easily be distinguished. It is possible that there are sherds of some of these wares within the pottery from Wadi Andam attributed to the following classes: Green Glazed Early Islamic (GGEI) or Sgraffiato Middle Islamic (SGRF) (see Appendix C). The difficulty in distinguishing the assemblage belonging to this horizon has led us to subsume this period within the Sasanian–Early Islamic timeframe.

Excavations at the coastal site of Kush yielded an occupational sequence dating from the 5th to the 13th centuries AD (Kennet 1997, 2001). The earliest excavated phase is Period I dated to the 5th–6th centuries AD and includes two phases of mud-brick structures, while Period II consists of a rectangular mud-brick tower (cf. Kennet 2001: 43–45, Table 7; 2004: 14, Table 2; 2005: 109), a C14 date of 670 ± 40 AD was obtained from one of the Period II hearths, which allowed the construction and occupation of the tower to be dated to a point in the very late Sasanian or very early Islamic period (BM–3169 1340 ± 35 BP=AD 645–710 at 1 sigma) (Kennet 2001: 44; 2004: 14; 2005: 111). This period was also dated from the presence of a Sasanian coin depicting Kavad I (issued 507–519

34

Definition of Chronological Periods The Islamic Periods (Middle Islamic to Recent Times)

Period

Surveys have revealed the presence of a large number of Islamic sites across the whole of the Oman Peninsula. They can be found in the northern Emirates (de Cardi & Doe 1971; Doe & de Cardi 1983; de Cardi 1985; Stocks 1996; de Cardi, Kennet & Stocks 1994; Brass & Britton 2004), northern Oman (de Cardi 1975 & 1977; de Cardi, Doe & Roskams 1977), and Sohar (Williamson 1974; Wilkinson 1975, 1976 & 1977; Costa & Wilkinson 1987). The most recent surveys were carried out by the ADIAS in AbuDhabi (King et al. 1995; King & Hellyer 1997; King 1998; King & Tonghini 1998; King 2001; Hellyer 2002a) and the Omani–German Project in Wadi Bani Awaf, al-Hamra, Ibra, Izki and Nizwa (Häser 2000 & 2003; Schreiber & Häser 2004; Schreiber 2004, 2005 & 2007a–b). The dating of these plentiful Islamic sites is based on surface finds, especially the ceramics. Only a small number of excavated sites may be dated to the later Islamic periods. This is probably due to the focus of the surveys on recording and excavating pre-Islamic sites .

Period 1

Level of Development Growth

Period 2

Peak

Period 3 Period 4

End of growth & beginning of slow decline Post–urban

Period 5

Abandonment

Date Early 14th – late 14th/15th centuries AD Early 15th – Early 16th centuries AD Early 16th – mid/late 16th centuries AD Mid/Late 16th century AD Late 16th – 20th centuries AD

Based on this evidence, it is clear that there are two periods which can be set out for the purpose of this study: the Middle Islamic period stretching from the 11th to 14th centuries AD (Kush Periods V, VI and VII) and the Late Islamic–Recent period dated from the 14th century AD onwards (al-Mataf Phases M–Pre, M–I to M–VI & M– Rec; Kush Period VIII). This basic chronology has been defined based on comparisons between the ceramics found during the Wadi Andam Survey and those described by Kennet (2004)..

Only two major settlements of this period have been excavated and provide a reliable periodization within their stratigraphic sequence: Julfar (al-Mataf) and Kush in Ras alKhaimah. The coastal site of Kush yielded an occupational sequence dating from the 5th to the 13th century AD (cf. Kennet 1997, 2001, 2004, 2005). Kennet (2001: 43–45, Table 7 & 2004: 14, Table 2) proposed for a chronology for Kush in which Middle and Late Islamic periods fall within four defined periods (Periods V–VII for the Middle and Period VIII for the Late Islamic. They are all dated based on ceramics and other material (Kennet 2001: 43–44). The second site (Julfar) is one of the best excavated sties in the peninsula dating to the 14th–16th centuries AD. Since the early 1970s, this site has been subject to numerous surveys and excavations at the hands of different archaeological expeditions including the Iraqi, French, British, German, and Japanese. The published archaeological evidence (cf. Taha 1975; Hansman 1980; King 1990, 1991, 1992; Vogt 1991; Sasaki & Sasaki 1992 & 1998; Sasaki 1995; Kennet 2003) offers a comprehensive picture of the site’s development from a small fishing community in the mid–14th century to a fully urbanised settlement by the mid–15th century occupied until its final decline and abandonment by the late 16th century (Kennet 2003: 103). Kennet reviewed and synthesised all the evidence available from these publications with other unpublished data and was able to outline the site’s development (ibid: 114–120, Table 3) in four chronological periods (cf. Kennet 2003: 115, Table 3; 2004: 14, Table 2; 68, Table 28):

Conclusion This chapter has attempted to briefly outline the various chronologies and terminologies that have been suggested by scholars researching the archaeology of the Oman Peninsula. It has briefly reviewed the available archaeological evidence that has been utilized to define these periodizations, and highlighted the main problems with each of them. The key diagnostic forms or wares of each of these periods have been compared with those identified by the Wadi Andam Survey. Appendix C includes a thorough description of the pottery classification methodology utilized in this study, as well as the different ceramic classes/horizons defined using the pottery collected during the survey dating from the Bronze Age to the present day. References to parallels from different excavated sites have been provided for each ceramic class.

35

CHAPTER FOUR THE WADI ANDAM SURVEY delimit the surveyed areas and record sites. Section two offers a quantified analysis based on pottery collected during the survey. The final section provides a description of the archaeological evidence by period that has been uncovered and goes someway in interpreting this material

.

This chapter presents the results of the Wadi Andam Survey.Divided into three sections, the first introduces the sample area and its selected sub-units and explains the reasons behind making these divisions. It also defines the survey methodology and the different strategies used to

Fig. 14: The survey transect and the location of surveyed areas 36

The Wadi Andam Survey Section One The Research Methodology

decided in this study to define six tiers of investigation and survey from the broadest regional level to the most detailed and site-specific (Fig. 15 & Table 13). In this way, information garnered from the lowest and most detailed levels of survey can be fitted into a broader regional framework (Level 1 below) providing both context and comparative material.

Sample Units Selection After the decision was taken to survey Wadi Andam, the area was investigated at a general level for several days in order to gain sufficient understanding of its geography and landscape, and to delimit areas for more detailed study. Consequently a transect of approximately 40 by 100 km was delineated (see Fig. 2 & 14), taking into consideration the four geographical zones of the wadi. These being 1) the watershed and upper wadis in the north; 2) the lower wadis; 3) gravel hills and broad wadis; and 4) the gravel flat interfluves zone in the south.

Throughout this study, where possible and where relevant, I will attempt to indicate which level of survey and investigation I am discussing and will relate this to Table 13. In order to be clear, I will always refer to these levels in parenthesis (e.g. Level 1) and where relevant, will indicate the type of evidence that has been used (e.g. Level 1literature, Level 2 - database).

The size of the sample units within this area was dictated by the time available for survey, especially since the majority of the work was carried out by a single researcher. Therefore, one or two examples of wadi villages from each geographical zone were selected. These were supported by investigations in other areas, namely the Upper Wadi Andam and Hafit Surveys.

These levels involve different tiers of investigation which need to be highlighted before the details of data analysis are explained. Some hypothetical examples and images will be presented in order to clearly explain each level. Level 1 Literature – Previous Archaeological Conclusions and Regional Long-term Trends

The survey was carried out across two seasons of fieldwork (15th December 2004 to 30th March 2005 and from 18th November 2005 to 24th January 2006).

This research involved reading the published reports of surveys undertaken in the northern Oman Peninsula since the late 1950s. This level was important in order to provide a period by period discussion of the chronology as set out by numerous scholars. This research was vital in enhancing the author’s understanding of the various periodizations suggested for the sequences of different sites, and to facilitate the making of an informed decision as to which chronology was to be used in the study for each period. Moreover, this stage was vital in providing background information as to the varying theories and conclusions put forward regarding settlement patterns over time in the peninsula, and to allow comparisons to be made between the various published theories and the results of this research.

Methodology and Survey Levels When studying the archaeology of settlement it is possible to operate at numerous levels. If a regional approach is taken (e.g. northern Oman Peninsula) then it is possible to gain an impression of general trends and patterns, but the details of individual sites are lacking. By contrast, if the effort is made to concentrate on individual sites, then a high level of detail may be available, but without the context of the general trends of the region. In order to best conduct a balanced investigation into the settlement history of the northern Oman Peninsula, it was Level 1 2 3 4 5 6

Definition Regional (e.g. northern Oman Peninsula)

Type of Evidence Literature Database of sites from literature Sub-Regional Literature (e.g. Batinah, Hajar Mountains) Database of sites from literature Local Area Literature (areas around Wadi Andam) Database of sites from literature Surveys Review Wadi (Wadi Andam) Fieldwork Hafit cairn survey Some literature Sample areas (e.g. PCAs, OVAs, UWA) Fieldwork Surface finds (e.g. pottery and others) Structural remains (e.g. settlements, tombs) Individual site (e.g. al-Khashbah, al- Fieldwork Qaryatain) Surface finds (e.g. pottery and others) Structural remains (e.g. settlements, tombs) Some literature

Table 13: Rough plan of the different levels of investigation and survey and the type of evidence and approach that has been used

37

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 15: Levels of survey: regional and sub-regional, local area , Wadi Andam , and individual site As well as undertaking a literature review of the theories of settlement patterns over time, a quantifiable measure was also sought through the creation of a sites’ database. This facilitated the collection and analysis of site data in order to gain insight into settlement patterns over time at the broader geographical level: the northern Oman Peninsula. This allows for quantified comparisons to be made with any trends seen in the Wadi Andam Survey.

a ‘sub-regional level’ using the sites’ database. For this purpose, the northern Oman Peninsula was divided into different sub-regions (see Chapter Six, Fig. 151 and Table 40). This provides a more detailed picture of settlement patterns at a regional level within the northern Oman Peninsula. This allows comparisons to be made at the broadest level, between sub-regions and with any trends that emerge from the Wadi Andam Survey.

This type of analysis has not been undertaken using archaeological data from the Oman Peninsula before.

Level 3 Literature– Local Area Long-term Trends and Survey Projects Review

Level 2 Literature–Sub-regional Long-term Trends

This level examines the published data regarding sites and settlement patterns over time within the area local to Wadi Andam. This provides a quantified analysis of long-term trends within area more narrow context to the

This level of investigation examines and analyses the quantified evidence for long-term settlement trends on 38

The Wadi Andam Survey area of interest. This level also includes a review of the methodologies and the results of some surveys carried out within the local area. In doing so, highlighting any problems that might restrict the accuracy of the analysis of the evidence from the published literature, and giving insight into how the data should be interpreted.

attempting to analyse the material. The relatively small number of locations where agricultural settlement is feasible has been a major constraining factor on settlement in the region. This means that many locations have been occupied repeatedly during many of archaeological periods. This has resulted in the destruction of the remains of older settlements exacerbating the natural processes of alluviation and erosion. Furthermore, the high level of land disturbance carried out in traditional agricultural practices in cultivating date-palm destroys, obscures and disturbs archaeological material. This results in a confused surface scatter of pottery sherds in which all periods of occupation are represented, but in a very mixed state.

Level 4: Wadi Survey Level four of survey involves a general investigation of the wider area of study in order to better understand its geography and landscape. This reconnaissance allows areas to be chosen for more detailed study, and allows the survey methodology to be adapted and refined. Accordingly, at the commencement of the project, a number of days were allowed for a general investigation of the area. The study area was divided into four geographical zones (Fig. 2 & 14) with the watershed and upper wadis in the north, and the lower wadis, gravel hills and broad wadis, and gravel flat interfluves to the south. Moreover, the survey methodologies utilised by the Hinterland of Sohar Project (Costa & Wilkinson TJ 1987: 79–88) and the Ras alKhaimah Survey (Kennet 2002) were examined in order to facilitate the development of a new survey methodology suitable for the geography of northern Oman, and which could be used effectively in Wadi Andam.

To understand this process, the various stages of what may be called the ‘cycle of wadi agriculture’ have been mapped out (Fig. 16). This figure uses the fictional example of a settlement of mudbrick buildings established during the Umm an-Nar period on the lower hill slopes above the wadi bed (Fig. 16:1). Upon abandonment of the settlement the structures and their associated pottery-containing deposits erode and spread down the slopes and out into the wadi channel where they became partly buried by alluvium (Fig. 16: 2 & 3). At a later point date palm groves were established, involving excavation into the alluvium to facilitate irrigation with the digging of wells and the piling up of excavated earth into bunds and clearance mounds (Fig. 16: 4). The bunds and clearance mounds will include traces of buried archaeological materials from the earlier Umm an-Nar settlement. Further abandonment of the settlement will result in the date palm groves and bunds being eroded and buried by alluvium (Fig. 16: 5). In due course the cycle repeats itself with subsequent abandonment and re-occupations (Fig. 16: 5 & 6) using the same locality because of the environmental constraints.

Further research undertaken at this level was a survey to establish the approximate distribution of Hafit and Beehive tombs from the northern watersheds to the southern gravel flat interfluves of Wadi Andam. Fourteen arbitrary areas were surveyed. The methodology involved driving along the main roads, on top of small flat gravel hills and examining the rough rocky hills. A hand-held GPS was used to establish the exact position of each tomb, which were also checked for finds and photographed, a small number were also sketched in plan. The total number of tombs and their density within survey area was plotted on maps in order to examine their distribution.

This cycle destroys and obscures archaeological remains leaving only limited material. Retrievable evidence of earlier occupations might remain as tombs in the surrounding areas and in the sections of wells dug into the alluvium. If tombs do remain in the landscape, then merely counting them is not a reliable method to quantify ancient settlement. Some periods, including the Hafit and Umm an-Nar, are characterised by distinctive types of tombs that could be counted. However by contrast, tombs from the Wadi Suq to the Sasanian, and even early Islamic tombs, are difficult to date as they bear similar characteristics making identification sure assignment to a particular period impossible. There is also the problem of tomb preservation and destruction which makes their quantification difficult. For example, the reuse, rebuilding and material-harvesting deconstruction of Umm an-Nar tombs often results in a disproptionally low number surviving sufficiently to be visible. It is therefore highly problematic to carry out any quantification using tombs. However, the “cycle of wadi agriculture” does have an important advantage for the archaeologist in that the constant churning of alluvium and archaeological deposits will bring buried archaeological material to the surface. This will be present as a mixed

Level 5 The Sampling Technique and Investigated Areas Level five of the survey involved applying the methodology developed for the Wadi Andam landscape. The survey included numerous areas of investigation which will be summarised. However, in order to contextualise this methodology the state of the archaeological evidence will first be examined. The field methodology developed for the quantification of settlement in the environment of Oman will be discussed. The various survey areas and units of investigation and the strategy taken to define them will be detailed, as well as how the sites were defined and recorded. The State of the Archaeological Evidence It is important to understand the most significant post-depositional processes that have affected the archaeological evidence within Wadi Andam before

39

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 16: The “cycle” of wadi agriculture. surface scatter, which is likely to contain material traces of all periods in which the site has been occupied.

that have been used in this region, for example, at Siraf (Wilkinson TJ 1974), Suhar (Costa & Wilkinson TJ 1987) and in Ras al-Khaimah (de Cardi, Kennet & Stocks 1994; Kennet 2002). The research in Wadi Andam involved the survey of six selected wadi villages (al-Fulayj, al-Khurais, al-Qaryatain, al-Khashbah, Barzaman and ar Rawdhah) located along the banks of the wadi and its tributaries, with each of the geographical zones being represented (see Fig. 14 and areas and units of survey below).

The Sampling Technique It was demonstrated in Chapter One that few attempts have been made to quantify wadi villages in the Oman Peninsula. Thus, the aim in carrying out the Wadi Andam survey was to employ a rigorous, probabilistic sampling technique to collect data free from period bias, testable and suitable for quantified analysis, to in turn allow the analysis of activity and settlement intensity over time. Therefore, in order to exploit the presence of these potentially representative surface pottery scatters a method of large-scale collection was developed. This methodology develops techniques

The first step taken at the wadi villages was to make a rough sketch plan of the entire location, made more accurate with the use of a hand-held GPS (using grid Oman WGS84) for increased accuracy.The locality was then divided into a number of arbitrary pottery collection areas (PCAs), each 40

The Wadi Andam Survey

Fig. 17: Pottery Collection Areas (PCAs) in the wadi village of ar-Rawdah. up to about four hectares in size (Fig. 17). The PCAs are usually irregularly shaped because features such as tracks and field boundaries were used to delimit them. Rather than collecting pottery from the entire area of the villages, the PCAs allow the collection of numerous assemblages at a higher resolution, allowing some degree of spatial comparison to be made within the wadi villages.

in that time. After being collected from the field, the ceramics were processed in a number of different stages, detailed in Appendix C. Briefly, the pottery was carefully washed, dried, sorted into different classes, counted, backed and stored. It was then identified with the help of a number of specialists researching the archaeology of the Oman Peninsula and the wider Arabian Gulf. This allowed the pottery to be classified into periods, based mainly on fabric and surface treatment. Each class of ceramic was numbered and

A large collection of surface sherds was then made at each of the PCAs; pottery was collected by one individual for between 20 and 30 minutes retrieving all the sherds visible 41

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula described in detail and parallels were given. Photographs and drawings were made for almost 80% of classified sherds and 95% of the diagnostic pieces. Ultimately, all of this data was entered into a database to facilitate the analysis of the data. This allowed the activity within a settlement to be quantified, with comparisons being made between periods, individual PCAs, wadi villages or groups of settlements.

along the banks of the wadi and its tributaries (Fig. 14). After making a rough sketch map of the whole village, the locality was divided into pottery collection areas (PCAs) in an arbitrary fashion based on site layout as described above. A collection of pottery from each PCA was made on foot with the aim of collecting surface pottery for dating and defining traces of activity as well as investigating distributions and patterns of change. Twenty to thirty minutes were spent in collecting the pottery from each PCA, and large quantities of pottery sherds were randomly collected without concentrating on any specific type of pottery in order to increase the chance of having a fully representative assemblage of each area. All areas of the village, including date-palm groves and modern houses, were included. Any archaeological feature found during the survey was recorded using a hand-held GPS, plotted on the sketch plan with a brief description and photographs were taken of that feature

Areas and Units of Survey The methodology used to carry out the Wadi Andam Survey involved investigating three different survey units: The Pottery Collection Areas (PCAs) (Fig. 14 & 23)

.

As has indicated above, in order to test the large-scale “Pottery Collection Method” the Wadi Andam survey involved surveying six selected wadi village locations

Fig. 18: Hypothetical example indicating the relationship between PCAs and the two types of OVAs (those around village PCAs and those randomly located in other parts away from the PCAs) 42

The Wadi Andam Survey

Fig. 19: Hypothetical example indicating how areas were defined and PCAs and the two types of OVAs shown in Fig. 18

numbered according to

OVAs Other Villages Areas (Fig. 14 & 18-19)

archaeological evidence were checked for pottery, flint and any other finds.

A survey was carried out in an Area of Potential Interest in and around the six villages (Fig. 18-19). Due to limits of time and funding, two zones were investigated within each Area of Potential Interest, named ‘Other Village Areas’ (OVAs):

Within the Area of Potential Interest pottery was collected from the OVAs. These were defined exclusively as, pottery scatters, tombs, or ‘other structures’ (Fig. 19).9 Therefore, some OVAs include tombs whilst others do not, some include pottery scatters and others do not and, likewise, some include ‘other structures’ and some do not. With some OVAs including any combination of these three elements. This is an important point when discussing the association between certain types of pottery and the OVAs that include tombs.

a Village surrounding survey: a preliminary survey of the environs of each wadi village at a distance of between 1 and 2 km in which archaeological features were recorded and any pottery was collected that might indicate the extent and development of the village. This included all agricultural and earthmoving activities. b Random survey: a survey of approximately 5 km2 was carried out by car and on foot in randomlyselected locations 1-2 km away from the wadi villages. This survey was undertaken to check for evidence of occupation and activity unrelated to the wadi village PCAs. Possible areas with

UWA The Upper Wadi Andam Survey This survey along the Upper Wadi Andam (UWA) was undertaken to provide supporting evidence for that   By ‘other structures’ I mean , for example, the remains of houses, fortifications, industrial places, field walls and earthworks (see Chapter One, Table 1 and Appendix B for more details). 9

43

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula yielded from the PCAs and OVAs. The survey extended approximately 39 km x 2 km along the wadi banks and the close hills and gravel terraces. The survey was carried out by car and on foot. The area from al-Alya village to Khadra Bani Dafa’a, approximately 17 km x 1 km, was surveyed entirely on foot as it showed great potential for archaeological features. The area from al-Alya to al-Jarda, where the junction meets the main road connecting Muscat and Sur, was surveyed by car, stopping to check possible sites. All the evidence was recorded using a hand-held GPS (see Fig. 189 and Site Typology below). These sites and archaeological features included different types and size of stone structures, tomb fields, villages, towers, and artefact scatters (see Appendixes A and B). Many of these sites yielded large quantities of surface pottery which were collected for quantified analysis.

structure, earthwork and artefact. Evaluation number of these classifications were based on the judgement of the author. For example, a site such as CS.2.52 near alGhoryeen was considered to be an Umm an-Nar large settlement. This definition was based on the surface evidence, which included a large number of Umm an-Nar pottery sherds associated with a round tower, a group of houses or structures, and a large number of tombs. There is a debate amongst landscape archaeologists about what constitutes an archaeological site (cf. R. Foley 1981; Wilkinson TJ 1974, 1982, 1989, 2003; Gallant 1986; Costa & Wilkinson TJ 1987: 80–83; Bintliff & Snodgrass 1988; Wilkinson TJ & Tucker 1995; Bintliff & Sbonias 1999; Francovich, Patterson & Barker 2000). Different approaches and definitions have been adopted as well as different field techniques to define them (cf. Sbonias 1999: 2; Mattingly 2000: 6). Field archaeologists have realised that essential data regarding human activity may be provided, not only by clearly defined archaeological sites, but also by a large variety of “off-site” features such as scatters of artefacts (Wilkinson TJ & Tucker 1995: 19). Moreover, that there are some scatters with low density artefact-scatters that make their identification as sites dubious. It is argued, nonetheless, that these scatters should not be neglected and must be located and recorded because of the potentially informative data they may hold. In order to define their distribution and function, relevant methodologies should be adopted. These should involve techniques of off-site artefact sampling that assist in discriminating between occupation scatters and universal ‘background noise’ (ibid: 16). Such a technique was developed for the Wadi Andam Survey.

Level 6 Pottery Classification and Revisiting Sites The most detailed level of survey was carried out during the second season and included three parts. The first concentrated on individual sites and features in order to collect data for more detailed analysis. This included revisiting certain sites, drawing sketch plans and collecting more surface material. It also included taking notes and photographs of the topography and geology of the study area. The second part involved obtaining ‘negative evidence’ by performing additional surveys on areas with various types of terrain around previously surveyed areas in order to ensure that they do not hold any evidence of human activity. These areas included wadi beds, broad flat interfluves and high mountainous areas. Then an area of around 5 km2 was defined using a hand-held GPS and the sample areas were checked by driving in zigzag lines and stopping to check on foot all possible areas of archaeological evidence for pottery, flint or any other finds. The third part dealt specifically with pottery and its identification, described fully in Appendix C.

Recording such scatters, whether they are on or off-site is important. Several surveys have ignored low density off-site material unless they represent an important archaeological feature. By contrast, those surveys that tended to record and collect every possible piece of evidence on the surface attempt to apply intensive methods of collecting and quantification (Mattingly 2000: 6). The latter tend to quantify and record off-site artefacts by dividing the area into transects or units for artefact collection covered by fieldwalking. The collected artefacts are then combined and analysed (ibid: 7). On finding pottery or other artefact scatters without other associated remains such as structures or tombs, I have aimed to record it regardless of its density. So, each artefact scatter was considered a unique site and was numbered, and the whole area was carefully surveyed on foot. Such scatters might be, for example, all that remains of a nomadic camp sites, or a random pot dropped by a traveller. Whatever the interpretation, their occurrence must be recorded and taken into consideration.

Recording Archaeological Sites/Features The recording of sites and features was performed using recording forms. Each site or feature was descried in detail, photographed, numbered and mapped using hand-held GPS and 1:100,000 topographical maps. All the surveyed areas were assigned identification using a numbering system starting with the symbol ‘CS’, representing the Wadi Andam Survey. A site was given the name of the nearest village or area followed by the area number (e.g. Barzaman CS.7). This was followed by the site number (e.g. CS.7.1), and each site or feature within that site was also given a separate number (e.g. CS.7.1.3). This numbering system makes the sites more recognisable for the reader and for any future studies (see also Appendix A). Sites Typology

Section Two Quantifying Levels of Activity in the Wadi Andam

A typology of sites (Appendix B) was created to describe different archaeological remains discovered during the survey. These included different types of tomb, settlement,

In Chapter One the problems of quantifying settlement in Arabia were discussed. It was argued that other 44

The Wadi Andam Survey surveys in the region have not developed an appropriate quantifiable research methodology. Many surveys have specific research aims, or only cover very localised areas. Clearly a systematic methodology is required that provides a good understanding of artefact density and allows the quantification of settlement in order to measure levels of human activity over time. There is a need for a sampling technique that is different to those used in Europe, the Mediterranean and other parts of the Near East; a technique that is capable of taking into considerations the peculiarities of the Arabian environment. Such a technique was developed and utilised by the author in Wadi Andam and the results will be presented here as well as in Section Three of this chapter.

but the categorisation was followed by a question mark in order to show this doubt. This data was entered into a worksheet using Microsoft Excel 2003 and was imported into Microsoft Access 2003 as a database for analysis. This database included all the relevant data, including sherd number, the number of the site where it was collected, the type of site, the period of the sherd, the class, the form and surface treatment, whether it was photographed and/ or drawn, amongst other notes. A number of queries were made in order to analyse the pottery data, producing a set of tables and graphs that will be discussed in this section.

Firstly, the questions that need to be answered using quantified analysis will be defined. This will be followed by a discussion of the results of the analysis of the survey data. Aims and Questions One of the aims of this research is the survey of a number of selected ‘wadi villages’, and their environs, as well as some other areas in and around the wadi system. It is hoped that this will throw light on the changing nature of human settlement. This is not a definitive picture as only six of an estimated 71 wadi villages in the study area were investigated (8.45%). This picture is also supported by other investigations in the surrounding areas of these villages (OVAs) and along the Upper Wadi Andam banks (UWA).

Fig. 20: Percentages of the total number of pre-Islamic and Islamic sherds collected from the whole survey (based on Table 14) Period Pre-Islamic Islamic Total

Total sherds 5,032 14,208 19,240

Table 14: Total number of pre-Islamic and Islamic

There are two key questions that need to be answered in the first instance: (1) is it possible to detect evidence for pre-modern occupation in the pottery collected from wadi village PCAs? and (2) is there evidence of occupation in other areas along the wadi systems? The first question relates to whether or not each period is represented in the wadi villages and the areas in and around them, as well as how this evidence correlates with tombs and ‘other structures’ near the villages. The second question is aimed at demonstrating what evidence exists outside of the wadi villages, and what human activity they represent. It is hoped that this will provide an understanding of the level of activity and periods of growth and decline in these areas and reveal whether there was continuity or frequent change in settlement patterns.

sherds collected from the whole survey

In total, 19,240 sherds were collected from the whole survey. Figure 20 shows that 26% of these sherds are pre-Islamic and the remaining 74% are Islamic, of which the majority are Late Islamic (see Fig. 22). These figures show that the pre-Islamic sherds are less common than the Islamic ones. This could be related to the fact that the majority of the sherds from the PCAs in the six villages are Islamic as these villages continue to be occupied. This is shown in Figure 21 with 51% of all collected sherds coming from PCAs.

Quantified Levels of Activity During the survey a large number of pottery sherds of different periods were collected, washed, dried, sorted and classified into different classes (see Appendix C). Some types of pottery were difficult to assign to any period with certainty as they shared characteristics of two consecutive periods. Such sherds were assigned to a broad timespan. Other sherds showed some, but not all, characteristics of a particular period and so could not be dated with complete certainty. These were assigned to the pertaining period

Fig. 21: Percentages of the total number of sherds collected from each of the survey areas (based on Table 15)

45

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula Area PCAs OVAs UWA CS.6 Total

Figure 22 shows the total number of sherds by period for the whole survey. It demonstrates that the majority of the sherds are Islamic, mainly Late Islamic, followed by Middle Islamic.10 By contrast, the majority of pre-Islamic sherds are Late Iron Age/Samad followed by Umm an-Nar and Early Iron Age. Figure 22 also shows that there are very few sherds from the Wadi Suq and Sasanian–Early Islamic periods. This goes for all areas covered by the survey. The following discussion will break down the evidence from each of the survey areas, starting with the wadi villages (PCAS and OVAs) followed by the other areas along the Upper Wadi Andam (UWA).

Total sherds 9,702 5,785 3,698 55 19,240

Table 15: Total number of sherds collected from each of the survey areas (CS.6 is a Hafit survey area, see Hafit Period in section Three of this chapter, Table 24)

  See Appendix I for an attempt to test some of the quantitative differences from the data analysis within this chapter using the simple “Chi-square” test in order to show that the differences in sherd numbers between different periods are indeed statistically significant and not simply chance occurrences

.

10

Fig. 22: Total number of sherds by period from the entire

surveyed area

Fig. 23: Sherd counts by period from all six surveyed villages, including PCAs and OVAs [both village surrounding survey and random survey] 46

The Wadi Andam Survey

Fig. 24: Pre-Islamic sherd counts from all six surveyed villages, including PCAs and OVAs [both village surrounding survey and random survey] 1- Long-term Trends from in and around the wadi villages

Period

Pottery was collected from in and around six wadi villages (al-Fulayj CS.1; al-Khurais CS.3; al-Qaryatain CS.4; alKhashbah CS.5; Barzaman CS.7 and ar Rawdhah CS.9).

Total Sherds

Pre-Islamic

2,247

Islamic

13,240

Total

15,487

Table 16: Total number of preIslamic and Islamic sherds from all the six surveyed villages, inclduing PCAs and OVAs [both village surrounding survey and random survey]

Before discussing the results of the data analysis of the village areas, it is worth providing a generalised picture of the evidence from all of the villages. Figure 23 shows sherd count by period for all of the six surveyed villages. Again. the most common pottery is dated to the Late Islamic, followed by the Middle Islamic. Among the preIslamic sherds (Figure 24), Umm an-Nar pottery is the most commonly represented followed by Late Iron/Samad and Early Iron Age. The data shows that there are very few sherds from the Wadi Suq and Early Islamic periods.

from all periods amount to 15,487 of which 15% are preIslamic and 85% are Islamic. Table 17 breaks down the sherd counts by period from PCAs and OVAs. Although there are considerable differences in the total number of sherds between villages, Table 17 shows that all villages yielded sherds of the Umm an-Nar period in which CS.5 (Khashbah) yielded the largest number. This village yielded several types of evidence from the Umm an-Nar period including towers, tombs, and pottery scatters. All villages yielded Late Iron Age/Samad sherds. This being the second most represented pre-Islamic period after the Umm an-Nar. Further; the Early Iron Age is well represented in five villages. By contrast, the Wadi Suq period is the least represented with only four villages yielding a total of 24 possible Wadi Suq sherds.

Figure 25 shows the percentages of the total pre-Islamic and Islamic sherds from all six surveyed villages. Sherds

The table also shows that there are considerable differences in the proportions of sherds by period, particularly the preIslamic periods, among the six villages. Around 43% of the total number sherds from CS.5 are Umm an-Nar compared with no more than 2% of the sherds from the other villages. Moreover, around 5% of the total number of sherds from CS.5 and CS.4 are Early Iron Age compared with less than 1% in the remaining villages. Lastly, around 5% of the total sherds from CS.9 and 4% from CS.1 are Late Iron Age/ Samad compared with 1.6% of the sherds from CS.7.

Fig. 25: Percentages of the total pre-Islamic and Islamic sherds from all six surveyed villages, including PCAs and OVAs [both village surrounding survey and random survey] (based on Table 16) 47

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula Period U.Nar U.Nar? W.S W.S? L.B.A E.I.A I.A L.I.A Sasanian–E.Islamic E.Islamic Islamic M.Islamic M.Islamic to L.Islamic L.Islamic L.Islamic to Recent Recent Total/village

CS.1 30 (2.6%) 0 (0.0%) 1 (0.1%) 2 (0.2%) 25 (2.2%) 10 (0.9%) 0 (0.0%) 50 (4.3%) 12 (1.0%) 1 (0.1%) 5 (0.4%) 264 (22.8%) 0 (0.0%) 479 (41.3%) 220 (19.0%) 61 (5.3%) 1,160 (100%)

CS.3 27 (1.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 6 (0.2%) 0 (0.0%) 74 (2.6%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 85 (3.0%) 729 (26.0%) 0 (0.0%) 1,546 (55.1%) 293 (10.4%) 46 (1.6%) 2,806 (100%)

CS.4 2 (0.1%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 131 (4.7%) 0 (0.0%) 89 (3.2%) 0 (0.0%) 1 (0.0%) 28 (1.0%) 581 (20.7%) 0 (0.0%) 979 (34.8%) 818 (29.1%) 183 (6.5%) 2,812 (100%)

CS.5 1,155 (43.1%) 1 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 1 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 143 (5.3%) 0 (0.0%) 65 (2.4%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 23 (0.9%) 112 (4.2%) 0 (0.0%) 880 (32.9%) 215 (8.0%) 82 (3.1%) 2,677 (100%)

CS.7 12 (1.1%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 7 (0.6%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 17 (1.6%) 0 (0.0%) 1 (0.1%) 5 (0.5%) 37 (3.4%) 46 (4.2%) 716 (65.9%) 172 (15.8%) 74 (6.8%) 1,087 (100%)

CS.9 103 (2.1%) 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%) 13 (0.3%) 0 (0.0%) 20 (0.4%) 0 (0.0%) 263 (5.3%) 0 (0.0%) 3 (0.1%) 100 (2.0%) 756 (15.3%) 329 (6.7%) 2,874 (58.1%) 437 (8.8%) 47 (1.0%) 4,945 (100%)

Total/Period 1,329 1 1 23 25 310 0 558 12 6 246 2,479 375 7,474 2,155 493 15,487

Table 17: Sherd counts by period from all six surveyed villages, including PCAs and OVAs [both village surrounding survey and random survey] (% based on the total sherds by period) The above figures demonstrate that the evidence from all the villages (both PCAs and OVAs) indicates that they were largely occupied during the Umm an-Nar and Iron Age/Samad periods as well as the periods from the Middle Islamic to the Recent. They also suggest that there was a decline in occupation during the Wadi Suq and Early Islamic periods.

in Figure 26. A total of 9,702 sherds of all periods came from thirty-six PCAs in six wadi villages, representing around half of the total of 19,240 sherds collected during the whole survey. Large numbers of sherds were collected from these areas. It was thought that such a large sample would increase the possibility of recovering pottery from periods which are not generally well represented, such as the Wadi Suq period.

A further question of interest is whether the pattern is the same between PCAs and OVAs? To answer this question, it is necessary to present the analysis from both separately.

Figure 26 shows the sherd count by period from the PCAs within the six surveyed villages, unsurprisingly Late Islamic ceramics are the most common. To give a clearer idea of the trends in the pre-Islamic periods, Figure 27 presents the sherd counts by period from all PCAs showing only the pre-and early Islamic periods. Figure 27 shows that sherds of the Umm an-Nar period are by far the most common, followed by the Late Iron Age/Samad, while the least common are sherds of the Wadi Suq, Early Iron Age and Early Islamic. This suggests that there was more activity at these PCAs in the Umm an-Nar and Late Iron Age/Samad periods than in the Wadi Suq, Early Iron Age and Early Islamic.

Long-term Trends from Pottery Collection Areas (PCAs) As indicated earlier each village was divided in an arbitrary fashion based on site layout, into five to eight PCAs for pottery collection.11 The total count is presented   The main divided PCAs within each village include CS.1.5 in alFulayj, CS.3.1 in al-Khurais, CS.4.1 in al-Qaryatain, CS.5.1 in alKhashbah, CS.7.1 in Barzaman and CS.9.1 in ar-Rawdhah. Each of these was divided into areas for pottery collection (e.g. al-Fulayj was divided into five PCAs: CS.1.5.1 to CS.1.5.5). 11

48

The Wadi Andam Survey

Fig. 26: Sherd counts by period only from the PCAs in all six surveyed villages

Fig. 27: Total number of sherds of the pre- and Early Islamic periods only from the PCAs Period U.Nar U.Nar? W.S W.S? L.B.A E.I.A I.A L.I.A/Samad E.Islamic Sasanian E.Islamic Islamic M.Islamic M.Islamic–L.Islamic L.Islamic L.Islamic–Recent Recent Total/village

CS.1 28 0 1 2 25 10 0 28 12 1 4 240 0 448 150 57 1,006

CS.3 15 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 37 445 0 853 151 13 1,516

CS.4 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 0 0 27 473 0 847 696 177 2,229

CS.5 244 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 23 100 0 597 174 71 1,210

CS.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 5 37 46 710 112 53 968

Table 18: Sherd counts by period only from the PCAs 49

CS.9 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 141 0 0 57 327) 174) 1,796 257 18 2,773

Total/Period 292 0 1 2 25 12 0 182 12 1 153 1,622 220 5,251 1,540 389 9,702

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 28: Sherd count by period from OVAs [both village surrounding survey and random survey]

Fig. 29: Sherd count for the Pre- and Early Islamic periods from OVAs [both village surrounding survey and random survey] The above figures raise the question of whether this pattern is similar at each village. Table 18 breaks down the pottery by period from each of the main PCAs. AlFulayj (CS.1) has the only PCAs that yielded sherds from all periods. Five of the six PCAs villages yielded Umm anNar sherds, among which al-Khashbah (CS.5) yielded the largest number. Furthermore, al-Fulayj has the only PCAs that yielded sherds of the Wadi Suq period. There are only three of these sherds but that is enough to indicate activity during this time. The same can be said for Early Iron Age sherds which were found at the PCAs of two villages (CS.1 and CS.3) making up only 12 sherds in total. By contrast, the Late Iron Age/Samad is represented at five of the six villages’ PCAs in which ar-Rawdhah (CS.9) yielded the largest number of sherds.

When data from all the PCAs is assimilated, it is clear that there are large numbers of Umm an-Nar and Late Iron Age/Samad sherds and very little evidence of the Wadi Suq, Early Iron Age and Early Islamic periods (see Table 18). These figures suggest that there was more activity within these PCAs during the Umm an-Nar and Late Iron Age/Samad as well the later Islamic periods, than during the Wadi Suq, Early Iron and Early Islamic periods. Apart from CS.1, none of the PCAs yielded evidence from Wadi Suq, only two sherds of Early Iron Age were found in CS.3 and no sherds of the Early Islamic period were found at all. This suggest that there was perhaps very little or no settlement during these periods. This poses the question of whether or not the same pattern will be found in the OVAs. That is to say, does the same pattern extend to the areas around the villages?

50

The Wadi Andam Survey

Fig. 30: Comparison of the total number of pre-Islamic sherds between PCAs and OVAs [both village surrounding survey and random survey] (based on Table 19) Long-term Trends from Other Villages Areas (OVAs)

Table 20 compares pottery numbers by period from the OVAs between villages. Again, there are considerable differences between them. Apart from the Early Iron Age, the OVAs of ar-Rawdhah (CS.9) yielded sherds from almost all periods. Five of the six villages yielded Umm Nar sherds from OVAs amongst which, again, alKhashbah (CS.5) yielded the largest number. However, the total proportions of sherds differ greatly. The OVAs yielded a total number of Umm an-Nar sherds that is almost four times higher than that from the PCAs (see Table19). Moreover, the village that yielded the second largest number of Umm an-Nar sherds from OVAs is arRawdhah (CS.9), which, by contrast, yielded only three sherds of Umm an-Nar from the PCAs (see Tables 18 & 20). Table 20 also indicates that OVAs at three villages yielded sherds of the Wadi Suq period, accounting for 21 sherds, of which ar-Rawdhah (CS.9) yielded 13. The comparison (see Table19) shows that there are generally very few Wadi Suq sherds from either PCAs or OVAs. Only al-Fulayj (CS.1) yielded three sherds of this period from the PCAs, but yielded none from its OVAs. This is a slightly different picture to the data from the PCAs, but the numbers of Wadi Suq sherds are consisently lower than for the other pre-Islamic periods. Thus, it is possible to argue that the trend outlined in Table 18 is generally confirmed by the OVAs (Table 20), but the OVA data makes it clear that the situation is not as simple as the PCAs might suggest. The comparison also shows that whilst four of the villages yielded Early Iron Age sherds from the OVAs, only two yielded sherds of this period from the PCAs. All villages yielded Late Iron Age/Samad sherds from the PCAs and most from the OVAs. This evidence might indicate that there was considerably more activity at these villages in the Umm an-Nar and Iron Age than in the Wadi Suq and Early Islamic. In other words, the evidence indicates that the PCAs and OVAs were inhabited more intensively during the Umm an-Nar and Late Iron Age/Samad

As well as surveying the PCAs within the six wadi villages, a survey was carried out in an area of approximately 1-2 km2 around each village, and for around 5 km2 in the surrounding area away from each village. These areas were surveyed to check whether there was activity in the environs of the villages. The OVAs tend to be located along the wadi banks and terraces, and in several cases, they are surrounded by rock and gravel hills, which sometimes show evidence of human activity, mainly tombs. All evidence was recorded during the survey and all finds were collected. Their total count is presented in Figure 28. This gives a general picture of the pottery count by period only from the OVAs, indicating that the pattern is similar to that from the PCAs in that the Late Islamic pottery are the most common. However aside from this point the sherd proportions differ greatly from the PCAs (see Fig. 26 & 28).

.

Figure 29 shows a more detailed picture of the pottery from only the pre- and Early Islamic periods, indicating that, once again, the Umm an-Nar sherds are the most common followed by the Iron Age, both Early and Late. This is the same general picture yielded by the PCAs, the proportions in the OVAs differ greatly to the PCAs (Fig. 30). The comparison shows that more pre-Islamic sherds were collected from the OVAs than the PCAs. The total number of Umm an-Nar sherds from OVAs is nearly three times higher than those from the PCAs. Moreover, the total number of Wadi Suq sherds from the OVAs is almost ten times higher than from the PCAs, while the OVAs are 24 times higher for the Early Iron Age and double in the Late Iron Age/Samad. This might be related to the fact that OVAs yielded sherds not only from occupational areas (‘other structures’) but also from tombs from different periods, while no tombs are found within the PCAs (see Table 21 below). 51

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula Period U.Nar U.Nar? W.S W.S? L.B.A E.I.A I.A L.I.A/Samad

PCAs 292 (22%) 0 (0%) 1 (100%) 2 (9%) 25 (100%) 12 (4%) 0 (0%) 182 (33%)

OVAs 1,037 (78%) 1 (100%) 0 (0%) 21 (91%) 0 (0%) 298 (96%) 0 (0%) 376 (67%)

how much of the evidence from OVAs comes from tombs and/or ‘other structures’ rather than occupation areas, which is where the majority of PCAs evidence originated. Clarification of this point will assist in interpreting the evidence.

Total/Period 1,329 (100%) 1 (100%) 1 (100%) 23 (100%) 25 (100%) 310 (100%) 0 (0%) 558 (100%)

Long-term Trends according to Type of Evidence from the PCAs and OVAs Tombs of the Umm an-Nar, Wadi Suq and Iron Age periods can be found in and around many of the wadi villages as well as their environs. However, they can be difficult to date and many have been re-used in later periods. Thus, the pattern seen in the PCAs and OVAs evidence is complicated by the tombs, which appear to indicate a slightly different trend. Table 21 provides us with an interesting insight into the nature of the activity taking place at the sites over time. It shows the number and percentages of sherds by period from PCAs and OVAs that include both tombs and ‘other structures’, and allows us to consider whether sherds of some periods may be associated with tombs or ‘other structures’ on the edges of the villages. It indicates that the evidence from the Umm an-Nar, Wadi Suq and Early Iron Age is more closely associated with tombs, while Late Iron Age/Samad evidence is more closely associated with ‘other structures’. It should, however, be noted that the Umm an-Nar and Late Iron Age/Samad periods yielded a lot of evidence from almost all areas (PCAs and OVAs). By contrast, the majority of the Islamic sherds, mainly Middle Islamic to Recent, were found in PCAs.

Table 19: Comparison between the total number and percentage of pre-Islamic sherds between PCAs and OVAs [both village surrounding survey and random survey] (based on Tables 18 & 20) The comparison (see Tables 18 & 20) also shows that the PCAs are dominated to a greater extent by (Late) Islamic pottery than the OVAs where a higher proportions of preIslamic pottery was found. The reason behind this is unclear but it might be related to the fact that OVAs yielded high number of sherds from pre-Islamic tombs (see Table 21 below), while there were no such tombs within the PCAs. Thus, the evidence from the OVAs indicates a high level of activity during the Umm an-Nar and Iron Age/Samad periods, and very little during the Wadi Suq. This is the same general trend as the PCAs. It is important to see

To conclude, the pottery evidence from the PCAs and OVAs shows that the most common sherds are those dated

Period U.Nar U.Nar? W.S W.S? L.B.A E.I.A I.A L.I.A/Samad Sasanian–E.Islamic E.Islamic Islamic M.Islamic M.Islamic–L.Islamic

CS.1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 22 0 0 1 24 0

CS.3 12 0 0 0 0 4 0 74 0 0 48 284 0

CS.4 0 0 0 0 0 131 0 82 0 1 1 108 0

CS.5 911 1 0 1 0 143 0 64 0 0 0 12 0

CS.7 12 0 0 7 0 0 0 12 0 1 0 0 0

CS.9 100 0 0 13 0 0 0 122 0 3 43 429 155

Total/Period 1,037 1 0 21 0 298 0 376 0 5 93 857 155

L.Islamic L.Islamic–Recent Recent Total/Village

31 70 4 154

693 142 33 1,290

132 122 6 583

283 41 11 1,467

6 60 21 119

1,078 180 29 2,172

2,223 615 104 5,785

Total pre-Islamic

24

90

213

1,120

31

255

1,733

Table 20: Sherd count by period from only OVAs [both village surrounding survey and random survey] 52

The Wadi Andam Survey Period

U.Nar/U.Nar? W.S/W.S? L.B.A E.I.A I.A L.I.A/Samad Sasanian–E.Islamic E.Islamic Islamic M.Islamic M.Islamic–L.Islamic L.Islamic L.Islamic to Recent Recent Total/Type

PCAs

292 (20.1%) 3 (12.5%) 25 (100%) 12 (3.3%) 0 (0%) 182 (31.4%) 12 (100%) 1 (16.7%) 153 (16%) 1,622 (62.5%) 220 (58.7%) 5,251 (67.8%) 1,540 (69.2%) 389 (77%) 9,702

Tombs

OVAs

‘Other Structures’ 630 (43.4%) 531 (36.5%) 18 3 (75%) (12.5%) 0 0 (0%) (0%) 271 83 (74%) (22.7%) 0 0 (0%) (0%) 180 218 (31%) (37.6%) 0 0 (0%) (0%) 1 4 (16.7%) (66.7%) 6 92 (2.4%) (36.7%) 129 844 (5%) (32.5%) 0 155 (0%) (41.3%) 486 2,007 (25.9%) (6.3%) 223 463 (10%) (20.8%) 37 79 (7.3%) (15.6%) 1,981 4,479

Total sherds 1,453 (100%) 24 (100%) 25 (100%) 366 (100%) 0 (0%) 580 (100%) 12 (100%) 6 (100%) 251 (100%) 2,595 (100%) 375 (100%) 7,744 (100%) 2,226 (100%) 505 (100%) 16,162

Table 21: Percentages and number of sherds by period from PCAs and OVAs including tombs and ‘other structures’ to the (Late) Islamic period. Among the pre-Islamic sherds, Umm an-Nar sherds are the most common followed by the Late Iron Age/Samad. In contrast, the evidence indicates that there are very few sherds from the Wadi Suq and Early Islamic, periods suggesting that there was considerably more activity at these villages in the former two periods. The general picture indicates an absence of evidence from settlement areas (villages) during the Wadi Suq and Early Iron Age. The evidence indicates that the PCAs and OVAs were inhabited more intensively during the Umm an-Nar and Late Iron Age/Samad as well as from the Middle to Late Islamic periods. Additionally, it can be seen that the majority of Wadi Suq and Early Iron Age evidence comes from tombs on the fringes of the villages. This suggests that although there is an almost complete absence of evidence from occupational areas, there is some evidence for the use of tombs during the Wadi Suq period that could be located around the modern wadi villages. By contrast, the evidence from Umm an-Nar and Late Iron Age/Samad periods comes from a wider variety of types of tombs and occupational areas (PCAs and ‘other structures’ from OVAs), indicating that the study area was extensively inhabited during these periods.

occupational areas (e.g. ‘other structures’ within OVAs), suggesting settlement in areas outside of the PCAs. This might indicate agrowth increase in the level of activity from Wadi Suq period, but it is still low compared with the Umm an-Nar and Late Iron Age/Samad periods. It may also be suggested that the PCAs were not inhabited during the Early Iron Age or more accurately, were not used in the same way. This was evidenced by the recovery of very few pottery sherds of this period within these PCAs (e.g. CS.1 and CS.3, Table 18). Generally, speaking, the Early Iron Age evidence might suggest that at the beginning of the Iron Age there was an increase or intensification of settlement after possible abandonment during the Wadi Suq.

Although much of the evidence for the Early Iron Age comes from tombs, there is a significant amount present in

12

2- Long-term Trends from the Upper Wadi Andam (UWA) Survey within wadi villages was supplemented with the survey of selected areas along the Upper Wadi Andam (UWA), extending across an area 39 km long and 2 km wide over the wadi edges, hills and gravel terraces (Fig. 2 & 14).12 It was given the code (CS.2) and all the recorded   It starts from the junction of Wadi Andam on the main road connecting Muscat with Sur, and ends at the junction near Khadra Bani Dafa’a on the main road connecting Izki with Sinaw.

53

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 31: Sherds count by period from all sites at the sherds; 14 yielded Umm an-Nar pottery. However, the proportion of sherds differs greatly between these 14 sites. For example, CS.2.52 alone yielded around 45% of the total Umm an-Nar sherds from the UWA, this site being a possible Umm an-Nar village including a round tower, houses, tombs and large quantities of surface pottery. Sites CS.2.68 and CS.2.69 also yielded large amounts of Umm an-Nar sherds, as they yielded a group of tombs, structures and surface pottery. Furthermore, only six sites out of 33 yielded Wadi Suq sherds with only 32 sherds being found in total. This indicates a low level of activity in the UWA during this period. The same seems to be true of the Early Islamic period. By contrast, 13 sites yielded Early Iron Age sherds. However, the proportion of sherds differs greatly between these sites of which CS.2.67 alone yielded around 36% of the total Early Iron Age sherds from the UWA. 23 sites yielded Late Iron Age/Samad sherds, the largest number for any period, indicating intensive activity and occupation along the wadi banks. UWA

sites within this area were assigned to the nearest village or well-known site and followed by a unique number (see Appendix A). All archaeological evidence discovered was recorded during the survey with 94 sites being found of which 69 are major sites (CS.2.1 to CS.2.69). During the UWA survey a large number of archaeological features were defined, including different types of tombs, settlements, and ‘other structures’ such as earthworks and artefact scatters (see Appendix B). All of these features were recorded and were considered a site, regardless of size, function or the density of artefacts. The surface of many of these sites yielded artefacts, mainly pottery, which was collected for the purpose of analysis, comparison and dating. It is, however, important to state here that the pottery collection methodology from the UWA sites differed to that of the PCAs. The pottery collection strategy was more controlled with targeted sampling with sites being selected where tombs and structures were present. The main aim of the survey was locating and recording sites of different types and ages along the wadi banks and terraces as well as the rocky and gravel hills. So a small collection of pottery was made at these sites for dating purposes. These ceramics were entered into the database and were analysed. This allows comparisons to be made between patterns seen in this data to that collected from the PCAs and OVAs. Hopefully, this will reveal even more about the fluctuations in settlement over time the whole of Wadi Andam.

A comparison between the PCAs/OVAs data and that from the UWA (Fig. 31) reveals some interesting differences between the datasets. Umm an-Nar sherds are the most common of the pre-Islamic periods in the PCAs and OVAs, while in the UWA Late Iron Age/Samad sherds are the most common. However, the second largest number of pre-Islamic sherds recovered from PCAs and OVAs are from the Late Iron Age/Samad, while the second largest number of pre-Islamic sherds yielded by the UWA are Umm an-Nar in date. This indicates substantial settlement in both periods. By contrast, evidence from the Wadi Suq period is similarly lacking from PCAs, OVAs and the UWA, with the same being generally true for the slightly more visible Early Iron Age.

Figure 31 shows the sherd count by period from all sites recorded during the UWA. The majority of sherds are dated to the Late Iron Age/Samad followed by the Umm an-Nar and Early Iron Age. Islamic sherds are fewer than the pre-Islamic – the complete opposite pattern to that seen in the PCAs (Fig. 26) and OVAs (Fig. 28).

The evidence from all the UWA sites indicates a high level of activity during the Umm an-Nar and Iron Age, and much less activity during the Wadi Suq. However, it is unclear how much of this evidence comes from tombs and ‘other

Table 22 shows all pottery by period from the major UWA sites, this indicates that out of the 33 sites which yielded 54

The Wadi Andam Survey

Period CS.2.1 CS.2.2 CS.2.3 CS.2.4 CS.2.6 CS.2.11 CS.2.20 CS.2.23 CS.2.24 CS.2.29 CS.2.41 CS.2.42 CS.2.43 CS.2.45 CS.2.48 CS.2.50 CS.2.51 CS.2.52 CS.2.53 CS.2.54 CS.2.55 CS.2.56 CS.2.57 CS.2.58 CS.2.60 CS.2.61 CS.2.62 CS.2.63 CS.2.64 CS.2.65 CS.2.67 CS.2.68 CS.2.69 Total/Sherds Total sites

U.Nar 9 0 0 0 0 0 30 0 0 0 30 0 2 0 0 9 1 309 1 0 1 2 54 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 137 102 690 14

W.S 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 18 3

W.S? 1 0 0 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 3

E.I.A 0 5 0 0 0 25 0 0 0 0 0 11 3 0 0 46 37 38 0 0 0 49 0 0 6 0 0 0 5 0 150 18 28 421 13

L.I.A/ Samad 22 21 0 0 70 408 50 0 224 37 17 63 0 0 127 213 73 23 0 0 49 77 17 10 0 4 0 15 52 6 41 5 1,624 23

E.Islamic 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 3

M.Islamic 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 36 0 13 0 27 0 0 46 0 2 52 0 25 0 0 0 0 0 39 0 0 0 0 20 3 264 11

L.Islamic 0 0 38 0 18 0 0 0 29 0 26 0 28 0 4 27 14 39 0 7 26 3 14 0 1 2 42 1 3 0 9 0 3 334 20

Recent 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 19 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 4 0 15 0 4 0 7 0 2 0 0 0 0 59 9

Table 22: All pottery by period from the main sites in the UWA structures’. Breaking this data down into these components may produce a more detailed picture to compare with that from the wadi villages.

In summary, the evidence from the UWA survey reveals that Late Iron Age/Samad pottery is the most commonly represented, followed by the Umm an-Nar and Early Iron Age. Islamic sherds are fewer in number than pre-Islamic. Among pre-Islamic material, the Wadi Suq and Early Islamic are again the least represented periods. In contrast to the wadi villages evidence Late Iron Age/Samad pottery is the most common ahead of the Umm an-Nar material. The majority of Wadi Suq and Early Iron Age sherds come from tombs, with very limited occupational evidence. Both areas show a high level of activity during the Umm an-Nar and Late Iron Age/Samad periods, mainly from occupational areas. Some periods seem to have had a low usage of ceramics (e.g. Wadi Suq and Early Iron Age) except perhaps in burial contexts, where even then usage remains fairly limited. In other periods such as the Umm an-Nar, Late Iron Age/Samad, Middle and Late Islamic, settlement pottery is much more in evidence.

Long-term Trends by Type of Evidence from the UWA The results presented above give some insights into the levels of activity in the UWA. However, as was the case with the wadi villages (PCAs and OVAs), the data from the tombs seems to show different picture. In order to understand the trend, Table 23 shows the number and percentage of sherds by period from all the UWA areas that were recovered near to tombs and ‘other structures’. It shows that the majority of Wadi Suq and Early Iron Age sherds come from tombs, while Umm an-Nar and Late Iron Age/Samad sherds are more often associated with ‘other structures’, in both cases an identical pattern to that seen in the wadi villages (see Table 21). 55

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula Period

Tombs

‘Other Structures’

Total sherds

U.Nar/U.Nar?

321 (38.8%) 19 (59.4%) 0 (0%) 331 (74.5%) 1 (16.7%) 417 (24.2%) 0 (0%) 1 (11.1%) 3 (25%) 99 (30.8%) 6 (6.7%) 142 (35.1%) 52 (26.1%) 30 (34.9%) 1,422

506 (61.2%) 13 (40.6%) 0 (0%) 113 (25.5%) 5 (83.3%) 1,306 (75.8%) 0 (0%) 8 (88.9%) 9 (75%) 222 (69.2%) 84 (93.3%) 263 (64.9%) 147 (73.9%) 56 (65.1%) 2,732

827 (100%) 32 (100%) 0 (0%) 444 (100%) 6 (100%) 1,723 (100%) 0 (0%) 9 (100%) 12 (100%) 321 (100%) 90 (100%) 405 (100%) 199 (100%) 86 (100%) 4,154

W.S/W.S? L.B.A E.I.A I.A L.I.A/Samad Sasanian–E. Islamic E.Islamic Islamic M.Islamic M.Islamic–L. Islamic L.Islamic L.Islamic– Recent Recent Total/Type

each survey and from both settlement and funerary sites. This might indicate that wadi villages and their margins were extensively occupied during the Umm an-Nar and Late Iron Age/Samad periods. Moreover, although there is a strong suggestion of decline in activity during the Wadi Suq period, the evidence suggests some degree of continuity at some of these locations. Section Three Description of the Evidence The survey along the Wadi Andam yielded a large number of sites and archaeological features from a number of periods. Each of these sites is listed and described fully in the Site Gazetteer in Appendix A and the sites are classified into types in Appendix B. This section provides a brief description of these sites by period, followed by a discussion of what the evidence may reveal about human activity in that era. The Hafit Period (ca. 3500/3400–2500 BC) Evidence from this period includes two types of tombs: Hafit cairns and Beehives. One of the aims of this research was the production of a map of the rough distribution of Hafit/Beehive tombs in the area. It follows then, that a large volume of evidence dating from this period was uncovered during the survey. 1- Hafit Cairns

Table 23: Total number and percentage of sherds by period from all the UWA areas (% based on the total number by period)

Survey Areas (Fig. 32-33) Table 24 shows that a large number of Hafit cairns were recorded during the survey.

Conclusion The methodology presented in this chapter, based on largescale surface pottery collection, is effective in providing quantifiable data on settlement activity over time. Such quantification has a greater degree of statistical validity than data collected using traditional, non-probabilistic methods.

Description of Evidence Our understanding of this period in Wadi Andam, and the rest of the Oman Peninsula, is largely based on the enormous number of cairn tombs distributed throughout the study area.

The main aim of the analysis was to understand the relative changes in the level of activity and settlement over time as indicated by the pottery. The basic pattern is complicated to some extent by the tombs, which appear to indicate a slightly different trend to the ceramic evidence. Tombs are more in evidence in the Wadi Suq and Early Iron Age material for which there is very little settlement evidence.

The results of the Hafit survey demonstrate that the density of these cairns varies within the study area. Figure 32 shows the total number of cairns while Figure 33 shows the relative density of cairns per square km found in each of the surveyed areas. Barring CS.1 which yielded 20 cairns per square km, almost all of the surveyed areas in the two northernmost zones of the study area yielded a low density of cairns (e.g. between 0 and 9 cairns per square km). By contrast, almost all of the surveyed areas within the southern zones yielded a higher numbers of cairns per square km. The density of cairns in areas CS.5, CS.6 and CS.17 is between 10 and 19 cairns while in areas CS.10 and CS.14 it is between 20 and 29 cairns while area, being the densest, CS.8 holds 30+ cairns per square km.

None of the surveys (PCAs, OVAs and UWA) yielded much evidence of the Wadi Suq period, especially when compared to the Umm an-Nar and Iron Age. The evidence also might indicate a slight increase in activity between the Early Iron Age and Wadi Suq periods, but evidence is still scarce when compared with that from the Umm an-Nar and Late Iron Age/Samad periods. This might suggest that at the beginning of the Iron Age there was an early stage of an increase in settlement after the low levels during the Wadi Suq period.

So what does this difference in cairn density across the survey area indicate? The reasons behind these differences is unclear, but it might be related to the topography and availability of natural resources such as water and grazing

Large numbers of sherds were recovered dating from the Umm an-Nar and Late Iron Age/Samad periods from 56

The Wadi Andam Survey Site No. CS.1 CS.2 CS.4 CS.5 CS.6 CS.8 CS.10 CS.11 CS.12 CS.13 CS.14 CS.15 CS.16 CS.17

Area

Approx. Area/km2 The area around al-Fulayj village 8 km2 Upper Wadi Andam 39 km2 The area around al-Qaryatain village 6 km2 The area around al-Khashbah village 8 km2 From al-Washahi junction to al-Wafi junction 12 km2 From al-Wafi junction to Sinaw roundabout 21 km2 From Barzaman to al-A’yoon villages and from al-A’yoon to al-Musala village’s 12 km2 junction From the junction of al-Washahi to the junction of al-Mudhaybi-Samad 12 km2 From the junction of al-Mudhaybi-Samad to Samad 12 km2 From the junction al-Mudhaybi-Samad to the junction of al-Fatah 12 km2 From the junction of al-Fatah to al-Mudhaybi 8 km2 From al-Jarda to the junction leading to ar-Rawdhah village along the main road 15 km2 connecting Muscat and Sur From the junction leading to ar-Rawdhah village on the main road connecting 12 km2 Muscat by Sur to al-Sharia’ah/Samad The area around al-Aflaj village 6 km2 Total Cairns

Total cairns 162 167 48 135 166 696 283

Cairns density/km2 20.25 4.28 8 16.87 13.83 33.14 23.58

0 44 33 170 0

0 3.66 2.75 21.25 0

6

0.5

77 1,987

12.83

Table 24: Location and number of Hafit cairns by area

Fig. 32: Hafit survey areas with the approximate

Fig. 33: Hafit survey areas with the approximate density

number of plotted cairns (the dark-marked areas are

of plotted cairns

those areas yielded cairns and the area encircling them is the main surveyed area)

57

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 34: Black Hafit cairn at the entrance of AlQaryatain village

Fig. 35: Burial chamber with its possible jammed entrance at one of the disturbed

Hafit cairns at CS.2.47

site

Fig. 36: Disturbed Hafit cairn at site CS.2.47 58

The Wadi Andam Survey

Fig. 37: Hafit cairn with white

creamy soil at al-Khashbah site

CS.5.13

lands. For example the densely covered zone three consists largely of gravel hills and broad wadis. It should be noted that this is only a rough distribution, and therefore two factors regarding the accuracy of the survey must be taken into account. One being that it cannot be known for sure how many tombs have been destroyed, and secondly the fact that not all areas around Wadi Andam which yet been surveyed, including for example, the area from Sinaw to Barzaman, where cairns are distributed on the hills along the road.

date indicating re-use during this period. This raises the difficulty of definite dating these tombs and understanding their development over time. Their state of preservation and the absence of associated settlements makes the dating of the cairns even more complicated. These tombs could also have been re-used in more recent times as observation towers as generally the tombs are built in highly visible locations. It was noticed during the survey that in many areas such as those around Mahleya and al-Ghoryeen stones were harvested from the tombs for use elsewhere.

The cairns are built of piled stones of different sizes and colours, mainly black and brown, mixed with other smaller rocks and sometimes with earth (Fig. 34-37). They are built on high ground on tops of ridges, slopes and on the lower elevations of rocky outcrops and gravel hills, and sometimes on lower wadi terraces. They usually cluster in groups, but there are a few isolated examples. Two to four concentric walls with variable thickness (30 cm–1 m) were noticeable in a few examples; although mostly they are indistinguishable. Some examples had a badly disturbed burial chamber of possibly semi-circular or oval shape with an inner wall and one or two outer walls. It was difficult to see and describe the paving of the chamber in the majority of cases as a result of the bad state of preservation; however, a small number of cairns showed signs of having paved floors within the burial chamber. The diameter of the chamber varied from 1 m to 2.5 m with a height of approximately 1.50–2.40 m depending on the state of preservation. The total size of the cairns is between 3–12 m in diameter with a height reaching a maximum of 5 m. No specific shape could be distinguished with regards to the outer appearance of the cairn.

No associated settlements were found in and around the location of the cairns, which does not increase our understanding of the settlement patterns of the period. The lack of associated settlement remains associated with these cairns raises questions about the absence of settlements during the Hafit period. One possible hypothesis is that the population who used these tombs were nomadic pastoralist and used the area as grazing land, living in temporary perishable tents or barasti huts. This hypothesis could well be supported by the presence of platforms of piled and paved stones discovered near some of these cairns at several sites including CS.2.42, CS.2.56, CS.2.59, CS.2.64, CS.2.67, CS.5.10, CS.5.15 and CS.7.2 (Fig. 38-39). It might be that these acted as stone foundations for wooden houses or huts. These platforms consist of one course of stones in different shapes including circular, rectangular and square, constructed with small black/brown wadi stones. They are filled in the middle with a loose gravel of small stones. Good examples of these platforms are those found at sites CS.5.15 (Fig. 39-40), which are square and rectangular in shape with a size around 1.20–2 m x 1.20–2 m for the square, and 1–1.50 m by 1.40–2.20 m for the rectangular ones. A similar possible rectangular platform, but larger, was also found at site CS.5.10. It was approximately 7.50 m x 3.20 m. The circular examples varied in size between 0.90–1.20 m in diameter. Examples were found at site CS.7.2 where three attached circles were discovered. There are also some possible platforms without any regular shape at site CS.2.67.

The majority of these cairns were badly disturbed making identification and classification of structural elements’ difficult, for example, identifying entrances which could be jammed with stones. Several finds were collected from a number of cairns but none of these could be dated to the Hafit period. The majority being Early Iron Age in 59

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula These structures could date to any period because unfortunately, none of them have yielded any datable material. Because these structures have not produced any pottery, it perhaps possible to suggest that they come from a period in which ceramics were scarce such as the Hafit, or even the Wadi Suq or Early Islamic, or they may even date to before the Hafit period. However, only excavation might be helpful in telling us more about these structures. Their occurence near Hafit cairns is important and it makes them potentially a prime candidate for future excavation. Another possible reason for the lack of Hafit settlements is their burial under alluvium. anytime was taken during the survey to examine surrounded wells, cut-sections and any land-moving activities with the hope of finding buried remains of this period. However, apart from the stone platforms, the survey did not reveal any possible features. The failure in finding occupation remains extended also to surface material such as pottery or flint that could be dated to this time. The only object that could possible be dated to this period was a worked flint flake found at Site CS.1.2 north of al-Khurais, an unfinished tool made of reddish flint as suggested by the patina (W.D.1, Fig. 41). The rocky hills surrounding this site yielded Hafit cairns and Beehive tombs and so there is an outside chance of it originating in this period. Another small flint arrowhead (W.D.129) was found in Tomb 4 at site CS.2.69.1 (Fig. 42), which had been reused during the Early Iron Age (see Early Iron Age below). This arrowhead and the aforementioned worked flint tool (W.D.1) as well as other recovered flint pieces (Fig. 43) are possibly of the Arabian Bifacial Tradition (ABT) (H. Kallweit & Jeffrey I. Rose 2006, Pers. Comm.), and thus, may date to the 5th millennium BC (Wadi Wutayya–Saruq facies, Potts 1993d: 169–177). However, as these were the only pieces found during the survey, and as they are not from the same sites and are associated with material from later periods their dating remains problematic.

Fig. 38: Location of possible platforms near Hafit cairns

Fig. 39: Stone square and rectangular alignments and piled stones of possible platform around

Hafit cairns at site CS.5.15

60

The Wadi Andam Survey

Fig. 40: Rectangular stone alignment of possible platform close to

Hafit cairn with

white creamy soil at site

CS.5.15

Fig. 41: Possible worked flint tool found at Site CS.1.2 north of alKhurais (the white arrowhead shows the different colour of patina)

Fig. 42: Flint arrowhead found Hafit cairn at site CS.2.69.1

within a disturbed re-used

2- Beehive Tombs

Fig. 43: Two worked flint pieces found at Site CS.2.69.2.

Beehive tombs represent a single period or whether they are the result of a chronological development.

Survey Areas (Fig. 44-45)

During the survey, several locations yielded a large number of Beehive tombs. They appear to show lower densities than the Hafit cairns (see Fig. 32–33, 38 and 44–45). The Beehives are concentrated in the northern part of the study area, mainly in zone three; no tombs at all were found in the southernmost zone. Fig. 45 shows their relative density per square km according to each surveyed area. The density of the tombs is low (between 0 and nine per square km) across the survey area, with the exception of zone three where the area around al-Khashbah (CS.5) contains over ten tombs per square km. This is a different picture to that of the Hafit cairns (see Fig. 32-33) the densities of which vary markedly across the study area. The reason behind the concentration of Beehive tombs in the northern part is unclear but, it might again be related to the topography and availability of natural resources.

Besides Hafit cairns, the survey yielded a large number of Beehive tombs (Table 25). Description of Evidence It is not clear whether or not the period between 3000 and 2500 BC witnessed a development in Hafit burial monuments, possibly from cairns to Beehives. It should be noted that there are some questions, among archaeologists, regarding Hafit and Beehive as well as the Beehive and Umm an-Nar tombs and their development.13 The question that most needs to be answered is whether Hafit and   See, for example, Frifelt 1975: 389-390; 1991: 127-129; Doe 1983: 4654; Gentelle & Frifelt 1989: 120-121; Yule & Weisgerber 1988: 14; 1998: 192-209, de Cardi et al. 1979: 66-67; Vogt, B. 1985: 58-103; Orchard, J. & J. 1997: 10-19; Orchard, Jocelyn 1995: 149-155; Orchard, Jocelyn & Stanger, G 1999: 103-106; Potts 1986: 132; 1997: 69-70) 13

Beehive tombs are located on rocky outcrops and are constructed from either rough stones or hewn flat stones

61

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula Site No. CS.1 CS.2 CS.4 CS.5

Area

Approx. Area/km2 8 km2 39 km2 6 km2 8 km2

The area around al-Fulayj village Upper Wadi Andam The area around al-Qaryatain village The area around al-Khashbah village Total Tombs

Total Tombs 36 82 4 83 205

Tombs Density/km2 4.5 2.10 0.66 10.37

Table 25: Location and number of Beehive tombs located during the survey

Fig. 44: Distribution of Beehive tombs located during the survey (the dark-marked areas are those areas

Fig. 45: Location and density of Beehive tombs mapped during the survey

yielded tombs and the area encircling them is the main surveyed area)

depending on the availability of material. They are built from the same rock on which they are positioned on outcrops. Their construction is based around double skin walls built on a circular stone base with kerbstones (Fig. 46–47). Their diameter ranges from 3–6 m, their height from 2.50–5 m and their wall thickness from 1–1.50 m according to their state of preservation. They exhibit a single burial chamber of either circular or semi-circular shape (Fig. 47) approximately 1.50–2 m in diameter, with

an east-facing entrance and a flat slab lintel placed over the entrance (Fig. 46). The entrance is small and rectangular in shape, around 50–80 cm in height and 30–50 cm wide. The majority of entrances are open which might be interpreted as their having been left for secondary burials. Some tombs have an outer plinth approximately 50–80 cm wide, in order to support the construction of the tomb. Several tombs show traces of a stone paved floor.

62

The Wadi Andam Survey

Fig. 46: Beehive tomb with its

eastern-oriented entrance from the al-Fulayj area, site

CS.1.1

Fig. 47: Burial chamber of a Beehive tomb at site CS.2.42 The Beehive tombs are distributed over large elevated areas and are sometimes built on the same outcrops as Hafit cairns. It is possible that these two tomb types were built and used by the same group. Both are often found clustered together and rarely as individually, and it is often difficult to distinguish between types when badly disturbed. Well preserved Beehive tombs are easy to recognise with their Beehive shape, other structural elements including their east-facing entrance topped with lintel slabs. The widespread occurrence of such tombs, their often prominent position in the landscape and their distinctive shape makes them easy to spot.

is a significant difference between the tombs with the distinctive ‘Beehive’ shape a sharp contrast to the Hafit tombs which often merely resemble a ‘pile of stones’. There is a contrast too in the entrances found in the two tomb types. In Hafit cairns it is hardly distinguishable and usually blocked and sealed by the concentric walls around the chamber, or missing altogether in badly disturbed examples. However, the inner walls in a small number of Hafit cairns show a possible low single entrance of possibly rectangular or trapezoidal shape with a single stone slab lintel. However these tombs are badly disturbed and may in fact be Beehive tombs rather than Hafit. The Beehives, in contrast, have a rectangular entrance at ground level with a flat-topped lintel slab that can be easily distinguished. This entrance often shows an easterly orientation and is open; however, many badly preserved examples show no traces of an entrance. It is possible that the Beehive entrances were closed and covered with slabs during their construction, and that these might have been lost when used in later periods for further interments or when plundered.

Table 26 compares and contrasts the characteristics of both Hafit and Beehive tombs seen during the survey. The Beehives are not located on gravel hills nor the lower wadi terraces and flat interfluves areas where Hafit cairns may be found. Instead they are clustered in hills and outcrops surrounding the wadi villages, where Hafit cairns are rarely found. However, they do overlap in some locations. Tomb shape is a characteristic in which there 63

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula Characteristics Location

Hafit Beehive On high ground: rocky outcrops & gravel hills’ tops, ridges, On high ground: hills’ tops, ridges, slopes, around slopes, lower wadi terraces, flat interfluves, few around wadi villages; wadi villages

Distribution

More in northern zones; few in southern zones.

Clustering Total number Shape Entrance Walls

Chamber

More in northern zones 1 & 3, nothing in southern zone 4 Groups; some individuals Groups; some individuals 1,987 205 Cairn: overground structure looks like a pile of rounded Beehive with convex topping wadi stones & rubble, circular or semi-circular Hardly distinguishable, possibly blocked by two concentric East-facing, at ground level; open & sometimes walls; some chambers show possible low single entrance. closed; rectangular with a flat-topped lintel slab, more visible Hardly distinguishable but may show possible 1-4 Double-skinned walls on a stone circle platform concentric ring-walls, c.0.30-1 m thick with kerbstones forming an even edge; c.0.80-1 m wall-thick; possible external low plinth c.50 cm wide Single small simple chamber in the centre; 1-2.50 m dim; Single small central chamber; circular; 1.20-2.50 semi-circular or oval; examples with inner & outer walls m dim

Chamber floor

Floor pavement not clear but possibly paved with flat stones Examples showed possible flat stones pavement

Diameter Height Disturbance & re-use Roof Passage

2-12 m Badly disturbed but best preserved around up to 3 m Many re-used & badly disturbed Unclear Unclear

Stones

No. Burial

2-6 m 3-5 m Many disturbed & robbed, possibly re-used Central corbelled superstructure roof of flat stones Roofed single low entrance passage leading into the small single chamber Piled of rounded wadi stones of different sizes and/or Flat hewn black-brownish wadi stones and/or cut local limestone; black to brownish & yellowish; mixed limestone; roughly coursed; yellow-brownish with smaller stones; sometimes with white creamy soil; local limestone; unshaped; uncut or very roughly unshaped; uncut or very roughly cut cut Unclear

Unclear

Table 26: Characteristics of Hafit and Beehive tombs The walls of the Hafit cairns are difficult to distinguish but some examples show possibly one to four concentric ring-walls around 0.30 m–1 m thick. Whereas Beehives have double-skinned walls set on a circular platform with kerbstones forming an even edge, with walls approximately 0.80 m–1 m thick. Moreover, the Beehives sometimes exhibit a low external plinth around 50 cm wide, a feature absent in Hafit cairns. In both tomb types the single central burial chamber is small with a diameter of around 1–2.50 m and in some well preserved cases with a paved floor of flat stones. Due to disturbance and collapse, there is no sign of roofing over the Hafit cairns, while the Beehives have a central corbelled superstructure roof of flat stones. Both types appear to have been subject to frequent disturbance and plundering as well as re-use, which make their dating as well as typology problematic. Finally, a comparison between Figures 32 and 44 reveals that the total number of Hafit cairns (1,987) is greater than the Beehives (205). This might be related to the difficulties in indentifying badly disturbed structures.

often located away from wadi villages, and no traces of associated settlements have been recovered. However, a number of cairns are located near these settlements including at al-Khashbah, al-Fulayj, al-Qaryatain and alKhurais. By contrast, the Beehives are clustered around wadi villages (see Table 26 & Fig. 44), following a similar pattern to tombs from the Umm an-Nar period which are associated with wadi villages. Many Hafit cairns were re-used over time, mainly during the Iron Age. Several finds were collected from some of these cairns but none can be securely dated to the Hafit period. The associated finds suggest that they may date to the Early Iron Age, but stylistically the tombs appear to be Hafit period cairns. Hafit period activity within Wadi Andam is enigmatic because of the lack of occupational archaeological evidence. This complicates our understanding of settlement activity during this time. The population of these tombs was perhaps nomadic, and moved around in search for good animal grazing. Their sites might be perishable ‘campsites’, which have vanished over time, a hypothesis that might be supported by the possible platforms found associated with some of these cairns. Furthermore, the occupational remains might have been deposited and buried by the alluvium, or eroded by surface run off.

Summary Activity during the late 4th/early 3rd millennium BC is represented almost entirely by burial monuments in the form of Hafit and Beehive tombs. Hafit cairns are 64

The Wadi Andam Survey Umm An-Nar Period (c.2500–2000 BC)

Description of Evidence

Sites (Fig. 48)

The Umm an-Nar period is well represented by a considerable level of archaeological evidence, includng wadi villages, pottery scatters and tomb fields. This suggests a high level of activity during this time. Almost all of the Umm an-Nar sites are concentrated in the northern part of Wadi Andam, a similar pattern to that of the Hafit/ Beehive tombs, while the southern part produced little evidence from this period (only 12 sherds from CS.7). The southern area also yielded little evidence for the other preIslamic periods, while producing much Islamic material (Table 21). It is unclear whether the reasons behind this concentration are related to environmental conditions that made the northen areas attractive to the populations of the Umm an-Nar period or to cultural or economic reasons.

1 PCAs: CS.1.5.1, CS.1.5.2, CS.1.5.5 and CS.1.5.6 at al-Fulayj; CS.3.1.4 at al-Khurais; CS.4.1.3 and CS.4.1.6 at al-Qaryatain; CS.5.1.1, CS.5.1.2, CS.5.1.3 and CS.5.1.5 at al-Khashbah; and CS.9.1.8 at ar-Rawdhah. 2 Major sites: CS.2.52, CS.2.67, CS.2.68, CS.2.69, CS.5.2, CS.5.4, CS.5.9, CS.5.7. 3 Minor sites: CS.1.1, CS.2.1, CS.2.20, CS.2.41, CS.2.43, CS.2.50, CS.2.51, CS.2.53, CS.2.55, CS.2.56, CS.2.57, CS.2.61, CS.3.5, CS.5.1.2, CS.5.10, CS.7.2, CS.9.2, CS.9.5, CS.9.4.

For the purpose of this study, the Umm an-Nar evidence will be classified into three types: PCAs, major sites and minor sites. 1- PCAs Apart from Barzaman, all the PCAs from the six surveyed villages yielded sherds from this period with al-Khashbah (CS.5) yielding the largest number. The evidence clearly shows that the Umm an-Nar period is the most consistent and abundantly represented era in the wadi villages barring the Late Islamic. In fact, with the exception of some Hafit tombs in the area surrounding some villages (e.g. alFulayj, al-Khurais, al-Qaryatain and al-Khashbah), Umm an-Nar material is the earliest evidence for the occupation of the wadi villages, suggesting that it may have been at this time that these villages were first settled. 2- Major Sites

Fig. 48: Distribution of Umm an-Nar sites and their archaeological features recorded during the survey

65

Al-Khashbah (CS.5) village (ca. 912.5 ha.) yielded the most evidence for both settlements and tombs of the Umm an-Nar period (Fig. 49). The published literature (Weisgerber 1980: 99–100; Potts 1990a: 102; Yule 1993: 143, Fig.2a–2b; Yule 2001a: 590, Fig. 590a–b; Orchard & Stanger 1994: 82) indicates only the occurrence of four Umm an-Nar towers in this village, but provides no more detail. A total of 405 Umm an-Nar sherds were collected from this village’s PCAs. Area CS.5.1.2 (ca. 4.41 ha.) encompasses a mound (CS.5.1.2.1) of around 0.18 hectares, which might have been formed through land clearance activity or the collapse of mudbrick buildings, where a large number of pottery sherds of different periods were discovered scattered on top and within the exposed section. The occurrence of Umm an-Nar sherds within such mounds might indicate the presence of buried sites disturbed by recent land moving in the area. Another cut-section (CS.5.1.2.2) with Umm an-Nar sherds is located in close proximity to the first, the two are probably

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 49: Sketch plan of the village of al-Khashbah (CS.5) and its associated archaeological sites

Fig. 50: CS.5.2.1: large Umm an-Nar square tower

66

The Wadi Andam Survey

Fig. 51 Umm an-Nar square tower at site CS.5.2.1 built with large boulder blocks and preserved to a substanial height

Fig. 52: Rock drawings on Umm an-Nar square tower at site CS.5.2.1

the blocks of the large

related. Umm an-Nar sherds were also recovered from an Islamic cemetery (CS.5.1.2.3). Their occurrence may originate from the adjacent clearance mounds that showed surface Umm an-Nar sherd scatters, or the sherds may have been brought to the surface by the excavation of the Islamic graves.

an-Nar semi-square tower with four rounded corners. It measures approximately 15 m by 15 m (Fig. 53), while CS.5.2.3 consists of an Umm an-Nar round tower around 20 m in diameter (Fig. 54). Site CS.5.2.4 (ca. 0.16 ha.) consists of scatters of stone and Umm an-Nar sherds near the square tower, while CS.5.2.5 (ca. 3 ha.) is a rocky hill supporting eighteen badly disturbed tombs surrounded by stone and sherd scatters. The scattered stones are large and are similar to those used in the construction of the Umm an-Nar tower, suggesting that they were cut for this purpose. A fourth Umm an-Nar tower was found at site CS.5.7 (Fig. 55), which has been badly disturbed by later occupation. Site CS.5.9 is a tomb field (ca. 32.5 ha.) in the south–western part of the village with a group of Umm anNar tombs associated with a large number of contempory sherds (323 were collected). Twelve Umm an-Nar tombs were found distributed around another possible tomb field, Site CS.5.4 (ca. 3 ha.), in the north–western part of alKhashbah (Fig. 56).

Site CS.5.2 (ca. 42.75 ha.) is found on a rocky outcrop and consists of a group of cairns and pottery scatters in which a total of 424 Umm an-Nar sherds were collected. Below this outcrop, there are three Umm an-Nar towers with stone and pottery scatters (Fig. 49). The site was divided into sub-sites of which CS.5.2.1 includes an Umm an-Nar square tower around 28 m by 28 m in size, and around 2.50 m height (Fig. 50–51). The tower is built of large rectangular stone blocks of different sizes; the largest being 2 m by 0.80 m by 0.50 m. Some stones boast rock drawings, depicting scenes of horses or camels and their riders (Fig. 52). Site CS.5.2.2 includes an Umm 67

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 53: Site CS.5.2.2: Umm an-Nar semi-square tower with four round corners

Fig. 54: Site CS.5.2.3: Umm an-Nar round tower

Fig. 55: Site CS.5.7: a Umm anNar tower

badly disturbed

68

The Wadi Andam Survey

Fig. 56: Umm an-Nar tomb with its concentric walls and burial chamber divided walls at the tomb field in site

CS.5.4

Fig. 57: Topographic plan of site CS.2.52 and its archaeological remains

69

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula The sketch plan of al-Khashbah village (Fig. 49), complete with towers, tombs, sherd scatters and buried deposits suggests that these remains might once have formed part of single village during this period. However, these features do not show any sign of organization or planning. The layout of the village with large towers separated by 200-500 m distances might suggest that each key family or

clan had its own inhabited fortification. Tower CS.5.2.1 is larger than the others suggesting that it may have been the main tower and a seat of power, while the others might have belonged to subservient inhabitants. Alternatively perhaps the towers played a symbolic role as much as a domestic and defensive one. The southwestern and northwestern parts of the village were reserved for the dead.

Fig. 58: Site CS.2.52.1: a large Umm an-Nar round tower

Fig. 59: The stone walls of the Umm an-Nar round tower at Site CS.2.52.1

large

Fig. 60: Umm an-Nar rectangular stone structure within the Late Iron Age/Samad Mahleya-type tombs at Site CS.2.52.3 70

The Wadi Andam Survey The survey of the Upper Wadi Andam (UWA) led to the discovery of several sites dating to the Umm anNar period. Minor sites consist mainly of sherd scatters associated with tombs or ‘other structures’. One of the major sites discovered is CS.2.52 (ca. 15 ha.), the largest site to produce consistent evidence from the Umm an-Nar period. It is a possible Umm an-Nar settlement constructed on the western bank of Wadi Andam, near the modern day village of al-Ghoryeen. The southeastern side of the site is mixed with an Islamic cemetery. The site’s features include a round tower, Umm an-Nar tombs, a Late Iron Age/Samad Mahleya-type tomb field mixed with Umm an-Nar structures and tombs, Umm an-Nar houses and other stone structures (Fig. 57). The site was divided into six areas with Area One (CS.2.52.1) encompassing an Umm an-Nar round tower around 25–30 m in diameter and around 5–8 m high (Fig. 58–59) and Area Two (CS.2.52.2) including approximately 58 tombs of the Mahleya-type (see Late Iron Age/Samad Period below) confusingly mixed with possible Umm an-Nar tombs. It is possible that they are built on top of the Umm an-Nar tombs, with stones from the earlier structures being re-used to build the later tombs. Area Three (CS.2.52.3) is the northeastern cemetery that includes 144 tombs of Mahleya-type, mixed

with tombs and, possibly domestic Umm an-Nar, stone structures associated with a large number of contemporary sherds (Fig. 60). Area Four (CS.2.52.4) consists of 43 Umm an-Nar tombs and three black cairns with white creamy soil and travertine stones (Fig. 61). Area Five (CS.2.52.5) encompasses a group of stone structures of varying shapes and sizes (Fig. 62), associated with a large quantity of Umm an-Nar pottery, particularly in the western and southern parts of the site. The pottery is of good quality and is finely painted with distinctive forms. Area Six (CS.2.52.6) is the southeastern part of the site, and includes an Islamic cemetery, ancient agricultural field remains juxtaposed with pre-Islamic tombs of possibly the Mahleya-type, cairns from earlier periods, and a number of stone horseshoes and circular structures. 309 Umm anNar sherds were collected from the surface of these areas. Moreover, site CS.2.52.4 yielded one piece of a rim (ca. 5 mm thick) of a chlorite vessel (W.D.106, Fig. 63-64) with a row of incised double circles and dots between two horizontal lines.The shape of the vessel and its decoration has parallels with others found at 3rd millennium BC sites in the peninsula.14   Parallels can be found in the Umm an-Nar tombs at Bat (Frifelt 1975b:

14

Fig. 61: Site CS.2.52.4: an Umm a-Nar tomb field

Fig. 62: Umm an-Nar rectangular stone structure at Site CS.2.52.5

71

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 63: Fragment of Umm an-Nar chlorite vessel from Site CS.2.52.4 Approximately speaking, the site (Fig. 57) is divided into four quarters with a round tower at the centre. The south/ southeastern, and to some extent the northeastern, part of the site encompass the site’s burial ground that extends along the wadi bank. This area is the largest measuring approximately 200 m by 50 m. It is possible that this part of the site was reserved for ancestors and more recently deceased tribe members. Umm an-Nar tombs were not constructed in elevated positions but in flat areas often close to the contemporary settlement. The third quarter of the site consists of the settlement where the remains of around 120 stone structures and a large number of Umm an-Nar sherds were found. The fourth quarter encompasses the north–eastern and north–western parts of the site which include the palimpsest of Umm an-Nar tombs and structures and Late Iron Age/Samad Mahleya-type tombs. The layout of the site suggests that it may be identifieid as an Umm an-Nar village with boundaries defined by the edge of the wadi bank and the terrace. The central tower acting as the focal point – the stronghold of an important chief or tribe. The inhabitants of the village may have lived in the houses to the southwest of the tower, while the southeastern and northeastern parts of were reserved for their dead.

Fig. 64: Fragments of chlorite bowls from different sites most of the archaeological features. CS.2.69 (ca. 54.83 ha.) is located a few meters south of CS.2.68 (Fig. 65), separated by the main road connecting Izki to Sinaw. It is likely that both sites form a single settlement. The site may be divided into three parts: the western part (CS.2.69.1) includes a tomb field with the remains of around 26 cairns of rock and white creamy soil (Fig. 66); the eastern and southwestern parts (CS.2.69.2) encompass a group of low mounds, complete with possible Umm an-Nar structures; while the southern part (CS.2.69.3) consists of a group of white travertine low mounds. CS.2.69.2 includes mounds with stone walls which are possibly the remains of collapsed buildings which have produced a high density of Umm an-Nar sherds. One large mound has the possible appearance of an Umm an-Nar round tower with stone walls discovered at its perimeter (Fig. 67). These are around 3–4 m high, while the tower itself is approximately15–20 m in diameter and is surrounded by a group of approximately 34 lower mounds, possibly ruins of domestic structures. The site also includes four cairns with white travertine stones and white creamy soil. All parts of the site yielded surface material, mainly pottery with 102 sherds being collected as well as other objects from the cairns in CS.2.69.1, including a complete shell (W.D.117, Fig. 68), worked flint pieces (W.D.009 & W.D.010, Fig. 43) and one 5.8 cm long, copper/bronze leaf-shaped arrowhead (W.D.116; Fig. 69) with a midrib.15 One small flint arrowhead was found at tomb 4 (W.D.129; Fig. 42).

A second significant Umm an-Nar site is CS.2.68 (ca. 10.5 ha.) which is located west of Khadra Bani Dafa’a. It consists of a group of badly disturbed cairns and a large number of badly disturbed stone structures producing a high density of Umm an-Nar-type pottery from where 137 sherds were collected. The site seems to have been bulldozed while the main road was under construction, which has disturbed fig.28e: 418); Hili Tomb B (al-Tikriti 1981: Pls. 138-139); Hili North, Tomb A (Cleuziou & Vogt 1983: fig.10, Nos.7-9: 52 &1985: fig, No.3: 8); Hili Tomb N (Hadu 1989: Pl.13: 66) and Ajman Tombs A and B (alTikriti 1989b: Pl.45, Nos. C-G).

  This arrowhead is typical Iron Age and has parallels from many sites in the peninsula such as Rumeilah (Boucharlat & Lombard 1985: Pl.62, Nos. 1-7). 15

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The Wadi Andam Survey

Fig. 65: Sketch plan for Site CS.2.69 and its archaeological features

Fig. 66: Hafit cairns with white creamy soil at CS.2.69.1 73

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 68: Shell from site CS.2.69.1, Tomb 3 Fig. 67: Site CS.2.69.2: possible Umm an-Nar round tower with stone walls

Fig. 69: A group of grave goods from different sites 74

The Wadi Andam Survey

Fig. 70: Mudbrick building remains on top of a black rocky hill at site CS.9.2.1 3- Minor Sites

suggesting that the origins of these settled villages date to this time.

The minor sites worthy of note are CS.9.2 and CS.9.4 at ar-Rawdhah village. The first (ca. 4.37 ha.) may be subdivided into two areas: the remains of a mudbrick building on a rocky hill (CS.9.2.1) (Fig. 70), and a small date palm garden (CS.9.2.2) that was checked for pottery. Both areas yielded a large quantity of pottery dating to a variety of periods, including 21 Umm an-Nar sherds. The second site (CS.9.4) is a well cut-section north of ar-Rawdhah village approximately 3 m wide and 2.50 m deep the stratigraphy includes a 60 cm layer containing Umm an-Nar sherds and possible evidence of fire cracked stones and mudbrick. A large number of pottery sherds of various periods were recovered from around the pit including 76 dating to the Umm an-Nar period. This might indicate the presence of buried Umm an-Nar remains in the area. A number of other sites may date to the Umm an-Nar period; however, they yielded very little evidence from this date, usually only a few sherds, perhaps suggesting short-term occupation or temporary campsites.

The major sites recorded from this period are based in and around modern villages including at al-Khashab (CS.5), al-Ghoryeen (CS.2.52) and Khadra Bani Dafa’a (CS.2.69). These are seemingly prime locations for settlement and seem to have been occupied intermittently until the present day. This is likely related to the availability of natural resources, particularly water and fertile soils. At present, these villages are located along a major routes linking al-Dakhilyah (in the interior of Oman) to ash-Sharqiyah (part of the interior and coastal zones). This is likely to have been true in the past when traders from the interior of Oman travelled to the coast and vice versa for trade. By contrast, almost all the smaller sites are located away from modern villages, and are scattered along the banks of Wadi Andam (see Fig. 113–114 below). The evidence from the Umm an-Nar period appears to demonstrate a close association between the tombs and the settlements of the period, a very different pattern to the earlier Hafit and the later Wadi Suq periods.

Summary The survey yielded a significant amount of Umm anNar evidence from a variety of sites including PCAs, large (major) and small (minor) villages, occupational remains, tomb fields, pottery scatters and ‘other structures’ indicating limited activity. The Umm an-Nar period is well represented by both settlements and tombs. This suggests that wadi villages and their environs were widely occupied by the living and dead Umm an-Nar population in the form of settlements and burial grounds. With the exception of a small number of Hafit tombs in the vicinity of some of the wadi villages, the Umm an-Nar period provides the earliest evidence for the occupation of the wadi villages,

The Umm an-Nar settlements share a number of characteristics. Figures 49, 57 and 65 illustrate the layout of three large Umm an-Nar sites all of which yielded towers (CS.2.52 and CS.5) or a possible tower (CS.2.69) as well as the remains of structures, tomb fields and pottery scatters. Two types of large settlements are in evidence in Wadi Andam:

.

1 A settlement (CS.2.52) with one central tower, possibly for an elite family or individual; the tower being surrounded by houses

75

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula 2 A settlement (CS.5) with one major tower, and other smaller towers; possibly with each tower representing the relative status of a tribe, family or individual.

settlement evidence today does not necessarily mean that they did not exist at the time, although parsimoniously this does seem the most likely explanation. At the very least it does indicate that there was significant cultural and economic change regarding the nature of settlement at this time.

In both settlement types the inhabitants have reserved part of the settlement for their dead. By contrast, smaller sites have yielded possible evidence of occupation during the Umm an-Nar period. This consists mainly of small numbers of sherds from the period, perhaps the remains of ‘campsites’ of seasonal Umm an-Nar pastoralist inhabitations, being too small to represent long-term occupation.

The only PCAs (Table 18) that yielded pottery dating to this period came from the village of al-Fulayj (CS.1.5), and these sherds numbered only three. The southern site of CS.7.2 (16 ha.) yielded a number of different types of

The large amount of evidence from the Umm an-Nar period from Wadi Andam might indicate that the population was involved in various activities including agriculture, herding and industry (e.g. pottery). It is likely that during this time there were the hydrological and pedological resources available to practise agriculture, and mineral resources to exploit in the surrounding mountains, including copper. It is probable from the significant quantity and variety of ceramics that were collected during the survey that it was being produced in the area, though, no concrete evidence (e.g. kilns) to support this was recovered during the survey. Wadi Suq (ca.2000–1300 BC) Sites (Fig. 71) 1 PCAs: CS.1.5.2 and CS.1.5.4 at alFulayj. 2 Other sites: CS.1.4, CS.2.4, CS.2.11, CS.2.50, CS.2.56, CS.5.18, CS.7.2, CS.9.2 and CS.9.8. Description of Evidence In contrast to the preceding Umm an-Nar period which yielded vast amounts of archaeological evidence including large settlements, monumental remains and large quantities of pottery, the evidence for the Wadi Suq period consists only of the occasional pottery sherd and a few possible tombs, with no concrete settlement evidence being recovered at all. Therefore, our understanding of the period is based upon scant material – mostly in the form of ceramics recovered from around tombs. This cannot reveal anything about the level of settlement activity during the period and so at this point only unsubstantiated hypotheses based mainly on negative evidence may be offered. The absence of

Fig. 71: Distribution of Wadi Suq sites recorded during the survey

76

The Wadi Andam Survey

Fig. 72: Possibly long Wadi Suq tomb at site CS.7.2 in Barzaman oval subterranean

tombs on gravel and rocky hills, including Hafit cairns, Beehives and 43 oval tombs built of large and medium brown and black stones, with gravel and smaller stones in the middle (Fig. 72). This latter type yielded a total of seven sherds from the Wadi Suq-type. However, it cannot be argued with any certainty that these are Wadi Suq tombs, it being impossible to exclude the possibility of their being Late Iron Age/Samad tombs; their structure bears a similarity to tombs at Mahleya from this period. Ar-Rawdhah village yielded two sites with Wadi Suq sherds. The first at CS.9.2 (ca. 4.37 ha.) which consists of a small date palm grove which produced three sherds of the Wadi Suq period. The second site is CS.9.8 (ca. 0.72 ha) which encompasses four possible pre-Islamic tombs of piled brown and white travertine stones and yielded ten sherds from the period.

The UWA suvey also yielded several sites that produced Wadi Suq sherds, including CS.2.4: an isolated cairn with brownish-black stones and white creamy soil located on a wadi gravel terrace (Fig. 73). Its diameter is approximately five meters and it has four concentric walls. The tomb yielded a number of objects including a spindle-whorl (W.D.123; Fig. 69 & 74), a fragment of chlorite vessel (W.D.124, Fig. 74), three beads (W.D.015, W.D.147 & W.D.148, Fig. 75), a copper sheet (W.D.128), and a pin (W.D. 146, Fig. 76), as well as three fragmented shells (W.D.125–W.D. 127). Additionally, a total of 12 Wadi Suq sherds were collected from its surface. The site of CS.2.11 (Fig. 77) yielded five Wadi Suq sherds. It is small in size (ca. 0.52 ha.), and includes several stone structures of varying shape built with a double stone wall approximately 30 cm thick and filled with gravel (Fig. 78-79). They are

Fig. 73: Site CS.2.4: a disturbed cairn with concentric walls

77

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula located on a black gravel wadi terrace on the edge of the western bank of Wadi Andam. CS.2.50 is a large Late Iron Age/Samad site but among the sherds collected from this site were eight sherds dating to the Wadi Suq period. The area has yielded a large number of pre-Islamic and

Islamic tombs on a gravel wadi terrace where a number of subterranean Wadi Suq tombs might exist. Lastly, Site CS.2.56 is located west of al-Ghoryeen and included a group of cairns (Fig. 80), one of which (CS.2.56.3) yielded five sherds dating to the Wadi-Suq. Fig. 75: Beads from several different

sites: W.D.15 from

CS.2.4; W.D.21

from CS.4.13, Tomb

9; W.D.11 from CS.5.13, Tomb 27 & W.D.13 from CS.1.4, Tomb 1

Fig. 74: Spindle-whorl and a fragment of chlorite vessel from

Site CS.2.4

Fig. 76: Badly eroded copper pin from Site CS.2.4

Fig. 77: Sketch plan for Site Khuwisi CS.2.11 and its archaeological features

78

The Wadi Andam Survey

Fig. 78: Circular stone structure with double stones wall at site

CS.2.11

Fig. 79: Remains of stone CS.2.11

structures at site

Fig. 80: Hafit cairn tombs with white creamy soil at site

CS.2.56.2

79

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula Twenty-five sherds of the Late Bronze Age should from the PCAs of al-Fulayj village should be included in the analysis (CS.1.5). These sherds were attributed to the Late Bronze Age as it was impossible to categorise them either as Wadi Suq or Early Iron Age as they shared characteristics from both. It was preferred to place them in a broader chronology.16 Summary Our understanding of the Wadi Suq period in Wadi Andam is based almost entirely on a small number of pottery sherds which are mainly associated with tombs. The number of Wadi Suq sherds from every part of the survey is consistently lower than for any other preIslamic period. There is a complete absence of any evidence from settlement areas that may be attributed to this period. The ephemeral remains of this period could be attributed to the use of small perishable structures by a nomadic or semi-nomadic population, which could have eroded away or been deposited over by alluvium. The population of this period used similar locations as burial grounds and may have lived nearby in temporary and perishable structures. Whatever the exact nature of settlement in this period, it should be noted that its pattern is very different to that of the preceding Umm an-Nar period and of later periods. Unlike the Umm an-Nar period where there is a clear association between tombs and settlements, there is no such pattern visible during the Wadi Suq: the tombs may suggest that there was some activity in or around the wadi villages but there is no concrete evidence of occupation. Early Iron Age (ca.1300–300 BC) Sites (Fig. 81) Fig. 81: Distribution of Early Iron Age sites and their 1 PCAs: CS.1.5.1 and CS.1.5.6 at alarchaeological features recorded during the survey Fulayj, and CS.3.1.3 at al-Khurais. 2 Other sites: CS.2.11, CS.2.42, CS.2.43, CS.2.50, CS.2.51, CS.2.52, CS.2.56, CS.2.60, CS.2.64, CS.2.67, CS.2.68, CS.2.69, Description of Evidence CS.3.8, CS.4.3, CS.4.4, CS.4.13, CS.4.14, CS.5.7, CS.5.10, CS.5.13, CS.5.14, CS.9.2 and CS.9.5. The Early Iron Age yielded more evidence than the Wadi Suq period, but similarly most of the material comes from 16   It should be indicated here that the term ‘Late Bronze Age’ in the Oman tombs. Several sites yielded ceramic sherds, mainly fine Peninsula has been adapted by Christian Velde (2003: 101-113) who distinguishes between two distinct periods during the 2nd millennium BC: painted pottery (Fig. 82-83), as well as a number of other ‘Wadi Suq’ and ‘Late Bronze Age’. He dates that first period between 2000objects. One of the major difficulties in understanding the 1600 BC and the second between 1600 -1,250 BC. However, as indicated tombs that yielded Early Iron Age material is that often in Chapter Three (3.5) the discussion within this thesis’ chapters prefers to follow the broader chronology for the Wadi Suq period between 2000 and structures from earlier periods, particularly the Hafit, are 1300 BC as argued previously by, for example, R. Carter in his PhD thesis reused. This makes the dating these tombs and the mapping (1997a). This is in order to have a broader chronology for the Wadi Andam of their development over time difficult. Survey’s evidence description and analysis. 80

The Wadi Andam Survey

Fig. 82: Fine painted Early Iron Age pottery sherds with a dusky red painted decoration on both sides

Fig. 83: Fine painted Early Iron Age pottery sherd of a small bowl with a dusky red painted decoration on both sides

The environs of the village of al-Qaryatain have produced Early Iron Age sherds from a number of reused tombs. CS.4.3 (1.5 ha.) encompasses two disturbed cairns that produced 35 Early Iron Age sherds, one piece of chlorite vessel and one shell (W.D.107–W.D.108, Fig. 84). Similarly the larger site of CS.4.13 (ca. 20 ha.) boasts five cairns, located on the wadi terrace, that yielded Early Iron Age material (Fig. 85), including 38 pot sherds. a number of beads (W.D.002 to W.D.008; Fig. 86; W.D.021; Fig. 75), a complete shell (W.D.022, Fig. 87) and a pierced grey stone spindle-whorl (W.D.119; Fig. 88 & Fig. 69). Site CS.4.4 is the only possible occupational site in the area that yielded various shapes of structures as well as a number of possible tombs. These remains are located on a small outcrop, suggesting a fortified settlement. A total of 56 Early Iron Age sherds were collected from the site’s half hectare surface.

Fig. 84: Fragment of chlorite vessel from possibly re-used Hafit cairn at site CS.4.3 at al-Qaryatain

Fig. 85: Disturbed tomb of possibly

re-used

Hafit Cairn with

white creamy soil at site

CS.4.13 at alQaryatain

81

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula Fig. 86: Beads from a possibly re-used Hafit cairn with white creamy soil (CS.4.13, Tomb 8) at alQaryatain

Fig. 89: Beads from different sites: CS.2.67.17 (W.D.23); CS.5.13, Tomb 4 (W.D.12); CS.5.10, Tomb 2 (W.D.17) & CS.2.67.10 (W.D.14)

Fig. 87: Two shells from CS.4.13, Tomb 9 (W.D.22) and CS.2.67.17 (W.D.25)

Fig. 88: Chlorite

perforated spindle-whorl

Fig. 90: Iron/copper earning from CS.5.10, Tomb 2

CS.4.13, Tomb 1

Several sites in and around al-Khashbah yielded pottery dating to the Early Iron Age. Among these is CS.5.10 that encompasses 39 cairns on rocky hills to the south and southeast of the village. Tomb 2 yielded 23 Early Iron Age sherds, one bead (W.D.017, Fig. 89) and an iron/ copper earring of 3.2 cm diameter (W.D.130; Fig. 69 & 90), Tomb 27 a single bead (W.D.011; Fig. 75). CS.5.13 includes approximately eleven cairns on a rocky hill (Fig. 91). Tombs 1, 2 and 3 yielded a total of 105 Early Iron Age sherds. Tomb 2 also yielded six beads (W.D.026 to W.D.031; Fig. 92) and six shells (W.D.094 to W.D.099); Tomb 3 yielded two shells (W.D.076 & W.D.077); and Tomb 4 yielded one bead (W.D.012; Fig. 89), six shells

(W.D.059 to W.D.064) and four fragments of the same chlorite vessel (W.D.112 to W.D.115; Fig. 64). This vessel has an open rounded rim (ca. 4 mm thick) immediately above incised decoration of horizontal lines, opposed triangles and incised dots. The shape and decoration of this vessel is typical of the Early Iron Age, with parallels from Rumeilah Period II (Boucharlat & Lombard 1985: Pl.60, No.4) and the Honeycomb cemetery in the Bawshar Area (Costa et al 1999: cf. figs. 17–19: pp: 63–65).17

  Thanks to Prof. P. Magee and Dr. J. Schreiber for their help in identifying these fragments 17

82

.

from

The Wadi Andam Survey

Fig. 91: A possibly re-used Hafit cairns with white creamy soil at site

CS.5.13 in al-Khashbah

Fig. 92: Beads from site CS.5.13, Tomb 2

Fig. 93: A possibly collapsed Beehive tomb at site CS.2.67 The survey along the UWA revealed some Early Iron Age sites, the majority of which were tombs. Site CS.2.67 (ca. 19.25 ha.) yielded the most evidence for this period, including 150 sherds from tombs probably dating to the Hafit period (Fig. 93), none of which yielded material earlier than the Early Iron Age. These tombs, of uncertain age, yielded a variety of material including pottery, a

small bronze/copper leaf-shaped arrowhead with midrib (W.D.109, Fig. 69), beads (W.D.014 & W.D.023, Fig. 89), metal and chlorite objects and shells (W.D.067 to W.D.070, W.D.024, W.D.025, W.D.082 to W.D.084, W.D.110, W.D.111, Fig. 87). The arrowhead has parallels from Rumeilah (Boucharlat & Lombard 1985: Pl.62, Nos. 1–7), al-Buhais Tomb BHS 64 (Jasim 2003: fig.3, pp: 87) 83

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 94: Early Iron Age spouted chlorite bowl from site CS.2.67, Tomb 9

Fig. 95: A spouted chlorite bowl from site CS.2.67.9 Qawr.19 The other two chlorite fragments (Fig. 96) bear incised decoration of wavy, spiral, horizontal lines and hatching as well as inverted triangles and circles with dot design, which have parallels from the Rumeilah Period II (Boucharlat & Lombard 1985: Pl.60, No.4). CS.2.50, a Late Iron Age/Samad cemetery, produced 76 Early Iron Age sherds that were collected from various structures. Possibly this cemetery and the associated settlement were occupied during the Early Iron Age, and this intensified during the Late Iron Age/Samad. A similar theory may be offered for site CS.2.51 that yielded 37 Early Iron Age sherds. Moreover, three major Umm anNar sites yielded Early Iron Age sherds: CS.2.52, CS.2.68 and CS.2.69. The first yielded 38 Early Iron Age sherds from a large number of circular and semi-oval Late Iron Age/Samad tombs that were built on top of Umm an-Nar tombs and domestic structure remains. Sites CS.2.68 and CS.2.69 are similar with both sites producing Early Iron Age sherds from tombs: 18 and 28 respectively. The latter site consists of a tomb field of 26 cairns re-used during the Early Iron Age (CS.2.69.1) and also yielded other material including fragments of chlorite vessels, shells, beads and bronze arrowheads as well as one small flint arrowhead. Similarly, 49 Early Iron Age sherds were recovered from three tombs at site CS.2.56.

Fig. 96: Two Iron Age fragments of chlorite vessels from site CS.2.67.9

The only settlement site in the UWA that yielded evidence of the Early Iron Age is CS.2.11 (ca. 0.52 ha.), which consists of a group of stone structures of varying forms (Fig. 77-79). The surface of this site yielded 25 Early Iron Age sherds.

and many other sites in the peninsula.18 Tomb 9 yielded a large number of Early Iron Age pottery sherds of a number of distinctive forms, one complete chlorite vessel with a spout (W.D.145; Fig. 94-95), two chlorite fragments (W.D.142 & W.D.143; Fig. 64 & 96), a bead (W.D.144) and a number of shells (W.D.132 to W.D.141). The chlorite bowl has a semi-rectangular spout 1.9 cm wide and 4.3 cm long. It bears incised decoration of horizontal lines around the rim and above the base. This bowl is typical Early Iron Age (Iron II) and has parallels from Wadi al-

Summary To conclude, unlike the Wadi Suq, the survey yielded slightly more evidence of possible Early Iron Age settlements. However, as was the case with the WadiSuq period, the majority of Early Iron Age sherds came   I would like to thank Prof. P. Magee for bringing to my attention the parallels with Wadi al-Qawr. I would like also to thanks Dr. C. Velde for his help in identifying the date of this bowl. 19

  I would like here to thank Dr. L. Weeks for his help in identifying some of the metal artefacts. 18

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The Wadi Andam Survey from tombs. Only two PCAs yielded any sherds from this period, which might suggest that the PCAs were not inhabited during the Early Iron Age. In contrast, the evidence from OVAs shows a similar proportion of material from both tombs and occupational structures. This may suggest that the area was settled, but that these settlements do not overlap with modern villages. It is also possible that the population of the Early Iron Age sites might re-used the preceding period’s tombs and perhaps their settlements, as well as possibly constructing their own tombs. Hafit cairns and Umm anNar sites were perhaps re-used by the Early Iron Age population. In contrast, the larger Late Iron Age/Samad sites may originally have been established and inhabited by the people of the Early Iron Age, perhaps semi-nomadically, and the sites were then extended and permanantely and intensely occupied during the Late Iron Age/Samad period. In the most part, re-used Hafit tombs are located away from the modern wadi villages. However, some examples close to these villages have yielded a large quantity of Early Iron Age material, such as site CS.2.69 near Khadra Bani Dafa’a. The evidence recovered from these tombs has led to various problems regarding their dating and the discovery of their original form as many were badly disturbed and have produced material from multiple periods, complicating the chronology. Naturally, it is also difficult to estimate the number of individuals buried within a tomb during any period.

.

It is not unlikely then, that during the Early Iron Age, small and temporary settlements were established by a nomadic population that had abandoned a sedentary lifestyle during the Wadi Suq period. The settlements may have consisted of shelters constructed from perishable materials that are not visible in the archaeological record with any foundations Fig. 97: Distribution of Late Iron Age/Samad sites recorded during being perhaps eroded or covered by alluvium. the survey To some extent, the Early Iron Age was a continuation of the pattern established during the Wadi Suq with only ephemeral settlement evidence. This pattern contrasts sharply with that seen in the Umm 2 Major sites: CS.2.43, CS.2.50, CS.2.51 and an-Nar and Late Iron Age/Samad period. CS.2.52 Late Iron Age/Samad Period (ca. 300 BC–200 AD) 3- Minor sites: CS.1.4, CS.2.1 CS.2.3, CS.2.11, CS.2.20, CS.2.23, CS.2.29, CS.2.41, CS.2.42, CS.2.53, CS.2.56, Sites (Fig. 97) CS.2.57, CS.2.58, CS.2.60, CS.2.62, CS.2.64, CS.2.65, CS.2.67, CS.2.68, CS.2.69, CS.3.4, CS.3.5, CS.4.3, 1 PCAs: CS.1.5.5 and CS.1.5.6 at al-Fulayj; CS.4.1.1 CS.4.9, CS.4.14, CS.5.10, CS.5.15, CS.7.2, CS.9.2 and and CS.4.1.4 at al-Qaryatain; CS.5.1.1 at alCS.9.4 Khashbah; CS.7.1.4 at Barzaman; and CS.9.1.1, CS.9.1.7 and CS.9.1.8 at ar-Rawdhah. 85

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula Description of Evidence

2- Major Sites

The Late Iron Age/Samad is as well represented in the archaeological record as the Umm an-Nar period with a significant number of sites and a large volume of pottery being discovered. The sites vary in their density, size and function, as does the level of recovered evidence. A number of them might have been occupied by sedentary inhabitants while other small sites may have been inhabited seasonally. The intensification of settlement during this time could be related to renewed availability of water resources due to the introduction of the falaj system.

Site CS.2.50 (ca. 94 ha.) is located between the eastern bank of Wadi Mahram and the western bank of Wadi Andam (Fig. 98), where the modern-day village of Mahleya is situated. The archaeological remains from the site include a large number of tombs, both pre-Islamic and Islamic on a gravel wadi terrace. The majority are pre-Islamic and are of the Mahleya-type, dating to the Late Iron Age/Samad period. The site was sub-divided into five areas (CS.2.50.1 to CS.2.50.5; Fig. 98), all of which yielded large quantities of sherds dating to this period. CS.2.50.1 is a cemetery of Mahleya-type tombs. In January 2004, the Department of Archaeology at Sultan Qaboos University and the Ministry of Heritage and Culture carried out a rescue excavation of 74 of these tombs in the northern part of the cemetery (cf. ElMahi & AlJahwari 2005: 57–69) (Fig. 99-103). All the artefacts recovered during this excavation (including pottery jars, softstone vessels and metal objects) and the burial practices point towards a date somewhere between

1- PCAs The PCAs of five wadi villages yielded a large number of Late Iron Age/Samad pottery sherds, suggesting that the majority of the wadi villages were occupied at this time, after a possible decline during the Wadi Suq and Early Iron Age.

Fig. 98: Sketch plan of site CS.2.50 and its archaeological features

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The Wadi Andam Survey 400/300 and 100 BC. Area CS.2.50.2 encompasses a group of stone structures of varying shapes and sizes built on the stretch of ground from the wadi edge to the end of the wadi terrace slope, forming what could be described as ‘slopedstructures’. Concrete identification of the function of these structures is difficult; it is unclear whether they are houses, fields, retaining walls or if they served another function entirely. Areas CS.2.50.3 to CS.2.50.5 consist of a group of ruined structures, tombs and ancient field systems.

127 Late Iron Age/Samad sherds were collected from the entire site, providing further evidence to the material from the excavated tombs to date the site. The evidence from the site suggests that it was continuously occupied from the Umm an-Nar to the Late Iron Age/Samad when the settlement reached its peak. However, caution must be taken in assessing the level of occupation between these two periods as they are represented only by a very small number of sherds.

Fig. 99: Section plan of one of the excavated tombs at CS.2.50.1

Fig. 100: Examples of the pottery jars found within the excavated tombs at

CS.2.50.1

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Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 101: Mahleya-type tomb before excavation at site CS.2.50.1

Fig. 102: Covering slabs of one of the excavated tombs at Mahleya site CS.2.50.1

Fig. 103: Burial chamber of Mahleya Type tomb after excavation at site CS.2.50.1 88

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Fig. 104: Sketch plan of site CS.2.51 and its archaeological features

Fig. 105: Late Iron Age/ Samad Mahleya-type tomb at site CS.2.51.2 89

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 106: Remains of stone structures on the

edge and slope of Wadi Mahram at site CS.2.51.6

Another major Late Iron Age/Samad site is CS.2.51 (ca. 28.5 ha.) which is located on the western bank of Wadi Mahram, which separates it from site CS.2.50 (Fig. 104). The southwestern part of the site is where the archaeology is densest with two Mahleya-type cemeteries (CS.2.51.3 & CS.2.51.4) and one Islamic cemetery (CS.2.51.2) (Fig. 105). The eastern and southeastern parts (CS.2.51.1 & CS.2.51.6) yielded evidence of a large number of stone structures situated on the gravel terrace and along the wadi edge and slope (Fig. 106). This site also includes four mounds with stone structures located on their tops and sides. Other stone structures and piled stones were discovered surrounding these mounds. One stone wall approximately 50 cm thick extends around the edge of the wadi, and may mark the mounds’ boundaries. The site has produced large amounts of pottery, mainly coarse Late Iron

Age/Samad ware. The western and northern parts of the site (areas CS.2.51.3 to CS.2.51.8) include scattered cairns, large numbers of Mahleya-type tombs (Fig. 105), possible pre-Islamic tombs, piled stones, possible platforms, some stone structures or walls remains, possible fields systems and retaining walls as well as structures along the wadi edge similar to the ‘sloping-structures’ found at CS.2.50. Near to these two major Late Iron Age/Samad sites is CS.2.52, a large Umm an-Nar site. However, the site also encompasses a large number of circular and semi-oval Iron Age tombs (CS.2.52.2 and CS.2.52.3) that were built overlaying and amongst Umm an-Nar tombs and structures (Fig. 60). The recovered evidence suggests that the site was largely occupied during the Umm an-Nar period and then was abandoned, until it was reoccupied, or at least

Fig. 107: General view CS.2.43 shows the old agricultural fields, and part of the Umm anNar tomb field.

of site

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Fig. 108: Umm an-Nar tomb at site CS.2.43.2

Fig. 109: Umm anNar tomb at site CS.2.43.2 used as a burial ground, during the Iron Age. 38 Early Iron Age sherds were collected from the site as well as 73 Late Iron Age/Samad sherds.

Late Iron Age/Samad sherds, 408 of which were collected. This site also yielded Umm an-Nar evidence, perhaps suggesting that it was occupied for a short time during the Umm an-Nar period, possibly as a campsite, and then abandoned until its reoccupation and extension during the Late Iron Age/Samad period. Site CS.2.29 (ca. less than a hectare) includes circular and rectangular stone structures with double stone walls (ca. 40 cm thick). The surface of the site yielded a large number of Late Iron Age/Samad sherds; 224 were collected.

CS.2.43 is possibly a large Late Iron Age/Samad settlement (ca. 16.5 ha.) (Fig. 107–109). It encompasses ancient field systems, stone structures, pre-Islamic and Islamic tombs. It also includes an Umm an-Nar tomb field. Among the pottery collected from the surface are 63 Late Iron Age/ Samad sherds. 3- Minor Sites

CS.2.11 (ca. half hectare) yielded structures (Fig. 7779) that produced dating evidence from a number of periods. Besides Wadi Suq and Early Iron Age already discussed, the site also yielded 70 Late Iron Age/Samad sherds. CS.2.23 is also a small settlement (ca. 0.34 ha.) that includes six stone circular structures of double-skin

Several small Late Iron Age/Samad sites were discovered during the survey. CS.2.20 (ca. 1 ha.) consists of a group of circular, rectangular and square stone structures of differing size (Fig. 110) associated with a large number of 91

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 110: Remains of a square stone structures at site

CS.2.20

Fig. 111: Semi-oval stone structure at site

CS.2.57

Fig. 112: Rectangular stone structure at site

CS.2.57

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The Wadi Andam Survey stone walls around 50 cm thick. A large number of Late Iron Age/Samad sherds were scattered all over the site and within the structures, 50 of which were collected. Other Late Iron Age/Samad settlements along the UWA include CS.2.56, CS.2.57, CS.2.65, CS.2.68 and CS.2.69 all of which yielded tombs and stone structures as well as pottery from the Late Iron Age/Samad period. CS.2.57 (ca. 6.12 ha.) (Fig. 111–112) produced 54 Umm an-Nar sherds and 77 from the Late Iron Age. A similar pattern was seen at CS.2.69 which produced evidence from both periods.

The Late Iron Age, together with the Umm an-Nar period, yielded the largest number of pre-Islamic sherds across the whole survey. Activity during the Late Iron Age/Samad is demonstrated by both large and small sites. The large sites are concentrated within or close to modern villages and the majority have produced similar features including a variety of stone structures, large cemeteries and pottery scatters. These are located in and around the wadi villages along the wadi banks. In contrast, the majority, but not all, of the smaller sites are located away from modern villages, and are scattered along the banks of Wadi Andam.

The environs of the six wadi villages also yielded sites that produced material dated to the Late Iron Age/Samad period. The largest being CS.3.4 (ca. 2.92 ha.), in al-Khurais, where 71 sherds of the period were collected. The site consists of a group of piled stones, possibly tombs, of circular and semi-circular shape. CS.4.3 (ca. 1.5 ha.) in al-Qaryatain, a collection of Late Iron Age tombs, produced 66 sherds as well as one complete shell (W.D.108) and a fragment of a rectangular or square softstone vessel (W.D.107, Fig. 84) with three incised horizontal lines just under a straight rim (ca. 4 mm thick). Tombs 1, 5 and 13 at Site CS.5.10 in al-Khashbah yielded 54 Late Iron Age/Samad sherds. While CS.9.2 (ca. 4.37 ha.) at ar-Rawdhah yielded 44. Within this site, CS.9.2.1, an area with old mudbrick building remains on a rocky hill (Fig. 70), yielded 22 Late Iron Age/Samad sherds. This area appears to have been a rubbish dump for the adjacent mudbrick buildings which, according to the pottery collected there, have been repeatedly reused over time. The second area (CS.9.2.2) consists of a small date palm garden that, besides the previously indicated Umm an-Nar, Wadi Suq and Early Iron Age sherds, yielded 22 Late Iron Age/Samad sherds. These sherds were collected from the earth piled around the edges of the garden, this may well have resulted from soil clearance and the sinking of a well. This could suggest that a significant Iron Age site is buried under the soil used for cultivation. Summary The survey yielded a significant amount of Late Iron Age/Samad evidence from each of the surveys undertaken. Material from this period was recovered from large and small settlements, tomb fields, and scattered pottery sherds. Thirty-four sites as well as nine PCAs in five wadi villages yielded evidence from this period. The material suggests that many of the wadi villages, and their environs, were occupied during the Late Iron Age/ Samad period. The ephemeral evidence from proceeding periods suggests that this was for the first time since the Umm an-Nar period.

Fig. 113: Umm an-Nar and Late Iron Age/Samad wadi villages and adjacent settlement sites

93

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula ter, large settlements are centred around the huge monumental towers which are surrounded by other areas reserved for tomb fields and domestic, and possibly industrial, structures. In contrast, large settlements during the Late Iron Age/Samad have a more simple and organic layout with large burial grounds and stone structures of different types apparently randomly located. Unsurprisingly, it appears that the social and/or religious beliefs had changed by the Late Iron Age/Samad period. At that time there were no large monumental structures belonging to an elite family or individual as in the Umm an-Nar. However, it is important to stress on the fact that these sites have not been excavated yet only as they were only surveyed for surface scatter. It is also important to consider the fact that the function of Umm an-Nar towers is still controversial. Additionally, it appears that the large Umm an-Nar sites were re-used during the Late Iron Age/Samad period, mostly as burial grounds (e.g. sites CS.2.52, CS.2.69), perhaps because of the availability of masonry. However, the layout of the smaller settlements is similar across both of the periods. Several of the Umm an-Nar sites were reoccupied, or at least used as burial grounds, by the inhabitants of the Late Iron Age/Samad period. These sites include CS.2.20, CS.2.43, CS.2.53, CS.2.56, CS.2.57, CS.3.5, CS.5.10, CS.7.2, CS.9.2 and CS.9.4. They are either tombs or settlements and consist of the same structures used during the older period with possibly a few later modifications and expansion. To conclude, almost all of the Late Iron Age/ Samad settlements found during the survey are located along the wadi banks on gravel terraces either close to or away from wadi villages. The evidence shows a large number of sites and finds from this period, which might indicate a significant intensification in settlement and a growth in the population in this period. 4 Sasanian-Early Islamic Periods (ca. 200/100– 900/1000 AD)20

Fig. 114: Other Umm an-Nar and Late Iron Age/Samad settlement sites away from wadi villages

Sites (Fig. 115 ) A comparison with the settlement pattern seen in the Umm an-Nar period, suggests some slight differences in the Late Iron Age/Samad period. The Umm an-Nar period is represented by only a few large sites and several small sites, while during the Late Iron Age/Samad period there are a greater number of both large and small sites. Moreover, during the Umm an-Nar period, almost all the smaller sites are located away from the modern villages while in Late Iron Age/Samad period there are some small sites located close to these villages, but the majority are not and tend to be scattered along the Wadi Andam banks (Fig. 113–114). The layout of the large Late Iron Age/Samad settlements differs to those dating to the Umm an-Nar period. In the lat-

1 PCAs: CS.1.5.1, CS.1.5.2 and CS.1.5.5 at al-Fulayj. 2 Other sites: CS.2.20, CS.2.43, CS.2.51, CS.4.12, CS.7.2, CS.9.4. Description of Evidence The Sasanian–Early Islamic period did not yield any structural remains and only very few scattered pottery   As already discussed in Chapter Three, the dating of ‘Samad Period’ set out by the German Archaeological Mission (300 BC-900/1000 AD) has been re-examined and it is now argued that it dates to the period between 300 BC and 200 AD (cf. Kennet 2007; see Samad Period and SasanianEarly Islamic in Chapter Three). 20

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The Wadi Andam Survey sherds. This makes the assessment of human activity during the period very difficult. The sherds are mainly green-blue glazed (Fig. 116), which were probably imported from outside the peninsula, likely from Iraq (see Appendix C). These few sherds were found scattered at a number of sites including the al-Fulayj PCAs where 12 were recovered, CS.4.12 at al-Qaryatain, CS.7.2 at Barzaman, CS.9.4 at ar-Rawdhah, and at sites CS.2.43, CS.2.51 and CS.20 in the UWA. Summary The ‘negative’ evidence from across the survey suggests a decline in settlement during the Sasanian–Early Islamic period. The only available evidence from this period are a small number of pottery sherds. Tombs may not reliably be used as evidence for human activity during this time, as without proper excavation it is highly problematic to assign them to a specific period Middle Islamic Period (1000–1300 AD) Sites (Fig. 117 ) 1 PCAs: CS.1.5.1, CS.1.5.2, CS.1.5.4, CS.1.5.5 and CS.1.5.6 at al-Fulayj; CS.3.1.1 to CS.3.1.6 at al-Khurais; CS.4.1.1 to CS.4.1.6 at al-Qaryatain; CS.5.1.2 to CS.5.1.6 at al-Khashbah; CS.7.1.1 to CS.7.1.5 at Barzaman; and CS.9.1.1 to CS.9.1.8 at ar-Rawdhah. 2 Other sites: CS.2.53, CS.2.62, CS.3.5, CS.3.7, CS.4.2, CS.4.12, CS.9.4, CS.9.6, and CS.9.10 Description of Evidence The evidence from the Middle Islamic period seems to suggest an increase in the intensity of settlement. Pottery sherds from this period derive mainly from the PCAs within the villages, all

Fig. 115: Distribution of possible Sasanian–Early Islamic sites and their archaeological features recorded during the survey

Fig. 116: Possible Early Islamic Green-glazed pottery

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Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula Khurais also yielded an industrial site (CS.3.7) from this period where copper was smelted (ca. 13.5 ha.). The site encompasses an area with a high concentration of slag, as well as associated stone structures of varying size and shape as well as an Islamic cemetery (Fig. 120–121). Among the sherds from the site, 148 date to the Middle Islamic period. The modern villages of Al-Qaryatain yielded two important Middle Islamic sites. The first is CS.4.2 (ca. 5.98 ha.) and consists of four Hafit cairns on top of a rocky hill. Below this hill on a gravel terrace, there are five stone circular structures and a group of piled stones. Among the sherds collected from this site are 68 from the Middle Islamic period. The second site is CS.4.12 (ca. 20.25 ha.) which includes stone structures on a rocky hill surrounded by field systems to the east and an Islamic cemetery to the west (Fig. 122). 39 sherds from the Middle Islamic period were collected from the surface of the site. A major Middle Islamic site was also discovered at ar-Rawdhah CS.9.6 (ca. 5.64 h) which consists of the remains of stone walled field systems, piled stones of circular shape, and a number of dried wells. The site’s surface yielded 252 Middle Islamic sherds. Other possible Middle Islamic sites at this village are CS.9.4 and CS.9.10, the first being a wellsection that yielded a large number of pottery sherds, both pre-Islamic and Islamic, including 81 sherds from the Middle Islamic period. The second site (ca. 45 ha.) consists of the badly preserved remains of stone and mudbrick structures, two large Islamic cemeteries, a large area of field systems and the possible remains of a falaj channel. The site yielded 86 Middle Islamic sherds. Along the UWA two possibly major Middle Islamic sites were discovered. CS.2.53 (ca. 14.3 ha.) encompasses a fortification on a rocky hill, a group of stone structures of varying shapes Fig. 117: Distribution of Middle Islamic sites and their and sizes, piled stones and some possible archaeological features recorded during the survey cairns or tombs. Besides some Late Iron Age/ Samad pottery, the site yielded 52 Middle of which yielded large numbers of sherds of this period. Islamic sherds. CS.2.62 (ca. 80 ha.) includes a group of However, other sites also produced material from this piled stones, stone structures of different shapes as well period, including away from the villages and in their as possibly pre-Islamic and Islamic tombs, and old field surrounding areas. Among these sherds are imported systems with the remains of stone and mudbrick buildings underglaze sgraffiato wares that were found at several (Fig. 123–124). Among the sherds collected there were 39 sites (Fig. 118). A number of minor sites were discovered belonging to the Middle Islamic period. in and around the villages, while some possibly important Middle Islamic sites were discovered in their environs. Summary Among these is CS.3.5 (ca. 108 ha.) at al-Khurais village. The site is located on the Wadi Andam terrace and consists It appears that the Middle Islamic period witnessed a of several stone structures, the remains of walls, tombs and slight increase in the level of activity in and around the field systems (Fig. 119). Among the sherds collected from wadi villages after their possible abandonment during the this site are 136 Middle Islamic sherds. The area around alSasanian/Early Islamic period. A considerable number of 96

The Wadi Andam Survey

Fig. 118: Collection of Middle Islamic Sgraffiato pottery sherds

Fig. 119: Mudbrickstone structures at site

CS.3.5.1

Fig. 120: Slag concentration at site

CS.3.7.2

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Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 121: Rectangular stone structure at site CS.3.7.3

Fig. 122: Stone structures on a black rocky hill at site

CS.4.12.1

Fig. 123: Old agricultural fields at site CS.2.62

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Fig. 124: Islamic cemetery at site CS.2.62 pottery sherds were found within the PCAs and OVAs. All the PCAs yielded large numbers of sherds, indicating that the level of activity during the Middle Islamic period was of reasonable intensity in the wadi villages. Other sites along the wadi banks and on gravel and rocky hills also yielded evidence from the period. The standardised shape and type of grave across the Islamic periods means that they could not be used to assess differences in intensity between periods.

recorded during the survey. Among these is the large settlement of CS.3.5 (ca. 108 ha.) at al-Khurais that includes several stone structures, stone walls, tombs and old field systems (Fig. 119). This site yielded a small number of Umm an-Nar period sherds, a significant number of Middle Islamic sherds as well as a large quantity of Late Islamic pottery, suggesting significant longevity, if not continuity, in occupation. Another important Late Islamic site at this village is the copper smelting settlement of CS.3.7 already described above (Fig. 120–121). Besides the Middle Islamic evidence, it yielded a large number of Late Islamic sherds, indicating continuity in occupation between the periods

Late Islamic Period (1300–1800 AD) Sites (Fig. 125) 1 PCAs: CS.1.5.1, CS.1.5.2, CS.1.5.4, CS.1.5.5 and CS.1.5.6 at al-Fulayj; CS.3.1.1 to CS.3.1.6 at al-Khurais; CS.4.1.1 to CS.4.1.6 at al-Qaryatain; CS.5.1.2 to CS.5.1.6 at al-Khashbah; CS.7.1.1 to CS.7.1.5 at Barzaman; and CS.9.1.1 to CS.9.1.8 in ar-Rawdhah. 2 Other sites: CS.1.6, CS.2.3, CS.2.6, CS.2.41, CS.2.43, CS.2.62, CS.3.5, CS.3.7, CS.3.10, CS.4.12, CS.4.14, CS.5.1.2.1, CS.5.8, CS.5.10, CS.7.2, CS.9.2, CS.9.4, CS.9.5, CS.9.6, CS.9.8 and CS.9.10

Among the other important Late Islamic sites is CS.4.12 (ca. 20.25 ha.) at al-Qaryatain. This site encompasses stone structures on a hill surrounded by old field systems to the east and an Islamic cemetery to the west (Fig. 122). The surface of the site produced a large number of Middle and Late Islamic period sherds. CS.5.8 at al-Khashbah is an abandoned village that consists of mudbrick buildings with stone foundations, ancient field systems and falaj channels (Fig. 126–127). These archaeological features are distributed over a large area, covering approximately 236.25 hectares. The surface of the site is scattered with large quantities of pottery, especially Late Islamic sherds as well as a small number from recent times. CS.9.2 at arRawdhah, described above, produced large quantities of pottery sherds from a number of different periods. Among these sherds is a large number of Late Islamic sherds collected from both the possible ‘dump area’ (CS.9.2.1) and the small date palm garden (CS.9.2.2).

Description of Evidence The Late Islamic period is the most commonly represented period in the evidence recorded in the survey. All of the PCAs as well as a number of other sites yielded large quantities of Late Islamic pottery, the former producing the majority. The pottery types collected include glazed Bahla ware, combed ware, Julfar ware, celadon, Chinese Blue-and-White and enameled Chinese porcelain (see Appendix C). This high number of sherds indicates an intense level of settlement activity during the period which has continued up to the modern day.

Summary The Late Islamic period is the best represented period in the archaeology of the area. Much of the evidence from this period comes from the occupational areas, especially the PCAs which all yielded very large quantities of Late Islamic pottery, far outnumbering any other period. The

As well as the substantial evidence from the PCA’s of the villages, several other major Late Islamic sites were 99

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 125: Distribution of Late Islamic sites and their archaeological features recorded during the survey

settlement pattern changed markedly during this period with a significant intensification in the level of activity across Wadi Andam. Wadi villages, both large and small, were established along the wadi banks and are associated with irrigated field systems, agricultural installations and fortifications. Many of these settlements were first established at an earlier point in time, especially the Umm an-Nar period, and were abandoned and reoccupied multiple times since then, but their modern appearance is due chiefly to the Late Islamic period.

periods, tombs and graves may not be utilised to assess the intensity of human activity. Recent Times (1800 AD Onwards) Sites (Fig. 128) 1 PCAs: CS.1.5.1, CS.1.5.2, CS.1.5.4 to CS.1.5.6 at al-Fulayj; CS.3.1.4 to CS.3.1.6 at al-Khurais; CS.4.1.1, CS.4.1.3 to CS.4.1.6 at al-Qaryatain; CS.5.1.1 to CS.5.1.6 at al-Khashbah; CS.7.1.1 to CS.7.1.4 at Barzaman; and CS.9.1.1, CS.9.1.2, CS.9.1.6, CS.9.1.7 at ar-Rawdhah.

Other evidence for this period comes chiefly from OVAs, with little evidence being recovered from the UWA. Especially because, unlike in some of the pre-Islamic

2 Other sites CS.4.12, CS.5.13, CS.9.10 100

The Wadi Andam Survey

Fig. 126: Falaj channel at site CS.5.8

Fig. 127: Falaj channel covered with yellow limestone slabs at site

CS.5.8

Description of Evidence This period is only represented by two types of pottery sherds: European and Modern. Both types yielded a total of 552 of the sherds collected during the survey, the majority of which came from PCAs. All the modern wadi villages yielded remains of old mudbrick quarters or houses. Sometimes these remains are located away from the villages, as at CS.5.8 (Fig. 126–127) to the northeast of al-Khashbah, CS.9.5 in the northeast and CS.9.10 in the southwest parts of ar-Rawdhah village. The majority of these mudbrick houses are abandoned. A good example of these structures may be seen in alQaryatain old quarter (CS.4.1.1) (Fig. 129) and covers an area less than 1 ha. Most of the buildings are in a good state of preservation and were built with a stone foundation. The rest of the construction was completed using mudbrick mixed with straw and gravel. The quarter was occupied until the 1970s, evidenced by the pottery and

the ethnographic data provided by the local inhabitants. The quarter has an outer wall enclosing the houses which consist of either one or two stories with two to five rooms. The alleys between the houses are around 1.50–4 m wide. Other mudbrick remains within these villages include fortified buildings such as towers, walls (aswar: singular sur) and forts. These fortifications are often built on natural mounds or outcrops in and around the villages. Good examples may be seen at ar-Rawdhah village which yielded four forts, three of which are badly preserved (Fig. 130) and one (ar-Rawdhah main fort) which has recently been restored (Fig. 131). Conclusion The level of human activity seen in the data collected from the survey is summarized in Table 27. Wadi Andam has been inhabited continually from the Hafit period until recent times, although the nature of occupation has clearly

101

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 128: Distribution of recent sites and their archaeological features recorded during the survey

changed, often quite dramatically, over time. The Hafit period is exclusively represented by a large number of Hafit cairns without any associated evidence of settlements. It has been suggested that the population of these tombs were perhaps nomadic who favoured perishable ‘campsites’ and roamed the area in search of grazing for their animals. This hypothesis might be supported by the stone platforms, several of which have been found near to the cairns, but cannot be dated without excavation.

well represented by several large and small sites including settlements and tombs. It was during this period that the sedentary occupation and exploitation of this area appears to have started, following a settlement pattern remarkably similar to that seen in the pre-modern era. These sites are mainly concentrated in the northern part of the surveyed area, but the precise reason for this is unclear. The inhabitants of these sites probably practised agriculture, animal herding and copper production.

The level and variety of archaeological material available changes markedly in the Umm an-Nar period which is

In contrast, the Wadi Suq period is represented by only a very small number of pottery sherds, largely from

102

The Wadi Andam Survey

Fig. 129: Al-Qaryatain old quarter (CS.4.1.1)

Fig. 130: Ruins of fortifications at ar-Rawdhah village

Fig. 131: ar-Rawdhah main resorted fort

103

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula tombs, with no convincing settlement evidence from the period having been found. Though in a markedly different fashion to the sedentary Umm an-Nar period, the limited evidence does prove that the Wadi Andam area was populated during the Wadi Suq period. It is possible that the settlements of this period consisted of small temporary structures constructed by a relatively small nomadic or semi-nomadic population.

from this time is very limited but some material has been recovered. The Late Iron Age/Samad period clearly represents another marked change, and the intensification of settlement. This may be linked to the introduction of the falaj system. It appears that there was a decline in settlement during the Sasanian/Early Islamic period, indicated by the very low levels of evidence seen dating to this time. However, during the Middle Islamic period, there appears to have been a small but significant increase in the intensity of sedentary settlement, during which older sites were reoccupied and new small settlements were established. During the Late Islamic period, there was a marked change in the settlement pattern of the population as almost all of the previously established villages were intensively reoccupied, and a number extended.

During the Iron Age, Wadi Andam witnessed important developments in the settlement pattern, particularly in the latter part of the period. Although the Early Iron Age does show continuity of the possibly nomadic lifestyle sugested in the preceding period, there are also a significant number of pottery sherds as well as softstone vessels, metal objects, shells and beads that have mostly been recovered from around Iron Age tombs. Conclusive settlement evidence

Period Hafit

PCAs None

Tombs Many cairns located away from wadi villages with few examples in the surrounding of wadi villages, Beehive tombs Tomb fields within & around settlements

Settlements None

Other There are remains of possible structures’ platforms (piled, stones, square or rectangular paved stones)

Few large & many small

Dense period of settlement in northern part, first occupation of wadi villages, large settlement within & close modern villages, many sites in locations elsewhere that were never re-used, pottery scatters, close association between tombs and settlements Possibly no settlement in wadi villages, but tombs suggest that these areas were still used, pottery mainly from tombs & always lower than other pre-Islamic periods, different relationship between tombs & settlements Few possible settlements in locations elsewhere & re-used of older periods’ settlements like Umm an-Nar, possible short occupation, pottery mainly from tombs Dense period of settlement within villages & away, many sites in locations elsewhere both re-used & new founded Difficult to use tombs as evidence

Umm an-Nar

Many, most abundant

Wadi Suq

Very few

Only possible evidence in some places

None

Early Iron Age

Very few

Many, mainly possible re-used Hafit tombs

Few and small, possible campsites

Late Iron Age/Samad

Many, most

Large cemeteries within & around Large & small settlements

Sasanian Early Islamic Middle Islamic

Very few

Cannot be differentiated

None

All, most

Cannot be differentiated

Small

Late Islamic

All, the largest

Cannot be differentiated

Large and small

Recent

All

Cannot be differentiated

Large and small

Table 27: Summary of the level of activity

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Small increase in settlement activity, other small settlement within & away from villages Dense period of settlement within villages & away, re-used previous & new settlements Modern villages with mudbrick buildings, fortifications, agricultural installations & irrigation system

CHAPTER FIVE LOCAL AREA QUANTIFIED LEVEL OF ACTIVITY A significant number of surveys have been carried out in the region under study in this research, but few have been concerned with the development of a methodology that facilitates the collection of quantifiable settlement data. Instead, for the most part, they have set out to locate, explore and describe specific areas or settlements or to answer specific research questions. Nonetheless, it is important to take the results of these surveys into consideration. Therefore, this chapter intends to review and synthesize the results of archaeological surveys undertaken within the ‘Local Area’ (defined below). This should provide a wider context for the Wadi Andam Survey material and a fuller understanding of the history of settlement at the broader level. It will be necessary to take into account, insofar as is possible, the differing survey methodologies and research aims of the projects. Firstly, the geographical extent of the ‘Local Area’ will be defined, while providing the reasoning behind the delineation. A brief description shall be provided demonstrating how sites were identified and recorded from publications. This will be followed by a review of the surveys undertaken in the area in chronological order presenting the evidence recovered from these surveys. A brief description of the nature of the recorded sites will be provided, followed by a discussion of how these results might be utilised in a quantified analysis. Finally, a period by period comparison between the published survey evidence and the Wadi Andam research will be undertaken.

Site Identification and Defintion Sites were identified from both published and unpublished material, which did not in all cases provide a list of recorded sites. Thus, in many cases, an attempt was made to identify sites, including their date and type, from the discussion. In this way, the sites defined were entered into a database and analysed using Microsoft Access.21 As an example, the following paragraph is taken from the report of Schreiber’s Ibra survey (2005: 255): “We decided to start our investigations in this neutral zone, in a hilly area overlooked by an Islamic watchtower (I0003) … Here, we discovered the remains of what must once have been a large circular Umm an-Nar building (I0004) … Located on a hill some 200 m to the north–east are the remains of at least two large round structures, which were, according to their shape and the scattered pottery (fig.4/1– 4), Umm an-Nar tombs (I0007.1 and I0007.2)”. The author describes the evidence from Ibra in which it was possible to define four sites: three Umm an-Nar (one large building and two tombs) and one Islamic watchtower. The watchtower being difficult to assign to a specific Islamic period. These sites were given the following identification numbers in the database: 1 2 3 4

Geographical Extent of the Study Area The geographical extent of the area under study includes Wadi Andam and some of the surrounding areas (Fig. 132). It was defined based on the following considerations: 1 The area under study represents four geographical zones similar to those identified in the Wadi Andam Survey study area. From north to south: the watershed and upper wadis; the lower wadis; gravel hills and broad wadis; and gravel flat interfluves. This encompasses only the inland zone as the coastal region shows different geographical characteristics and will to some extent, exhibit a different settlement pattern. 2 As in the Wadi Andam study area, the local area is defined by the major wadis: the north–eastern and south–eastern limits extend from Wadi Andam in the north through Wadi Tayin in the east and Wadi al Bathā in the south–east, while the north–western and south–western limits extend from Wadi Bahla in the north down to Wadi Halfayn in the south.

Ibra (I0003). Ibra (10004). Ibra (I0007.1). Ibra (I0007.2).

Often, the texts do not provide site names or numbers, which makes their identification difficult. Often they only indicate that in a specific area the survey plotted a group of features/sites, describing this evidence. For example, Schreiber (2004: 7–8) states: “South of Iz0005, down the slopes several structures (a retaining wall, terraces, house foundations), … which probably belonged to a 3rd millennium BC settlement … Situated immediately to the west of the circular building Iz0005, are some large rectangular structures, possibly tombs… because of their NE–SW orientation, they were tentatively dated to the Late Iron Age or Samad-period…”. It is not obvious how many sites were recorded as no names or numbers are provided, nor is it clear whether these features belong to a single site. Consequently, the sites were defined according to their location and period:   The structure of this database and how sites were entered within it can be found in detail at Chapter Six (6.3). 21

105

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 132: Defined local area (the larger circled area) within and around Wadi Andam Survey study area (defined by the small rectangle) (Large and Small No. indicates the total number of recorded sites by Project) 1 Saruj (South of Site Iz0005), which includes an Umm an-Nar settlement with a retaining wall, terraces, and house foundations. 2 Saruj (West of Site Iz0005), which includes Late Iron Age-Samad large rectangular structures that are possibly tombs. Some sites were defined using the illustrations provided in the publications including photographs, sketch plans and maps in which site numbers or periods are sometimes shown, whether or not they were included within the text itself. For instance, Schreiber (ibid: 9) provides a photograph of a Late Iron Age tomb with its number (Iz0334) indicated within the photograph’s caption. This feature was not included in the text itself, but it was recorded as a Late Iron Age site and given the same number. However, a further problem with some of the sites is that they are not assigned to a specific period. When this occurred, they were added to the database as ‘undated’ sites. An addition problem is the language that some of the material is published in including German, French, Danish and Italian. In this case, dictionaries were used in order to aid the defining of sites. Moreover, a large number of individual, mainly excavated, tombs were recorded by the survey projects and given a unique number. Thus, each tomb was entered as an individual site, increasing the number of sites recorded from that period. By contrast, if

the survey project recorded a cemetery with hundreds of tombs as a single site then that period is disproportionately represented in the database. This makes quantification difficult, as well as further complicates the general pattern by increasing the proportion of tombs to settlements. It must also be stressed that the majority of the surveys did not clearly distinguish between the Early and Late Iron Age. Therefore both periods were combined under a broader chronology under the Iron Age. This has complicated comparisons by making the total number of sites from the two individual periods unclear. Survey Projects Review The Harvard Expedition In the early 1970s, the Harvard Archaeological Expedition surveyed part of the Sultanate, including the area west of Bahla and to the east of Mintirib, and the area south and east over the drainage basins of the Wadis Halfayn, Qant, Andam, Samad and Ibra. The results of this survey are published in a series of articles (Pullar 1974; Humphries 1974; Hastings, Humphries & Meadow 1975; Meadow, Humphries & Hastings 1976). Significantly, it appears that the project was primarily focussed on locating and recording 3rd millennium BC settlement sites, creating a bias in the data. 106

Local Area Quantifed Level of Activity

Fig 133: Percentage of the total number of sites, by period, recorded by the Harvard Archaeological Expedition (% based on the total number of all sites) To briefly summarise the results of the survey, the earliest human activity may be dated to the Stone Age, which is represented by four flint sites: two Early Stone Age at Bahla (BB17 & BB18), and two Late Stone Age at Nizwa (Sayq, Jebel Akhdar) (Pullar 1974: 33) and at Adam (Wadi al-Umayri I) (Pullar & Jäckli 1978: 74). The former two sites were located on the terraces on the edge of Wadi Bahla, while the latter were located on the Sayq Plateau itself and on the Wadi al-Umayri terraces. The Hafit period is represented by a large number of stone-built cairns noted during the survey on the ridges and higher elevations around Bahla (BB16, BB19 & BB22), at Wadi Samad (Samad 4), Ibra (Batin 1 & Wadi Ibra 2, Zahir 2 & 3), Wadi Andam (sites 16, 19 & 28) and Adam (Wadi Halfayn 3) (Meadow, Humphries & Hastings 1976: 113). However, they were not recorded as the main aim of the project was locating settlement sites: “Throughout the survey numerous stone built cairns were observed, particularly on the ridges and higher elevations. Since the primary purpose of the survey was to locate settlement sites, it was decided to bypass the cairns on this occasion” (Humphries 1974: 49). The Umm an-Nar is the period most highly represented in the results of the project, being the primary interest of the team. The survey at Wadi Bahla yielded ten settlement sites of which seven are Umm an-Nar (BB6, BB15, BB16, BB19, BB20, BB21 and BB22). The dating of the sites was based on pottery parallels from south–eastern Iran, mainly Tepe Yahya and Bampur (ibid: 49). Site BB15 is a small settlement; BB16 is a large circular stone enclosure; BB19 is a settlement with stone-wall foundations and enclosure; BB20 is a small hill with a large stone wall; BB21 is a raised circular platform with wall foundations; BB22 is large circular stone enclosure; and BB6 is a wall with stone foundations (ibid: 50–51). All of these sites were located on low rocky outcrops. Moreover, the survey

of Wadi Samad yielded three Umm an-Nar settlement sites on low hills and on the wadi terraces. Of these, Wadi Samad 5 and Samad 50 (Maysar 1) are copper producing/ smelting sites with stone structures (Meadow, Humphries & Hastings 1976: 112). Maysar 1 also yielded Umm anNar tombs. Wadi Samad 4 is a fortified settlement with large circular stone enclosures. The survey of Wadi Andam yielded four Umm an-Nar settlements (Wadi Andam 1, 16, 19 & 28) (ibid: 113–114). A further five Umm an-Nar settlements with large stone structures were located in the Ibra area (Hastings, Humphries & Meadow 1975:11–12; Berthoud et al. 1978), including a settlement at Wadi Ibra 2 and another less substantial site at Wadi Khafifah 1 where copper smelting took place. Wadi Ibra 2 also has associated tombs. The other three sites from Ibra are Batin 1 and Zahir 2 and 3, which are all smelting sites. The survey yielded two more Umm an-Nar sites at Bidiyah (Tawi Hulays 1) and Adam (Wadi Halfayn 3) of which both are settlements. In contrast to this plethora of material, the survey yielded only one Wadi Suq site at Bahla (BB15), a small settlement on a low rocky outcrop (Humphries 1974: 51–52). Three Iron Age settlement sites were recorded, only two of which are mentioned by the project: BB4 and BB15 (ibid: 51). These two sites also yielded evidence for the Hellenistic–Parthian period. The only site recorded as yielding Islamic evidence is BB15, which includes occupational remains from the Sasanian to the Middle Islamic periods (ibid: 51–52). There is a clear bias towards 3rd millennium BC sites, especially settlements which were the primary interest of the survey project. Figure 133 demonstrates this, showing the percentage of sites recorded by the Harvard Expedition by period. Almost all of the periods are represented if only thinly. Significantly, the Islamic periods are represented by only a single Middle Islamic site. This reveals a bias towards pre-Islamic sites; Islamic sites were not part of the aims of the project. The most represented period is the 107

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 134: Total number of settlements against tombs recorded by the Harvard Project (based on Table 28) Umm an-Nar (ca. 48%), followed by the Hafit period (ca. 27%), while the others are represented by very few sites (less than 5%).

Period E.S.A L.S.A Hafit U.Nar W.S I.A Hell–Parth Sas–E.Islamic M.Islamic L.Islamic–Recent Prehistoric? Islamic? Undated Total/type

Settlement 2 (100%) 2 (100%) 0 (0%) 21 (91%) 1 (100%) 2 (100%) 2 (100%) 1 (100%) 1 (100%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 32

Tomb 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 12 (100%) 2 (9%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 14

Total/Period 2 (100%) 2 (100%) 12 (100%) 23 (100%) 1 (100%) 2 (100%) 2 (100%) 1 (100%) 1 (100%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 46

Table 28: Number and percentage of settlements Harvard Project (% based on the total number by period)

against tombs recorded by the

To garner a better understanding of the levels of activity during each period, Figure 134 and Table 28 show the total number, and percentage, of settlements and tombs recorded by the Harvard project, with the term ‘settlement’ encompassing middens, scatters, fortifications, industrial areas, religious areas, and cave/rock shelters as well as the more obvious sites. Figure 134 and Table 28 clearly demonstrate that barring the Hafit, all periods yielded a higher proportion of settlement sites. The largest number of settlements being from the Umm an-Nar period. The figures demonstrate the clear bias towards recording 3rd millennium BC settlement sites. British Archaeological Expedition The British Archaeological Expedition to Oman was conducted by B. de Cardi in the mid–1970s, with the aim of carrying out surveys and limited excavations in the alSharqiyah and al-Dhakhilia regions of Central Oman. The results and conclusions of the expedition have been widely published (de Cardi et al. 1976, 1977, 1979; Smith 1976 & 1977; de Cardi 1975, 1977, 1978; Goettler, Firth & Huston 1976). Among the sites recorded by the expedition, six date to the Late Stone Age: four at Bidiyah (Jebel al Hammah Sites 61a–b, 62, 63) and two at al-Qabil (Tawi Silaim Site 54b and ad-Dariz [Site 10]) (Smith 1977: 71–72). All of these sites yielded surface lithic material, the last site also produced a walled structure. The Hafit period is represented exclusively by burial cairns from 14 sites: two at Nizwa (Rawdah Sites 27 & 29), one at Izki (Zukayt 23) (de Cardi, Collier & Doe 1976: 158–161), and one from Bahla (Wihi Al Murr Site 34) (ibid: 162), Ibra (Khafifa

108

Local Area Quantifed Level of Activity Site 12) (ibid: 155), and al-Mudhaybi (Fath Site 18) (ibid: 157), as well as seven sites from al-Qabil: Tawi Silaim Site 9 (ibid: 142 & 154) and Cairns 1, 2, 3, 4, 16 and 22 (de Cardi, Bell & Starling 1979: 66–80; de Cardi 1978: 9–18). Cairns were also discovered in the al-Mudhaybi area (Aflaj Site 17 and Fath Site 18) and around Ibra (Khafifa Site 12) (de Cardi, Collier & Doe 1976: 155–157). The tombs were located on hill-tops, slopes, and wadi terraces. Sixteen Umm an-Nar sites were recorded, the majority being tombs. Ten sites were discovered at al-Qabil: Tawi Silaim Cairns 1–4, 16, 22, 26 & Sites 9 & 501, and Fulaj (de Cardi 1977: 61); two at al-Mudhaybi: Samad 15 (de Cardi, Collier & Doe 1976: 156), Shari’aj-Khudar (de Cardi 1977: 61), and two at Bahla: Bahla Site 33 & Zabi Site 37 (de Cardi, Collier & Doe 1976: 162–163) as well as a single site at Izki (Sulaymi Site 19) (ibid: 145 & 158) and al-Mudhayrib (Mudayrib Site 50) (de Cardi 1977: 59). Only six of these yielded settlement remains: al-Wasil, Bahla (Site 33), Shari’ah (Khudar), Samad 15 and Fulaj. The Wadi Suq period is represented by only two sites: Samad Site 15 at al-Mudhaybi that yielded evidence of a settlement and tombs, and Tawi Silaim Site 9 at alQabil that yielded tombs (de Cardi, Collier & Doe 1976: 142–156). Three Iron Age settlements were discovered: Salut (Site 38) at Nizwa, Bir Sayf and Samad (Site 15) at al-Mudhaybi (ibid: 145, 156 &164). The latter two also yielding Iron Age tombs. No archaeological material from the Hellenistic–Parthian and Sasanian–Early Islamic periods was recorded by this project. Five Middle Islamic sites were recorded, including two at al-Qabil: a fortification (Niba’ 1) and a settlement with tombs (Niba’ 2) (de Cardi 1977: 65–67), while at al-Hamra, the survey recorded a fortified settlement at Husn Khor (Site 31), and a settlement site (Salut, Site 38) at Nizwa (de Cardi, Collier & Doe 1976: 144–164) as well as a single midden/scatter site at Dima Wa at-Taiyyin (Ba’id Site) (de

Cardi 1977: 67). Eleven sites dating from the Late Islamic to Recent periods were dicovered (de Cardi, Collier & Doe 1976: 143–164). This included two at al-Mudhaybi: a settlement at Fath (Site 18) and a midden/scatter at Aflaj al-Budu (Site 16); five at Nizwa including two settlements (al- Jinah Site 26 & Salut Site 38) and five cemeteries with walled structures at Firq (Sites 24 & 25), Rawdah (Site 28); as well as three sites at Izki including one settlement at Izki (Site 20), and two cemeteries at Zibb (Sites 21 & 22). Al-Qabil yielded only one site of this period – a settlement at an-Niba’2. Figure 135 presents the percentage of sites recorded by period from the results of the British Expedition. Almost all of the periods are represented by at least a small number of sites. The largest number of sites are undated sites, followed by the Umm an-Nar and Hafit periods. Figure 136 presents the number of settlements and tombs by period. The Late Stone Age, Iron Age and Middle to Late Islamic–Recent periods yielded a higher proportion of settlement sites, while the Hafit, Umm an-Nar and Wadi Suq have a higher ratio of tombs. The large number of undated settlements is most likely due to a lack of datable finds and clear parallels. The German Archaeological Mission The first discovery dating to the ‘Samad period’ (300 BC–1000 AD) was made by the German Mission in the late 1970s when pottery and a large number of tombs were located in the area of Samad–Maysar (Yule & Kazenwadel 1993: 251). Since 1980, this Mission has carried out several surveys and excavations in and around the Samad ash-Shan area of Central Oman. The earliest evidence recorded by this project consists of three midden/scatter sites from Lizq in al-Mudhaybi which dates to the Late Stone Age (Lizq 2–4) (Weisgerber 1981: 254–259). Hafit cairns were found at 29 sites from

Fig. 135: Percentage of sites by period recorded during the British Archaeological Expedition 109

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 136: Total number of settlement and tomb sites recorded by the British Archaeological Expedition (based on Table 29) al-Mudhaybi: Samad S9, S22, S27 and S29, Maysar M3– M5, M8, M10, M15, M18–M22, M30, M37–M40 (ibid: 174–263), M27020/3–4 (Yule 2001a: 444), M501–2 (ibid: 92), as well as al-Shariq Sha1, Sha2, Sha5 and Sha8 (Yule & Weisgerber 1998: 210–211), and at Rawdah/Muqatta (Mu10–11) (Yule 2001a: 397). Four sites with Hafit cairns were discovered at Dima Wa at-Taiyyin (Maqta’ah Maqt1, Period E.S.A L.S.A Hafit U.Nar W.S I.A Hell–Parth Sas–E.Islamic M.Islamic L.Islamic–Recent Prehistoric? Islamic? Undated Total/type

Settlement 0 (0%) 6 (100%) 0 (0%) 6 (35%) 1 (33%) 3 (60%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 5 (100%) 10 (83%) 5 (45%) 0 (0%) 25 (78%) 61

Tomb 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 14 (100%) 11 (65%) 2 (67%) 2 (40%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 2 (17%) 6 (55%) 1 (100%) 7 (22%) 45

Total/Period 0 (0%) 6 (100%) 14 (100%) 17 (100%) 3 (100%) 5 (100%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 5 (100%) 12 (100%) 11 (100%) 1 (100%) 32 (100%) 106

Table 29: Total number of settlement and tomb sites recorded by the British Archaeological Expedition (% based on the total number by period)

Maqt2 and Mqt3, and Isma’iyah Ism2, ‘Qarn Suwaich’) (Yule & Weisgerber 1998: 209–210). These tombs were located on the slopes of low-lying hills. The earliest settlement to be excavated by this project was the Umm an-Nar copper production/smelting site at Maysar M1 (Weisgerber 1980: 77–88; 1981: 191–197). This site was originally discovered by the Harvard Expedition in the early 1970s, recorded as Samad 50 (Weisgerber 1978: 15– 17). Several other Umm an-Nar settlements were located in the al-Mudhaybi area, including Maysar M25: a round Umm an-Nar tower surrounded by stone structures. Mullaq yielded a settlement with tombs, a smelting site and a fortification (Weisgerber 1981: 186–189 & 198–203). Five further copper producing/smelting sites were also recorded including Maysar M2, M16, and M49, and Bilad al-Maaidin-1 and 2 (ibid: 174–263). Only Maysar M2 and Mullaq yielded an Umm an-Nar settlement complete with tombs. Another Umm an-Nar fortified settlement was recorded at al-Hind, just south of al-Khashbah village (Weisgerber 1978: 27), which includes large Umm anNar ashlar masonry buildings. Finally, six Umm an-Nar settlements were recorded in and around Maysar, including Maysar M6, M7, M25, M26, M29 and M31 (Weisgerber 1981: 174–263) as well as Maqta’ah Maqt5 at Dima Wa at-Taiyyin (Yule & Weisgerber 1998: 210). In addition to the Umm an-Nar tombs from Maysar M2, M25 and Mullaq, nine other sites yielded tombs of this period: eight at Rawdah/Muqatta (Tombs Mu5, Mu5/2, Mu6, Mu9, Mu12, Mu13, Mu15 & Mu17) (Yule 2001a: 397); and one at Samad (Samad S30) (ibid: 348–362 & 401). The Wadi Suq period is represented by a large number of tombs that were located and excavated in the Samad area, particularly at the cemeteries of Samad S10, S20, S21 and S22, as well as Maysar M8 (Yule & Weisgerber 1988: 8–12; Yule & Kazenwadel 1993: 253–254). Further tombs were excavated at al-Akhdar (Yule et al. 1994: 385, 391 & 409) and at al-Bustan (Gr.Bu6) (ibid: 386 & 2001b: 494) as well as Nizwa N1985 (ibid: 394–396). Furthermore, Early 110

Local Area Quantifed Level of Activity

Fig. 137: Percentage of sites by period recorded by the German Archaeological Mission

Iron Age or ‘Lizq Period’ sites were recorded at the type site of Lizq fortress where a pottery assemblage of this time was recovered (Weisgerber 1982: 81). Another Lizq period fortress was discovered at Maysar M34 (Weisgerber 1981: 233–238, fig.74–79). Excavations at Maysar M43 revealed Lizq period mudbrick houses situated along the falaj (Weisgerber 1982: 81–82). Two more settlements of this period were found at Dima Wa at- Taiyyin (Isma’iyah Fort Isml, ‘Qarn Suwaich’) (Yule & Weisgerber 1998: 209) and al-Mudhaybi (Mayasr 42) (Weisgerber & Yule 1999: 105–108). Very few free-standing hut-tombs of the Lizq period were located at Samad S10, the best examples being located at Maysar M8, M9, M27 and M36, Bilad alMa’din, Muqatta–Rawdah, and in the Jebel Salayli (Yule & Kazenwadel 1993: 254); M803 (Yule & Weisgerber 1988: 43–48), S19, S22, S23 and S24 (ibid: 6–7). The period best represented by the German Mission is the Late Iron Age to Hellenistic–Parthian (Samad period), which is largely represented by tombs. The majority of these tombs are located within the Samad/Maysar area. Other tombs were found at Izki cemetery and al-Akhdar (Yule et al. 1994: 398–402 & 409), al-Bustan and Mahleya (Yule 2005: 305), Mullaq (Weisgerber 1981: 186–189) and Muqatta–Rawdah (Yule & Kazenwadel 1993: 254). The project excavated many of these tombs at Samad/Maysar such as the those at Samad S10, S30, S19, S20, S21, S22, S23, S24, S26, S28, S30, S32, S33, and Maysar M4, M8, M45 as well as al-Akhdar (Yule 2001a; 2001c: 256–259). Fieldwork at al-Fueda area also yielded 25 tombs that were dated, based on their finds, to 400 BC–1st century AD (Yule, 2001c: 255–257). Late Iron Age–Samad period settlements and fortified sites were located at different sites in Wadi Samad such as al-Akhdar, Khadra Bani Daffa, Mahleya, Maysar M6, M34, M42 and M43, Samad S1, S2, S4, S6, S7 and S23, as well as Samad/Mendesseh (S30/H1) (ibid: 256–264). Other settlements were located at al-Bustan, al-Niba, al-Shariq, Manah (copper mine site), Muti, Rawdah/Muqatta and Mullaq (Yule 2005: 303–311).

The Sasanian to recent periods are only represented by a few sites.22 For the Sasanian–Early Islamic period, the project recorded 12 settlements at al-Mudhaybi: al-Akhdar, al-Maysar, Khadra Bani Daffa, Rawdah/ Muqatta, Samad ash-Shan, (Yule 2005: 305), Maysar M49 (Weisgerber 1981: 178) and Musfah (Weisgerber 1980: 101–103). Other settlements of this period were located at Ibra (al-Niba), Bidiyah (al-Shariq), Manah (Manah), Bahla (al-Maskuteh) and Izki (Muti). Moreover, there are four copper mining Middle Islamic sites in al-Mudhaybi, including Khadra Bani Daffa, Maysar M16 and M49 and Washihi (Weisgerber 1981: 174–263). All these sites yielded evidence dating from the Late Islamic to Recent times. Two Late Islamic–Recent fortified settlements were located in the Samad area (Samad S2–6 and S28) (Yule & Weisgerber 1988: 8–9) as well as a copper mine at Mullaq (Weisgerber 1981: 186–189). Clearly there is a ‘bias’ towards the period from the Wadi Suq to the Hellenistic–Parthian, as well as towards tombs. This is unsurprising as this period constituted the main interests of the project. This may be seen in Figure 137 which shows the percentages of sites by period recorded by this project. The graph shows a sharp incline in the number of sites dated to the Iron Age–Hellenistic periods as well as to the Wadi Suq. Other periods are only thinly represented (less than 10%). Furthermore, Figure 138 shows the total number of settlements against tombs, revealing a high in the number of tombs recorded from the Wadi Suq to Hellenistic– Parthian period. This is unsurprising as a large number of tombs from these periods were excavated by the project in the Samad area. Each of these tombs was entered and counted in the database as an individual site,   As seen in Chapter Three the ‘Samad period’ has recently been reexamined by Kennet (2007) and it appears that there are some incorrect C14 dates for this period, particularly those dated to the period after around 200 AD. 22

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Fig. 138: Total number of settlements against tombs recorded by the German Archaeological Mission (based on Table 30)

Period E.S.A L.S.A Hafit U.Nar W.S I.A Hell–Parth Sas–E.Islamic M.Islamic L.Islamic–Recent Prehistoric? Islamic? Undated Total/type

Settlement

Tomb

Total/Period

0 (0%) 3 (100%) 0 (0%) 15 (58%) 0 (0%) 27 (8%) 18 (7%) 12 (92%) 4 (100%) 12 (100%) 1 (33%) 0 (0%) 24 (20%) 116

0 (0%) 0 (0%) 33 (100%) 11 (42%) 126 (100%) 304 (92%) 255 (93%) 1 (8%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 2 (67%) 0 (0%) 95 (80%) 827

0 (0%) 3 (100%) 33 (100%) 26 (100%) 126 (100%) 331 (100%) 273 (100%) 13 (100%) 4 (100%) 12 (100%) 3 (100%) 0 (0%) 119 (100%) 943

Table 30: Total number and percentage of settlements German Archaeological Mission (% based on the total number by period)

against tombs recorded by the

notably increasing the total number of tomb sites against settlement sites. The figures also show a large number of undated tombs. Although they were excavated in the same cemeteries where tombs dating to the Wadi Suq to Samad period were excavated and dated, they were not dated by

the survey project. The reasons for this are unclear but it probably resulted from the tombs being in a too bad a state of preservation or failing to produce any datable finds. There are very few settlement sites from any period. It should be noted that there are problems in the dating of some of the Wadi Suq and Late Iron Age–Samad period tombs recorded by this project. According to the excavators, several of these tombs yielded finds from different periods, making their dating problematic The Al-Hajar Project The al-Hajar Project was focussed only on recording remains dated to the 3rd millennium BC. It has attempted to develop hypotheses regarding the chronology and typology of these monuments, resulting in the theory that there are in fact two distinct types of architecture found from this period: the Umm an-Nar and the al-Hajar. The results of this research are published in a series of papers (Orchard & Stanger 1994 & 1999; Orchard 1995; Orchard 2000; Orchard & Orchard 1997 & 2002). The al-Hajar Project recorded a number of large circular monumental structures (tower buildings) at several sites in the Bahla, Nizwa and al-Mudhaybi areas, which have been labelled ‘al-Hajar Oases Towns’. The suggested plan for these towns includes circular structures and rectangular buildings, which form a complex that includes towers or fortifications on the tops of outcrops, groups of buildings lower down the slopes and areas of cultivation on the plain in-between (Orchard & Stanger 1994: 80). The ‘towns’ are also associated with large cemeteries of Beehive tombs visible on the mountains and outcrops in the vicinity of these large buildings. The authors provide an example of an ‘al-Hajar oasis town’ in Bisya (Orchard 2000: 168; fig.3), which has yielded four large buildings: Jebel Juhēlāt, Qarn Qarhat Lahwīd, Qarn Qantarat Nizwa and Jebel Sulēmān ‘Alī (ibid: 170–174; fig.7-13). All of the areas surveyed by 112

Local Area Quantifed Level of Activity the al-Hajar Project have yielded sites dating to the Hafit and Umm an-Nar periods, especially in and around Bahla, this being the project’s main stated interest. The Hafit period is represented by Hafit and Beehive tombs recorded by the project in the hills surrounding Bisya (Akhdar al-‘Akaba, Jebel al-‘Alam, Jebel Jebit Shmesa, Jebel Limu’akkal, Jebel Mirbakh, Jebel Suleman ‘Ali (a) and (b), Jebel Bu Rzuz, Jebel Ghbera Dhib, Jebel Juhelat (Jahalah), Jebel Limwelaha, Qarn Qantarat Nizwa, Qarn Qarhat Lawahid, Madkhal al-‘Akaba and Jebel al-Milla) (ibid:169–172), and around al- Khashbah in al-Mudhaybi as well as Firq in Nizwa (Orchard & Stanger 1994: 82 & 91). In total, 18 tomb sites of the Hafit period were located. The Umm an-Nar period evidence consists of a total of 16 settlement and tomb sites, seven of which yielded only

settlements, three settlements with tombs and six with only tombs. Of the settlement sites, six yielded fortifications. The settlements include large circular or oval buildings associated with the stone foundations of other surrounding structures. These settlements include seven sites at Bahla (Bisya Area Site, Farud, Jebel Juhelat (Jahalah), Jebel Suleman ‘Ali (b), Qarn Qantarat Nizwa, Qarn Qarhat Lawahid and Shuh) (Orchard 2000:169–172), one at al-Mudhaybi (al-Khashbah), and two at Nizwa (Firq and al-Gubra) (Orchard & Stanger 1994: 82 & 91). They are located on low rocky hills/outcrops or at the bottom of their slopes as well as on the wadi edges or terraces. Several of these sites yielded Umm an-Nar tombs including Akhdar al-‘Akaba, Jebel Ghbera Dhib, Jebel Suleman ‘Ali (b), Qarn Qarhat Lawahid, Bisya Area Site, Jebel Jebit Shmesa (Orchard 2000:169–172), and Limwelaha (Tombs 1 & 2) (Orchard & Orchard 1997: 16).

Fig. 139: Percentage of the total sites by period recorded by the al-Hajar Project

Fig. 140: Total number of settlements against tombs recorded by al-Hajar Project (based on Table 31) 113

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula Period E.S.A L.S.A Hafit U.Nar W.S I.A Hell–Parth Sas–E.Islamic M.Islamic L.Islamic–Recent Prehistoric? Islamic? Undated Total/type

Settlement

Tomb

0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 10 (53%) 1 (50%) 2 (33%) 1 (100%) 1 (100%) 2 (100%) 2 (100%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 19

0 (0%) 0 (0%) 18 (100%) 9 (47%) 1 (50%) 4 (67%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 32

Total/ Period 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 18 (100%) 19 (100%) 2 (100%) 6 (100%) 1 (100%) 1 (100%) 2 (100%) 2 (100%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 51

Table 31: Total number of settlements against tombs recorded by al-Hajar Project (% based on the total number by period) The only Wadi Suq settlement in evidence is from the Bisya Area site; however the evidence is not discussed at any length. The only information that is provided is that the site yielded evidence from the late 4th to 1st millennium BC (Orchard & Stanger 1994: 73; Orchard 2000: 167). Limwelaha (Tomb 1) is the only site that yielded evidence

of tombs, being an Umm an-Nar tomb re-used during the Wadi Suq period. The Iron Age is only represented by four sites from Bahla: Bisya might include Iron Age evidence, Jebel Bu Rzuz with two pill-box tombs (Orchard & Stanger 1994: 73), Qaryat Sallut (Orchard & Stanger 1999: 99–100) is a fort with circular stone building platforms and other structures and Limwelaha (Tomb 2) which is an Umm an-Nar tomb re-used during the Iron Age (Orchard & Orchard 1997: 16). Only Qaryat Sallut, yielded evidence from the Hellenistic–Parthian to Late Islamic periods, while Bisya yielded evidence from the Middle to Late Islamic periods. The results of the al-Hajar project have a clear bias towards the 3rd millennium BC (Figure 139). Such was the focus of the project that Hafit and Umm an-Nar sites outnumber those from the Islamic period. Figure 140 plots the total number of settlements against tombs. It shows that the Hafit and Iron Age periods have a higher proportion of tomb sites. The Umm an-Nar and Wadi Suq periods yielded evidence of tombs and settlements in similar proportion, while the other periods produced very little evidence, if any at all. However, only a relatively small number of sites were recorded by the project and thus the results do not allow for a proper comparison between types of site. Other Survey Projects Other sites have been recorded by a number of smaller scale projects in several areas. The earliest of these sites are those recorded by members of Petroleum Development Oman during the early 1970s, and date to the Stone Age: six Early Stone Age from Bahla (Wadi Umayri (Loc.1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 9) (Villiers-Petocz 1989: 54–57), one from Izki (Suq Al Qadim) (Pullar & Jäckli 1978: 64–65 & 74) and one from Adam (Huqf Area) (Whalen 2004: 175–182). There are also six Late Stone Age sites: three from Izki (Wadi Halfayn I, II and III), two from Bahla (Al Hubi I & Jebel Kawr I) and one from Adam (Jebel Salakh I) (Pullar

Fig. 141: Total number of sites recorded by other surveys 114

Local Area Quantifed Level of Activity & Jäckli 1978: 53–74). All of these sites yielded surface lithic material without any associated structures. By contrast, the Hafit period is only represented by a single site of Beehive tombs at Izki (Frifelt 1975b: 390–391), and the Umm an-Nar period by one site found at Bahla (alAqir) which yielded a mining site and a number of tombs (Weisgerber & Yule 2003: 24–53). These surveys yielded no evidence from the Wadi Suq period, while the Iron Age and Hellenistic–Parthian periods are represented by 16 tomb sites recorded at Mahleya in al-Mudhaybi (ElMahi & AlJahwari 2005: 57–69). The Sasanian–Early Islamic evidence recorded consists of eight copper mine sites: four from al-Mudhaybi [Wadi Andam 32 (Whitcomb 1975: 126), Majazah (Site 43), Rawdah (Site 26) and Wadi Andam (Site 17)]; two from al-Qabil [Niba (Site 99) and Wadi Dumha (Site 68)]; one from Bahla [Bahla (Site 109)] and one from Nizwa [Lashaya II (Site 48)] (Goettler, Firth & Huston 1976: 43–55). All of these copper mine sites continued to be used into the Middle Islamic period. Moreover, Middle Islamic fortifications were located at Izki (Wadi Qant 3) (Whitcomb 1975: 127), as well as tombs and mosques at Nizwa (Maqbarat al-A’immah, Maqbarat al-Uwaynah-1–3 and Masajid al-’Ubbad) (Ibrahim 2001: 97–113). All of the Middle Islamic sites also continued in use during the Late Islamic–Recent period, which is also represented by fortifications in a number of different areas. These small scale surveys yielded only a small number of sites from a few periods (Fig. 141), not providing enough data for a quantified analysis. This is to be expected considering the nature of the research. Some of these sites were recorded by amateurs working in different sectors/ organisations in Oman. These sites remain an important contribution to the general history of the peninsula, and have covered areas that have not always been subjected to investigation. The Omani–German Project Since 1999, the interdisciplinary Omani–German cooperation project “Transformation Processes in Oasis Settlements in Oman” has successfully undertaken three major project phases (Fig. 142) in five stages, covering a number of areas in the interior of Oman. These include al-Hamra (Ibrahim & Gaube 2000; Häser 2000 & 2003); Izki and Nizwa (Schreiber 2004 & 2007a–b) in the alDhakhilia Region as well as Ibra in the al-Sharqiyah Region (Schreiber 2005). The aim of this project is the documentation of settlement history over time, particularly the development of oasis (wadi) settlements. The published reports of the results of the project are short and describe the results of each season without detailed analysis or discussion. There is no indication of the applied survey methodology and no list of recorded sites and their findings.23 For example,   The only sites list from Izki, Nizwa and Jebel Akhdar has recently appeared in J. Schreiber’s PhD thesis, which was kindly given to me by 23

there is no indication of the pottery sampling or collection methodology and no list of the pottery types recovered during the surveys. However, the project has not yet reached its final stage of publication. Omani–German Project Surveys 1 Al-Hamra (Fig. 142 ) The earliest evidence recorded in the survey of the region of al-Hamra (Ibrahim & Gaube 2000; Häser 2000: 115– 118 & 2003: 21–30) is dated to the Hafit period, with numerous cairns being distributed on the surrounding hills. The area also yielded three Umm an-Nar sites with tombs (al-Hamra Sites 86/10, 86/30 & 86/31). The Wadi Suq period is represented by a single site consisting of possibly re-used Hafit cairns on the surrounding hills, and no occupational remains. By the Early Iron Age there was an increase in settlement activity demonstrated by the small number of recorded settlements, which represents the earliest occupational evidence in the region; several tombs from the period were also discovered. The survey yielded two major settlements from this period, both of which are located on hills. The first is a large enclosure which encloses six large houses, while the second settlement consists only of small domestic structures. There are also smaller possible settlement ruins from this period: Sites 86/10 and 86/29, as well as a variety of types of Early Iron Age tomb on the hills surrounding al-Hamra. The Late Iron Age, is possibly represented by a single cairn, a small number of subterranean tombs and a few pottery sherds (e.g. al-Hamra Sites 86/10, 86/18 and 86/32), but there is an almost complete absence of any settlement remains from the period. It is possible that the Early Iron Age settlement at Site 86/29 continued to be used into this period. Other sites also yielded Iron Age pottery including al-Hamra Sites 86/5–86/7. The Early Islamic period yielded only a small number of scattered sherds, for example at alHamra Site 86/6. During the Middle Islamic period, there was a small increase in settlement activity with several sites producing underglazed sgraffiato sherds, and two major settlements being located on hills. This period was followed by a dramatic change in the settlement pattern during the Late Islamic period, with most of the existing wadi villages yielding evidence from this point in time. 2 Ibra (Fig. 142) The oldest human activity uncovered in the survey of Ibra (Schreiber 2005: 255–270) dates to the Late Stone Age, which yielded a number of flint tools and flakes near the al-Thabiti area. This area also produced the remains of large boulder walls and double-walled rectangular and oval structures (e.g. I0267, I0272 and I0310). Material from the Hafit period consists of badly disturbed cairns located on the author in June 2007, just close to the completion of my project. Thus, it was impossible to include some of the unrecorded sites within this database of this thesis.

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Fig. 142: The three project phases carried out by the Omani–German Survey the higher hills east of the main oasis along the Bidbid– Sur road, and north of al-Thabiti along the eastern terrace of Wadi Ibra (al-Thabiti Sites I0088, I0122, I0163, I0177, I0220, I0249, I0316 and I0399). The Settlement during the Umm an-Nar period shifted to the western bank of Wadi Ibra, near to the main modern oasis. Here, a settlement was established with the efforts of the survey yielding a partly disturbed large circular Umm an-Nar building (I0004). Also recorded were two round Umm an-Nar tombs with a surface scatter of pottery sherds (I0007.1 and I0007.2), and other tombs located to the north of al-Thabiti (alThabiti Sites I0088, I0112–4, I0122, I0163, I0177, I0220, I0249, and I0316) and Ibra (Sites I0007–I0008). The Wadi Suq period is possibly represented by a badly disturbed cemetery (I0006), which produced a few circular/oval underground tombs. A badly bulldozed area (I0005) also yielded Wadi Suq funerary pottery sherds. The Early Iron Age is represented by two major settlements. The first (I0002) was built in the same area as the Umm an-Nar settlement. It is associated with a cemetery (I0007) that re-used the stones of the earlier Umm an-Nar tombs. The second settlement (I0039) includes the remains of house foundations associated with a scatter of Early Iron Age settlement pottery. Early Iron Age tombs were found in a poor state of preservation on the foot of a hill

surrounding the settlement (cemetery I0040) and on lower hills east of the main oasis along the Bidbid–Sur road, as well as at Site I0052. On the mountains above Wadi Garbi, a new settlement was founded by the start of the Late Iron Age (site I0052) with the previous Early Iron Age settlement at I0039 continuing to be occupied. Other Iron Age tombs that re-used older Hafit tombs were also discovered in the al-Thabiti area. During the Early Islamic period, there was a shift in settlement back to the plain at the edge of Wadi Garbi. Settlement (I0046) traces were recorded during the survey above Wadi Garbi associated with the cemetery (I0047) at the southern and eastern edge of the area and two mosques (I0044 & I0056). This settlement was abandoned during the later Islamic periods, with the ceramic record indicating that settlement shifted to the area of the current-day oasis. Clearly there was a shift in the location of settlements over time, but they always remained in close proximity to the wadis. 3 Izki (Fig. 142) The earliest evidence recorded in the survey of Izki (Schreiber 2004: 6–10) dates to the Hafit period with several Hafit and Beehive tombs being found in numerous

116

Local Area Quantifed Level of Activity locations: on the edges, slopes, low hills and flat areas, including at Zukait, north of the old Nizwa–Muscat road, the western edge of Harat ar-Raha, the village of Wuddai, the south Saruj Plateau, and the slopes above the modern houses. The Umm an-Nar period is represented by a large circular boulder structure in the Saruj area (Iz0005) associated with a number of Umm an-Nar pottery sherds. Several structures built using large boulders were also found south of Iz0005, possibly comprising a 3rd millennium BC settlement. Possible Umm an-Nar tombs were discovered on a flat plateau south of the canyon near the small village of Wuddai. No remains dating to the Wadi Suq period were found. Evidence of the Early Iron Age includes the re-use of Hafit cairns, and the probable reuse of Umm anNar structures at Iz0118. A possible campsite of the Early Iron Age including re-used Hafit cairns and some circular structures producing Early Iron Age pottery was found on the southern part of the Saruj plateau. Moreover, new Early Iron Age tombs were constructed in different parts of the oasis, including to the north of the old Nizwa–Muscat road and on the western edge of Harat ar-Raha. The Late Iron Age to Hellenistic–Parthian period is represented by a large cemetery on the slopes of the western hills and by a settlement area between the two quarters of al-Yaman and al-Nizar. Other tombs from this period were also found in other areas, including on the Saurj Plateau, and at sites Iz0005, Iz118, Iz334 and Iz0127. The survey did not yield any evidence from the Sasanian–Early Islamic period. Evidence from the Middle and Late Islamic to Recent periods is plentiful, present in the form of watchtowers, house ruins, walls and cemeteries as well as the main oasis settlement. 4 Nizwa Area The survey at Nizwa consisted of two parts: Jebel Akhdar and Nizwa ‘Oasis’, each of which was surveyed in a different season. The first part in 2004 and the second in 2004/2005. The Jebel Akhdar (Fig. 142) A short reconnaissance was made at Jebel Akhdar, particularly on the Saiq-Plateau (Schreiber 2004: 10–11). Approximately 70 archaeological features were recorded, the majority of which were tombs. The remains of a number of Hafit cairns were discovered on flat mountain ridges including at the southern edge of the plateau, Hail and above Saiq. No evidence from the Umm an-Nar and Wadi Suq periods was recorded by the survey, while the Early Iron Age is evidenced by three Hut-tombs that were built re-using the stones from Hafit cairns at the southern edge of the Saiq Plateau. Material from the Late Iron Age was recovered from a secondary burial in one of the disturbed Hafit cairns above Saiq. The Islamic material was recorded at the remains of a possible campsite and an Islamic cemetery. This evidence suggests that this mountainous region of Oman was not isolated and remote but was already inhabited early in prehistory (ibid: 11), even if the level of this occupation was low.

Nizwa (Fig. 142) A number of Hafit and Beehive tombs were recorded on the eastern hills between Farq and the centre of Nizwa, as well as in a large valley to the northeast of the oasis (Schreiber 2007a).24 The first settlement remains recorded date to the Umm an-Nar period, located in the southern and northern parts of the oasis. They include three large monumental structures, including the previously known structures at Farq recorded by de Cardi and Doe (de Cardi, Collier & Doe 1976: 159–160) and by the al-Hajar Project (Orchard & Orchard 2002: 228). Other Umm an-Nar remains were found north of the oasis, including stone foundations and a badly disturbed tomb (N109). The remains of walls associated with pottery of mixed date (Umm an-Nar, Early Iron Age and Islamic) were recorded at numerous rocky outcrops, which over time probably acted as campsites, settlements and fortifications. These include a rectangular stone built fortification (N120), which is protected by a large stone wall, and a circular structure built of unworked stones (N188) located close to Wadi Samit and the road connecting Nizwa and Bahla. South of this fortification, the remains of a small group of badly disturbed tombs were recorded. It was concluded that the whole wadi was used as a settlement area during the Umm an-Nar period. The evidence seems to demonstrate that there was a marked decline in settlement during the Wadi Suq period followed by a dramatic increase during the Early Iron Age. Umm an-Nar structures were re-used during the Early Iron Age, and new settlements were established on the eastern side of Wadi Kalbuh along the mountain foothills. Remains from these settlements include abandoned fields with mixed pottery sherds, including a large number from the Early Iron Age, and the remains of stone foundations. Possibly these are the remains of Early Iron Age houses or farmsteads, typefied by the substantial settlement remains at site N012, to the east, and site N261 on the western edge of Wadi Kalbuh. Another settlement from this period is located north of Soa’al, the recorded remains of which include a pottery scatter and stone wall foundations. Site N061 is an Early Iron Age hill-fort that is located on Jebel al-Hawrah and includes a semi-circular fortification with collapsed towers which encompasses further structures and a cistern. Remains of another fortification were also found below this hill-fort. N075 is an Early Iron Age settlement discovered in close proximity to Siba’ village, evidence from this site includes an Islamic cemetery intermingled with stone wall foundations and Early Iron Age pottery sherds. Other possible settlement remains of the period were recorded at N059 and N076. In contrast to this plethora of evidence, the survey yielded very few Early Iron Age tombs such as those located at the southwestern part of the settlement N261.

  Sites from this survey were taken from the presentation given by J. Schreiber in the Seminar for Arabian Studies held in the British Museum between 27th and 29th July 2006. A copy of the final publication was kindly given to me by the author in the following year during a similar Seminar held in the British Museum between 19th and 21st July 2007. 24

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Fig. 143: Total number of recorded sites by the Omani–German project by period and area (based on Table 32) Little evidence dating to the Late Iron Age and Hellenistic– Parthian periods was recovered. What was recorded includes pottery sherds scattered in an Islamic cemetery in the western part of Wadi Kalbuh. A number of Hellenistic– Parthian tombs were located north–west of the Early Iron Age settlement N261. Lastly, a badly disturbed mosque was built on the remains of a Late Iron Age structure. This lack of evidence might indicate a low level of settlement activity that might have lasted until the Early Islamic period. It is clear that if this is the case, then by the Middle Islamic period settlement intensified considerably and remained at a high level until modern times. These later periods are very well represented in the survey evidence and include cemeteries (e.g. N245 & N108), the remains of mosques (e.g. N247, Samad al-Kindi & N063), the remains of a Middle Islamic pottery workshop (N030) and pottery scatters within deserted fields. The aforementioned Early Iron Age hill-fort (N061) was also re-used during the Middle Islamic period. Summary of Evidence from Omani-German Project Surveys Quantification of Sites In summary, Figure 143 shows the total number of sites by period from each of the areas surveyed by this project. Ibra is the only area that yielded sites from the Late Stone Age, while all areas yielded Hafit, Umm an-Nar and Iron Age sites with Ibra yielding the highest number. Two areas out of four yielded very little Wadi Suq evidence (Ibra and al-Hamra). The Middle Islamic to recent periods are represented at all the areas surveyed, with the most being recorded at al-Hamra. The Hellenistic to Early Islamic periods are only represented in one or two areas.

Period E.S.A L.S.A Hafit U.Nar W.S I.A Hell–Parth Sas–E. Islamic M.Islamic L.Islamic– Recent Prehistoric? Islamic? Undated Total Sites

al-Hamra 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 1 (4%) 3 (10.3%) 2 (50%) 11 (20%) 1 (12.5%) 1 (100%) 5 (45.5%) 11 (50%) 2 (66.7%) 6 (27.3%) 14 (82.4%) 57

Ibra 0 (0%) 3 (100%) 11 (44%) 15 (51.7%) 2 (50%) 19 (34.5%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 2 (18.2%) 3 (13.6%) 0 (0%) 9 (40.9%) 0 (0%) 64

Izki 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 6 (24%) 4 (13.8%) 0 (0%) 12 (21.8%) 7 (87.5%) 0 (0%) 1 (9.1%) 6 (27.3%) 1 (33.3%) 2 (9.1%) 3 (17.6%) 42

Nizwa 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 7 (28%) 7 (24.1%) 0 (0%) 13 (23.6%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 3 (27.3%) 2 (9.1%) 0 (0%) 5 (22.7%) 0 (0%) 37

Total/ Period 0 (0%) 3 (100%) 25 (100%) 29 (100%) 4 (100%) 55 (100%) 8 (100%) 1 (100%) 11 (100%) 22 (100%) 3 (100%) 22 (100%) 17 (100%) 200

Table 32: Number and Percentage of sites by period Omani–German Project (% based on the total number of each period)

from each of the surveyed areas by the

It is notable that al-Hamra is the only area to have yielded evidence from all of the periods. It is necessary to combine the evidence from each of these areas in order to adequately provide a general 118

Local Area Quantifed Level of Activity

Fig. 144: Percentage of the total number of sites by period recorded by the Omani–German Project picture of the evidence recorded by the Omani–German Project, presented in Figure 144. This graphic only includes sites mentioned in the preliminary literature;25 no comprehensive site list for each survey has yet been published, only the most important sites being discussed in the reports. This makes quantification difficult and potentially misleading. For the purpose of this analysis, all identified archaeological features were defined as sites regardless of their size, function and type. Figure 144 demonstrates that all periods were represented in the surveys with the exception of the Early Stone Age.   The final version of the sites’ database was completed at the beginning of August and this chapter was completed by the end of August 2006. 25

The most numerous sites date to the pre-Islamic periods, mainly the Iron Age. The Umm an-Nar and Hafit periods yielded a large number of sites, while the Late Stone Age, Wadi Suq and Hellenistic to Early Islamic periods yielded the smallest number, less than 10% of the total. This evidence is markedly different to that yielded by the Wadi Andam Survey, in which Islamic period sites were the most numerous. This is probably because no pottery collection areas within wadi villages were carried out by the Omani–German project. Furthermore, most of the evidence for the Iron Age in the Omani-German Project surveys dated to the Early Iron Age. By contrast, in the Wadi Andam survey, most of the Iron Age material came from

Fig. 145: Total number of settlements and tombs recorded by the Omani– German Project (based on Table 33) 119

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula Period E.S.A L.S.A Hafit U.Nar W.S I.A Hell–Parth Sas–E.Islamic M.Islamic L.Islamic–Recent Prehistoric? Islamic? Undated Total/type

Settlement 0 (0%) 3 (100%) 0 (0%) 10 (34.5%) 1 (25%) 23 (39.7%) 2 (20%) 1 (100%) 10 (90.9%) 20 (83.3%) 0 (0%) 13 (59.1%) 13 (100%) 96

Tomb 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 25 (100%) 19 (65.5%) 3 (75%) 35 (60.3%) 8 (80%) 0 (0%) 1 (9.1%) 4 (16.7%) 3 (100%) 9 (40.9%) 0 (0%) 107

Total/Period 0 (0%) 3 (100%) 25 (100%) 29 (100%) 4 (100%) 58 (100%) 10 (100%) 1 (100%) 11 (100%) 24 (100%) 3 (100%) 22 (100%) 13 (100%) 203

Table 33: Number and percentages of settlements and tombs recorded by the Omani–German Project the later period, and this material was far less numerous than that dating to the Islamic periods. Among the preIslamic sites recorded by the Omani-German Project were a small number dating to the Late Stone Age, while during the Wadi Andam Survey the earliest sites found dated to the Hafit Period. However, the evidence for the Wadi Suq, Hellenistic and Sasanian/Early Islamic periods is similarly insubstantial in both surveys. Figure 145 plots sites by type and period from all of the surveyed areas. It shows that for almost all of the preIslamic periods, from Hafit to Hellenistic–Parthian, tomb sites are more common than settlement sites. By contrast, the Late Stone Age and the Sasanian–Early Islamic to Recent periods yielded a higher proportion of settlement sites to tombs. Even if the Late Stone Age and Sasanian– Early Islamic periods yielded very little evidence for settlement and no tombs at all. Moreover, the evidence from the Wadi Suq is always very limited regardless to site-type, a similar pattern to that seen during the Wadi Andam Survey. Characteristics of Settlement To understand the levels of human activity over time, Table 34 summarizes the evidence, by period, from all the areas surveyed by the Omani–German Project. The earliest evidence yielded by this project dates to the Late Stone Age, seen only at Ibra. The Ibra area yielded only three

small sites with flint tools and flakes as well as stone structures located on small hills. The Wadi Andam Survey did not yield any evidence of this period. Unsurprisingly, the Hafit period is only represented by tombs, with no settlement remains being discovered. These tombs occupy the summits, slopes and plateaus of high hills, the evidence being very similar to that from the Wadi Andam Survey. Only three of the four surveyed areas yielded evidence for Umm an-Nar settlements: Ibra, Izki and Nizwa. Nizwa yielded the largest number of sites of this period which cover the entire survey area but are densest in the southern and northern parts. These three areas yielded large circular buildings constructed with large boulders and are probably the remains of Umm an-Nar towers. They are located prominently on the banks of a wadi (Ibra) and on natural rocky outcrops (Izki and Nizwa). Evidence for other occupational structures was recovered at Izki and Nizwa on wadi terraces and flat terrain. Comparison with the data from the Wadi Andam Survey shows that none of these areas yielded a large Umm an-Nar settlement similar to CS.2.52. The layout of this site, with its tower building in the centre surrounded by a burial ground and the remains of domestic structures, is a complete contrast to the sites recorded by the Omani-German project. All the Umm anNar discovered in this survey were located on the summit, slopes or foot of low hillocks, while in Wadi Andam they are almost exclusively located on wadi terraces. The Wadi Suq period is only thinly represented in the evidence of the survey in two areas: al-Hamra and Ibra. At al-Hamra, by a single re-used Hafit cairn on a hill, and in Ibra by a number of tombs on a wadi terrace associated with pottery sherds from the period. Neither area yielded any evidence for Wadi Suq settlement. This evidence is only slightly different to that recorded during the Wadi Andam Survey which yielded evidence from tombs as well as some possible settlement material. The evidence is meagre from both types of site but significantly more was found in association with tombs. The minimal level of occupational evidence from Wadi Andam derives from the few pottery sherds retrieved from pottery collection areas (PCAs) as well as from other types of structure. With the exception of the re-used Hafit tomb at al-Hamra, Wadi Suq tombs in both projects are located on the wadi terrace. The re-use of Hafit tombs during the Wadi Suq period was not attested during the Wadi Andam Survey. The Early Iron Age is widely represented in all areas surveyed by the Omani–German Project which all yielded evidence of both settlements and tombs. Settlements are always small and are located on hill slopes. In Ibra, Izki and Nizwa, the inhabitants of the Early Iron Age re-used Umm an-Nar structures. They furthermore re-used Hafit cairns (Izki and Nizwa) and Umm an-Nar tombs (Ibra). As well as reusing older structures new settlements were established, as well as tombs. The settlements recorded by the Omani–German Project were discovered on foothills, while the Early Iron Age sites located during the Wadi Andam Survey are located, with only a few exceptions, on wadi terraces and along the wadi banks. However, in both 120

Local Area Quantifed Level of Activity surveys, the settlements that were discovered were always small in size. The practice of re-using older structures and tombs is also attested in Wadi Andam, including re-used Hafit cairns and re-occupied Umm an-Nar settlements. Each area surveyed by the Omani–German project yielded very little evidence dating to the Late Iron Age– Hellenistic–Parthian periods, indicating a possible decline in these areas. At Ibra, a settlement was located on the ridge of a high hill; at Izki another was discovered on terrain plain between the quarters of al-Yaman and alPeriod E.S.A L.S.A

al-Hamra Settlement: None Tombs: None Settlement: None Tombs: None

Nizar, while Nizwa yielded a very small number of sherds of the period on the surface of a badly disturbed structure on the western bank of Wadi Kalbuh, as well as a small number of tombs. Izki also yielded a large cemetery on the slopes of the surrounding hills which continued along the banks of the wadi. Al-Hamra yielded a single settlement, originally Early Iron Age in date, but which may have been reused in the later period. Tombs were also recorded at al-Hamra and Nizwa on low hills and wadi terraces. This Late Iron Age evidence contrasts sharply with that recovered during the Wadi Andam Survey which yielded a

Ibra Settlement: None Tombs: None Settlement: Few flint tools & structures; on small hills Tombs: None Settlement: None Tombs: on the higher hills & wadi terraces

Hafit

Settlement: None Tombs: on the surrounding hills

U.Nar

Settlement: None Tombs: few Settlement: Large circular on the wadi terraces building on a wadi edge; possible smelting site on the hills Tombs: on top of low hillocks & their foot; or directly in the wadi plain & terrace Settlement: None Tombs: Settlement: None One possible re-used Hafit Tombs: circular semitomb on a hill oval underground tombs; funerary pottery; on a wadi terrace Settlement: the earliest Settlement: two main small evidence; increase, two small sites on flat hillocks; remain settlements & possible use of older Umm an-Nar others on the hills & their structures on a hill slopes Tombs: on hills re-using Tombs: many on the hills the former Umm an-Nar tombs’ stones; new tombs on the foot or lower of hill hills & wadi terraces

W.S.

E.I.A

L.I.A- Hell- Settlement: possible one reParth used EIA Tombs: few on a hill & on wadi terrace Sas-Early Islamic

Settlement: few scattered sherds Tombs: unclear?

M. Islamic

Settlement: a small increase in the settlement activity; two main sites on hills & their slopes Tombs: unclear?

Late Islamic- Settlement: A dramatic Recent change in settlement pattern; large increase in wadi villages Tombs: unclear?

Izki Settlement: None Tombs: None Settlement: None Tombs: None

Nizwa Settlement: None Tombs: None Settlement: None Tombs: None

Settlement: None Settlement: None Tombs: Hafit & Beehive Tombs: on flat mountain ridges, tombs on low hills, their flanking small wadis slopes & wadi edges Settlement: Large boulder circular structures; on natural rocky outcrop & its slopes Tombs: on the slopes of hills & flat plateau

Settlement: several at Nizwa area with large monumental structures, perhaps fortifications, campsites, on natural low outcrops & flat areas Tombs: few at Nizwa area

Settlement: None Tombs: None

Settlement: None Tombs: None

Settlement: re-use of Umm an-Nar structures on the slopes of rocky outcrop; campsite; Tombs: large re-use of older Hafit tombs, new ones on low hillocks

Settlement: several at Nizwa area reusing the older Umm an-Nar large structures & new settlements, farmsteads, fortifications, on rocky outcrops, their slops & flat areas Tombs: Hut-tombs at Jebel Akhdar reusing Hafit-tombs on the plateau’s edges, flat ridges, flanking small wadis, & few from Nizwa area

Settlement: one on a high hill & stretches along a small ridge; Tombs: None

Settlement: one on a flat terrain. Tombs: many on hill slopes, wadi-edges

Settlement: decline, pottery scatter & one possible site Tombs: one re-used Hafit-tomb on a low hill, few at Nizwa area

Settlement: possible small one Tombs: unclear? Settlement: a small increase in the settlement activity Tombs: unclear?

Settlement: None Tombs: unclear?

Settlement: None Tombs: unclear?

Settlement: dense Wadi villages; occupations close to wadi Tombs: unclear?

Settlement: A dramatic change in settlement pattern; large increase in wadi villages Tombs: unclear?

Settlement: a small Settlement: large increase in increase in the settlement wadi villages activity Tombs: unclear? Tombs: unclear? Settlement: A dramatic change in settlement pattern; large increase in wadi villages Tombs: unclear?

Table 34: Characteristics of levels of activity, by period, from the surveyed areas by the Omani-German Project 121

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula plethora of material of this date including both settlements and tombs. Large settlements were located on the wadi terraces, close to the modern wadi villages, while smaller sites were largely located along the wadi banks, with a small number in close proximity to modern wadi villages. The location of these smaller settlements is similar to those recorded by the Omani–German survey. The evidence for the later Sasanian and Early Islamic periods is very limited, consisting only of a few scattered sherds. Only at Ibra did the survey record a possible small settlement, with a cemetery, located on a low hill. This evidence is similar to that yielded by the Wadi Andam Survey. Moreover, almost all areas showed evidence for an increase in settlement activity during the period from the Middle Islamic to recent times. This consists of a high number of densely distributed sites in and around wadi villages, a similar pattern to that seen in Wadi Andam. Conclusions Review of Survey Methodology The majority of the previous surveys that have been undertaken over the last few decades appear to have utilised a rough and unsystematic survey methodology, leading to the neglect of a number of small but important sites. Using such a methodology it is difficult to guarantee the discovery of sites belonging to the lowest level of the settlement hierarchy. A survey consistently missing small and isolated settlements could run into major problems in inter-period comparisons because these small settlements are likely to have been of varying importance in different periods. Moreover, in several cases it is difficult to establish the exact location of sites due to the unsystematic recording methodology. Previous surveys were not undertaken with the intention of providing a reliable quantified analysis, but rather to explore and locate sites of specific interest, or to answer specific research questions. The majority of surveys concentrated on locating sites under threat from development or sites of particular interest to the researchers (see Fig. 132). The only survey that made a concerted effort to record all visible archaeology irrespective of period or location was carried out by the Omani–German Project. This has created a biased picture of settlement in the published record and had made it difficult to understand relative levels of human activity over time. It also makes it impossible to accurately compare settlement patterns seen in these surveys and the Wadi Andam Survey. This is particularly apparent in the work undertaken by the Harvard and al-Hajar projects which focused on 3rd millennium BC settlement sites, and the German Mission which concentrated on the tombs of the ‘Samad period’. However, these surveys have played an important role in locating and recording important archaeological sites. A number of these surveys did not examine cultivated land within wadi villages. Their main concern was in attempting

to locate sites along the wadi banks, which were thought to be good places for settlement. Thus, the surveys were only able to locate the larger sites that are visble on ground and can easily be spoted by the surveyor. The Omani–German Project was the only project to focus on wadi villages and their environs; a similar focus to that of the Wadi Andam Survey. In avoiding areas of modern cultivation it is highly likely that important sites were missed, as the Wadi Andam Survey suggests that they have often been repeatedly occupied. A further methodological issue with the previous surveys is that they did not list what types of pottery were found on which sites, making the reassessment of ceramic evidence impossible despite the great increase in the chronological understanding of the material. In the case of the early surveys, little background knowledge was available to the researchers with no well-defined pottery sequence, this left substantial gaps in their analyses. The more recent surveys show better understanding and had a more solid chronological sequence for the Oman Peninsula. These issues have been avoided in this research. Additionally, there are problems with some of the C14 results obtained from excavated archaeological contexts, many of the results being unreliable. A number of artefactual parallels available for the finds from these sites reveal contradictions with the C14 results. Therefore, it is impossible to trust the radiocarbon dating in some of this previous research. This was the case, for instance, with the Wadi Suq to Hellenistic–Parthian tombs excavated and dated by the German Archaeological Mission . It is also clear that the previous surveys did not utilise systematic sampling, with very few providing any details of their pottery collecting methodology, the exception being the Ibra part of the Omani-German project (Schreiber 2005: 261). However, even here, because of the large quantity of pottery sherds covering the site, the project limited its collection to specific target and new types. This almost certainly created bias towards the pottery of certain periods and may have led to a skewed picture of settlement patterns over time. To be effective, sampling techniques should be systematic, taking into account different factors such as the primary objective behind the sampling and the nature of the available evidence. In the case of wadi villages in Oman, and as a result of the reoccupation of these villages over time, a careful systematic sampling technique was utilised during the Wadi Andam. To conclude, it is worth stating that, although there are problems and inconsistencies with their methodology, dating and pottery sequences, the results of these surveys have still provided important insights into settlement history. They were able to locate and record some sites and protected others, and have provided a valuable contribution to the general settlement history of the peninsula, covering previously uninvestigated areas. Despite this, their various biases have to be noted and taken into account.

122

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Fig. 146: Total number of sites recorded by each survey according to period (based on Table 35)

Period E.S.A L.S.A Hafit U.Nar W.S I.A Hell–Parth Sas–E.Islamic M.Islamic L.Islamic–Recent Prehistoric? Islamic? Undated Total/Project

Harvard 2 (20%) 2 (10%) 12 (11.7%) 21 (19.6%) 1 (0.7%) 2 (0.5%) 2 (0.7%) 1 (4.3%) 1 (2.8%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 44

British 0 (0%) 6 (30%) 14 (13.6%) 16 (15%) 2 (1.5%) 3 (0.7%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 5 (13.9%) 11 (12%) 10 (58.8%) 2 (8%) 29 (14.2%) 98

German Mission 0 (0%) 3 (15%) 33 (32%) 24 (22.4%) 126 (93.3%) 326 (80.3%) 269 (90.9%) 12 (52.2%) 4 (11.1%) 12 (13%) 3 (17.6%) 0 (0%) 119 (58.3%) 931

Al-Hajar 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 18 (17.5%) 16 (15%) 2 (1.5%) 4 (1%) 1 (0.3%) 1 (4.3%) 2 (5.6%) 2 (2.2%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 46

OmaniGerman 0 (0%) 3 (15%) 25 (24.3%) 29 (27.1%) 4 (3%) 55 (13.5%) 8 (2.7%) 1 (4.3%) 11 (30.6%) 22 (23.9%) 3 (17.6%) 22 (88%) 17 (8.3%) 200

Others 8 (80%) 6 (30%) 1 (1%) 1 (0.9%) 0 (0%) 16 (3.9%) 16 (5.4%) 8 (34.8%) 13 (36.1%) 45 (48.9%) 1 (5.9%) 1 (4%) 39 (19.1%) 155

Table 35: Total number and percentage of sites, by period, recorded by each project (% based on total numbers by period) 123

Total/ Period 10 (100%) 20 (100%) 103 (100%) 107 (100%) 135 (100%) 406 (100%) 296 (100%) 23 (100%) 36 (100%) 92 (100%) 17 (100%) 25 (100%) 204 (100%) 1,474

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula The Quantified Level of Activity Here, an attempt will be made to quantify the combined evidence from all of the surveys, to see if any general pattern emerges. Figure 146 and Table 35 show the total number of sites, by period, recorded by each project. The German Mission recorded the largest number of sites, followed by the Omani–German project. The earliest evidence recorded dates to the Stone Age, discovered at a total of 30 sites. Only the al-Hajar Project yielded no evidence from this period. The Wadi Andam Survey recorded no sites of this period, the earliest evidence dating back to the Hafit period. The Hafit period is also represented in every survey, making a total of 103 sites; the German Mission and the Omani–German project yielded the largest number. The evidence from previous research includes a considerable number of Umm an-Nar sites; the Omani–German project yielded the largest number representing 27% of the total, followed by the German Mission (22%). In all, 135 sites from the Wadi Suq period were discovered, 93% of which were recorded by the German Mission in the Samad–Maysar area, though are some concerns about the reliability of the chronology provided in this research. Barring this project, previous research has located very few sites of this period. A substantial increase in the number of sites is apparent from the Iron Age to the Parthian periods, again largely in the research of the German Mission which for a long time has recorded and excavated sites from this period. All of the previous surveys yielded a higher proportion of pre-Islamic sites to Islamic (Figure 147), representing 74% of the total. This is in stark contrast to the results of the Wadi Andam Survey which yielded a higher ratio of Islamic sites. This may be accounted for by three factors: 1 Almost all of the surveys, with the exception of the Omani–German project, concentrated on locating sites of a specific, pre-Islamic, period, creating a bias in the record. 2 The majority of these surveys did not attempt to survey inhabited areas, or areas currently under cultivation, where Islamic period material is likely to be most common. Whereas the wadi villages were thoroughly investigated during the Wadi Andam Survey. 3 The methodology applied by the Wadi Andam Survey differs to that applied in previous surveys. None of which utilised PCAs within villages. These pottery collection areas yielded a higher proportion of Islamic sherds to pre-Islamic. Figure 148 plots the total number of settlement and tomb sites by period from the combined evidence of each previous survey.26 The evidence from the Stone Age comes   For the relationship between settlements and tombs by period, see Chapter Six. 26

Fig. 147: Percentages of the total number of preIslamic, Islamic and undated sites recorded by all the survey projects (based on Table 36) Period Pre-Islamic Islamic Undated Total

Total Sites 1,094 176 204 1,474

Table 36: Total number of pre-Islamic, Islamic and undated sites recorded by all the survey projects

only from possible settlement sites. The Hafit period and the periods from the Wadi Suq to the Hellenistic–Parthian are most commonly represented tomb sites, this is a similar pattern to that seen in the Wadi Andam Survey. However, the number of Wadi Suq tombs recorded by the previous surveys is much higher than that from the Wadi Andam Survey. Approximately 93% of Wadi Suq tombs were recorded by the German Mission in the Samad–Maysar area. As with the Wadi Andam survey, little Wadi Suq settlement evidence was recovered. A large number of sites dating from the Iron Age to the Parthian period, mainly tombs, were recorded by previous surveys. Again, the German Mission yielded the largest number of these sites. Comparisons with the Wadi Andam Survey are difficult because of the necessity to merge the Early and Late Iron Age periods. However, keeping in mind the large number of sites recorded by the German Mission which is dominated by tombs from the Late Iron Age and Hellenistic–Parthian, it is possible to make a rough comparison with the Late Iron Age/Samad evidence from the Wadi Andam Survey. The Wadi Andam data suggests that this period was dominated by settlements, while evidence from the previous surveys is dominated by tombs, revealing a potentially significant difference. Lastly, the Sasanian–Early Islamic to Recent evidence is similar in both datasets in that it is dominated by settlements. Figure 149 shows the total number of settlement sites, by period, recorded by each survey project. The bias towards the recording of settlement sites of a specific period is clear. Figure 150 plots the number of tomb sites, by period, for each survey project. Again, the bias in certain periods towards the recording of tombs is very apparent. 124

Local Area Quantifed Level of Activity

Fig. 148: Total recorded number of settlement and tomb sites by period from all the previous surveys(based on Table 37) Period E.S.A L.S.A Hafit U.Nar W.S I.A Hell–Parth Sas–E.Islamic M.Islamic L.Islamic–Recent Prehistoric? Islamic? Undated Total/ Project

Settlements 10 (100%) 20 (100%) 0 (0%) 63 (54%) 4 (3%) 57 (14%) 23 (8%) 23 (96%) 31 (86%) 84 (88%) 7 (39%) 14 (58%) 79 (43%) 415

Tombs 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 103 (100%) 53 (46%) 132 (97%) 361 (86%) 279 (92%) 1 (4%) 5 (14%) 11 (12%) 11 (61%) 10 (42%) 103 (57%) 1,069

Total/Period 10 (100%) 20 (100%) 103 (100%) 116 (100%) 136 (100%) 418 (100%) 302 (100%) 24 (100%) 36 (100%) 95 (100%) 18 (100%) 24 (100%) 182 (100%) 1,484

Table 37: Total recorded number of settlement and (% based on the total number by period)

tomb sites by period from all the previous surveys

Characterisations of the Nature of Settlement- Period by Period Comparison with the Wadi Andam Survey This section will attempt to define the general settlement pattern seen in the combined dataset of the previous surveys, and this will be compared with that seen in the Wadi

Andam Survey data. It will present sites according to period and will discuss their significance, location, layout, size and type. 1- Stone Age (Earlier than 3500/3400 BC) A total of thirty Early and Late Stone Age settlement sites were recorded during these surveys, all of which yielded lithic material. A small number also yielded stone structures, including those found by the British Expedition at Bahla and the Omani–German Project at Ibra. These sites consist of lithic material associated with large boulder walls and structures dating to the Late Stone Age. Stone Age sites were situated on small hills, pebbly terraces, wadi edges or on flat terrain. No comparison with the Wadi Andam Survey can be made as no remains from this period were recovered during this research. This might be related to possibility that the Wadi Andam Survey methodology could not find the remains of this period (e.g. artefact scatter like flints) in which a different methodology needs to be used for such remains. Although a small number of flint artefacts were recovered from a small number of sites during the survey, they could not be dated to the Stone Age with any certainty. This is because the material consisted of isolated samples, few in number, and with problematic contexts. The lack of evidence dating to this period might be related to erosion in the wadi. 2- Hafit Period (ca. 3500/3400–2500 BC) Almost all of the previous surveys yielded Hafit and/or Beehive tombs, as well as no settlement remains: a similar pattern to the evidence recorded from Wadi Andam. The cairns show similar characteristics with regards to their location and shape. The Hafit cairns are always located away from wadi villages, with the exception of few examples. They are found on both high and low elevations on ridges, the summits, slopes and foots of hills, as well as

125

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 149: Percentages of the total number of settlement sites by period recorded by each main project (based on

Table 38)

Period E.S.A L.S.A Hafit U.Nar W.S. I.A Hell–Parth Sas–E.Islamic M.Islamic L.Isamic–Recent Prehistoric? Islamic? Undated Total/Team

Harvard 2 2 0 21 1 2 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 32

British 0 6 0 6 1 3 0 0 5 10 5 0 25 61

GermanMission 0 3 0 15 0 27 18 12 4 12 1 0 24 116

Al-Hajar 0 0 0 10 1 2 1 1 2 2 0 0 0 19

OmaniGerman 0 3 0 10 1 23 2 1 10 20 0 13 13 96

Others 8 6 0 1 0 0 0 8 9 40 1 1 17 91

Total /Period 10 20 0 63 4 57 23 23 31 84 7 14 79 415

Table 38: Total number of settlement sites by period recorded by each main project

Fig. 150: Percentages of the total number of tomb sites by period recorded by each main project

(% based on the total number by period) (based on Table 39)

126

Local Area Quantifed Level of Activity

Period E.S.A L.S.A Hafit U.Nar W.S. I.A Hell–Parth Sas–E.Islamic M.Islamic L.Isamic–Recent Prehistoric? Islamic? Undated Total/Team

Harvard 0 0 12 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14

British 0 0 14 11 2 2 0 0 0 2 6 1 7 45

GermanMission 0 0 33 11 126 304 255 1 0 0 2 0 95 827

al-Hajar 0 0 18 9 1 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 32

OmaniGerman 0 0 25 19 3 35 8 0 1 4 3 9 0 107

Others 0 0 1 1 0 16 16 0 4 5 0 0 1 44

Total /Period 0 0 103 53 132 361 279 1 5 11 11 10 103 1,069

Table 39: Total number of tomb sites by period recorded by each main project on the flat wadi terraces and on the plain. Beehive tombs are positioned on hills and rocky outcrops, often in close proximity to modern wadi villages or in their environs. Both the Wadi Andam Survey and the previous surveys yielded no evidence of settlements associated with these two types of tomb. However, the Wadi Andam Survey did yield some stone platforms amongst some of these tombs, which may have acted as the foundations for temporary structures. 3- Umm an-Nar Period (ca. 2500–2000 BC) Evidence from this period has been recorded during almost all of the surveys, many of the sites being discovered by the Omani–German project, and the German and Harvard missions. The settlement evidence consists of large and small sites of varying function, including fortifications, copper production/smelting sites and domestic/civic structures. A number of these structures are monumentally large, mainly the Umm an-Nar rounds towers, which are often associated with other domestic or industrial stone buildings of differing size. The Umm an-Nar settlement remains recorded by the previous surveys are located on rocky outcrops, the summits, slopes and foots of hills, as well as on wadi banks or terraces. A number of these settlements are associated with Umm an-Nar tombs, such as those at Wadi Ibra 2 and Maysar 1 (Samad 50) located by Harvard, and at Mullaq by the German Mission. Tombs of the period are situated on low hillocks and on wadi banks and terraces. Comparison with Umm an-Nar material recorded during the Wadi Andam Survey reveal similarities and differences with the previous surveys. Both yielded a considerable amount of Umm an-Nar evidence including large and small sites, with the latter outnumbering the former. However, none of the previous surveys yielded a site similar in layout to that recorded during the Wadi Andam Survey at al-Ghoryeen CS.2.52. This site yielded a large central tower surrounded by both a burial ground and a large settlement area. The al-Hajar project’s ‘oasis plan’ of Bisya encompasses large buildings without an associated Umm an-Nar burial ground; members of the

project linked these buildings with surrounding Beehive tombs, which almost certainly belong to the Hafit period. The only site that has a similar layout, on a smaller scale, is Bahla (BB19) recorded by the Harvard survey. This site yielded a large building surrounded on the western side by the remains of domestic structures and from the north and south by a number of stone cairns. The dating of these cairns is unclear, but as they are located on the surrounding hills, it is likely that they were constructed during the Hafit period. Survey in Wadi Andam did not yield any evidence of copper production. In contrast, a total of 13 copper smelting sites were recorded by the other surveys. However, future excavation of sites recorded in the Wadi Andam Survey may reveal such evidence. Regarding the location of the Umm an-Nar settlements, those recorded by the Wadi Andam Survey are usually distributed on wadi terraces, with some exceptions being found on hill summits and slopes. Larger settlements are always located in or around the modern wadi villages while the smaller ones are largely away from these villages. In contrast, settlements recorded by the previous surveys are largly located on the tops, slopes and foots of hills and on rocky outcrops. A similarity between the sites of both datasets is the distribution of the large towers on raised mounds and low outcrops. 4- Wadi Suq Period (ca. 2000–1300 BC) The previous surveys yielded only a small number of sites that produced possible evidence of Wadi Suq settlement remains. While a large number of Wadi Suq tombs were recorded, mainly by the German Mission at Samad. Tomb sites represent around 97% of the total number of Wadi Suq sites (Figure 148 and Table 37). The majority are located on wadi terraces and plains, with a few examples being discovered on the hills, including a re-used Hafit tomb at al-Hamra. The lack of settlement evidence from both datasets, and the occurrence of large numbers of tombs complicates our understanding of the levels of human activity during 127

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula this period. Although there is a general lack of settlement evidence, tombs are often located in and around modern wadi villages. There are several hypotheses for the absence of Wadi Suq settlements, one likely theory being the use of small sporadic perishable structures by a small nomadic or semi-nomadic population during this period. However, the ceramic and funerary evidence clearly indicates that there was some continuity during this time, perhaps in a different manner and intensity. 5- Iron Age (ca. 1300–300 BC) The nessecary merging of the Early and Late Iron Age into a single period has made the drawing of comparisons complicated. In order to compensate, more general comparisons will be made, with a distinction between the Early and Late Iron Age only being made when possible, particularly with sites from the Omani–German and German projects. Based on the available evidence from the sites recorded by the Omani–German Project at al-Hamara, Ibra, Izki and Nizwa, and the German Mission at Lizq and Samad, it appears that the Early Iron Age is well represented in the archaeological record of the area by both settlements and tombs. Settlements are always small in size and usually consist of the stone foundations of domestic structures, usually ranging in number between one and six. The settlements occupy the plateaus of low hills, being recorded at al-Hamra, Ibra and Nizwa by the Omani– German project, and Lizq and Samad–Maysar area by the German Mission. The term ‘Lizq Period’ was adopted by the German Mission project based on the Early Iron Age pottery assemblage found at Lizq fortress, located on the top and slope of a rocky hill (Weisgerber 1981: 226–231). Other Early Iron Age settlements are situated on wadi terraces, including the mudbrick settlement remains found by the German Mission at Maysar. A number of Early Iron Age settlements re-occupied earlier Umm an-Nar structures, including the round towers recorded by the Omani–German Project at Nizwa, and the small settlements at Izki and Ibra. However, new small settlements were also established, probably campsites and/or farmsteads, such as those at al-Hamra and Nizwa recorded by the Omani– German Project. Tombs were also discovered in a variety of terrains. They are located on and around low hillocks as well as on the plateaus of ridges and small wadi terraces. Some of these were constructed during the Early Iron Age and several re-used Hafit tombs (Izki and Jebel Akhdar at Nizwa) and Umm an-Nar tombs (Ibra). The Ibra area yielded a settlement with structures and tombs which re-used the stones from nearby Umm an-Nar domestic and funerary structures. Comparison between the Wadi Andam Survey and the previous surveys shows that the size of the settlements is similar with a few small, sporadic structures being found associated with Early Iron Age pottery sherds.

The location of these settlements is slightly different: the majority of Early Iron Age settlements from Wadi Andam are located on wadi terraces, rather than on elevated ground. Comparison also reveals that the Wadi Andam Survey recorded a large number of tombs on hills, mostly re-used Hafit tombs. The evidence from Wadi Andam suggests that the environs of wadi villages are more likely to be inhabited during the Early Iron Age than the wadi villages themselves; this is a similar pattern to that seen in the previous surveys. The practice of re-using earlier settlements and tombs during the Early Iron Age is also attested during the Wadi Andam Survey where the majority of Early Iron Age settlements have produced evidence from earlier periods, especially from the Umm an-Nar period. It is possible that the sites were reoccupied by Early Iron Agers ocassionally and temporalily. This was also observed in the Early Iron Age settlements at Izki, Ibra and Nizwa. Both datasets also suggest that new settlements were established during this period. Hafit cairns were also re-used during the Early Iron Age, with many producing a high level of Early Iron Age material in the Wadi Andam Survey and in previous surveys of Izki and Nizwa. An Umm an-Nar tomb was also re-used during this period at Ibra, something also seen in Wadi Andam at site CS.2.52 where a large number of Iron Age tombs were built, re-using the stones from Umm anNar tombs. These tombs produced a number of Early Iron Age sherds. With regards to the Late Iron Age, this period is evidenced mostly in previous surveys by the German Expedition, which concentrated mainly on the period between the Late Iron Age and the ‘Samad’.27 Most of the archaeology surveyed and excavated by this project was in the Samad/ Maysar area where tombs and settlements have been found on the flat wadi plains close to modern villages. Several of these tombs yielded evidence from earlier periods, such as the Wadi Suq, indicating that they might have been reused. Other tombs from this period were recorded by the Omani–German Project with a number of Late Iron Age tombs being recorded in varying terrain in almost all of the survey areas. They were found on low elevations, on flat terrain and the banks of wadis, and include different types including the standard Late Iron Age–Samad tombs with underground cists, and large rectangular structures with a double-face foundation wall of large undressed rocks of the so-called ‘Izki-type’. At al-Hamra the survey yielded one cairn and a few subterranean tombs, while at Jebel Akhdar the Late Iron Age is represented by the practice of secondary burial within one of the disturbed Hafit-tombs above Saiq. Relatively little settlement evidence, in comparison with the plethora of tombs, was located by the previous surveys. Those that were found are similarly small in size but have various functions. Late Iron Age/Samad   The length of this period has been criticized by many people (see Samad Period in Chapter Three). 27

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Local Area Quantifed Level of Activity period settlements, and fortified sites, were located by the German Mission at a number of sites at Wadi Samad, Wadi Andam, Izki and al-Mudhaybi. They are small in size with fortifications and/or evidence for copper production, and are situated on hills and wadi terraces. A number of other settlements of the period were also located by the Omani– German Project at Ibra and Izki, and possibly Nizwa. Each of these areas yielded only one settlement, on a tall hill along a small ridge at Ibra and on a flat area at Izki. Late Iron Age settlement evidence, from each of the previous surveys is only thinly represented, with tombs dominating the matieral of the period. Settlements are few and small but show variety in their function. The layout of these settlements may not meaningfully be compared because of both their diminuitive size, and lack of description in the literature. Tombs are distributed on the low lying wadi banks and terraces and are often close to modern wadi villages. They also offer proof of the practice of reusing earlier tombs, such as those excavated by the German Mission at Samad, and by the Omani–German project at Jebel Akhdar. 6- Hellenistic–Parthian Periods (ca.300 BC–200 AD) The evidence from this period also comes mostly from the reports of the German Mission. Almost all of the Late Iron Age sites recorded by this project yielded evidence dating to the Hellenistic–Parthian period, which is, again, largely represented by its tombs. Similar funerary structures were located by the Omani–German project at al-Hamra, Izki and Nizwa. These tombs are located on flat wadi terraces and on the plain close to modern villages, on which they are sometimes intermingled with the remains of later Islamic cemeteries, as at Izki. Some of these tombs re-used Wadi Suq and Iron Age tombs, as was evidenced by the German Mission excavations in the Samad–Maysar area. In contrast, few settlements of the period have been located. The population of the period appear to continue using the small Late Iron Age settlements and fortifications. In contrast, the Wadi Andam Survey yielded an abundance of Late Iron/Samad (Hellenistic–Parthian) evidence of both settlements and tombs. Unlike the current research that yielded both large and small settlements of the period, the previous surveys yielded only a few small settlements. The location of the large settlements recorded during the Wadi Andam Survey is in or around modern villages. In contrast, the majority of smaller sites are located away from modern villages. Despite the size of the settlements, they are found on similar varying terrain in both datasets, on high and low elevations: hill summits and slopes, and wadi banks and terraces. Both datasets include a high number of Hellenistic–Parthian tombs. Their distribution is similar in both, being located on low elevations on wadi edges and terraces and often close to modern wadi villages. Tombs recorded in the previous surveys demonstrated the practice of re-using earlier tombs, such as those excavated by the German Mis-

sion at Samad which yielded finds ranging in date from the Wadi Suq to the Hellenistic–Parthian periods. This practice was also attested at Jebel Akhdar in which one of the disturbed Hafit-tombs above Saiq was re-used during the Hellenistic Parthian period. This practice may also be attested in Wadi Andam with a number of the recorded Hafit cairns at site CS.2.69 yielding several Late Iron Age/ Samad pottery sherds. This practice may also be observed at site CS.2.52 which partially consists of a large number of Late Iron Age/Samad tombs constructed over Umm anNar tombs, re-using some of their stones. 7- Sasanian–Early Islamic Periods (200–900/1000 AD) Evidence from the previous surveys dating to the Sasanian– Early Islamic period is only represented by a small number of scattered pottery sherds. The Harvard Survey yielded a single site with settlement remains at Bahla (BB15), a small tell constructed on a low rocky outcrop which produced possible Early Islamic sherds. Another possible settlement of this period was recorded by the Omani– German Project at Ibra, overloking Wadi Garbi. Only a small number of sites recorded by other surveys dated to this period including four settlement and fortified sites and one mining site in the al-Mudhaybi area. These are small sites located on hills or wadi terraces. Comparison with material from Wadi Andam is fitting with the evidence from the previous surveys of the Sasanian–Early Islamic periods being very limited. The difficulty in distiniguishing early Islamic tombs from those constructed later is highly problematic, given the nature of Muslim burial, and means that graves may not be used with any certainty to evaluate the level of activity in any Islamic period. Moreover, the material of this period was not wellunderstood by the researchers at the time that they conducted the surveys. The continuing lack of evidence from this period might indicate that there was a decline in the level of activity during this period. Kennet (2007: 86) suggests that there was a decline in the number and size of settlements and tombs, which might be attributed to a decline in population. 8- Middle Islamic Period (900/1000–1300 AD) The Omani–German Project is the only survey that yielded a substantial evidence of the Islamic periods. All of the areas surveyed by this project yielded evidence from the period, mainly in and around the modern wadi villages. The evidence from al-Hamra demonstrates a small increase in settlement activity during this period. Several sites yielded underglazed sgraffiato sherds, and two main settlements were located on nearby hills. The survey of Ibra revealed a shift in settlement towards the oasis area of modern inhabitation during the period. Again, these sites are in or around wadi villages, and the remains include fortifications and watchtowers. At Izki, the Middle Islamic period is evidenced by watchtowers, house ruins, walls and cemeteries as well as the main oasis. The survey of Jebel Akhdar yielded the remains of a possible campsite, while

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Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula at Nizwa considerable evidence, including settlements and a potter’s workshop, was recorded. The combination of this evidence suggests an increase in settlement activity during the Middle Islamic period, and a shift in settlement towards the modern wadi villages. Several Islamic cemeteries were located during the surveys, but dating them precisely is problematic. Evidence from the Middle Islamic period was also recorded by other projects. The Harvard survey discovered the site of Bahla BB15, a small tell constructed on a low rocky outcrop with occupational evidence dating to the 13th–14th centuries AD. The British Expedition recorded five settlement and tombs sites at al-Qabil (Niba’ 1 and 2), al-Hamra (Husn Khor Site 31) and Nizwa (Salut, Site 38), all of which were found on hills. Furthermore, the alHajar Project discovered two possible sites in Bahla, while the German Mission recorded four copper mine sites at Khadra Bani Daffa’, Maysar M16 and M49 and Washihi. There are other sites recorded by numerous other projects in a number of areas but not enough information was provided in the literature.

The Late Islamic is also well represented in the results of the British Expedition survey, which recorded eleven sites of the period. One settlement, possibly two, was recorded at al-Mudhaybi; these yielded occupational remains associated with an Islamic cemetery. Five settlements were recorded at Nizwa, some with and others without associated cemeteries. Walled structures were also recorded at Firq, Rawdah and al-Jinah. Finally, three settlements and two cemeteries were located at Izki, as well as one settlement at al-Qabil (An Niba’ 2). The settlements located by this project are small and are located on hills, low slopes and flat wadi terraces. A number of Late Islamic sites were recorded by the German Mission at al-Mudhaybi including abandoned villages, copper mining and processing sites and fortified structures. Lastly, other sites of varying function were recorded by other projects in areas including al-Mudayrib, Nizwa and Bahla. Several of these sites continued in use until recent times with many mudbrick quarters being inhabited until the late 1980s.

To sum up, the evidence from previous surveys indicates a slight increase in settlement activity in the period, in which older settlements were reoccupied and new small settlements were established on low hills in addition to larger ones on wadi terraces at the site of modern wadi villages. This pattern is identical to that seen during the Wadi Andam Survey.

To conclude, the evidence from previous surveys indicates a substantial increase in the intensity of settlement activity during the Late Islamic period to recent times, in which new settlements were established and earlier settlements, some dating back to the Umm an-Nar period, were reoccupied and extended. These settlements are associated with extensive use of falaj irrigation as well as fortifications. This evidence matches the account from the Wadi Andam Survey in which a large number of ancient sites were intensively reoccupied and expanded.

9- Late Islamic–Recent Times (1300 AD onwards)

Conclusion

The majority of Late Islamic sites were recorded by the Omani–German Project, with all of the surveyed areas yielding a substantial amount of archaeology of the period. The evidence from al-Hamra suggests that the region witnessed a dramatic change in settlement during this period. A substantial increase in the number and size of wadi villages is apparent. The evidence from Ibra demonstrates that settlement shifted towards the areas of current cultivation, modern villages always encompassing watchtowers, agricultural installations and house ruins from the period. A similar pattern is visible in Izki and Nizwa. While evidence from the period includes the remains of a possible campsite with an Islamic cemetery from Jebel Akhdar.

This chapter has attempted to evaluate and review the literature reporting previous fieldwork carried out within the defined local area of Wadi Andam. None of the surveys reviewed here have attempted to quantify settlement, and all present problems in attempting to apply such an approach to their data. The review provides a wider archaeological framework and comparative material for the Wadi Andam Survey. An attempt has been made to evaluate the evidence recorded by previous surveys, and to review their methodologies. It has clearly shown that these surveys are, more often than not, biased towards specific periods or types of site. This bias has complicated quantification and the comparison of levels of human activity. It has also demonstrated the need for a systematic methodology in survey, such as that utilised in this research.

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CHAPTER SIX QUANTIFIED REGIONAL AND SUB-REGIONAL ACTIVITY Aims of Analysis The aim of this research is the collection of data for a quantified analysis to define the varying levels of human activity in the region over time. Thus, one of the research aims was to create a regional database of sites from the published literature of research carried out in the northern Oman Peninsula (Levels 1–2). The reason for reviewing the literature on such a broad level is to provide a wider context and a comparative framework for the Wadi Andam Survey. The ‘regional database’ created includes 4,520 sites, recorded by 86 different archaeological projects. For this reason it is not possible to evaluate the survey methodology for each piece of research. The main aim being to define the general picture of the available evidence within the northern Oman Peninsula and make comparisons with the current research. An attempt will be made to define the general trends of settlement history apparent from the published archaeological evidence of the northern Oman Peninsula, through its quantification based on the ‘regional database’. Firstly, the geographical extent of the area under study (Regional Area) and the sub-regions will be defined. It will also outline the structure of the database and describe and review the data and its reliability. Patterns apparent in the evidence will be examined through quantifying the number of recorded sites by period, which will provide a crude but useful insight into human activity over time across the whole region. This will be followed by an analysis at the sub-regional level, to evaluate the reliability of the data and to investigate localised differences across the region. Some consideration will be given to the density of sites in each sub-region. Finally, the evidence will be broken down into types of site by period at the sub-regional level. This approach will allow inter-sub-regional comparisons to be made as well as comparisons between the subregions and the peninsula as a whole. This will allow the reliability of the evidence to be evaluated. A summary discussion of the general and regional evidence will then be presented, followed finally by a discussion of reliability of the previous projects. None of the survey projects carried out in the northern Oman Peninsula have attempted to quantify sites or settlement activity. In addition, many of these surveys presented their data in a way that made it difficult to quantify. These surveys did not set out to provide a reliable quantified picture, but rather to explore and locate sites of specific interest, or to deal with defined research questions or aims. This has resulted in a biased picture

and a misrepresentation of the actual levels of activity. Consequently, it is impossible to rely on the results of these surveys in quantifying settlement activity over time. It should also be noted that there are problems with dating in some of the periods (e.g. Late Iron Age to Sasanian– Early Islamic). In addition, there is reason to suspect the accuracy of some of the radiocarbon dates in the literature. Thus, some of the published evidence regarding these periods is questionable and unreliable, and prevents a precise understanding of the varying levels of activity within the northern Oman Peninsula over time. The only way to substantiate the data is to carry out a systematic survey and revisit every site within the database. However, this is impossible for the following reasons: 1 This is a long-term project that would extend for several years. 2 It is a team project that requires a group of trained people. 3 Several of these sites have been destroyed. 4 Several of these sites cannot be located due to the recording methodologies used by the previous surveys. 5 This work would require funding. These problems of reliability raise the question of whether this evidence may be taken as representative of settlement trends at all. Ultimately it was decided that the analysis would be attempted in order to establish what patterns would come to light, but that this would be undertaken while bearing in mind the many flaws in the data. As indicated earlier, no quantified study has yet been attempted on such a scale.28 At the very least the analysis will serve to characterise the data that is presently available. Geographical Extent The geographical extent of the area under study consists of the northern Oman Peninsula, sub-divided into six major sub-regions. These have already been described in Chapter Two, but are also presented again here (Table 40, Fig. 151). It was difficult to assign a number of sites to a sub-region due to a lack of information in the literature,

  Apart from a database (NADO-2004) created by my colleague M. Al-Belushi as part of his PhD thesis submitted to the University of Birmingham in 2004. However, this database was created to serve different aims to the database created for the analysis in this chapter. The aim of NADO-2004 was to evaluate and suggest policies about the heritage management in Oman, and it only includes archaeological sites from the Sultanate of Oman, both the northern and southern parts. The latter part is not included in the present study area. 28

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Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula thus making necessary the creation of an “Unknown” subregion category. No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Total Area

Main Sub-Region Musandam and Northern Emirates Abu-Dhabi Coast The Hajar Mountains The Batinah Coast The Eastern Coast Central Oman Unknown sub-Region

Database Code MNE ABDC HM BTNC ESC CNO UNKNOWN

Area/km2 51,213 13,968 133,434 36,698 33,310 12,564 0 281,187

Table 40: Six defined sub-regions and their total area within the northern Oman Peninsula

Methodology and Database Structure Sites are characterised by data including toponym, location and coordinates, survey project, chronology, type of site, recorded date, geographical zone, type of work carried out by the survey project and the reference of the source of this information. The ‘regional database’ was created and analysed using Microsoft Access 2003. A number of graphs and tables were drawn to illustrate the major trends apparent in the collected evidence. Although the structure of the database has been sufficient in achieving the main aims of this study, it is far from complete. The aims of the database are to define the general picture of settlement over time within the northern Oman Peninsula, to compare it with the research in Wadi Andam, and ultimately to define levels and patterns of activity over time and aid in the interpretation of these emerging trends.

Fig. 151: Defined sub-regions for the purpose of the ‘regional database’ analysis 132

Quantified Regional and Sub-Regional Activty Sites were recorded by examining most of the available literature for the required data (e.g. site’s name, location, date, type, etc.). In Chapter Five (see site identification and definition), there was a brief explanation of how sites were identified and defined, however more details will be noted here. It is possible that some sites in the literature were missed here because either they are not published by their survey projects or, for various reasons, I was unaware of such sites. Moreover, other sites were perhps published after this chapter was written.29

Fig. 152: Relationship between the three tables within the ‘regional database’

Field Name Site No Site Name Location Lat/Long or GPS Survey Project Early Stone Age

Data Type AutoNumber Text Text Text Text Text

Late Stone Age 4th-3rd Mill

Text Text

Hafit Period Umm an-Nar Wadi Suq/LBA Iron Age Hell-Parth Prehistoric?

Text Text Text Text Text Text

Sas-E Islam M Islam L Islam/Recent Islamic? Undated Recorded Date Type of Site Reference 1 Reference 2 Type of work Zone Notes Quantity

Text Text Text Text Text Text Text Text Text Text Text Text Number

In order to organise the relational database information, three tables were created (Fig. 152, Tables 41–47): the Site table, Location table and Survey Project table. The first (Tables 41–43) covers the characteristics of each site, including its number; name(s); location; latitude/longitude; the survey project(s); and chronology. Each record includes data regarding the type of site, or the archaeological features found within the site (e.g. settlement, tomb, midden/ scatter, fortification, industrial place, rock art, religious place, harbour/port, earthwork, cave/rock shelter) (Table 42). Each period of a site might cover multiple types or   The final version of this chapter was finished in February 2007. Therefore, any sites noted after this date are not included in the analysis. 29

Description Computer-generated number of the site within the current database Name and encoding of the site as it was called by the survey project Area where the site was found (e.g. Sohar) Map reference or GPS coordinates that show the exact location of the site Name of the survey project/team who carried out survey, excavation or both at the site Includes all types of archaeological sites/features dated to the period earlier than 7,000 BC Includes all types of archaeological sites/features dated to around 7000-3500/3400 BC This field was created for all types of archaeological sites/features recorded, mainly, by the Joint Hadd Project and dated to a broad timescale that includes three periods within the current database (e.g. Late Stone Age, Hafit, Umm an-Nar) Includes all types of archaeological sites/features dated to around 3500/3400-2500 BC Includes all types of archaeological sites/features dated to around 2,500-2,000 BC Includes all types of archaeological sites/features dated to around 2000-1300 BC Includes all types of archaeological sites/features dated to around 1300-300 BC Includes all types of archaeological sites/features dated to around 300 BC-200 AD Includes all types of archaeological sites/features that are possibly of prehistoric and preIslamic date Includes all types of archaeological sites/features dated to around 100/200-900/1000 AD Includes all types of archaeological sites/features dated to around 900/1000-1300 AD Includes all types of archaeological sites/features dated to around 1,300 AD onwards Includes all types of archaeological sites/features that are possibly of Islamic date Includes all recorded but undated types of archaeological sites/features Date when the sites was found for the first time Description of the site and its components General reference where the site was mentioned Reference and exact pages where the site was mentioned Survey, excavation or both Inland, coastal or unknown Any notes about the site such as other names of the site given by other survey projects This field was given number 1 in order to quantify sites

Table 41: Physical structure of the Site table as it appears in its ‘Design View’ 133

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula Database Code S

Type of site Settlement Tomb/Cemetery Midden/Scatter Fortification

T M F I

Industrial Place

R

Rock Art Religious Place

G

Earthwork

E

Cave/Rock Shelter

C

Harbour/Port Unidentified feature

H U

Description Any site includes occupational structures (e.g. campsite, village, house, etc.) or is thought to have been occupied Includes both individual tombs or cemetery Any scatter of artefacts such as pottery, flints, lithics, stones, etc. Any fortified structure such as forts, towers, fortified walls and houses, etc. Any site with evidence of industrial activities such as mining process, flint or pottery workshops, etc. Any site that includes drawings and inscriptions made by man on rocks (e.g. painted, engraved, in relief, etc.) Any site that includes mosque, prayer area, church, monastery, cathedral or any other religious feature Includes any feature resulted from human changes or modifications of the ground surface such as traces of earth-moving activities (clearance mounds, well-sections and land-soil movements), traces of fields or gardens and their installations such as irrigation systems, etc. Any cave or natural rock-shelter that might be used by man for occupation or any other type of activity Any site used as harbour or port Any feature of unknown or undefined function/nature

Table 42: Types of sites recorded within the ‘regional database’ with their codes and description Field Name Site No Site Name Location Lat/Long or GPS Survey Project Early Stone Age Late Stone Age 4th-3rd Mill Hafit Period Umm an-Nar Wadi Suq/LBA Iron Age Hell-Parth Prehistoric? Sas-E Islam M Islam L Islam/Recent Islamic? Undated Recorded Date Type of Site Reference 1 Reference 2 Type of work Zone Notes Quantity

Description 387 Amlah (Site 41, 4) Ibri/Al-Dhahira NF 40-029 (DA 898599/DA 905604) British Archaeological Expedition (de Cardi)

SF

1974-1975 Umm an-Nar settlement of walled structure and circular enclosure de Cardi, B. Collier, S. & Doe, D. B. (1976), pp: 101-187 de Cardi, B. Collier, S. & Doe, D. B. (1976), pp: 111-114, 138, 166 Survey + Excavation Inland 1

Table 43: Example of a recorded site within the Site table features (e.g. settlement and tombs). The Site table also includes the date of discovery; a description of the site and its contents; and an indication of where the site was published using two fields: ‘Reference 1’, for the general site reference, and ‘Reference 2’, providing the exact page

where the site is mentioned. It also specifies the type of work carried out at the site (survey, excavation or both); whether it is inland or coastal; as well as other notes of importance.

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Quantified Regional and Sub-Regional Activty

Fig. 153: Total percentage of sites recorded in the whole ‘regional database’ by period

Field Name Location

Data Type Text

SubRegion

Text

Quantity

Number

Description Area where the site was found (e.g. Sohar) The sub-region where the site is located (e.g. Hajar Mountains) within the whole region of northern Oman Peninsula. Total number of sites recorded within specific area

Table 44: Physical structure of the Location table as it appears in its ‘Design View’ Field Name Location Sub-Region Quantity

Description As Suwaiq/Al-Batinah BTNC 34

Table 45: Example of a recorded site within the Location table Field Name Data Type Description Survey Text Survey project that recorded the Project site Quantity Number Total number of sites recorded by the project

Table 46: Physical structure of the Survey Project table as it appears in its ‘Design View’

Field Name Survey Project Quantity

Description British Archaeological Expedition (de Cardi) 501

Table 47: Example of a recorded site within the Survey Project table Quantification of Sites A total of 4,520 sites from the literature were recorded in the database, representing all periods and types of archaeological feature. The earliest dates to the Early Stone Age and the latest to recent times. Graphs and tables were created using this data with the intention of revealing any major trends. General Regional Levels of Activity Figure 153 plots the total number of sites by period. The largest number of sites date to the Late Islamic–Recent period followed respectively by undated, Iron Age and Umm an-Nar sites.30 This is a similar pattern to that seen in the Wadi Andam Survey data. However, the large number of undated sites is surprising. Although the Late Islamic– Recent period yielded the largest number of sites of any single period, pre-Islamic sites are more common than those dating to the entire Islamic period, a scenario which differs to the results from the Wadi Andam Survey. Figure 154 demonstrates that pre-Islamic sites represent almost half of the total number (52%). This is most likely due to the fact that more attention has been paid to them by   It is expected that any period which extends for long period of time (e.g. 1000 years) might potentially produce more tombs/settlements than a short period (e.g. 100 years). At the same time sites in some periods might be re-used, which complicates this issue 30

135

.

The Location table (Tables 44–45) consists of three fields: location, sub-region, and quantity of sites within each location/area. The ‘Survey project table’ (Tables 46–47) consists of two fields; one for the name of the survey project and another totaling the sites recorded by the project.

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula archaeologists, there being a bias in a number of projects towards the recording, for instance, of 3rd millennium BC sites and Iron Age–Samad sites. The large number of Islamic sites recorded during the Wadi Andam Survey is an effect of greater attention being paid to the investigation of modern wadi villages, which previously had not been subjected to such intensive survey. Recent periods are more likely to be represented in this setting.

Fig. 154: Pie chart (based on Table 48) showing

percentages of the total number of pre-Islamic, Islamic and undated sites

Period Pre-Islamic Islamic Undated Total*

Total Sites 3,188 1,937 978 6,105

Table 48: Total number of pre-Islamic, Islamic and undated sites

* It is important to clarify here that the total number of sites recorded within the database is 4,520, however the total number of sites (6,105) is higher because each of the 4,520 recorded sites might present the remains of different periods (e.g. pre-Islamic and Islamic). Thus, when counting sites by period, each site might be counted more than once (e.g. Site no. 1550 ‘Maqsad’ is a copper mine dated to the Iron Age and Middle and Late Islamic periods so it was counted three times as an Iron Age site, a Middle Islamic site and a Late Islamic site).

The reason behind the large number of undated sites is unclear, but this might be due to the doubtful reliability of the methodology of the surveys that were carried out within

the area under study. Figure 155 illustrates that the most numerous type of undated site is the tomb, representing around 23% of the total number. Many of these sites were recorded by the German Mission (44%), and the British Expedition (27%). All of the tombs recorded by the former project are located in the al-Mudhaybi area of the Hajar Mountains sub-region and the majority of tombs recorded by the latter are located in Ra’s al-Khaimah in the Musandam and Northern Emirates sub-region. They could not be dated because of their bad state of preservation, because they did not yield any datable evidence, or because the ceramic chronology at the time was not sufficiently advanced. Figure 155 also demonstrates that settlements make up 17% of undated sites, many of which several were recorded by the Omani–German Project (43%) and the British Expedition (32%). Several of these settlements consist of structural ruins either without any datable finds, or with artefacts that could not be dated accurately at the time. Other undated sites include earthworks (especially agricultural structures, and irrigation and falaj systems), middens and rock art sites, both of which are difficult to date. Figure 153 shows that the least represented of the preIslamic periods is the Early Stone Age. The remains of the sites of this period are difficult to find and are likely to have been subject to significant drift and erosion over the millennia, it is also likely to relate to the small population during this period. It was unexpected that the Sasanian–Early Islamic periods yielded more sites than the Middle Islamic period, in complete contrast to the evidence recorded during the Wadi Andam Survey. In the latter project this period yielded the lowest number of sites from both the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods. The large number of sites in the former might be related to the fact that the chronology and ceramic assemblage of this was not well understood when these surveys were carried out.

Fig. 155: Percentage of undated different types of sites recorded on the database 136

Quantified Regional and Sub-Regional Activty Period Wadi Andam Trends E.S.A No evidence L.S.A No evidence Hafit Tombs, no settlement U.Nar Abundant evidence W.S Very little evidence I.A (W.Andam EIA) Reasonable evidence, mostly from tombs Hell-Parth (W.Andam LIA/ Samd) Abundant evidence Sas-E.Islamic Almost absent M.Islamic Abundant evidence L.Islamic-Recent Abundant evidence

Regional Trends Little evidence Abundant evidence, mostly settlements Abundant evidence, mostly tombs Abundant evidence Abundant evidence, mostly tombs Abundant evidence Abundant evidence Abundant evidence Abundant evidence Abundant evidence

Table 49 Comparison of trends between the Wadi Andam Survey and the wider regional area (see discussion of regional trends below) Furthermore, several of the radiocarbon dates from these sites have subsequently proved to be incorrect. Comparison between the Wadi Andam Survey and the ‘regional database’ (Table 49) reveals a further difference in that the Wadi Andam Survey did not yield any evidence earlier than the Hafit period. While it yielded more evidence dating to the Hafit than the Wadi Suq period, completely contradicting the findings apparent from the ‘regional database’. The general pattern apparent from Figure 153 suggests variation in the level of human activity within the northern Oman Peninsula over time. The data suggests a gradual increase from the Early Stone Age to the Umm an-Nar period, and fluctuations between the Umm an-Nar and the Iron Age which shows the highest level of activity of the pre-Islamic periods. After an increase in intensity during the Umm an-Nar, there was a decline in the number of recorded sites during the Wadi Suq period, followed by large growth during the Iron Age. After the Iron Age there appears to have been a gradual decline until the Middle Islamic period, followed by dramatic growth during the Late Islamic–Recent period. The last representing the highest level of activity in any period. The category of ‘4th-3rd millennium BC’ was added due to the large number of sites, mainly shell-and/orflint middens, recorded by the Joint Hadd Project, in the Eastern Coast sub-region, which were dated to this period. This general pattern for the whole of the northern Oman Peninsula presents some important questions. Is this pattern likely to reflect reality or it is completely biased by the nature of the evidence? Is this pattern the same for all parts of the region, or are local variations discernible?

the location of archaeological sites, their density and the environmental conditions in which they are located, and hopefully therefore, to explain trends of growth or decline in the number of recorded sites within each sub-region. Because survey area coverage was not provided in the majority of reports, it was not possible to examine site density, which would have provided a clearer idea of the intensity of activity across different periods. Tables 50–51 and Figure 156 give a clear idea of the level of activity over time for each sub-region. Again, the Early Stone Age is the least represented period, with less than 2% of sites in each sub-regions. There is a slight increase in the number of sites in the Late Stone Age. The highest proportion being yielded by the Abu-Dhabi Coast (11%) followed by the Eastern Coast (6%). This intensity in the Abu-Dhabi Coast subregion is likely the result of the intensive work carried out by the Abu-Dhabi Islands Archaeological Survey (ADIAS), recording around 94% of the total Late Stone Age sites found within this sub-region.31 The similarly high percentage of sites dating to this period on the Eastern Coast may be attributed to the intensive work carried out by the Joint Hadd Project,32 which recorded 75% of the total sites of this period in this sub-region. These subregions consist of long coastal strips, which provided rich marine resources that were exploited by the population of this period. These two sub-regions may have supported a much larger Stone Age population than other areas. This is evidenced by the large number of midden sites (see also Table 55 below) along the coastal strips, such as at Ras al-Hadd (e.g. Biagi 1985; 1988a-b; Reade 1990; Cleuziou & Tosi 1996; Cleuziou & Steimer 1998; Usai 2000), Ras al-Jinz (e.g. Cleuziou & Tosi 1990b, 1994 & 2000;   Late Stone Age sites in this region recorded by this project can be found in different publications: see King & Tonghini 1998; King 1998 & 2001; Beech 1998 & 2002; Hellyer 2000 & 2002b; Beech, Elders & Shepherd 2000; Hellyer & Hull 2002; Beech, Kallweit & Hellyer 2004; Kallweit 2004; Kallweit, Beech & al-Tikriti 2005; Beech et al. 2006). 32   Late Stone Age sites in this region recorded by this project can be found in different publications: see Biagi 1985, 1988b & 2004; Biagi et al. 1984; Durante & Tosi 1977; Cleuziou & Tosi 1990a-b, 1994, 2000; Cleuziou & Steimer 1998; Méry & Charpentier 2002; Monti & Usai 1998; Tosi & Usai 2003; Gaultier et al. 2005). 31

Sub-Regional Levels of Activity The northern Oman Peninsula was delineated into six sub-regions. The aim being to look at the overall number of recorded sites within each sub-region. This will aid in augmenting the understanding of the relationship between

137

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Period E.S.A L.S.A 4th–3rd Mill Hafit U.Nar W.S I.A Hell–Parth Sas–E.Islamic M.Islamic L.Islamic–Recent Prehistoric? Islamic? Undated Total/Sub-Region

AbuDhabi 0 (0%) 52 (10.4%) 0 (0%) 5 (1.0%) 79 (15.7%) 13 (2.6%) 17 (3.4%) 18 (3.6%) 47 (9.4%) 11 (2.2%) 172 (34.3%) 20 (4.0%) 29 (5.8%) 39 (7.8%) 502 (100%)

Batinah 0 (0%) 4 (0.5%) 0 (0%) 12 (1.6%) 32 (4.2%) 40 (5.3%) 21 (2.8%) 14 (1.8%) 62 (8.2%) 72 (9.5%) 207 (27.2%) 26 (3.4%) 112 (14.7%) 158 (20.8%) 760 (100%)

Central Oman 4 (1.2%) 13 (4.0%) 0 (0%) 35 (10.8%) 96 (29.6%) 7 (2.2%) 27 (8.3%) 12 (3.7%) 10 (3.1%) 5 (1.5%) 19 (5.9%) 62 (19.1%) 0 (0%) 34 (10.5%) 324 (100%)

Eastern Coast 7 (0.7%) 60 (6.2%) 82 (8.4%) 75 (7.7%) 126 (12.9%) 41 (4.2%) 144 (14.8%) 57 (5.9%) 14 (1.4%) 15 (1.5%) 114 (11.7%) 52 (5.3%) 24 (2.5%) 163 (16.7%) 974 (100%)

Hajar Mountains 9 (0.4%) 16 (0.8%) 0 (0%) 174 (8.4%) 149 (7.2%) 153 (7.3%) 471 (22.6%) 316 (15.2%) 48 (2.3%) 60 (2.9%) 162 (7.8%) 85 (4.1%) 57 (2.7%) 382 (18.3%) 2084 (100%)

Musandam & N.Emirates Unknown 1 1 (0.1%) (0.6%) 65 1 (5.0%) (0.6%) 0 11 (0%) (7.0%) 36 4 (2.8%) (2.5%) 81 1 (6.2%) (0.6%) 149 3 (11.4%) (1.9%) 115 10 (8.8%) (6.3%) 71 0 (5.4%) (0%) 116 30 (8.9%) (19.0%) 50 31 (3.8%) (19.6%) 426 33 (32.7%) (20.9%) 13 0 (1%) (0%) 8 3 (0.65%) (1.9%) 172 30 (13.2%) (19%) 1303 158 (100%) (100%)

Table 50: Total number and percentage of sites by period and sub-region (percentages are of the total number of sites within each sub-region) Period Late Stone Age to Hafit Hafit to Umm an-Nar Umm an-Nar to Wadi Suq Wadi Suq to Iron Age Iron Age to Hellenistic–Parthian Hellenistic–Parthian to Sasanian–Early Islamic Sasanian–Early Islamic to Middle Islamic Middle Islamic to Late Islamic–Recent

AbuDhabi

Batinah Stable Stable Stable Decline Stable Growth

Central Oman Growth Growth Decline Growth Decline Stable

Eastern Coast Stable Growth Decline Growth Decline Decline

Hajar Mountains Growth Stable Stable Growth Decline Decline

Musandam & N.Emirates Decline Growth Growth Decline Decline Growth

Decline Growth Decline Stable Stable Growth Decline Growth

Stable Growth

Stable Growth

Stable Growth

Stable Growth

Decline Growth

Table 51: (based on Fig. 156) Summary of the trends in site numbers within each sub-region by period Cleuziou et al. 1994; Cattani & Tosi 1997; Monti & Usai 1998; Costantini & Audisio 2000; Usai 2000; Martin & Cleuziou 2003; Martin 2005), Ras al-Hamra (e.g. Biagi et al 1984; Durante & Tosi 1977; Santini 1987; Gnoli 1981; Biagi 1994a), Sir Bani Yas and Marawah Islands (King 1998; Beech et al. 2005) and Dalma Island (King 1998; Beech 1998 & 2002; Beech & Glover 2005). The archaeological evidence confirms that the occupants of these sites exploited marine mammals (especially fish, turtles, dolphin, oyster and other shellfish). Midden sites are highly visible as coastal mounds, while sites dating to this period in the interior are likely to consist of surface scatters that have been subjected to drift and erosion over

time, destroying them or making them inconspicuous. This raises questions regarding the nature of occupation during this period in the interior of the peninsula and the reason behind the low number of such sites. Was the nature of occupation in the interior different to that on the coast? Were the populations distinct? If so, was there contact between them and if not, was there a seasonal shift between the areas? These questions will be discussed further in Chapter Seven. Figure 157 demonstrates that there was a growth in the number of recorded sites in the central part of the peninsula, the Central Oman and Hajar Mountains sub-

138

Quantified Regional and Sub-Regional Activty

Fig. 156: Total percentage and numbers of sites of each sub-region by period regions, between the Late Stone Age and Hafit period. While there was a stable level of activity in the eastern sub-regions: the Batinah Coast and Eastern Coast. By contrast, there was a decline during this period on the AbuDhabi Coast and in the Musandam and Northern Emirates. The statistics (Table 50) show that the only sub-regions where Hafit period sites represent a greater than 5% share of the total number of sites are Central Oman (ca. 11%); followed by the Hajar Mountains (ca. 8%) and the Eastern Coast (ca. 8%). This is likely related to the fact that the evidence for this period consists almost exclusively of the large numbers of tombs that are distributed all over the peninsula, but are at their most dense in these two subregions. Hafit cairns are very commonly found on the rock and gravel hills within these two sub-regions and several of these tombs were recorded by numerous survey projects including the Harvard (e.g. Humphries 1974; Humphries 1974), the Danish (e.g. Frifelt 1968 & 1970), the British (e.g. de Cardi, Collier & Doe 1976; de Cardi, Doe & Roskams 1977), the Omani–German Project (Häser 2000 & 2003; Schreiber 2004, 2005 & 2007a-b; Schreiber & Häser 2004), and the al-Hajar Project (Orchard & Stanger

1994 & 1999; Orchard & Orchard 1985, 1997 & 2002). However, Hafit occupational sites are very difficult to find with very little evidence of them so far being recorded. If these sites were found then it might alter the picture somewhat. It is possible that there is a core ‘Hafit’ area in this region, where the Hafit period is better represented than in other areas. It is difficult to compare the level of activity in the Late Stone Age and the Hafit Period, because Late Stone Age sites consist mostly of middens, evidence for settlement, while Hafit sites are mostly burial cairns. This is also true in comparing the Hafit period and succeeding Umm anNar period in which sites consist of both settlements and tombs. The data suggests that there was substantial growth in this period throughout the northern Oman Peninsula, with the exception of the Batinah and Hajar Mountains sub-regions, where the number of sites remained constant (Fig. 158).

139

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 157: Level of activity between the Late Stone Age and Hafit periods The intensity of fieldwork in recording 3rd millennium BC sites might explain the large number of sites from this period. The statistics (Table 50) indicate that there is much higher percentage of Umm an-Nar sites in Central Oman (ca. 29%), the Abu-Dhabi Coast (ca. 16%) and on the Eastern Coast (ca. 13%), while this period represents less than 8% of the sites in other sub-regions. This high percentage within Central Oman may be attributed to this intensive fieldwork, carried out during the early and mid 1970s particularly in the area around Ibri by the Danish Expedition (e.g. Frifelt 1973a; 1973d; 1974; 1975b, 1976b, 1980a-b, 1985 & 2002) and the British Expedition (e.g. de Cardi, Collier & Doe 1976; de Cardi, Bell & Starling 1979). These two projects alone recorded 95% of the total number of Umm an-Nar sites within this sub-region. The majority of the sites are Umm an-Nar tombs (74%). The high percentage of Umm an-Nar sites on the Abu-Dhabi Coast may be attributed to the fact that the remains of this period were first discovered within this sub-region, on the

eponymous island (Frifelt 1975b, 1979a-b, 1991 & 1995) with intense research subsequently being carried out in this area. The island yielded a large settlement and a number of tombs, and was interpreted as a central point of trade between the coast and the interior as well as with powerful neighbours including Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley. The high percentage of Umm an-Nar sites on the Eastern Coast can be related to the intensive work carried out there by the Joint Hadd Project (e.g. Biagi 1985; Biagi &1988b; Cleuziou & Steimer 1998; Cleuziou & Tosi 2000) and the German Mission (e.g. Yule 1996; Yule & Weisgerber 1998). These two projects recorded a large number of sites dating to this period, which together represent around 87% of the total Umm an-Nar sites recorded within this subregion and 28% of the whole Umm an-Nar sites within the Oman Peninsla. Most of these recorded sites are located in the Sur (69%) and Ja’alan (24%) areas. The majority are tombs, representing around 83% of the total recorded Umm 140

Quantified Regional and Sub-Regional Activty

Fig. 158: Level of activity between the Hafit and Umm an-Nar periods an-Nar sites within this sub-region. This area also yielded a large number of sites from each of the other periods. Thus, it is possible that we are dealing with a number of sites from the 3rd millennium BC, which might be related, for example, to the availability of natural resources such as marine mammals and shells, as well as fish, along the coastal strip of this sub-region. This is might also be true for the other periods, indicating perhaps a high population in the area. However, an important reason behind the high number of tombs of this period in these areas relates to the fact that these surveys recorded and excavated individual tombs and gave them unique numbers. Thus, individual tombs were entered into the database, increasing the proportion of tombs to settlements, and augmenting the number of sites overall. This makes quantification difficult and complicates the general pattern, but without revisiting every site in the database, there is no alternative way to

deal with the data. This raises the question of whether there was a genuine growth in the number of sites in the Umm al-Nar period. Unfortunately this question cannot be satisfactorily answered as no comparison between the settlements of the periods may be made, other than noting the scarcity of Hafit occupation sites. The period between the Umm an-Nar and Wadi Suq shows growth in the number of recorded sites in only one sub-region, the Musandam and Northern Emirates. The number of Wadi Suq sites in this area is almost double that of Umm an-Nar sites, representing 11% of sites in the subregion. In contrast, three sub-regions witnessed decline during this period: the Abu-Dhabi Coast, Central Oman and the Eastern Coast, while the level remained stable on the Batinah Coast and in the Hajar Mountains. The high percentage of Wadi Suq sites within the Musandam and Northern Emirates is likely due to 141

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 159: Level of activity during the Umm an-Nar and Wadi Suq periods the intensive research carried out there by the British Expedition in Ras al-Khaimah (e.g. de Cardi, Kennet & Stocks 1994), and the Joint French/Sharjah Mission in Sharjah (e.g. Jasim 1997; Benoist, Cordoba & Mouton 1997). These two projects recorded approximately 80% of the total number of Wadi Suq sites within this sub-region. For obvious reasons, the vast majority of these sites are located within Ras al-Khaimah (70%), and Sharjah (28%). 76% of these sites consist of tombs, likely due to tomb visibility: Wadi Suq tombs in this part of the peninsula are overground structures, making them easy to spot. In contrast, tombs in the southern part of the peninsula are subterranean and are more difficult to spot during survey and are affected to a greater extent by erosion and the build up of sediment. Additionally, these subterranean tombs are similar to those of later periods, such as the Iron Age and Hellenistic–Parthian period, which makes them difficult to distinguish. This raises the question of whether or not these figures are an accurate representation of the

number of archaeological sites. It is possible that the high percentage of sites within the Musandam and Northern Emirates testifies that there was a higher level of activity during the Wadi Suq period in this part of the peninsula than in others, that it acted as a ‘Wadi Suq Enclave’, this possibility will be discussed later. The data for the period between the Wadi Suq period and the Iron Age reveals that there was growth in the number of recorded sites in the Central Oman, Eastern Coast and Hajar Mountains sub-regions (Fig. 160). While there was stability on the Abu-Dhabi Coast and a decline in the Batinah Coast and Musandam and Northern Emirates subregions. However, all of the pre-Islamic periods within the Batinah Coast yielded a small number of sites and it is difficult to take these figures as a reliable indicator of the level of activity within this sub-region. The areas of decline during this period overlap with where there was a high level of activity in the preceding period. It is possible 142

Quantified Regional and Sub-Regional Activty

Fig. 160: Level of activity between Wadi Suq and Iron Age that this testifies to a return in equilibrium to a situation in which there was a concentration of the population in the north of the region during the Wadi Suq period.

on the Eastern Coast of this period recorded by the same survey project (e.g. Yule 1993 & 2001a; Costa et al. 1999; Yule & Weisgerber 1998 & 2001).

The analysis demonstrates that the only sub-regions where Iron Age sites represent more than 10% of the total sites are the Hajar Mountains (ca. 22%) and the Eastern Coast (ca. 15%). The high percentage in the Hajar Mountains may be related to the intense fieldwork carried out there by the German Mission in the al-Mudhaybi area. This project alone recorded 73% of the Iron Age sites within this subregion, of which 83% are located in the al-Mudhaybi area and 92% are tombs. This again raises the concern of bias in the recording of specific sites of interest. Many of the excavated Wadi Suq and Late Iron Age–Samad tombs located by this project yielded materials from various periods and that several of the C14 dates obtained from these tombs have proved unreliable (cf. Kennet 2007). This concern also applies to the large number of sites

The analysis has also been skewed by the project’s recording of individual tombs as sites, rather than cemeteries. Data analysis for the period between the Iron Age and the Hellenistic–Parthian period demonstrates that the number of recorded sites remained stable on the Abu-Dhabi and Batinah Coasts. In contrast, the rest of the Oman Peninsula witnessed a decline during this period (Fig. 161). The only sub-region where Hellenistic–Parthian sites represent a percentage greater than 6% is in the Hajar Mountains (15%). Again, probably due to the German Mission’s research into the ‘Samad Period’ in the al-Mudhaybi area. The pattern apparent between the Hellenistic–Parthian and Sasanian–Early Islamic periods is of growth in the number 143

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 161: Level of activity during the Iron Age and Hellenistic–Parthian periods of recorded sites on the Abu-Dhabi Coast and the Batinah Coast as well as in the Musandam and Northern Emirates sub-region, while being stable in Central Oman. In contrast, there was a decline in the number of sites recorded in the Eastern Coast and Hajar Mountain sub-regions. The distribution pattern seen in Figure 162 demonstrates growth in the northern, north-eastern and north-western parts of the peninsula. The only sub-regions in which Sasanian–Early Islamic sites represent greater than 5% of the total are the Abu-Dhabi Coast (9%), Musandam and Northern Emirates (9%) and Batinah Coast (8%) subregions. The high percentage of sites from this period within the Abu-Dhabi sub-region dating to this period is likely due to the high level of fieldwork carried out by the ADIAS project, with all of the Sasanian–Early Islamic sites within this sub-region being recorded by this team. The high percentage of sites in Musandam and Northern Emirates is in all probability due to the large number of sites recorded by the British Expedition in Ras al-Khaimah (e.g. de Cardi 1985; de Cardi, Kennet & Stocks 1994;

Doe & de Cardi 1983; Stocks 1996). This survey project yielded 86% of the Sasanian–Early Islamic sites within this sub-region, 92% being located in Ras al-Khaimah. By contrast, the large number of sites on the Batinah Coast might be attributed to the intensive work carried out by the Harvard expedition (Humphries 1974) and continued by the Ministry of National Heritage (Costa and Wilkinson TJ 1987) and Prospection (Oman) Limited (e.g. Goettler, Firth & Huston 1976) at Wadi Jizzi in Sohar. 69% of sites of the period within the Batinah sub-region are located in Sohar. All of these sites are settlements and mining sites. However, dating the pottery of this period was problematic at the time of this research. Kennet (2007) has reviewed all of the evidence for the Sasanian–Early Islamic period in Eastern Arabia, including the Oman Peninsula, and has concluded that many of these sites cannot be dated to this period. Moreover all periods within the Batinah Coast subregion have yielded only a small numbers of sites, making

144

Quantified Regional and Sub-Regional Activty

Fig. 162: Level of activity during the between the Hellenistic–Parthian and Sasanian–Early Islamic periods them unreliable indicators of the level of activity within this part of the peninsula. The statistics (Fig. 163) for the period between the Sasanian–Early Islamic and Middle Islamic period shows that the number of recorded sites is stable throughout whole peninsula, with the exception of the Abu-Dhabi Coast and the Musandam and Northern Emirates sub-regions, which witnessed a decline. By comparison, the data (Fig. 164) for the period between the Middle Islamic and Late Islamic– Recent shows intensive growth throughout the region. It is always probable that the most recent period will be well represented, its remains being well preserved and dominating the palimpsest.

Site Density Figure 165 provides the surface area of each sub-region within the northern Oman Peninsula. Central Oman encompasses almost half of the peninsula but yielded the lowest number of archaeological sites (6%) (Fig. 166). While the Hajar Mountains sub-region yielded the largest number of sites, amounting to almost a third of the total. Sub-Region Abu-Dhabi Coast Batinah Coast Central Oman Eastern Coast Hajar Mountains Musandam & N.Emirates Total

In summary, it is apparent that a number of possible trends are identifiable at the regional and sub-regional level. However, certainty in the veracity of these trends is unassured and their interpretation in light of the nature of the archaeological record is difficult and complicated.

Area/km2 51,213 13,968 133,434 36,698 33,310

% of Total 18.21 4.97 47.45 13.05 11.85

12,564 281,187

4.47 100

Table 52: Total area (in km2) of each sub-region 145

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 163: Level of activity between Sasanian–Early Islamic and Middle Islamic periods Total Sites

% of Total

Sub-Region

Total Sites

Area/km2

Sites Density/km2

Abu-Dhabi Coast

395

8.74

Abu-Dhabi Coast

395

51,213

0.0077

Batinah Coast

555

12.28

Batinah Coast

555

13,968

0.0397

Central Oman

254

5.62

Central Oman

254

133,434

0.0019

Sub-Region

Eastern Coast

807

17.85

Eastern Coast

1,460

32.30

Hajar Mountains

Musandam & N.Emirates

963

21.31

Unknown

86

1.90

Musandam N.Emirates

4,520

100

Hajar Mountains

Total

&

807

36,698

0.0220

1,460

33,310

0.0438

963

12,564

0.0766

Table 54: Density of sites per km2 in each sub-region

Table 53: Total number of sites within each sub-region

146

Quantified Regional and Sub-Regional Activty

Fig. 164: Level of activity between the Middle and Late Islamic–Recent

Fig. 165: (based on Table 52) Percentage of the total area (km2) contributed by each sub-region (percentages are based on the total area of all sub-regions)

Fig. 166: (based on Table 53) Percentage of total

number of sites within each sub-region (percentages are based on the total number of recorded sites in the database)

147

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula region, representing 48% of the peninsula, while the Musandam and Northern Emirates is the smallest subregion, representing only 4%. Types of Site In order to plot the level of activity during each period, Table 55 provides the number of sites by type and period. The majority of pre-Islamic sites, from the Hafit to Hellenistic–Parthian periods, consist of tombs, while earlier periods are more commonly represented by midden/scatter sites. Likewise, the Sasanian to Recent periods are most commonly represented by settlement sites. However this picture multiplies the actual number of sites, as sites that produced multiple types of evidence were recorded multiple times. A site with evidence of both tombs and settlement is counted as two sites. To alleviate

Fig. 167: (based on Table 54) Density of sites per km2 in each sub-region The Musandam and Northern Emirates yielded the highest density of sites, representing 0.0766 sites per square km (Fig. 167), while Central Oman yielded the lowest density, at 0.0019 sites per square km. Their is a substantial difference in their area; Central Oman is the largest subPeriod

E.S.A L.S.A 4th–3rd Mill Hafit U.Nar W.S I.A Hell–Parth Prehistoric? Sas–E.Islamic M.Islamic L.Islamic– Recent Islamic? Undated

Settlement

Religious Place 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 5 5 26

Earthwork

0 0 0 0 53 7 30 10 7 18 23 280

Settlements Industrial Place 0 6 1 0 21 13 23 6 5 77 98 145

0 1 0 0 6 5 18 5 3 33 13 80

Cave/Rock Shelter 0 3 0 3 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 7

108 51

2 100

26 0

11 161

0 15

Fortification

0 54 11 15 159 46 147 69 12 163 111 482

Midden/ Scatter 22 199 90 14 57 53 81 29 71 123 76 389

12 186

10 151

Tomb

Rock Harbour Unidentified Art /Port

0 18 3 328 397 325 601 413 176 40 22 140

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 4

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 4

0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 1 3

73 256

1 116

0 4

0 63

Table 55: Total number of sites by type and period

Fig. 168: (based on Table 56) Total percentage of settlement and tomb sites by period (percentages based on the total number of sites by period) 148

Quantified Regional and Sub-Regional Activty Period

Settlement 22 E.S.A (100%) 210 L.S.A (92%) 91 4th–3rd Mill (97%) 17 Hafit (5%) 199 U.Nar (33%) 93 W.S (22%) 233 I.A (28%) 94 Hell–Parth (19%) 301 Sas–E.Islamic (88%) 230 M.Islamic (91%) 1038 L.Islamic–Recent (88%) 91 Prehistoric? (34%) 164 Islamic? (69%) 610 Undated (70%) Total/Type 3395

Tomb 0 (0%) 18 (8%) 3 (3%) 328 (95%) 397 (67%) 325 (78%) 601 (72%) 413 (81%) 40 (12%) 22 (9%) 140 (12%) 176 (66%) 73 (31%) 256 (30%) 2792

Total/Period 22 (100%) 228 (100%) 94 (100%) 345 (100%) 596 (100%) 418 (100%) 834 (100%) 507 (100%) 341 (100%) 252 (100%) 1180 (100%) 267 (100%) 237 (100%) 866 (100%) 6187

Table 56: Total number and percentage of

settlement and tomb sites by period (percentages based on the total number of sites by period)

Fig. 169: Ratio of settlements to tombs for each sub-region by period (actual numbers of sites are indicated within the graph) 149

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula this problem, site types were restricted only to tombs and settlements. Figure 168 and Table 56 plot the number and percentage of settlement and tomb sites by period. The Late Stone Age and 4th–3rd millennium BC periods are more commonly represented by settlement sites. Settlements make up 100% of Early Stone Age sites and more than 90% of sites in the proceeding two periods. This pattern is identical at the sub-regional level (Fig. 169).33 The majority of sites from these periods are shell-middens and flint scatters, both being highly visible on the surface, while only scant evidence of tombs, has been recorded, likely due to erosion and deposition. By contrast, the periods from the Hafit to the Hellenistic–Parthian have yielded a higher proportion of tombs to settlements, a pattern that is similar at the sub-regional level (Fig. 169), with slight differences seen during the Iron Age and Hellenistic–Parthian periods. No substantial evidence for Hafit settlements has been recorded, while tombs from the period are numerous, with a similar pattern apparent in Wadi Suq evidence. By contrast, the large number of tombs dating from the Umm an-Nar and Iron Age to Hellenistic–Parthian periods is likely related to the bias towards the recording of funerary remains in a number of the survey projects. Also, several have recorded individual tombs excavated within cemeteries, furthering skewing the figures. All periods from the Sasanian to Recent are more commonly represented by settlement sites, which represent at least 88% of the sites of these periods; this pattern is identical for each sub-region. While it is possible that the Sasanian evidence is unreliable, the large proportion of settlement sites dating to the Islamic period is probably due to the difficulties in separating Islamic graves into a period. Furthermore, Islamic law prohibits the disturbance of Islamic tombs, aiding their preservation and making it difficult for archaeologists to distinguish between them. Relationship between Settlements and Tombs It is important to examine the relationship between tomb location and the positioning of contemporary settlements over time and especially during the pre-Islamic. Hafit tombs are located on the top of hills and outcrops, with a few also being found on the plains. Several scholars (e.g. Potts 1978: 35–37; Frifelt 1991: 127; Crawford 1998: 105 &110) have argued that these tombs were positioned in strategic locations, tending to follow trade and transport routes which cross-cut the mineral-rich interior of Oman, close to the major mining areas. These (Fig. 170) include the routes south-east of the Buraimi oasis, with tombs recorded at Bida Bint Sa’ud, Jebel Hafit and Mazyad. They are also found along the route heading north-east from Buraimi to Dubai-Sharjah as at Jebel al-Emalah; the north  In areas with very low numbers of sites of particular periods one or two sites may comprise 100% of the total. In other words, percentages work well with absolute numbers that are in the same ballpark for all areas, but are less effective when there are really big differences. 33

western route linking Buraimi to Abu-Dhabi and Ras alKhaimah; the routes south of Buraimi from Jebel Hafit to Ibri where tombs cluster around Bat-Ibri, Dank, Amlah, al-Banah and Araqi; and the route from Ibri to Nizwa (e.g. Bisya, Izki, Zukayt and Manah). They are also recorded along the route linking the Buraimi oasis with the east coast of Sohar via the copper-rich Wadi Jizzi-Wadi Suq; at Saih Buerid and Siya almost 30 km from the coast south of Muscat; as well as surrounding mining sites such as Maysar 2 and the mining area of Wadi Asimah. However, no settlements may be associated with Hafit tombs with any certainty. Additionally, although some tombs are often found along ancient mining routes, there is not a single site within these areas that may be dated to the Hafit period with certainty. A large number of Umm an-Nar settlements have been recorded across the peninsula, encompassing different geographical zones but sharing a significant number of characteristics (cf. Potts 1990a: 95; Blau 2001: 557–560): they are found on the coast, on piedmonts and in deserts (oases) (cf. Blau 2001: 558–559, Table 1, for summary and distribution of Umm an-Nar tombs in the Oman Peninsula). Several Umm an-Nar settlements are located in close proximity to copper sources and the majority of them have yielded evidence for copper-working or smelting activity. They are also often associated with large round-towers (Crawford 1998: 111–112). During the Umm an-Nar period there is a clear relationship between settlements and contemporary tombs which are found in the same locality (e.g. Umm an-Nar, Ras al-Jinz and Tell Abraq on the coast and Hili, Bat, Amlah, Maysar and al-Ghoryeen inland). This is attested both by the evidence of the Wadi Andam Survey and from other surveys in the region. Little is known about the relationship between settlements and tombs during the Wadi Suq as few settlements of the period have been recorded. However, from the available scant evidence, tombs appear in the areas surrounding the settlements. When tombs are discovered, they often appear in completely isolated locations, suggesting perhaps that populations came from differing settlements to bury their dead. The Wadi Suq cemeteries at Samad (S21, as well as tombs at S10, S20 and S22) (cf. Yule 2001a) do not appear to be associated with any settlement as no domestic material has been recovered close to any cemetery. However, at Shimal, a Wadi Suq cemetery has been found in close proximity to a settlement, but it has been argued that though they both date to the Wadi Suq period, they are not contemporary (Carter 1997a: 60–61). While at Bat, one suggestion is that the ruins of round tower 1145 were re-used to construct a burial cairn during the Wadi Suq (ibid: 42). Barring this unsatisfactory evidence, there is no indication of a link between Wadi Suq tombs and settlements. A greater number of Iron Age settlements and tombs have been found and excavated than of any preceding period. Although many Iron Age settlements did not yield any evidence for associated cemeteries, some did 150

Quantified Regional and Sub-Regional Activty

Fig. 170: The main Hafit and Umm an-Nar sites and the trade routes

demonstrate a link. At Samad (Sites S10, S19, S20–30; Yule 2001a) there is no sign of a close association between the excavated tombs and any settlement. While at Qarn Bint Sa‘ud (Cleuziou 1976/7); Maysar M25 and al-Amqat (Yule 2001a) and Raki 2 (Weisgerber & Yule 1999: 97– 117) there is evidence for such an association. This pattern is also attested in the Wadi Andam Survey evidence, with some Iron Age settlements clearly having associated tombs, such as Mahleya (Sites CS.2.43, CS.2.50 and

CS.2.51), while other settlements and tombs were located in isolation. Conclusion This chapter has attempted to evaluate the available archaeological literature from the northern Oman Peninsula. None of the survey projects carried out in the region have attempted to quantify settlement over time,

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Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula and the results of many of the projects present difficulties in providing a reliable model of human activity. An evaluation of the results has been carried out in order to understand and overcome such difficulties. The regional database was created to conglomerate all of the recorded sites within the northern Oman Peninsula, in order to establish a reliable and robust method of measuring the differing level of activity over time. In addition, the database provides a broader context and a comparison for the material recorded during the Wadi Andam Survey. Although the data set presented here is, in some regards, undeniably problematic, the hope is that the sheer quantity of evidence can alleviate some of the localised problems that have been identified, and provide a broad indication of general trends. Clearly the methodology is superior to the unsystematic and implicit reviews of the dataset commonly carried out in impressionistic and non-rigorous ways. General opinion about the relative level of activity and settlement across different periods is commonplace, while here such comparisons are put on a firmer footing to make them explicit and testable. The robustness of the data may be debated, but the perserverance of a number of long-term trends suggests that it is relatively trustworthy when used for low-grade analysis as presented here. Nonetheless, caution must be used until the conclusions can be more rigorously tested. The quantified data does reveal a number of important changes in the number and type of sites recorded through the archaeological sequence, which may correspond to the level of demographic and economic activity. However, the interpretation and explanation of these trends is certainly complicated and more research needs to be undertaken before being fully accepted or explained. Furthermore, differences in the level of activity (growth, stability and decline) have been identified based on comparisons with earlier and later periods. Different hypotheses based on various factors, including environmental conditions, natural resources, reliability and intensity of fieldwork and site formation, might be suggested to explain regional trends and sub-regional variation. An important point that has emerged repeatedly is that many of these surveys have paid disproportionate attention to certain sites depending on research interests. This has resulted in a biased picture and has made quantification problematic. A furthermore objection may be taken in the dating some of the finds, such as those attributed to the Iron Age, Hellenistic–Parthian and Sasanian–Early Islamic periods. This material was not well understood at

the time that the surveys were undertaken. This lack of knowledge of specific pottery types has resulted in a high levels of undated sites in the literature. The data presented raises several questions regarding the level of activity within the northern Oman Peninsula over time. A major question resulting from the problems of bias, dating and a lack of systematic survey is whether or not the basic proportions of archaeological sites is generally representative. Accordingly, it should be remembered that the analysis of the data from this current regional database is in many ways unreliable and incomplete. In spite of these problems, the aim of the database has been successful: namely, to bring together all of the available archaeological evidence with the view to providing insight into developments in human activity, settlement and landscape exploitation over time. This database provides the means to test the reliability of archaeological assumptions that have been made regarding these variables and to challenge those that are not firmly based in archaeological evidence. Furthermore, this study allows comparisons to be made from material from the Wadi Andam Survey, in order to establish if either the evidence from either source supports the patterns seen in the other. Broadly speaking, this has been the case. This quantification of the published archaeological evidence from the whole of the northern Oman Peninsula provides some preliminary patterns that could help in the development of hypotheses regarding the changing levels of activity. It also provides a much more detailed picture of development in the region than anything previously. Some former conclusions in this area appear to be correct, while others may need to be revised. It is hoped that this research will form the basis for more deliberate and comprehensive future by researchers concerned with Omani archaeology. It is also hoped that this study might provide a clearer understanding of settlement development over time within the northern Oman Peninsula. While fully aware of its limitations, an attempt has been made to make the best use of the available data and to test it as far as reasonably possible. There is no doubt that this data is not good enough for highly detailed analysis, but an exploration of how far it can be taken was thought to be worthwhile. In fact, despite any possible problems and unreliability that might exist, there is no doubt that this study has contributed to our understanding of the region’s archaeology.

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CHAPTER SEVEN DISCUSSION AND INTERPRETATION Significantly, until this point no attempt had been made to quantify the level of activity over time within the northern Oman Peninsula. Two attempts to quantify the archaeology of the region have been carried out: one based on the researcher’s own fieldwork and the other on data from the available literature. In the former, human activity over time was quantified using the ceramic evidence recovered during this research, while the latter attempt utilized the number of sites themselves. This chapter intends to summarise the most significant conclusions drawn from the three levels of archaeological investigation undertaken during this investigation. Firstly, those based on previously published theories and conclusions (Level 1); secondly those based on the results of the Wadi Andam Survey (Levels 4–6), and thirdly those based on the quantified data from the literature pertaining to the local area around Wadi Andam (Level 3) as well as the whole of the northern Oman Peninsula (Levels 1–2). Key conclusions will be presented briefly and comparisons will be made across the levels of evidence. Following this some tentative interpretations will be discussed which make an attempt to explain the patterns and trends that have emerged from the evidence. Although the Wadi Andam Survey was intended to collect data from all periods, the nature of the archaeological evidence means that some can be discussed at greater length. For example, a considerable volume of material has been recovered from the Hafit, Umm an-Nar, and Iron Age periods whilst relatively little has been recovered that may be concretely attributed to the Stone Age. Archaeological Conclusions The Stone Age Previous Archaeological Conclusions (Level 1) The published archaeological record suggests that humans have occupied the Oman Peninsula since the Early Stone Age, with a marked increase in intensity apparent from the Late Stone Age (Neolithic). The earliest human activity is seen in the few surface lithic scatters of the ‘Qatar B’ stone artefacts, characterised by the blade-arrowhead industry (Potts 1990a: 32–35 & 1993d; Uerpmann 1989 & 1992). The Neolithic is represented in the archaeological record by a significant number of inland and coastal sites producing lithic artefacts of the ‘Arabian Bifacial Tradition’ as well as ‘Ubaid pottery which is mostly recovered from coastal sites. Furthermore, a small number of sites have yielded structures and a significant stratigraphy. These include sites at Dalma and the Marawah Islands (Kallweit, Beech

& al-Tikriti 2005: 104) and Suwayh (Suwayh-1, 2 and 11) (Charpentier 1998; Méry & Charpentier 2002). Cleuziou and Tosi (2007: 66–67) argue that the abundant evidence for the Late Stone Age on the Omani coast provides insight into the social structure of the population that formed these sites. They suggest that the settlements demonstrate a degree of uniformity with regards to material culture, and therefore likely a society comprising of independent local populations with differing lineages who integrated to control the coastal territory and its significant resources. The basic social unit is argued to be the ‘nuclear family’ with individuals sharing the same living space and with different nuclear families living and moving together between seasonal campsites. Each local group is thought to have consisted of between four to ten nuclear families with each comprising between five and ten individuals, suggesting a population of between 20 and 100 people holding a territory. It is also suggested that these sites exhibit a material culture that does not require significant specialization with neither pottery nor metal being manufactured (ibid: 67–69). Nearly all of the tools recovered from these sites were manufactured using local shell and stone. In contrast to these coastal settlements, very little is known for sure of anthropogenic activity in the interior. Recently, a significant Neolithic site was uncovered at Jebel al-Buhais in Sharjah. It is the first major Neolithic site complete with well-preserved organic material to be discovered inland, providing considerable insight into the economic activity of the interior population (Uerpmann, Uerpmann & Jasim 2000: 229). Excavation of this site yielded a significant number of tombs producing the remains of approximately 280 individuals, as well as a large assemblage of animal bones and a significant number of fire pits, some lined with stones (ibid: 229). In the desert, recently discovered Neolithic sites at Kharimat Khor al-Manahil and Khor alManahil are the first structures to have been found within the desert interior (Kallweit, Beech & al-Tikriti 2005: 106). Based on the type of structures and artefacts recovered from the Neolithic sites in the Oman Peninsula, it has been argued that the majority appears to have been occupied seasonally by nomadic populations (Uerpmann 1992; Kallweit 2003: 61–63 & 2004: 144). The material yielded by coastal sites strongly suggests that the economy being practised was based heavily on the exploitation of marine resources, as well as on terrestrial animals and trade with Mesopotamia or with local Neolithic groups (Potts 1990a: 35–37 & 1993d: 173–180; Uerpmann 1989 & 1992; Kallweit 2004). Trade with Mesopotamia is evidenced by the recovery of ‘Ubaid pottery from a significant number of coastal sites. In contrast to this, the inhabitants of the 153

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula interior appear to have practiced herding of goat, sheep and cattle, and hunting-gathering, apparent from the faunal remains at several sites (Potts 1993d: 173–180; Uerpmann, Uerpmann & Jasim 2000; Kallweit 2004). It is thought that at least part of the nomadic population migrated seasonally between the interior – looking for pasture lands for their domestic animals – and the coast, where they survived on fish and shell-fish (Uerpmann 1992; Uerpmann, Uerpmann & Jasim 2000; Kallweit 2003; Kallweit, Beech & al-Tikriti 2005). This is apparent from the recovery of skeletal remains of domesticated animals from sites of varying geography and terrain such as those from al-Buhais 18 (Uerpmann, Uerpmann & Jasim 2000). Palaeobotanical evidence is generally lacking but the exploitation of plant resources is apparent from the excavations at Dalma Island (DA11), where carbonized date stones (Phoenix dactylifera) were recovered (Beech & Glover 2005: 97). A seasonal model of migration by the Stone Age nomadic groups is also suggested from the evidence recovered from al-Buhais 18, which, it was proposed, was selected as a ‘central place’, apparent from its use as a long-term burial site (cf. Uerpmann, Uerpmann & Jasim 2000: 232–233; Uerpmann & Uerpmann 2000: 48–49; De Beauclair, Jasim & Uerpmann 2006: 176). The evidence indicates a strong link between the inhabitants of the site and the coast. It is likely that the population of al-Buhais 18 lived as herders during the springtime, with their diet based on lambing, kidding or calving. During the summer and autumn, they likely shifted from the foothills and plains to the higher elevation of the Hajar Mountains, where they would have culled young animals in order to manage the size of the herds. While for the winter they moved to coastal sites, where they exploitated marine resources including fish and shellfish; they may have supplemented this diet by milking their livestock (Uerpmann, Uerpmann & Jasim 2000: 232– 233). A similar pattern has recently been suggested for the Neolithic sites excavated at Kharimat Khor al-Manahil and Khor al-Manahil in the Umm az-Zumul desert south-east of Abu-Dhabi (Kallweit, Beech & al-Tikriti 2005: 107–108). Significantly, these sites lie outside of the natural habitat of undomesticated sheep (Ovis orientalis) and goat (Capra aegagrus) (Uerpmann 1989: 164; Uerpmann 1992: 102). Accordingly, a diffusion of these species as domesticates across the Arabian Peninsula was necessary, in the form of ‘reproductively viable herds’ (Drechsler 2007: 95). Therefore, it is possible that nomadic animal husbandry in Arabia derives from a dispersal of part of the sedentary aceramic Neolithic population from the Levant, the neighbouring centre of domestication, possibly with groups of mobile herders travelling into the deserts of Arabia during the late 7th–6th millennium BC (Uerpmann 1992: 102; Uerpmann, Uerpmann & Jasim 2000: 233). These herders may have lost their economic links with sedentary farmers and built up a method for subsistence similar to that proposed for the inhabitants of al-Buhais (Uerpmann, Uerpmann & Jasim 2000: 234). This diffusion likely included varied herds of goat, sheep, and possibly cattle. It is also possible that this economic strategy

diffused across the entirety of the Arabian Peninsula during the early Holocene, when climatic conditions were favourable (Drechsler 2007: 95). During the early and middle Holocene, moister climatic conditions (cf. Burns et al. 1998; Fleitmann et al. 2003) facilitated the diffusion of the Neolithic across the northern and southern parts of the Arabian Peninsula (Drechsler 2007: 98). During this time, it is possible that there was a renewal of the Neolithic subsistence economy on the northern coast of Oman, corresponding with the migration of these new people from the north-west through the Arabian Gulf towards the region along the south-west slope of the Hajar Mountains (Uerpmann 1992: 104). These mountains represent a region where plentiful groundwater is available due to a small number of very sizeable wadis. It is argued that precipitation was relatively high at this point, resulting in good availability of drinking water and fodder (Drechsler 2007: 98). The exploitation of these resources seems to have been initiated with the arrival of the new residents (Uerpmann 1992: 104). Recently, a computerised model for the Neolithic dispersal into Arabia has been created by Drechsler (2007: 93–109). This model supports a Levantine origin for the diffusion of the Neolithic mobile herding economy into Arabia and underlines the clear effect of climatic change on its population (ibid: 102). The model corresponds with the available archaeological evidence found, for example, in Qatar and Saudi Arabia, especially the recovery of domesticated animal remains. Two different pathways have been suggested for this dispersal from the Levant (ibid: 104): the first involving a westerwards dispersal south along the Red Sea coast, and the second an inland route crossing the Arabian Peninsula from the north-west towards the south-east. The latter terminates at an area where sites have yielded similar stone artefacts to those found in the Levant, supporting this particular route. Wadi Andam Conclusion (Levels 4–6) The Wadi Andam Survey did not yield any evidence dating to the Stone Age and therefore it cannot either support or refute the archaeological evidence and theories relating to this period that have already been published. It should be noted that the absence of evidence from this period fits with the general synopsis that the sites of this period, being relatively rare, are difficult to locate. It is possible that Stone Age sites were missed by the Wadi Andam Survey as they are likely to be limited in number and somewhat ephemeral in nature. This absence might result from the fact that such sites are likely to be subject to high drift and erosion by wadis. It is likely that the inhabitants of the area during this period were nomads or semi-nomadic, utilising perishable structures such as huts or barasti structures . The evidence for such dwellings is subject to disappearing over time; as they are constructed from perishable materials, augmenting to the effect of the long-term natural site formation processes of erosion and sedimentation. This lack of evidence may indicate the presence of only a small population in the area during this period. 154

Discussion and Interpretation Local Area Conclusion (Level 3)

Hafit Period

The evidence for the Stone Age from the ‘local area’ consists of only 30 possible settlement sites; supporting the tentative conclusions outlined above. All of these sites yielded lithics, but a minority also yielded stone structures, including those reported by the British Expedition at Bahla and the Omani–German Project at Ibra. These sites consist of lithic material associated with large boulders, walls and structures of the Late Stone Age. They are situated on small hills, pebbly terraces on the wadi edges or on the flat terrain. The nature and location of these settlements are similar, possibly suggestting their occupation by nomadic populations shifting between the interior and the coast according to the yearly seasonal movement cycle described above. The lack of tombs of this period is likely a result of their subteranean nature making identification difficult or impossible.

Previous Archaeological Conclusion (Level 1)

Regional and Sub-Regional Level Conclusion (Levels 1–2) The whole of the northern Oman Peninsula has produced very little evidence of the Early Stone Age, but considerably more for the Late Stone Age. The majority of sites are middens or artefact/ecofact scatters, largely located along the coastal zones. Many yielded strong evidence for marine faunal exploitation, including fish, turtles, dolphin, oyster, shells and shellfish. Only a small number yielded structural remains and virtually no burial evidence has been reported from this period, with a few exceptions including at the site of al-Buhais 18, Umm al-Qawayn UAQ-2 and KHB-1 on the coast Ja‘alan (Cleuziou & Tosi 2007: fig. 50, p. 50 & fig. 84, p: 71). Summary Although the Wadi Andam Survey did not yield any evidence for Stone Age sites, this supports the conclusion that such sites are relatively rare and difficult to find. In order to research Stone Age settlement in the region in more detail, a specialised survey would have to be undertaken that used very detailed survey techniques and exmained carefully selected locations. The methodology used during the Wadi Andam Survey was set out with very different research aims. So to some extent the absence of Stone Age sites is related to the methodology used. From the small amount of evidence available, and considering ethnographic evidence, it is possible to present an argument that the population occupying the area during the Stone Age was seasonally nomadic or semi-nomadic, shifting between the coast and the interior. Alternatively. it is possible that there were distinct coastal populations and interior populations. On the coast, they exploited marine resources and terrestrial animals with small-scale trade contact, while inland, they practiced animal herding and hunting-gathering. An annual migration between the coast, mountains and interior is also possible. These nomadic settlement sites were likely constructed using perishable materials making them subject to rapid degradation, augmenting the effect of erosion and sedimentation over time.

This period is characterised by the large number of burial cairns and Beehive tombs located across much of the Oman Peninsula, especially in mountainous areas. The tombs demonstrate that the dead were no longer buried in subterranean graves within settlement sites, but in highly visible locations, suggesting perhaps a preoccupation with territory (Cleuziou & Tosi 2007: 116). There are two arguments regarding the Hafit cairn and Beehive tomb dichotomy. Possibly the Beehives are a transitional type between the earlier Hafit-type and the later Umm an-Nartombs. Alternatively, both Hafit and Beehive tombs were constructed during the same era but using slightly different techniques and materials. The discovery of imported Mesopotamian goods within these tombs, dates these tombs to the late 4th and early 3rd millennium BC (DuringCaspers 1971; Frifelt 1975a-b; Potts 1990a: 73–77, 1993c: 423; Cleuziou 2002). The archaeological evidence does not provide much insight into the social and economic structures of the period. However, the occurrence of such a large number of tombs might indicate a considerable population and a very different pattern of occupation to that suggested in later periods (cf. Potts 1990a: 84, 1993d). In contrast to the funerary remains, very little settlement evidence has been recovered that dates to this period. Hili 8 yielded pottery and C14 dates from Period I, dated to the very late 4th to early 3rd millennium BC (Cleuziou 1980: 20), and consisted of a solid base of a square mudbrick tower with a central well and multiple hearths (Cleuziou 1989b). However this site is highly unusual, and very few other sites remotely comparable have yet been discovered. Wadi Andam Survey Conclusion (Levels 4–6) The evidence for this period examined during the Wadi Andam Survey is in line with that already published. The Hafit period is represented almost entirely by cairns and Beehives located across Wadi Andam. These tombs are similar with regards to construction, shape, size and location to those found across the peninsula. Hafit cairns are most often located some distance away from wadi villages but they are sometimes found on the hills surrounding the modern villages. In contrast, the Beehives are largely situated in close proximity to the wadi villages, found on hills and outcrops parallel to or just beyond these settlements. Both types can sometimes be found in the same locality. The architectural differences noted between both types possibly supports the suggestion made by Frifelt (1975a) that the Beehives represent a transition between the earlier Hafit-type and the later Umm an-Nar tombs. As in other parts of the peninsula, many of these cairns were re-used in later periods, mainly during the Early Iron Age, as is suggested by the finds recovered during the Wadi Andam Survey. No settlement evidence dating to this period was noted during the survey. The only

155

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula evidence that could be associated with the Hafit cairns recorded during field-research was a small number of platforms constructed using piled and paved stones. These may be the remains of platforms or stone foundations used in the construction of perishable structures which have vanished over time. This may support the notion of a possible nomadic or semi-nomadic population occupying the area during this period. One of the possibile reasons for the lack of Hafit settlement evidence is the burial of sites under alluvial sediment. Therefore, during the Wadi Andam Survey wells, cut-sections and other land-moving remains were examined in the hope of finding some buried remains datable to the Hafit period. However, this was unsuccessful. It should be noted that the landscape where these tombs are located in the Wadi Andam is exposed, unlike the Batinah coast where there is high possibility that settlements will have been covered by alluvium. During the survey, an attempt was made to roughly map the distribution of Hafit/Beehive tombs in the study area (Fig. 32 & 44). The results indicate the presence of massive tomb fields spread across the region under study, in areas for which there is little evidence of occupation in later periods. This might indicate that there was a very significant change in the nature of occupation and burial between the Hafit and the Umm an-Nar periods. This change might be testified by the Beehive tombs and their architectural and spatial distribution differences in comparison with the possibly earlier Hafit cairn tombs. Local Area Conclusion (Level 3) The evidence recovered from the local area agress with the previously published evidence and that from the Wadi Andam Survey. It demonstrates the occurrence of Hafit and/or Beehive tombs in many locations and a lack of occupational remains. The tombs’ size, shape and location are similar to the published examples from across the peninsula. Regional and Sub-Regional Level Conclusion (Levels 1–2) The evidence extracted from the entirety of the northern Oman Peninsula again shows a very similar pattern: a plethora of tombs and very few occupational remains. These possible settlement sites include Hili 8, and Ras al-Hadd/Ra’s al-Jinz (Cleuziou & Tosi 2007: fig. 92, p. 107; Monti & Usai 1998: 10–12; Cleuziou & Tosi 2000: 19–73; Martin & Cleuziou 2003: 135–142). The coastal sites yielded limited occupational remains, such as stone foundations, postholes and shell middens. In general, the evidence shows that there was a growth in the number of sites from the Late Stone Age to the Hafit period. However, there are regional variations with growth in the number of recorded sites in the central part of the peninsula (Central Oman and Hajar Mountains), a stable level in the eastern part (the Batinah and Eastern Coasts), and decline in the level in the northern part of the peninsula (Abu-Dhabi Coast and Musandam and Northern Emirates). The reasons for these variations are not known.

Summary The Hafit period is almost exclusively represented by burial architecture (cairns and Beehives), with only rare and ephemeral evidence for settlement. Almost four decades of research in the peninsula have only yielded very few occupational sites of this period, and have been unable to provide much insight of its socio-economic aspects. It is unlikely that the lack of occupational remains from this period could be related to the intensity of fieldwork. It is, however, possible to hypothesise some reasons for the absence. The population that constructed these tombs were perhaps nomads living in perishable ‘campsites’, using the area as grazing land for their animals. This hypothesis might be supported by the piled and paved stones recovered by the Wadi Andam Survey that look like platforms. It is also possible that the remains of settlements have been buried by alluvium. By contrast, the large number of tombs from this time can perhaps be attributed to the fact that these tombs are very commonly found on the rock and gravel hills that are found in some regions, like the Wadi Andam, rather than others. It is possible that the inhabitants of the Hafit period buried their dead in surrounding areas with high elevations in order to protect their tombs, which, in turn, increases their degree of survival as they are not subject, for instance, to sedimentation and erosion. The results of the Wadi Andam Survey also indicate that there was a very significant change in the occupation of the landscape between the Hafit and the Umm an-Nar periods. A large number of tombs are clustered in extensive burial grounds in areas devoid of evidence from later periods. Umm an-Nar Period Previous Archaeological Conclusion (Level 1) By the Umm an-Nar period it is generally thought that the northern Oman Peninsula was characterised by a wellestablished socio-economic structure with communities practising various occupations including sedentary agriculture, pastoral nomadism, hunter-gathering and the exploitation of marine resources (Brunswig 1989; Cleuziou 1982, 1984 & 2002; Potts 1990a: 127–132). Evidence for agriculture is attested in the evidence from inland sites, including date stones from Maysar 1 (Weisgerber 1981), and barley and wheat remains from Hili 8 (Cleuziou 1982 & 1989a-b). Further evidence for the use of agriculture include wells excavated at Hili 8 (Cleuziou 1982: 19) Maysar 25 (Weisgerber 1981: 198–200, figs 26–27) and House 3 at Maysar 1 (Weisgerber 1980: 82, figs 33–34). Irrigation was possibly based on the construction of low barrages or dams (gabarbands) (Meadow, Humphries & Hastings 1976: 111). However, the directors of the alHajar Project (Orchard & Stanger 1994: 87 & 1999: 96) have suggested that the inhabitants of the 3rd millennium BC utilised a method of irrigation based on ‘sub-surface to surface channels’, i.e. qanat/falaj technology. This subsistence economy was accompanied by enhanced levels of specialisation in production, and the exchange of 156

Discussion and Interpretation goods such as pottery, copper and stone objects (Cleuziou & Tosi 1989, 2000; Potts 1990a: 102–125, 1992: 68–71). The Oman Peninsula played an important role in the production of copper, exporting to neighbouring regions including Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley (Potts 1990a: 149–150, 1992: 68–69, 1993c: 423–427, 2000; Frifelt 1995; Weeks 2004b). The development of ‘oasis agriculture’ could be associated with the requirement of a surplus dictated by the demands of specialized copper exploitation (Cleuziou 2002: 200). This process would require large numbers of specialists, as well as unskilled manpower for the cutting of wood for fuel and transporting the raw materials to sites where smelting was undertaken. This transportation is likely to have required the use of domesticated animals such as donkeys and, or, camels. Evidence for the domestication of camel is ephemeral but might be testified to by the recovery of faunal remains from 3rd millennium BC settlements such as the Umm an-Nar Island (Frifelt 1975b: 366, 1979a: 574, 1995: 222; Hoch 1979: 607–613, 1995: 249–255), Ghanadha Island (al-Tikriti 1985: 14) and Hili 8 (Cleuziou 1989a: 81). Camels are also depicted on grave stones from Umm an-Nar Island (Thorvildsen 1963: figs 7–8, pp. 199–200; Frifelt 1975a: figs 37–38; 1991: figs 21–21a, 22–22a, pp. 27–28) and Hili (Cleuziou 1976/7). Moreover, the large amount of manpower would also require a supply of food, as well as a place to stay (Cleuziou 2002: 200). Trade is also evidenced by the discovery of large numbers of foreign imported materials, including pottery vessels, indicating trade contact with Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley, Iran, Central Asia, Bactria and the rest of the Gulf (cf. Tosi 1976; Frifelt 1979a-b & 1995; Potts 1978, 1990a: 102–106, 1993c: 423–427, 1993d, 1994 & 2000, Cleuziou & Tosi 1989; Cleuziou 1989b & 2002). The period is characterised by the large-scale production and use of good quality local pottery, possibly associated with the emergence of copper exploitation (Cleuziou 2002: 200). Three groups of pottery characterise this period: the coastal settlement pottery (e.g. Umm an-Nar Island), the interior settlement pottery (e.g. Hili 8, Bat, Amlah, and Maysar) and the graves pottery (Potts 1992: 69). The archaeological evidence indicates that there was a well-organised community with access to significant technology and manpower, suggestive of a high level of socio-economic organisation(cf. Tosi 1976). This development of the local economic system and a regional exchange network was associated with a remarkable increase in the number of settlement and tomb sites, indicating a very important development of ‘social complexity’ (Potts 1990a: 127–132, Cleuziou 2002: 191–236, Parker et al. 2006: 468). Although the total number of Umm an-Nar tombs appears to be lower than that of Hafit tombs, the population during the Umm anNar period is likely to have been larger. This is apparent not only from the high number of settlements, tombs and other material that has been recovered across the peninsula from the period, but also from the fact that each Umm anNar tomb is capable of housing the remains of dozens of

individuals. For example, it would take 50 Hafit cairns containing four burials to house as many interments as a single Umm an-Nar tomb with 200 individuals. This is not merely a hypothetical point: the data at hand indicates that the average total number of burials within a Hafit cairns is four (Frifelt 1975a: 67; 1975b: 386 & 1976c: 57), while a single Umm an-Nar tomb might include hundreds of burials (e.g. Tomb Unar 1 at Shimal, Ras al-Khaimah includes 438 burials [Blau 2001: 560]). A high number of tombs stretched across a landscape isn’t always indicative of their being a high population. It has been suggested that population growth occured in concentrated areas, perhaps as villages or towns (Brunswig 1989: 38). Analogy with the modern towns and villages suggests that Umm an-Nar settlements might have been networked and inter-reliant (Phillips 1997: 206). Umm anNar settlements are characterised by stone construction, and tower buildings and multi-chambered collective burials distributed over a large area of the peninsula. They are located in varying geographical zones across the peninsula including on the coast (e.g. Ghanadha, Bidya, Kalba, Umm an-Nar and Tell Abraq), in the interior (Hili, Bat, Maysar 25 and the Wadi Bahla), along the foothills of the Hajar Mountains and on the gravel hills and wadi fans. The larger settlements centred on the towers are located on top of small rocky hills or outcrops and immediately under foothills, as well as on the wadi edges and terraces. A number suggest some degree of ‘internal complexity’, with the juxtaposition of the remains indicating both the presence of social structure and a varied architectural tradition. Investigations at Hili, Bat and Maysar have yielded detailed insight into settlement organisation. At both Hili and Bat several towers are found within an area of 20–30 hectares, and are associated with other smaller houses that surround them (Cleuziou 1984: 382). The tower buildings generally are constructed with a solid lower basement and a central well (e.g. Hili 1, Hili 8, Bat, Maysar 25, Firq, Wadi Bahla [BB19 & 22], al-Khashbah, Amlah, etc.). Their shape varies between circular, square and rectangular, circular towers being the most common. They are constructed of stone (e.g. Bat, Maysar 25), mudbrick (e.g. Hili 1, Hili 8 and Bidya) or a combination of both (e.g. Tell Abraq) (Potts 1990c: 30–31). Their inner plan is a symmetrical pattern with rows of small compartments on both sides, filled with stones, gravel and rubble. Possibly these towers were occupied by elevated individuals within the social hierarchy (Cleuziou 1984: 382). Oftentimes, they are surrounded by smaller rectangular and square buildings which are divided into several rooms or units with stone wall foundations (e.g. Bat, Hili 8 and Maysar 25). These probably served as houses, but parts of these buildings were designated for industrial activities, including copper smelting and production (e.g. Hili, Bat and Maysar 25). Other specialised activities included the production of pottery, stone tools and basketry. Umm an-Nar tombs have been reported across the peninsula and show substantial similarities in construction, 157

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula grave goods and burial customs (ibid: 383). They are always located in close proximity to settlements. They are circular, multi-chambered collective monuments, and contain between two to ten separate chambers that hold the skeletal remains of up to several hundred individuals (Blau 2001: 560). The Umm an-Nar period was the first that has produced concrete evidence for specialisation, and for a highly structured and complex social system as well as a sophisticated and widespread culture covering the whole of the region. Wadi Andam Survey Conclusion (Levels 4–6) The Wadi Andam Survey yielded a significant level of Umm an-Nar material from across the study area. This indicates a notable increase in the level of activity at this time at the sites of future wadi villages, but also a decline in areas where Hafit cairns are commonly found. This evidence comes from PCAs, large and small settlements, tombs, ‘other structures’ and pottery scatters. The period is represented by a small number of large sites (over 10 hectares) and considerably more sites smaller in size. Larger sites are usually concentrated within or in close proximity to modern villages while smaller sites are often located away from the modern villages, and are scattered along the wadi banks. In this respect, it is worth pointing out that the size of sites recorded during this survey does not compare with the size of sites found in other parts of the Middle East, such as the tells of Mesopotamia (e.g. Adams 1965 & 1981; Wilkinson TJ 2003) and the Levant (cf. Joffe 1993; MacDonald, Adams & Bienkowski 2001). This probably reflects lower levels of agricultural productivity and population generally. Umm an-Nar sites are more commonly located in the northern part of the Wadi Andam and dwindle in number as one moves towards the south. There was a greater level of activity during this period than in all other preIslamic periods. The evidence suggests that many of the wadi villages and their environs were occupied or exploited by the population of the period. This suggests that a fundamental change had taken place at the beginning of the period, initiating a new settlement pattern visible across the region. From this period, despite fluctuating population size and complexity in society, settlements patterns have remained more or less stable and they have remained largely in the same locations. With the exception of some Beehives and cairns from the preceeding period in the environs of some of the wadi villages, the Umm an-Nar period provides the earliest evidence for the occupation of the wadi villages. While in contrast, the substantial Hafit tomb fields are oftentimes distributed over areas that do not produce evidence from later periods. This clear shift in how the population occupied the landscape may relate to the fact that Hafit tombs occupy elevated areas where it is difficult to establish larger settlements like those established during the Umm an-Nar. These require flat areas that are very

close to water and other natural resources. The most likely areas are found along the base of the foothills and along the wadi banks. The layout of the large Umm an-Nar sites is not sufficiently clear to provide us with much evidence regarding their precise organisation. This is true with the possible exception of al-Ghoryeen CS.2.5.2. Its layout can be divided into three or four parts: the tower building, a quarter for houses and associated structures, and two quarters for burials within close vicinity of the settlement. This juxtaposition and the high number, variety and quality of the Umm an-Nar pottery found at the site suggests a considerable degree of socio-economic complexity and a larger and more specialised population than in the preceding periods. Some other Umm an-Nar sites include towers as well as the remains of ‘other structures’, tomb fields and pottery scatters. Sometimes these have only a single tower (e.g. CS.2.52), sometimes multiple monumental structures (e.g. CS.5). The nature of occupation within these towers is unclear: who was occupying them? What was their function? Two suggestions can be made: first, they might be designated for some elite members of society, most possibly a headman or chief/sheikh, whilst the other inhabitants might have lived in structures surrounding the tower, as was perhaps the case at site CS.2.52; second, that each of these towers was inhabited by a group of people from the same kin or family, and thus the towers were designated to protect them from any attack (see Umm an-Nar Period Summary below). The inhabitants of these sites might have also reserved parts of the village for their ancestors and dead. It should also be noted that the pattern during the Umm an-Nar period appears to show a close association in the evidence between tombs and settlement which is quite different to that from the Hafit as well as the Wadi Suq periods. It appears that the Umm an-Nar tomb fields are not built in high positions but in flat areas located not far from the main settlement. It is possible, as suggested in the previously published data, that the inhabitants of the Umm an-Nar period at Wadi Andam practised agriculture and animal husbandry. This might be supported by the evidence already recovered from excavated sites within the limits of Wadi Andam Survey study area, such as those at Maysar. Excavations at Maysar 1 (Weisgerber 1981: 191–196) yielded floral remains in the form of date stones, suggesting perhaps date palm cultivation together with other possible crops. Irrigating these crops was probably carried out using low barrages or dams (gabarbands), as suggested by the Harvard survey (Meadow, Humphries & Hastings 1976: 111). Wells were also used for both agricultural and domestic purposes. As has been indicated above, evidence for wells from this time was attested at Maysar 25 and House 3 at Maysar 1. One also cannot dismiss the possibility of irrigation based on falaj channels suggested previously by the al-Hajar Project (Orchard & Stanger 1994: 87). However, until further supporting and consistent evidence comes to light, this remains an open question. 158

Discussion and Interpretation Local Area Conclusion (Level 3) This period is well represented in the local area where almost all of the previously undertaken surveys have yielded both large and small settlements with varying functions including fortifications, copper production/ smelting sites and domestic structures. These include, for example, the copper production/smelting sites recorded in the al-Mudhaybi area (e.g. Bilad al-Maaidin-1 & 2; Mullaq; Maysar 1; Maysar M2, M16, M4 [Weisgerber 1981]; and Wadi Samad 5 [Meadow, Humphries & Hastings 1976]), Ibra (e.g. Batin 1; Zahir 2 & 3 [Berthoud 1978: 13]) Bahla (e.g. al-Aqir [Weisgerber & Yule 2003]). Fortifications include a number recorded in Wadi Bahla (BB16, BB19 & BB20–22) (Meadow, Humphries & Hastings 1976) and in the Bisya area (Orchard & Orchard 1985, 1997, 2002). Often these towers are associated with or surrounded by other domestic and industrial stone structures of varying size and function (e.g. Maysar M25 [Weisgerber 1981: 198–203]). These are located on the summit of hills and rocky outcrops and at the foot of their slopes and on the banks or terraces of wadis. They are sometimes associated with Umm an-Nar tombs. Indeed, a number of survey projects have associated nearby Hafit and Beehive tombs with these settlements, including in the Bisya area by the alHajar Project and Bahla BB19 by the Harvard Expedition. Regional and Sub-Regional Level Conclusion (Levels 1–2) A large number of Umm an-Nar sites are found across the entirety of the northern Oman Peninsula suggesting that there was growth in the intensity of activity at this time in comparison with preceding periods. The same pattern is visible across the whole of the area, with the exception of the Batinah and Hajar Mountains regions which witness a stable level of activity. The statistical analysis indicates that both settlements and tombs are found across a large area of the peninsula. Both large and small settlements are represented having different functions including fortifications, copper production/ smelting sites or domestic structures. The location, size and layout of these settlements are the same as those in the published data. The size of some of the buildings is large, mainly the Umm an-Nar towers. In some cases, these towers are associated or surrounded by domestic or workshop (e.g. copper production or smelting) stone structures of different sizes (e.g. Bat, Hili, Maysar), as well as tomb fields. The evidence from the regional level provides us with a reasonable amount of information about the settlement pattern during this time, and this points in the same direction as the previous archaeological evidence. It shows that the Umm an-Nar period is the first period with some evidence of specialisation and of a highly structured, complex social system as well as a sophisticated and widespread culture across the whole region of study. Summary It appears that it was during the Umm an-Nar period that substantial settlements were established, at the site of the

modern wadi villages, indicating an increase in the size and density of population. Little is known for sure about the precise structure of society and how this effected the development and organisation of these settlements. However with the evidence that is available, it is possible to provide a tentative model for how Umm an-Nar society may have been structured. The high number of settlements and tombs seen across the peninsula, the large monumental architecture, the nature of the funerary practices, the apparent specialisation within society, and the strong evidence for exchange and trade with neighbouring regions are suggestive of a specialised and integrated society. Some attempts to exegete the social structure in greater detail within the Oman Peninsula during this period, have been made (e.g. Tosi 1986; Cleuziou and Tosi 1989 & 2007: 239–245; Lancaster and Lancaster 1991, 1992, 1996 & 2002; Cleuziou 2002 & 2003). All agree that, unlike the early states in Mesopotamia and Egypt based on cities with a strong social hierarchical order (c.f. Maisels 1999), the social structure of Arabia was largely based on kinship and equality among the members of society. This kinship provides a high level of integration and cooperation within society that secures subsistence and the exploitation of natural resources as well as the continuation and purveyance of tribal traditions and customs. Umm an-Nar society might have been loosely organised into different groups, including a head of the family or tribe (e.g. sheikh, chief or head), elites (e.g. priests, leaders, merchants), craftsmen, farmers and labourers and warriors. Possibly specialisation provided the principal impetus for the division and organisation of the society. With strong evidence for full-time specialisation: such as craftsmen (e.g. pottery, softstone, copper) and for the organisation of labour for building, transporting and production of agricultural infrastructure as well as for trade, wealth and luxury, the division and specialisation of labour was likely to prove an important factor. For example, the evidence indicates full-time pottery specialisation. The remarkable homogeneity and consistent high quality of Umm an-Nar ceramics from across the entire peninsula is well attested to (cf. Méry 1996 & 2000). However, local wares have been reported from different sites across the peninsula, indicating the involvement of a number of specialists. Evidence for the sophistication of ceramics manufacture may be seen at Hili where a pottery kiln dating to the 3rd millennium BC was excavated (Frifelt 1990: 4–15). Evidence from a number of sites suggests full-time specialisation would have been nessecary to carry out the processes involved in copper mining and smelting (cf. Weeks 2004b). The size and sophisticated construction testify to the fact that they would have been a big investment to build and would have involved a significant number of people within the society. They may suggest a degree of status competition between the Umm an-Nar elite (Cleuziou & 159

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula Tosi 2007: 240). The construction of these towers suggest the need for specialists to cut and organise the transport and placement of the masonry blocks. The same is true to a lesser extent with regards to the other domestic and industrial structures. Moreover, less skilled labour would be nessecary to undertake the production of crops and animal husbandry, as well as whatever engineering may have been nessecary to manage the distribution of water resources. Farming might have also been practised parttime by potters, miners and herders. Besides wells (e.g. Hili 8 [Cleuziou 1982: 19], Maysar 25 [Weisgerber 1981: 198–200] and House 3 at Maysar 1 [Weisgerber 1980: 82]) and gabarbands (Meadow, Humphries & Hastings 1976: 111), it is also argued by a small number of academics that the falaj technique was utilised during the 3rd millennium BC (Orchard & Stanger 1994: 87 & 1999: 96). If this was the case, then specialists would have been required to maintain the falaj channels and wells. Although there is no clear evidence for writing during this time, there is evidence for rock art in the form of engraving and relief (e.g. Umm an-Nar Island, Hili). This might indicate the presence of part-time artists. Moreover, the recovery of stamp seals carved locally from the remains of the upper part of a broken steatite hemispherical bowl found at Ras al-Jinz with inscribed South Arabian writing might indicate the use of some system of writing, suggesting that by the end of the 3rd millennium BC Magan had reached a significant level of complexity (Cleuziou & Tosi 2007: 245–247). Cleuziou (2003: 146) suggests the development of a local writing system for commercial purposes, perhaps adopted from the Harappan or Proto-Elamite system. He argues that this adoption might indicate an ‘administrative system’ in the Oman Peninsula during the Umm an-Nar period, which was also associated with the development of the ‘social structure’ (2002: 225). However, the question of whether Umm an-Nar society was hierarchical is complex and cannot yet be resolved. Some of the evidence already discussed might suggest some degree of social complexity, but it is circumstantial and there is a lack of definitive evidence for an elite status. There are no palaces or high-status residences, and burial is communal and egalitarian. It is possible that the round towers known at many sites may have functioned as elite residences, but the evidence from Bat, for example (Frifelt 1979a: 582-584, 2002: 107) suggests that these towers may not have been occupied at all, and there is therefore considerable debate regarding the nature of their function (cf. Frifelt 1979a: 578; Potts 1990a: 102; Crawford 1998: 112-120; Orchard & Orchard 2002: 165-175). So whilst their construction is evidence for some degree of social organization and specialisation, they cannot be taken as conclusive evidence for an elite or ruling class. More feasible perhaps is the existence of priests or religious leaders who organised the population’s ritual practices. Umm an-Nar tombs are distributed all over the peninsula

and show homogeneity in their structure and in how they were used in burial practices. They are large multichambered monuments used for collective burials; with the most complete examples interring hundreds of skeletons of different gender and age. It is likely that these funerary practices were organised and led by priestly members of the population. This would explain the homogeneity seen across the peninsula. It might have been their duty to teach people how to perform such practices, possibly in order to satisfy beliefs related to a god or divine. One might also suggest that there was a ‘cult-centre’ during this time, which people visited in order to practise these rituals. In fact, there is no evidence for such religious places in the form of monuments, such as temples, but it is possible that people practised their cult in an openarea or in an everyday context. In this place, people might have learned, perhaps via priests, how to practise their life rituals, such as worshipping their god(s) and building their tombs, as well as burying their dead in the correct manner. There is a large volume of literature dealing with the concept of trade and exchange between Oman and its neighbours during the 3rd millennium BC (e.g. DuringCaspers 1971; Potts 1978, 1993a, 1993c: 423–427 & 1994; Cleuziou & Tosi 1989 & 2007: 184–191; Edens 1992, Cleuziou 1992, 2002, 2003; Cleuziou & Méry 2002). This trade is a powerful indication of the social order and organisation within the communities, which were able to produce and transport exportable goods of use to the most advanced civilizations at that time. Copper was the primary commodity to be exported during this period, and formed an important part of the local economy. It required a substantial workforce to mine, smelt and cast copper, as well as to transport it in varying forms to the trading centres. A number of passages in Mesopotamian texts suggest that Magan was a developed country that provided not only raw materials and semi-finished goods but also specialised workers – perhaps miners, coppersmiths, stone cutters or ship builders – tools and other products to the outside world, including Dilmun and Mesopotamia (Cleuziou & Tosi 2007: 187). Coastal settlements (e.g. Umm an-Nar, Ras al-Jinz, Tell Abraq) were the primary entrepôts for the trade of exported and imported goods and their transfer to and from the rest of the peninsula. Though mainly circumstantial in nature, this combined evidence is suggestive of a social structure demonstrating considerable integration between Umm an-Nar communities. However, this is an important topic that requires further research and fieldwork. What is clear is that the Umm an-Nar period represents a significant change from the Hafit period, and marks the establishment of a more complex socio-economic structure. The mechanism that drove this transition appears to have been the crucial shift from sparse nomadic or semi-nomadic settlement activity to numerous, dense and sizeable sedentary settlements. The population practised a combination of agriculture and pastoral nomadism, hunting-gathering and the exploitation of marine resources. 160

Discussion and Interpretation This subsistence economy ran parallel to specialised production activities and the exchange of various goods, as well as substantial foreign trade with neighbouring regions. Linked to this development in the local economic system and the regional exchange network was an increase in the population size as well as in the size and number of settlement and tomb sites. The Umm an-Nar represents the foundation of the wadi villages which were then habitually abanonded and resettled over the millenia. Evidence from the Wadi Andam Survey has shown that all of the wadi villages that were investigated yielded evidence from this period, with Umm an-Nar pottery being some of the most common. This suggests that this period witnessed one of the most intense periods of occupation in the history of the region. It can be argued that this strengthens our understanding of two points: first, the radical change that took place at the beginning of this period, with a completely new settlement structure and economy; second that after that time, settlement patterns remained almost stable and settlements remained largely in the same locations. The only difference is in the intensity of use of these settlement locations. Wadi Suq Period Previous Archaeological Conclusion (Level 1) The archaeological evidence for the Wadi Suq period is dominated by tombs of various forms, that undeniably outweigh the strength of the settlement evidence. Wadi Suq tombs are concentrated in the northern part of the peninsula and consist mostly of long, collective overground burials (Carter 1997b: 87; see also below). There are also single cist burials that have been located all over the peninsula, but mostly in the eastern part (Cleuziou 1981: 291). It is argued that a new cultural development occured during the early 2nd millennium BC marking increased regional differentiation (Cleuziou 1981; Potts 1990a: 234; Velde 2003). The number of known Wadi Suq settlements is diminuitive in comparison to the Umm an-Nar period: the pattern of occupation and settlement during the 2nd millennium BC remains unclear in comparison with the Umm an-Nar period and the succeeding Iron Age (Carter 1997b: 96). Certainly there was a marked change in settlement patterns and funerary customs as well as pottery types (Cleuziou 1981 & 1984; Carter 1997a-b; Velde 2003). However, during the early Wadi Suq period, Umm an-Nar traditions were not suddenly abandoned - there was a transitional phase with clear links between the two periods (Potts 1990a: 234; Carter 1997b: 97). Wadi Suq remains are frequently located in the same areas to those of the previous Umm an-Nar period (Carter 1997b: 96–97). Considerably less is known of the second part of the 2nd millennium BC, which is thought by some to have been a time in which the population turned to what is described by Cleuziou (1981: 292) as ‘full time nomadism’, with an economy based on herding. However, this idea has been challenged by the discovery of settlements of the period

(e.g. Tell Abraq, Kalba 4 and Shimal). These sites have demonstrated that some form of settled life continued into the second part of the 2nd millennium BC, at least in parts of the peninsula (cf. Potts 1990a: 234; Vogt & Franke-Vogt 1987; Franke-Vogt 1991; Velde 1991, 1992; Carter 1997a-b); these sites yielded large monumental buildings and a ceramic sequence spanning the entirety of the 2nd millennium BC (Carter 1997b: 87). It is possible that during the Wadi Suq period, substantial sedentary settlement continued in parts of the peninsula (ibid: 95). However, our knowledge of their way of life is still unclear (Cleuziou & Tosi 2007: 257–259). Furthermore, the evidence demonstrates clear development in the ceramic sequence between the early and middle 2nd millennium BC, and between the middle and late 2nd millennium BC (Potts 1990a: 234). However, the vast majority of Wadi Suq sites are small in size and with structural remains that indicate perhaps ‘simple village communities’ with relatively low population levels and simplistic social organisation (Carter 1997b: 94–95). Additionally, the number of sites dating to this period, especially larger sites, is small, indicating perhaps a decline of settlement, population and economic and social complexity (ibid: 96–97). However, the peninsula during this time was not totally isolated and contact continued with Dilmun, Mesopotamia, Elam and the Indus Valley (Cleuziou 1981: 291; Carter 1997b: 96). Very little is known regarding the subsistence economy employed in the inland areas during the Wadi Suq period. While more evidence is available from coastal areas along the Arabian Gulf, at sites such as the settlement of Shimal (Vogt & Franke-Vogt 1987; Franke-Vogt 1991) and Tell Abraq (Potts 1990a: 257, 1990c: 56–95, 1991, 2000). These sites have provided evidence for faunal remains, suggesting large-scale of shellfish and animal husbandry (e.g. sheep, goat, cattle, camel, pig, dog and gazelle). There is also circumstantial evidence for the continued employment of agriculture during this time at Tell Abraq (e.g. date stones and grinding stones) and possibly from Shimal (grinding stones and high occurrence of dental caries indicating date consumption) (Potts, 1990a: 257; Carter 1997b: 94). Trade is in evidence from the recovery of imported goods from neighbouring regions. Wadi Andam Survey Conclusion (Levels 4–6) The evidence from the Wadi Andam Survey provides a significant contribution to our understanding of this period. A number of hypotheses and conclusions have been set out by numerous scholars for decline during the Wadi Suq period but no-one has yet attempted to quantify it. Instead their conclusions are based on an assessment of the number of sites that are known from the literature and the frequent absence of Wadi Suq layers from major sites. The Wadi Andam data are the first to give a quantifiable indication of the relative scale of this decline at the lowest level of the settlement hierarchy. This period is only represented by a small number of sparsely distributed pottery sherds, almost none of which come from previously established settlement 161

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula areas. In terms of structures, only a small number of tombs dating to the period were recorded. The statistical analysis from the pottery database indicates that the numbers of Wadi Suq sherds from all the survey parts (PCAs, OVAs and UWA) are always markedly lower than for the other pre-Islamic periods, especially the Umm an-Nar and Iron Age, indicating a marked change in the settlement pattern employed between these periods. Therefore, although there is a lack of evidence of settlement from both PCA assemblages and other settlements, there seems to be some evidence for the use of tombs, mostly located in or around the wadi villages. Unlike the Umm an-Nar overground tombs, and those from the Wadi Suq period found in the northern part of the peninsula, those in Wadi Andam are subterranean and most likely contain only a single inhumation. Furthermore, unlike the Umm an-Nar period where there is a clear association between tombs and settlements, there is a different relationship between tombs and settlements during the Wadi Suq. The evidence suggests that there was still activity of some sort around the wadi villages that had been occupied during the Umm an-Nar period, but there is no evidence for their continued occupation. Unfortunately, the Wadi Andam Survey did not yield any settlement remains comparable to sites such as Tell Abraq, Kalba 4 and Shimal. Clearly, during this time there was marked change in settlement patterns across Wadi Andam. It is unclear whether the reasons behind this decline are related to an economic event or change, or population decline, or to climate change – all are distinct possiblities. However, apparently the Wadi Suq population made use of the same sites in which their Umm an-Nar ‘ancestors’ had lived. This evidence for the continued use of tombs during the Wadi Suq period is intriguing. All of these tombs are located on the fringes of the wadi villages that the PCA evidence suggests had been largely abandoned during this period. The most likely explanation for this is that ancient burial areas continued to be used either by very small residual communities who left very little traces in the archaeological record, or by nomadic or semi-nomadic populations who continued to use the old abandoned settlements as camp sites and cemeteries. This might indicate some sort of cultural attachment to ancestral lands, or it might simply indicate that these locations continued to be attractive due to the natural resources they offered. In the southern part of the peninsula where Wadi Suq tombs consist of single subterranean burials, no evidence for the re-use of Umm an-Nar tombs has been reported. Instead smaller and simpler single tombs were constructed in the same locality. It should be noted that the Wadi Suq populations were living not in unrestrained virgin environment but in a landscape which had already been shaped irrevocably by the activity of an Umm anNar population that had chosen the primary locations for settlement and occupation. In effect it was a second-hand landscape, so this might, to some extent, have shaped their response. There appears to have been a continued, or a reoccupation, of this already exploited landscape but with a differing intensity and conforming to a different pattern.

Local Area Conclusion (Level 3) Only a small number of Wadi Suq sites that have yielded possible settlement evidence and tombs have so far been recorded in the local area. This conforms to the picture of the period apparent from both the published evidence and the Wadi Andam Survey. It has already been noted in Chapter Five that this period thinly represented by two areas: al-Hamra and Ibra. In al-Hamra, it is represented by one re-used Hafit cairn on a hill, and in Ibra by a number of tombs associated with pottery sherds on a wadi terrace. Neither area yielded any evidence of occupation from this time. This evidence is slightly different to that from the Wadi Andam Survey which yielded evidence from tombs and, possibly, settlements. The evidence is very little from both types of site but there is more from tombs. The minimal amount of occupational evidence from Wadi Andam comes from the few pottery sherds picked up in the pottery collection areas (PCAs) as well as from other types of structure. Regional and Sub-Regional Level Conclusion (Levels 1–2) Although the evidence from the whole of the northern Oman Peninsula shows a decline in the number of known sites during the Wadi Suq period, there is considerable subregional variation. The data shows a growth in the number of recorded sites in the northern part of the peninsula, namely, the Musandam and Northern Emirates. While across the rest of the peninsula there was decline or stability in the level of activity. Therefore, it is possible to argue that that, unlike the Umm an-Nar period, which shows broadly similar patterns across the peninsula, the Wadi Suq appears to indicate significant sub-regional variation. The high number of Wadi Suq sites in Musandam and the Northern Emirates is notable and difficult to explain. It is likely related at least to some extent to the problem of tomb visibility: Wadi Suq tombs in this region are overground structures, making them easy to identify. While contemporary tombs in the southern part of the peninsula are subterranean and are difficult to locate during survey. Additionally, subterranean tombs are difficult to distinguish from tombs of later periods including the Iron Age and Hellenistic–Parthian period (cf. Yule 2001a). However, parsimoniously it is also possible that we are dealing with an archaeological reality in which the high percentage of sites within this region is indicative of the fact that there was more intense activity taking place in this part of the peninsula, or that the nature of the activity differed in this sub-region, which could be called a ‘Wadi Suq Enclave’. Perhaps this sub-region is significant for certain environmental or topographical reasons. It encompasses a long mountainous area crossed by several wadis, which could have provided water, arable land and other natural resources. However, these resources are notably absent elsewhere in the peninsula. The limited palaeoenvironmental data available does not 162

Discussion and Interpretation allow us to chart climatic change with any certainty. It is, however, possible that aquifers were more accessible and groundwater more abundant in this part of the peninsula during the Wadi Suq period. It is possible that the inhabitants of this time had access to the water table by digging down into the wadi bed to tap groundwater flow. This water comes from the mountains and foothills passing below the ground and is reserved in layers of porous sediments which partly cover the principally resistant bedrock, thus establishing reachable aquifers in the gravel fans along the mountains (Carter 1997a: 18). Fertile soil and groundwater is plentiful and traditional agricultural irrigation is based on wells (cf. Bowen-Jones 1966/7; Wilkinson JC 1977; Kennet 2004). Whether or not this was the case during the Wadi Suq period is unclear and cannot at this stage be established. Moreover, this region is located close to southern Iran and the Straits of Hormuz, which perhaps facilitated continued contact and trade. However, it is difficult, with the evidence at hand, to be certain whether topographic, climatic and/or economic factors were the major reasons behind this increase in the number of Wadi Suq sites within the Musandam and Northern Emirates region. Summary The archaeological evidence for the Wadi Suq period consists of a substantial number and variety of tombs and funerary structures, which far outweighs the evidence for occupation. Despite the fact that there is evidence for continuity in a sedentary lifestyle in some parts of the peninsula across the 2nd millennium BC, settlement remains are ephemeral when compared to those of the preceding Umm an-Nar period and the subsequent Iron Age. The bulk of the evidence from this period indicates that there was decline in settlement intensity. This trend has a parallel in the Middle and Late Bronze Age in the arid zone of the Levant, where very little settlement evidence has been recovered for the period between around 2000 and 800 BC (cf. MacDonald, Adams & Bienkowski 2001). It is at present impossible to provide a definite explanation for the decline during the Wadi Suq period. It is possibly related to deterioration in climate at the end of the 3rd millennium BC (Brunswig 1989: 37–38). Radiocarbon evidence from several playa lake beds indicates that the peninsula underwent a transformation of progressive aridity from the end of the 4th millennium BC (cf. McClure 1988; Parker et al. 2006: 474). This might be supported by the evidence from, for example, Hili 8, which indicates a lowering in the water table during the 3rd and perhaps the 2nd millennium BC. The bottom of the central well of the earliest tower was found at 3.85 m deep, while a well associated with the second tower used at the onset of the 2nd millennium BC reached depths of 8.5m (Cleuziou 2002: 198). Another possible reason destabilisation due to the (Cleuziou & Tosi 2007: this may have led to the

for the decline is external arrival of a new population 271–272). It is argued that destruction of the previously

established social structure and the dispersal of its population across a wide area, although there is no strong evidence for such a suggestion. It is also argued that the decline in the Oman Peninsula’s wealth during the first part of the 2nd millennium BC was a result of changes in the economy of the Arabian Gulf at that time (cf. Crawford 1996 & 1998). During the early 2nd millennium BC (the end of Ur III period), Magan seems to disappear from the Mesopotamian texts, mirrored by an absence of Mesopotamian artefacts on the Oman Peninsula (Crawford 1998: 131). At this time, Dilmun took control of Arabian Gulf trade and become the main entrepôt for long-distance trade between the Oman Peninsula and its neighbouring regions. Goods from Oman (e.g. copper, pottery and softstone vessels) and the Indus Valley were transported by the merchants of Dilmun to Mesopotamia and Susa (Carter 1997a: 111). The archaeological evidence from the peninsula indicates that there was significant contact with Dilmun – testified to by the recovery of a large number of red-ridged Barbar pottery sherds from late 3rd and early 2nd millennium BC contexts at Tell Abraq. These sherds parallel those recovered from City II at Qala‘at al-Bahrain and at Failaka (Potts 1990a: 247, 1991: 72–75, 1993b: 123). These sherds were also found at Khatt (de Cardi, Kennet & Stocks 1994: 44–46) and Nud Ziba (Kennet & Velde 1995). The recovery of this pottery from these strata at Tell Abraq, and the evidence for the transportation of copper through Dilmun to Mesopotamia, indicates that the inland Omani copper was still being exported during the early 2nd millennium BC (Carter 1997a: 117). These political and economic changes may have played a role in shifting the peninsula’s contact routes as well as its settlement patterns. Due to the shift in trading patterns in the Arabian Gulf area, Magan perhaps attempted to find an alternative trade contact for exporting its goods, which was possibly the Indus Valley (Crawford 1998: 131). This contact is evidenced by the recovery of Harappan materials from sites such as Shimal and Ra al-Jinz (ibid: 131). The Indus civilisation appears to have undergone important cultural changes from the rise of urbanisation during the Mature Harappan period between 2600 and 1900 BC to the decline of this tradition after 1900 BC (cf. Allchin 1995: 26–40). The Mature Harappan period corresponds with the Umm an-Nar period, and the decline coincides with the Wadi Suq period. Little can be said about the cause of the breakdown of the structure of Harappan society during the 2nd millennium BC. but the possibilities are too numerous to discuss here but different individual or combined factors have been suggested (ibid: 27–28). These include natural factors – a decline in rainfall and a gradual increase in the human and bovine population leading to land exhaustion – calamitous natural events – a sudden change of course of the Indus river – human intervention – the movement of tribesmen into the Indus Valley from the hills to the west, and the collapse of trade contacts with Mesopotamia in the early 2nd millennium BC – and epidemics that weakened the ability of the Indus population to adapt to change in the environment and the outside world. 163

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula This breakdown or decline of the Indus civilisation during the 2nd millennium BC involved the abandonment of urban centres (Allchin 1982: 330). It is possible that during this post-urban period the climate deteriorated and provoked the population of more arid regions to adopt and develop new means of survival, possibly shifting to pastoral nomadism or increasing the cultivation of millets. This progressive decline in the ‘Harappan socio-cultural system’ did not happen evenly in all the urban centres (cf. Possehl & Raval 1989: 24). Some elements do appear to have continued into the post-urban period, but there was a complete disintegration and abandonment of the specialised urban crafts and in the trade networks (Allchin 1995: 38). Allchin argues that the population of Sindh was overwhelmed and that there was a complete disappearance of specialised urban crafts. By contrast, in areas of less volatile climate there is significant evidence for the continued occupation of many settlements during the posturban period, especially in the Punjab, Haryana and the northern part of the Ganges–Yamuna Doab. Allchin claims that the distribution of these areas indicates a general migration of population towards the east due to the climatic deterioration in the Indus region and the availability of water resources in the Sarasvati Yamuna River. Thus, the northern regions played a significant role in the survival of elements of the Indus culture and ideology. It is possible that these changes that were taking place in the Indus civilisation might have affected the Oman Peninsula in some way that has yet to be established. Dilmun control over long-distance trade in the Gulf appears to have ended during the Old Babylonian period (end of the Isin Larsa period) due to the appearance of new trade routes between Babylonia (Mesopotamia) and the copper mines of Anatolia and Cyprus, as well as the decline of the cities of southern Mesopotamia (Crawford 1996: 16–17). This shift resulted in the relative isolation of the Oman Peninsula during the Middle and Late Wadi Suq periods (Carter 1997a: 123). However, Failaka continued as a trade centre, judging from the recovery of Old Babylonian material at Tell Abraq (ibid: 123). These political and economic changes in the wider region are likely to have significantly influenced the economy of the Oman Peninsula, as well as the ancient maritime Gulf trade that had flourished during the 3rd millennium BC (Crawford 1998: 121). The decline in the importance of copper from the Hajar Mountains might have affected the residents of this part of the peninsula, and might help to explain the lack of large Wadi Suq sites in these areas (Carter 1997b: 96). However, this remains purely theoretical until further evidence comes to light that can provide a more detailed picture of the nature of the Wadi Suq social structure and occupation of the landscape. Certainly, it seems that it was completely different to that of the Umm an-Nar period. It is difficult to say anything of any certainty regarding the nature of the social structure during this period. It is possible that there was a collapse in the complex social

structure that had developed during the Umm an-Nar period, which as yet is difficult to explain. It is possible that this might be associated with the decline and shift in the copper trade. The evidence indicates that numerous socioeconomic changes occurred during this time, including the production of new types of pottery, copper tools and stone vessels, as well as the construction of new types of tombs including the use of single burials for the first time in more than a millennium (Cleuziou & Tosi 2007: 257 & 266–270). There were changes in the pottery; both in quantity and quality (cf. Velde 2003): there are fewer types and they are decorated less, which in all likelihood is linked to changes in the production and distribution patterns (cf. Méry 2000). Moreover, no new towers seem to have been constructed or Umm an-Nar structures reused (with the exception of Tell Abraq and Nud Ziba which continued to be used). There was no continuation of large collective burial, apart from in the north where the tombs are quite different from Umm an-Nar structures, both architecturally and ritually. Moreover, there seems to be a much greater variety in tomb architecture during this time and different tomb types can be found in the same area: for example, in Ras al-Khaimah alone where three or more different multiple burial types are attested: Khatt, Shimal and Ghalilah (cf. Carter 1997a). The majority of these tombs are single subterranean burials, particularly those in the south-eastern part of the peninsula. Cleuziou (2002: 228) argues that the appearance of single tombs during the Wadi Suq might be related to changes in kinship relations, and that this change ended the establishment of ‘an early state structure in the Oman Peninsula, no matter what level had actually been reached’. This might have resulted in the population changing their settlement patterns and structure. However, these are speculations that need to be confirmed by future fieldwork: the question of the collapse of social structures is difficult to answer with any certainty based on the currently available evidence. It is difficult to be certain whether climate and/or trade played a major role in influencing the low number and sparse distribution of Wadi Suq sites. However, it is possible that two communities with contrasting economic strategies existed side by side during the Wadi Suq period. The first being a nomadic or semi-nomadic population residing in the southern and south-eastern parts of the peninsula, as suggested by the evidence from the Wadi Andam Survey. Other nomadic populations might have existed in some areas of the north, as suggested by single subterranean tombs. The settlements belonging to these groups were perhaps small temporary structures built of perishable material, such as huts or barasti houses. This suggestion accords with Cleuziou’s theory (1981: 292) regarding the existence of a nomadic way of life during the 2nd millennium BC. These groups were peripatetic and formed part of the process of material and cultural exchange between themselves and the settled populations in the far north of the peninsula (Carter 1997a: 121). The other community continued in a sedentary lifestyle in the northern part of the peninsula, suggested by the 164

Discussion and Interpretation discovery of large permanent settlements at, for example, Tell Abraq, Kalba 4, Shimal and Bida‘a. The existence of these sites indicates that there was no sudden abandonment of 3rd millennium BC farming practices, but their importance might have been reduced (ibid: 122). Regarding the tomb architecture of these two communities, it seems likely that the large collective overground tombs in the northern part of the peninsula involved significant investment of time, effort and organised labour to build (ibid: 54). The construction of this type of tomb is more likely to have been undertaken by settled communities with access to appropriate resources in a specific location. By contrast, the simple and small subterranean tombs that characterise the southern and south-eastern parts of the peninsula are easy to construct and do not require as much time, effort and organisation. Thus, it is possible that these small single-subterranean burials might indicate the presence of small nomadic or semi-nomadic groups who were moving around. Many of these tombs are grouped into cemeteries (e.g. Wadi Suq [Frifelt 1973d & 1974]; Samad S10, S20, S21 and S22 & Maysar M8 [Yule & Kazenwadel 1993: 253–254; Yule et al. 1994: 385; Yule & Weisgerber 1988: 8–12]). Their occurrence in large numbers in the same locality might be related to the fact that the Wadi Suq nomadic populations had a belief in ancestor worship or reverence, and so they returned to their ancestors’ lands to bury their dead. They built smaller, simple tombs in the locality where their ancestors were buried. Although these tombs are mostly grouped into cemeteries, there are a number spread across the countryside on their own, such as the excavated tombs in the Bustan (Gr.Bu6 & Gr.Bu8 [Yule 2001a: 374–376]), as well as those observed during the Wadi Andam Survey (e.g. CS.2.4 and possibly CS.5.18 and CS.7.2). Probably, these nomadic groups utilised specific areas as burial grounds and lived in temporary structures near or not far from these tombs. To sum up, it is possible that there was a climatic deterioration or economic change in the southern part of the peninsula that led to a collapse of the Umm an-Nar social structure and meant that the population had to adapt to alternative means of survival, perhaps by shifting to a pastoral nomadic lifestyle. However, this process does not seem to have occurred equally in every region, with the northern part of the peninsula suggesting a very different socio-economic strategy. During the early Wadi Suq period, the Umm an-Nar period traditions were not suddenly abandoned, and there was a transitional period between the Umm an-Nar and early 2nd millennium BC with clear links between the two periods (Potts 1990a: 234; Carter 1997b: 97). Therefore, it is possible that some of the cultural elements that existed during the Umm an-Nar continued into this period, but with a complete disappearance of the specialised urban crafts and devolution in social complexity. This continuity can possibly be related to more or less steady climatic conditions and the availability of water resources in the northern Oman Peninsula.

It is possible that climate played a significant role in the seasonal migration of the nomadic Wadi Suq population. Ethnographic data available regarding modern nomadic tribes in Oman might shed a light on such a routine and the role of the climate and environment. In her book Mobile Pastoralist: Development Planning and Social Change in Oman, Chatty (1996) discusses the nature of occupation and seasonal movement of the Harasiis tribe. She indicates that the main concentration of this tribe is on the desert plateau of Jiddat-il-Harasiis, but in the summer they often share the Awta and the Jazir coast with the Jeneba tribe. They traditionally practise camel and goat husbandry, for the production of milk rather than meat, in the naturally available grazing lands (ibid: 81). Their seasonal migration is determined by an amalgamation of different seasonal and ecological variables in which the need for water and pasture for the herds dictates the options available to the family, with households likely to move every few weeks (ibid: 104). In other words, availability of water and pasture are the basic rule in dictating their way of life. Not unlike other pastoral groups, the Harasiis look for control over a territory or an ecological niche that provides them with adequate resources necessary for shared life. During winter, the Jiddat usually provides adequate shelter under the plentiful trees, as well as grazing lands in its numerous haylats and wadis. It also offers them the option of supplementing their diet with gazelle, the Arabian oryx and other game, which they occasionally hunt. During the later part of the winter, goat herds are kidded and provide abundant milk that compensates for the shortage of water. The availability of such resources in the Jiddat make the Harasiis movements less regular in the winter (ibid: 104). During the summer months when the temperature is extremely high and water resources are absent in the Jiddat, the Harasiis either move to the coastal areas or to the north, where they have established interdependent relationships with the sedentary populations along the Sharqyiah foothills, particularly around Adam and Sinaw. In the first instance, they move to the Jazir Coast and the Awta where there is access to a number of brackish water wells. Here, families tend to camp where the wild date groves of the Awta supply them with food for the herds, and where they practice trading in order to obtain bartered or bought fresh and dried fish (particularly sardines and shark) with their neighbours from the Jeneba tribe which shares the region with them. During this time, the purchase or small-scale catching of fresh fish plays an important part in their diet. By contrast, the movement of some of the other Harasiis families is towards the north into the Wadi Halfayn and even further north close to Adam, where some of them own date palm groves. They normally leave the fallow camel herd behind with an adult male in one of the major wadis leading to the sea from the Jiddat-il-Harasiis. Then, the bulk of them and their herd of goats move and settle close to their date gardens, where water, food and shelter are obtainable. During their stay, they look after the herds, milking the goats and camel for their basic dietary needs. Additionally, the women and older girls often braid the palm leaf fronds (sa‘af) from the local wild date trees 165

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula into food mats, bowls, baskets, covers, and a variety of other vessels for their own use and possible future sale. They often sell their young male goat kids as well as some of the braided items in the village marketplace to exchange or buy supplies for the coming winter months such as flour, sugar, tea, coffee, rice and cloth. Finally, when the summer ends, the families move back on to the Jiddat (Chatty 1996: 105). This ethnographic data might suggests similar seasonal movement among the pastrolists communities who were prehpas exist during the Wadi Suq period, particulary in the soutnern part of the northern peninsula. The few settlement remains found all over the peninsula, particulry those in the southern part, appear to have been occupied for a limited timespan, and their small size indicates perhaps that they were small sporadic campsites that were used by a nomadic population of limited size. This is supported by the simplicity of the layout and construction of the structural remains when compared with settlements of other periods, and by the low number and few types of pottery recovered, mostly from tombs. Iron Age (Early Iron Age)34 Previous Archaeological Conclusion (Level 1) Survey and excavation in the Oman Peninsula has revealed a large number of Iron Age sites distributed throughout the peninsula. There is general continuity in settlement patterns between the second half of the 2nd millennium BC (Late Wadi Suq) and the Early Iron Age (Iron Age I period) in the Oman Peninsula, despite the obvious dissimilarities in their assemblages (Potts 1990a: 254; Magee 1998b: 51; Magee & Carter 1999: 174). It is suggested (Magee & Carter 1999: 174) that the Iron Age I period (1300–1000 BC) was an early stage of settlement increase and the development of overseas trade and social hierarchy. Only a small number of coastal and inland settlement sites from this period have been discovered, including Tell Abraq, Shimal, Bithnah and Kalba 4 (Magee & Carter 1999). Apart from C14 dates from Salut and BB15 in Bahla (Avanzini, Sedov & Condoluci 2005: 351 & 374, Table 1), no sites from this period have so far been found in ‘Central Oman’, which might indicate that this period is in fact a ‘regional variant’ of the Iron Age and not a real period at all (Schreiber, 2007, Pers. Comm.). The archaeological evidence also indicates continuity in occupation between the Early Iron Age (Iron I & II Period) and the Late Iron Age (Iron III Period). This continuity is supported by the evidence from sites like Tell Abraq, Kalba 4 and Muweilah, which, together with Rumeilah, have provided us with a better understanding of settlement patterns and development during the Iron Age (e.g. Potts 1990a: 354; Magee 1996 & 2003). It is suggested (Magee & Carter 1999: 174) that during the Iron Age II period   This period corresponds with the suggested Early Iron Age period terminology for the evidence from the Wadi Andam Survey. 34

there was a significant development and intensification in occupation and economic activity accompanied by the introduction of the qanat or falaj irrigation system (Magee 1998b: 51–54, 2003 & 2004: 41). This system appears to be contemporary with the appearance of large ‘polities’ along the edges and in the wadis of the al-Hajar Mountains (Magee 2004: 24). Settlement sites dating to this period have been found in various parts of the peninsula, both on the coast and inland. Inland settlements have been found in the piedmont (e.g. Rumeilah, al-Thuqaibah, Hili 17), mountains (e.g. Raki 2 and Husn Awhala) and desert foreland (e.g. Muweilah) (Magee 2003: 8–9). The piedmont settlements are characterised by a demarcation in building function in which the main architectural features are free-standing, mudbrick structures (Magee 1998b: 54). There are also structures accompanied or surrounded by falaj system installations or structures and fortified elements (ibid: 54). By contrast, our knowledge of settlement sites during the Iron Age III period is still relatively limited (Magee 1998: 51). This period appears to have witnessed a decline in the settlement patterns that had developed during Iron Age II (Magee 1996). Tombs of this period are single subterranean cist burials and have been recorded across the peninsula, typified by those excavated at Wadi Samad (e.g. Yule 1993, 2001a & 2005; Yule & Weisgerber 1988 & 1991). The subsistence economy utilized by the population during the Iron Age appears to have been based on a wide variety of food resources. The period is characterised by evidence for a domestic non-specialised economy, exemplified by the ceramic assemblage which was produced on ‘a part-time occasional basis’ for domestic use (Magee 1998b: 51). The practice of agriculture during the Iron Age I period is attested to by the existence of date palm (Phoenix dactylifera), suggesting large-scale exploitation and cultivation of the plant (Magee 1998b: 51; Magee & Carter 1999: 164). There are also indications of the cultivation of wheat and barely, supported by the excavation of wells of the period at Tell Abraq (Magee 1998b: 51; Magee & Carter 1999: 164). There is also evidence for the exploitation of a substantial range of domesticated terrestrial (sheep, goat, taurine and/ or zebu cattle), aquatic and hunted fauna (gazelle, oryx and the Socotra cormorant bird) (Magee 1998b: 51; Magee & Carter 1999: 164). Evidence for the exploitation of marine resources has been recovered from the coastal sites of Tell Abraq, Shimal and Hamriyah, which indicate a reliance on the mangrove snail Terebralia palustris, fish and dugong (Magee 1998b: 51). The population of the Iron Age I period appears to have had external contacts and was engaged in foreign trade, suggesting the reignition of ‘inter-regional exchange’ following a period of relative isolation (Magee & Carter 1999: 174). During the early phase of the Iron Age II period, there is strong evidence for the intensification of ‘intra-regional trade’ based on local raw materials and finished goods as well as for significant external trading contacts with goods being imported from Arabia, Iran and Mesopotamia (Magee 1998a-b; 2004: 24). During the Iron Age II period, occupation of the landscape in the Oman Peninsula was based on fishing and the exploitation of 166

Discussion and Interpretation marine resources on the coasts, and sedentary farming and herding in the inland zone (Potts 1990a: 389). Moreover, the camel seems to have been an important domesticate facilitating the movement of nomadic populations into the desert, even on a permanent basis, if following different socio-economic strategy to those in more hospitable areas (Cleuziou & Tosi 2007: 293). Camels also facilitated the creation of new economic and political relations as they, rather than donkey caravans, were used for land trade, and may have strengthened the efficacy of raiding and warring groups (ibid: 294). At the very beginning of the Iron Age (ca. 1300 BC), copper extraction and production in Oman was restarted on a substantial scale, with the Cyprus double-step chalcopyrite smelting technique having diffused to this area and various others (Weisgerber 2007b: 302). During the Iron Age, major copper ores in Oman were exploited for the first time, demonstrating significant transformations in smelting technology that increased production (Cleuziou & Tosi 2007: 292–293). The smelting debris produced consisted of large tapped slag cakes of up to 10 kg that can be easily distinguished from the less substantial Bronze Age waste (Weisgerber 2007b: 302). One of the important sites that has yielded evidence for copper production is Raki 2, where excavations have revealed a large settlement with a long history of copper production dating from 1200 to 800 BC (Weisgerber & Yule 1999: 110–115). Wadi Andam Survey Conclusion (Levels 4–6) The evidence for the Iron Age (Wadi Andam Survey: ‘Early Iron Age’) suggests a slight growth in the intensity of activity from the Wadi Suq period. Almost all of the sites recorded during the survey yielded pottery sherds and other objects from this period; however, this evidence comes mostly from tombs. The number of settlements is higher than for the Wadi Suq, but is still very low compared to the Umm anNar and later Iron Age. It is suggested that the PCAs were not inhabited during the Early Iron Age, or more accurately, were not used in the same way as for example in the Wadi Suq period. This is testified to by the recovery of very few pottery sherds from the period within these PCAs (e.g. alFulayj CS.1 and al-Khurais CS.3). By contrast, it seems that the areas around wadi villages (OVAs) were exploited to a greater extent by the Early Iron Age population, with the recovery of settlement remains and tombs within these areas (e.g. CS.3.8, CS.4.3, CS.4.4, CS.4.13, CS.4.14, CS.5.7, CS.5.10, CS.5.13, CS.5.14, CS.9.2 and CS.9.5). It appears that Early Iron Age sites recorded during the survey might have been abandonded and reoccupied in several phases with the population re-using Early Bronze Age tombs – and perhaps their settlements as well – as well as constructing their own new tombs (e.g. sites CS.4.3, CS.4.13, CS.5.10, CS.5.13, CS.2.52, CS.2.67, CS.2.68 and CS.2.69). Settlements appear to have been occupied for a limited timespan, and their small size indicates perhaps that they were small sporadic campsites that were used by a nomadic population of limited size (e.g. CS.2.11,

CS.2.50 and CS.4.4). This is supported by the simplicity of the layout and construction of the structural remains when compared with settlements of other periods, and by the low number and few types of pottery recovered, mostly from tombs. This idea might also be supported by the fact that there was only very little activity during this time within the wadi villages (PCAs), as well as the fact that the occupational remains and tombs of earlier periods were reused. Possibly the Early Iron Age shows continuation of the pattern established in the Wadi Suq period with a little, but not much, more evidence for settlement of possibly short-term occupation. The Early Iron Age settlement pattern is quite different to that apparent during the Umm an-Nar period and the proceeding Late Iron Age/Samad. The evidence from the survey is similar to the picture seen in the previously published archaeological evidence. It supports the idea that at the beginning of the Iron Age there was an early stage of settlement increase and a developing social hierarchy after a possible abandonment of settlement during the Wadi Suq. There were some changes in the settlement pattern, including an occupation of some areas that had not previously been occupied, including defensive sites outside the wadi village areas. Local Area Conclusion (Level 3) The quantified data from the local area indicates a considerable level of Iron Age evidence. Tombs are located on low elevations, flat wadi plains, wadi edges and in close proximity to modern villages. A number of these tombs have yielded evidence for the re-use of tombs of earlier periods including Hafit, Umm an-Nar and Wadi Suq structures, but new tombs were also established. In contrast, few settlements have been discovered, and they are always small in size, but varied in function, including fortifications situated on hills to copper production sites located on the wadi terraces. Several of these sites are re-occupied Umm an-Nar structures, but new small settlements were also established, probably campsites and small farmsteads. This is similar pattern to that seen in the Wadi Andam. This evidence corresponds to the rest of the published archaeological evidence from the whole of the Oman Peninsula. The distribution of tombs and settlements, as well as the practice of re-using older tombs and settlement remains are points of strong comparison. The low number of settlements that have been discovered might relate to the survey methodology used by survey teams. None attempted to apply a sampling methodology based on quantifying the level of activity. There is also a strong bias in several of these projects towards recording tombs, especially the German Mission in the al-Sharqiyah region. This situation has complicated our understanding of settlement within the region and has resulted in the recording of a disproportinate number of tombs. Regional and Sub-Regional Level Conclusion (Levels 1–2) The Iron Age is one of the best represented prehistoric periods. The quantified data demonstrates substantial 167

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula growth during this period after a decline in the Wadi Suq. At the sub-regional level, the data shows that there was a growth in the number of recorded sites in the central, eastern and south-eastern parts of the peninsula, namely Central Oman, the Eastern Coast and the Hajar Mountains. There was a stable level in the north-western part, namely, the Abu-Dhabi Coast, while there was a decline in the level in the northern and north-eastern parts, namely the Batinah Coast and Musandam and Northern Emirates. In comparison, the latter region showed a higher level of activity during the Wadi Suq period – areas of decline are where there was a high level of activity during the Wadi Suq period, perhaps suggesting a more evenly distributed population across the Oman Peninsula during this period. Summary After the highly visible decline during the Wadi Suq, there does appear to have been development in socio-political complexity during the Iron Age, but to a significantly lesser extent than was apparent during the Umm an-Nar period. Although the combined archaeological, environmental, historical and comparative evidence does not reveal a great deal about the exact nature of such social and economic complexity, it does allow us to speculate on the structure of some aspects of the society that existed within Iron Age populations and settlements, particularly those located on the piedmont zone. These settlements include different types of structures: dwellings, fortifications, workshops, tombs, agricultural installations, storehouses/rooms and significantly the falaj system. These structures vary in size and shape, and boast varying divided or attached units. They are located either on flat areas (e.g. along the wadi banks and its terraces) or on higher elevations (e.g. rock outcrops or gravel hills). Agriculture is in evidence from the remains of falaj irrigation channels from a number of sites (e.g. al-Thuqaibah, Rumeilah, Hili 2, 14, 15 and 17, Bida‘ Bint Sa‘ud, al-Jabeeb, Zahra 2). The results from the Wadi Andam Survey suggest that several of these settlements are associated with agricultural installations including fields systems, irrigation channels and other stone and mudbrick structures that were likely utilised for storing grain and agricultural equipment. Clearly the inhabitants of these settlements practiced intensive agriculture. However, the economy of the Iron Age appears to have been based not only on farming but also on a wide variety of food resources, ranging from herding, hunting, fishing and the exploitation of marine resources (Potts 1990a: 389; Magee 1998b: 51; Magee & Carter 1999: 164), as well as on ‘inter-regional exchange’ (Magee 1998a-b; 2004: 24). Socio-economic development is also suggested by the increase in settlement intensity and the large amount and variety of cultural material that has been recovered, particularly pottery. Recent archaeological investigations have provided some insight into the socio-political structure of the period (cf. Magee 1998a, 2004). The evidence for such complexity is clearer in the Iron II period than the Iron I period. During the Iron I it is likely that there was a level of regionalism

in the material culture, which is attested by the ceramic traditions from the neighbouring settlements of Tell Abraq and Shimal (Magee & Carter 1999: 174). Moreover, there is no evidence for ceramic exchange between the east and west coasts during this period (ibid: 174). By contrast, there was a dense occupation during the Iron II period which has never been seen in any other prehistoric period in the Oman Peninsula, and there is also evidence for the emergence of a ‘material culture koine’ that is apparent in sites across the peninsula (Magee et al. 1998:236). This might be related to the ‘emergence of complex regional exchange mechanisms’, which are perhaps indicative of ‘increasing social and political complexity’ within the peninsula during this time (ibid: 236). In other words, the combined environmental, archaeological and historical evidence indicates the occurrence of a group of ‘politically complex polities’ during the Iron II period (Magee 1998a: 49). These include the settlements established in the piedmont zone, which have produced evidence demonstrating different aspects of complexity such as the falaj and its related irrigation systems; intensive agriculture; and fortifications that were employed to control and protect resources (Magee 1998a: 49; Magee et al. 1998: 237–241). It has been argued (Boucharlat 1984; Lombard 1985; Magee & Carter 1999: 175; Magee 1999, 2003: 9, 2004: 41; al-Tikriti 2002a-b) that the intensification of settlement and the rapid development in social and economic complexity during the Iron II period was largely the result of the introduction of falaj irrigation, which created large polities in the piedmont areas along the wadi banks of the al-Hajar Mountains. Magee (1998b: 54) has remarked on the dichotomy between free-standing structures and fortified buildings located near the falaj system and he proposes that this might indicate the endeavour of a group of polities attempting to control access to the falaj and agricultural products (Magee & Carter 1999: 175). He also argues (Magee 2004: 24–25) that not only did the introduction of the falaj result in the remarkable settlement intensification and change during the Iron II period but that camel domestication also influenced the distribution and organisation of settlements in the peninsula during this period. The camel played a significant role in facilitating the transportation of goods from the desert zone to areas that were previously unreachable and therefore unoccupied. This process facilitated the settling of previously unoccupied areas as well as influencing the organisation of trade networks (ibid: 24–26). This newfound complexity is argued to be the result of increased ‘intra-regional trade’ in both raw and finished materials as well as imported items from the neighbouring areas such as Arabia and the Middle East (Magee 2004: 24). This increase in trade may signify the demand for prestigious items from the elite or political authorities (ibid: 24). Very few prestigious items that might indicate status and authority have been recovered from Iron Age sites within the peninsula. Among these are decorative bronze axe-heads, which have been recovered at seven 168

Discussion and Interpretation sites, three are located in the piedmont, two are coastal sites, one is situated in the mountains, and another in the desert (Magee 1998b: 56–57). These axe-heads may represent symbols of power (cf. Weisgerber 1988: 287; Magee 1998b: 57). The recovery of prestigious items from the mountain site of Rafaq and the coastal site of ed-Dur provides evidence for contact with Assyria. The first site yielded a local softstone vessel decorated with Assyrian griffins and imported Assyrian cylinder seals, while the second yielded a decorated bronze bowl with iconography based on Assyrian prototypes – ‘Nimrud bowls’ (ibid: 57). Recent excavations at the Iron II desert site of Muweilah yielded yet more evidence for prestigious items. The analysis of the distribution and composition analysis of imported artefacts recovered from the site indicates that the population of the site had access to elite items such as painted pottery, iron and incense (Magee 2004: 24). Once excavated Building II was interpreted as a political and possibly religious structure, this conclusion was based on the recovery of a large number of foreign elite items such as iron and bronze (ibid: 36). The design of the building indicates a strong influence from the Iron Age Iranian ‘columned hall’ tradition (Magee & Thompson 2001: 128). This might be an indication of ‘increased social differentiation’, due to the ability of the elite to acquire and control the flow of both foreign and local goods (Magee 2004: 24). The excavations at Muweilah revealed a badly eroded iron dagger (M-988) with a simple tang and a leaf-shaped point (Magee 1998a: 113). This recovery provides some insight into the social and economic developments within the Oman Peninsula. It represents the first appearance of iron in the peninsula and was likely an item of status and prestige, as at this time iron was still very rare (ibid: 116). The site also yielded an artefact that consists of the earliest evidence for the use of South Arabian script in the peninsula (Magee 1999: 43, figs 3–4). It is a fragment of a locally made storage jar with three South Arabian letters inscribed just below the rim. It is believed to have been made at Muweilah itself, perhaps by travelling potters who moved from one settlement to the other (ibid: 43–44). It is unclear whether or not this rare item was produced for the elite. Furthermore, the fine, well-levigated, painted ware, imported from Iran may also be regarded as an elite import due to its rarity at that time in the peninsula, representing less than 1% of the entire ceramic ware found in the piedmont site of Rumeilah, Muweilah in the desert and Tell Abraq in the coast (Magee 1998b: 57). The construction of Iron Age monumental platforms at Tell Abraq and Kalba, which share similarities with those constructed during the Early Iron Age in Central Asia, (Magee & Carter 1999: 175) might indicate an extent of socio-economic development that had been apparent since the construction of the Umm an-Nar tower buildings (ibid: 175). Unlike the structures in Central Asia, which are linked to the establishment of large irrigation canals, the platforms at Tell Abraq and Kalba might indicate some sort of social differentiation, suggesting the appearance

of elites who attempted to control some limited resources and needed to distinguish themselves from the other settlements (ibid: 175). This evidence indicates the presence of an elite class during the Iron Age, but naturally they were not the only active members of society. The economy during this time was based on the exploitation of numerous resources. At present, the evidence clearly demonstrates the existence of regional specialisation, which is likely to have played an important role in the appearance of the trade and exchange processes between different environmental zones. The archaeological evidence from Iron Age settlements does suggest the presence of a developed social structure. Specialisation played a major role in this structure, and there is strong evidence for specialist craftsmen during the Iron II period. Potters were perhaps the main specialists, producing large quantities and numerous types of vessel. The analysis of the composition and distribution of ceramics from Muweilah, Qarn Bint Saud, Tell Abraq and the tomb at Sharm have demonstrated that these products were produced in the piedmont settlements and distributed across the peninsula (Magee et al. 1998; Magee & Carter 1999: 176; Magee 2004: 36). The common Sandy Ware and the rare Fine Painted Ware (representing only 1% of the assemblage), recovered from these Iron II settlements were produced in a number of different production centres (Magee et al. 1998; Magee 2004: 36). The combined geological and archaeological evidence suggests that the Sandy Ware was most likely produced at a single production centre, which is believed to be al-Ain Oasis (Magee et al. 1998: 236). While based on a combination of the geological evidence and some stylistic and morphological parallels, the Fine Painted Ware was produced at Tepe Yahya in eastern Iran (ibid: 236). The analysis also suggests that one fragment of imported ware (Pseudo-Barbar) from Muweilah, may have been produced at Qala‘at al-Bahrain. This sherd and the Mesopotamian vessels from Muweilah might indicate the involvement of this settlement in longdistance trade, most probably via a land route through eastern Arabia. It seems therefore, that Muweilah acted as an entrepot for trade, receiving imported goods, including ceramics, from the wider regions and then redistributing them to the coastal settlements in the northern regions of the Oman Peninsula (Magee 2004: 40–41). It seems that there was trade between these producers and other specialists in other parts of the peninsula, such as the coastal sites. Possibly the reliance on inland-produced pottery led to the amalgamation of coastal economies into a ‘regionally specialised economy’ (Magee & Carter 1999: 176). Coastal sites perhaps participated by providing marine resources (e.g. dried and salted fish and shellfish) and imported materials and exchanged them for agricultural produce, pottery from the piedmont region and possibly copper from the mountains. Magee (1998b: 54) argues that this exchange process indicates the presence of ‘economically complex institutions’.

169

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula There is increasing evidence for regional and overseas trade during the Iron Age, in which coastal sites such as Tell Abraq participated in these trade networks. Desert sites such as Muweilah participated in this exchange largely by ‘controlling cross-desert trade routes and may have also been important centres for activities such as camel breeding and date-palm cultivation’ (ibid: 57). Clearly there was increased ‘intra-regional trade’ in both raw and finished materials as well as imported items from the neighbouring areas. Camels facilitated the transportation of local and foreign goods to areas that were previously inaccessible. Based on distributional analysis, it is suggested that Muweilah is located in a position that is approximately one (e.g. Tell Abraq, Hamriyah lagoon) or two (e.g. al-Thuqaibah) days travel by camel from significant Iron Age coastal and inland settlements (Magee 2004: 26). Therefore, it is argued that this location played an important role in controlling camel-borne trade, in which its inhabitants travelled to and from the coast and brought back large amounts of marine resources, testified to by the large number of shellfish recovered from Areas A and B buildings at Muweilah (ibid: 26). However, the main supplier of ceramics, steatite, copper, flint and grinding stones were the inland oasis settlements. Thus, it is suggested that Muweilah was the ‘end point of an important trade inland-coastal system in raw and finished products’ (ibid: 26). Moreover, there is evidence for imported luxury items and cultural exchange with Iran, Mesopotamia and Arabia (e.g. Bahrain and Yemen), suggesting that trade played a vital role in the Muweilah’s economy (Magee 1999: 48; Magee & Thompson 2001: 128). Other imported artefacts include Middle Elamite cylinder seals at Tell Abraq and Iranian ceramics at Kalba, suggesting that the Oman Peninsula was fully engaged in inter-regional exchange (Magee & Carter 1999: 175).

leading to a wealth of settlement and burial evidence in the archaeological remains (Kennet 2007: 103). The evidence from the Hellenistic settlements (e.g. ed-Dur, Mleiha and Samad) indicates that there was continuity in occupation from the 1st millennium BC until the 4th century AD (Boucharlat 1991: 297). Boucharlat and Mouton (1991) suggest, based on the evidence from Mleiha, that significant cultural evolution occurred during the Hellenistic period with several significant changes during the very Late Iron Age bringing the peninsula’s archaeology out of the protohistoric and into a historical period influenced by the Hellenistic world. These changes include a significant shift from small settlements (hamlets or villages) to very large oasis-based settlements. Moreover, the nature of burial changes with a large number of Hellenistic–Parthian burials now being distributed in very large and widespread cemeteries (Kennet 2007: 105). However, many of these tombs are difficult to date precisely, and to distinguish from the Late Iron Age. Based on the evidence from Mleiha, tombs belonging to the early Hellenistic period (PIR-A, ca. 3rd–2nd centuries BC) are massive quadrangular mudbrick monuments that cover a rectangular underground single burial chamber, while in later periods, namely PIR-B (2nd century BC–1st century AD) and PIR-C (1st–2nd centuries AD), the tombs are larger and are constructed with substructures with one or two burial chambers with stairs, an entrance passage and offering platforms and hearths (Mouton 1999: 21–24).

To sum up, Clearly there was exchange between the settlements of different environmental sub-regions; however, the mechanism of this exchange is not well understood and requires more research to provide a more detailed picture of how these settlements were integrated and how they practised such exchange. It is also important to recognise that the Iron Age needs to be broken down into sub-periods to be fully understood. This was not possible in this study based on the material from the Wadi Andam Survey, because of the difficulty in distinguishing pottery from the earlier and later parts of the Iron Age, which was why it had to be treated as a single period, namely the Early Iron Age.

Material recovered from Hellenistic–Parthian contexts indicate that by the beginning of the period, the peninsula had begun to exploit iron on a large scale with a number of iron objects and fragments having been recovered from sites of the period (Potts 1990b: 272; Boucharlat 1991: 297; Mouton 1999: 22). The inhabitants of these settlements were involved in local and regional exchange with neighbouring areas including the Gulf, South, East and North-East Arabia, Mesopotamia, South and SouthWestern Iran, India, Pakistan, the Near East and the Eastern Mediterranean countries (Mouton 1999: 21–23; Benoist, Mouton & Schiettecatte 2003: 72; Kennet 2005: 114). This contact is testified to by the large number of imported objects from these areas and the discovery of a number of industrial areas and workshops, indicating local copper, iron, softstone, and tool production for local use and for export (Mouton 1999: 23). Classical sources and the large number of locally minted and circulated coins also support this conclusion (Kennet 2005: 114).

The Hellenistic–Parthian (Late Iron Age/Samad)35

Wadi Andam Survey Conclusion (Levels 4–6)

Previous Archaeological Conclusion (Level 1)

The Hellenistic–Parthian (Wadi Andam Survey’s Late Iron Age/Samad) is one of the best represented pre-Islamic period and shows levels of activity almost equal to those of the Umm an-Nar period. Numerous sites of the periods have been recorded during the survey. Evidence comes from different types of sites, including large and small settlements, tomb fields, and scattered pottery sherds. They vary in density and size and in the level of evidence that

During the Hellenistic–Parthian period there was significant economic growth in the Oman Peninsula,   This corresponds with the suggested Late Iron Age/Samad terminology for the evidence from Wadi Andam Survey (see Samad Period Chapter Three, Table 16). 35

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Discussion and Interpretation they yield. The major sites are likely to have been occupied by sedentary populations while the smaller settlement sites may have been inhabited seasonally. The wadi villages and their environs were largely occupied during this time, perhaps permanently for the first time since the Umm anNar period. The larger sites are usually distributed within the confines, or in close proximity to, modern villages (e.g. CS.2.50 and CS.2.51 near Mahleya, CS.2.43, CS.2.52 and CS.2.57 near al-Ghoryeen, and CS.3.4 within al-Khurais). However, although some are located close to modern villages, the majority of small sites are located in different areas, scattered along the banks of the wadis. This indicates significant cultural change from the preceding Wadi Suq and Early Iron Age periods. This is seen clearly in the augmented intensity of settlement and growth in population testified to by the large number of sites and finds within and around wadi villages. It is also seen in the large size of sites, with settlements sometimes reaching over 90 ha36 (e.g. CS.2.50), as well as in the variety of structures seen in these settlements (e.g. houses, walls, large cemeteries, pottery scatters, agricultural fields and other possible structures). However, settlements are only loosely organised with possibly very low density of occupation. Nevertheless, there are more sites and finds dating to the Late Iron Age/Samad than for any preceding period. This period is in evidence at 34 sites as well as in 9 of the PCAs, this compares with 27 sites and 12 PCAs for the Umm an-Nar period, 9 sites and 2 PCAs for the Wadi Suq, and 23 sites and 3 PCAs for the Early Iron Age. The total number of Late Iron Age/Samad pottery amounts to 2,194, which followed closely by the Umm an-Nar total of 2,019 sherds. While the other pre-Islamic periods yielded much smaller numbers of pottery sherds. Local Area Conclusion (Level 3) The evidence from the local area suggests that this period is mostly represented by tombs. They are located on flat wadi terraces and on the plains close to modern villages, where they are sometimes intermingled with later, mainly Islamic, graves. Some consist of re-used Wadi Suq and Early Iron Age tombs. In contrast to the high level and variety of the burial evidence few settlements of the period have been recorded. Some may survive under modern villages, suggested by the evidence from the PCAs in the Wadi Andam Survey. Those that are known continue to occupy earlier Iron Age settlements and fortifications. In accordance with earlier Iron Age patterns, settlements appear to be small in size and situated on the hills, slopes and wadi terraces. This picture contrasts to that seen in the published data and the findings of the Wadi Andam Survey, which suggest a large number of substantial settlements and tombs. This disparity probably relates to the problem  By Mesopotamian and Levantine standards, this would be sizeable, but although large, sites from the Oman Peninsula are loosely organised with possibly very low density occupation, which is a different pattern to that of the Mesopotamian sites, which show very dense occupation (cf. Adams 1965 & 1981; Joffe 1993; Van de Mieroop 1997 & 2004; MacDonald, Adams & Bienkowski 2001; Wilkinson TJ 2003; Daniel 2005). 36

of bias resulting from the specificity of previous surveys and projects in carrying out their research into the Iron Age. Regional and Sub-Regional Level Conclusion (Levels 1–2) The evidence from across the whole of the northern Oman Peninsula suggests that there was a decline during the Hellenistic–Parthian period, relative to the large growth and extensive activity apparent during the Iron Age. This contradicts with published theories that suggest that this period witnessed growth in the number of settlements and tombs (Kennet 2007: 103). At the sub-regional level, the quantified data shows that during the Hellenistic–Parthian period there was a stable level of activity on the AbuDhabi and Batinah Coasts, while the rest of the peninsula witnessed a decline. In general, Hellenistic–Parthian sites are more commonly represented by tombs, which contradicts the published literature which suggests that both are well represented during this period. However, the disproportionately large number of tombs is almost certainly related to the reliability of the evidence and the intrinsically biased methodology utilized in several of the survey projects. Summary Despite this slight contradiction in the evidence it is generally accepted that this period represents a high point in settlement intensity during the Hellenistic–Parthian period, though this growth was likely initiated earlier in the Iron Age. Clearly there was a significant cultural change in settlement and burial patterns from the Iron Age. Most remarkably is the extensive use of iron during this period. The use of coins also marks an important cultural and economic development, indicating a strong local and regional trade network (Mouton 1999: 21–23; Benoist, Mouton & Schiettecatte 2003: 72; Kennet 2005: 114). It should be noted that the quantified data within Chapters Five and Six show an increase in the number of tombs against settlements. However, many of these tombs were re-used, and several of their C14 dates and parallels have proven incorrect (see Samad Period in Chapter Three). Sasanian–Early Islamic Previous Archaeological Conclusion (Level 1) A very dramatic decline follows the ‘booming’ period of Hellenistic/Parthian settlement in the Sasanian period (Kennet 2007). There was decline in the number and size of settlements during this time as well as a diminishing number of tombs, and coins in circulation. This decline has been related to the gradual decline in economic activity and population size apparent across the entire region (ibid: 86). Despite the continued evidence for trade with SouthArabia, Mesopotamia, Iran, Egypt and South-Asia during this period (Kennet 2004: 69–72, 80–2), the theory that there was general economic decline is supported by the

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Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula general lack of archaeological evidence (Kennet 2005: 115–116). Only a small number of sites from this and the following Early Islamic periods have been discovered in the peninsula (Potts 1990b: 296). There is only very limited evidence of early Sasanian burial compared to preceeding periods, especially the Hellenistic–Parthian (Kennet 2007: 104–105). Tombs from this time contain either one or a small number of burials, and they frequently re-use older tombs (ibid: 105). Wadi Andam Survey Conclusion (Levels 4–6) The evidence collected during the Wadi Andam survey also points towards a decline in settlement activity during the Sasanian and Early Islamic periods, in agreement with the published evidence. No structural remains were discovered, with only a small number of scattered pottery sherds being recovered. It is difficult to identify this period based on pottery evidence, particularly from surface survey, as the material is quite rare, and also bears similarities to later Islamic material. Tombs from this period are difficult to distinguish from those of later Islamic periods as they display similar features. Local Area Conclusion (Level 3) As was the case in the Wadi Andam, the Sasanian–Early Islamic period is only represented by a few scattered pottery sherds. The evidence shows very few possible small settlements and fortifications, which are located either on the hills and their slopes or on the flat wadi terraces. It is, however, fair to say that the evidence for this period is very limited, as is the case from the whole peninsula, indicating a decline in settlement during this time. However, the limited evidence is unreliable due to the fact much of it is based on a very few pottery sherds picked up from surface survey. Regional and Sub-Regional Level Conclusion (Levels 1–2) The evidence from the entire region is again in accord with the suggested decline during the Sasanian–Early Islamic periods. However, the sub-regional pattern shows variations in the level of activity, with growth in the number of recorded sites in the northern and north-eastern/ western parts of the peninsula (Abu-Dhabi Coast, Batinah Coast and Musandam and Northern Emirates). However, it is likely that this apparent growth might be related to the misleading data obtained by several survey projects and the issues involved in understanding the pottery of the period as well as the problem of some misleading C14 dates (cf. Kennet 2007: 100–101). There was a decline in the level of activity in the central and eastern parts of the peninsula (the Eastern Coast and Hajar Mountains and possibly Central Oman). Summary All in all, the evidence strongly suggests a decline in settlement activity during the Sasanian–Early Islamic

period across the whole of the northern Oman Peninsula. The number of settlements and tombs dating to this time is very small, indicating a decline in human activity as well as possible depopulation. Middle Islamic Previous Archaeological Conclusion (Level 1) The archaeological evidence for the Middle Islamic period is based largely on surface material, mainly pottery, as well as a small number of excavated sites. Among the most important excavated sites that have produced Middle Islamic material is Kush. This site has yielded an occupational sequence stretching between the 5th and 13th centuries AD (Kennet 1997, 2001, 2004, 2005). The Middle Islamic period is placed into three periods of the site’s sequence: Periods K-V, K-VI and K-VII. Period K-V produced evidence for the construction of a large and well-preserved mudbrick structure dated to the 11th or early 12th century (Kennet 2004: 13). The final period (Periods K-VI and K-VII: 12th–13th centuries) in the Kush sequence is characterised by sporadic or ‘squatter’ occupation, with palm-frond matting and postholes being indicative of the use of temporary palm-frond huts, or ‘arīsh structures (Kennet 1997). The pottery includes Yue-type Wares (GGW), Carved White-Stoneware Louts Bowls (CWW), first Monochrome Green Sgraffiato (GGRAF) and first FRIT from Phase V (Late 11th/early 12th centuries); Chinese ceramics from Phase VI (12th century AD); and Dehua Moulded Whiteware (DHM) and Longquan Celadon (LQC) from Phase VII (13th/possibly to 14th century) (Kennet 2004: Table 2, pp: 14). This period is often regarded as an ‘economic dark age’, with very little settlement evidence discovered along the Arabian side of the Gulf coast (Lowick 1974; Kennet 2002: 160–161). During the 12th century, there seems to have been a dependence on locally made coarse wares, which are not well understood by archaeologists (de Cardi, Kennet & Stocks 1994: 61). In contrast, there is a significant level of settlement evidence apparent in the Batinah region. Middle Islamic sites have been reported in the hinterland of Sohar (Costa & Wilkinson TJ 1987) as well as on the coast (Cleveland 1959; Kervran 2004). Still other sites have been reported in Fujairah (Ziolkowski 2000; Brass & Britton 2004). Wadi Andam Survey Conclusion (Levels 4–6) The evidence from Wadi Andam indicates that there was a minor increase in the level of settlement during this period. The wadi villages continued to be repeatedly abandoned and reoccupied during the Middle Islamic, and other small settlements in their environs were also established. These smaller settlements were likely extended in later periods. The evidence from the pottery database indicates that settlement intensity was greater within the wadi villages (PCAs) than in the surrounding areas. However, other sites with evidence from earlier and later periods along 172

Discussion and Interpretation the wadi banks and on gravel hills and rocky outcrops have also yielded evidence from this period. A number of Middle Islamic sites were established around these villages (e.g. CS.3.5, CS.3.7, CS.4.12 and CS.9.10), of which the majority are located on the gravel hills and rock outcrops in the case of fortifications and on wadi terraces with other types of site. These consist of several types of stone structure, the remains of walls and tombs, and abandonded fields and other agricultural earthworks. However, it is impossible to distinguish tombs from those of other Islamic periods.

littoral (Lowick 1974; Kennet 2002: 160–161). In contrast, the stable level of activity seen in the rest of the peninsula partially confirms the results of the Wadi Andam Survey and the quantified data from the local area, indicating a slight growth in settlement activity within these subregions, namely the interior of Oman as well as the Eastern and Batinah Coasts. The reason behind such variation is unclear but may be related to the shift between trade centres.

The evidence from Wadi Andam shows a contrasting picture to that seen in the published literature. The ‘economic dark age’ is not apparent from the evidence recovered during the Wadi Andam Survey. It makes an important contribution to our understanding of the period by suggesting slight growth in the level of settlement activity. It is possible that the level of activity was more significant in the interior of Oman, an idea supported by the evidence recovered by the Omani–German team and to some extent by the published evidence from the Batinah region. However, such an unproven hypothesis should be treated with caution.

Clearly there remains some contradiction in the evidence for the Middle Islamic period. The published data indicates decline on the Arabian coasts, which is supported by the evidence at a regional level, whilst the evidence from the Wadi Andam Survey and the local area suggests minor growth in the inland zones and is partially supported by the evidence at a sub-regional level.

The Wadi Andam material shows closer affinities to the data from the Batinah region, which shows a significant level of activity during the Middle Islamic compared to the Gulf coast, where there is very little evidence (Kennet 2002: 160–161). Local Area Conclusion (Level 3) The evidence from the local area is also suggestive of a slight increase in the settlement activity during this period. Settlements have been located on hills but always within or in close proximity to wadi villages. In several cases they included fortifications such as watchtowers as well as cemeteries. Other smaller sites located away from wadi villages have yielded evidence consistent with the remains of possible campsites. Several Islamic cemeteries have also been located but they are impossible to date precisely. The evidence from the local area supports the evidence from the Wadi Andam Survey, which shows that the interior of Oman has closer affinities with the settlements patterns seen in al-Batinah. This evidence is in contrast to the theories postulated within the published data. Regional and Sub-Regional Level Conclusion (Levels 1–2) The data from the whole region shows that there was overall decline in the level of activity during the Middle Islamic period, supporting the theory of an ‘economic dark age’. However, the sub-regional analysis shows variations in the level of activity. During this period there was stability across the peninsula, with the exception of the Abu-Dhabi Coast, the Musandam and Northern Emirates sub-regions, which witnessed a decline. This corresponds with the suggested economic decline on the Gulf Arabian

Summary

It is likely that there was sub-regional variation in the level of settlement activity taking place during the Middle Islamic period: decline on the northern coasts of the peninsula along the Arabian littoral and slight growth in the inland zones and the eastern coast along the Sea of Oman. The reasons behind this variation are unclear but it may relate to a shift in trade centres at a supra-regional level. There is no evidence for a flourishing trade centre during this time along the Gulf coasts, while there is historical and archaeological evidence indicating the existence of some trade centres along the eastern coasts, such as Qalhat (Vosmer 2004; Bhacker & Bhacker 2004). Qalhat during this time took over control of trade through the Sea of Oman, possibly after the decline of Sohar (Vosmer 2004: 389). Several imported finds have been recovered from the archaeological site of Qalhat (ibid). Late Islamic–Recent Previous Archaeological Conclusion (Level 1) There was a dramatic growth in the number of settlements during the Late Islamic–Recent period across the whole of the northern Oman Peninsula, with the area undergoing an ‘economic boom’ (Kennet 2002: 160). However, very few sites within the peninsula have been excavated, with the majority of the evidence consisting of surface material, mainly pottery. Among the most significant excavated sites are Kush and Julfar (al-Mataf). The former has yielded evidence of occupation during the 16th/17th centuries AD or the Kush Period K-VIII (cf. Kennet 1997, 2001, 2004, 2005). The second site has yielded evidence spanning the period from the early to middle 14th to the 17th centuries AD (al-Mataf Phases M-Pre, M-I to M-VI & M-Rec) (Kennet 2003). The latter site offers a comprehensive picture of its development from a small fishing community in the mid14th century to a fully urbanised settlement by the mid15th century, until its final decline and abandonment by the late 16th century (ibid: 103). The archaeological evidence indicates a wide-ranging local, regional and overseas trade 173

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula network. Coastal sites played a significant role in this trade network; especially with the overseas trade with Arabia, Iran, India, Mesopotamia, Central, South and East Asia, as well as south and south-east Africa (cf. Kennet 2004). During the Late Islamic period, Hormuz played a vital role in the Gulf trade with these areas, which reached its peak during the 14th to 17th centuries (Kennet 2002: 161, 2003: 121). Therefore, during this time Hormuz – one of the main maritime trade centres in the Indian Ocean – became very prosperous and stimulated much of the economic development of the Arabian Gulf (Kennet 2002: 161). Wadi Andam Survey Conclusion (Levels 4–5) The Late Islamic–Recent evidence recoved from the Wadi Andam area suggests that this period was the most intensively occupied and settled of all the periods. The majority of the evidence comes from occupational areas; all of the PCAs yielded very large quantities of different types of Late Islamic pottery, far outnumbering any other period. These ceramics were either locally made (e.g. glazed Bahla ware, combed ware and Julfar ware) at the pottery kilns/workshops found in Bahla and Ras alKhaimah (cf. Stocks 1996: 146–155), or imported (e.g. celadon, Chinese Blue-and-White, enamelled Chinese porcelain and European porcelain). There was a marked change in settlement patterns during this period with greatly increased levels of activity apparent along Wadi Andam. The wadi villages, both large and small, were reoccupied and agriculture was practiced intensely, supplied by irrigation systems and other installations and protected by fortifications. Local Area Conclusion (Level 3) In the local area the Late Islamic–Recent period is represented by a large number of settlement sites associated with extensive cemeteries, watchtowers and fortifications, agricultural installations including fields and irrigation system, and other structures related to industrial activities. This period is represented by 95 settlement and tomb sites, with settlements representing 88% of the total. Almost all of the modern wadi villages yielded Late Islamic pottery sherds. The evidence indicates the same dramatic change in settlement patterns. Regional and Sub-Regional Level Conclusion (Levels 1–2) With regards to the whole of the northern Oman Peninsula, identical intensification is apparent, with the Late Islamic– Recent periods having produced the highest number of sites, with dramatic growth visible across each of the subregions. Summary It is remarkable that the Late Islamic–Recent period witnessed such a dramatic increase in settlement and population. The subsistence economy consisted mainly of farming based on wells and falaj, herding, fishing and

the exploitation of marine resources, as well as local, regional and overseas trade. The evidence from the Wadi Andam Survey, as well as the quantified level of activity from the local area and from the whole of the peninsula, has confirmed this dramatic growth in settlement activity. Growth is attested in both small and large wadi villages as well in the coastal areas to the north and east of the peninsula. Thus, in summary, the intensive evidence from the Wadi Andam Survey and the literature points towards an intensification in settlement during the Late Islamic period. Sites such as Julfar (Kennet 2003: 103) demonstrate how the region witnessed a new level of urbanisation as well as a fuller integration of the local area into the global economic system. Kennet (ibid: 121) states that Julfar was a true ‘town’ according to the criteria used to identify urbanism: ‘it was larger than any contemporary settlement in the region (900 by 250 meters for al-Mataf alone), it had a dense network of stone and mudbrick houses and streets, a large mosque, a fort, a town wall, evidence of extensive overseas trade, and its peripheries stretched for 1.5 km along the coast to the north and south’. It is argued that the urbanisation of Julfar is related to the ‘Hormuzi economic boom’ that took place during the 14th and 17th centuries AD (cf. Kennet 2002, 2003, 2004). The archaeological evidence indicates a wide overseas trade network in which coastal sites, like Hormuz, played a significant role. Trade contacts included Arabia, Iran, India, Mesopotamia, Central, South and East Asia as well as south and southeast Africa (cf. Kennet 2004). During this time Hormuz played a fundamental role in Gulf trade and the economic development that reached its peak during the 14th to 17th centuries (Kennet 2002: 161, 2003: 121). As one of the largest and wealthiest commercial centres in the Indian Ocean, its strategic location on the thriving trade route facilitated contact with India and China and some major cities in Iran (Kennet 2003: 122). The recovery of large quantities of Chinese, Vietnamese, Thai and Iranian ceramics confirms an engagement in the Indian Ocean trade network (King 2001: 90; Kennet 2004). Sasaki and Sasaki (2003: 258) argue that a large number of Chinese ceramic kilns have been found in Southeast Asia, which produced large quantities of ceramics, and that many of these ceramics made their way to the Arabian Peninsula, indicating extensive overseas trade. The proximity between Julfar and the urbanised centre of Hormuz perhaps encouraged the agricultural production in Julfar’s hinterland in order to satisfy the demand of food from the large population of Hormuz (Kennet 2003: 122). It appears that during the late Islamic period, for the first time there was a shift from a prevailing subsistence economy to a predominantly cash-or-market-based economy, supported by the recovery of a large number of 15th to 16th century coins at Julfar (ibid: 119–122). The appearance of a large urban centre would encourage new products entering the local market as well as the emergence of new specialist craftsmen, and a development in the range of pottery types. Therefore, the developments 174

Discussion and Interpretation that led to the urbanisation of Julfar were related to ‘the monetization of the local economy and the intensification of agriculture in the plains of the hinterland’ (ibid: 122). This development was not limited only to Julfar but covered the whole region and influenced its social and economic structure, resulting in the integration of the whole region into the global trade networks as well as the growth of population and settlements during this time. Conclusion This study has provided a comparative summary of a number of strands of evidence that shed insight on settlement patterns over time across the whole of the northern Oman Peninsula. Generally speaking, although there are some contradictions between the three levels of evidence – the published conclusions [Level 1], the Wadi Andam Survey [Levels 4–6], and data from both the local [Level 3] and regional areas [Levels 1–2] – the patterns of activity show strong correlation across the peninsula for many of the periods while demonstrating a potentially important lack of agreement in others. The Wadi Andam data are the first to provide a quantifiable indication of the relative scale of growth and decline at the lowest level of the settlement hierarchy. This is significant because it challenges and tests the assumptions already set out by numerous scholars regarding the patterns of settlement change over time in the Oman Peninsula. It is clear from conversations and published comments that conclusions based implicitly on reviews of the published data based on an assessment of the number of sites that are known from the literature were being carried out by many scholars in impressionistic, unsystematic and non-rigorous ways based on their own reading and general experience. General opinion regarding the relative density of activity and occupation in different periods are commonplace and they are all based on this same data set. The chance was seized here to place such comparisons on a firmer footing and to make them explicit and testable as far as possible. The data presented in this study has led to a number of important contributions and has discussed a number of themes, some of which shall be summarised here. These include the significance of small wadi villages, the need for a quantified methodology, major trends in settlement history and the level of activity over time and the question of seeing transition between settled and nomadic lifestyles in the archaeological record. Each of these will be briefly discussed and will be followed by a proposal for further research. Main Contributions Wadi Villages The aims and objectives of this research pay particular attention to small wadi villages which have been neglected by other survey projects generally concentrating on larger sites and settlements. The primary goal was to investigate

what these small wadi villages can tell us regarding settlement patterns over time and whether they share a similar history to larger sites. The results of the survey have provided an entirely new perspective on the settlement record of the northern Oman Peninsula. All of the six wadi villages that were surveyed have produced evidence that they were first established and occupied in the Umm an-Nar period and have been repeatedly abandoned and reoccupied until the present day, suggesting that they have played a significant part in the settlement history of the peninsula. There are a limited number of areas in the Omani landscape that are suitable for agricultural settlement and these are generally on the banks of larger wadis where there is sufficient space between the wadi channel and the hill slopes. Due to this constraint by the landscape, such places tend to have been occupied and abandoned repeatedly. The existence of these small wadi villages in the Umm anNar period, away from sources of copper ore, demonstrates that agriculture played a significant role in the Umm an-Nar economy. This is in contrast to some general assumptions regarding the structure of Umm an-Nar society and is a topic that demands further research, having to potential to change fundamentally our understanding of the period. Quantified Analysis of Settlement Trends Many surveys have been carried out in the Oman Peninsula but only a very small minority has attempted to provide quantifiable data on settlement patterns over time. Almost all of these surveys set out to locate, explore and describe specific areas or settlements or to answer specific research questions. The results are incredibly useful for mapping settlements and providing qualitative data on particular areas and periods, and when the results of these surveys are combined it is possible to obtain a rough picture of longer-term regional trends in the growth and decline of settlement intensity. However, a number of these surveys suggest biased and misleading trends due to their use of unsystematic methodologies. Therefore, in this research an attempt has been made to develop a systematic and unbiased survey methodology, including a developed sampling technique – based on large-scale surface pottery collection – that is workable in the study area, given the nature of the geographical environment, climate and type of settlement. The methodology has provided quantifiable data on the relative scale of growth and decline at the lowest level of the settlement hierarchy, achieving a higher degree of statistical validity than data collected in a traditional, non-probabilistic fashion. The methodology also allows for more reliable comparisons between sites and regions and potentially provides a degree of detail and insight absent in other survey techniques. In addition, a quantified picture, based on the available data in the literature, for the Oman Peninsula has been presented in Chapters Five and Six. This was based on a review of all of the available published and unpubished data. This was done in order to establish a reliable way of 175

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula mapping the differing levels of activities between periods and to assess the volume of available evidence for each. In addition, it provides a broader context or framework for the Wadi Andam Survey material, allowing comparisons to be drawn between the findings. Although the data set is problematic in parts, hopefully the sheer quantity of available evidence will have ironed out at least some of the localised problems and allowing an accurate representation of general trends. The quantified data does reveal important changes in the number and type of sites through the archaeological sequence, which may correspond and provide insight into population levels and the level of socio-economic complexity. It has also been possible to demonstrate sub-regional variations in the number of sites across different periods. However, the interpretation of these trends is problematic and more research needs to be done before they can be fully accepted or explained. This quantified data outlines some preliminary developments and patterns that could aid in the development and reevaluation of hypotheses and interpretations on the fluctating levels of settlement activity over time. It also provides a much more detailed picture of the development of the region than was previously possible. Based on this data, some of the former conclusions drawn regarding the development of the region development appear correct and coherent, while others need to be revised. Nonetheless, caution must be applied until the conclusions can be more rigorously tested. Period by Period Important Contributions The methodologies presented in this study have produced a large volume of data on a number of different levels of resolution. The Wadi Andam Survey has provided important new insights into a number of periods, especially the Bronze and Iron Age, but has proved less effective for others, especially the Stone Age. As a geographical area Wadi Andam is a reasonably typical cross section of the environments of the interior of the northern Oman Peninsula, and so these findings could prove useful in shedding light on the archaeology further afield. With regards to the Hafit period, survey resulted in a map of the rough distribution of Hafit cairns and Beehive tombs across the study area, and for the first time in this region. The tombs are clustered in the northern part of the study area and they do not appear to be associated with settlement evidence, barring a number of paved stones platforms that may have supported perishable structures. It seems that there are massive tomb fields spread across the region under study, in areas where there is no evidence for the occupation of the landscape in later periods. This is suggestive of a significant change in the ways of occupation, as well as in burial practices, between the Hafit and the Umm an-Nar periods. The Wadi Andam survey has considerably contributed to our knowledge of settlement patterns during the Umm anNar period. It was in this period that many of the wadi villages were established and occupied densley, while

there was a marked decline in all activity in many areas where Hafit cairns are common. All wadi villages, and to a lesser extent their environs, were occupied, suggesting that an intensive period of occupation. With the exception of some Hafit cairns/Beehives in the surroundings of some of these villages, the Umm an-Nar represents the earliest occupation of the wadi villages. This supports the idea for a marked development in socio-economic strategy and structure from the Hafit period. Since this time, sedentary settlements have remained largely in the same locations, with only the intensity of occupation showing variation. The Wadi Andam data are the first to provide a quantifiable model for the relative scale of the suggested Wadi Suq decline at the lowest level of the settlement hierarchy. Although there is a lack of occupation evidence from both PCA assemblages and other settlements, there is significant evidence for the use of tombs, mostly in and around the wadi villages that had been occupied during the Umm an-Nar period. The reasons behind such partial continuity in Bronze Age occupation of the landscape are as yet unclear. The evidence for the Early Iron Age shows that the PCAs were not inhabited during this time, or more accurately, appear not to have been used in the same way. By contrast, the OVA areas appear to have been more intensively inhabited. This suggests that at the beginning of the Iron Age there was an early intensification in settlement and the development of a new social hierarchy after the possible abandonment of sedentary settlements during the Wadi Suq. Other changes in the settlement pattern are also apparent including a spread into areas that had not previously been occupied, seen in the defensive sites outside of the wadi village areas. Wadi villages and their environs were widely occupied during the Late Iron Age/Samad period, perhaps for the first time since the Umm an-Nar period. This indicates marked cultural change from the earlier periods, particularly the Wadi Suq and Early Iron Age. During this time, there was a high point in settlement intensity, which had been initiated earlier in the Iron Age. The evidence from later periods, from the Sasanian period to recent times, follows the same pattern apparent from the published evidence, pointing towards a decline in settlement activity during the Sasanian and Early Islamic periods, slight growth during the Middle Islamic and dramatic growth during the Late Islamic–Recent times. Nomadic and Sedentary Occupation One of the most important themes that have become apparent during the discussion of settlement patterns over time is the cycles of sedentary and nomadic occupation. The population of several periods appears to have been nomadic or semi-nomadic in nature (e.g. the Hafit, Wadi Suq/Early Iron Age and Sasanian-Early Islamic); while during other periods (e.g. the Umm an-Nar, Late Iron Age/ 176

Discussion and Interpretation Samad and the late Islamic period) there is clear evidence for a substantial sedentary population. Understanding the reasons behind such shifts is problematic, but this issue is likely to prove the potential key to understanding the fluctuating levels of occupation seen in the Oman Peninsula over its history.

tombs and the domestic structures could provide valuable insight into the nature of Umm an-Nar society. Other good examples of Umm an-Nar sites that merit excavation are those in the immediate vicinity of al-Khashbah village CS.5. • Archaeological parks could be constructed for some sites of these sites once they have been excavated sufficiently. • The Iron Age needs to be broken down into a more detailed chronological sequence, divided into sub-periods in order that it may be more fully understood. This was not possible in this study based on the material recovered during the Wadi Andam Survey. • It is hoped that this study will form the basis for more deliberate and comprehensive research by archaeologists within the Wadi Andam area.

Recommendations for Further Work This study has generated a large volume of data that could be utilised and developed through different means. Its multi-period nature and specific aims and objectives have meant that the data has not been utilized to its full potential. Therefore further research, both in Wadi Andam and in other regions of the peninsula, needs to be undertaken in the future. Possible directions for such research are discussed briefly, starting with the Wadi Andam area. Wadi Andam

Other Regions •

Further systematic survey and excavation needs to be carried out in other parts of the peninsula. It is important that the survey methodology utilised in the Wadi Andam is tested and used in other regions, as it is the first of its kind in the region. Hopefully this will build on what has already been achieved in this study and will add to our knowledge of the settlement patterns over time across the region. Further survey of wadi villages PCAs and OVAs need to be carried out in the future. This should provide a more detailed picture of the level of settlement activity over time in other regions. One of the prime regions for such survey is the Batinah which has a markedly different landscape and environment than that of Wadi Andam. • Systematic survey and detailed examination needs to be carried out on Hafit cairns across the Oman Peninsula. This needs to be undertaken particularly in different zones in order to compare cairn location, structure, distribution and density. More of the structures also need to be excavated. These efforts might allow us to solve the problem of the dating of these cairns and to explain their distribution over the landscape and their architectural differences and development. This might provide us with better insight into the nature of occupation during this period. • The study’s regional site database needs to be updated regularly when new sites are discovered in new surveys and excavations. This database be made accessible online to the public.

Further systematic survey and excavation needs to be carried out in this region, at different levels and utilizing various methdologies. Such research includes: • Carrying out further survey of wadi village PCAs and OVAs. This will augment the number of surveyed areas, and allow ubiquity analysis to be undertaking demonstrating the number and proportion of sites that have yielded sherds from each period. This will provide a more detailed picture of the level of activity over time. • Stone Age data is conspicuously absent from this research. It is possible that sites of this period were missed by the survey, as they are likely to be limited in number and difficult to find, particularly with the wadi village centred methodology used in this survey. Therefore survey geared specifically towards the recovery of Stone Age material needs to be undertaken. • Further research needs to be invested in the platforms discovered in close proximity to Hafit cairns. In particular, their function, date and relationship with the Hafit tombs needs to be established. They are a prime candidate for future excavation as they might provide considerable insight into the nature of Hafit settlement, if they prove to date to this period. • Excavations need to be undertaken on specific sites and features of great potential. This might include, the excavation of the Umm an-Nar site at al-Ghoryeen CS.2.52 in order to more fully comprehend its deposits and layout. Both the

177

APPENDICES APPENDIX A SITES GAZETTEER

This appendix is intended to provide a site gazetteer with a description of all of the recovered sites during the Wadi Andam Survey and their archaeological remains. As indicated in the methodology section in Chapter Four (see Areas and units of survey in Section One), level 5 of the Wadi Andam Survey included surveying selected wadi villages and their surroundings as well as other areas along the Upper Wadi Andam banks. Thus, the sites recorded by the survey will be divided into two parts: those recorded within each wadi village and its surrounding areas, and those recorded on the other areas along the Upper Wadi Andam. Site description in this gazetteer will include the site’s name and code created for the purpose of this study, its approximate total area and its position taken by hand-held GPS (Oman WGS 84). It will also include a description of each site’s archaeological features that will include two types: structures and finds, as well as other remarkable notes. Site names are written as spelt in the local dialect and as appearing in the official signs made by the Ministry of Transportation and Communication (see Appendix D for names transliteration and Arabic spelling). As indicated in Chapter Four (see recording archaeological sites/features in Section One), recording sites includes an organized numbering system which includes the name of the nearest village or area to the site followed by the defined area number (e.g. Barzaman CS.7), and then by the site number (e.g. CS.7.1). Each site or feature within that site was also given a separate number (e.g. CS.7.1.3). This numbering system was used in order to make the sites more recognizable for the reader and for any future studies. The description within this gazetteer will present both the structural remains and finds from each site. Site features only will be listed here. For more detailed descriptions it is recommended to refer to the site typology at Appendix B. For finds, the gazetteer will only indicate the total number of collected pottery sherds and their dating. For more details on pottery class descriptions and their related data, it is recommended to refer to the pottery typology and classification in Appendix C.

Fig. 171: Recorded sites in and around the village of alFulayj (CS.1)

(see below). The total surveyed area is located between the junction of Samad and the end of the al-Fulayj village. The survey results in this village yielded nine sites (Fig. 171), which are numbered from CS.1.1 to CS.1.9. The following is a brief description of each site with its main archaeological features. Al-Fulayj CS.1.1 (0608863/2531605)

A.1- VILLAGES SURVEY

Size 44 ha.

The results of the surveyed wadi villages (villages) can be summarized as the following:

Structures

A.1.1- AL-FULAYJ VILLAGE (CS.1) The survey includes Wadi al-Fulayj which is more than 5 km2 north from al-Fulayj village and on both sides of the wadi (E–W). The wadi bed was not surveyed, only the gravel fans and the village. The survey includes the village, which was divided into five areas for pottery collections

This is the area located 3 km from the main village. It yielded a group of around four Beehive tombs and eight Hafit cairns. The Beehive tombs are well preserved and have an east facing entrance around 50 cm high and 40 cm wide. They include two double-skin stone walls of around 80 cm to 1 m thick built of crude yellow stones with corbelling. They stand to a height of around 3 m and around 5 m diameter at their base. In addition, the Hafit

178

Appendices cairns are piled brown and black wadi stones of unshaped and crude stones that may have been brought from the nearest rocky hills around 100 m away. No remains of any concentric walls can be noticed. However, a pit in the middle of one possible burial is visible. The cairns’ diameter ranges between 5 m and 6 m, and their height varies between 1 m and 2 m. Moreover, the site includes two stone horseshoe structures with a double stone wall around 30 cm thick and filled in the middle with gravel and sand. Both structures are attached to each other with an opening of around 1 m wide. Finds The site’s surface yielded two Umm an-Nar pottery sherds and possible concentration of chert flints. Al-Fulayj CS.1.2 (0607984/2530944) Size 18 ha. Structures This area is around 2 km away from the main village and is surrounded by rocky hills on its western side and a graded road, which leads to the village, on the eastern side. The area shows a group of possible platforms, scattered stones, possible subterranean circular tombs, and a group of piled stones. The possible platforms consist of one stone course alignment. In addition, there is a circular stone structure of one stone course alignment above the surface. This is around 90 cm in diameter with a group of stones piled in the middle of the structure. The site also consists of a group of possible subterranean circular tombs around 1 m to 1.40 m in diameter. Moreover, groups of heaped as well as scattered stones were found all over the site. Many of the scattered stones show no specific shape, while the piled stones are more or less circular in shape and range between 50 cm and 1 m in diameter and around 10 cm to 25 cm high.

Finds No finds. Al-Fulayj CS.1.4 (0607803/2529110) Size 63.64 ha. Structures This site consists of around 122 Hafit cairns, around 26 Beehive tombs, a group of stone structures and a burial ground that includes more than 45 tombs of different types as well as an Islamic cemetery. The Hafit cairns include concentric walls ranging from 3 to 6 in number. They are built of brown and black stones mixed with white creamy soil. They were built on low slopes of yellow rocky hills and on the wadi gravel terrace. Their diameter ranges between 4 m and 8 m and their height varies from 60 cm to 1.10 m high. On the other hand, the Beehive tombs are built on top of ridges and slopes of yellow rocky hills. They are built of crude yellow stones and some of them have entrance facing east. Their diameter ranges between 5 m and 6 m. They have burial chambers in the middle which are from 1 m to 1.50 m in diameter with corbelling and double-skin walls around 80 cm to 1 m thick. They stand to a height of around 1 m to 2 m. Furthermore, the site has yielded a group of stone structures of different shapes and sizes (Fig. 172). They are square or rectangular in shape with double stone walls around 60 cm–80 cm thick filled with gravel.

Finds Few pottery sherds were picked up from the surface of the site, which include one sherd of Middle Islamic and few Late Islamic pottery sherds. The site also yielded one worked piece of flint (W.D.001: Fig. 41) that was collected from the possible platforms.

Fig. 172: Stone structures at al-Fulayj site CS.1.4

Al-Fulayj CS.1.3 (0607832/2529992) Size 16.5 ha. Structures This site includes a stone horseshoe structure built of double-skin stone wall, filled in the middle with gravel, and opens on the east. The whole structure is around 1.30 m in diameter and attached with one course stone alignment or wall in the north-western part. The site also yielded one badly preserved Beehive tomb of crude yellow stones and a double-skin stone wall of around 80 cm thick, as well as an entrance facing east. It is around 2.50 m in diameter and built on top of a yellow rocky hill. Lastly, the site consists of five possible collapsed Beehive tombs that are located around 150 m south of the above mentioned tomb. They are built on a yellow rocky hill ridge and its slopes.

Fig. 173: Hafit cairn on the tomb field at al-Fulayj site CS.1.4

179

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula The stones are black and brown with an average size of around 30 cm. The most interesting structure within this site is a burial ground that includes more than 45 tombs of different types such as cairns with white creamy soil, possible subterranean Wadi Suq tombs, and possible Umm an-Nar tombs. The majority of them are cairns with white creamy soil with irregular stone walls around 80 cm thick and 6 m to 8 m in diameter. One of these cairns is large and yielded around three concentric walls of around 35 cm thick (Fig. 173). The cairn is around 8 m in diameter and 1 m high (0607666/2528875). Lastly, the southern part of the site includes an Islamic cemetery of oval tombs around 80 cm to 2 m long and 80 cm to 1.20 m wide. Finds The site yielded a number of pottery sherds including 22 Late Iron Age; three Late Islamic and four Recent as well as other Islamic sherds (Middle to Recent). In addition, Tomb 1 yielded a pierced red cylindrical bead (W.D.013); 1.1 cm long and 5 mm diameter. Al-Fulayj CS.1.5 (068283/2529117), Fig. 174 Size 187.5 ha. Structures This is al-Fulayj’s main date palm village. It was divided into five areas for pottery pick up (CS.1.5.1 to CS.1.5.5). The village consists of an old mudbrick quarter, old

agricultural fields and clearance mounds, an Islamic cemetery and possible pre-Islamic tombs (cairns). The village is currently inhabited by a small number of people in which few modern houses can be observed. It is surrounded by date palm groves. Finds The PCAs yielded a large number of pottery sherds of different periods including 28 Umm an-Nar; three Wadi Suq; 25 possible Late Bronze Age; ten Early Iron Age; 28 Late Iron Age; 12 possible Early Islamic–Sasanian; 240 Middle Islamic; 448 Late Islamic and 57 Recent. Al-Fulayj CS.1.6 (0608893/2529121) Size 0.5 ha. Structures This site consists of old agricultural fields with a small date palm grove on a small wadi gravel terrace. They are located around 1 km north al-Fulayj village. The fields are defined by double stone walls around 60 cm thick which extend over an area of around 50 m by 100 m. Finds Few pottery sherds were collected in which nine are Middle Islamic and 15 are Late Islamic. Al-Fulayj CS.1.7 (0609206/2530861) Size 0.54 ha. Structures It only contains five piled stones and other scattered stones of irregular shape on the wadi gravel terrace. The piled stones are around 80 cm to 1 m in diameter and 10 cm to 25 cm high. Finds No finds. Al-Fulayj CS.1.8 (0608822/2531696) Size 3.96 ha. Structures The site is an area of scattered stones of irregular shape with around 27 small stone piles and around six possible circular pre-Islamic tombs about1–2.50 m diameter with a stone course alignment. Finds No finds. Al-Fulayj CS.1.9 (0609174/2532271) Size 0.06 ha. Structures Twelve stone piles on a flat slope between two yellow rocky hills with a diameter between 30 cm and 1 m. Finds No finds

180

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Fig. 174: Sketch plan of the village of al-Fulayj CS.1.5

Appendices A.1.2- AL-KHURAIS VILLAGE (CS.3) The survey at this village included the main al-Khurais village and its surrounding areas as well as an area of 5 km2 away from the village. Al-Khurais is a small date palm village on the northern side of the main road connecting Izki to Sinaw. It located on Wadi Andam gravel terraces about 1 km away from Khadra Bani Dafa’a village. It is located between two ranges of black rocky hills from the east and the west. Al-Khurais includes a small number of modern houses mixed with old mudbrick buildings. The survey results yielded the following sites (Fig. 175):

of slag concentration and pottery sherds with possible stone structure remains stone scatters and one mudbrick rectangular building. Area three includes the main date palm groves and the modern houses, while area four consists of an Islamic cemetery, old agricultural fields and clearance mounds. Area five consists of a group of scattered stones, old agricultural fields and clearance mounds, while area six showed scattered stones, a small date palm grove and well-sections.

Fig. 176: Sketch plan of the village of al-Khurais CS.3.1

Finds The PCAs yielded a large number of pottery sherds including 15 Umm an-Nar, two Early Iron Age, 445 Middle Islamic, 853 Late Islamic and 13 Recent. Fig. 175: Recorded sites in and around the village of alKhurais (CS.3)

Al-Khurais CS.3.1 (0603943/2519296), Fig. 176 Size 432 ha. Structures This is the main village. It was divided into six areas for pottery collection (CS.3.1.1 to CS.3.1.6). Area one consists of old mudbrick buildings with two towers as well as a falaj channel and a group of dried wells (Thuqab). Area two, close to the main road, yielded a high density

Al-Khurais CS.3.2 (0605205/2516910) Size 1.25 ha. Structures The site yielded scattered stones of irregular shape and some piled stones around 80 cm to 1 m in diameter and 10 cm to 20 cm high. It also yielded stone wall remains built of black and brown stones on a black gravel wadi terrace. They are around 60 cm thick and filled in the middle with gravel. Finds Seven Islamic pottery sherds were collected from the surface, which are possible Late Islamic-Recent in date.

181

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula Al-Khurais CS.3.3 (0605085/2517253)

Al-Khurais CS.3.4 (0604324/2517572)

serve as a plaster to strengthen the walls and to fix the stones. The corridor is on the southern side and the tower on the western side of the outer wall. The tower is also built of stones that are plastered with mud and is around 4 m in diameter. It is preserved in one part to around 1.50 m high. Moreover, area three (CS.3.5.3) comprises several stone-walled agricultural fields. The walls are 60 cm to 80 cm thick and filled with gravel. The best preserved examples stand to approximately 1.50 m high. There are also several structures with square, rectangular or circular shapes that are scattered within these fields with walls that are around 80 cm thick. There are also two possible preIslamic tombs of circular shape around 1.50 m in diameter (0603698/2517321), and one Islamic tomb on a low rocky hill around 50 m away from the fields. It is oval in shape, around 80 cm wide and 1.20 m long (0603661/2517411).

Size 2.925 ha.

Finds

Structures

A large number of pottery sherds was collected from these three areas including 42 Middle Islamic and 151 Late Islamic sherds from CS.3.5.1; 12 Umm an-Nar, three Late Iron Age, 42 Middle Islamic, 125 Late Islamic and 32 Recent from CS.3.5.2; as well as 52 Middle Islamic and 118 Late Iron Age from CS.3.5.3.

Size 0.0375 ha. Structures This is a rectangular stone structure around 14 m by 4 m in size and built of black wadi stones on a black gravel terrace. It has double stone walls around 50 cm thick and filled in the middle with gravel. Its north–western wall and part of its western wall are missing. There are also a few scattered stones around this structure of piled stones around 40 cm to 80 cm in diameter. Finds No finds.

The site consists of a group of piled stones of circular or semi-circular shape around 40 cm to 1.50 m in diameter and 10 cm to 25 cm high. Two of these piled stones are possibly pre-Islamic tombs around 1.50 m in diameter, but without any stone alignment. They are south of al-Khurais village and west of the main road connecting Izki and Sinaw.

Al-Khurais CS.3.6 (0602975/2516184) Size 1.50 m in diameter

Finds

Structures

A number of 71 Late Iron Age pottery sherds were collected from the site’s surface.

It includes one possible circular pre-Islamic tomb with a diameter of around 1.50 m. It is built of brown and black stones on a black gravel wadi terrace.

Al-Khurais CS.3.5 (0603602/2518223) Size 108 ha. Structures The site includes an area that is located on the Wadi Andam terrace to the south–west of the main road connecting Izki with Sinaw. The area is surrounded by black rocky hills from the west and the wadi bed from the east. It is designated as a natural park where several stone structures, stone walls remains, tombs and old agricultural fields were found, and divided into three areas of pottery pick-up (CS.3.5.1 to CS.3.5.3). The first area (CS.3.5.1; Fig. 119) consists of several stone structures of different sizes and shapes that were built on the slopes of black rocky hills and on the wadi terrace. These structures appear to be built with stone foundations almost 1 m in height then the rest of the building was completed using mudbrick the remains of which can still be noticed. The walls are 45 cm to 80 cm thick. The second area (CS.3.5.2) includes stone structures on top of a black rocky hill surrounded by a stone wall with an arched corridor and round tower. There are around 21 square and rectangular stone structures with double stone walls filled with gravel. Their thickness varies between 30 cm and 60 cm. The corridor is around 4 m long and 2 m wide while the arch is around 1.50 m thick, 2 m wide and 3 m high (the total corridor height with the arch is around 4.50 m). Both the corridor and its arch are built of mud and brown, black and grey stones. The mud was made to

Finds No finds. Al-Khurais CS.3.7 (0604209/2518650) Size 13.5 ha. Structures This is an old smelting site that consists of an area with large concentrations of slag, stone structures and an Islamic cemetery. The site was divided into five areas according to its features (CS.3.7.1 to CS.3.7.5). The first area (CS.3.7.1) includes an Islamic cemetery of around 60 oval tombs with head-stones of a north–south orientation. Their sizes vary from 1 m to 2 m long and 60 cm to 80 cm wide. They consist of one stone course alignment filled with gravel and earth. The second area (CS.3.7.2; Fig. 120) consists of large concentrations of slag surrounded by stone structures. Area CS.3.7.3 (Fig. 121) consists of around fourteen rectangular and square stone structures of different sizes built with double stone walls around 20 cm to 35 cm thick and filled with gravel. These structures are found either isolated or in groups with different sizes range from 1.50 to 3 m wide and 2 to 4 m long. Area CS.3.7.4 yielded possible pre-Islamic tombs of circular shape that are built of brown and black stones with around 1.50 m in diameter. It also yielded possible stone wall remains of around 5 m and a well section of around 2 m deep. Finally, 182

Appendices area CS.3.7.5 yielded more than 12 stone structures that are built on top of a black gravel outcrop and its slope. They are built of brown and grey stones of different sizes and shapes such as square and rectangular with stone walls of around 40 cm thick. The structures either isolated or units. Finds The site yielded a large number of Islamic pottery sherds in which a collection was made, including 148 Middle Islamic, 255 Late Islamic and one Recent. There are also other possible Middle to Recent sherds were collected. There is also a large number of slag resulted from the copper smelting. Al-Khurais CS.3.8 (0603661/2517411) Size 65.25 ha. Structures Two black rocky hills located around 40 m west of alKhurais village and on the eastern terrace of Wadi Andam. Around 30 black cairns were counted, which range in size between small, medium and large. Their diameter varies from 2 m to 8 m. Some of them display concentric walls, sometimes up to six walls, with other possible sub-division walls in the middle. They are around 30 cm to 80 cm in height, and some cairns consist of white creamy soil. The small and medium cairns consist of 2–3 walls 1 m to 3 m in diameter. The site also yielded some piled stones 40 cm to 80 cm in diameter and 20 cm to 30 cm high. In addition, down the hill along its slope, there is a slag concentration that extends over an area of around 80 m by 15 m. Finds

Al-Khurais CS.3.9 (0603906/2518402) Size 1.3 ha. Structures This is an Islamic cemetery on the eastern gravel terrace of Wadi Andam with around 178 oval tombs. They are built with head-stones of north–south orientation and consist of one stone course alignment filled with gravel and earth. Their size varies from 60 cm to 1 m wide and from 1 m to 1.50 m long. Finds No finds. Al-Khurais CS.3.10 (0602977/2520386) Size 1.375 ha. Structures The site consists of a cemetery with a group of pre-Islamic and Islamic tombs south of al-Majazah village. There are 16 pre-Islamic (possible Iron Age?) tombs similar to those found at site CS.2.1 in the Upper Wadi Andam. In addition, one rectangular building built of stone and mudbrick of around 4 m by 2.50 m was found within the cemetery. This could be the place where they prepared (wash and warp) the dead to be buried. Finds No Finds. A.1.3- AL-QARYATAIN VILLAGE (CS.4) Size 570 ha.

The cairns are badly disturbed and yielded scattered human bone fragments and four Early Iron Age pottery sherds. The site surface also yielded 44 Late Islamic pottery sherds scattered all over the site. In addition to the large number of slag pieces within the slag concentration area, some pottery sherds that include smelting residue were collected, indicating the possible use of pottery in the smelting operation. Other finds included two shells from CS.3.8, Tomb 1 (W.D.056–W.D.057: Fig. 177).

Al-Qaryatain is a large date palm village surrounded by Wadi Qant, which meets Wadi Andam near Khadra Bani Dafa’a, from the north–western and southern parts (Fig. 178). The main road separated the village into two parts: the denser and larger part is the southern one that includes the main date palm groves and the old and most of the modern houses, while the northern part includes the few remaining modern houses. The area is surrounded by black rocky hills. The survey results yielded the following group of sites (Fig. 179):

Fig. 177: Shells from CS.3.8, Tomb 1

Fig. 178: General view of al-Qaryatain Village along the Wadi Qant

183

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula Al-Qaryatain CS.4.1 (0595651/2532231), Fig. 180 Size 314.5 ha. Structures

Fig. 179: Recorded sites in and around the village of alQaryatain (CS.4)

This includes al-Qaryatain village with the large very dense date palm groves located on a broad wadi terrace. The village was divided into six areas for pottery pick-up (CS.4.1.1 to CS.4.1.6). Area one (CS.4.1.1) includes alQaryatain old village that was mainly built on a slope of black rocky hill and partly on the wadi terrace (Fig. 129). Most of the buildings are in a good state of preservation with stone foundations. The rest of the construction was completed using mudbrick mixed with straw and gravel. Area two (CS.4.1.2) yielded stone structures which built on top of a black rocky hill in the middle of the village around 15 m away from the main road, indicate a possible fortification. The structures are square and rectangular in shape with double stone walls around 30 cm to 50 cm thick. They are built of brown and black stones. The structures are surrounded by a stone wall that extends along the edge of the black rocky hill and turns around it. The wall is about 1.20 m high and 50 cm thick. In addition, area three (CS.4.1.3) includes the western part of the village’s date palm groves with stone structure remains and an Islamic cemetery. The stone structures have walls around 50 cm to 60 cm thick and around 80 cm high. They are badly disturbed but they look like they were square or rectangular. The Islamic cemetery has oval tombs of one stone course alignment filled with gravel and earth. They have head-stones. Their size ranges from 1 m to 2 m long and 80 cm to 1 m wide. This area also includes old and modern houses. Area four (CS.4.1.4) includes the village’s

Fig. 180: Sketch plan of the village of al-Qaryatain CS.4.1

184

Appendices southern date palm groves, which also includes an Islamic cemetery and old stone agricultural fields. Moreover, area five (CS.4.1.5) includes the eastern part of the main date palm groves. It consists of old and modern houses, as well as an Islamic cemetery of oval tombs similar to those found at area three. Finally, area six (CS.4.1.6) includes the southern date palm groves of the village. It also includes an Islamic cemetery, similar to those at areas three and five, and old stone agricultural fields. The agricultural fields have stone walls around 60 cm to 80 cm thick filled with gravel and over 1 m high. Finds The PCAs within this village yielded large quantity of pottery sherds of different periods, including two sherds of Umm an-Nar, seven Late Iron Age, 473 Middle Islamic, 847 Late Islamic and177 Recent. Other finds included one grey fragment of softstone vessel’s lid of possible rectangular or square vessel from CS.4.1.5 (W.D.033).

gray to greenish in colour. A complete shell was also found (W.D.108). Al-Qaryatain CS.4.4 (0596474/2531106) Size 0.4 ha. Structures The site includes a group of stone structures of square, rectangular or circular shape. They are possibly cairns and were built on a black rocky hill. The cairns are around 1.50 m to 2 m in diameter. In addition, there are possible observation or firing positions that include stone a wall barrier (Sanger?) facing the wadi. Furthermore, one possible Islamic tomb and a possible horseshoe structure were found. The latter is around 90 cm high with an open part facing west around 60 cm wide. There are also other piles of stones. Finds

Size 5.98 ha.

The site yielded pottery sherds in which 56 are Early Iron Age, five Late Islamic and around 26 Islamic sherds of possible Middle Islamic to Recent times.

Structures

Al-Qaryatain CS.4.5 (0596353/2530421)

The site consists of four Hafit cairns on top of a black rocky hill that is located north of al-Qaryatain village. They are built of black and brown stones and are around 5 m to 6 m in diameter and 1 m to 2 m high. No walls can be identified. In addition, down this hill and on the black gravel terrace, there are five stone circular structures, as well as a group of piled stones.

Size 0.255 ha

Al-Qaryatain CS.4.2 (0594662/2532747), Fig. 180

Finds A total of 68 Middle Islamic pottery sherds were collected from both the cairns and structures. Al-Qaryatain CS.4.3 (0593958/2533038), Fig. 180 Size 1.52 ha. Structures Here are two possibly disturbed pre-Islamic cairns built of brown and black stones with white creamy soil and a diameter of around 10 m. One of the tombs (Tomb 2) shows signs of three concentric walls. Both tombs are close to an Islamic cemetery that belongs to Hamaithah village. The finds demonstrate that these tombs were used during the Early and Late Iron Age periods, although the finds were found scattered on the surface around the tombs, possibly as a result of their disturbance. Finds The surface around these disturbed cairns yielded a large number of finds including pottery sherds, fragmentary bones and fragments of softstone. Among the collected pottery are 35 Early Iron Age sherds and 66 Late Iron sherds. There is also one fragment of a softstone vessel (W.D.107: Fig. 84). It is a fragment of a rectangular or square softstone vessel with three incised horizontal lines just under a straight rim approximately 4 mm thick. It is

Structures This area consists of stone scatters, semi-circular structures and circular as well as possibly square structures around 1 m to 2 m in diameter for the circular, and around 2 m by 1.50 m for the square. The site also includes one cairn (0596366/2530371) with six concentric badly disturbed walls around 10 m in diameter. There are signs of other sub-division walls in the middle of the tomb of white creamy soil. The site also yielded a stone wall extending along the wadi. It is approximately 50 cm thick and 40 cm high (0596366/2530371). Other possible stone wall remains were noticed on the site. Finally, the site yielded possibly pre-Islamic tombs of oval shape around 1 m wide and 2 m long filled with small piled stones and surrounded by one, possibly stone, circular alignment. Finds The site yielded 51 Islamic pottery sherds of possible Late Islamic to Recent as well as four sherds of Recent times. Al-Qaryatain CS.4.6 (0596553/2530045) Size 0.004 ha. Structures The site consists of three horseshoe stone structures with an open part around 1 m wide. They have one stone course wall around 30 cm thick and 1 m high. Finds No finds. Al-Qaryatain CS.4.7 (0596274/2529593) Size 0.4 ha.

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Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula Structures The site consists of stone wall remains built on the slope of a black rocky hill. Its well preserved parts are around 1 m high and 40 cm thick. There are also two stone piles one of which could be a pre-Islamic tomb (0596189/2529496). This is around 1 m long, 80 cm wide, and around 30 cm high. It also consists of five circular stone structures around 2 m to 2.50 m in diameter. Finds No finds. Al-Qaryatain CS.4.8 (0594570/2531817) Size 0.77 ha. Structures The site includes an Islamic cemetery with 570 tombs built on a black gravel wadi terrace. They are oval in shape, around 1 m to 2 m long, 80 cm to 1 m wide, and filled with gravel. They are surrounded by a wall with a one stone course alignment. In addition, there are two stone walls forming what could be the boundary of an agricultural field on the western side of the cemetery. The walls are around 90 cm high and 60 cm thick, and filled in with gravel. Finds

Fig. 182: Part of the burial chamber of the above large Hafit cairn with white creamy soil at al-Qaryatain site CS.4.9

Al-Qaryatain CS.4.10 (0598139/2532007) Size 3 m diameter Structures This is a semi-circular stone structure built of yellowishbrown stones around 3 m in diameter.

No finds.

Finds

Al-Qaryatain CS.4.9 (0597278/2532413)

No finds.

Size 12 m diameter

Al-Qaryatain CS.4.11 (0600025/2531608)

Structures

Size 0.7 ha.

The site consists of a cairn built of brown and black stones mixed with white creamy soil. It is around 4 m high and includes may be eleven burial chambers all of which are badly disturbed. They seem to be part of two main chambers (Fig. 181–182). These two chambers appear to be circular and around 40 cm high and 80 cm in diameter. The entire tomb is around 12 m in diameter. Finds

Structures

The cairn yielded 14 Late Iron Age pottery sherds and seven Islamic sherds of possible Late Islamic to Recent times.

Here is an area of scattered and piled stones with other structures. They that are scarcely visible on the surface with only one stone course alignment (two examples). Could they be subterranean tombs? They are built of brown and black stones on a black wadi gravel terrace and 1.20 m in diameter. Finds No finds. Al-Qaryatain CS.4.12 (0601389/2529947) Size 20.25 ha. Structures

Fig. 181: Large Hafit cairn with white creamy soil at alQaryatain site CS.4.9

The site includes an area of stone structures on a black rocky hill surrounded by old agricultural fields on the east and an Islamic cemetery from the west. They are near the junction that leads to al-Qaryatain village coming from the road that connects Kharma with al-Ghoryeen. The site was divided into three areas (CS.4.12.1 to CS.4.12.3). The first area (Fig. 122) consists of a black rocky hill with a group of square and rectangular stone structures with corridors or courtyards between them. They are built of double stone walls around 50 cm thick filled with gravel. The structures are linked to form one complex. The second area includes old agricultural fields with walls built of brown and black stones. The well preserved part of these walls stands to a 186

Appendices height of around 1.20 m. There is a group of stone piles scattered all over these fields. These piles are of different sizes and shapes. The third area within this site consists of an Islamic cemetery of 76 oval tombs with head-stones of north–south orientation. They are surrounded by a one stone course alignment filled with gravel and earth. The tombs are around 1 m to 1.50 m wide and around 1 m to 2.50 m long.

Finds

Finds

Structures

The site yielded a large number of Islamic pottery sherds from all the areas, including one Early Islamic, 39 Middle Islamic, 98 Late Islamic and two of Recent time. Al-Qaryatain CS.4.13 (0598677/2525981) Size 20 ha. Structures Here there are five cairns and four Beehive tombs spread over a large area of gravel terrace (Fig. 85). The cairns are built of brown and black stones with white creamy soil, while the Beehives are located on top of a brownish-white rocky hill, and built of very rough, possibly travertine white stones. The cairns are around 10 to 12 m in diameter and consist of four to six concentric walls and other possible sub-division walls in the middle. These Beehive tombs include a burial chamber of around 1 m diameter at the base. They are built of two double-skin stone walls (inner and outer) each of which is around 1 m thick. The stones are different in size with a longest measurement of around 35 cm and a diameter of around 8 m.

Among the tombs yielded grave goods is Tomb 3 that yielded two Late Iron Age pottery sherds and 28 Late Islamic sherds, while Tomb 8 yielded two Early Iron Age pottery sherds. Al-Qaryatain CS.4.15 (0599359/2527479) Size 0.48 ha. The site yielded ten Hafit black cairns built on a black rocky hill near Kharma village. They are around 3 m to 5 m in diameter and from 80 cm to over one meter high. Finds No finds Al-Qaryatain CS.4.16 (0600346/2528163) Size 6 ha. Structures This site consists of eight cairns of rough white stones built on a wadi with a brownish-white rocky terrace. They stand to around 2 m to 3 m high, and around 8 m in diameter. They are built of rough whitish stones similar to those used in the Beehive tombs at site CS.4.13. Finds No finds Al-Qaryatain CS.4.17 (0602514/2530434)

Finds

Size 5.25 ha.

All the tombs are disturbed and several of them yielded a number of artefacts. Tomb 8 yielded 26 Early Iron Age pottery sherds and seven beads of which all are pierced (W.D.002 to W.D.008; Fig. 86). Among these are four (W.D.002 to W.D.005) stone pierced black rounded beads, one (W.D.006) is red carnelian and cylindrical, 2.5 cm long and 4 mm diameter. Another is a (W.D.007) pierced stone white rounded bead, and a third (W.D.008) is a pierced white-brown disc stone bead. In addition, Tomb 9 yielded 12 Early Iron Age pottery sherds and 11 Islamic sherds as well as one bead (W.D.021; Fig. 75) and a complete shell (W.D.022, Fig. 87). Tomb 1 only yielded one pierced spindle-whorl (W.D.119; Fig. 69 & 88) of gray stone with an outer diameter of 23 mm and an 8 mm diameter hole.

Structures The site includes three cairns with white creamy soil. They are located near and opposite to the Wadi Andam Health Centre at al-Ghoryeen. Finds No finds Al-Qaryatain CS.4.18 (0599864/2525206) Size 6 m Structures

Al-Qaryatain CS.4.14 (0599742/2526372)

This site includes only one cairn with white creamy soil similar to those found in the previous sites.

Size 0.36 ha.

Finds

Structures

No finds

The site consists of eight cairns similar to those found at site CS.4.13. They are built of brown stones with white creamy soil. Their diameter varies from 8 m to 10 m. They consist of four to six concentric walls which, however, are hardly distinguishable in some cairns. In addition, there are possible sub-division walls in the middle.

Al-Qaryatain CS.4.19 (05971884/2531049) Size 6-7 m Structures The site consists of two Hafit cairns very similar in size and construction. They are located around 1 km east of al-Qaryatain village. They are around 2 m high and 6 m to

187

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula 7 m in diameter (only the northern one was visited). Their location is situated on the edges of two black rocky hills. They form a gate to the village. They are built of black rocks and the visited northern cairn has a visible outer wall, clearly constructed not as a Beehive but as a cairn. Its burial chamber is around 1.5 m x 1 m. Finds No finds A.1.4- AL-KHASHBAH VILLAGE (CS.5) Size 912.5 ha. A survey was conducted at al-Khashbah village which is located half-way between Khadra Bain Dafa’a and Sinaw. It is around three kilometres from the main road connecting Izki with Sinaw. The village can be divided into three parts of date palm groves that are surrounded by old mudbrick and modern houses as well as pre-Islamic sites that are more concentrated on the gravel hills and wadi terraces around the village. The village, nowadays, does not seem to have a large population as we only noticed a small number of modern houses which do not exceed eighty. The first visit to the village in late December 2004 showed that there was good potential for finding pre-Islamic sites. Nineteen sites were found in this area, including the main village, and within each site a group of features was also identified (Fig. 183). Al-Khashbah CS.5.1 (0606930/2506528), Fig. 49 Size 473 ha. Structures Al-Khashbah, the main village, is surrounded by the main date palm groves: one in the north, a second in the south and a third in the west. The biggest grove is the southern one where the modern houses and other services are located. The village is located on both sides of the Wadi Andam tributary but the main part is located on the east bank. This area was also divided into six areas for pottery collection. Area one (CS.5.1.1) (size 1.2 ha.) includes the western part of the date palm grove that is located on the western bank of the wadi. This area has few date palms. Area two (CS.5.1.2) (size 4.41 ha.) includes the western part of the main grove. It was also divided into four sites. The first (CS.5.1.2.1) (size 0.18 ha.) includes a mound, which might have been caused by either clearance activity or collapsed mudbrick buildings. A large number of pottery sherds of different periods are scattered on its top and within its cut-section layers. It is around 3.5 m high and is located east of the main groves. The mound itself has been disturbed and bulldozed by the local people. Indeed all its eastern and southern parts have been bulldozed. Mudbrick layers were noticed on the mound and its edges, in particular on its eastern part. This mound could be an old Umm anNar occupation place that has collapsed. May be at a later stage the people found a higher place where they built their mudbrick buildings on top of the debris during the later, possibly Islamic, periods. Another possibility is that it is a clearance mound from the adjacent date palm groves where Umm an-Nar deposits were buried and, after being cleared,

Fig. 183: Recorded

sites in and around the village of al-

Khashbah (CS.5)

were deposited again as a mound which later was used as an elevated site on top of which to build mudbrick building. The second site (CS.5.1.2.2) (size 0.015 ha.) includes a cut-section with Umm an-Nar sherds. It could be part of the clearance mounds that are very close to the abovementioned mound. It has different layers including, starting from the top: 1) a layer of possible mudbrick remains; 2) a layer with a few Umm an-Nar pottery sherds; 3) a layer of gravel; 4) another layer of mudbrick with traces of ash; and (5) a last layer consisting of stone foundations around 60 cm high. The third site (CS.5.1.2.3) (size 0.125 ha.) yielded an Islamic cemetery with two types of tomb. One consists of around 57 tombs built with a one grey stone course with circular alignment and head-stones filled with gravel. The tombs are 1 m to 2 m long and 80 cm to 1.20 m wide. The other type of tombs was built of yellow thin slabs with some small black and grey stones. They are oval in shape around 80 cm (infants) to around 1.50 m (adults) long, and around 40 cm (infants) to 1 m (adults) wide. There are nine tombs concentrated on the eastern side of the cemetery, which has yielded Umm an-Nar pottery sherds. The fourth site (CS.5.1.2.4) consists of clearance mounds from the date palm groves and includes Umm an-Nar and other Islamic pottery sherds. Area three (CS.5.1.3) represents the southern part of the main date palm groves. It includes clearance mounds, two mudbrick and stone round towers, as well as a group of piled stones 1 to 2 m in diameter and around 15 to 25 cm high. It also includes a group of paved stones of black gravel stones on a low black gravel hill. These could be platforms for possibly different types of structures such as wooden huts or tents. There are cleared areas around these possible platforms. In addition,

188

Appendices Area four (CS.5.1.4) at the western end of the main groves, is located near the wadi bed. There is a one mudbrick and round stone tower. Area five (CS.5.1.5) includes the main date palm groves where the local people live and the groves are located. Area six (CS.5.1.6) represents the area to the north of the main date palm groves where the old mudbrick houses and modern houses are located. Finds The PCAs (CS.5.1.1 to CS.5.1.6) yielded large number of pottery sherds of different periods. These include 244 Umm an-Nar sherds, one Late Iron Age, 100 Middle Islamic, 597 Late Islamic and 71 Recent. In addition, site CS.5.1.2.1 yielded many Umm an-Nar sherds that found on top of the mound and within its cut-section layers, in particular the western and southern parts. Other sherds were also found on the mound and around it. Among the collected sherds are 154 Umm an-Nar sherds, 118 Late Islamic sherds and four of Recent times. Other finds included one large complete shell from CS.5.1.4 (W.D.093).

m to 12 m in diameter. Some have 2 to 4 possible concentric walls 30 cm to 40 cm thick. There is also an area about 200 m by 30 m of stone and Umm an-Nar pottery scatters of possibly of Umm an-Nar structures. The total area extends from the rectangular tower to the round tower. Finds Among the collected pottery sherds from site CS.5.2 are 424 Umm an-Nar sherds: 121 sherds from CS.5.2.1; 42 from CS.5.2.2; nine from CS.5.2.3; 84 from CS.5.2.4 and 168 from CS.5.1.5. There are also few Islamic sherds such as Late Islamic and Recent. Al-Khashbah CS.5.3 (0606184/2506836), Fig. 49 Size 0.3 ha. Structures

Al-Khashbah CS.5.2 (0605994/2506501), Fig. 49

Here is a yellow rocky hill that consists of 12 yellow cairns with possibly three to six concentric walls, and diameters of 3 m to 8 m. They are clustered or attached to each other by a possible stone wall around 80 cm thick; however, three of them are isolated.

Size 42.75 ha.

Finds

Structures

No finds

A yellow rocky hill with cairns and pottery scatters. Down the hill there are three Umm an-Nar towers with stone and pottery scatters. This site was sub-divided into the five following sites:

Al-Khashbah CS.5.4 (0606181/2507367), Fig. 49

CS.5.2.1 (0605803/2506363) is an Umm an-Nar rectangular tower about 30 m by 20 m (Fig. 50). It is built of large yellow stone blocks of different shapes. The stone blocks are 80 cm to 1.50 m long, sometimes more (Fig. 51). Rock drawings were found on some of these stone blocks which mostly represent scenes of a horse or camel and their riders (Fig. 52). The surface is covered with a large number of Umm an-Nar pottery sherds. There are around four piled stones, possibly cairns, on top of the tower, which could be a later addition. They are around 1 to 2 m in diameter and 10 cm to 20 cm high.

Here are 12 yellow cairns built of yellow limestone slabs with two or more circular walls (Fig. 56). They are about 1 km north–west of al-Khashbah village and are distributed within several date palm gardens. One large cairn around 2 m high (0606300/2507531) and around 8 m in diameter is located within one of these gardens. Two badly disturbed tombs showed large numbers of human bone fragments but only one bead and three pottery sherds. A good example of these tombs is tomb (0606193/2507423) that consists of two to three concentric walls of yellow stones with an average size of 35 cm. Each wall is around 30 cm thick. The tomb itself is circular around 6 m in diameter and is preserved to a height of around 25 cm. This tomb looks like some of the excavated tombs at Tawi Salim from the 3rd millennium BC at al-Qabil which was excavated by British Expedition (de Cardi et al. 1979). It has sub-division walls in the middle forming several possible chambers.

CS.5.2.2 (0605822/2506570) is an Umm an-Nar semisquare tower with four round corners (Fig. 53). It is badly disturbed and hardly distinguishable. Wall remains can be noticed at the northern end in which yellow medium and large slabs or rocks were used in constructing this tower. Few Umm an-Nar pottery sherds were picked. CS.5.2.3 (0606698/2506686) is an Umm an-Nar round tower around 25 m in diameter and built of medium and large yellow stones (Fig. 54). It consists of one stone course wall around 40 cm high. Few Umm an-Nar sherds were picked up. CS.5.2.4 (0605899/2506699), size 0.16 ha., is an area located around 15 m from the square Umm an-Nar tower. It consists of stone and Umm an-Nar pottery sherd scatters. The area is disturbed by the main road construction works. CS.5.2.5 (0606045/2506464), size 3 ha., is a yellow rocky hill that consists of 18 yellow cairns on the top. These are 8

Size 3 ha. Structures

Finds The three pottery sherds are possible Islamic and the bead (W.D.019) is small, pierced, with rounded or disc shape and 4 mm diameter. Al-Khashbah CS.5.5 (0607600/2505543), Fig. 49 Size Cairn 6 m diameter Structures Here are two cairns built on a low black gravel hill about 100 m to the south of the school of, and 80 m west of the road. One is badly disturbed and the other may have two

189

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula concentric walls but they are hardly visible. The cairns are built of small yellow and black stones with a diameter of around 6 m and a height of 20 cm.

Al-Khashbah CS.5.8 (0608720/2506647)

in the middle (Fig. 126-127). In some parts they are well preserved to around 80 cm high and were built without plaster or mortar between the stones. There are some yellow stone concentrations or accumulations in the middle of these fields possibly from collapsed associated structures. One of these structures is more or less oval in shape approximately 15 m x 7 m and filled with earth and gravel (0608595/2506529). In addition, falaj or irrigation channels were found within the fields. There are also clearance mounds around these fields. Moreover, Area CS.5.8.3 consists of a group of cairns or Beehive tombs on yellow rocky hills to the north, south and east of the village with cairns on the slopes as well as on the wadi terraces. Around 50 cairns were counted. They are built of crude yellow stones some with white creamy soil. They are around 6 m to 8 m in diameter and 60 cm to 1 m high. In addition, 23 Beehive tombs were found. These are mostly built with two double-skin stone walls each of which is about 80 cm thick. They stand to a height of around 1 m to 2 m. The entrances facing east are around 50 cm in height and width with a roofing stone or lintel. Diameters range from 5 m to 6 m. Area CS.5.8.4 comprises the remains of a falaj channel. These remains extend over a large area. The channel itself was around 80 cm to 1 m wide and built of small and medium-sized yellow limestone slabs with a maximum dimension of 30 cm. It was plastered with mud or mortar to fix the stones and to allow the water to run easily. The channel is covered with large yellow slabs as a roof cap stones. The stones are on average around 1 m x 60 cm. The last area is CS.5.8.5 which includes a stone wall around 3 m thick and filled with earth and gravel. It stands to a height of around 1 m and was built on the south–western part of the wadi bed. The location of this wall and its thickness may possibly indicate a dam? The wall is around 8 m long and 3 m thick.

Size 236.25 ha.

Finds

Structures

Among the collected pottery sherds from this site are six Middle Islamic and 88 Late Islamic sherds with few other possible Islamic sherds.

Finds No finds Al-Khashbah CS.5.6 (0607396/2506535), Fig. 49 Size 1.75 ha. Structures Here are twelve black cairns on a group of black gravel hills to the east of the village and the asphalt road. The cairns are 8 m to 12 m in diameter and built of yellow and grey stones with a maximum dimension of 30 cm. Finds No finds Al-Khashbah CS.5.7 (0607221/2506844), Fig. 49 Size 20 m diameter Structures This is a badly disturbed round Umm an-Nar tower found east of the village (Fig. 55). It is built of large stone blocks but has recently been destroyed by the local people who removed the stone blocks and piled them along the wadi edge. One new cement wall has been built on top of one of the tower’s parts. The tower’s diameter is not clear but could be around 20 m. Finds Only seven Early Iron Age pottery sherds were collected from the tower.

This is an area surrounded on all sides by yellow rocky hills. Most of the archaeological features are located on top of these hills or on their slopes as well as on the wadi edges. Al-Khashbah CS.5.8 seems to be an old abandoned village consisting of stone mudbrick structures with stone foundations, stone wall remains, cairns (most of them are Beehive), old agricultural fields, falaj remains, clearance mounds and possibly a small dam to the south. The site was sub-divided into five areas according to its features. Area CS.5.8.1 consists of a group of structures built of stone foundations around 1.50 m high, and then completed using mudbricks. They are built on top of two yellow rocky hills and on their slopes as well as around them. The stone foundations are built without any plaster and are 40 cm to 50 cm thick. The buildings consist of two to three rooms. A stone-mudbrick mosque was also found with a place for washing. The site is crossed by a dried falaj channel. The total size of the mosque is around 40 m by 15 m. Area CS.5.8.2 includes large agricultural fields on the west and south of the village which are surrounded by stone walls around 30 cm to 50 cm wide with gravel

Al-Khashbah CS.5.9 (0605251/2506155), Fig. 49 Size 32.5 ha. Structures Site CS.5.9 is a burial ground with tombs of yellow stones and around 6 m to 8 m in diameter. There are two to four concentric walls around 50 cm thick with possible other sub-division walls in the middle forming several possible chambers. A large number of Umm an-Nar pottery sherds were picked up from the surface. Most of these tombs are disturbed and human bones fragments were noticed in some of the tombs. The tombs look like ‘Tawi Salim’ tombs. The tomb field is located in the western part of the village on a wadi gravel terrace and is surrounded on the west by a small yellow rocky hill. Some of the tombs are preserved to around one stone course wall around 30 cm high, while others are preserved to a height of 1 m to 2 m. Some stone walls consist of one course; they are either square or rectangular structures built on a low gravel 190

Appendices surface. They were found in the western part of the field. Moreover, to the west, between the field and the yellow rocky hill, there are 53 Islamic tombs with tomb headstones. They are oval in shape and built with a yellow stone course alignment and filled with earth and gravel. They are from 1 m to 1.20 m wide and 1.50 m to 3 m long. Finds The site yielded a large number of Umm an-Nar pottery sherds in which 323 sherds were collected. Moreover, among the collected sherds is one possible Wadi Suq sherd and four Late Islamic. Al-Khashbah CS.5.10 (0606053/2503718) Size ? Structures Here are 39 cairns on top of black rocky hills connected to each other to the south and south–west of the village. They stand around 1 m to 3 m high, and 6 m to 10 m in diameter. They are built of mainly black but sometimes yellow stones as well as white creamy soil. The site also consists of a rectangular stone structure of one stone course alignment around 8 m x 3 m in size. It is built on a black gravel hill of black stones and filled with gravel and black stone (0606248/2504622). Finds Different tombs yielded a group of grave goods as the following: – Tomb 1 yielded 13 Late Iron Age pottery sherds. – Tomb 2 yielded 23 Early Iron Age pottery sherds; 42 Late Islamic pottery sherds; one pierced white rounded stone bead (W.D.017, Fig. 89) with ca. 6 mm diameter and 3 mm hole-diameter; one green shiny stone (W.D.018: and Iron/copper earning of 3.2 cm diameter (W.D.130; Fig. 69 & 90). – Tomb 4 yielded four Umm an-Nar pottery sherds; and one green shiny stone (W.D.020). – Tomb 5 yielded 28 Late Iron Age pottery sherds and two Late Islamic pottery sherds. – Tomb 9 yielded 12 Late Islamic pottery sherds. – Tomb 13 yielded 13 Late Iron Age and four Late Islamic pottery sherds. – Tomb 27 yielded six Late Islamic pottery sherds and one red-orange cylindrical stone bead (W.D.011; Fig. 75) with 4 mm diameter and 1.4 cm

5 m to 6 m, and they are built of crude yellow stones. Four cairns on the slopes are built of yellow stones with white creamy soil and diameters of 6 m to 8 m and a height of 1 m to 2.50 m. There are also other similar tombs on a low flat slope. Finds No finds Al-Khashbah CS.5.12 (0609874/2503250) Size ? Structures This is an area with two black and one yellow rocky hills. On one of the black hills (0609874/2503250) are seven cairns which are around 8 m in diameter. They are built with black stones and white creamy soil. On the second black hill (0609956/2502678) are five cairns of the same construction. In addition, on the yellow rocky hill (0610226/2603016) are two cairns of the same construction except that they are built of yellow and black stones with white creamy soil. Finds No finds Al-Khashbah CS.5.13 (0609294/2503073) Size ? Structures Here eleven cairns are located on a black rocky hill. They are built of yellow and black stones with white creamy soil and their diameters are 6 to 8 and their height is 2.50 m (Fig, 37 & 91). Finds Several of the tombs yielded grave goods as follows: – Tombs 1 yielded 41 Early Iron Age pottery sherds and two of recent date. – Tomb 2 yielded two Early Iron Age pottery sherds; six beads (W.D.026 to W.D.031; Fig. 92) in which five are pierced white rounded stone bead with 3 mm to 1 cm diameter and one (W.D.026) pierced red rounded stone bead with 3 mm diameter; and six shells (W.D.094 to W.D.099) in which five are fragments and one complete (W.D.097) – Tomb 3 yielded 62 Early Iron Age pottery sherds and two shell fragments (W.D.076 and W.D.077).

Al-Khashbah CS.5.11 (0608879/2504375)

– Tomb 4 yielded four fragments of chlorite vessel (W.D.112 to W.D.115; Fig. 64) in which all are of the same vessel with possible rounded rim and bear incised decoration of horizontal lines just under the rim and opposed triangles as well as incised dots. The vessel’s rim thickness is ca. 4 mm with open-rounded mouth. The decoration of this vessel is typical of Early Iron Age type. It also yielded six shells (W.D.059 to W.D.064) in which five are fragments and one complete (W.D.059), and

Size ? Structures The site includes yellow rocky hills around 1 km to the east of the village, which have twelve Beehive tombs on their tops. The tombs’ height is around 2 m to 3 m with two double-skin stone walls each of which around 80 cm thick. They have burial chambers in the middle which are around 1.20 m in diameter at the base. Their diameter ranges from

191

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula one pierced white rounded stone bead with 9 mm diameter (W.D.012; Fig. 89). Al-Khashbah CS.5.14 (0608964/2503067) Size ? Structures The site consists of 18 cairns. They are located on a black gravel hill, built of yellow and black stones with white creamy soil and with diameters of around 8 m. Finds Two tombs yielded grave goods: – Tomb 4 yielded four Early Iron Age pottery sherds. – Tomb 8 yielded three Early Iron Age pottery sherds, and five fragments of shells (W.D.071–W.D.075). Al-Khashbah CS.5.15 (0608259/2502424) Size ? Structures The site includes 36 cairns located on a black rocky hill. They are built of yellow and black stones with a diameter of 6 m to 8 m. The site also includes square or rectangular stone structures that are built of black stones with one course alignment filled with gravel and smaller stones (Fig. 39). These could possibly be platforms of structures. In addition, a group of piled stones was found close to the structures which have diameters of 80 cm to 1m and heights of 10 cm to 20 cm. Finds The only tomb yielded material is Tomb 4 that yielded ten Late Iron Age pottery sherds. Al-Khashbah CS.5.16 (0603341/2507996) Size ? Structures The site consists of a group of piled stones of different sizes and shapes in which several look like platforms or pre-Islamic tombs. The site also includes stone rectangular and square structures built of one stone course walls with gravel infilling. There is a wall of double stone filled with gravel around 30 cm thick, 1.50 m on the long side and 1 m on the shorter side. It looks like ┐in shape. Moreover, the site yielded three structures, Islamic tombs with possible head-stones and a north–south orientation. Finds No finds Al-Khashbah CS.5.17 (0603594/2505164) Size 0.4.ha. Structures

Al-Khashbah CS.5.18 (0603555/2504608) Size ? Structures The site only includes one possible subterranean preIslamic tomb that is built of brown wadi stones of one course alignment with an average stone size of around 30 cm. Finds No finds Al-Khashbah CS.5.19 (0604144/2506201) Size ? Structures The site includes two yellow rocky hills west of alKhashbah village separated by the wadi tributary and located around 800 m away from site CS.5.9. It consists of 48 Beehive tombs of yellow stones and 4 m to 6 m in diameter and 1.50 m to 3 m high. As well there are other Hafit cairns on low gravel hills and wadi terraces. Finds No finds A.1.5- BARZAMAN VILLAGE (CS.7) Size 731.25 ha.

The site consists of around 21 Islamic tombs that are built of one stone course alignment of grey stones with oval shape, and filled with gravel and earth. Their size varies from 80 cm to 1 m wide and from 1 m to 2 m long. Finds

Fig. 184: Recorded sites in and around the village of Barzaman (CS.7)

No finds

192

Appendices

Fig. 185: Sketch plan of Barzaman CS.7.1

The survey at Barzaman village included the main village and its surrounding areas. The village includes small date palm groves and is located half-way between Mahout and Sinaw. It is surrounded by a low flat gravel surface on the east, and silt as well as sands on the west. The village has several small date palm groves west of the main asphalted road that connects Sinaw with Mahout. The village consists of a group of barasti houses or structures, in particular the western part of the village. This part also includes modern houses and some old mudbrick buildings remains among the date palm groves and their surroundings. The main cemeteries are located east of the main road Here three cemeteries were found and defined by modern cemented walls, which may indicate that they were used by groups of people or tribes. The surrounding area that was surveyed away from the village is 5 km2 from Barzaman toward Mahout (0612892/2460717). The survey within and around this village yielded the following sites (Fig. 184):

Fig. 186: Barasti structures at Barzaman, CS.7.1

Size 731.25 ha.

is located east of the main groves, and includes most of the modern houses. The fifth area (CS.7.1.5) is located east of the village and the main asphalted road, and includes a small date palm grove with barasti houses or structures and a few more modern houses.

Structures

Finds

This is the main village with its date palm groves and houses. It was divided into five areas for pottery collection. In the first one (CS.7.1.1) is the main date palm grove of the village that also includes old mudbrick houses. The second (CS.7.1.2) is the area surrounding the main groves to the south of Barzaman. It consists of old agricultural fields built of piled earth with some small stones, as well as falaj channels with circular and rectangular basins. Area three (CS.7.1.3) is located west of the main groves and includes a group of barasti houses (Fig. 186) or structures with some modern houses, while the fourth area (CS.7.1.4)

Among the collected pottery sherds from PCAs are five Late Iron Age sherds, 37 Middle Islamic, 710 Late Islamic and 53 Recent. Other finds included only a fragment of shell from CS.7.1.2 (W.D.058).

Barzaman CS.7.1 (0610231/2466397), Fig. 185

Barzaman CS.7.2 (0609212/2472677) Size 16 ha. Structures The site includes a group of tombs and cairns on black gravel and rocky hills (Fig. 72). These include forty-three 193

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula oval tombs with large and medium brown and black stones with gravel and stones in the middle. The tombs are 2 m to 2.50 m wide and 3 m to 4 m long with an average stone size of around 30 cm to 50 cm. One tomb of this type was disturbed and its chamber left open with one covering slab in situ. The burial chamber is rectangular in shape like a cist. It with around 1.50 m long, 1 m wide and 50 cm deep with large slab stones on top and surrounded by stone wall (0608695/2472359). In addition, there are around ten piles of small circular black stones around 1 m to 2 m in diameter with an outer stone wall of one course. The site also includes seventy-six cairns of yellow and black stones, which look like collapsed Beehive tombs. They are around 6 m to 8 m in diameter, and 80 cm to 2 m high. The last type of tomb consists of eighteen black cairns that look like Hafit tombs. They are 6 m to 8 m in diameter and 1 m to 2 m high. Furthermore, the site includes possible stone circular structures attached to each other, and a group of piled stones around 80 cm to 1 m in diameter and 10 cm to 20 cm high.

cm to 1 m with a length variation from 1 m to 2 m. They are built of brown and black as well as grey stones and in the middle there are some travertine stones with gravel. Some cleared circular structures were also found as well as black and rough white stone scatters all over the area. They have no recognisably regular shape but could be the remains of disturbed structures?

Finds

A.1.6- Ar-RAWDHAH VILLAGE (CS.9)

Different types of pottery sherds were collected from the surface of the sites in which 12 are Umm an-Nar, seven possible Wadi Suq, eleven Late Iron Age, one Early Islamic, six Late Islamic and 21 Recent.

Size 1,912.5 ha.

Barzaman CS.7.3 (0609709/2471784) Size ?

Finds No finds Barzaman CS.7.5 (0609067/2471296) Size ? Structures The site includes a group of white and brown scattered stones or piled on a gravel terrace. Finds No finds

This is ar-Rawdhah village. It has a with high density of date palm groves that are located on Wadi Samad terraces, and surrounded on the east and west by black rocky hills and Wadi Samad’s tributaries. Nineteen sites were located within this village and its surrounding area. These can be summarized as the following (Fig. 187):

Structures The site consists of a circle of piled black stones possibly in the form of platforms for structures of huts or wooden houses. There are also possible rectangular stone structures of one stone course alignment around 1 m x 2 m. Finds No finds. Barzaman CS.7.4 (0609253/2471511) Size 2.4 ha. Structures The site is located on a black rocky hill that consists of possibly rectangular structures that are built of brown wadi stones and rough white stones. It also consists of a group of piled black stones of mostly circular shape and around 1 m in diameter. They could be platforms for structures. There are also two possible Islamic small oval tombs around 80 cm long and 40 cm wide with head-stones. Furthermore, the site includes some black and rough white scattered stones. There are also five cairns of brown and white travertine stones with a circular burial chamber in the middle which is around 1 m in diameter. The diameter of the cairn varies from 4 m to 6 m and around 2 m high. Forty-seven oval tombs with head-stones with a north– south orientation were found in an Islamic cemetery at the north end of the site. The tombs are mainly of two stone courses alignment though sometimes one course. They are filled with gravel and earth. Their width ranges from 80

Fig. 187: Recorded sites in and around the village of arRawdhah (CS.9)

194

Appendices Ar-Rawdhah CS.9.2 (0624702/2531197), Fig. 188 Size 4.37 ha. Structures This site includes two areas: the first one (CS.9.2.1; Fig. 70) includes old mudbrick building remains on top of a black rocky hill and its slope. The southern slope of the hill yielded a mudbrick remains with a large number of sherds of different periods. This area seems to be a rubbish dump area that has been used over a long period of time in which sherds of different periods were noticed and of which a large collection was made. Perhaps the rubbish dump is composed of the remains of the adjacent mudbrick buildings. The second area (CS.9.2.2) consists of a small date palm grove that was also checked for pottery collection. The sherds on this site were collected from the earth piled around the edges of the garden. This earth is the result of clearing the garden land over time for the fertile soil as well as digging the ground in order to find water. This earth possibly included the material of possible deposited remains from different periods. Finds Both areas yielded a large number of pottery sherds of different periods as the following: – CS.9.2.1: among the collected pottery sherds are seven Umm an-Nar sherds, 22 Late Iron Age, one Middle Islamic, 115 Late Islamic and four Recent. – CS.9.2.2: among the collected pottery sherds are 14 Umm an-Nar, three Wadi Suq, nine Early Iron Age, 22 Late Iron Age, one Middle Islamic, 92 Late Islamic and four Recent.

Fig. 188: Sketch plan of ar-Rawdhah CS.9

Ar-Rawdhah CS.9.1 (0624850/2530847), Fig. 188 Size 945 ha. Structures Ar-Rawdhah CS.9.1 is a large village with both numerous groves and houses. The village was divided into eight areas for pottery collection. The first area (CS.9.1.1) includes ArRawdhah’s restored fort with some old mudbrick buildings and modern houses as well as date palm groves to the east of the fort (Fig. 131). The fort is located on top of a black rocky hill and overlooks the wadi. It is surrounded by old collapsed mudbrick buildings and modern houses. Area two (CS.9.1.2) is located east of the wadi and consists of date palm groves with old fort and mudbrick buildings as well as modern houses. Area three (CS.9.1.3) includes date palm groves intermingled with modern houses and old mudbrick buildings built mostly on a black rocky hill slope. The fourth (CS.9.1.4) and fifth (CS.9.1.5) areas also consist of groves that are surrounded by a few modern houses at the northern and western ends. The sixth area (CS.9.1.6) is north of and opposite ar-Rawdhah Fort. It includes the old fort and several old mudbrick and modern houses. Area seven (CS.9.1.7) includes the date palm groves located to the north of the village, whereas area eight (CS.9.1.8) consists of the date palm groves west of the village together with a few old mudbrick and modern houses. Finds There is a large number of pottery sherds collected from the PCAs in which three are Umm an-Nar, 141 Late Iron Age, 327 Middle Islamic, 1796 Late Islamic and 18 Recent.

Ar-Rawdhah CS.9.3 (0625163/2529399), Fig. 188 Size 56.25 ha. Structures The site consists of five burial cairns near the main road connecting Samad with al-Mudhaybi. Two of them are south of the road and behind a mosque (0625097/2529434), two are north of the road (0624938/2529629 & 0624952/2529613), and one is near the modern houses and close to the road (0625071/2529554). The last cairn consists of a one stone course circle alignment of large stones with other brown small stones piled in the middle with white creamy soil. This cairn is around 4 m in diameter. The other cairns are around 8 m in diameter and also mixed with white creamy soil. Finds No finds Ar-Rawdhah CS.9.4 (0625186/2531584), Fig. 188 Size 0.03 ha. Structures A section of a well (thuqbah) north of the village and around 60 cm thick includes one layer with a few Umm an-Nar pottery sherds. This could be a buried Umm an-Nar deposit. 195

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula It also included possible evidence of fire cracked stones and possible fragments of mudbrick in the same level, as well as small mud pieces with signs of fire. In addition, a large number of pottery sherds from different periods were found around the section and within its spoil. The well-section is around 3 m wide and around 2.50 m deep. Finds Among the collected sherds from the well-section and its spoil are 76 Umm an-Nar, eight Late Iron Age, three Early Islamic, 81 Middle Islamic, 30 Late Islamic and one Recent. Ar-Rawdhah CS.9.5 (0625631/2532976), Fig. 188 Size 56.25 ha. Structures The site includes a date palm grove with a modern house, and an old fortified wall (Sur) that includes one corner tower of mudbrick and stones to around 8 m in height and around 4 m in diameter at the base. The wall surrounds a group of possibly five collapsed buildings. The wall is around 60 m by 100 m. To the north of the tower is an old collapsed mosque around 10 m by 8 m. South of the wall there is also an old building. A mosque with Mihrab was also found. The site also includes a large area of old agricultural fields, a rectangular tank around 8 m x 4 m, a group of old dried wells (Thuqab), some clearance mounds around the fields as well as some mudbrick buildings of square and rectangular shape within the fields which could have been used for irrigation or agricultural purposes. Finds Among the collected pottery sherds from this site are three Umm an-Nar sherds, eleven Early Iron Age, 70 Late Iron Age, eight Middle Islamic, Late Islamic 257 Late Islamic and ten Recent. Ar-Rawdhah CS.9.6 (0625393/2532163), Fig. 188 Size 5.64 ha. Structures The site includes an area of old agricultural fields with stone walls remains around 30 cm to 50 cm thick, some piled stones of circular shape with white creamy soil around 1 m to 1.50 m in diameter, as well as a group of dried wells (thuqab). Finds The site yielded a large number of pottery sherds in which a collection was made, including 252 Middle Islamic, 226 Late Islamic and five of Recent time. Ar-Rawdhah CS.9.7 (0623374/2531015), Fig. 188 Size 0.9 ha. Structures This site includes one circular, possibly pre-Islamic, tomb with traces of two stone walls. It is built of large brown and black stones with an average size of around 45 cm. It is around 6 m in diameter with gravel in the middle and built on a slope

between two yellow rocky hills. The site also yielded a group of piled stones around 80 cm in diameter and 20 cm high. Finds No finds Ar-Rawdhah CS.9.8 (0623184/2530856), Fig. 188 Size 0.72 ha. Structures This is a gravel surface with four possibly pre-Islamic tombs of piled brown and white travertine stones. The tombs are around 6 m to 8 m in diameter. There are also more plies of stones and 15 other Islamic tombs. These Islamic tombs are oval in shape and built of piled earth and gravel with head-stones of north–south orientation, around 80 cm wide and from 1 m to 1.50 m long. Finds Among the collected pottery sherds from this site are ten sherds of Wadi Suq type, 92 Late Islamic and two of Recent time. Ar-Rawdhah CS.9.9 (0622974/2529587), Fig. 188 Size 0.045 ha. Structures This is an area of wadi terrace that includes clearance mounds and mud layers or mounds of destroyed buildings. One mud-building has survived. All were built on a black rocky hill slope and are around 4 m x 3 m in size. Finds No finds Ar-Rawdhah CS.9.10 (0622905/2529266), Fig. 188 Size 45 ha. Structures The site is located on a wadi terrace and surrounded by a black rocky hill from the west. The site includes the ruins of stone-mudbrick buildings. Only mud layers remain on the ground. The stone walls of these structures are around 30 cm thick and built of grey and brown wadi stones. Some walls are built of stone and plastered with mud or mortar. The site also includes an Islamic cemetery west of the site on a low slope of black rocky hill. Here, 163 oval-shaped tombs were identified, and another cemetery with 29 oval tombs. To the south, there are old agricultural fields that extend over a large area and include other stone and mudbrick buildings remains, a mosque as well as possible falaj channel remains. Finds A large collection of pottery sherds was made from the site surface in which 86 are Middle Islamic, 266 Late Islamic and three of Recent time. Ar-Rawdhah CS.9.11 (0622487/2529448) Size ?

196

Appendices Structures This site is an Islamic cemetery with 33 oval tombs with one stone course alignment filled with earth and gravel. Their sizes vary between 80 cm and 1 m wide and from 1 m to 2 m long. The site also includes a group of piled stones of gravel and earth around 1.20 m in diameter. Finds

The site is an Islamic cemetery located east of the village. On one side of the road there are 147 oval tombs with 10 more on the other side. The tombs are built of one stone course alignment and filled with gravel and earth. They are around 80 cm to 1 m wide and 1 m to 2 m long with one or two head-stones. Finds No finds

No finds

A.2- UPPER WADI ANDAM (UWA), CS.2

Ar-Rawdhah CS.9.12 (0622152/2528993) Size 1 ha. Structures The site includes a small cave or rock shelter with stone wall remains that are built using natural bed rock with other stones piled on top. Together they form a wall (0622152/2528993). The shelter is around 1.30 m wide and 2 m high in what looks like the shape of an arch. There is also a stone wall built of large brown and grey stones with an average size of around 60 cm. The wall is built on a low black rocky slope and is around 60 cm to 80 cm thick with gravel and mud in the middle. It extends along and is parallel with the slope of the black rocky hill. This wall has other wall divisions shaped like squares or rectangles. In the middle of this stone wall there are layers of mud from possibly collapsed mudbrick buildings. A similar stone wall extends parallel with another black rocky slope. This could be part of the previous wall but intermediate sections are missing, possibly destroyed.

As has been indicated in Chapter Four, Section One (see The Upper Wadi Andam (UWA) survey), a survey was carried out along the area from the junction of Wadi Andam on the main road connecting Muscat with Sur, to the junction near Khadra Bani Dafa’a on the main road connecting Izki with Sinaw. In other words, the survey includes the area that covers the Upper Wadi Andam. It is approximately 40 km long and 2 km wide (c. 7.800 ha.) along the wadi edges taking in hills as well as gravel terraces. This survey area was given the code (CS.2). Sixty-nine sites were

Finds No finds Ar-Rawdhah CS.9.13 (0625435/2528921) Size ? Structures This consists of one possibly preIslamic tomb. It is built of brown stones with white creamy soil and is around 4 m in diameter. It is hardly distinguishable. Finds No finds Ar-Rawdhah CS.9.14 (0625402/2530822) Size 3 ha. Structures Fig. 189: Recorded sites along Upper Wadi Andam (CS.2)

197

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula recorded in this area that also includes other sub-defined sites of different features ranging from stone structures, tombs, villages to towers and other structures. From these locations, four Umm an-Nar sites were recorded. These included stone structures of different sizes and shapes, tombs and towers, as well as a high concentration of Umm an-Nar pottery sherds. Each site within this area was given the area number (CS.2), followed by its own number (e.g. CS.2.1); and each site or feature within that site was also given a separate number (e.g. CS.2.1.2). They were also given the name of the closest well-known village in order to establish recognizable names instead of using a numbering system only. The area from al-Alya village to Khadra Bani Dafa’a almost 17 km long by 1 km wide was surveyed by on foot as it had showed large archaeological potentials; therefore, it was decided to survey the whole area on foot. The area from al-Alya to al-Jarda where the junction meets the main road connecting Muscat with Sur was surveyed by driving and stopping to check for possible sites. The following is a description of each of these sites and its archaeological features (Fig. 189): Rubkah CS.2.1 (0614917/2544193) Size 0.25 ha. Structures The site is a tomb field of circular stone structures of possibly pre-Islamic tombs, possibly Mahleya type (Fig. 190–191). They are built of brownish-black wadi stones. Around 34 pre-Islamic tombs and seven Islamic tombs were counted, with one possible Hafit cairn with a diameter around 6 m and three possible concentric walls. Four circular tombs are surrounded by two rectangular stone structures, each rectangular includes two tombs. The site also includes four black Hafit cairns on top of a black rocky hill east of the tomb field. Finds Among the collected pottery sherds from the surface of this tomb field are nine Umm an-Nar, one possible Wadi Suq and 22 Late Iron Age sherds.

Fig. 191: Pre-Islamic tomb from the tomb field at Rubkah site CS.2.1

Siyudian CS.2.2 (0622510/254692) Size ? Structures The site includes eight cairns on top of black rocky hills that are surrounded by date palm groves and an area of pottery sherds and slag scatter. Finds The area that showed pottery sherds and slag scatter yielded around five Early Iron Age and five Islamic pottery sherds. Siyudian CS.2.3 (0621694/2547499) Size 1.4875 ha. Structures The site consists of a group of scattered stones of irregular shape, and one possible circular tomb around 3.50 m in diameter. It also includes a well with a 1.50 m x 1.50 m square basin attached to an irrigation channel built of small dark black stones. The channel is around 55 cm wide and attached to other sub-division walls which could be the remains of other channels. The area is covered with a large number of pottery sherds. Finds Among the collected pottery sherds from this site are 21 Late Iron Age, one Middle Islamic, 38 Late Islamic, six Recent and 25 other possible Islamic sherds. Siyudian CS.2.4 (0621621/2547958) Size c. 5 m diameter Structures The site consists of only one isolated cairn with brownishblack stones and white creamy soil with a gravel and mud filling in the middle (Fig. 73). It has four concentric walls and is built on a wadi gravel terrace. This tomb is located around 1 km from the main road. Finds

Fig. 190: Pre-Islamic tomb from the tomb field at Rubkah site CS.2.1

The tomb yielded a group of objects such as one spindle whorl (W.D.123; Fig. 69 &74), fragment of chlorite vessel (W.D.124, Fig. 74), three beads (W.D.015, W.D.147 & W.D.148, Fig. 75), a copper sheet (W.D.128), Iron pin 198

Appendices (W.D.146; Fig. 69 & 76) and three fragmented shells (W.D.125, W.D.126 & W.D.127). In addition, a total of 12 Wadi Suq sherds were collected from the surface of this cairn. Siyudian CS.2.5 (0621477/0548464) Size 0.04 ha. Structures The site includes five cairns on two low black rocky hills in the middle of the wadi. Finds No finds Siyudian CS.2.6 (0621135/2548572) Size 1.5 ha. Structures It includes small plies of brownish-black stones that are scattered over a large area. The diameters of the plies range from 40 cm to 80 cm and their height from 10 cm to 25 cm. Finds Around 18 Late Islamic pottery sherds were collected from this site. Siyudian CS.2.7 (0620705/2549323) Size 0.02 ha. Structures This is a deep section that was cut right down to the bedrock. It is around 8 m long and 5 m wide. Finds No finds Khuwisi CS.2.8 (0608870/2537534) Size 5.29 ha. Structures This site includes four cairns built of brown and black stones with white creamy soil. Their diameter varies from 6 m to 8 m. Each cairn consists of two to four concentric walls. They are built on a black gravel wadi terrace. The site also includes a possible circular animal trap built of brown stones around 60 cm in diameter and with a small opening around 20 cm wide facing the south. In addition, there are stone plies of mainly circular shape around 60 cm to 1 m in diameter, and 15 cm to 25 cm high. They are distributed over a large area. Finds No finds Khuwisi CS.2.9 (0608249/2538456) Size 0.48 ha. Structures The site consists of a group of piled stone of possibly pre-Islamic tombs of the Mahleya type? They are either circular or oval in shape and around 80 cm to 1.20 m in diameter for the circular and around 80 cm to 1.20 long and 60 cm to 80 cm wide for the oval. They are built of brown and black stones and include one stone ring, which is part of the stones piled in the middle.

Finds No finds Khuwisi CS.2.10 (0608789/2539427) Size 1m diameter Structures Here is a possibly pre-Islamic tomb of plied stones, circular in shape. It is 1 m in diameter and 30 cm high. The stones are brown and black on a black gravel wadi terrace. Finds No finds Khuwisi CS.2.11, Fig. 77 Size 0.5225 ha. Structures This site includes several stone structures of different shapes that are built with double stone walls around 30 cm thick and filled with gravel and earth (Fig. 78-79). They are built on a black gravel wadi terrace directly on the edge of the wadi’s western bank. Finds The surface of this site yielded a number of pottery sherds in which five are Wadi Suq sherds, 25 are Early Iron Age and 70 are Late Iron Age. Khuwisi CS.2.12 (0609328/2539495) Size ? Structures The site includes eight possibly pre-Islamic tombs of Mahleya type. They look like piled stones with a one course circular alignment. As well there are small stones piled in the middle. The tombs are around 4 m in diameter. The site also consists of a rectangular structure with onecourse stone wall. The structure is around 6 m x 4 m (0609308/2539501). Finds No finds Khuwisi CS.2.13 (0609361/2539968) Size ? Structures It includes one possible stone structure of semi-circular shape. It is hardly distinguishable and is built with a double stone wall filled with gravel and earth to a thickness of around 30 cm. The site also contains a group of piled stones, possibly pre-Islamic tombs, around 1.50 m in diameter. They are built of brown and black stones. Finds No finds Khuwisi CS.2.14 (0609288/2540112) Size 0.625 ha. Structures The site is an Islamic cemetery of 29 tombs built with and without stone tomb-heads. They all have the same northsouth orientation. They are oval in shape and built of one

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Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula brown and black stone course alignment with an average size of around 20 cm to 30 cm. The tombs are for adults and infants and range from 40 cm to 1.20 m in width and from 80 cm to 2.50 m in length. They are built on a black gravel wadi terrace and filled with gravel and earth. In addition, the site also includes one large cleared circular stone structure of one course stone alignment around 12 m in diameter. It is possible that this structure was built as an animal pen or enclosure. There are, moreover, four circular possibly pre-Islamic tombs of the Mahleya type. They are around 1.50 m to 2 m in diameter. Finds No finds Khuwisi CS.2.15 (0609362/2540365) Size 13.14 ha. Structures The site yielded a group of different structures such as animal pens or enclosures that are built of one course stone alignment around 14 m in diameter. It also includes a group of piled stones of different shapes and sizes in which some are possibly pre-Islamic tombs of the Mahleya type. There are around ten tombs built of brown and black stones with a one course alignment around 80 cm to 1.20 m in diameter. There are also stone wall remains of possibly square structures around 50 cm thick filled with gravel. They are around 5 m x 5 m. In addition, the site yielded three cairns around 6 m in diameter and 1.50 to 2 m high in their best preserved parts. They have a pit in the middle around 1.20 m in diameter and a wall around 80 cm thick with stones piled around them. Lastly, there are 23 oval shaped Islamic tombs around 80 cm to 2.50 m long, 80 cm to 2 m wide with gravel in the middle. Finds No finds Jebel Qard CS.2.16 (0609849/2540497) Size 0.715 ha. Structures The site includes two cairns (possible observation towers?) on top of a black rocky hill. They look like collapsed Beehive tombs. They are around 1.20 m high in their best preserved parts and around 4 m to 6 m in diameter. They are built of yellowish-brown crude stones. On the wadi edge, the site also yielded a piled stone structure around 80 cm in diameter and 15 cm high with earthen and stone partitions or mounds and around a 2 m maximum height. Finds No finds Jebel Qard CS.2.17 (0610274/2540850) Size 8.8 ha. Structures The site consists of a group of circular and square structures around 3 m–4 m in diameter for the circular ones and around 2 m by 2 m for the square one. They are built of one stone course alignment around 30 cm thick using brown and black stones. The average size of these

stones is 25 cm. The site also includes eight cairns around 1.50 m high in their best preserved parts and around 4 m to 6 m in diameter. There is also a pit in the middle around 1.20 m in diameter. The cairns are built of brown and black stones on a black gravel wadi terrace. In addition, there are some piled stones of different shapes and sizes scattered over much of the area. They are around 40 cm to 80 cm in diameter and 10 cm to 20 cm high. Finds No finds Jebel Qard CS.2.18 (0610637/2541102) Size 4.41 ha. Structures The site yielded a group of piled stones around 80 cm to 1 m in diameter and 10 cm to 20 cm high. As well there are nine possibly pre-Islamic tombs of the Mahleya type on a black gravel wadi terrace. They are around 3 m to 4 m in diameter and built of brown and black stone of an average size of around 35 cm. Finds No finds Jebel Qard CS.2.19 (0611123/2541968) Size 0.81 ha. Structures The site consists of a group of piled stones around 60 cm to 80 cm in diameter and around 10 cm to 20 cm high, as well as two stone circular structures around 3.50 m in diameter and with a one course stone alignment. Finds No finds Jebel Qard CS.2.20 Size 1.0075 ha. Structures This is a major Late Iron Age site that consists of a group of circular, rectangular and square stone structures of different sizes (Fig. 110). They are built of large and medium, brown and black wadi stones. The maximum dimension of these stones is around 35 cm. Some of these are isolated and others are attached as units with other structures within them. The stone walls are around 60 cm thick with gravel and earth in the middle. The structures, cleared from inside, have black gravel remains. They are built directly on the wadi’s black gravel terrace. The structures have entrances, mainly facing the east with a width between 45 cm and 50 cm. Finds The site yielded a large number of pottery sherds, including 30 Umm an-Nar sherds and 408 Late Iron Age sherds. Jebel Qard CS.2.21 (0612629/2542542) Size ? Structures The site consists of one small circular structure of one course stone alignment around 50 cm in diameter. It is

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Appendices built of brown and black wadi stones on a black gravel wadi terrace. It also yielded a group of piled stones around 30 cm to 60 cm in diameter and around 10 cm to 15 cm high. Finds No finds Jebel Qard CS.2.22 (0613505/2543712) Size 5 m diameter Structures This site includes one isolated stone tower built on a black gravel wadi terrace, adjacent to the main asphalt road. The tower is built of one double-skin stone wall around 50 cm filled with gravel and white creamy soil. The tower is around 5 m in diameter. Jebel Qard also yielded signs of circular stone structures around 80 cm to 1 m in diameter, but they are hardly distinguishable. Finds No finds Jebel Qard CS.2.23 (0613667/2543734) Size 0.34 ha. Fig. 192: Sketch plan of Rubkah CS.2.24

Structures Here are six stone circular structures with double-skin walls of brown and black stones filled with gravel and white creamy soil. They are around 50 cm thick. The structures are around 5 to 6 m in diameter and built directly on the wadi’s black gravel terrace. Finds The site’s surface is covered with Late Iron Age pottery sherds, in which 50 sherds were collected. Rubkah CS.2.24 (0617249/2545719), Fig. 192 Size 0.48 ha. Structures The site includes one cairn of brown and grey stones and white creamy soil. It is around 8 m in diameter. It also has 6 possibly concentric walls and stands around 1.5 m high. Furthermore, it consists of one square stone structure built into the ground where its stone walls are sunk to around 80 cm below the surface. The structure is around 3.5 m x 3.5 m, and has a two step entrance in the southern wall which is around 50 cm wide. Finally, the site yielded old agricultural fields composed of gravel and small brown and black stone walls with piled earth. Finds Among the collected pottery sherds from this site are 36 Middle Islamic, 29 Late Islamic and 19 of Recent time.

stone alignment with large brown and black stones. The maximum dimension of these stones is around 35 cm. They have different sizes and shapes, such as rectangular, circular and square, with cleared areas in the middle. The site also yielded one horseshoe structure with stone wall around 30 cm thick built of piled stones. The structure is around 70 cm wide with an opening in the west. It is built of brown and black stones on a black gravel wadi terrace. There are also a group of piled stones down the hill which are around 80 cm in diameter. Finds No finds Jebel Qard CS.2.26 (0608226/2541547) Size 3.75 ha. Structures The site yielded only a group of piled stones of brown and black stones around 80 cm to 1.20 m in diameter. Finds No finds Jebel Qard CS.2.27 (0610943/2543137) Size 2.5 ha.

Khuwisi CS.2.25 (0607837/2538950)

Structures

Size 15.08 ha.

The site consists of a group of stone horseshoe or circular structures around 1.20 m in diameter with one course stone alignment. As well there is evidence of possible stone wall structures but they are hardly distinguishable. There is also a piled stone structure that looks like a rectangular in shape

Structures The site consists of a group of stone wall remains found on a low black gravel hill. They are built of one course

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Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula around 1.20 m x 80 cm. It stands to a height of around 3 stone courses all of which form a total height of around 50 cm. It has small opening from the north. This structure is difficult to interpret but it might be an animal trap. The site also yielded four oval shaped possibly pre-Islamic tombs around 1 m x 1.50 m with one stone alignment, and stones as well as gravel in the middle. These tombs recall the Mahleya type of the Late Iron Age. Finds No finds Jebel Qard CS.2.28 (0610545/2543908) Size 1.875 ha Structures Here are six stone piles of oval shape and of different sizes ranging from 1 m to 1.5 m wide and 1 m to 2 m long. They are possibly pre-Islamic tombs with an east–west orientation. They look like small cairns on a black gravel wadi terrace. In addition, there are also two rectangular, 12 oval and three circular stone structures. Finds No finds Jebel Qard CS.2.29 (0613200/0613200)

Finds No finds Rubkah CS.2.32 (0616203/2545019) Size 4.4 ha. Structures The site is an Islamic cemetery of 33 tombs built on a black gravel wadi terrace. They have a one stone course alignment, oval in shape and filled with gravel. They are around 80 cm to 1.20 m wide and 1 m to 2 m long. In addition, the site includes old agricultural fields built directly on the wadi’s terrace edge. Their walls, around 80 cm thick, are built of earth with stones. Finds No finds Rubkah CS.2.33 (0617280/2545463) Size ? Structures The site is located on a black rocky hill where two cairns were constructed. They are around 4 m in diameter, and built of brown and black stones with an average size of around 35 cm.

Size 0.66 ha. Structures

Finds

The site consists of four rectangular stone structures of one double stone wall around 40 cm thick with gravel in the middle. They have different sizes: 8 m by 4 m, 2 m by 5 m and 4 m by 3 m. They consist of piled stones around 80 cm to 1 m in diameter, and built of brown and black stones. Moreover, there are two circular stone structures around 2 m in diameter that are built on a black gravel wadi terrace.

No finds

Finds The surface of the site yielded a large number of Late Iron Age pottery sherds in which 224 were collected. Jebel Qard CS.2.30 (0613461/2543915) Size 0.0875 ha. Structures The site includes three stone plies around 1 m in diameter and 15 cm high. They are built of brown and black stones on a black gravel wadi terrace.

Rubkah CS.2.34 (0618056/2546256) Size 0.6 ha. Structures The site contains a small round tower built of brown stones on a high black rocky hill with a diameter of around 3 m and a one course stone wall around 23 cm thick. This tower stands around 1.50 m high at its well preserved part. It is surrounded by a one course brown stone wall, around 30 cm thick, about 2 m high and built on the edge of a black rocky hill. Finds No finds Al-’Alya CS.2.35 (0608518/2535981) Size 1.12 ha.

Finds

Structures

No finds

The site includes old agricultural fields to the north of al-Alaya village. They are built of double stone walls around 60 cm to 80 cm filled with earth and gravel. It also yielded one 2.50 m by 2.50 m collapsed mud building and plastered by cement (latter addition?).

Rubkah CS.2.31 (0616000/2544491) Size 0.28 ha. Structures The site includes a group of piled stones around 80 cm to 1 m in diameter and built of brown and black stones on a black gravel wadi terrace slope.

Finds No finds

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Appendices Al-’Alya CS.2.36 (0608297/2535958) Size 0.605 ha. Structures The site is an Islamic cemetery north of but close to the al-Alya village. The tombs are oval with one course stone alignment filled with gravel and earth. They have stoneheads. Tomb sizes range from 80 cm to 1.20 m wide and from 1 m to 2.20 m long. Finds No finds Al-Hubat CS.2.37 (0607366/2534309) Size 1.25 ha. Structures

village and on the east bank of Wadi Andam (Fig. 193). The stone structures are different in size and shape: there are square and rectangular structures that also have other structures within them which form separate units. The wall thickness is around 80 cm, and they are built only from yellow stones piled on each other. There is also a yellow stone wall which extends along the edge of the yellow rocky hill and turns around the structures to form a defensive wall. These structures could be part of a fortified site with possible entrance from the north–east. Local people have reported that this site was inhabited by the Furs (Persian). They call it ‘Qaryat al-Furs’ (the Persian Village). Finds No finds

The site is an Islamic cemetery on both sides of the main asphalt road near al-Hubat village. The tombs have the same characteristics as those found at site CS.2.36. Finds No finds Al-Hubat CS.2.38 (0606753/2533796) Size 2.04 ha. Structures The site is located south of al-Hubat village and consists of a group of stone structures built of brown and grey stones on a sloping wadi terrace. The structures have different sizes and shapes such as square, rectangular and circular. There are also some stone wall remains of other possible structures. They overlook the wadi from its northern bank and are badly preserved. Walls thickness is around 50 cm to 80 cm, and some are filled with gravel. One rectangular structure has piled stones in the middle with charcoal remains. There is also an Islamic cemetery containing 48 tombs with tomb stone-heads of yellow slabs. These are oval in shape and around 80 cm to 1 m wide and 1 m to 2.20 m long.

Fig. 193: Remains of fortified site built on a high rocky hill at Mahleya site CS.2.40

Mahleya CS.2.41 (0605195/2531944) Size 11.84 ha. Structures

Size 0.24 ha.

The site is located south–east of Mahleya village. It is on top of yellow rocky hills that include different types of structures and tombs. There are different features to be found here such as two cairns of piled black stones. The cairns are around 2 m –4 m in diameter and 80 cm high. In addition, there is a group of circular piled stones around 30 cm to 1 m in diameter and 10 cm to 40 cm high. Stone size varies from 10 cm to 40 cm. The site also yielded a group of circular stone structures around 60 cm to 2 m in diameter and with a circular stone course alignment with, sometimes, gravel in the middle. Among the other structures found at the site are a group of one stone course alignments of different sizes, which could have been made by people or goats move using the same route and moving the stones to the side of the path. There are also horseshoe stone structures, piled stones of possibly pre-Islamic tombs, three possible animal traps or structures, and one semi-rectangular structure with rounded corners.

Structures

Finds

The site consists of a group of yellow stone structures built on top of a yellow rocky hill to the south–east of Mahleya

The site’s surface yielded a group of pottery sherds where a collection was made. Among these collected sherds are

Finds No finds Mahleya CS.2.39 (0605170/2531890) Size ? Structures The site includes a group of stone piles with clearance mounds situated in the south–eastern part of Mahleya village. Finds No finds Mahleya CS.2.40 (0605182/2532140)

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Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula 30 Umm an-Nar sherds, 37 Late Iron Age, 13 Middle Islamic, 26 Late Islamic as well as other sherds of possible Middle to Late Islamic and Recent times. Mahleya CS.2.42 (0605075/2531788) Size 7.92 ha. Structures This is an area located on rocky hills and their slopes, and it consists of a group of Beehive tombs, collapsed Beehive tombs, Beehive tombs with attached burial chambers, cairns with white creamy soil, Hafit cairns and Hafit cairns with attached burials. The majority of them include Beehive or collapsed Beehive tombs, but they are associated with other Hafit cairns. A large number of these tombs are attached to other burials, which might be later additions. All in all, 35 tombs were counted. The Beehive tombs are built of two double-skin stone walls around 80 cm to 1 m thick. They are built of crude rough yellow and grey stones with an average size of around 30 cm. The construction looks like a Beehive with corbelled walls and a wide base. They consist of normally eastfacing entrance around 30 cm to 50 cm wide and 30 cm to 60 cm high with a roof or lintel above. In some examples, the entrance was sealed by the outer wall. The burial chamber is round 1.2 m to 1.5 m in diameter at its base which becomes narrower as it rises, which may explain the corbelling of the walls (Fig. 47). The Beehive tombs are built on the top, upper and lower slopes of yellow rocky hills. The average height is around 3 m, but there are some examples that are lower. Diameters range from 3 m to 6 m. The height of the collapsed Beehive tombs varies between 80 cm and 2 m with a diameter of around 3 m to 6 m. However, as a result of the severe disturbance in some tombs, it is very difficult to say anything about their size or even their shape. Some of the collapsed Beehive tombs have a wide centre or chamber around 2 m in diameter, and it is difficult sometimes to say anything about the construction of their walls, diameters, and the burial chambers. Sometimes these collapsed Beehives look like Hafit cairns and it is difficult to distinguish between them. Some of the Beehive or the collapsed Beehive tombs have other attached burials that resemble honeycomb. These honeycombs might be later additions, and they vary in size and number. Some tombs include more than 30 attached burials. These are difficult sometimes to identify as most of them are disturbed and/or mixed together, which also makes their quantification difficult. Their diameter varies from 80 cm to 1.50 m, and in some examples there are roof stones of yellow limestone slabs. The Hafit cairns look like piled stones around 3 m to 8 m in diameter and from 30 cm to over one meter high. They are built of brown, black, grey and sometimes yellowish stones. In some examples, there is white creamy soil. They also consist of different types, such as the Hafit honeycomb, where there is one central cairn surrounded or attached to other burials of different sizes and numbers. They range from two to 30 burials sometimes. They are normally built on top of black rocky hills and their upper

slopes as well as their lower slopes. They can also be found on the black gravel wadi terraces. From the Hafit cairns with white creamy soil and honeycomb, in particular the disturbed ones, came material such as pottery, softstone vessels, beads, arrowheads, pins, earnings, spindle rolls, pendants and other objects. These cairns sometimes show white stones of either magnesium carbonate (MgCo3), or travertine. This area also yielded a group of possibly collapsed tombs or structures that look like honeycomb in structure. It was very difficult, as a result of their bad state of preservation, to count or even to identify them either as tombs or any other structure. In addition, there are groups of stone structures such as piled stones of possibly pre-Islamic tombs, two stone course alignments of possibly horseshoe structures, one course stone alignments around 30 m long as well as one possible observation tower. Finds Among the collected pottery sherds from this sits are eleven Early Iron Age sherds from Tomb 11 (ten sherds) and Tomb 29 (one sherd). In addition, there are 17 Late Iron Age sherds collected from Tomb 10 (16 sherds) and Tomb 29 (one sherd). Al-Ghoryeen CS.2.43 (0604529/2531507) Size 16.5 ha. Structures The site is located on the east bank of Wadi Andam, directly opposite al-Ghoryeen village. The site is surrounded by yellow rocky hills on the east and north–east. It includes old agricultural fields, stone structures, pre-Islamic and Islamic tombs, stone wall remains, piled stones, date palm grove and other structures (Fig. 107). The site was divided into three areas. Area one CS.2.43.1 consists of 27 Islamic tombs with one-course stone alignment of oval shape with grey and brown stones. The tomb sizes range from 1 m to 2 m long and 80 cm to 1 m wide and are filled with gravel. The site also includes a group of stone structures of different shapes such as squares, rectangles and circles with stone walls around 60 cm to 80 cm thick filled with gravel. This site also yielded stone wall remains or alignments of possible structures but with no specific shape, as well as a group of piled and sometimes paved stones of possibly circular pre-Islamic tombs around 2 m to 4.5 m in diameter and 20 cm to 35 cm high. All those previously mentioned features are located within old agricultural fields with stone wall of around 80 cm thick. Area CS.2.43.2 is a tomb filed with possibly yellow Umm an-Nar tombs around 5 m to 6 m in diameter with two to four concentric walls of grey and yellow stones with possible sub-division walls in the middle (Fig. 108–109). Area CS.2.43.3 includes a group of possibly circular preIslamic tombs around 2 m to 6 m in diameter with maybe one or two concentric walls around 30 cm wide. It also includes a group of piled stones of different types and sizes as well as stone circular, rectangular and square structures of one-course stone alignments.

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Appendices Finds Among the collected pottery sherds from the site, Area one yielded 14 Late Iron Age, four Middle Islamic and ten Late Islamic, while area two yielded two Umm an-Nar, three Early Iron Age, 49 Late Iron Age, one Early Islamic, two Middle Islamic and three Late Islamic. In addition, Area three yielded 21 Middle Islamic pottery sherds, 15 Late Islamic and one Recent. Moreover, the surface of tomb field (CS.2.43.2) yielded one fragment of shell (W.D.016). Al-Ghoryeen CS.2.44 (0604283/2530948) Size 0.7475 ha. Structures The site includes a group of square and rectangular stone structures with walls around 80 cm thick and a maximum height of around 50 cm. They are of different sizes and built of black and brown stones, part of which have been removed by the local people who used them to build stone walls in their date palm groves. There are also around three stone plies around 35 cm to 80 cm in diameter and 30 cm high. There are also six possible platforms, four of which are circular and around 1 m to 2 m in diameter, and two are oval with one-course stone alignment around 2.5 m long and 1.5 m wide. Finds No finds Al-Ghoryeen CS.2.45 (0604419/2530838) Size 0.55 ha. Structures The site is a possible tomb field that includes around 20 possible oval pre-Islamic tombs of scattered stones without any specific or clear orientation and no visible walls. They are built of grey stones with small ones in the middle around 15 cm on average. The tombs are around 1 m to 1.5 m in diameter. Finds No finds Al-Ghoryeen CS.2.46 (0604489/2530745)

stone alignment, and small selected stones placed in the middle. It also includes one Hafit or collapsed Beehive tomb with two double-skin stone walls each of which is around 1 m thick (Fig. 35–36). The Hafit’s entrance faces east and has a one slab roof around 50 cm wide and 1 m long. It is built of crude grey and yellow stones around 8 m in diameter. It is possibly attached on its southern side with another small collapsed Beehive tomb around 4 m in diameter. Finds No finds Al-Ghoryeen CS.2.48 (0604614/2530803) Size ? Structures The site yielded 13 oval possibly pre-Islamic tombs facing east–west. They are built of large grey and brown wadi stones of an average size of 30 cm. They have a one-course stone alignment around 2.5 m long and 1.5 m wide. They are scattered all over the site. The site also includes two stone circular structures around 2 m in diameter with wall thicknesses of around 30 cm. Finds Only five pottery sherds were collected from the surface in which one is of Iron Age and four are Late Islamic. Al-Ghoryeen CS.2.49 (0604570/2530861) Size ? Structures This site consists of three stone structures of irregular shape. One was possibly a chicken house. It is like a small box with an opening around 15 cm wide and 20 cm high with small yellow slab on the roof opening (Fig. 194). The wall is around 40 cm thick with gravel in the middle. The site also yielded two stone plies around 1 m in diameter at the base. Finds No finds

Size 1.215 ha. Structures The site includes 17 possible pre-Islamic tombs like those found at site CS.2.45. There are also three possible platforms. Finds No finds Al-Ghoryeen CS.2.47 (0604620/2530752) Size ? Structures The site consists of five possibly pre-Islamic tombs around 1 m to 3 m long and 2 m wide with possibly a one-course

Fig. 194: Stone structures with possible chicken house (black arrow) at Al-Ghoryeen site CS.2.49

205

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula Mahleya CS.2.50 (0604811/2532027 & 0605047/2533797), Fig. 98 Size 94 ha. Structures This is the area between the east bank of Wadi Mahram and the west bank of Wadi Andam. It is surrounded by the current Mahleya village. The area includes a large number of tombs, both Islamic and pre-Islamic, on a black gravel wadi terrace. The majority of them are pre-Islamic of the Late Iron Age Mahleya type, and of different sizes. The site was divided into five areas: CS.2.50.1 (0604852/2533112): This is a cemetery with Iron Age tombs of the Mahleya type. They have \n oval shape with a one-course stone alignment and some piled stones on the top with gravel (Fig. 99 & 101–103). Their size ranges from 1 m to 2.5 m long and from 1 m to 1.8 m wide. They are over 500 tombs. In January 2004, a joint team from the Department of Archaeology at Sultan Qaboos University and the Ministry of Heritage and Culture carried out a rescue excavation for seventyfour tombs in the northern part of this cemetery before the main road was constructed (cf. ElMahi & AlJahwari 2005). All the objects, mainly pottery jars and vessels (Fig. 100), found within these tombs as well as the burial practices point to a date between 400 and 100 BC. These tombs were removed to build the road, which divides the cemetery into two parts: the southern part in which there are several stone structures and sixty seven tombs only; and the northern part which includes the rest of the tombs and few more structures. The cemetery also includes a stone rectangular structure, possibly a mosque, a large oval structure which is possibly a pre-Islamic tomb, a cleared circular stone structure and a horseshoe stone structure. CS.2.50.2 (0604788/2532777): This is the area located on the east bank of Wadi Mahram. It includes a group of stone constructions of different sizes and shapes, both stand alone and grouped structures. They are built on the edge and down the slope to the end of the wadi terrace. They look like ‘sloped structures’, which makes their function difficult to identify. Indeed, it is unclear whether they are houses, fields or something else. Some of them are built on top of the Iron Age tombs that belong to the southern part of the Mahleya cemetery. These stone structures consist of double stone walls filled with gravel. The walls are around 60 cm to 80 cm thick. They are built of brown and black and sometimes yellowish stones. The shapes include rectangular, square and circular, and some have no regular shape. CS.2.50.3 (0604838/2532495): This is the area around sites CS.2.50.2, CS.2.50.4 and CS.2.50.5. It includes a group of different structures and tombs. There are two horseshoe stone structures with an opening facing east and around 1.5 m wide; twelve black cairns of white creamy soil and with two to four concentric walls. Diameters range from 4 m to 8 m, and height from 40 cm to over 1 m with an average stone size of around 35 cm. Most of these cairns consist of piled stones. Three cairns are attached to

other honeycomb-shaped structures with different sizes ranging from 80 cm to 1.20 m in diameter. The site also consists of a group of piled stones of oval possibly preIslamic Mahleya-type tombs which are 1 m to 2 m long and 80 cm to 1.20 wide. They have a one-course stone alignment with more stones plied in the middle with or without gravel. However, some tombs do not show any stone alignment. They just look like piled stones. In addition, the site yielded a group of cleared circular stone structures, horseshoe-shaped stone structure, a group of stone walls, the remains of other possible structures, and nine cleared depressions surrounded possibly by walls of piled stones and gravel. There is also possibly a mosque of rectangular shape. The area also includes a group of rectangular and square stone structures and other possibly rectangular alignments around 40 cm to 60 cm thick and filled with gravel. CS.2.50.4 (0604913/2532488): This is an Islamic cemetery located behind and south of the houses of Mahleya village, and close to the west bank of Wadi Andam. Here are one hundred and eighty-six oval tombs. The western part of the cemetery could be older than the eastern. The tombs in the western part are oval with a one-course stone alignment of black stones with a north–south orientation, with gravel in the middle but without tomb head-stones. They are around 1 m to 1.80 m long and 1 m to 1.20 m wide. The tombs in the eastern part are similar but they have tomb headstones of yellow slabs filled with gravel and earth. They are around 80 cm to 1 m wide and 1 m to 2 m long. The cemetery also includes stone wall remains around 35 cm thick, 25 m long with gravel in the middle. CS.2.50.5 (0604910/2532221): This is an area located on the edge and terrace of the west bank of Wadi Andam. It includes a group of old agricultural fields and cleared areas with some depressions, some Islamic and pre-Islamic tombs as well as some other stone structure. The preIslamic tombs are of piled stones and possibly Mahleyatype. Finds The material collected from the surface and the excavated tombs included a large number of Late Iron Age pottery jars, metal objects, personal ornaments as well as chlorite vessels (cf. ElMahi & AlJahwari 2005). The surface of the site is covered with a large number of pottery sherds of which a collection was made. Among these collected sherds, Area one (CS.2.50.1) yielded three Umm an-Nar, one Early Iron Age, 47 Late Iron Age and eleven Middle Islamic sherds in addition to the above-mentioned Late Iron Age material from the excavated tombs. Area two (CS.2.50.2) yielded five Umm an-Nar, eight Wadi Suq, 30 Early Iron Age, 76 Late Iron Age, three Middle-Islamic, two LateIslamic sherds besides those from tombs such as Tomb 1 that yielded 12 Early Iron Age sherds, and Tomb 2 which yielded one Umm an-Nar, three Early Iron Age and four Middle Islamic sherds. Moreover, Area three (CS.2.50.3) yielded only four Late Iron Age, while Area five (CS.2.50.5) yielded 28 Middle Islamic and 25 Late Islamic sherds. 206

Appendices Mahleya CS.2.51 (0604651/2533201), Fig. 104 Size 28.5 ha. Structures This is the area located between the west bank of Wadi Mahram, which separates it from site CS.2.50, and the black rocky hills west of the site on a black gravel wadi terrace. The south–western part of the area includes the majority of the pre-Islamic and Islamic tombs which were located in three cemeteries. Two are pre-Islamic Mahleya-type and one Islamic period cemetery. In all there are a large numbers of tombs. On the other hand, the eastern and south–eastern parts include a high density of stone structures on the gravel terrace and along the wadi edge and slope. There are also other possibly pre-Islamic tombs and piled stones. The western and northern parts of the area include scattered cairns, more possibly pre-Islamic tombs, and possibly platforms, piled stones, and other stone structures and wall remains. Each cemetery, the surrounding mounds, the stone structures along the edge and any special features were given the following separate numbers: CS.2.51.1 (0604651/2533201): This site includes a group of stone structures in which some are linked with a low mound. There are other stone structures along its sides which reach a height of around 2 m. It also includes four mounds associated with stones structures on their tops and slopes. There are also depressions on these mounds which could be the remains of wells or they could be a result of some disaster which destroyed the building and left a depression. They extend over an area of around 80 m by 50 m. Moreover, there is one stone wall around 50 cm thick which extends around the wadi terrace edge and may mark the mounds’ boundaries. The site also has a group of stone structures and piled stones. The site has a huge number of pottery sherds, mainly coarse Iron Age ware of pinkish and yellowish colour. CS.2.51.2 (0604474/2532934): This site includes an Islamic cemetery of eighty-six oval tombs (Fig. 105). CS.2.51.3 (0604485/2533147): There are one hundred and ninety-three oval tombs that are similar to our excavated Mahleya tombs of the Late Iron Age/Samad Period, but they are slightly bigger. They are around 2.5 m to 4 m long and around 1.5 m to 2.5 m wide. The site also includes four circular tombs of piled stones, and one Islamic tomb of a child or infant which has two head-stones.

CS.2.51.6 (0604700/2533427): Here is a group of stone structures of possible agricultural fields and retaining walls. There are also structures along the edge of the west bank of Wadi Mahram and its slope. These structures look like what can be called ‘sloping stone structures’ (Fig. 106). It also includes a group of piled or paved stones which resemble platforms, and a group of circular and oval stone structures. In addition, there is a black gravel hill with a possibly fortified site that includes a group of stone walls of different shapes. These are mostly rectangular and square, though are circular, structures. These and the stone wall extend along the eastern edge with some possibly round towers of irregular line, as well as a group of piled stones which could possibly be pre-Islamic tombs. CS.2.51.7 (0604601/2533811): This is the area that includes scattered cairns, stone structures, possible Islamic and pre-Islamic tombs, possible platforms, piled stone, cleared circular alignments, and stone walls of possible structures. It also includes a mihrab with a one-course stone alignment around 10 m long. CS.2.51.8 (0604906/2534388): This is a small wadi terrace between the two main terraces of Wadi Mahram close to the wadi’s west bank. It consists around thirteen cairns and honeycomb cairns, some possibly pre-Islamic tombs and stone structures some with circular alignment, some with square alignment, and some semi-rectangular structures with round corners. There are also four cairns/ towers with white creamy soil. Finds The site is covered with large amount of pottery sherds, mainly coarse Late Iron Age ware. Among the collected sherds from the site’s surface are one Umm an-Nar sherd, 37 Early Iron Age, 213 Late Iron Age, four Early Islamic and 14 Late Islamic. Apart from pottery sherds, other finds included a surface fragment of chlorite grinding stone from CS.2.51.1 (W.D.034: Fig. 195); three shells from CS.2.51.7, Tomb 2 (W.D.089–W.D.091: Fig. 196); three fragments of green glass from CS.2.51.8, Tomb 4 (W.D.120–W.D.122: Fig. 197); two fragments of glass bracelets with green, light green, yellow and brown colours from CS.2.51.8, Tomb 6 (W.D.032 & W.D.131: Fig. 69 & 198–199) and five shells from CS.2.51.8, Tomb 7 (W.D.101–W.D.105).

CS.2.51.4 (0604472/253333): Here there are two hundred and ten oval tombs of the Mahleya-type. CS.2.51.5 (0604509/2533065): This is an area that is located on the edge of a wadi cut-section or small wadi tributary. It includes a group of stone structures of square, rectangular and circular shape. It also consists of a stone wall around 1 m thick which extends along the edge of the wadi, and down the tributary before rising up again to another wadi terrace where it divides into two. One part crosses the terrace and goes down to the wadi tributary while the other part turns around the terrace edge before proceeding down to the same tributary.

Fig. 195: Fragment of chlorite grinding stone from Mahleya site CS.2.51.1

207

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula Al-Ghoryeen CS.2.52 (0604445/2532515), Fig. 57 Size 15 ha. Structures

Fig. 196: Shells from different sites: Mahleya CS.2.51.7, Tomb 2 (W.D.89); CS.5.13, Tomb 2 (W.D.97); CS.2.63 (W.D.36); CS.5.14, Tomb 8 (W.D.72) and CS.2.67.14 (W.D.68)

Fig. 197: Three fragments of green glass from Mahleya site CS.2.51.8, Tomb 4

Fig. 198: Fragment of green glass bracelet from Mahleya site CS.2.51.8, Tomb 6

Fig. 199: Fragment of green glass bracelet from Mahleya site CS.2.51.8, Tomb 6

This is the largest site. It produced more consistent evidence of the Umm an-Nar period. It is an Umm an-Nar complex (village) built on the west bank of Wadi Andam, near al-Ghoryeen village where the south–eastern side of the site meets with the village’s Islamic cemetery and its date palm groves. The site includes a round tower, yellow Umm an-Nar tombs, a Mahleya-type tomb field mingling with Umm an-Nar structures and tombs, Umm an-Nar houses and other stone structures. The site was divided into six areas as follows: Area CS.2.52.1 (0604429/2532422) includes an Umm an-Nar round tower around 25 m–30 m in diameter and 5 m–8 m high (Fig. 58–59). Its surface consists of piled stones, with the possibility of some kind of cairn or other stone structure superimposed on it and at the side of which is a depression, which could be some sort of pit, and is approximately 40 cm in diameter. Similar piled stones structures or cairns have also been noticed on top of the round/rectangular Umm an-Nar tower in the al-Khashbah area. In addition, Area CS.2.52.2 (0604486/2532502) includes fifty-eight tombs of the Mahleya-type. They are mainly circular in shape with some ovals. This cemetery also consists of possible Umm an-Nar tombs. It is possible that they were built on top of the Umm an-Nar tombs and that their stones were used to build the later tombs, on top of which, however, were found some yellow stones from Mahleya-type tombs. Area CS.2.52.3 (0604505/2532588) is the north–east part of the cemetery. It includes one hundred and forty-four Mahleya-type tombs with mixed stone structures, possibly the remains of Umm an-Nar houses. There is also a large number of Umm an-Nar pottery sherds. The cemetery may also contain Umm an-Nar tombs (Fig. 60). Again, it is possible that the Mahleya tombs were built on top of the Umm an-Nar tombs using their stones. Moreover, Area CS.2.52.4 (0604524/2532088) consists of forty-three Umm an-Nar yellow tombs and three black cairns with white creamy soil and travertine stones (Fig. 61). Area CS.2.52.5 (0604336/2532238) yielded a group of stone structures of different shapes and sizes (square, rectangular and circular) (Fig. 62). They are free-standing and grouped units with a large quantity of Umm an-Nar pottery sherds, in particular in the western and southern parts of the site. The pottery is fine painted Umm anNar ware with distinctive sherds of different rims, bases and necks. The structures were disturbed by a new fence and recent Islamic tombs. It also includes nineteen stone piles, one possible Umm an-Nar tomb, and three possibly Mahleya-type tombs with yellow and black stones. Lastly, Area CS.2.52.6 (0604554/2531976) forms the south– eastern part of the site. It includes an Islamic cemetery with old agricultural fields and date palm groves. However, it is mixed with older pre-Islamic tombs, possibly Mahleya in type, some cairns from earlier periods, as well as several stone structures such as horseshoe and circular structures, and possible platform. 208

Appendices Finds A group of 309 Umm an-Nar pottery sherds were collected from the surface of these sub-sites in which 157 are from tombs and 152 from other structures. In addition, among the collected pottery sherds there is one Wadi Suq, 38 Early Iron Age, 73 Late Iron Age, two Middle Islamic, 39 Late Islamic and other possible Islamic sherds. Apart from pottery sherds, other surface finds included a fragment of softstone vessel that possibly represent a part of rim with incised double circle and dot row between two horizontal lines with 5 mm rim thick (Fig. 63-64). Moreover, the site yielded four fragments of shells from CS.2.52.3 (W.D.085–W.D.088) and another fragment of shell from CS.2.52.6 (W.D.100).

which is around 1.5 m in diameter. It was built as part of the north–eastern wall of the main structure. It could have also been built to separate the new born baby goats. There are wooden pillars on the inside perimeter of the structure which may have served as pillars to support a wooden roof to shelter the goats. Fire, ash traces and pottery sherds were found on the floor. The structure is around 12 m by 8 m. Its wall is around 90 cm high and 60 cm thick and is built of yellow and grey stones. The structure is kidney-shaped. Finds Few pottery sherds were collected from the structure in which all are Islamic, mainly Late Islamic. Mahleya CS.2.55 (0606055/2533353), Fig. 200

Mahleya CS.2.53 (0605338/2532264)

Size 93.84 ha.

Size 14.3 ha.

Structures

Structures

CS.2.55 (0606055/2533353): This is the area located between the date palm grove on the east bank of Wadi Andam and the yellow rocky hills. This area contains a large tomb field of both Islamic and pre-Islamic tombs. It also includes large old agricultural fields and an old mudbrick quarter as well as other stone structure remains in the shape of a horseshoe, cleared circles and rectangular structures (Fig. 201). The site was divided into four areas. The first CS.2.55.1 (0606055/2533353) is an Islamic cemetery with possibly other pre-Islamic tombs which are circular and oval in shape and possibly of the Mahleyatype. It also includes the remains of other circular, square and rectangular stone structures (Fig. 202), walls as well as piled stones, cleared stone circular alignments, and other horseshoe stone structures and wall remains. Moreover, Area two CS.2.55.2 (0605728/2533227) includes old agricultural fields along the east bank of Wadi Andam which extend south as far as the old mudbrick quarter (Fig. 203–204). These old agricultural fields have been divided into smaller units which have sub-division walls which are 90 cm–100 cm thick, over 1 m high and filled in with gravel. There are also stone rectangular and square structures filled with fine gravel which look like mounds. These extend along the fields’ walls. Area three, CS.2.55.3 (0605645/2533170), consists of a large Islamic cemetery that runs between the yellow rocky hills and the old agricultural fields. This cemetery seems to have been continuously used until recent times. The middle of the cemetery has been eroded by water so tomb structures are now covered by silt and hardly distinguishable from their head-stones. It was, thus, difficult to count the tombs. Many of them look oval in shape, around 1 m to 2 m long and 80 cm to 1.2 m wide. Their central parts have been filled with gravel. They have one or two head-stones of north–south orientation. This area also yielded four preIslamic tombs of oval shape with piled stones and a onecourse stone alignment, and east–west orientation. They range 1 m to 2 m width and 2 m to 4 m length. It also yielded a group of square and rectangular stone structures and stone wall remains between the date palm groves and the cemetery. Their walls range from 40 cm to 60 cm thick with gravel in the middle. Furthermore, Area four CS.2.55.4

This is an area located on black rocky hills and their slopes in the eastern part of Mahleya village and its date palm groves as well as on the east bank of Wadi Andam. The area includes a group of stone structures of different shapes and sizes with some possible cairns and tombs. The stone structures are circular, square and rectangular as well as other irregular ones. One of the structures is rectangular in shape with rounded corners with an entrance in the middle of the northern wall which is around 80 cm thick (0605338/2532264). Some of these structures might be observation towers. One possible tower has a 60 cm thick wall. It is wholly built of piled black stones. The tower is 1 m high with a 6 m diameter and a pit in the centre which is 2.2 m in diameter. There is a possible entrance facing north which is around 60 cm wide. It is built on the edge of a black rocky hill and overlooks Mahleya village and its date palm groves (0605410/2532329). There are other groups of piled stones of different shapes and sizes several of which might be pre-Islamic tombs with stones plied in a circle which are around 20 cm high and 1.2 m in diameter (0605438/2532278). The site also includes several cleared stone circular alignments around 1.5 m to 3 m in diameter, horseshoe structures, animal traps, and a cut-section between the rocky hills which runs from top to bottom. The section is around 2 m wide and around 1.5 m high (0605476/2532406). Finally, the site yielded some cairns of piled stones around 3 m to 8 m in diameter, as well as a pottery scatter associated with a group of piled stones. Finds The site yielded several pottery sherds in which a collection was made including one Umm an-Nar sherd, 23 Late Iron Age and 52 Middle Islamic. Mahleya CS.2.54 (0605968/2533007) Size 0.0096 ha. Structures The site consists of a stone structure more or less oval in shape. It has a semi-circular entrance like a porch in the west with a small circular stone structure in the east

209

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula (0605402/2532755) consists of the old mudbrick village of Mahleya (Fig. 205–206). The village is surrounded by an outer wall and a gate in the north. The houses are small and of one or two storeys. Though they are built of mudbrick they have stone foundations and roofs made of a mixture of mud and date palm fronds and trunks.

Finds Among the collected pottery sherds from this site is one Umm an-Nar sherd, 25 Middle Islamic, 26 Late Islamic and four of Recent time. Other surface finds included four fragments of shells from CS.2.55.1 (W.D.078–W.D.081)

Fig. 200: Sketch plan of Mahleya CS.2.55

Fig. 201: General view of site Mahleya CS.2.55 and its

Fig. 202: Square structure at site Mahleya CS.2.55.1

archeological features

210

Appendices

Fig. 203: General view of the old agriculture works and fields with stone structures at site Mahleya CS.2.55.2

Fig. 206: A house at Mahleya’s old quarter , site CS.2.55.4

Fig. 204: Old agricultural works and fields at site Mahleya CS.2.55.2

(0603430/2532508) has two double-stone walls on top with gravel or small stones in the middle. These walls are around 1 m thick. The cairn looks like an Umm anNar tomb but of black stones. It could be a re-used Hafit cairn with an Umm an-Nar tomb built on top. The possible Umm an-Nar tomb is around 5 m in diameter, while the total diameter of the cairn which has 4 concentric walls is around 10 m. The possible Umm an-Nar tomb has internal walls. The site also includes a group of piled stones of no regular shape, three cleared stone circular alignments which are around 4–5 m in diameter, scattered stones, and possibly five oval pre-Islamic tombs of one stone course alignment with gravel in the middle. They are around 1 m to 3 m long and 80 cm to 2 m wide. Finds

Fig. 205: Old quarter at site Mahleya CS.2.55.4

Mahleya CS.2.56 (0603578/2532171) Size 16.5 ha. Structures This is an area west al-Ghoryeen. It includes a group of cairns with white creamy soil as well as magnesium carbonate stones (MgCo3). Their diameter ranges from 4 m to 10 m with a height from 40 cm to over 1 m. The cairns have between 2 and 6 concentric walls. One cairn

Among the collected pottery sherds from this site are two Umm an-Nar sherds, five Wadi Suq, 49 Early Iron Ag, 49 Late Iron Age, and three Late Islamic sherds. Mahleya CS.2.57 (0603975/2532751) Size 6.125 ha. Structures The site consists of possibly five oval Islamic tombs around 1.2 m long and 80 cm wide with a north–south orientation. The site also includes stone structures of different shapes and sizes. They are oval, circular, square and rectangular in shape, and their walls are around 80 cm thick and filled with gravel (Fig. 111–112). It also includes a stone wall which extends east–west. The wall is around 211

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula 80 cm thick with two circular stone structures on the east and west corners. The wall has an almost 6 m diameter. It is composed of piled stones of black and yellow limestone which have been badly disturbed. They could be preIslamic or possibly Umm an-Nar tombs. Finds The site yielded a large number of pottery sherds in which a collection was made including 54 Umm an-Nar sherds, 77 Late Iron Age sherds, 14 Late Islamic sherds and 15 of Recent date. Other finds included only a fragment of shell (W.D.065). Mahleya CS.2.58 (0603584/2532848) Size 1.125 ha. Structures The site consists of a stone wall on the edge of a black rocky hill and its slope. It forms what looks like a ‘necklace’. Around 80% of the wall runs along the ridge and down the slopes while the other 20% runs along the lower side. There are many short gaps in the wall on the slope inside the perimeter wall (terraces? platforms?). Finds

40 cm to 1.50 m in diameter and around 20 to 30 cm high. They are built of black and brown stones. Some have a number of yellow stones on top. Finds No finds Al-Ghoryeen CS.2.60 (0603725/2529849) Size 1.53 ha. Structures This site yielded a group of square, rectangular and circular stone structures all of which appear to be detached units (Fig. 207). Most of them are badly disturbed with walls around 80 cm thick and 90 cm high in their well preserved parts. They are built on the edge and yellow rock slopes of the east bank terrace of Wadi Andam. The walls have been filled in the middle with gravel and are around 90 cm to 1 m high. The site also includes a group of piled stones and alignments of other oval, possibly Islamic tombs. Finds Among the few collected pottery sherds from the site are six Early Iron Age, ten Late Iron Age, four Early Islamic, one Late Islamic and four of Recent date. Other finds included only a fragment of shell (W.D.066).

Around 17 Late Iron Age sherds were collected from this site. Al-Ghoryeen CS.2.59 (0603844/2530041) Size 20 ha. Structures The site consists of twenty tombs on yellow rocky hills that are located on the east bank of Wadi Andam. Most of them look like collapsed Beehive tombs with one or two double-skin walls around 80 cm to 1 m thick. Their diameter varies from 4 m to 6 m and their height ranges from 40 cm to over 1 m. They are built of yellowish-grey crude stones. Some are attached to between two and six circular or oval honeycomb burials the sizes of which vary from 80 cm to 1.2 m in diameter for the circular ones and from 80 cm to 1 m wide and from 1 m–1.5 m long for the oval ones. Some of the tombs have central pit of around 1 m to 1.50 m in diameter. The site also includes a group of other oval or circular tombs which have either an oval, circular or rectangular central pit. The oval tombs are 1 m to 6 m long, around 80 cm to 3 m wide, and between 60 cm and 1.50 m high. The circular tombs are around 3 m to 5 m in diameter with the same height as the oval tombs. They are built of crude brown and yellowish-grey stones. There is also a group of different honeycomb burials of varying size and number which are built of yellowish-grey stones. They have collapsed and look like stone piles. There are between 5 and 20 burials in each honeycomb. The burial sizes vary from 80 cm to 1.50 m in diameter for the circular ones and around 1 m to 2 m long and 80 cm to 1 m wide for the oval ones. The site also yielded a group of piled stones which some of may possibly be tombs. They are around

Fig. 207: Stone structures at Al-Ghoryeen site CS.2.60

Al-Ghoryeen CS.2.61 (0603709/2530443) Size ? Structures The site includes stone walls on the west bank of Wadi Andam, just opposite site CS.2.59. They have rectangular shapes and so could be part of a field with a long stone wall running along the edge of the wadi terrace. The remains of a falaj channel extends along the edge of the wadi terrace. The channel is around 60 cm wide with plaster remains and two-courses of stone alignment. Finds Very few sherds were collected from the site including three Umm an-Nar sherds, two Late Islamic and possible other six Islamic.

212

Appendices Al-Ghoryeen CS.2.62 (0602985/2529774) Size 80 ha. Structures This site yielded a group of piled stones scattered over a large area. The stone piles are of different sizes from around 40 cm to 1.50 m in diameter, and from 15 cm to 50 cm high. Some of these piles look like both pre-Islamic and Islamic oval tombs. The site also yielded several stone structures of different types and shapes but with one-course stone alignment. They are circular, square and rectangular structures of both standing alone and grouped. Many of these structures have stone foundations to a depth of around 1 m. The structures then were completed using mudbrick the remains of which remain visible. In addition, the site includes a large area with old agricultural fields sub-divided into smaller fields (Fig. 123). They have walls around 80 cm to 1 m thick and filled with gravel. They are over a meter high with piled fine gravel and earth. The small mounds on top of some of the walls look like square or rectangular stone structures. They extend along the edge of the west bank terrace of Wadi Andam. They are part of a ditch which runs along the fields west of what appears to be a 1 m wide falaj channel. There is also a group of cleared pits or depressions with their clearance earth and gravel piled around them. They are around 80 cm deep (maximum), and have a circular appearance with a 4 m to 6 m diameter. They extend over an area of around 90 m. Moreover, the site yielded two Islamic cemeteries. One has 37 oval tombs and the other has 129 oval tombs (Fig. 124). They vary in size from 1 m to 2.5 m long and from 80 cm to 1.20 m wide. They are built of a one-course stone alignment. Finally, it includes cleared stone alignments of circular and rectangular shapes, a possible mosque with disturbed Mihrab in the middle of the western wall of around 1 m wide, a horseshoe stone structure and scattered stones of possible other structures that could be circular in shape. Finds A large collection of pottery sherds were made from the site including four Late Iron Age sherds, 39 Middle Islamic, 42 Late Islamic, seven Recent and other possible Islamic sherds. Al-Ghoryeen CS.2.63 (0602893/2528851) Size 3.445 ha. Structures This site includes 31 oval Islamic tombs with a one-course stone alignment 1.5 m to 2 m long and 80 cm to 1 m wide filled with gravel. It also includes an old agricultural field with badly preserved stone walls around 60 cm to 80 cm thickness with gravel in the middle. Moreover, the site yielded an area of around 10 m by 6 m with a concentration of shells, mostly bivalves, without any associated pottery or structures (0602922/2528838). Other types of structures included two cairns around 3 m to 4 m in diameter with white creamy soil and are around 60 cm to 80 cm high.

There is also a group of small piled stones around 60 cm to 80 cm in diameter and 15 cm high, as well as a cleared circular alignment around 8 m in diameter. Finds Very few sherds collected from the site including one Late Islamic sherd and ten sherds of possible Middle to Late Islamic sherds. Other surface finds included complete and fragments of shells (W.D.035–W.D.055: Fig. 208).

Fig. 208: Shells from Al-Ghoryeen site CS.2.63

Al-Ghoryeen CS.2.64 (0603218/2528589) Size 20 ha. Structures Here is a group of large, rectangular and circular stone structures in the middle of which is a single circular structure that has an entrance facing west. It is around 80 cm wide and a wall around 80 cm thick and 2 m in diameter (Fig. 209). The structures are built of grey and yellow wadi stones. The walls are built of solely stone with possible gravel in the middle. They are around 60 cm to 80 cm high in the well-preserved parts. In addition, there are stone structures on the yellow rocky hill. These are two parallel walls around 2 m long and 2 m apart. The southern wall has a small attached stone semi-circle around 1 m in diameter. The site also includes a group of one-course stone cleared circular alignments. Their diameters vary from 1.50 to 10 m. There is also another group of piled stones around 60 cm to 1.20 m in diameter and 15 cm to 30 cm high. Moreover, the site consists of a group of cairns of piled stones around 3 m to 8 m in diameter and around 40 cm to 1 m high. Additionally, there are seven standing and collapsed Beehive tombs. They are built on the yellow rocky hills using crude yellow stones. They have two double-skin walls around 80 cm to 1 m thick for each wall with the entrance facing east. This is around 30 cm to 50 cm wide and 50 cm high with a large stone used as lintel over the entrance. The internal walls have corbelling and the chamber is around 1.50 m from the base. The tombs’ diameters vary from 4 m to 6 m, and their height ranges from 1 m to 2.50 m. Some of them are attached to honeycomb burials of around two to

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Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula six burials which are around 80 cm to 1.50 m in diameter. Finally, the site yielded the remains of several stone walls, scattered stones, cleared circular alignments and one small horseshoe stone structure of around 80 cm in diameter. Finds Few pottery sherds were collected from the surface of the site, including five Early Iron Age sherds, 15 Late Iron Age, three Late Islamic and two of Recent date.

Fig. 209: Stone structures from Al-Ghoryeen site CS.2.64

Al-Ghoryeen CS.2.65 (0602129/2528571) Size ? Structures The site includes a cairn of white creamy soil with 4 concentric walls. It is around 5 m in diameter and 50 cm high. The site also consists of a group of small stone piles around 80 cm to 1.20 m in diameter and 10 cm 15 cm high. There is also a Mihrab with a one-course stone alignment around 10 m long. Finds Pottery sherds were collected from the surface of this site, including 52 Late Iron Age sherds. Khadra Bani Dafa’a CS.2.66 (0602590/2523989) Size 0.66 ha. Structures The site is an Islamic cemetery of 64 oval tombs located north of Khadra Bani Dafa’a. The tombs consist of a onecourse stone alignment and are built of dark brown stones. They are around 1.5 m to 3 m long and 1 m to 1.20 m wide, and filled with gravel. They have a north–south orientation. Finds No finds Khadra Bani Dafa’a CS.2.67 (0602606/2524536) Size 19.25 ha.

Structures This is the area located north Khadra Bani Dafa’a that includes seven intact and collapsed Beehives and 21 Hafit cairns of different sizes. They are built on top of yellow and black rocky hills and their slopes (Fig. 93). All the Beehive tombs are built with double-skin stone walls around 80 cm to 1 m thick for each wall with a pit or chamber in the middle having a 1.2 m diameter at the base. Some of the tombs are attached to honeycomb chambers containing from two to ten burials whose diameters vary from 80 cm to 1.20 m. However, the whole diameters of the Beehive tomb vary from 6 to 8 m with a height ranges from 1 m to 5 m. The tombs are built of crude grey and yellow stones with east facing entrances around 60 cm high and 40 cm wide and roofing stones or lintels. The 21 Hafit cairns sit on top of black rock and gravel hills. They are built of black stones with white creamy soil and are 4 m to 12 m in diameter and 40 cm to over one meter high. Most of them are attached to honeycombs between four and more than twenty burials of different sizes that vary from 80 cm to 1.50 m in diameter. Most of these cairns were disturbed by a bulldozer, which damaged their actual construction. However, this situation allowed us to find a large number of the grave goods such as pottery sherds, arrowheads, beads, metal objects, softstone objects and shells. One cairn (0601531/2525397) yielded a mass of Iron Age pottery sherds of different distinctive forms such as painted, rims, bases, lugs, spouts, necks, handles as well as one complete softstone vessel with spout. There were other softstone fragments, beads and shells. This particular cairn was the largest. It has 24 burial chambers and is around 12 m in diameter. But it was badly bulldozed. The site also includes a group of small piled stones around 60 cm to 80 cm in diameter and 10 cm high, as well as stone walls remains of no regular shape. Finds Several of the disturbed tombs yielded a group of artefacts. A total of 150 pottery sherds of Early Iron Age were collected from tombs 9, 11, 14, 17, 22, 24 and 26. Tomb 9 also yielded six Late Iron Age sherds, two Late Islamic and five possible Late Islamic to Recent sherds. Moreover, several tombs yielded different types of material such as a small Early Iron Age bronze/copper leaf-shaped arrowhead with midrib (W.D.109, Fig. 69), beads (W.D.014 & W.D.023, Fig. 89), metal and chlorite objects and shells (W.D.067 to W.D.070, W.D.024, W.D.025, W.D.082 to W.D.084, W.D.110, W.D.111, Fig,. 87). Tomb 9 also yielded a large number of Early Iron Age pottery sherds of different distinctive forms such as painted ware, rims, bases, lugs, spouts, necks, handles as well as a complete chlorite vessel with spout (W.D.145; Fig. 94-95), two chlorite fragments (W.D.142 & W.D.143; Fig. 64 & 96), a bead (W.D.144) and shells (W.D.132 to W.D.141). The chlorite bowl has a semi- rectangular spout of c.19 mm wide and 43 mm long and c.3 mm to 8mm deep. The diameter of the bowl at its rim is c.135 mm and at the base it is 70 mm. Depth is c. 54 mm. It includes incised decoration of horizontal lines around the rim and two above the base.

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Appendices Khadra Bani Dafa’a CS.2.68 (0600901/2524906) Size 10.5 ha. Structures This is the area located west of Khadra Bani Dafa’a and north of the main asphalt road connecting Izki with Sinaw. It contains a group of what might be cairns, Islamic tombs and a large number of stone structures and pottery sherds of mainly Umm an-Nar type. The Islamic tombs are either buried, covered by the silt, or badly bulldozed. The area on both sides of the road seems to have been largely bulldozed and this has disturbed most of the archaeological features in that area. Some of the structures identified as possible tombs show a north–south orientation and are ovoid in shape. The site also includes stone walls of what might have been square or rectangular structures which are badly eroded or have been bulldozed. There is also a high density of Umm an-Nar pottery sherds. There are also stone piles and gravel that may be caused by the bulldozing activities, but they look like cairns. Moreover, there are badly disturbed cairns with white creamy soil. Even more disturbed stone structures were found which also look like cairns but these show stone walling of what could have been square and rectangular structures but in which there is a high density of Umm an-Nar pottery sherds. Finds Among the collected pottery sherds from this site are 137 Umm an-Nar sherds, 18 Early Iron Age, 41 Late Iron Age and 20 Middle Islamic sherds. Other finds included only one large complete shell (W.D.092). Khadra Bani Dafa’a CS.2.69 (0599855/2525193), Fig. 65 Size 54.825 ha. Structures This is the area located west of Khadra Bani Dafa’a, and south of the main road connecting Izki with Sinaw, and close to the junction that leads to Wadi Andam (Kharma, al-Ghoryeen and al-Alya villages). It is separated from site CS.2.68 by the main road. In fact, this site could be part of what once might have been a larger site which includes site CS.3.68 but but has now been separated by the main road. The area includes a group of cairns with white creamy soil, stone structures, piled stones and may be a round tower. The area was divided into three parts: the western part CS.2.96.1, the eastern and south–western part CS.2.96.2 and the most southerly CS.2.69.3. These areas include the following: CS.2.69.1 (0599855/2525193) Here are twenty-six cairns and small oval tombs in the western part of the site. The

cairns are built of black stone with white creamy soil and white travertine stones (Fig. 66). The cairn diameters vary from 2 m to 10 m and from 20 cm to 1 m high. Several of them consist of two to five walls which sometimes are hardly noticed as some of the cairns are badly disturbed. Other cairns consist of attached honeycombs of two to six burials. Some cairns are small around 90 cm to 3 m in diameter, and look like piled stones which are around 10 cm to 15 cm high. Some cairns are oval-shaped around 1 m to 4 m long, 80 cm to 3 m wide and around 15 cm to 25 cm high. They have a one-course stone alignment and are built of black stones and white creamy soil. They have gravel in the middle, an east-west orientation, and are around 1 m to 2 m long and 80 cm to 1.5 m wide. The site also includes a group of piled stones around 80 cm in diameter and 10 cm high. CS.2.69.2 (0600448/2525090): This is the eastern and south–western parts of the site. It includes a group of low gravel mounds with travertine white stones. These mounds have stone walls which may be the remains of collapsed buildings or houses. There is a high density of Umm an-Nar sherds. One large mound, possibly an Umm anNar round tower with a stone wall perimeter was found (Fig. 67). It is around 5 m high and 25 m in diameter. The surrounding walls are of black stone. It also has stone wall remains on top of it. It is surrounded by a group of other lower mounds, possibly houses ruins. Thirty-four low mounds were counted in this area. The site also includes four cairns with white travertine stones and white creamy soil. CS.2.69.3 (0600174/2524740): This is the southern part of the area and includes a group of low mounds of white travertine stones around 5 m to 8 m in diameter and 1 m to 2.5 m high. These mounds show no evidence of walls or any other human activity. The site also includes some piled stones. More stone wall remains are scattered all over the site. Finds Among the pottery sherds collected are 102 Umm an-Nar sherds, 28 Early Iron Age, five Late Iron Age, three Middle Islamic, three Late Islamic and 18 other Islamic sherds. The site also yielded other objects from the cairns in the first part of the site (CS.2.69.1). These include a complete shell (W.D.117, Fig. 68), flint worked pieces (W.D.009, W.D.010 & W.D.118, Fig. 43) and one copper/bronze arrowhead (W.D.116; Fig. 69). This arrowhead is long leaf-shaped with midrib and is 5.8 cm long excluding a handle of 1 cm long and 3 mm wide. Moreover, one small flint arrowhead was found at tomb 4 (W.D.129; Fig. 42).

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APPENDIX B SITES/FEATURES TYPOLOGY

During the survey, a large number of archaeological sites/ features were recorded, which have already been indicated in Appendix A. Making site typology is an important task to show what type of sites are we dealing with; their function and nature. This will also permit us to trace the distribution pattern of each type and its possible location as well as the range of different sites found and their preservation within the context of landscape preservation and the processes of landscape formation. It should, however, be said that site typology was problematic, particularly for the tomb types (see Sites typology in Chapter Four, Section One). The problem for tomb typology is related to the fact that a large number of tombs was found. These tombs often show more similarities than differences and their state of preservation makes it difficult sometimes to identify them as most of their structural features are badly disturbed and damaged. Dating these types is also problematic as some of them show no datable material- except for those called ‘cairns with white creamy soil and cairns with honeycomb’. These showed materials such as pottery, softstone vessels, metal objects, beads and shells. Although these tombs yielded datable materials, they still presented different problems regarding their dating and structures. These tombs were reused over time (see for example Haift Period in Chapter Three) and their problem is that they could have been badly disturbed and included materials (mainly Iron Age pottery, softstone vessels, metal objects, beads, and shells [see Appendix E]) from different periods, which does not help in defining the relative chronology of single burials within them. The same might be true for those called

‘Beehives or cairns with honeycomb’ which are attached with other burials that might be latter additions. Apart from the above difficulties an attempt was made to create a rough or primary site/feature typology. The following is a classification or typology of sites/features recorded by the survey. The definition and classification of some of the sites/features indicated here might slightly differ in description and characteristics from other similar sites in other parts of Oman. This description is mainly based on what was found and observed on the surface during the survey. The archaeological sites found during the survey can be classified mainly into three broad categories (Table B.1): STRUCTURE, EARTHWORK and ARTEFACT. The first two types include all those sites yielding evidence, either above or below ground, which have been made and left by man until discovered by archaeologists. These might include settlements, tombs, workshops, earthworks, land activities and any observable feature or other structural remains. The third type includes all what had been used in the form of tools and objects or their manufacture debris left behind by man. These were easily recordable and portable, if necessary. These objects or artefacts have been made from different materials such as stone, metal, wood, bone and shell. It is worth mentioning that some of the site types could be attributed to more than one broad category or sub-category as will be seen in the following presentation.

Category

Description

ARTEFACT

Includes any type of artefact (e.g. object(s) or tool(s)) that have been made or modified by man through the passage of time. They can be found scattered over small or large areas with high or low density and they may not be attributable to any specific archaeological context. They might be a scatter of shells, bones, lithics, pottery, etc. These can tell us important information about the type, nature and history of the site. They might be the remains of a possible buried site of possible structural remains.

EARTHWORK

Includes any feature resulted from human changes or modifications of the ground surface such as traces of earth-moving activities (clearance mounds, well-sections and land-soil movements), traces of fields or gardens and installations such as irrigation systems.

STRUCTURE

Includes several types of buildings and structures that can be used for different purposes and functions. In this respect, several types of buildings or structures can be attributed to this type. These include domestic and habitation structures (large and small; sedentary and temporary); ritual, mortuary and religious structures (tombs and mosques); defensive and fortified structures; industrial and crafts structures; agricultural structures and other related structural features. However, the function of some of these structures might be unidentifiable. The nature of these structures might be complete undisturbed standing building/structures, partly disturbed or ruined. They might be aboveground, semi-or completely buried underground.

Table B. 1 shows the three broad categories classified for the different archaeological sites/features recorded during the Wadi Andam Survey

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Appendices The following is a description of the different recorded sites/features during the Wadi Andam Survey. They are presented in alphabetical order. The description will start with the category STRUCTURE as it represents the largest

percentage of recorded features which are more obvious on the surface such as different types of buildings and structures.

B.1- STRUCTURE B.1.1- Ritual, mortuary and religious structures B.1.1.1- Tombs Site/Feature Type

Description

Beehive Tomb

A Beehive tomb is circular from the base and the general shape looks like a Beehive. It has a single small burial chamber in the middle of 1m–2m in diameter from the bottom with corbelling in which narrows as it raises up- this can explain the corbelling of the walls. The inner corbels serve as ceiling stones with an outer course sloping inwards to form the Beehive or convex shape. The tomb has an entrance facing the east at ground level of around 50 cm to 80 cm high and around 30 cm to 50 cm wide with a roof stone or lintel on top of the entrance. In some examples, the entrance was sealed by the outer wall or by oversailing slabs. The walls are usually of double-skin stone from 80 cm to 1.50 m thick and built on a circular stone base of crude yellow flat hewn stones with an average stone size of around 30 cm and with kerbstones with possible external plinth of around 50–60 cm wide. The tomb stands to a height of around 2 m to 3 m according to the state of preservation, and around 3 m to 6 m in diameter at the base. Sites: CS.1.1, CS.1.3, CS.1.4, CS.4.13, CS.5.8, CS.5.11, CS.5.19, CS.7.2, CS.2.42, CS.2.59, CS.2.64, CS.2.67

Beehive with honeycomb

This type of tomb was found in large numbers on top of the yellow rocky hills along the Upper Wadi Andam from al-Alya village to Khadra Bani Dafa’a. These could be collapsed Beehive tombs and, in a later period, a group of burial chambers were attached to them using their original stones and forming what looks like honeycomb burials. It is possible that they both built at the same time. The number of burials varies from two to more than ten with different sizes of around 80 cm to 1 m in diameter. They are mostly circular in shape, although some examples show burials with oval shape of around 80 cm wide and around 80 cm to 1.20 m long. The total diameter of the tomb is around 6 m to 8 m, and the height is around 60 cm to over 1 m. However, the attached burials are normally lower than the central tomb. These are built of crude yellow and grey stones with an average size of around 30 cm. Some of these burials show cab or roof stones of yellow limestone. Sites: CS.2.42, CS.2.64, CS.2.67

Burial cairn/mound

An aboveground structure which looks like a pile of large unshaped piled stones or rubble of different sizes and colours, mainly black to brownish and yellowish, as well as mixed with earth and other smaller stones. They were used to bury the dead. See also Hafit cairns.

Cairn with honeycomb

Similar in construction to the cairn with white creamy soil, a cairn with several attached burial structures of different sizes and number forming what looks like a honeycomb. These burials are either circular or oval in shape of around 80 cm to 1 m in diameter for the circular ones, and around 80 cm wide and around 80 cm to 1 m long for the oval ones. Sometimes they show cap stones (roof stones) of yellow limestone. They vary in number from two to more than twenty burials. The total diameter of the cairn varies according to the number of attached burials; however, it ranges from 6 m to 12 m in diameter. These attached burials could be late additions to possibly older cairn. Similar to the cairn with white creamy soil, this type of tomb yields similar Iron Age material. Sites: CS.2.69, CS.2.42, CS.2.50, CS.2.51, CS.2.56, CS.2.59, CS.2.67

Cairn with white creamy soil

It is built of brown and black stones mixed with white creamy soil and gravel and sometimes with white stones of either Magnesium Carbonate (MgCo3), which comes from the aphiolite veins, or Travertine stones. The diameter ranges from 4 m to 10 m, and around 40 cm to 2 m height. It consists of different concentric walls ranging in number from 3 to 6 walls. It is difficult to identify any burial chamber, entrance, roof, passage or other structural characteristics. It is usually badly disturbed and yield some finds such as pottery, softstone, beads, metal objects, human bone fragments and shells the majority of which are Early Iron Age, indicating a re-use of Hafit tombs during later periods. Sites: CS.2.68, CS.2.69, CS.2.4, CS.2.50, CS.2.51, CS.1.4, CS.3.8, CS.4.14, CS.4.17, CS.4.18, CS.5.10, CS.5.11, CS.5.12, CS.5.13, CS.5.14, CS.7.2, CS.7.4, CS.9.3, CS.9.13, CS.2.1, CS.2.8, CS.2.24, CS.2.42, CS.2.56, CS.2.63, CS.2.65

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Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula Cairn-field

An open area either on outcrops and their slopes or on a flat landscape where a group of cairns were constructed in clusters. Sites: See Hafit cairn

Cemetery (also Graveyard, Burial Ground, Tomb-filed)

An open or fenced/walled defined area of ground specified for the burial of the dead. Sites: Several sites yielded burial grounds, examples include CS.5.4, CS.5.9, CS.2.68, CS.2.69, CS.2.50, CS.2.51, CS.2.43, CS.1.4, CS.3.10, CS.7.2, CS.7.4, CS.2.1, CS.2.14, CS.2.45, CS.2.55

Collapsed Beehive tomb

A collapsed Beehive tomb is similar to a Beehive tomb but more or less collapsed. Its diameter varies from 5 m to 8 m. It consists of one or two visible double-skin walls around 80 cm to 1 m thick. In some instances it is hard to notice any wall as a result of its bad state of preservation. The tomb has a central chamber, hardly distinguishable. The tomb’s height varies from 30 cm to 2 m. However, as a result of heavy disturbance, it is sometimes very difficult to say anything about the tomb’s size or even its shape. Sites: CS.1.3, CS.1.4, CS.7.2, CS.2.16, CS.2.42, CS.2.47, CS.2.64, CS.2.67

Covering slab (also Capstone)

A piece of stone, mainly of limestone or calcareous sandstone that is used to cover the roof of the subterranean tomb’s burial chamber.

Grave (also tomb)

A place of burial either below-or-aboveground of different types, sizes and shapes.

Hafit cairn

It is an overground structure which looks like a pile of large unshaped piled stones of different sizes and colours, mainly black to brownish and yellowish, as well as mixed with earth and other smaller stones. The walls are hardly distinguishable but some possible 1–4 concentric ring-walls can be attested with a thickness ranging from 30 cm to 1 m. The tomb has a single and simple burial chamber in the centre of possibly semi-circular or oval shape with an inner wall and another one or two outer walls. Diameters vary from 1 m to 2.50 m with a height of around 1.50 m to 2.40 m based on the state of preservation. The chamber is possibly paved with flat stones. Entrance is hardly distinguishable, possibly blocked and sealed by two concentric walls. Some chambers show possible low single entrance, possibly rectangular or trapezoidal with one lintel stone slab. The total size of the cairn is around 2 m to 12 m in diameter with a height of around 30 cm to 3 m. No specific shape can be distinguished for the outer appearance of the cairn more than a pile of stones. Sites: CS.5.2, CS.5.2.5, CS.2.68, CS.2.69. CS.2.51, CS.4.2, CS.2.53, CS.1.1, CS.1.4, CS.3.8, CS.4.3, CS.4.4, CS.4.5, CS.4.9, CS.4.13, CS.4.15, CS.4.16, CS.4.19, CS.5.2, CS.5.3, CS.5.5, CS.5.6, CS.5.10, CS.5.11, CS.5.15, CS.7.2, CS.2.2, CS.2.5, CS.2.16, CS.2.17, CS.2.33, CS.2.41, CS.2.42, CS.2.52, CS.2.59, CS.2.67. See also Hafit survey (CS.6, CS.8, CS.10, CS.11, CS.12, CS.13, CS.14, CS.15, CS.16, CS.17)

Honeycomb tomb

It is a cluster of burials forming what looks like a honeycomb of different sizes and shapes. The burials are either circular or oval; however, the majority are oval. Their size ranges from 80 cm to 1.20 m in diameter for the circular ones. The oval ones are from 80 cm to 1 m wide and around 80 cm to 1.50 cm long. They are often built on yellow or grey bed-rocks. They are badly disturbed and their height is around 40 cm to 80 cm. Sites: CS.2.42, CS.2.51, CS.2.59

Islamic cemetery

A group of oval Islamic tombs occurring within close proximity to each other and within a specified part of ground either open or surrounded by fence, wall or enclosure. See also Islamic tomb. Sites: All the villages yielded Islamic cemeteries as well as other sites such as CS.5.1.2.3, CS.2.50, CS.2.51, CS.3.5, CS.3.7, CS.4.12, CS.9.10, CS.1.4, CS.1.5, CS.3.9, CS.4.3, CS.4.8, CS.5.17, CS.7.4, CS.9.11, CS.9.14, CS.2.32, CS.2.36, CS.2.37, CS.2.38, CS.2.52, CS.2.55, CS.2.62, CS.2.66

Islamic Tomb

An oval or semi-oval tomb with one or two courses of stone alignments on the surface with gravel and/ or earth in the middle. It is around 80 cm to 2 m long and around 80 cm to 1.20 m wide. It has one tombstone placed over or at the head to the north indicating a male and two tombstones on top or at the head to the north and the feet to the south indicating a woman. The tombstone is either of yellow limestone or brown/black gabro stone. Sometimes we find Islamic cemeteries with two different types of tomb, although no distinctive differences may be noticeable. However, it seems that these two types of tomb represent different periods of time, which may be of short duration. The only difference is that the older type of tombs does not include tombstones but have the same north–south orientation. The Islamic tomb chamber is rectangular, dug into ground to a depth of around 80 cm to 1.20 m and covered with large limestone slabs. Sites: Most of the oases and other sites include Islamic tombs CS.2.68, CS.2.50, CS.2.51, CS.2.43, CS.3.5, CS.3.7, CS.4.12, CS.9.10, CS.2.62, CS.5.8, CS.1.4, CS.3.5, CS.3.10, CS.4.4, CS.5.9, CS.5.16, CS.5.17, CS.7.4, CS.9.8, CS.2.1, CS.2.15, CS.2.55, CS.2.57, CS.2.63

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Appendices Mahleya Tomb

A tomb type that is dated to the Late Iron Age–Samad Period. It is small, elongated subterranean stone cists with rectangular burial chambers for single individual corpses. The roof stones usually being some 0.90 m below the surface. The chamber length ranges from 0.40 to 2.20 m and from 0.30 to 1m in width, and from 1m to 2.30 m in depth. The distance from the chamber floor to the uppermost course of stones varies between 1 m and 2 m. The main characteristics include end walls, roofs with capstones, and roof support stones. The walls of the burial chamber consist of four to six courses of wadi stones, with stones projecting from the uppermost course of the chamber walls to support the roofing capstones in order to decrease their weight on the chamber walls. The long axis of the chambers is oriented east–west, and the height varies from 1m to 2.30 m. The burial chamber is roofed with calcareous sandstone slabs or capstones with filling of earth. Sites: CS.2.52, CS.2.50, CS.2.51

Possible Mahleya Tomb

It is similar to the Mahleya tomb from its surface appearance. It looks like a low mound of piled stones with an oval or circular shape of one stone course ring with small piled stones in the middle. The stone ring is part of the piled stones in the middle. It is around 80 cm to 3 m in diameter for the circular and around 80 cm to 2 m long and around 60 cm to 1 m wide for the oval shaped tombs. It is built of brown, black and grey stones with an average size of around 35 cm. The tomb is of possible east–west orientation with a height of around 20 cm to 35 cm high. However, it is difficult to judge without excavation if they are certainly Mahleya-type tombs. Sites: CS.2.69, CS.2.43, CS.3.10, CS.7.2, CS.2.1, CS.2.9, CS.2.12, CS.2.14, CS.2.15, CS.2.18, CS.2.27, CS.2.55

Pre-Islamic tomb

Pre-Islamic tombs look like stone plied in mainly a circular or ovoid shape. The diameter for the circular tomb varies from 80 cm to 1 m and the length of the oval ranges from 5 m to 10 m and 4 m to 5 m wide. The tomb is either with or without a single course stone alignment or a wall built on the surface of brown and black wadi stones with some other stones piled in the middle. Their height ranges between 50 cm to 80 cm with an average stone size of around 30 cm. The tomb shape might belong to the subterranean type of tombs dating back from the Wadi Suq to Hellenistic Periods. Sites: CS.9.8, CS.2.50, CS.2.51, CS.2.43, CS.3.4, CS.2.62, CS.1.2, CS.1.4, CS.1.5, CS.1.8, CS.3.4, CS.3.5, CS.3.6, CS.3.7, CS.3.10, CS.4.3, CS.4.5, CS.7.2, CS.4.7, CS.5.18, CS.9.7, CS.9.8, CS.2.1, CS.2.3, CS.2.9, CS.2.10, CS.2.13, CS.2.28, CS.2.41, CS.2.42, CS.2.45, CS.2.46, CS.2.47, CS.2.48, CS.2.53, CS.2.55, CS.2.56, CS.2.57, CS.2.59

Tawi Silaim Tomb

It is similar to some extent to the Umm an-Nar tomb in that it is circular in shape, around 3 to 8 m in diameter with yellow roughly cut flat stones. It has around two to four concentric walls of different stone size ranging from 15 to 35 cm with inward sloping walls with or without cut stone kerbs. The entrance of the burial chamber is corbelled on both sides with corbelled inner walls forming an oversailing stone coursed roof. The tomb has a burial chamber in the centre that shows signs of paving with a diameter ranging from 1.50 to 2 m. Sites: CS.2.43.2

Tombstone

A stone placed over or at the head or foot of a tomb, mainly an Islamic tomb, indicates the gender of the dead: one stone over the head to the north indicates a male and two tombstones over or at the head to the north and with the feet to the south indicates a female. The tombstone is either of yellow limestone or brown/black gabro stones.

Umm an-Nar tomb

This is built of yellow roughly cut limestones blocks of white ashlar masonry laid in courses above the external plinth with inward sloping walls, usually with cut stone kerbs of an average stone size of around 20–35 cm. The inner walls are corbelled inwards in order to form and support the stone tomb’s roof. The entrance is formed by oversail courses forming a lancet-shape. The tomb is circular in shape with a diameter varying between 5 and 10 m with possible internal dividing or partition walls in the middle forming several separate chambers. The number of chambers varies from two in the case of a single entrance with a central wall to eight in the case of two entrances. Tomb heights range from 30 cm (in the case of badly disturbed tomb) to 3 m. Sites: CS.5.4, CS.5.9, CS.2.52, CS.2.43

219

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula B.1.1.2- Mosques: Possible Site/Feature Type

Description

Mosque

A building or structure used by Muslims to practise their worship. See also open Mosque. Sites: CS.5.8, CS.1.5, CS.9.1, CS.9.5

Open Mosque or Prayer Area (Musala)

An open place that is defined by a one stone course alignment either from one side (west) or from all sides forming either a rectangular or square structure where Muslims practise their worship. Whatever the shape was, a mihrab in the middle of the western wall in the form of a semi circle of around 60–80 cm in width, and a possible entrance in the middle of the eastern wall with an entrance of around 60–80 cm in width. The stone alignment is around 20–30 cm thick and built of black and brown stones, often around 60 cm thick and filled in the middle with gravel. Sites: CS.2.50, CS.2.51, CS.2.62, CS.2.65

B.1.2- Domestic and Habitation Structures: Possible Site/Feature Type Abandoned village

Description

A group of deserted houses and other related buildings. See also village Sites: CS.5.8: CS.9.5, CS.9.10 Arch A structure that is built over a specific feature such as a door, a window or any other part of a building. Its main function is either defensive or decorative. It can be constructed using different materials such as stone and/or mudbrick, often with mortar or cement to protect and support its sides. Sites: CS.3.5 Barasti house (‘Arēysh) A wooden house or structure made by the Bedouin as a house to use during the summer or, sometimes, as a pen or stable for their camels and goats. It is built of perishable materials such as date palms. It is usually square or rectangular in shape. Sites: Examples were noticed in many areas such as Sinaw and Barzaman (CS.7.1) Basin A tank that is made to gather and store water to be used when needed for different purposes. The tank can (also cistern) be either covered or uncovered. The shape might be circular, rectangular or square. It is built from stones that are plastered using mortar or cement. The size of the tank varies. It can be built in houses or in datepalm gardens. Sites: CS.7.1, CS.9.5, CS.2.3 Buried site There are human remains (.e.g. structure, artefacts or any other debris) that have over time been deposited or buried due to sedimentation and alluvium. Such sites can be found as a result of natural land movement or by human such as cultivation land clearance, digging wells, etc. Sites: CS.9.4 Cairn A structure that was deliberately built using stones to form a specific type of structure in the form of piled stones. Sites: This type of structure has been noticed in several areas Cairn-field An area that includes a group of piled stones or cairns that accumulated within one or more clusters adjacent to each other. See also cairn Campsite A nomad or mobile pastoral group place or small sporadic site that was occupied for a short timespan and is small in size. It was probably used by a small population of nomadic nature. It includes a group of dwellings and structures built of different materials, often perishable- basically wood and cloth such as a tent, hut or barasti structures that vanish over time, but with stone structures or remains (e.g. platforms or foundations) as yet undiscovered. This type of site might be inhabited seasonally, for example, on the availability of water, pasture and arable lands during specific seasons. This type of site is likely to yield little evidence, mostly a few pottery sherds or lithics. In some cases, the site is only a scatter of artefacts. Sites: CS.2.11, CS.2.20, CS.2.29, CS.2.23, CS.2.56, CS.2.57, CS.2.65, CS.1.1, CS.2.1, CS.2.41, CS.2.43, CS.2.50, CS.2.51, CS.2.53, CS.2.55, CS.2.56, CS.2.61, CS.3.5, CS.5.1.2, CS.5.10, CS.7.2 and CS.9.5, CS.2.11, CS.2.23 Fireplace (also hearth)

A place where a fire is set for different purposes in which stones are used to define the fireplace. Sites: See horseshoe structure

220

Appendices Horseshoe structure

House

Hut

Isolated stone wall

Major site

Minor site

Modern house

Nomad dwelling Oasis

Old mudbrick building

A small stone structure shaped like a horseshoe with an open part from any direction of around 60 cm to 2 m wide. The enclosed part within the structure has usually been cleared. The wall is a pile of stones either of a single or double course of stone alignment around 20–40 cm thick and from 60 cm to 1.20 m high. The wall has a filling of small stone and gravel with sometimes earth. The stones are brown, black or grey wadi stones and sometimes of yellow limestone. The function of this type of structure is not clear as no associated finds or signs of activity were found to identify its function. It might be a fireplace, furnace, animal enclosure. Only further excavation will give us insight into its function. Sites: CS.1.1, CS.1.3, CS.4.4, CS.4.6, CS.2.25, CS.2.27, CS.2.41, CS.2.42, CS.2.50, CS.2.52, CS.2.53, CS.2.55, CS.2.62, CS.2.64 A building that could have been built of any type of material (e.g. stone, mudbrick, wood, cloth, etc.) and used by man for habitation or domestic purposes. Sites: Several sites yielded this type of building, mainly within village or wadi villages A small type of structure built of mixed materials, mainly wood but also employing other materials like mud and metal pieces. It sometimes includes a paved stone platform that serves as a floor. Sites: See also barasti house and possible platform (EARTHWORK) An isolated stone wall where no associated features were found. It is either with a one- or two-stone course alignment of around 20–80 cm thick and around 1.50–100 m long. Its function is unclear but it might be part of a badly disturbed structure or the remains of a cleared path made either by people or animals such as goats moving stones aside of their route or path. Sites: CS.2.50, CS.2.51, CS.2.43, CS.3.5, CS.3.2, CS.2.41 A large site that covers an area of over 10 hectares and consists of a group of structures of different shapes, types and sizes indicating considerable activity and occupation over one or more periods on the same site. It might include one or several types of human activity. Such a site might offer evidence of different types of stone structures such as houses, large cemeteries and walled-structures, etc. these structures are always located within and close to wadi villages along the wadi banks on their edges and slopes. The layout of the site is either organised and includes huge monumental buildings (towers) surrounded by other parts that are reserved either for tomb fields or for settlements or other activities as is the case with the Umm an-Nar major sites, or the layout is less organized and shows a very simple plan with large burial grounds and stone structures of different types that might have been built randomly as is the case with the major Late Iron Age sites. Sites: CS.1.1–CS.1.5, CS.2.15, CS.2.25, CS.2.41, CS.2.43, CS.2.50–CS.2.53, CS.2.55, CS.2.56, CS.2.59, CS.2.62, CS.2.64, CS.2.65, CS.2.67, CS.2.68, CS.2.69, CS.3.1, CS.3.5, CS.3.7, CS.3.8, CS.4.1, CS.4.12, CS.4.13, CS.5.1, CS.5.2, CS.5.8, CS.5.9, CS.7.1, CS.7.2, CS.9.1, CS.9.3, CS.9.5, CS.9.10, A small site that covers an area of less than 10 hectares and consists of a small group of structures of different shapes, types and sizes, and it is always, with few exceptions, located away from modern villages, and scattered along the Wadi banks. Sometimes, it only yields a small evidence of activity of a single or multi-periods. This evidence could be the remains of, for example, ‘camp site’ of possible seasonal nomadic or pastoralist inhabitations. See also nomads, campsite and nomad dwelling. Sites: CS.1.6–CS.1.9, CS.2.2, CS.2.1–CS.2.14, CS.2.16–CS.2.24, CS.2.26–CS.2.40, CS.2.42, CS.2.44– CS.2.49, CS.2.54, CS.2.57, CS.2.58, CS.2.60, CS.2.61, CS.2.63, CS.2.66, CS.3.2–CS.3.4, CS.3.6, CS.3.9, CS.3.10, CS.4.2–CS.4.11, CS.4.14–CS.4.19, CS.5.1.2, CS.5.10, CS.7.2, CS.2.11, CS.9.5, CS.5.3–CS.5.7, CS.5.10– CS.5.19, CS.7.3, CS.7.5, CS.9.2, CS.9.4, CS.9.6–CS.9.9, CS.9.11– CS.9.14 A house that is currently occupied by local people and built of modern materials and has public facilities and services Sites: All the currently occupied village includes this type of structure: e.g. CS.3.1, CS.4.1, CS.1.5, CS.5.1, CS.7.1, CS.9.1 A temporary small structure built of stone, cloth or wood (e.g. tent, hut, stone enclosure). See also campsite, barasti house, hut and minor site The term ‘oasis’ normally refers to a fertile area or spot in the middle of a desert that includes water resource(s) and trees, mainly date palms. The majority of linguistic as well as archaeological dictionaries, such as The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology’, refer to the term ‘oasis’ as a localized fertile area within a desert (Darvill 2002: 293). The topography, pattern, layout and distribution of settlements within the desert are scattered and the distance between one oasis and the other could extend for several kilometres. The oasis (desert settlement) inhabitants used tents or wooden houses, which gave them their nomadism character. These inhabitants of the desert ‘oasis’, are nomads and herders. See also ‘Wadi village’. A building that is built of mudbrick with or without stone foundations, and usually built within or close to a settlement. It is used for different but mainly domestic purposes. It either stands alone or is part of a larger building where a group of buildings is clustered (see also quarter). Sites: CS.9.2.1, CS.9.10, CS.2.62, CS.5.8, CS.9.5, CS.9.10, CS.1.5, CS.3.1, CS.3.5, CS.4.1, CS.5.1, CS.7.1, CS.9.1, CS.9.9, CS.9.12, CS.2.35, CS.2.55

221

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula A well-planned group of stone-mudbrick buildings or houses forming a headquarters that is usually enclosed by a defensive outer wall and gates and sometimes corner towers. Buildings are of mudbrick with sometimes stone foundations to a height of around 60 cm to 1 m. The buildings or houses consist of one or more, to a maximum of three, stories of several rooms and units according to the house size. There can be bedrooms, kitchens, toilets, storage rooms and courtyards. There are lanes between the houses of around 1.50 m to 4 m wide. Sites: CS.4.1.1, CS.1.5, CS.7.1, CS.2.55 Rock shelter A natural opening in rock that is located under a natural projection at the base of a cliff or outcrop. It will have been exploited over time by man as a protecting shelter either for himself or for his animals. It is sometimes supported by a stone or wooden wall facing the opened part to form an enclosure. Sites: CS.9.12 Ruined structure A structure that has collapsed or been damaged over time in which parts of its main structure or materials remain. Sites: CS.2.68, CS.2.69, CS.9.2.1, CS.2.51, CS.2.43, CS.3.5, CS.3.7, CS.9.10, CS.5.8, CS.4.1, CS.9.1, CS.9.5, CS.9.9, CS.9.12 Ruins Any residue or debris that remains from a collapsed or damaged building or structure. (also remains) Sites: CS.2.68, CS.2.69, CS.9.2.1, CS.2.51, CS.2.43, CS.3.5, CS.3.7, CS.9.6, CS.9.10, CS.5.8, CS.9.1, CS.9.9 Sedentary site A permanently occupied place that includes a group of structures or buildings used for habitation and other domestic activities. The size of the site may vary considerably. It is often associated with a settled population who usually practise agriculture, pottery production, herding or other activities such as copper smelting processes. See village, wadi village, major sites Settlement A group of houses and other related buildings clustered over a small area but smaller in size than a village. They are built of different building materials, mainly stone, and of different shapes and sizes. Sites: CS.2.11, CS.2.50, CS.2.51, CS.2.43, CS.2.20, CS.2.29, CS.2.23, CS.2.56, CS.2.57, CS.2.65, CS.3.5, CS.3.7, CS.4.12, CS.2.53 Sloping structures Stone structures that on a wadi’s edges and slopes. They vary in size and shape. The structure may stand alone or be part of a cluster. They are built on the edges and extend down the slopes until the end of a wadi terrace. They look like ‘sloped structures’, making identification problematic as to whether they are part of a house, a field, a retaining wall or some other possible function. The walls of the structures are double stone courses of around 60–80 cm thick, and filled in the middle with gravel. Sites: CS.2.50, CS.2.51 Stone structure A circular, square or rectangular stone structure with double stone walls of around 40–80 cm thick and filled in the middle with gravel and sometimes earth. Sometimes the structure’s walls are only one stone course of around 20–30 cm thick. The stones are black and brown with an average size of 30 cm. Sometimes they are grey and yellow. The structure is either an individual unit or sub-divided into several units. The size varies from one structure to another with a height of around 30–1.20 m. The inner part of the structure is often cleared from stones. Sites: CS.2.11, CS.2.50, CS.2.51, CS.2.43, CS.2.20, CS.2.29, CS.2.23, CS.2.56, CS.2.57, CS.2.65, CS.3.5, CS.3.7, CS.4.2, CS.4.12, CS.9.6, CS.9.10, CS.2.53, CS.2.62, CS.5.8, CS.1.2, CS.1.4, CS.1.5, CS.3.1, CS.3.3, CS.3.5, CS.4.1, CS.4.4, CS.4.5, CS.4.7, CS.4.10, CS.4.11, CS.5.2.5, CS.5.15, CS.5.16, CS.7.1, CS.7.3, CS.7.4, CS.9.1, CS.2.13, CS.2.15, CS.2.17, CS.2.19, CS.2.22, CS.2.24, CS.2.27, CS.2.28, CS.2.38, CS.2.40, CS.2.41, CS.2.42, CS.2.44, CS.2.48, CS.2.49, CS.2.52, CS.2.55, CS.2.60, CS.2.63, CS.2.64, Stone wall foundation The stone remains of what is used to be a standing wall whether is completely or partly stone-built wall. Sites: CS.2.52, CS.2.69, CS.2.50, CS.2.51, CS.2.43, CS.2.20, CS.2.56, CS.2.57, CS.2.65, CS.3.5, CS.3.7, CS.4.12, CS.9.6, CS.9.10, CS.5.8, CS.3.2, CS.3.5, CS.4.5, CS.4.7, CS.4.8, CS.5.9, CS.5.10, CS.5.16, CS.7.1, CS.9.1, CS.9.5, CS.9.12, CS.2.15, CS.2.25, CS.2.27, CS.2.38, CS.2.40, CS.2.44, CS.2.48, CS.2.50, CS.2.55, CS.2.61, CS.2.62, CS.2.64, CS.2.67 Umm an-Nar complex An organised and well-planed settlement that consists of a tower building, tomb-field, houses and other (village) stone structures of different shapes and sizes. Structures may be either individual or in groups with a large quantity of associated surface finds, mainly pottery sherds. Sites: CS.2.52 Umm an-Nar house/ A stone foundation of a house or structure that varies in size, shape (square, rectangular, circular, individual, structure or unit with more than a structure), and is often associated with Umm an-Nar finds, mainly pottery sherds. Wall sizes vary from 35 cm to 80 cm thick with or without gravel filling in between. Sites: CS.2.52, CS.2.68, CS.2.69 Quarter (Hārah)

222

Appendices Village

Wadi village

Wall

This can also be called a ‘Wadi village’ that consists of a group of houses and other related buildings such as public buildings, workshops, mosques/temples, agricultural land and installations, defensive buildings and towers, etc. Sites: CS.1.5, CS.3.1, CS.4.1, CS.5.1, CS.7.1, CS.9.1 A village or habitation site located along and near the foothills, wadi banks and with gravel terraces. There will be water resources such as the falaj and date palm groves. A ‘wadi village’ is different than the term ‘oasis’ (see oasis), which is used nowadays by many archaeologists to refer to ‘wadi village. The topography, pattern, layout and distribution of settlements along the wadi are different from those within the desert. Wadi villages can be found along wadi banks and are adjacent to each other or separated by just a few hundred meters. The wadi village inhabitants used to use different types of building materials such as stones, mudbrick and wood in building their structures, while the inhabitants in the desert ‘oases’ used the tents or wooden houses which gave them their nomadism character. The inhabitants of the ‘wadi villages’ are settled-farmers and goat-herders who also practised activities related, for instance, to mining or pottery, while those of the desert ‘oases’ were nomads and herders. Sites: CS.2.11, CS.2.50, CS.2.51, CS.1.5, CS.4.1, CS.3.1, CS.5.1, CS.7.1, CS.9.1 A standing structure of different heights and thicknesses either isolated or part of a building. It is built of different material such as stone, mudbrick, wood, etc, and consists of several courses based on the required height. Sites: CS.9.12

B.1.3- Defensive and Fortified Structures: Possible Site/Feature Type Arch Citadel Hisn

Fort

Fortification

Fortified settlement

Observation tower

Quarter (Harah)

Description See the same term in domestic and habitation structures A fortress used as a defensive, administrative and habitation place. It includes fortifications such as towers, offices and dwellings. Historic Hisn in Oman has always served as a house and administrative point for the area ruler or Imam. Sites: Hisn al-Khabib in Samad A walled or fortified large building built as a defensive position. It is used in case of a war or attack. It includes a group of other smaller buildings and a group of fortified structures with towers, thick walls, a moat, gun and canon platforms and openings, etc. The position of the fort is often on high ground such as on hills or outcrops. Some though, can also be found on low elevation and flat ground. Sites: CS.9.1 Any work, building or structure that bears a defensive feature such as a fortified or walled house, walled structure, etc. Sites: CS.4.4, CS.3.5, CS.4.12, CS.2.53, CS.9.1, CS.2.58 A group of houses and other related buildings clustered over a small area and are often, but not always, built on the top of hills or rocky outcrops because of their innate defensive nature. They are built of different building materials, mainly stone, and are of different shapes and sizes. They are often built of yellow, brown or black stones. Sometimes, there are corner towers on the edges of the hill or outcrop which serve as observation positions. This type of site also includes one stone wall extending along the edge of the rocky hill, which serves as a defensive wall. Sites: CS.4.4 is CS.3.5, CS.4.12, CS.2.53, CS.3.5, CS.4.1.2, CS.2.40, CS.2.41 A defensive stone structure that is often located on the hills’ edges where it serves as a place to observe and protect a settlement area. The structure generally looks like a cairn or a pile of stones. Diameters vary between 2–5 m and heights from 80 cm to 2 m. It is an open-roofed structure with a circular pit in the middle of around 1–1.20 m in diameter and wall of around 60–80 cm thick. It is built of black, yellowishbrown, sometimes grey, crude stones. This type of structure consists sometimes of small holes in the wall, which can be used for observation and as a gun platform. Sometimes the structure is very simple in which one stone course alignment is curved or looks like a half circle with an opening. Sites: CS.4.4 , CS.9.1, CS.2.15, CS.2.16, CS.2.22, CS.2.34, CS.2.42, CS.2.53 See the same term in domestic and habitation structures

223

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula Sur (fortified wall)

Tower

Umm an-Nar building

A walled small quarter or a group of buildings that are fortified by outer wall and a single or more corner towers. It is often occupied by one single tribe or family and in many cases it is assigned to the name of that family. Sites: CS.9.5 A structure that is built of stone, mudbrick or both. It consists of different shapes which may be round, square, rectangular, cylindrical or polygonal. It is mainly used for defensive purposes, though other purposes might be possible, for example, as a territory landmark. It can be either isolated or part of a fortified building. Sites: CS.3.1, CS.4.1, CS.5.1, CS.7.1, CS.9.1 tower/ A large, oval, circular, square, semi-square, rectangular, or semi-rectangular building often built on or against a natural rock feature, such as a low outcrop, or on a man-made mound. Its perimeter consists of large, roughly cut boulders which may form either one or more rings. Sometimes the square or rectangular building has rounded corners. The size of the building varies with an average diameter of 20–40 m for the circular, and 20–30 m by 20–30 m for the square, and 20–30 m by 30–40 m for the rectangular. The function of the building is often defensive; however, civic, social or religious functions are possible. It includes internal divided walls forming several inner rooms. Sometimes the outer walls of the building are depicted with pecked, engraved or in relief rock art drawings. Sites: CS.5.2.1, CS.5.2.2, CS.5.2.3, CS.5.7, CS.2.52, CS.2.69

B.1.4- Industrial and Agricultural Structures: Possible Site/Feature Type Agricultural building

Description

A building that is built of stone, mudbrick or wood, or of mixed material and can be found within the agricultural field in which it is used for agricultural purposes such as stores. The building can be square, rectangular or circular. Sites: CS.9.6, CS.9.10, CS.2.62, CS.5.8, CS.3.5, CS.7.1, CS.9.5 Agricultural installation Any building, structure and technique (e.g. irrigation system) used or employed for agricultural purposes. See also EARTHWORK for falaj and irrigation channels. Sites: CS.7.1, CS.9.5 Basin (also cistern) See the same term in domestic and habitation structures Copper smelting site An area that is mainly used as a place to smelt and process copper ore. It includes slag heaps, buildings and structures associated with the smelting process. It might also include houses for the coppersmiths, water resources (e.g. well) as well as a nearby copper source. Sites: CS.3.7 Fireplace/hearth See the same term in domestic and habitation structures Old mudbrick building A building that is built of mudbrick with or without stone foundations, and usually built within or close to a settlement. It is used for different functions, mainly for domestic purposes. It is either a stand-alone or part of a larger building where a group of buildings are clustered (see also quarter). Sites: CS.9.2.1, CS.9.10, CS.2.62, CS.5.8, CS.9.5, CS.9.10, CS.1.5, CS.3.1, CS.3.5, CS.4.1, CS.5.1, CS.7.1, CS.9.1, CS.9.9, CS.9.12, CS.2.35, CS.2.55 Retaining wall A wall, normally stone, that is constructed to maintain and hold a depository or pile of earth, gravel etc. Sites: CS.2.50, CS.2.51, CS.5.8, CS.4.1, CS.9.5, CS.2.16

224

Appendices B.1.5- Animal Structures: Possible Site/Feature Description Type Animal basin (also An open tank that is made to gather and store water for the purpose of animal drinking. The shape of this tank cistern) might be circular, rectangular or square and is built from stones that are plastered using mortar or cement. The size of the tank varies but its height is low in order to facilitate drinking. Sites: CS.3.7, CS.7.1 Animal pen/enclosure An enclosed structure to retain animals and protect them, and of different shapes, types and sizes. Different building materials are used in constructing this type of structure such as stone, wood, fabric and mudbrick. Sometimes natural features are made use of in the construction of a structure such as trees, rocks and caves or rock-shelters. Sites: CS.2.54, CS.2.43, CS.2.14, CS.2.15, CS.2.27 Animal trap A circular, rectangular, square or box and domed-like structure built of a pile of black and brown stones of different sizes based on its shape and a height range between 30 cm and 60 cm. It is generally small with a small opening from any direction around 15–40 cm wide and 15–45 cm high. It sometime has what looks like an inner tunnel with sometimes small yellow slabs, which are often used as roof stones for the opening. This type of structure might be used as an animal trap. Sites: CS.2.8, CS.2.27, CS.2.41, CS.2.53, Barasti house (‘Arēysh) See the same term in domestic and habitation structures Chicken box/house A small stone square, rectangular or circular structure built to keep chickens with a small opening of around 15–25 cm wide and 20–30 cm high. Sites: CS.2.49 Rock shelter See the same term in domestic and habitation structures

B.2- EARTHWORK: Possible Site/Feature Type A pile of stones (also cairn)

Abandoned falaj Abandoned falaj channel Agricultural field

Artificial mound

Buried site

Description A group of piled stones around 30 cm to 1.50 m in diameter, and 10 cm to 90 cm high. The pile is made of brown, black and grey stones and sometimes with yellow limestone on black gravel wadi terraces, rocky hills and outcrops. They are clustered in groups that are sometimes difficult to count. These are definitely man-made but their function is not clear. They could be the result of cleared areas or roads. The practice of piling stones can be noticed even nowadays where people collect them from the wadi gravel terraces and pile them in groups and then leave them. At certain times they use them in building their houses or any other kinds of structure such as for demarcating fields. This also explains the practice of removing the stones of the old structures or tombs. In addition, they could be the remains of some ancient structure or building. Sites: CS.2.68, CS.2.69, CS.2.52, CS.9.8, CS.2.50, CS.2.51, CS.2.43, CS.3.4, CS.3.5, CS.4.2, CS.4.12, CS.9.6, CS.9.10, CS.2.53, CS.2.62, CS.5.8, CS.1.2, CS.1.7, CS.1.8, CS.1.9, CS.3.2, CS.3.4, CS.4.7, CS.4.11, CS.5.1, CS.5.15, CS.5.16, CS.7.2, CS.7.3, CS.7.4, CS.7.5, CS.9.7, CS.9.8, CS.9.11, CS.9.12, CS.2.6, CS.2.8, CS.2.13, CS.2.15, CS.2.16, CS.2.17, CS.2.18, CS.2.19, CS.2.25, CS.2.26, CS.2.27, CS.2.28, CS.2.29, CS.2.30, CS.2.31, CS.2.41, CS.2.42, CS.2.44, CS.2.55, CS.2.56, CS.2.59, CS.2.60, CS.2.63, CS.2.64, CS.2.65, CS.2.67 A dry and unused falaj. See also falaj Sites: CS.9.10, CS.5.8, CS.7.1, CS.9.5 An inactive artificial falaj channel that is abandoned. See also falaj Sites: CS.9.6, CS.9.10, CS.5.8, CS.3.1, CS.7.1, CS.9.5, CS.2.61, A piece of land that is used for plantation and often walled or fenced. It may include an irrigation system or some other agricultural installation. It is normally built on wadi gravel terraces or edges where water and fertile soils are available, and nearby settlements. Sites: CS.1.5, CS.9.1 A low mound that is associated with possible stone structure remains indicating that the mound itself might be the debris of a collapsed building. Sites: CS.5.1.2.1, CS.2.51, CS.2.43, CS.3.7, CS.5.8 See the same term in domestic and habitation structures

225

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula Clearance mound

Piled earth that is extracted from clearing land in order to find a new and fertile soil for the cultivation over time and/or from digging the ground to find water (wells). The clearance mound may be at the field’s edges or the surrounding area. This feature has different names in different parts of Oman. To give an example, in the Ja’alān area, the area where the clearance mounds are piled is called ‘Manjal’ (‫ )لجنم‬or ‘Manyal’ (‫)لينم‬, and followed by the name of its owner (e.g. Manjal/Manyal Nasser). It becomes the property of the owner’s family after his death. The mound itself is called ‘Kadas’ (‫( )سدك‬plural ‘Kadūs’ [‫ )]سودك‬or ‘Dak’ (‫( )كد‬plural ‘Dakūk’ [‫)]كوكد‬. In Bidyah, the mound is called ‘Qarhah’ (‫)ةحرق‬ Sites: CS.5.1.2.1; CS.5.1.2.2, CS.3.5, CS.4.12, CS.9.6, CS.5.8, CS.1.5, CS.3.1, CS.4.1, CS.5.1.2.4, CS.5.1, CS.7.1, CS.9.1, CS.9.2.2, CS.9.5, CS.9.9, CS.9.12 Cleared depression A cleared depression or pit that is often found close fields with its clearance earth and gravel piled around its edges. It is around 80 cm deep (maximum). Its function is unclear but could be related to land movement activities around the fields. Sites: CS.2.50, CS.2.51, CS.2.52, CS.2.62 Cleared stone alignment A cleared area that is enclosed by a one-course stone alignment of different size and shape (circular, rectangular, square). Its function is unclear. Sites: CS.2.50, CS.2.51, CS.2.43, CS.2.14, CS.2.15, CS.2.21, CS.2.27, CS.2.41, CS.2.42, CS.2.53, CS.2.55, CS.2.56, CS.2.62, CS.2.63, CS.2.64 Cut-section An artificial or natural dug or cut layer or section of different depth. Sites: CS.5.1.2.2, CS.9.4, CS.1.5, CS.3.1, CS.9.1, CS.2.7, CS.2.53, Dam A barrier made of stone mixed with earth, gravel or any other material. Sometimes it is plastered with mortar or cement. It is always built across a watercourse to divert and transfer water in a specific direction. It serves as a protection for sites against flash-floods and creates a reservoir. Sites: CS.5.8 Date-palm grove/garden Defined land within or near a settlement, either open or fenced, which is used to grow date-palm trees. The density of the grove depends on the size of the settlement’s population. These date-palms are always associated with settlements as they are part of the inhabitants’ subsistence economy. The garden has different names in different parts of Oman. It is called mazra’ah (‫)هعرزم‬, māl (‫)لام‬, ‘ābyah (‫)هيباع‬, nakhal (‫ )لخن‬or dhahyah (‫)هيحاض‬

Ditch (Khandaq)

Dry Thuqbah Dump area

Falaj

Graded road Irrigation channel

Mound

Sites: CS.9.2.2, CS.2.43, CS.1.5, CS.1.6, CS.3.1, CS.4.1, CS.5.1, CS.7.1, CS.9.1, CS.9.5, CS.2.2, CS.2.44, CS.2.52 A long trench dug into the ground and varied in size; normally deep (over 1m) and either narrow or wide based on its main function. It is used to carry water on certain occasions but might remain empty for the rest of the year Sites: CS.7.1 A hole dug into ground that has been dried after the falaj was inactive. See also Thuqbah Sites: CS.9.4, CS.9.6, CS.3.1, CS.3.7, CS.5.1, CS.7.1, CS.9.5 A spot or place where human waste or refuse has accumulated or been deposited. This might include any type of waste or refuse (e.g. domestic, industrial, etc.) Sites: CS.9.2.1 An artificial channel dug into the ground, or on the surface, and is either open or covered. It is used to gather underground water, spring water or surface water which is carried over long distances naturally through the falaj channel by gravity alone. The water carried by the channel is used mainly for land irrigation and domestic purposes. Each falaj has a name. There are also agreed rules on its use and maintenance. The falaj system was introduced during the first millennium BC, or earlier. Sites: CS.1.5, CS.3.1, CS.4.1, CS.7.1, CS.9.1 A paved way for pedestrian and vehicular use. An artificial watercourse for carrying and distributing water within agricultural fields in order to irrigate crops and plants. Sites: CS.9.6, CS.9.10, CS.5.8, CS.3.1, CS.4.1, CS.7.1, CS.9.1, CS.2.3, CS.2.61 Piled earth and/or stones forming a low-levelled embankment Sites: CS.2.69, CS.2.51

226

Appendices Old/abandoned agricultural field

Pathway PCAs

Possible platform

Road Slag deposition/heap Stone alignment

Stone scatter

Thuqbah Unidentified feature Water channel Well

The remains of old cultivated area/land which was abandoned either recently or long ago. It is normally built on wadi gravel terraces or edges where water resources and fertile soils are available. The field often consists of several walls with other sub-division walls that form different smaller sub-divided fields. The stone walls range in size from 60 cm to 80 cm thick and are filled in the middle with gravel and earth. Some fields are made of only a pile of earth and gravel. Sometimes, there are stone-mudbrick squares and rectangular structures built along the outer walls, and sometimes within the fields, which may have had agricultural purposes. Sites: CS.2.50, CS.2.51, CS.2.43, CS.3.5, CS.4.12, CS.9.6, CS.9.10, CS.2.62, CS.5.8, CS.1.5, CS.1.6, CS.3.1, CS.3.5, CS.4.1, CS.4.8, CS.7.1, CS.9.5, CS.2.24, CS.2.32, CS.2.35, CS.2.52, CS.2.55, CS.2.63, A track or trodden way paved and cleared for walking Sites: CS.2.41 A group of areas selected and divided within a village or wadi village’s for pottery collection sampling in order to examine the settlement history over time. Sites: CS.1.5.1–CS.1.5.5, CS.3.1.1–CS.3.1.6, CS.4.1.1–CS.4.1.6, CS.5.1.1– CS.5.1.6, CS.7.1.1– CS.7.1.5, CS.9.1.1– CS.9.1.8 Paved or low-piled stones of different shapes and sizes that might be a platform floor of a structure, possibly a perishable one. The platform may be oval, circular, square, rectangular, and sometimes without any specific shape. The platform is built of small brown, black or grey stones. Sites: CS.2.51, CS.5.8, CS.1.2, CS.5.1, CS.5.10, CS.5.15, CS.5.16, CS.7.3, CS.7.4, CS.2.44, CS.2.46, CS.2.52 A paved or asphalted route used either on foot or any means of transportation such as cars, bicycles, motorcycles, etc. A spot or place where metal waste, mainly copper, from the smelting process is accumulated and dumped. Sites: CS.3.7, CS.3.1, CS.3.8, CS.2.2 One or more rows of stones that are set in lines or placed parallel to each other, either in a continuous or discontinuous way. It is often looks like a row or one course of stones forming different shapes. The structure’s function is unclear but it possibly serves as a boundary marker. Sites: CS.9.12, CS.2.12, CS.2.41, CS.2.42, CS.2.48, CS.2.51, CS.2.60, A group of scattered stones of no specific or regular shape but which look man-made. These could be the remains of possible removed or disturbed structures or the remains of stone movement or quarrying activities. Sites: CS.5.2.4, CS.5.2.5, CS.1.2, CS.1.7, CS.1.8, CS.3.1, CS.3.2, CS.3.3, CS.4.5, CS.4.11, CS.7.4, CS.7.5 , CS.2.3, CS.2.56, CS.2.62, CS.2.63, CS.2.64 A group of holes or well cut-section dug into ground on one line over specific intervals where the falaj underground water runs. They are dug in order to help in checking and/or cleaning the falaj when necessary. See also Dry Thuqbah. Any type of feature that cannot be certainly defied or attributed to any defined type of site or structure. An artificial watercourse for carrying and distributing water. Sites: CS.9.10, CS.5.8, CS.3.1, CS.7.1, CS.9.1, CS.2.3, CS.2.61 A deep pit or hole dug into ground to reach the underground water that can be used for irrigation or other daily life purposes. Sites: CS.3.7, CS.3.7, CS.4.1, CS.7.1, CS.9.1, CS.9.5, CS.2.3

227

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula B.3- ARTEFACT: Possible Site/Feature Type Artefact scatter Chert/lithic scatter

Pottery scatter

Shell scatter

Description An area where a concentration of either high or low density artefacts was located on the surface during the survey in both large and small locations. This does not include those found within a specific archaeological context, but indicate human activity. An area where a concentration of cherts or lithics was located on the surface during the survey. This does not include those found within a specific archaeological context. Sites: CS.1.1 An area where a concentration of pottery sherds was located on the surface during the survey either of high or low density on large or small areas. This does not include those found within a specific archaeological context. Sites: CS.5.2, CS.5.2.4, CS.5.2.5, CS.2.50, CS.2.51, CS.2.2 An area where a concentration of shells was located on the surface during the survey. This does not include those found within a specific archaeological context. Sites: CS.2.63

228

APPENDIX C POTTERY CLASSIFICATION This appendix includes a description of the pottery classification methodology as well as the different types of pottery classes defined from all the pottery collected during the survey and dated from the Bronze Age until recent times. It must always be kept in mind that this classification is preliminary and incomplete. Defining the Wadi Andam Survey pottery is based on the researcher’s background in Omani pottery and on published materials from the well-stratified excavated sites within the peninsula. Furthermore, it is based on showing pottery to specialists who kindly identified several types of pottery. Among those are J. Schreiber who identified several pottery sherds of the Umm an-Nar and Early and Late Iron Age; C. Velde for the Wadi Suq; P. Magee, J. Häser and A. Benoist for the Early and Late Iron Age; and D. Kennet for the Islamic pottery. Furthermore, it is important to stress on the fact that this study has specific aims, space and time for completion. Its aims are set out and discussed in the introductory chapter as well as the following chapters. It must be remembered that dealing with pottery as well as its definition and classes in great detail is a huge work. Thus, this appendix is only an attempt to provide a brief guide for the reader about the presented and discussed pottery throughout the study in order to be able to follow up the discussion. The terminology used in identifying the pottery classes is based on terms adopted by the author of this study, which were mainly based on fabrics and surface treatment of the sherds. The problem with identifying pottery classes is that there is no one unified classification. It is a matter of judgment. Some of the classes, mainly those of the Islamic periods, are well-known, defined and described in the literature. These include, for instance, BAHLA (Bahla Ware), JULFAR (Julfar Ware), CBW (Chinese Blue– and–White), Celadon, etc. The majority of the classes defined here are based on the author’s classification and description. Parallels from the literature are ascribed to each class. Whenever possible, these parallels are based mainly on those finds from well-stratified excavated sites but others from surveys of well-defined sites that show clear and coherent remains of one unique period were also used. This appendix includes a description of all the identified pottery classes and their characteristics. A glossary of the used terms in describing pottery and its characteristics is provided at the end of the appendix. C.1– CLASSES A description of the pottery collection and analysis process was stated in Chapter Four (see the sampling technique and investigated areas (Level 5) in Section One). This appendix will focus on describing the different classes of this pottery. A total of 74 pottery classes, based on 19,240

surface collected pottery sherds, were identified and will be described. Each of these classes was given a unique abbreviation or code for speed and ease of identification. These codes are written in capital letters within the text (e.g. UNUMS, GCWS, LFEIA, etc.). In addition, there are other sherds were not possible to be assigned to a specific period as their fabrics and other characteristics could sometimes be ascribed to more than one period. These include, for instance, Late Bronze Age Class (L.B.A), which could be assigned to either Wadi Suq or the Early Iron Age. These were thus assigned to a broader chronological period. Moreover, some Islamic sherds were impossible to assign to a definite period. This is the case with the “Middle Islamic to Late Islamic sherds” and “Late Islamic to Recent sherds” as they have characteristics common to both periods. To understand the different classes defined here, the following is a description of them. It includes the definition of the class and its code, the class name, period, origin, total number of sherds, the sites which yielded sherds of this class, parallels from the literature and figures that illustrate the particular class. The archaeological sites that yielded sherds from each class are indicated only by their numbers in order to avoid flooding the main text-body with a huge list of names. The archaeological names can be found in the Sites’ Gazetteer in Appendix A as well as in the Site’s Transliteration list in Appendix D. It is important to indicate here that many of the defined wares presented in this appendix have mainly similar characteristics with only few minor differences. Therefore, it is preferred to assign each ware to its different class in order to show its differences. It should, however, be stated that parallels from the literature are given to each class in which classes can sometimes share the same parallels. The classes are presented chronologically, starting from the oldest, namely the Umm an-Nar period. C.1.1– UMM AN-NAR PERIOD Class Code: UMFGW Class Name: Umm an-Nar Fine Gray Ware Period: U.Nar Description: A fine and hard, well-fired ware with smooth fracture, and light gray (Munsell 5YR, 7/1) surfaces and gray (Munsell 5YR, 5/1) core. Inclusions are gray, rounded (up to 1mm; 2%) and void, rounded to subrectangular (1mm–2mm; 1%) traces of possible vegetable/ chaff prints. Walls thickness ranges between 3mm and 1cm. This ware is usually plain with very few exceptions of decorated incised sherds and projected bands and traces of wheel making/turning. This type of ware is mainly used for funerary purposes but also found in settlements.

229

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula Origin: South and south–eastern Iran; east and south– eastern Arabia Sites: CS.5.2.1= 4 sherds (P01274– P01277); CS.5.1.2.1= 1 sherd (P02326); CS.5.1.2= 2 sherds (P02991– P02992); CS.4.1.3= 1 sherd (P04797); CS.5.9= 6 sherds (P05293– P05295 & P05297–P05899); CS.5.2.4= 1 sherd (P06303); CS.5.2.2= 5 sherds (P07208–P07212) Total sherds: 20 sherds Figures: 210 (C); Parallels: Tombs at Hili: Tomb 1059 (Pl.70, figs. X, Y; Pl.79; Pl.80); Tomb B (Pl.72, figs. D, H, P, O; Pl.74, figs. F, M; Pl.81, figs. A–L; Pl.82; Pl.83; Pl.84; Pl.90, figs. D, E, K, L, N–P; Pl.91, figs. A–J, M, N) & Tomb–H (Pl.72, fig. G) as well as from the settlement at Umm an-Nar Island (al-Tikriti 1981: 153–158: Pl.110, fig. A; Pl.122, figs. A–D); Frifelt 1991: Figs. 83–85: 49 and (Frifelt 1995: Fig. 185, pp: 173; also pp: 81–88, 100–108); Tomb A at Hili North (Cleuziou & Vogt 1985: figs. 7: 263, 8: 268). Class Code: UMPGW Class Name: Umm an-Nar Painted Gray Ware Period: U.Nar Description: Black–on–Gray fine painted ware with smooth fracture and hard firing. The surface is light reddish gray (Munsell 10R, 5/1) and the core is red (Munsell 2.5YR, 5/6) and/or dark reddish gray (Munsell 2.5YR, 5/1). Inclusions are white to gray, rounded of less than 1mm size and covers 1% of the sherd. Walls thickness is c 2–6 mm. This ware is wheel-made. Origin: South–east Arabia; Iran; Sites: CS.5.9= 3 sherds (P00390–P00391 & P05896); CS.2.68= 3 sherds (P00469 & P06541–P06542); CS.2.52.4= 2 sherds (P00679–P00680); CS.5.1.2= 1 sherd (P02990) Total sherds: 9 sherds Figures: 211 (B,C,F); 212 (E,F); 213 (A–B); 214 (A–C) Parallels: Hili 8 settlement (Cleuziou 1978/9: fig.30, No.6, pp: 58); Tombs at Hili (al-Tikriti 1981: 153–156): Tomb 1059 (Pl.78, figs. A–B, E; Pl.79, figs. B, G, J, N; Pl.80, figs. A–C, E–H); Tomb B (Pl.81, figs. A–F–H, J–L; Pl.82, figs, A–H, J–Q; Pl.83, figs. A–G, J–K, P–X; Pl.84, figs. C, E, G, H, K; Pls.155–156) & Tomb–H (Pl.72, fig. G) The settlement and tombs at Umm an-Nar Island: (alTikriti 1981: 165 & 175–180: Pl.135, figs. C); Frifelt 1991: Figs. 76–82: 46–48; 120–121: 62; 142: 71; 176–178: 82 and (Frifelt 1995: figs. 92–93, pp: 64; also pp: 81–88, 100–108); Frifelt 1979b: figs. 4–5: 46; Tomb A, Hili North (Vogt 1985b: Pls. 25–26); Tomb B at Ajman (al-Tikriti 1989b: Pls. 43, 55A); al-Sufouh (Benton 1996: figs. 122–124); Tomb A at Hili North (Cleuziou & Vogt 1985: figs. 7: 263, 8: 268) Class Code: UMFRPW

Class Name: Umm an-Nar Fine Red Painted Ware Period: U.Nar Description: Fine, wheel-made and well-fired red ware with conchoidal fracture. The surface is light red (Munsell 10R, 6/8) to red (Munsell 10R, 4/8) and the core is reddish yellow (Munsell 5YR, 7/6). The ware includes gray to brown rounded inclusions of less than 1mm size and covers 1% of the sherd. The whole exterior body is coated with a red slip and bands with a black painting; however, some sherds are plain and undecorated. The inner surface is reddish yellow, often with black painted bands around and under the rim and sometimes red wash on and/or inside the rim. Walls thickness is c.1–8 mm. This ware is wheel made. Origin: Local? Sites: CS.2.69.2= 2 sherds (P00051–P00052); CS.1.5.2= 1 sherd (P00253); CS.2.52.4= 7 sherds (P00678, P02872– P02874, P02878– P02879 & P05670); CS.5.2.5= 20 sherds (P00692–P00705, P00733 & P05774–P05778); CS.2.52.5= 50 sherds (P00891–P00895, P00958, P06168– P06211); CS.5.2.1= 3 sherds (P01271–P01273); CS.5.1.3= 1 sherd (P01890); CS.2.52.1= 2 sherds (P02303–P02304); CS.2.53.2= 1 sherd (P02320); CS.5.1.2.1= 4 sherds (P02341–P02344); CS.2.52.4= 7 sherds (P00678, P02872– P02874, P02878–P02879 & P05670); CS.5.10, Tomb 4= 3 sherds (P03534–P03536); CS.9.2.1= 5 sherds (P04058– P04062); CS.5.1.1= 1 sherd (P04184); CS.9.4= 19 sherds (P05754–P05772); CS.2.69.1.12= 1 sherd (P05773); CS.5.9= 40 sherds (P05779–P05814 & P05874–P05877); CS.5.2.4= 5 sherds (P06296– P06300); CS.2.52.3= 36 sherds (P06356–P06391); CS.2.68= 15 sherds (P06453– P06467); CS.2.57= 12 sherds (P06674–P06685); CS.2.61= 3 sherds (P07271–P07273) Total sherds: 231 sherds Figures: 211 (D); 215 (A); 216 (A–G); Parallels: Hili 8 settlement (Cleuziou 1978/9: fig.22–23, pp: 54–55); Tombs at Hili (al-Tikriti 1981: 151–153): Tomb B (Pl.69, figs, J, Q; Pl. 71; Pl.72, figs. B, C, E, F; Pl.74, figs. B, C; Pl.90, figs. A–C, E, F, G–N, Q–S; Pl.91, figs. A–J, M, N, O, P) & Tomb–H (Pl.72, fig. J); Ghanadha 1(al-Tikriti 1985: Plate 7: A–F); The settlement and tombs at Umm an-Nar Island in al-Tikriti 1981: 164 & 172–175: (Pl.106, figs. B–E; Pl.107, figs. A–C, E, F; Pl.128, figs. B, F–H; Pl.129, fig. G; Pl.130, figs. A–E, G, H; Pl.131, figs. D–L; Pl.132, figs, A–F; Pl.133, figs. A–D; Pl. 134, figs. E, G); Frifelt 1991: Figs. 68–75: 44–46; 104: 59; 110: 60; 112: 60; 115–116: 61; 145: 72; 154–156: 75; 159: 75; 162: 76; 171: 79; 175: 81; and (Frifelt 1995: fig. 91, pp: 64; figs. 226–230, pp: 169–172; also pp: 81–88, 100–108); Tomb A, Hili North (Vogt 1985b: Pls. 25–26); Tomb B at Ajman (al-Tikriti 1989b: Pls. 39, 40, 42, 50–53); al-Sufouh (Benton 1996: figs. 57–107) Class Code: UMFBPW Class Name: Umm an-Nar Fine Black Painted Ware Period: U.Nar 230

Appendices Description: Fine, well-fired ware with conchoidal fracture. The surface is reddish yellow (Munsell 5YR, 7/6) and the core is light gray (Munsell 5YR, 7/1) and reddish yellow (Munsell 5YR, 7/6). The ware includes gray to brown rounded inclusions of less than 1mm size and covers 2% of the sherd. Walls thickness is c.1mm–1.3cm. This ware is similar to UMFRPW but with light gray to reddish yellow core and without the red coating but sometimes with black coating. Decoration includes black painted bands mainly on, around and below the rim and sometimes the body, however, some sherds are undecorated.

core is bluish gray (Munsell 1 CHROMA, 6/1). Decoration includes nail/bone prints or incised hatching decoration under the rim. Walls are very thin, varies between 1mm and 3mm. The ware is wheel-made.

Origin: Local?

Parallels: Tombs at Hili & the settlement and tombs at Umm an-Nar Island (al-Tikriti 1981: 156–158): Tomb– 1059 (Pl.86, figs. A–C, L; Pl.87, figs. A, C), Tomb–B (Pl.81, fig. M; Pl. 88; Pl.89), the settlement at Umm anNar Island (Pl.110, figs. B–F; Pl.135, figs. E–F); Frifelt 1991: Figs. 122–124: 62–63 and (Frifelt 1995: fig.68, pp: 54; also pp: 81–88, 100–108);

Sites: CS.2.69.2= 8 sherds (P00053–P00060); CS.2.69.3.9 = 13 sherds (P00084–P00089 & P07529–P07535); CS.2.52.3= 40 sherds (P00324–P00329, P00337–P00348, P03158–P03172 & P06392–P06398); CS.2.68= 31 sherds (P00444– P06473); CS.5.2.5= 9 sherds (P00706–P00710 & P05285–P05288); CS.2.52.5= 29 sherds (P00896– P00906, P00959– P00961, P00965 & P06154–P06167); CS.3.1.4= 1 sherd (P01903); CS.3.5.2= 5 sherds (P02040– P02044); CS.1.5.1= 1 sherd (P02268); CS.5.1.2.1= 6 sherds (P02321–P02325 & P02345); CS.5.1.2= 5 sherds (P02985–P02989); CS.2.56.5= 2 sherds (P03916– P03916); CS.5.1.1= 1 sherd (P04187); CS.5.1.5= 2 sherds (P04429–P04430); CS.9.1.8= 3 sherds (P04562–P04564); CS.9.4= 26 sherds (P05039–P05042 & P05732–P05753); CS.5.9= 3 sherds (P05893–P05895); CS.2.51.1= 1 sherd (P06673); CS.2.52.2= 3 sherds (P07426–P07428)

Origin: South and south–eastern Iran; east and south– eastern Arabia? Sites: CS.2.52.4= 1 sherd (P00681) Total sherds: 1 sherd Figures: 212 (D)

Class Code: UMTFRW Class Name: Umm an-Nar Thin Fine Red Ware Period: U.Nar Description: Very fine, well fired, red ware with conchoidal fracture. The surface is light red (Munsell 10R, 6/8) to red (Munsell 10R, 5/8) and the core is red (Munsell 10R, 5/8) to weak red (Munsell 10R, 4/4). The surface of this ware is soft with stony touch and its walls thickness is c.1–6 mm.

Total sherds: 189 sherds

Origin: Local?

Figures: 211 (E); 215 (B–I); 217 (A–G); 212 (A); 218 (F); 219 (A–J); 220 (A–E)

Sites: CS.2.55.1= 1 sherd (P00223); CS.5.9= 34 sherds (P00392–P00393, P05298–P05322 & P05885–P05891); CS.5.2.5= 21 sherds (P00728–P00730 & P05181–P05198); CS.5.2.1= 22 sherds (P01282–P01287 & P05586– P05601); CS.1.5.6= 6 sherds (P02094–P02099); CS.7.2= 12 sherds (P02816 & P17737–P17747); CS.5.2.4= 3 sherds (P04870 & P06301–P06302); CS.2.43.2= 2 sherds (P04894–P04895); CS.5.1.2.1= 10 sherds (P05153– P05162); CS.2.69.2= 5 sherds (P07259–P07263)

Parallels: Tombs at Hili (al-Tikriti 1981: 151–153): Tomb B (Pl.69, figs, J, Q; Pl. 71; Pl.72, figs. B, C, E, F; Pl.74, figs. B, C; Pl.90, figs. A–C, E, F, G–N, Q–S; Pl.91, figs. A–J, M, N, O, P) & Tomb–H (Pl.72, fig. J). The settlement and tombs at Umm an-Nar Island (al-Tikriti 1981: 164 & 172–175): (Pl.106, figs. B–E; Pl.107, figs. A–C, E, F; Pl.128, figs. B, F–H; Pl.129, fig. G; Pl.130, figs. A–E, G, H; Pl.131, figs. D–L; Pl.132, figs, A–F; Pl.133, figs. A–D; Pl. 134, figs. E, G) and Frifelt 1991: Figs. 59–67: 41–44; 93–103: 52–58; 105–106: 59;108–109: 60; 111: 60; 117– 118: 61; 136: 67; 138–141: 69–70; 143–144: 71;146–153: 72–74;157: 74;161: 76;163–166: 77;172–174: 79–80; Frifelt 1979b: figs. 2–3: 45, 9: 48, 18: 56; Frifelt 1995: fig. 96, pp: 66–67; Fig. 188, pp: 175; also pp: 81–88, 100– 108); Tomb A, Hili North (Vogt 1985b: Pls. 25–26); Tomb B at Bidya (al-Tikriti 1989a: Pls. 39, 40, 42, 50–53); alSufouh (Benton 1996: figs. 57–107); Tomb A at Hili North (Cleuziou & Vogt 1985: figs. 6: 261, 10: 274)

Total sherds: 116 sherds Figures: 210 (J, L); 221 (A–B) Parallels: This ware is similar to the UMFRPW but the core is darker and no traces of paint were noted as well as the surface appears harder (Frifelt 1991: Figs. 107: 60; 113–114: 60; 158: 75; Frifelt 1995: 81–88, 100–108); Tomb A, Hili North (Vogt 1985b: Pls. 24). Class Code: UMHFRW Class Name: Umm an-Nar Heavy Fine Red Ware

Class Code: UMTGW

Period: U.Nar

Class Name: Umm an-Nar Thin Gray Ware

Description: Heavy, hard-fired, fine red ware with conchoidal fracture. The surface is red (Munsell 2.5YR, 6/6) to dark red (Munsell 2.5YR, 4/6), and the core is greenish gray (Munsell 1 CHROMA, 6/1) to dark gray (Munsell 1 CHROMA, 4/). The ware includes gray

Period: U.Nar Description: One fine, well-fired sherd of glassy fabric? with smooth fracture. The sherd is part of the vessel rim. The surface is reddish gray (Munsell 10R, 6/1) and the

231

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula rounded inclusions of 1–1.4 mm size and covers 1% of the sherd. Walls’ thickness is c.1 mm to 1 cm Origin: Local? Sites: CS.5.9= 10 sherds (P00400 & P05473–P05481); CS.2.69.1.3= 1 sherd (P00509); CS.2.52.5= 1 sherd (P00967); CS.9.2.2= 1 sherd (P01423); CS.5.1.2.1= 1 sherd (P02349); CS.5.2.4= 5 sherds (P04874–P04878); CS.5.2.5= 4 sherds (P05289–P05292); CS.5.1.2= 99 sherds (P05482–P05580); CS.5.2.1= 17 sherds (P05653– P05669) Total sherds: 139 sherds Figures: 211 (A); 218 (A); Parallels: The settlement of Umm an-Nar Island: Frifelt 1991: Figs. 107: 60; 113–114: 60; 158: 75; Frifelt 1995: Fig. 181, pp: 172 & figs. 233–234, pp: 173; also pp: 81– 88, 100–108. Class Code: UMFW Class Name: Umm an-Nar Fine Ware Period: U.Nar Description: Thin, fine hard-fired ware with conchoidal fracture. The surface is red (Munsell 2.5YR, 6/6) with a gray (Munsell 1 CHROMA, 6/) sandwich and gray (Munsell 1 CHROMA, 6/) to light red (Munsell 10R, 6/8) core. The ware includes gray to brown rounded inclusions of up to 1mm size and covers 3% of the sherd. Walls thickness is c.1–6 mm. This ware is similar to the UMHFRW but the walls are thinner and the core is darker as well as the inclusions are denser.

Class Code: UMVPW Class Name: Umm an-Nar Very Polished Ware Period: U.Nar Description: One sherd with very polished and shiny surfaces, and hard like stone with fine, conchoidal fracture, and hard firing. The sherd is part of vessel with possible rounded rim? The colour of the surface is dark red (Munsell 2.5YR, 3/6) and red (Munsell 2.5YR, 5/6) and the core is dusky red (2.5YR, 3/4) and dark reddish gray (Munsell 2.5YR, 4/1). Inclusions include gray rounded (less than 1 mm; 1%) and shiny mica on surfaces and core. The surface includes scratching of possible tool/wheel making traces. Walls thickness is c.2 mm–1 cm. Origin: Possibly imported from India/Baluchistan? Sites: CS.5.9= 1 sherd (P00389) Total sherds: 1 sherd Parallels: ? Class Code: UMBGC Class Name: Umm an-Nar Bluish Gray Core Period: U.Nar Description: Coarse ware with rough fracture and medium firing. The surface is reddish yellow (Munsell 5YR, 7/6), and the core is bluish gray (Munsell 1 CHROMA, 5/1). The ware includes gray rounded and rectangular (1–3 mm; 6%) and void? traces of chaff (rectangular) (1–3 mm; 3%) inclusions. This was is light with walls’ thickness of c.1–4 mm. Similar to the UMGCC but with darker core.

Origin: Local?

Origin: Local?

Sites: CS.2.52.4= 2 sherds (P00682–P00683); CS.5.2.5= 24 sherds (P00721–P00727 & P05217–P05233); CS.2.52.5= 15 sherds (P00962–P00963 & P06212– P06224); CS.5.2.1= 43 sherds (P01288–P01305 & P05621–P05645); CS.5.1.2.1= 27 sherds (P02328– P02334 & P05088–P05107); CS.5.1.2.2= 3 sherds (P02978–P02980); CS.5.2.3= 2 sherds (P03566–P03567); CS.5.1.5= 3 sherds (P04440–P04442); CS.5.9= 74 sherds (P05349–P05415 & P05878–P05884); CS.5.2.4= 22 sherds (P06274–P06295); CS.2.68= 16 sherds (P06474–P06489); CS.2.57= 2 sherds (P06686–P06687); CS.5.2.2= 17 sherds (P07191–P07207); CS.2.69.2= 25 sherds (P07234–P07258); CS.2.52.2= 8 sherds (P07418– P07425); CS.2.69.3.9= 17 sherds (P07512–P07528); CS.2.69.3.12= 1 sherd (P13725); CS.2.69.3.1= 14 sherds (P13726–P13739); CS.9.4= 31 sherds (P16445–P16475); CS.2.1= 5 sherds (P19236–P19240)

Sites: CS.2.41.5 = 9 sherds (P01748–P01756)

Total sherds: 351 sherds Figures: 210 (A, D, E) Parallels: The settlement of Umm an-Nar Island: Frifelt 1991: Figs. 107: 60; 113–114: 60; 158: 75; Frifelt 1995: Fig. 181, pp: 172 & figs. 233–234, pp: 173; also pp: 81– 88, 100–108.

Total sherds: 9 sherds Parallels: The settlement at the Umm an-Nar Island (alTikriti 1981: 163–164; Pl.120, figs. A–B; Pl.121, figs. A–D; Pl.122, figs. A–E) & (Frifelt 1995: 81–88, 100–108); and the graves (Frifelt 1991: Fig. 131: 65) Class Code: UMGCCW Class Name: Umm an-Nar Gray Core Coarse Ware Period: U.Nar Description: Thin, coarse ware with smooth fracture, and medium firing. The surface is red (Munsell 2.5YR, 6/8) to reddish yellow (Munsell 5YR, 7/6) and the core is light gray (Munsell 5YR, 7/1) to red (Munsell 10R, 5/8). The ware includes white, gray & brown rounded inclusions of up to 1mm size and covers 5% of the sherd. Walls thickness is c.1–8 mm. This ware is abundant in the settlement sites and rare in the tombs and thus, it is called the domestic coarse ware. Origin: Local? Sites: CS.2.68= 42 sherds (P00477–P00478 & P06501– P06540); CS.5.2.5= 21 sherds (P00714– P00716 & P05199– P05216); CS.9.2.2= 4 sherds (P01417– P01420); 232

Appendices CS.5.1.3= 20 sherds (P01865– P01884); CS.3.1.4= 2 sherds (P01895– P01896); CS.3.5.2= 2 sherds (P02046– P02047); CS.1.5.5= 7 sherds (P02397– P02403); CS.5.2.3= 1 sherd (P03565); CS.5.1.5= 9 sherds (P04431– P04439); CS.5.2.4= 2 sherds (P04871– P04872); CS.5.1.2.1= 16 sherds (P05072– P05087); CS.5.2.5= 21 sherds (P00714– P00716 & P05199– P05216); CS.5.9= 26 sherds (P05323– P05348); CS.5.2.1= 17 sherds (P05602– P05618); CS.2.57= 27 sherds (P06699– P06725) Total sherds: 196 sherds Figures: 210 (B, K, M) Parallels: The settlement at the Umm an-Nar Island (alTikriti 1981: 163–164; Pl.120, figs. A–B; Pl.121, figs. A–D; Pl.122, figs. A–E) & (Frifelt 1995: 81–88, 100–108); and the graves (Frifelt 1991: Fig. 131: 65); Tomb A, Hili North (Vogt 1985b: Pl. 23) Class Code: UMCGW Class Name: Umm an-Nar Coarse Gray Ware Period: U.Nar Description: Medium coarse gray ware with smooth fracture and medium firing. The surface is gray (Munsell 5YR, 6/1) to light greenish gray (Munsell 1 CHROMA, 7/1) and the core is light gray (Munsell 7.5YR, 7/1) to reddish brown (Munsell 5YR, 5/3). The outer surface is gray to light greenish gray while the inner surface is gray to reddish brown. The ware includes gray and white rounded to angular inclusions of 1–3mm size and covers 2% of the sherd with some traces of wheel making/turning. Several sherds are decorated with incised horizontal and wavy lines. Walls thickness is c.3–8 mm. This ware is similar to UMTCW but with thinner walls and incised decoration but unpainted. Origin: Local? Sites: CS.2.68= 18 sherds (P00470–P00476 & P06490– P06500); CS.5.2.5= 3 sherds (P00711– P00713); CS.2.57= 12 sherds (P01203 & P06688– P06698); CS.5.2.1= 6 sherds (P01278–P01281 & P05584–P05585); CS.9.2.2= 4 sherds (P01414–P01416 & P01424); CS.3.1.4= 4 sherds (P01891–P01894); CS.5.1.2.1= 1 sherd (P02327); CS.5.1.2= 2 sherds (P02993–P02994); CS.2.52.3= 6 sherds (P03173 & P06425–P06429); CS.5.10, Tomb 4= 1 sherd (P03533); CS.5.2.4= 6 sherds (P04864–P04869); CS.2.50.1= 2 sherds (P04973–P04974); CS.5.9= 2 sherds (P05296–P05297); CS.2.52.5= 3 sherds (P06225–P06227) Total sherds: 70 sherds Figures: 210 (F–I) Parallels: Sherds 1424, 2993 & 4869 have similar parallels from Hili, tomb–1059 (al-Tikriti 1981: Pl. 86, figs. M, Q, R) & the settlement at Umm an-Nar Island (al-Tikriti 1981: Pl.110, figs. C–F) & (Frifelt 1995: 81–88, 100–108), and the graves (Frifelt 1991: Figs. 132: 65; 134: 66; Frifelt 1979b: figs. 6–7: 47); al-Sufouh (Benton 1996: fig. 126); Tomb A at Hili North (Cleuziou & Vogt 1985: figs. 9: 270)

Class Code: UMRYW Class Name: Umm an-Nar Reddish Yellow Ware Period: U.Nar Description: Thick, well fired reddish yellow coarse ware with conchoidal fracture. The surface is reddish yellow (Munsell 7.5YR, 7/6), and the core is reddish yellow (Munsell 7.5YR, 7/6) to gray (Munsell 5YR, 6/1). The ware includes gray and brown rounded (1–2 mm; 4%) and void? traces of chaff prints (rectangular) (1–3 mm; 1%) inclusions. Most of the sherds belong to large and thick jars. Walls’ thickness is c.3–8 mm. This type is similar to the UMTCW but without coating and its fabric is less coarse or semi-coarse, and its core is darker in colour. Origin: Local? Sites: CS.2.52.3= 12 sherds (P00330–P00336 & P03174– P03178); CS.5.9= 6 sherds (P00394–P00399); CS.2.68= 12 sherds (P00479–P00483 & P06543–P06549); CS.2.52.4= 4 sherds (P00684–P00687); CS.5.2.5= 2 sherds (P00731–P00732); CS.2.52.5= 4 sherds (P00907–P00909 & P00964); CS.9.2.2= 5 sherds (P01421–P01422 & P01425–P01427); CS.3.1.4= 2 sherds (P01904–P01905); CS.3.5.2= 4 sherds (P02048–P02051); CS.1.5.5= 1 sherd (P02416); CS.4.1.6= 1 sherd (P02635); CS.5.1.2.2= 1 sherd (P02984); CS.5.1.2= 45 sherds (P03001–P03004 & P12312–P12352); CS.5.1.1= 2 sherds (P04185–P04186); CS.5.2.4= 1 sherd (P04873); CS.2.50.1= 1 sherd (P04975); CS.5.2.1= 7 sherds (P05646–P05652) Total sherds: 110 sherds Figures: 212 (B); 218 (B, D, E); 222 (A–E) Parallels: The settlement at Umm an-Nar Island (al-Tikriti 1981: 181, Pl.134) & (Frifelt 1995: 81–88, 100–108), and the graves (Frifelt 1991: Fig. 88: 51) Class Code: UMTCW Class Name: Umm an-Nar Thick Coarse Ware Period: U.Nar Description: Medium coarse hard-fired ware with thick walls, and conchoidal fracture. The surface is light red (Munsell 2.5YR, 7/8) and the core is light red (Munsell 2.5YR, 7/8). The ware includes gray to brown rounded inclusions of up to 1.5mm size and covers 7% of the sherd. Decoration includes red coating with wheel making/ turning traces on the inner surface. The ware is heavy with walls’ thickness of c.4 mm–1.4 cm. It is wheel-made. Origin: Local? Sites: CS.5.2.5= 11 sherds (P00717–P00720 & P05174– P05180); CS.3.5.2= 1 sherd (P02045); CS.5.2.3= 6 sherds (P03559–P03564); CS.1.1= 2 sherds (P04652–P04653); CS.5.1.2.1= 4 sherds (P05068–P05071); CS.5.2.1= 2 sherds (P05619–P05620); CS.5.9= 1 sherd (P05892); CS.2.69.2= 7 sherds (P07264–P07270) Total sherds: 34 sherds

233

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula Parallels: Hili (al-Tikriti 1981: 158): Tomb–1059 (Pl.96; Pl.97, figs. A–B; Pl.98; Pl.99; Pl.100; and the settlement at the Umm an-Nar Island (Frifelt 1995: 81–88, 100–108), and the graves (Frifelt 1991: Fig. 135: 67) Class Code: UMCW Class Name: Umm an-Nar Coarse Ware Period: U.Nar Description: Medium coarse red ware with rough fracture and medium firing. The surface is red (Munsell 2.5YR, 6/8) to reddish yellow (Munsell 5YR, 7/6), and the core is light greenish gray (Munsell 1 CHROMA, 7/1) to red (Munsell 2.5YR, 6/8). The ware includes gray and white rounded inclusions of 1–2 mm size and covers 4% of the sherd. Some sherds might have traces of painting or coating but badly eroded and the inner surface of some sherds have light gray colour. Walls thickness is c.1 mm–1 cm. This ware is similar to the UMTCW but with thinner walls. Origin: Local? Sites: CS.2.69.3.9= 1 sherd (P00090); CS.5.9= 117 sherds (P00401, P05416–P05472 & P05815–P05873); CS.2.69.1.3 = 7 sherds (P00502–P00508); CS.2.50.2, Tomb 2= 1 sherd (P00622); CS.5.2.5= 53 sherds (P00734– P05284); CS.2.52.5= 47 sherds (P00966 & P06228– P06273); CS.2.57= 1 sherd (P01204); CS.9.5= 3 sherds (P01681–P01683); CS.2.41.5= 11 sherds (P01737– P01747); CS.5.1.3= 5 sherds (P01885–P01889); CS.3.1.4= 6 sherds (P01897–P01902); CS.2.50.2= 5 sherds (P02224– P02228); CS.2.52.1= 1 sherd (P02302); CS.5.1.2.1= 54 sherds (P02335–P02340, P02346–P02348 & P05108– P05152); CS.1.5.5= 12 sherds (P02404–P02415); CS.2.1= 4 sherds (P02454–P02457); CS.2.20= 30 sherds (P02707 & P17634–P17662); CS.2.52.4= 3 sherds (P02875–P02877); CS.5.1.2.2= 3 sherds (P02981–P02983); CS.5.1.2= 9 sherds (P02995–P03000 & P05581–P05583); CS.2.52.2= 7 sherds (P03883–P03885 & P07429–P07432); CS.9.2.1= 2 sherds (P04056–P04057); CS.5.1.5= 13 sherds (P04443–P04455); CS.5.2.4= 39 sherds (P04879–P04880 & P06304–P06340); CS.2.52.3= 26 sherds (P06399– P06424); CS.5.2.2= 20 sherds (P07213–P07232)

The ware includes gray rounded inclusions of 1 mm size and covers 4% of the sherd. Walls thickness is 1–5 mm. This ware is similar to the UMCW but the core is lighter and coating traces were possibly in the inner side of the walls? Origin: Local? Sites: CS.2.41.10= 10 sherds (P01671–P01676 & P13290– P13293); CS.5.1.1= 14 sherds (P06342–P06355) Total sherds: 24 sherds Parallels: Hili (al-Tikriti 1981: 158): Tomb–1059 (Pl.96; Pl.97, figs. A–B; Pl.98; Pl.99; Pl.100; and the settlement at Umm an-Nar Island (Frifelt 1995: 81–88, 100–108), and the graves (Frifelt 1991: Figs. 86–88: 50–51; 90–92: 52; 125–130: 63–65; 137: 68) Class Code: UNUMS Class Name: Unidentifiable Umm an-Nar Sherds Period: U.Nar Description: These are small badly eroded, fragmentary sherds of coarse and rough fracture, and soft firing. The surface’s colour is unclear and the core tends to be gray? Origin: ? Sites: CS.5.1.2.1= 30 sherds (P05163– P05173 & P.12478–P.12496); CS.5.1.5= (10 sherds: P.13039–P.13048) Total sherds: 40 sherds Parallels: ? C.1.2– WADI SUQ PERIOD Class Code: GCWS Class Name: Gray Core Wadi Suq Period: W.Suq Description: Pink, coarse ware with smooth fracture and medium firing. The surface is pink (Munsell 7.5Y, 7/4), and the core is dark gray (Munsell 7.5Y, 4/1) core with gray and brown rounded and sub–rectangular inclusions of up to 2 mm size and covers 3% of the sherd. Walls’ thickness is c.1–5 mm

Total sherds: 480 sherds

Origin: Local?

Figures: 212 (C); 223 (D); 124 (C)

Sites: CS.2.11= 1 sherd (P00843); CS.2.50.2= 8 sherds (P00844–P00851)

Parallels: Hili (al-Tikriti 1981: 158): Tomb–1059 (Pl.96; Pl.97, figs. A–B; Pl.98; Pl.99; Pl.100; and the settlement at Umm an-Nar Island (Frifelt 1995: 81–88, 100–108) and the graves (Frifelt 1991: Fig. 135: 67)

Total sherds: 9 sherds, and one possible sherd from site CS.1.5.4 (P02093)

Class Code: UMVPBW

Parallels: Velde 1992, 2003; Potts 1990c: 56–95; 1991: 36–75

Class Name: Umm an-Nar Very Pale Brown Ware

Class Code: RYWS

Period: U.Nar

Class Name: Reddish Yellow Wadi Suq

Description: Thin, very pale brown coarse ware with red colour on the inner surface, smooth fracture and medium firing. The surface is very pale brown (Munsell 10YR, 7/4), and the core is reddish yellow (Munsell 5YR, 6/6).

Period: W.Suq Description: Medium coarse ware with smooth fracture and medium firing. The surface and the core are reddish yellow (Munsell 5YR, 6/6) with gray and brown rounded 234

Appendices and angular inclusions of up to 2 mm size and covers 3% of the sherd. Walls’ thickness is c.1 mm to 1 cm Origin: Local? Sites: CS.2.52.3= 1 sherd (P00804); CS.9.2.2= 3 sherds (P01428–P01430); CS.1.5.4= 2 sherds (P02091–P02092); CS.7.2= 7 sherds (P02828–P02834) Total sherds: 13 sherds Figures: 224 (A–B); 225 (A–B) Parallels: Two sherds 804 and 1428 have possible unpainted footed–bases with parallels from Shimal Settlement Fabrics 1–3 (Franke–Vogt & Velde 1987: figs.43, Nos.1–10; Velde 1992: 62–64) Sharm (Barker 2002: Fig.4, Nos. 2–16, pp: 7; Fig.5, SP–1, SP–6, SP– 466); Tell Abraq (Potts 1991: 41, figs.39, nos.10, 12); also Velde 1992, 2003; Potts 1990c: 56–95; 1991: 36–75 Class Code: PGWS Class Name: Plain Gray Wadi Suq Period: W.Suq Description: Thin, light, medium coarse ware with smooth fracture and medium firing. The surface is gray (Munsell 5YR, 5/1) to light gray (Munsell 5YR, 7/1), and the core is gray (Munsell 5YR, 5/1) with gray and brown rounded inclusions of up to 2 mm size and covers 2% of the sherd. Walls’ thickness is c.1–5 mm. Some sherds are badly eroded.

2003: figs. 2.5–10, pp: 103); two sherds (402, 2458) with traces of black or red paint of possible painted beakers that have possible examples from Bidya 1 (al-Tikriti 1989a: Pls. 94, A; 63, A–C; 64, A–B) and Hili 8 (Cleuziou 1989a: Pl.31, Nos.2–5); Shimal (Velde 1992: 34); also Velde 1992, 2003; Potts 1990c: 56–95; 1991: 36–75 Class Code: LATEBRONZE? Class Name: Late Bronze Age Period: L.B.A Description: Hard-fired coarse ware with smooth fracture. The surface and core are light red (Munsell 10R, 6/8) to light gray (Munsell 5YR, 7/1) with gray and brown rounded inclusions of up to 1.5 mm size and covers 4% of the sherd. Walls thickness is c1–8 mm. This class was difficult to sign to either Wadi Suq or Early Iron Age, thus it was assigned to the broad chronological period. Origin: ? Sites: CS.1.5= 25 sherds (P00254–P00278) Total sherds: 25 sherds Parallels: Velde 1992, 2003; Potts 1990c: 56–95; 1991: 36–75 C.1.3– EARLY IRON AGE Class Code: BREIA Class Name: Black–on–Red Early Iron Age

Origin: Local?

Period: EIA

Sites: CS.2.11= 4 sherds (P00839–P00842)

Description: Black–on–red, coarse thin and well fired ware with smooth fracture. The surface is black–on–red and the core is red core (Munsell 2.5 YR, 5/6) with black to brown, rounded inclusions of 1 mm size & covers c.3% of the sherd. The outer surface is black (painted/coated?) on red. The inner surface also has traces of black painting/ coating? Walls are thin with a thickness of c.4–6 mm.

Total sherds: 4 sherds with possible 5 sherds from site CS.2.56.3 (P02383–P02387) Parallels: Velde 1992, 2003; Potts 1990c: 56–95; 1991: 36–75 Class Code: RPWS Class Name: Red Painted Wadi Suq Period: W.Suq Description: Red, medium firing coarse ware with black painted decoration and smooth fracture. The surface and core are light red (Munsell 10R, 6/8) with gray and brown rounded inclusions of up to 1.5 mm size and covers 2% of the sherd. Walls thickness is c1–6 mm. This ware is thin and light. Some sherds are badly eroded Origin: Local? Sites: CS.5.9= 1 sherd (P00402); CS.2.1= 1 sherd (P02458); CS.9.8= 10 sherds (P04881–P04890); CS.2.4= 12 sherds (P04136–P04147) Total sherds: 24 sherds Fig: 226 (A–B) Parallels: Two sherds (4881, 4882) of simple flat or straight rims of possible beakers have possible parallels from Bidya 1 (al-Tikriti 1989a: Pl.70, A–B); also Velde

Origin: Local? Sites: CS.2.67.14= 11 sherds (P00009–P00011 & P13705– P13712); CS.2.67.17= 14 sherds (P07498–P07511) Total sherds: 25 sherds Figures: 227 (G); 226 (A–C) Parallels: Rumeilah Settlement excavation (Boucharlat & Lombard 1985: pls, 49, 50-52) Class Code: LFEIA Class Name: Light Fine Early Iron Age Period: EIA Description: Light fine ware and thin walls as well as well fired fabric and smooth fracture. The surface is red (Munsell 10R, 5/6) and the core is dark red (Munsell 2.5 YR, 4/8) with gray rounded inclusions of 1 mm size and covers c.1% of the sherd. Walls thickness is 3–6 mm Origin: Local?

235

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula Sites: CS.2.67.9=11 sherds (P00777–P00787); CS.2.69.2= 4 sherds (P00061–P00064) Total sherds: 15 sherds Figures: 228 (B); 229 (A); 230 (B–F); 231 (A–B)

Description: Red, fine well fired ware with conchoidal fracture and red surface (Munsell 10Y, 5/6) as well as gray core (Munsell 5YR, 6/1) with light brown, rounded inclusions of less than 1 mm size and covers c.1% of the sherd. Walls thickness is c.3–8 mm

Parallels: Rumeilah Settlement excavation (Boucharlat & Lombard 1985: pl.50, No.2; pl.47, No.1; pl.52, No.3; pl.59, No.8); Tell Abraq excavation: (Potts 1991: pl.112, nos.9,11,14, pp: 85); Al–Madam area excavation: (Benoist, Cordoba & Mouton 1997: fig.6, nos.10, pp: 69)

Origin: Local?

Class Code: THFEIA

Figures: 232 (D)

Class Name: Thick Hard Fired Early Iron Age

Parallels: Rumeilah Settlement excavation (Boucharlat & Lombard 1985: pls, 49, 50)

Period: EIA Description: Fine, thick, heavy ware with conchoidal fracture and hard firing. The surface is reddish yellow (Munsell 5YR, 6/6) and the core is light greenish gray core (Munsell 1 CHROMA) with gray to brown, Oval to rounded inclusions of 1–2 mm size and covers c.2% of the sherd. Walls thickness is 4 mm to 1.2 cm

Sites: CS.2.42.11= 6 sherds (P00041–P00046); CS.4.4= 3 sherds (P00875–P00877) Total sherds: 9 sherds

Class Code: FPEIA Class Name: Fine Painted Early Iron Age Period: EIA

Sites: CS.2.67.14= 2 sherds (P00012–P00013); CS.2.69.1.4= 1 sherd (P00284); CS.4.4= 11 sherds (P00864–P00874); CS.2.60= 6 sherds (P07321–P07326)

Description: Fine, thin, light hard-fired ware with smooth fracture and red surface (Munsell 2.5YR, 6/8) as well as gray sandwich (Munsell 5YR, 6/1) with brown, rounded inclusions of less than 1 mm size and covers c.1% of the sherd. Decoration includes dusky red painted bands on both interior and exterior surfaces. Walls’ thickness is c3–5 mm.

Total sherds: 20 sherds

Origin: Iran? Local?

Figures: 228 (A, C); 232 (A); 233

Sites: CS.2.69.2= 1 sherd (P00066); CS.2.69.1.4= 4 sherds (P00280–P00283); CS.5.13, Tomb 3= 42 sherds (P00538– P00548 & P03116–P03146); CS.2.50.2, Tomb 1= 4 sherds (P00607–P00610); CS.2.67.9= 2 sherds (P00798– P00799); CS.5.13, Tomb 1= 6 sherds (P00882–P00887); CS.9.2.2= 8 sherds (P01454–P01461); CS.3.8.1= 1 sherd (P01620); CS.2.51.5= 1 sherd (P02714); CS.2.52.3= 3 sherds (P03030–P03032); CS.2.43.2= 2 sherds (P04891– P04892); CS.2.50.1= 1 sherd (P04976)

Origin: Local?

Parallels: Rumeilah Settlement excavation (Boucharlat & Lombard 1985: pl.51, No.6; pl.53, Nos.2, 5 & pl.56, No.7); Tell Abraq excavation: (Potts 1991: fig.112, No.5; pp: 85) & (Magee 1996: fig.2, pp: 243) & (Benoist, Cordoba & Mouton 1997: fig.7, nos.1, 6, pp: 71) Class Code: TBPEIA Class Name: Thick Black Painted Early Iron Age Period: EIA Description: Thick, heavy well-fired ware with black paint on both surfaces, and conchoidal fracture. The surface is light red (Munsell 10R, 7/8) and the core is dark reddish gray (Munsell 2.5YR, 4/1) with gray, rounded inclusions of 1–2 mm size and covers c.3% of the sherd. Walls thickness is c.5 mm to 2.5 cm, with black paint on the exterior and interior surfaces. Origin: Local? Sites: CS.2.69.2= 1 sherd (P00073); CS.2.56.3= 1 sherd (P01391) Total sherds: 2 sherds Parallels: Rumeilah Settlement excavation (Boucharlat & Lombard 1985: pl.49: 1–28; pl.71: 8a–b; pl.50: 1–3) Class Code: RFEIA Class Name: Red Fine Early Iron Age Period: EIA

Total sherds: 75 sherds Figures: 234 (A–B); 235 (D, F, G); 227 (A–D); 229 (D); 236 (A–D); 237 (A–D) Parallels: Hili 2 settlement excavation (Al–Rahman 1978/9: pp: 9 & fig. 6: pp: 18); Rumeilah Settlement excavation (Boucharlat & Lombard 1985: pl.71, Nos.8a & 11; pl.49, Nos.1,2; Pl.50, Nos.1–3); Tell Abraq excavation: (Potts 1991: fig.112, no.6, pp: 85) Magee (1996: fig.3, pp: 242); Sharm excavation (Barker 2002): Fig.28, Nos. 11: SP–247, 12: SP–230 & 13: SP–457, pp: 34; Fig. 20: No. 9: SP–252/448, pp: 30 and fig.26, pp: 32) Class Code: TREIA Class Name: Thin Red Early Iron Age Period: EIA Description: Thin, fine ware with smooth fracture and hard firing with light red surface (Munsell 2.5YR, 7/6) and red core (Munsell 2.5YR, 6/8). The ware includes very small gray to brown, rounded inclusions on both surfaces (exterior and interior) of up to 1.5 mm size and covers

236

Appendices c.1% of the sherd. Sometimes the surfaces include dark red painting. Walls’ thickness is c.3–8 mm. Origin: Local? Sites: CS.2.56.4= 5 sherds (P00530–P00532 & P04556– P04557); CS.5.13, Tomb 1= 11 sherds (P00601–P00606 & P01805–P01809); CS.2.52.6= 2 sherds (P00578–P00579); CS.2.50.2= 12 sherds (P02212–P02223); CS.2.51.5= 3 sherds (P02711–P02713); CS.2.67.9= 68 sherds (P13636– P13703); CS.2.67.14= 1 sherd (P13704)

Period: EIA Description: Coarse hard-fired ware with smooth fracture and very pale brown surface (Munsell 10R, 7/4) and light greenish gray core (Munsell 1 CHROMA, 7/1) with gray to brown, rounded inclusions of up to 1 mm size and covers c.3% of the sherd. Origin: Local?

Total sherds: 102 sherds

Sites: CS.5.13, Tomb 3= 3 sherds (P00555 & P03147– P03148); CS.3.8.1= 2 sherds (P01621– P01622); CS.2.56.5= 2 sherds (P03918–P03919)

Figures: 229 (C); 238

Total sherds: 7 sherds

Parallels: Rumeilah Settlement excavation (Boucharlat & Lombard 1985: pl.23: 1–13)

Figures: 227 (E)

Class Code: VTCEIA

Parallels: Rumeilah Settlement excavation (Boucharlat & Lombard 1985)

Class Name: Very Thin Coarse Early Iron Age

Class Code: GSCEIA

Period: EIA

Class Name: Gray Sandwich Coarse Early Iron Age

Description: Very thin and rough coarse ware with medium firing. The surface is light red (Munsell 2.5YR, 7/6) and the core is pale red (Munsell 10R, 7/4) with gray to brown, rounded and angular inclusions of up to 1 mm size and covers c.4% of the sherd. Walls’ thickness is c.3–5 mm

Period: EIA

Origin: Local? Sites: CS.2.50.2, Tomb 1= 8 sherds (P00611–P00618); CS.5.13, Tomb 1= 17 sherds (P00631–P00647); CS.2.52.4= 1 sherd (P00689); CS.1.5.1= 7 sherds (P02259–P02265); CS.5.13, Tomb 3= 9 sherds (P03149– P03157) Total sherds: 42 sherds Figures: 235 (A); 228 (E) Parallels: Tell Abraq excavation: (Magee 1996: fig.1, pp: 242) Class Code: VCEIA Class Name: Very Coarse Early Iron Age Period: EIA Description: Thick, very coarse, pink ware with rough fracture and medium firing. The surface is pink (Munsell 5YR, 8/4) and the core is gray (Munsell 5YR, 6/1) with gray to brown, angular and/or sub–rectangular inclusions of up to 6 mm size and covers c.7% of the sherd. Walls’ thickness is c.1 cm to 2.5 cm Origin: Local? Sites: CS.2.68= 2 sherds (P00019–P00020); CS.2.52.6= 3 sherds (P00580–P00582); CS.2.52.5= 1 sherd (P00911) Total sherds: 6 sherds Parallels: Rumeilah Settlement excavation (Boucharlat & Lombard 1985: pl.47: 11 & pl.48:1) Class Code: VPBEIA Class Name: Very Pale Brown Early Iron Age

Description: Thick, heavy coarse ware with rough fracture and hard firing. The surface is reddish yellow (Munsell 7.5YR, 7/6) and light gray sandwich (Munsell 7.5YR, 7/1) with gray to brown, rounded and angular inclusions of 1–4 mm size and covers c.6% of the sherd; Walls’ thickness is c.5 mm–2 cm. Origin: Local? Sites: CS.2.68= 3 sherds (P00021–P00022 & P00026); CS.2.69.2= 5 sherds (P00068–P00072); CS.2.11= 9 sherds (P00097–P00104 & P00120); CS.9.5= 3 sherds (P00152– P00154); CS.2.69.1.4= 1 sherd (P00279); CS.2.50.2= 4 sherds (P00558–P00561); CS.2.52.6= 3 sherds (P00576– P00577 & P00596); CS.3.8.1= 1 sherd (P01623); CS.1.5.6= 1 sherd (P02163); CS.5.7= 1 sherd (P02777); CS.2.67.11= 3 sherds (P03391–P03393); CS.2.67.26= 2 sherds (P03693–P03694) Total sherds: 36 sherds Figures: 234 (C); 232 (C); 239 (A–F); 240 (A–C) Parallels: Rumeilah Settlement excavation (Boucharlat & Lombard 1985) and Tell Abraq (Potts 1990c: 96–123 & 1991); Of significance is Sherd P02163 that represents appliqué snake motif in relief decoration that has similar example from: Rumeilah Settlement excavation (Boucharlat & Lombard 1985: pl.51, No.7; pl.71, No.4); Muweilah excavation (Magee 1998a: fig.4, pp: 115) and Bithnah–44/50 (Benoist 2007: 34–54) Class Code: CEIA Class Name: Coarse Early Iron Age Period: EIA Description: Large brown gritted coarse ware with rough fracture and medium firing. The surface is red (Munsell 2.5YR, 6/8) and the core is red (Munsell 2.5YR, 6/8) or Gray (Munsell 5.5YR, 6/1) with large brown, square and

237

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula angular inclusions/grits of 1–6 mm size and covers c.5% of the sherd. Walls’ thickness is 6 mm to 1.4 cm Origin: Local? Sites: CS.2.68= 8 sherds (P00023–P00025 & P00484– P00488); CS.2.69.2= 1 sherd (P00067); CS.2.69.3.9= 1 sherd (P00091); CS.2.2.1= 5 sherds (P00092–P00096); CS.9.5= 3 sherds (P00150–P00151 & P00160); CS.2.50.2= 6 sherds (P00570–P00575); CS.2.50.2, Tomb 2= 3 sherds (P00619–P00621); CS.2.52.4= 2 sherds (P00688 & P00690); CS.2.52.5= 1 sherd (P00910); CS.2.42.29= 1 sherd (P01361); CS.5.13, Tomb 2= 2 sherds (P02229–P02230); CS.2.69.1.3= 2 sherds (P02288– P02289); CS.2.52.1= 1 sherd (P02305); CS.5.7= 6 sherds (P02778–P02780 & P17690–P17692); CS.2.67.17= 4 sherds (P02846–P02849); CS.2.67.11= 1 sherd (P03390 ); CS.2.43.2= 1 sherd (P04893); CS.2.67.22= 4 sherds (P13713–P13716) Total sherds: 52 sherds Figures: 228 (D, F); 241 (B–C) Parallels: Rumeilah Settlement excavation (Boucharlat & Lombard 1985: pl.47, No.6,7,15; pl.48, nos.2,3; pl.52, Nos.1–3; pl.53, nos.1,8); Tell Abraq excavation: (Potts 1991: fig. 109, pp: 82; fig.110, nos.1–7, pp: 82; fig.111, nos.1–4, pp: 83) & (Magee 1996: fig.2, pp: 243); Al– Madam area excavation: (Benoist, Cordoba & Mouton 1997: fig.5, no.16, pp: 65; fig.6, nos.7, 12, pp: 69); Muweilah (Magee, Pers. Comm., August 2007).

pl.58, No.14; pl.71, Nos.9–10); Tell Abraq excavation: (Magee 1996: fig.4, c: pp: 163); Al–Madam area excavation: (Benoist, Cordoba & Mouton 1997: fig.5, no.13, pp: 65; fig.6, nos.1,2, pp: 69) Class Code: RLEIA Class Name: Red Light Early Iron Age Period: EIA Description: Coarse, well-fired heavy ware with smooth fracture and red Light surface (Munsell 10Y, 6/8) as well as red light core (Munsell 10Y, 6/8) with brown, sub– rounded (up to 1.5 mm, 4%)inclusions and light–gray traces of straw? (Up to 1.5 mm, 1%). Walls thickness is c.5mm–1cm. Some sherds include nail prints (incisions) on and around the rim. Origin: Local? Sites: CS.2.68= 3 sherds (P00014–P00016); CS.3.1.3= 2 sherds (P00039–P00040); CS.2.11= 15 sherds (P00105– P00119); CS.2.50.2= 8 sherds (P00562–P00569); CS.2.67.9= 4 sherds (P00800–P00803) Total sherds: 32 sherds Figures: 229 (B) Parallels: Rumeilah Settlement excavation (Boucharlat & Lombard 1985: pl.51.nos.3–4; pl.53, Nos.11–12); Tell Abraq excavation: (Magee & Carter 1999: fig.4, b, d: pp: 163)

Class Code: PEIA

Class Code: GMCEIA

Class Name: Painted Early Iron Age

Class Name: Gritted Medium Coarse Early Iron Age

Period: EIA

Period: EIA

Description: Dusky red painted coarse ware with rough fracture and medium firing. The surface and core are red (Munsell 2.5YR, 6/8) with gray to brown, angular inclusions on both surfaces of up to 1 mm size and covers c.3% of the sherd. Painted decoration of wavy and horizontal lines and bands on both surfaces, around and under the rim, neck and shoulder. Walls’ thickness is c.4–6 mm.

Description: Large gritted medium coarse ware with rough fracture and medium firing. The surface is reddish yellow (Munsell 5YR, 7/8) and the core is reddish yellow (Munsell 5YR, 7/8), and/or gray (Munsell 5YR, 6/1) with brown to red, square and angular (1 mm– up to 1 cm; 6%) and white rounded (Up to 1 mm; 1%) inclusions and traces of straw/chaff prints. Walls’ thickness is c.5 mm to 1.5 cm.

Origin: Iran? Local?

Sites: CS.2.68= 2 sherds (P00017–P00018); CS.9.5= 5 sherds (P00155–P00159); CS.4.3= 2 sherds (P00201– P00202); CS.2.56.4= 7 sherds (P00535–P00537 & P04558–P04561); CS.4.13, Tomb 8= 26 sherds (P00805– P00810 & P03513–P03532); CS.2.11= 1 sherd (P00838); CS.4.4= 4 sherds (P00878–P00881); CS.1.5.1= 2 sherds (P02266–P02267); CS.2.67.9= 1 sherd (P08070); CS.4.13, Tomb 9= 12 sherds (P11746–P11757)

Sites: CS.2.42.11= 4 sherds (P00047–P00050); CS.2.67.24 = 7 sherds (P00163–P00169); CS.4.3= 1 sherd (P00203); CS.2.69.1.3= 5 sherds (P00496–P00500); CS.2.56.4= 12 sherds (P00533–P00534 & P04546–P04555); CS.5.13, Tomb 3= 6 sherds (P00549–P00554); CS.2.67.9= 10 sherds (P00788–P00797); CS.5.13, Tomb 1= 1 sherd (P00888); CS.9.2.2= 1 sherd (P01453); CS.2.64= 5 sherds (P02369–P02373); CS.5.14, Tomb 4= 4 sherds (P02388– P02391); CS.2.52.3= 7 sherds (P03023–P03029) Total sherds: 63 sherds Figures: 234 (D); 235 (B, C, E); 227 (F); 232 (E–H); 229 (E) Parallels: Rumeilah Settlement excavation (Boucharlat & Lombard 1985: pl.49, Nos.3–7, 10, 15–24; pl.53, No.7;

Origin: Local?

Total sherds: 63 sherds Figures: 241 (E–F); 230 (A) Parallels: Rumeilah Settlement excavation (Boucharlat & Lombard 1985: Pl.65 & pl.73, Nos.3–4) Class Code: HFEIA

238

Appendices Class Name: Hard Fired Early Iron Age Period: EIA Description: Thin, coarse well-fired ware, with conchoidal fracture, and reddish yellow surface (Munsell 5YR, 7/6) and red (Munsell 2.5YR, 6/8) and sometimes reddish gray core (Munsell 10R, 6/1) with gray to brown, angular and sub–rounded inclusions of 1–4 mm size and covers c.5% of the sherd. Some sherds are light greenish gray (1 CHROMA, 7/1) on the inner surface (6 sherds from site CS.4.3). Walls’ thickness is c.2–8 mm Origin: Local? Sites: CS.2.69.2= 1 sherd (P00065); CS.2.69.1.3= 1 sherd (P00501); CS.5.2.5= 1 sherd (P00736); CS.4.3= 24 sherds (P00170–P00193) Total sherds: 27 sherds Figures: 241 (D) Parallels: Rumeilah Settlement excavation (Boucharlat & Lombard 1985: pl.52, no.4; pl.54, Nos.5–6); Tell Abraq excavation: (Magee 1996: fig.2, pp: 243) Class Code: TCEIA Class Name: Thin Coarse Early Iron Age Period: EIA

CS.4.4= 32 sherds (P07439–P07470); CS.2.51.8.1= 15 sherds (P07483–P07497) Total sherds: 60 sherds Parallels: Rumeilah Settlement excavation (Boucharlat & Lombard 1985: pl.48, Nos.2,4; pl.52.no.7; pl.55.nos.6–8; Pl.65; pl.71, no.6.; pl.73, Nos.3–4) ; Tell Abraq excavation: (Potts 1990c: fig.117, pp: 96; fig. 104, nos.1–8, pp: 81; figs. 105, 106, 107: pp: 80; fig. 108, pp: 81); (Potts 1991: 103, Nos.1–3, pp: 80; fig. 104, nos.1–8, pp: 81; figs. 105, 106, 107: pp: 80; fig. 108, pp: 81); (Magee 1996: fig.2), (Magee 1999: fig.3, pp: 44) Class Code: RBCEIA Class Name: Red–Black Coarse Early Iron Age Period: EIA Description: Thin, light coarse ware with rough fracture and soft firing. The surface is red (Munsell 2.5YR, 6/6) and reddish black (Munsell 2.5YR, 2.5/1) and the core is light gray (Munsell 10R, 7/1) with brown to gray rounded (1 mm; 2%) and white to gray sub–rectangular (1mm– 1cm; 1%) inclusions. Walls’ thickness is c.3 mm to 1 cm. Origin: Local? Sites: CS.5.13, Tomb 1= 6 sherds (P00627–P00630 & P01810–P01811); CS.4.4= 6 sherds (P07433–P07438)

Description: Thin, coarse ware with rough fracture and soft firing. The surface and the core are light red (Munsell 2.5YR, 7/6) with brown to white rounded inclusions of 1–2 mm size and covers c.2% of the sherd. Walls’ thickness is c.2–8 mm

Total sherds: 12 sherds

Origin: Local?

Class Code: RYEIA

Sites: CS.5.13, Tomb 3= 2 sherds (P00556–P00557); CS.2.52.6= 3 sherds (P00583–P00585); CS.2.51.7.2= 16 sherds (P01497–P01507 & P13380–P13384); CS.5.10, Tomb 2= 23 sherds (P01509–P01531)

Class Name: Reddish Yellow Early Iron Age

Figures: 241 (A) Parallels: Rumeilah Settlement excavation (Boucharlat & Lombard 1985)

Period: EIA

Parallels: Tell Abraq excavation: (Magee & Carter 1999: fig.4.h, pp: 163)

Description: Thin, coarse ware with smooth fracture and medium firing as well as reddish yellow surfaces; both inside and outside and gray core with gray to white traces of straw/chaff prints 1–4 mm in size and covers 4% of the sherd. Walls’ thickness is c.1–4 mm.

Class Code: RLREIA

Origin: Local?

Class Name: Red–on–Light Red Early Iron Age

Sites: CS.4.3= 8 sherds (P00194–P00200 & P00204); CS.2.56.3= 11 sherds (P01380–P01390); CS.2.67.26= 5 sherds (P03695–P03699)

Total sherds: 44 sherds

Period: EIA Description: Heavy, red–on–light–red coarse ware with conchoidal fracture and hard firing. The surface is red (Munsell 2.5YR, 6/6) and light red (Munsell 2.5YR, 6/7) and the core is reddish yellow (Munsell 5YR, 6/8) with gray to brown rounded and oval inclusions of 1–2.5 mm size and covers c.5% of the sherd. Walls’ thickness is c.4 mm to 1 cm. Some sherds bear projected bands with incised finger/nail prints and herring–bone decoration. Origin: Local? Sites: CS.2.52.6= 10 sherds (P00586–P00595); CS.2.52.5= 1 sherd (P00912); CS.2.51.5= 2 sherds (P02715–P02716);

Total sherds: 24 sherds Figures: 232 (B) Parallels: Rumeilah Settlement excavation (Boucharlat & Lombard 1985: pl.23: 14–18) Class Code: UNEIA Class Name: Unidentifiable Early Iron Age Period: EIA

239

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula Description: Badly small eroded coarse sherds with rough fracture and soft firing. The surface is red to light red? Walls thickness is c.2 mm to up to 1 cm Sites: CS.2.56.3= 11 sherds (P01392–P01402); CS.4.14, Tomb 8= 4 sherds (P04544–P04545 & P05043–P05044)

white angular, rectangular and rounded inclusions of 1–4 mm size and covers 6% of the sherd and traces of chaff/ straw prints. Decoration includes incised herring bones with and without hatched or pitted design; incised wavy line(s); projected plain band(s); incised motif like sun– flower or sun with radiations? Walls’ thickness is c.1 mm to 2.4 cm.

Total sherds: 15 sherds

Origin: Local?

Parallels: ?

Sites: CS.2.58= 4 sherds (P00350–P00351 & P00811– P00812); CS.2.62= 1 sherd (P00748); CS.2.57= 8 sherds (P01205–P01208 & P07314–P07317); CS.2.60= 4 sherds (P01306–P01309); CS.9.2.2= 4 sherds (P01431–P01434); CS.2.42.10= 9 sherds (P01604–P01612); CS.9.5= 14 sherds (P01684–P01697); CS.2.53= 1 sherd (P01812); CS.2.43.1= 4 sherds (P01824–P01827); CS.1.5.6= 16 sherds (P02136–P02151); CS.2.51.8.1= 1 sherd (P02290); CS.2.64= 2 sherds (P02374–P02375); CS.1.5.5= 1 sherd (P02417); CS.2.23= 4 sherds (P02420–P02423); CS.1.4= 4 sherds (P02469–P02472); CS.6, Tomb 6= 2 sherds (P02495– P02496); CS.2.20= 49 sherds (P02663–P02664 & P17488–P17534); CS.2.51.5= 6 sherds (P02717– P02719 & P03033–P03035); CS.2.57.1= 9 sherds (P02835–P02837 & P06807–P06812); CS.2.67.29= 6 sherds (P02965–P02967 & P13717–P13719); CS.2.52.2= 5 sherds (P03873 & P07414–P07417); CS.2.56.5= 8 sherds (P03920–P03922 & P13505–P13509); CS.2.43.2= 17 sherds (P03923–P03935 & P04896–P04899); CS.9.1.7= 2 sherds (P04046–P04047); CS.9.2.1= 13 sherds (P04063– P04075); CS.2.3= 9 sherds (P04148–P04156); CS.4.1.4= 3 sherds (P04298–P04300); CS.9.1.1= 43 sherds (P04306– P04348); CS.4.9= 10 sherds (P04456–P04465); CS.2.56.7= 1 sherd (P04472); CS.2.56.6= 3 sherds (P04492–P04494); CS.9.1.8= 15 sherds (P04565–P04579); CS.2.29= 5 sherds (P04613–P04617); CS.2.50.1= 5 sherds (P05019– P05023); CS.9.4= 8 sherds (P05024–P05031); CS.2.51.1= 16 sherds (P02930–P02933, P05054– P05058, P06643– P06648 & P08036); CS.2.68= 7 sherds (P06550–P06556); CS.2.50.2= 12 sherds (P06830–P06841); CS.2.11= 20 sherds (P07327–P07346)

Origin: ?

C.1.4– LATE IRON AGE/SAMAD Class Code: FGLIA Class Name: Fine Gray Late Iron Age Period: LIA Description: Very thin and fine gray ware with smooth fracture and medium firing. The surface is gray (Munsell 10YR, 5/1), and the core is yellowish red (Munsell 5YR, 5/8) with white rounded inclusions of up to 1 mm size and covers 1% of the sherd. Walls’ thickness is c.1–5 mm Origin: Local? Sites: CS.5.10, Tomb 1= 13 sherds (P01258–P01270); CS.9.1.1= 32 sherds (P04371–P04402) Total sherds: 45 sherds Parallels: Samad and Maysar excavations: (Yule 2001a) Class Code: FRLIA Class Name: Fine Red Late Iron Age Period: LIA Description: Thin red fine ware with smooth fracture and hard firing. The surface is red (10R, 5/8) to reddish yellow (Munsell 7.5YR, 7/6), and the core is red (Munsell 10R, 4/8) to light red (Munsell 10R, 7/8) with gray and white rounded inclusions of up to 1.5 mm size and covers 1% of the sherd. Decoration includes incised herring bones with and without hatched or pitted design? Walls’ thickness is 1–6 mm. Origin: Local? Sites: CS.2.58= 4 sherds (P00354–P00356 & P00820); CS.2.53.2= 1 sherd (P02312); CS.7.4, Tomb 1= 1 sherd (P04189); CS.2.29= 1 sherd (P04651); CS.2.50.1= 5 sherds (P05007–P05011)

Total sherds: 351 sherds Figures: 242 (A–F); 243; 244 Parallels: Samad and Maysar excavations: (Yule 2001a) Class Code: CRYLIR Class Name: Coarse Reddish Yellow Late Iron Age

Total sherds: 12 sherds

Period: LIA

Parallels: Samad and Maysar excavations: (Yule 2001a)

Description: Thick, very coarse ware with smooth fracture and medium firing. The surface is reddish yellow (Munsell 5YR, 7/8), and the core is gray (Munsell 2YR, 6/1) with gray and brown angular and rounded inclusions of 1–3 mm size and covers 4% of the sherd. Walls’ thickness is c.3 mm to 2 cm. Some sherds have traces of firing/burning on the exterior surface.

Class Code: LGCLIA Class Name: Large Gritted Coarse Late Iron Age Period: LIA Description: Thick, medium to very coarse ware with large grits and rough fracture as well as soft firing. The surface is light red (Munsell 2.5YR, 7/8) to red (Munsell 2.5YR, 6/6), and the core is red (Munsell 2.5YR, 6/8) to reddish gray (Munsell 10R, 6/1) with gray, brown and

Origin: Local?

240

Appendices Sites: CS.2.52.3= 1 sherd (P00827); CS.2.57= 5 sherds (P01216–P01217 & P06726–P06728); CS.2.60= 1 sherd (P01313); CS.2.57.1= 3 sherds (P02843–P02845); CS.4.1.4 = 1 sherd (P04301); CS.2.56.6= 1 sherd (P04495); CS.2.56.7= 1 sherd (P04539); CS.9.1.8= 1 sherd (P04589); CS.2.68= 2 sherds (P06557–P06558); CS.2.51.1= 20 sherds (P06649–P06668); CS.4.14, Tomb 3= 2 sherds (P11786–P11787); CS.9.5= 54 sherds (P16510–P16563); CS.6, Tomb 6= 10 sherds (P17727–P17736) Total sherds: 102 sherds Figures: 245 (B, E) Parallels: Samad and Maysar excavations: (Yule 2001a) Class Code: CGLIA Class Name: Coarse Gray Late Iron Age Period: LIA Description: Medium coarse gray ware with rough fracture and medium firing. The surface and the core are gray (Munsell 5YR, 6/1) to reddish gray (Munsell 10R, 5/1) with white and gray rounded inclusions of up to 1.5 mm size and covers 3% of the sherd. Decoration includes incised leaf decoration. Walls’ thickness is c.1–6 mm Origin: Local? Sites: CS.2.57= 4 sherds (P01218 & P07318–P07330); CS.9.2.2= 1 sherd (P01452); CS.9.5= 2 sherds (P01698– P01699); CS.2.20= 21 sherds (P02705–P02706 & P17535–P17553); CS.7.2= 1 sherd (P02827); CS.2.52.4= 9 sherds (P02880–P02888); CS.2.51.1= 6 sherds (P02934 & P05067–P06672); CS.2.23= 6 sherds (P02947–P02952); CS.2.51.5= 2 sherds (P03045–P03046); CS.2.51.8.3= 8 sherds (P03551–P03558); CS.5.1.1= 1 sherd (P04188); CS.2.56.6= 2 sherds (P04496–P04497); CS.9.1.8= 5 sherds (P04594–P04598); CS.2.29= 2 sherds (P04649–P04650); CS.2.50.1= 7 sherds (P05012–P05018); CS.2.52.3= 1 sherd (P06452); CS.2.68= 2 sherds (P06559–P06560); CS.2.51.1= 6 sherds (P02934 & P05067–P06672); CS.2.50.2= 2 sherds (P06842–P06843) Total sherds: 82 sherds Parallels: Samad and Maysar excavations: (Yule 2001a) Class Code: CLIA Class Name: Coarse Late Iron Age Coarse Gray Late Iron Age Period: LIA Description: Thin, medium fired coarse ware with smooth fracture and medium firing. The surface is red (Munsell 2.5YR, 6/6) to light red (Munsell 2.5YR, 7/6), and the core is red (Munsell 2.5YR, 6/8) to dark reddish gray (Munsell 2.5YR, 5/1) with white, brown and gray rounded and angular inclusions of 1–3 mm size and covers 5% of the sherd. Decoration includes incised or pitted design, incised herring bones with and without hatched or pitted design? Projected circles and bands with or without incised

hatched, net or cross hatched or herring bone design and/ or incised wavy and horizontal line(s). Similar to the LGCLIA but finer and well fired and less gritted. Walls’ thickness is 1mm to 1 cm. Origin: Local? Sites: CS.2.52.3= 29 sherds (P00349, P00821–P00826, P03179 & P06430–P06450); CS.2.62= 1 sherd (P00749); CS.2.58= 5 sherds (P00813–P00817); CS.2.57= 26 sherds (P01209–P01215 & P06729–P06747); CS.2.60= 3 sherds (P01310–P01312); CS.9.2.2= 15 sherds (P01435– P01449); CS.2.42.10= 7 sherds (P01613–P01619); CS.2.53= 21 sherds (P01813–P01818 & P13438–P13452); CS.2.43.1= 7 sherds (P01828–P01834); CS.4.1.1= 3 sherds (P01999–P02001); CS.3.5.2= 3 sherds (P02052– P02054); CS.1.5.6= 11 sherds (P02152–P02162); CS.2.51.8.1= 5 sherds (P02291–P02295); CS.2.50.3.1= 4 sherds (P02308–P02311); CS.2.64= 13 sherds (P02376– P02382 & P13597–P13602); CS.2.23= 39 sherds (P02424–P02962); CS.2.1= 10 sherds (P02459–P02468); CS.1.4= 18 sherds (P02473–P02490); CS.2.51.8.14= 27 sherds (P02636–P02662); CS.2.20= 311 sherds (P02665–P02703, P06907–P07124 & P17554–P17607); CS.2.51.5= 25 sherds (P02720–P03044); CS.7.2= 10 sherds (P02817–P02826); CS.2.57.1= 22 sherds (P02838–P02842 & P06813–P06829); CS.5.15, Tomb 4= 10 sherds (P03378–P03387); CS.2.65.1= 52 sherds (P03680–P03689, P04097–P04117 & P13608–P13628); CS.2.29= 202 sherds (P03730–P03872, P04618–P04648 & P05671–P05698); CS.2.52.2= 26 sherds (P03874– P03882 & P07397–P07413); CS.2.43.2= 28 sherds (P03936–P03954 & P04900–P04908); CS.9.1.7= 8 sherds (P04048–P04055); CS.9.2.1= 9 sherds (P04076–P04084); CS.7.1.4= 5 sherds (P04123–P04127); CS.2.3= 12 sherds (P04157–P04168); CS.3.4= 71 sherds (P04169–P04180 & P06748–P06806); CS.9.1.1= 22 sherds (P04349–P04370); CS.4.9= 4 sherds (P04466–P04469); CS.2.56.7= 32 sherds (P04473–P04491 & P04526–P04538); CS.2.41.5= 24 sherds (P04498–P04521); CS.5.10, Tomb 5= 16 sherds (P04541 & P17876–P17890); CS.9.1.8= 9 sherds (P04580–P04588); CS.2.50.1= 30 sherds (P04977– P05006); CS.2.51.1= 50 sherds (P05053, P05059–P05066 & P06602–P06642); CS.2.68= 30 sherds (P06561– P06590); CS.2.50.2= 62 sherds (P06844–P06905); CS.4.3= 53 sherds (P07125–P07177); CS.2.51.8.6= 25 sherds (P07282–P07306); CS.2.11= 50 sherds (P07347– P07396); CS.2.42.29= 1 sherd (P13294); CS.5.10, Tomb 13= 13 sherds (P17903–P17915) Total sherds: 1459 sherds Figures: 246 (C–H); 247 (A–D, F, H); 248 (A, C–E); 249 (A, C, E, G, I); 245 (A, C, D, G–I); 250 (A–B); 251 (A–B); 252 (A–B); 253 (A–D) Parallels: This is the most common ware recovered from many areas such as Samad and Maysar excavations: (Yule 2001a) Class Code: TCLIA Class Name: Thin Coarse Late Iron Age

241

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula Period: LIA Description: Thin, coarse light ware with smooth fracture and soft firing. The surface is reddish yellow (Munsell 5YR, 7/6) to red (Munsell 2.5YR, 6/8), and the core is reddish gray (Munsell 2.5YR, 6/1) to red (Munsell 2.5YR, 6/8) with brown and gray rounded inclusions of 1–2 mm size and covers 3% of the sherd. Decoration includes incised wavy and/or irregular lines between horizontal lines design. Some of the sherds bear signs of burning/ firing on the exterior surface. Walls’ thickness is c.1–8 mm

gray core. These sherds are of Iron Age but it was difficult to sign them either to Early or Late Iron Age. Origin: ? Sites: CS.2.48= 1 sherd (P13340); CS.2.45= 1 sherd (P13341); CS.2.51.7.1= 4 sherds (P13375–P13378) Total sherds: 6 sherds Parallels: ? C.1.5– SASANIAN–EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD

Origin: Local?

Class Code: SASAN

Sites: CS.2.58= 4 sherds (P00352–P00353 & P00818– P00819); CS.2.62= 2 sherds (P00750–P00751); CS.2.52.3= 2 sherds (P00828–P00829); CS.2.60= 1 sherd (P01315); CS.9.2.2= 2 sherds (P01450–P01451); CS.2.43.1= 3 sherds (P01835–P01837); CS.2.69.3.2= 5 sherds (P02392–P02396); CS.2.20= 27 sherds (P02704, P17608–P17633); CS.2.51.5= 2 sherds (P02736– P02737); CS.5.10, Tomb 5= 12 sherds (P02795–P02806); CS.2.51.8.3= 14 sherds (P03537–P03550); CS.2.51.8.6= 6 sherds (P03886–P03891); CS.9.1.8= 4 sherds (P04590– P04593); CS.2.29= 14 sherds (P05699–P05712); CS.4.3= 13 sherds (P07178–P07190); CS.2.1= 12 sherds (P19224– P19235)

Class Name: Sasanian Early Islamic

Total sherds: 123 sherds

Origin: Iran? local?

Figures: 247 (E, G); 248 (B); 249 (B, D, F); 245 (F); 254 (A–F)

Sites: CS.1.5.5= 2 sherds (P08254–P08255); CS.1.5.1= 6 sherds (P11852–P11857); CS.1.5.2= 4 sherds (P12064– P12067)

Parallels: Samad and Maysar excavations: (Yule 2001a) Class Code: DGCLIA Class Name: Dark Gray Coarse Late Iron Age Period: LIA Description: Reddish Yellow coarse ware with smooth fracture and medium firing. The surface is reddish yellow (Munsell 5YR, 6/8), and the core is dark gray (Munsell 1 CHROMA, 4/) with gray and brown rounded and sub– rounded inclusions of up to 2 mm size and covers 2% of the sherd. Walls’ thickness is c.1–8 mm. Origin: Local? Sites: CS.2.60= 1 sherd (P01314); CS.2.23= 1 sherd (P02453); CS.2.41.5= 13 sherds (P04522–P04525 & P13215–P13223); CS.2.56.7= 1 sherd (P04540); CS.2.43.2 = 4 sherds (P04909–P04912) Total sherds: 20 sherds

Period: Sasan–E.Islamic Description: Sasanian Early Islamic of possibly clinky coarse ware with sub–conchoidal fracture and hard firing. The surface is pale yellow (Munsell 2.5Y 8/4) or weak red (Munsell 2.5YR 6/3) to dark reddish grey (2.5YR 5.1) and the core is red (2.5YR 6/8–5/6). The fabric includes white, grey and brown inclusions. The surface usually includes splashes of glaze, mainly on the interior with different colours ranges between white, green, blue and yellow. Decoration includes incised lines. Walls’ thickness is c.1 mm to 1 cm.

Total sherds: 12 sherds Parallels: Kush (Kennet 2004: 62, fig.35, pp: 129) Class Code: GGEI Class Name: Green Glazed Early Islamic Period: E.Islamic Description: Coarse glazed ware with smooth fracture and medium firing. The glaze colour varies between green, yellow and turquoise. The surface and the core are pale yellow (Munsell 2.5Y, 8/2) with gray and brown rounded inclusions of up to 1 mm size and covers 2% of the sherd. Walls’ thickness is c.1–6 mm CS.4.12 (1 sherd: P.1408) + CS.2.51.1 (3 sherds: P.6111–P.6113) + CS.7.2 (1 sherd: P.7794) Origin: Central and/or Southern Iraq

Class Code: IRON?

Sites: CS.2.51.5= 4 sherds (P01403–P01406); CS.4.12.2= 1 sherd (P01408); CS.1.5.5= 1 sherd (P02814); CS.2.43.2= 1 sherd (P03957); CS.9.4= 3 sherds (P06111–P06113); CS.7.2= 1 sherd (P07794); CS.2.60= 4 sherds (P07869– P07872)

Class Name: Unidentifiable Iron Ware

Total sherds: 15 sherds

Period: IA

Figures: 255 (A–D)

Description: Coarse, medium–fired ware with smooth fracture and red to yellowish surfaces and gray to light

Parallels: Turquoise Glaze ware from Kush and al–Mataf (Kennet 2004: 29–31, fig.5, pp: 102)

Figures: 249 (H) Parallels: Samad and Maysar excavations: (Yule 2001a)

242

Appendices C.1.6– MIDDLE ISLAMIC PERIOD Class Code: VCGMI Class Name: Very Coarse Gritted Middle Islamic Period: M.Islamic Description: Thick, heavy and very coarse ware with rough fracture and medium firing. The surface is red (Munsell 2.5YR, 6/8) to reddish yellow (Munsell 5YR, 7/8), and the core is reddish yellow (Munsell 5YR, 7/8) to light gray (Munsell 5YR, 7/1) with large gray, brown and white angular, rounded and sub–rectangular grits inclusions of 1–3.5 mm size and covers 6% of the sherd. Some of sherds’ surfaces bear gray coating? (badly preserved). Walls’ thickness is c.1 mm to 2 cm. Origin: Local? Sites: CS.2.55.1= 8 sherds (P00205–P00213); CS.2.68= 1 sherd (P00489); CS.7.1.4= 1 sherd (P00677); CS.2.62= 6 sherds (P00752–P00757); CS.3.1.2= 9 sherds (P00913– P00921); CS.1.5.4= 25 sherds (P00968–P00992); CS.1.5.2 = 33 sherds (P01000–P01032); CS.3.1.3= 11 sherds (P01086–P01096); CS.9.1.2= 11 sherds (P01219– P01229); CS.2.43.3= 14 sherds (P01366–P01379); CS.9.1.5= 15 sherds (P01532–P01546); CS.9.1.6= 25 sherds (P01624–P01648); CS.2.24= 2 sherds (P01757– P01758); CS.5.1.3= 7 sherds (P01838–P01844); CS.4.1.1= 14 sherds (P02002–P02015); CS.3.5.2= 5 sherds (P02055–P02059); CS.1.5.6= 5 sherds (P02100–P02104); CS.1.5.1= 14 sherds (P02231–P02244); CS.1.5.5= 16 sherds (P02269–P02284); CS.2.52.1= 2 sherds (P02306– P02307); CS.5.1.2.1= 3 sherds (P02350–P02352); CS.5.1.4= 3 sherds (P02352–P02354); CS.4.1.6= 40 sherds (P02507–P02546); CS.4.1.5= 11 sherds (P02738– P02748); CS.1.6= 9 sherds (P02764–P02772); CS.5.1.6= 14 sherds (P02850–P02863); CS.3.5.3= 5 sherds (P02889–P02893); CS.7.1.3= 2 sherds (P02963–P02964); CS.5.1.2= 18 sherds (P03005–P03022); CS.3.5.1= 10 sherds (P03211–P03220); CS.3.1.1= 19 sherds (P03251– P03269); CS.4.2= 26 sherds (P03310–P03335); CS.9.6= 51 sherds (P03394–P03421 & P06051–P06073); CS.9.10= 17 sherds (P03568–P03584); CS.4.12.1= 20 sherds (P03638–P03657); CS.3.7.5= 6 sherds (P03700–P03705); CS.9.1.4= 12 sherds (P03892–P03903); CS.3.1.5= 11 sherds (P03958–P03968); CS.9.1.7= 4 sherds (P04010– P04013); CS.4.1.4= 36 sherds (P04190–P04225); CS.2.50.5= 11 sherds (P04403–P04413); CS.4.1.3= 36 sherds (P04654–P04689); CS.9.1.3= 6 sherds (P04811– P04816); CS.3.7.3= 40 sherds (P05927–P05966); CS.2.50.1= 3 sherds (P06087–P06089) Total sherds: 637 sherds

Description: Red and gray thin coarse ware with smooth fracture and medium firing. The surface is light red (Munsell 10R, 6/6) to reddish gray (Munsell 10R, 6/1), and the core is light red (Munsell 10R, 6/8) with gray and brown rounded inclusions of up to 2 mm size and covers 2% of the sherd. The decoration includes group of painted horizontal bands of around 2–5 mm wide and vary between pale yellow (2.5Y, 8/3) and light gray (2.5Y, 7/1). Walls’ thickness is 1 mm to 1 cm. Origin: Local? Sites: CS.2.68= 15 sherds (P00490–P00493 & P06591– P06601); CS.3.1.2= 28 sherds (P00852–P00857, P03690– P03692 & P08800–P08818); CS.4.1.1= 10 sherds (P00858–P00861 & P02016–P02021); CS.3.5.2= 12 sherds (P00862, P02060–P02066 & P09859–P09862); CS.1.5.4= 1 sherd (P00863); CS.1.5.2= 9 sherds (P01033– P01041); CS.9.1.6 = 11 sherds (P01649–P01659); CS.5.1.3= 9 sherds (P01845–P01847 & P12671–P12676); CS.1.5.6= 8 sherds (P02105–P02112); CS.1.5.1= 1 sherd (P02245); CS.4.1.6= 21 sherds (P02547–P02567); CS.3.5.1= 4 sherds (P03221–P03224); CS.3.7.5= 7 sherds (P03706–P03712); CS.9.1.4= 5 sherds (P03904 & P14966–P14969); CS.2.43.2= 2 sherds (P03955–P03956); CS.3.7.3= 5 sherds (P05900–P05904); CS.3.1.3= 15 sherds (P06006–P06020); CS.2.50.5= 2 sherds (P06153 & P13372); CS.7.1.3= 1 sherd (P07854); CS.1.2.1= 1 sherd (P08074); CS.3.1.1= 6 sherds (P08594–P08599); CS.3.1.4= 6 sherds (P09349–P09354); CS.3.1.5= 5 sherds (P09487–P09491); CS.3.1.6= 1 sherd (P09525); CS.3.5.3= 4 sherds (P10019–P10022); CS.4.1.3= 7 sherds (P10811–P10817); CS.4.1.4= 2 sherds (P11035–P11036); CS.4.12.1= 7 sherds (P11708–P11714); CS.5.1.2= 1 sherd (P12311); CS.5.1.2.1= 3 sherds (P12413–P12415); CS.5.1.4= 2 sherds (P12899–P12900); CS.5.1.5= 8 sherds (P13016–P13023); CS.5.8= 6 sherds (P13171– P13176); CS.2.41.10= 1 sherd (P13289); CS.2.43.1= 1 sherd (P13307); CS.2.43.3= 2 sherds (P13326–P13327); CS.2.55.1= 3 sherds (P13484–P13486); CS.2.55.4= 3 sherds (P13497–P13499); CS.2.62= 13 sherds (P13558– P13570); CS.9.1.1= 6 sherds (P13962–P13967); CS.9.1.2= 14 sherds (P14314–P14327); CS.9.1.3= 11 sherds (P14711–P14721); CS.9.1.5= 9 sherds (P15251–P15259); CS.9.1.7= 7 sherds (P15840–P15846); CS.9.1.8= 3 sherds (P16050–P16052); CS.9.4= 2 sherds (P16504–P16505); CS.9.5= 5 sherds (P16809–P16813); CS.9.6= 4 sherds (P17065–P17068); CS.9.10= 14 sherds (P17438–P17451); CS.6, Tomb 6= 3 sherds (P17722–P17724); CS.7.1.1= 3 sherds (P18059–P18061); CS.7.1.2= 20 sherds (P18312– P18331); CS.7.1.4= 9 sherds (P18682–P18690); CS.7.1.5= 1 sherd (P18805)

Parallels: Kush: Red Speckled ware (Kennet 2004: 64; fig.40, pp: 134

Total sherds: 360 sherds

Class Code: NMIW Class Name: Nabhani Middle Islamic Ware

Parallels: Surface pottery from Julfar (de Cardi & Doe 1971: fig.13, Nos.40–42, pp: 265)

Period: M.Islamic

Class Code: GWMI

Figures: 256; 257

Class Name: Gray Ware Middle Islamic

243

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula Period: M.Islamic Description: Thin coarse gray ware with smooth fracture and medium firing. The surface and the core are dark gray (Munsell 7.5YR, 4/1) to light gray (Munsell 7.5YR, 7/1) with white and brown rounded inclusions of up to 1.5 mm size and covers 3% of the sherd. Walls’ thickness is c.1–8 mm. Some sherds bear incised decoration of wavy and horizontal lines. Origin: Local? Sites: CS.1.5.1= 5 sherds (P00313–P00317); CS.2.62= 2 sherds (P00775–P00776); CS.3.1.2= 18 sherds (P00940– P00957); CS.1.5.4= 2 sherds (P00998–P00999); CS.3.1.3= 23 sherds (P01168–P01168 & P06040–P06048); CS.2.53.1= 11 sherds (P01316–P01318 & P01349– P01356); CS.9.1.5= 1 sherd (P01603); CS.9.1.6= 3 sherds (P01668–P01670); CS.3.7.3= 12 sherds (P01800–P01804 & P05967–P05973); CS.5.1.3= 5 sherds (P01860–P01864); CS.3.1.4= 19 sherds (P01953–P01971); CS.4.1.1= 4 sherds (P02033–P02036); CS.1.5.6= 7 sherds (P02126–P02132); CS.4.1.6= 20 sherds (P02593–P02612); CS.3.5.3 = 6 sherds (P02925–P02929 & P05051); CS.3.1.1= 6 sherds (P03304–P03309); CS.4.2= 14 sherds (P03364–P03377); CS.9.6= 18 sherds (P03501–P03512 & P06077–P06082); CS.9.10= 8 sherds (P03625–P036320; CS.4.12.1 = 1 sherd (P03668); CS.3.7.5= 1 sherd (P03726); CS.9.1.7 = 7 sherds (P04031–P04037); CS.4.1.4= 25 sherds (P04263– P04287); CS.4.1.3= 16 sherds (P04744–P04759); CS.1.5= 4 sherds (P04807–P04810); CS.9.1.3= 5 sherds (P04838– P04842); CS.1.5.2= 7 sherds (P05723–P05729); CS.3.5.1= 2 sherds (P05730–P05731); CS.9.4= 1 sherd (P06110) Total sherds: 253 sherds Figures: 258 (A–B, E–G, K) Parallels: Kush: Spotty ware (Kennet 2004: 64; fig.38, pp:132) Class Code: YCWMI Class Name: Yellowish Coarse Ware Middle Islamic Period: M.Islamic Description: Medium coarse, yellowish ware with smooth fracture and medium firing. The surface and the core are pale yellow (Munsell 2.5Y, 8/3) with gray rounded inclusions of up to 2 mm size and covers 2% of the sherd. Walls’ thickness is c.1 mm to 1 cm. Origin: Local? Sites: CS.3.1.3= 20 sherds (P01182 & P06021–P06039); CS.4.1.1= 3 sherds (P02037–P02039); CS.1.5.1= 5 sherds (P02254–P02258); CS.4.1.6= 6 sherds (P02613–P02618); CS.4.1.5= 6 sherds (P02758–P02763); CS.3.5.1= 14 sherds (P03237–P03250); CS.3.7.5= 3 sherds (P03727–P03729); CS.9.1.7= 4 sherds (P04038–P04041); CS.4.1.4= 10 sherds (P04288–P04297); CS.4.1.3= 37 sherds (P04760– P04796); CS.3.7.3= 22 sherds (P05905–P05926) Total sherds: 130 sherds Figures: 258 (D)

Parallels: similar to Kush: Cream pots (Kennet 2004: 64; figs.39, pp: 133) but without the incised decoration Class Code: CMI Class Name: Coarse Middle Islamic Period: M.Islamic Description: Medium coarse ware with smooth fracture and hard firing. The surface is light red (Munsell 10R, 6/6 and 2.5YR, 7/6) to greenish gray (Munsell 1CHROMA, 6/1), and the core is light red (Munsell 10R, 7/6) to light gray (Munsell 10R, 7/1) with gray, white and brown rounded and angular inclusions of up to 3 mm size and covers 3% of the sherd. Walls’ thickness is c.1 mm to 1.5 cm. Decoration includes some projected bands with and without wavy lines and some sherds have incised wavy and horizontal lines, usually under the rim and around the neck. Origin: Local? Sites: CS.2.55.1= 10 sherds (P00211–P00222); CS.1.5.1= 9 sherds (P00312 & P02246–P02253); CS.2.68= 2 sherds (P00494–P00495); CS.2.50.2, Tomb 2= 4 sherds (P00623–P00626); CS.2.62= 17 sherds (P00758–P00774); CS.3.1.2= 18 sherds (P00922–P00939); CS.1.5.4= 4 sherds (P00993–P00997); CS.1.5.2= 44 sherds (P01042– P01085); CS.3.1.3 = 73 sherds (P01097–P01167 & P06049–P06050); CS.9.1.2 = 27 sherds (P01230–P01256); CS.2.53.1= 34 sherds (P01319–P01360); CS.2.43.3= 3 sherds (P01362–P01364); CS.9.1.5= 56 sherds (P01547–P01602); CS.9.1.6= 8 sherds (P01660–P01667); CS.2.24= 34 sherds (P01759–P01792); CS.3.7.3= 39 sherds (P01793–P01799 & P05974–P06005); CS.5.1.3= 12 sherds (P01848–P01859); CS.3.1.4 = 74 sherds (P01906–P01952 & P01972–P01998); CS.4.1.1 = 11 sherds (P02022–P02032); CS.3.5.2= 24 sherds (P02067– P02090); CS.1.5.6= 16 sherds (P02113–P02135); CS.1.5.5= 3 sherds (P02285–P02287); CS.2.53.2= 7 sherds (P02313–P02319); CS.5.1.4= 14 sherds (P02355– P02368); CS.4.1.6= 41 sherds (P02568–P02592 & P02619–P02634); CS.4.1.5= 9 sherds (P02749–P02757); CS.3.5.3= 37 sherds (P02894–P02924 & P05045–P05050); CS.2.41.9 = 12 sherds (P02935–P02946); CS.3.5.1= 12 sherds (P03225–P03236); CS.3.1.1= 34 sherds (P03270–P03303); CS.4.2= 28 sherds (P03336–P03363); CS.9.6= 82 sherds (P03422–P03500 & P06074–P06076); CS.9.10= 45 sherds (P03585–P03624 & P03633–P03637); CS.4.12.1= 10 sherds (P03658–P03667); CS.3.7.5= 13 sherds (P03713–P03725); CS.9.1.4= 11 sherds (P03905– P03915); CS.3.1.5 = 41 sherds (P03969–P04009); CS.9.1.7= 17 sherds (P04014–P04030); CS.4.1.4= 37 sherds (P04226–P04262); CS.2.50.5= 15 sherds (P04414– P04428); CS.4.1.3= 54 sherds (P04690–P04743); CS.1.5= 9 sherds (P04798–P04806); CS.9.1.3= 21 sherds (P04817– P04837); CS.9.4= 21 sherds (P05038 & P06090–P06109); CS.2.50.1= 3 sherds (P06084–P06086) Total sherds: 1103 sherds Figures: 259 (A–F); 260 (A–J);

244

Appendices Parallels: Kush: Cream pots with incised wavy decoration (Kennet 2004: 64; figs.39, pp: 133) Class Code: FWMI Class Name: Fine Ware Middle Islamic Period: M.Islamic Description: Thin plain red fine ware with smooth fracture and hard firing. The surface is red (Munsell 2.5YR, 6/8), and the core is red (Munsell 2.5YR, 6/8) to light gray (Munsell 10R, 7/1) with gray rounded inclusions of up to 1.5 mm size and covers 2% of the sherd. Walls’ thickness is c.1–8 mm Origin: Iran? Sites: CS.9.1.2= 1 sherd (P01257); CS.2.43.3= 1 sherd (P01365); CS.9.1.7= 4 sherds (P04042–P04045); CS.9.6= 1 sherd (P06083) Total sherds: 7 sherds

P15534); CS.4.1.3= 1 sherd (P00379); CS.1.5.2= 20 sherds (P00520–P00529 & P11964–P11973); CS.1.4= 1 sherd (P00437); CS.2.55.1= 1 sherd (P00830); CS.9.4= 56 sherds (P02164–P02209 & P05713–P05722); CS.1.5.5= 2 sherds (P02808– P02809); CS.2.50.2= 3 sherds (P06906 & P13344–P13345); CS.4.1.6= 4 sherds (P07590– P07593); CS.3.5.2= 1 sherd (P07878); CS.2.69.2.1= 3 sherds (P07926–P07928); CS.9.6= 96 (P07945–P07992 & P17017–P17064); CS.2.68= 2 sherds (P08050 & P13722); CS.4.1.1= 1 sherd (P08059); CS.1.5.4= 3 sherds (P08157– P08159); CS.2.3= 1 sherd (P08476); CS.3.1.5= 8 sherds (P09503–P09510); CS.4.1.2= 1 sherd (P10531); CS.4.1.4= 6 sherds (P11043–P11047 & P19077); CS.4.1.5= 4 sherds (P11275–P11276 & P11277–P11278); CS.4.4= 1 sherd (P11578); CS.4.12.1= 1 sherd (P11715); CS.2.43.1= 3 sherds (P13303–P13305); CS.9.1.1= 9 sherds (P13953– P13961); CS.9.1.3= 2 sherds (P14735–P14736); CS.9.1.7= 1 sherd (P15859); CS.9.2.1= 1 sherd (P16217); CS.9.2.2= 1 sherd (P16281); CS.9.10= 2 sherds (P17453–P17454)

Parallels: Kush: Small Grey vessels (Kennet 2004: 63; fig.37, pp: 131

Total sherds: 256 sherds

Class Code: SGRF

Parallels: Kush (Kennet 1997: 292–294, figs, 7.9–11, 8, 9 & 2004: figs.7–9, pp.104–106; CPs.3–8, pp: 145–146); Sohar (Kervran 2004: fig.29, no.12, pp: 317; fig.33, nos.1– 3, pp:322; fig.44, nos.8–14, pp: 324; fig.35, no.2, pp: 326; fig.36, nos.5–13, pp: 328; plate.27, pp:363); Ras al–Hadd 3 (Whitcomb 1975: fig.4B pp: 135)

Class Name: Sgraffiato Middle Islamic Period: M.Islamic Description: This type of ware is well-known and described in the literature. D. Kennet (2004: 34) describes this ware as “the decorative technique of incising linear designs through a white slip before glazing. Most often, especially in the later periods, the slip is white or cream and the body is red, causing the incisions to stand out as a darker colour. The pattern created by the incised lines is sometimes filled with patches of coloured glaze–green, brown and yellow.” He argues (ibid: 34) that by the early 10th century the Sgraffiato technique has started in southern Iraq, and by the 11th–12th centuries it become common and well-known technique over a large area such as Iran, Afghanistan, Egypt, Syria, Northern Iraq, Central Asia and Byzantium. He also argues that at the beginning of the 13th century the technique reached to Europe via Northern Italy (Kennet 2004: 34). This earthenware is fine to medium–coarse with smooth fracture and medium firing. The surface is usually glazed with different coloured glaze ranging between green; white, light green, olive, yellow, brown and yellowish– green. The glaze thickness varies between 1 mm and 5 mm and can be found either on both surfaces (interior and exterior) or on the interior surface only. The original surface and the core are red (Munsell 2.5YR, 6/8) to pink (Munsell 7.5YR, 8/3). Walls’ thickness is c.1 mm to 1 cm. Decoration includes incisions, slip and glaze, forming geometric and floral motifs Origin: Iraq? Iran? Sites: CS.9.5= 3 sherds (P00140–P00142); CS.2.62= 1 sherd (P00226); CS.2.50.1= 5 sherds (P00285–P00289); CS.9.1.6= 11 sherds (P00367–P00374 & P15532–

Figures: 258 (C, H–J, L); 261; 262

C.1.7– LATE ISLAMIC PERIOD Class Code: JULFAR Class Name: Julfar Ware Period: L.Islamic Description: This is well-known and described coarse hand-made earthenware with smooth fracture and medium firing. It is always unglazed and manufactured for cooking vessels. The surface is black, grey and red with brown and grey rounded and angular inclusions of c.1 mm to 1 cm in size and covers 2% to 6% of the sherd. Walls’ thickness is c.1–8 mm. Decoration often include incised horizontal and wavy lines and projected bands with and without incised decoration. Origin: local made, Ras al–Khaimah (Julfar) Sites: CS.4.12.2= 12 sherds (P00235–P00246); CS.4.1.3= 50 sherds (P00382 & P10755–P10803); CS.5.10, Tomb 5= 2 sherds (P04542–P04543); CS.3.5.2= 44 sherds (P06132–P06134 & P09810–P09850); CS.2.62= 11 sherds (P07540–P13549); CS.1.1= 3 sherds (P08071–P08073); CS.1.2.2= 9 sherds (P08075–P08083); CS.1.5.4= 21 sherds (P08136–P08156); CS.1.5.5= 24 sherds (P08230– P08253); CS.1.5.6 = 24 sherds (P08354–P08377); CS.1.6= 7 sherds (P08416–P08422); CS.2.3= 36 sherds (P08434–P08469); CS.2.6= 15 sherds (P08507–P08521); CS.3.1.1= 44 sherds (P08606–P08649); CS.3.1.2= 29 sherds (P08763–P08791); CS.3.1.3 = 68 sherds (P09030– P09097); CS.3.1.4= 59 sherds (P09260–P09318); CS.3.1.5= 74 sherds (P09405–P09478); CS.3.1.6= 31 245

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula sherds (P09526–P09556); CS.3.5.1= 63 sherds (P09656– P09718); CS.3.5.3= 50 sherds (P09969–P10018); CS.3.7.1= 3 sherds (P10037–P10039); CS.3.7.3= 81 sherds (P10116–P10196); CS.3.7.5= 28 sherds (P10287– P10314); CS.3.8= 28 sherds (P10393–P10420); CS.4.1.1= 78 sherds (P10479–P10496 & P18861–P18920); CS.4.1.2= 6 sherds (P10532–P10537); CS.4.1.4= 53 sherds (P10965–P10982 & P19038–P19072); CS.4.1.5= 24 sherds (P11200–P11223); CS.4.1.6= 24 sherds (P11476–P11499); CS.4.12.1= 24 sherds (P11684– P11707); CS.4.14, Tomb 3= 28 sherds (P11758–P11785); CS.1.5.1= 33 sherds (P11819–P11851); CS.1.5.2= 60 sherds (P12004–P12063); CS.5.1.1= 9 sherds (P12119– P12127); CS.5.1.2= 31 sherds (P12251–P12281); CS.5.1.2.1= 52 sherds (P12416–P12467); CS.5.1.3= 86 sherds (P12677–P12762); CS.5.1.4= 18 sherds (P12874– P12891); CS.5.1.5 = 25 sherds (P12956–P12980); CS.5.2.5= 2 sherds (P13078– P13079); CS.5.8= 45 sherds (P13119–P13163); CS.2.41.9= 5 sherds (P13224–P13228); CS.2.41.10= 13 sherds (P13276–P13288); CS.2.43.1= 2 sherds (P13299–P13300); CS.2.43.3= 9 sherds (P13316–P13324); CS.2.48= 2 sherds (P13336–P13337); CS.2.50.5= 4 sherds (P13368–P13371); CS.2.51.8.4= 6 sherds (P13391–P13396); CS.2.52.4= 6 sherds (P13402– P13407); CS.2.52.5= 2 sherds (P13415–P13416); CS.2.52.6= 8 sherds (P13430–P13437); CS.2.54= 3 sherds (P13455–P13457); CS.2.55.1= 4 sherds (P13480– P13483); CS.2.57= 7 sherds (P13514–P13520); CS.2.62= 11 sherds (P07540–P07549); CS.2.64= 1 sherd (P13605); CS.2.67= 7 sherds (P13629–P13635); CS.2.67.29= 2 sherds (P13720–P13721); CS.9.1.1= 83 sherds (P13824– P13906); CS.9.1.2= 75 sherds (P14180–P14254); CS.9.1.3= 93 sherds (P14596–P14688); CS.9.1.4 = 55 sherds (P14867–P14921); CS.9.1.5= 84 sherds (P15115– P15198); CS.9.1.6= 107 sherds (P15377–P15483); CS.9.1.7= 95 sherds (P15670–P15764); CS.9.1.8 = 80 sherds (P15906–P15985); CS.9.2.1= 60 sherds (P16135– P16194); CS.9.2.2= 36 sherds (P16286–P16321); CS.9.4= 24 sherds (P16476–P16499); CS.9.5= 115 sherds (P16648–P16762); CS.9.6= 112 sherds (P16857–P16968); CS.9.8= 80 sherds (P17092–P17171); CS.9.10= 112 sherds (P17283–P17394); CS.2.24= 25 sherds (P17663–P17687); CS.6, Tomb 6= 7 sherds (P17715–P17721); CS.5.1.6= 26 sherds (P17769–P17794); CS.5.10, Tomb 2= 38 sherds (P17834–P17871); CS.7.1.1= 64 sherds (P17950–P18013); CS.7.1.2= 121 sherds (P18143–P18263); CS.7.1.3= 84 sherds (P18405–P18488); CS.7.1.4 = 66 sherds (P18578– P18643); CS.7.1.5= 41 sherds (P18764–P18804) Total sherds: 3178 sherds Parallels: Kush and al–Mataf (Kennet 2004: 53–56; figs.19–25, pp: 116–122) Class Code: COMBED Class Name: Combed Ware Period: L.Islamic Description: Thin, light coarse ware with combed or rope prints decoration that cover the whole body. The fabric has smooth fracture and medium firing. The surface colours

are either white or gray. Walls’ thickness is c.1 mm to 8 cm. Origin: Local Sites: CS.9.10= 35 sherds (P00430 & P17395–P17428); CS.9.5= 45 sherds (P00655–P00667 & P16763–P16794); CS.7.1.4= 36 sherds (P00672–P00676 & P18647– P18677); CS.3.1.2= 48 sherds (P06142–P06148 & P08722–P08762); CS.1.5= 1 sherd (P08084); CS.1.5.4= 16 sherds (P08107–P08122); CS.1.5.5= 42 sherds (P08188– P08229); CS.1.5.6= 21 sherds (P08299–P08319); CS.2.3= 1 sherd (P08478); CS.3.1.1= 36 sherds (P08558–P08593); CS.3.1.2 = 48 sherds (P06142–P06148 & P08722–P08762); CS.3.1.3 = 55 sherds (P08975–P09029); CS.3.1.4= 58 sherds (P09202–P09259); CS.3.1.5= 4 sherds (P09401– P09404); CS.3.5.1= 33 sherds (P09623–P09655); CS.3.5.2= 32 sherds (P09769–P09800); CS.3.5.3= 18 sherds (P09951–P09968); CS.3.7.3= 52 sherds (P10064– P10115); CS.3.7.5 = 27 sherds (P10260–P10286); CS.4.1.5= 43 sherds (P11157–P11199); CS.4.1.6= 77 sherds (P11399–P11475); CS.4.4= 4 sherds (P11574– P11577); CS.4.12.1= 15 sherds (P11669–P11683); CS.1.5.1= 16 sherds (P11801–P11816); CS.1.5.2 = 30 sherds (P11974–P12003); CS.5.1.1= 2 sherds (P12128– P12129); CS.5.1.2= 18 sherds (P12233–P12250); CS.5.1.2.1= 23 sherds (P12390–P12412); CS.5.1.3= 51 sherds (P12620–P12670); CS.5.1.4= 6 sherds (P12892– P12897); CS.5.1.5= 35 sherds (P12981–P13015); CS.5.8= 27 sherds (P13092–P13118); CS.2.41.9= 2 sherds (P13229–P13230); CS.2.41.10= 1 sherd (P13275); CS.2.43.1= 2 sherds (P13301–P13302); CS.2.43.2= 2 sherds (P13309–P13310); CS.2.43.3= 1 sherd (P13325); CS.2.50.5= 7 sherds (P13361–P13367); CS.2.52.5= 1 sherd (P13417); CS.2.52.6= 7 sherds (P13423–P13429); CS.2.54= 1 sherd (P13458); CS.2.55.1= 7 sherds (P13473– P13479); CS.2.55.4= 3 sherds (P13494–P13496); CS.2.62= 8 sherds (P13550–P13557); CS.2.69.1.4= 2 sherds (P13723–P13724); CS.2.69.3.1= 1 sherd (P13740); CS.9.1.1= 46 sherds (P13907–P13952); CS.9.1.2= 51 sherds (P14255–P14305); CS.9.1.3= 49 sherds (P14547– P14595); CS.9.1.4= 28 sherds (P14922–P14949); CS.9.1.5 = 52 sherds (P15199–P15250); CS.9.1.6= 38 sherds (P15488–P15525); CS.9.1.7= 54 sherds (P15765– P15818); CS.9.1.8= 63 sherds (P15986–P16048); CS.9.2.1= 10 sherds (P16195–P16204); CS.9.2.2= 15 sherds (P16322–P16336); CS.9.6= 48 sherds (P16969– P17016); CS.2.24= 2 sherds (P17688–P17689); CS.6, Tomb 6= 21 sherds (P17694–P17714); CS.5.1.6= 30 sherds (P17795–P17824); CS.5.10, Tomb 9= 12 sherds (P17891– P17902); CS.7.1.1= 28 sherds (P18014–P18041); CS.7.1.2= 48 sherds (P18264–P18311); CS.7.1.3= 23 sherds (P18508–P18530); CS.7.1.5= 20 sherds (P18744– P18763); CS.4.1.1= 37 sherds (P10452–P10478 & P18921–P18930); CS.4.1.2= 11 sherds (P10520–P10530); CS.4.1.3= 70 sherds (P10685–P10754); CS.4.1.4= 67 sherds (P10913–P10964 & P19023–P19037); Total sherds: 1775 sherds Figure: 263

246

Appendices Parallels: Sohar excavation (Kervran 2004: fig. 9, Nos. 7–8, pp: 274 & fig.10, Nos.10–11, pp: 277) & Surface pottery from Kashm Nadir in northern Oman (de Cardi & Doe 1971: figs.15, No. 77: & 50, No.1)

sometimes on the interior only. This glaze varies in colour between green, light–green, olive, brown, greenish–brown and black. It could also be blue (see below BBAHW). Walls’ thickness varies from 1 mm to 2 cm.

Class Code: CBW

Origin: Local–made, Bahla

Class Name: Chinese Blue and White Porcelain

Sites: CS.3.1.3= 103 sherds (P00029–P00038 & P08882– P08974); CS.4.12.2= 1 sherd (P00234); CS.7.1.3= 22 sherds (P00290–P00291 & P18385–P18404); CS.4.1.3= 65 sherds (P00383–P00388 & P10626–P10684); CS.9.10= 112 sherds (P00427–P00429 & P17174–P17282); CS.1.4= 1 sherd (P00438); CS.9.5= 87 sherds (P00668– P00670 & P16564–P16647); CS.7.1.4= 32 sherds (P00671 & P18547–P18577); CS.2.51.7.2= 1 sherd (P01508); CS.5.10, Tomb 27= 6 sherds (P02296–P02301); CS.3.2= 1 sherd (P04302); CS.4.12.1= 41 sherds (P06114–P06126 & P11641–P11668); CS.3.5.2= 42 sherds (P06128–P06131, P07879–P07886 & P09739–P09768); CS.1.5.6= 39 sherds (P06149–P06150 & P08262–P08298); CS.4.1.1= 65 sherds (P06151–P06152, P10421–P10445 & P18823– P18860); CS.2.52.3= 1 sherd (P06451); CS.5.2.2= 1 sherd (P07233); CS.2.61= 2 sherds (P07274–P07275); CS.2.57= 7 sherds (P07307–P07313); CS.2.62= 20 sherds (P07536– P07539 & P13525–P13540); CS.2.54= 3 sherds (P07542 & P13453–P13454); CS.2.43.1= 5 sherds (P07544 & P13295–P13298); CS.2.24= 1 sherd (P07617); CS.5.1.6= 23 sherds (P07766–P07767 & P17748–P17768); CS.7.2= 6 sherds (P07795–P07800); CS.2.60= 1 sherd (P07877); CS.9.6= 62 sherds (P08017–P08035 & P16814–P16856); CS.1.5.4= 7 sherds (P08085–P08091); CS.1.5.5= P08160– P08187); CS.1.6= 8 sherds (P08408–P08415); CS.2.3= 1 sherd (P08477); CS.2.6= 3 sherds (P08504–P08506); CS.3.1.1= 36 sherds (P08522–P08557); CS.3.1.2 = 76 sherds (P06135–P06141 & P08653–P08721); CS.3.1.4 = 68 sherds (P09134–P09201); CS.3.1.5= 43 sherds (P09358–P09400); CS.3.1.6= 7 sherds (P09511–P09517); CS.3.5.1= 54 sherds (P09569–P09622); CS.3.5.3= 50 sherds (P09883–P09932); CS.3.7.3= 24 sherds (P10040– P10063); CS.3.7.5 = 29 sherds (P10231–P10259); CS.3.8= 16 sherds (P10377–P10392); CS.4.1.2= 2 sherds (P10518–P10519); CS.4.1.4= 84 sherds (P10868–P10912 & P18984–P19022); CS.4.1.5= 20 sherds (P11137– P11156); CS.4.1.6= 46 sherds (P11353–P11398); CS.4.4= 1 sherd (P11573); CS.4.5= 1 sherd (P11592); CS.1.5.1= 13 sherds (P11788–P11800); CS.1.5.2= 54 sherds (P11900–P11953); CS.5.1.1 = 2 sherds (P12117–P12118); CS.5.1.2= 46 sherds (P12187–P12232); CS.5.1.2.1= 37 sherds (P12353–P12389); CS.5.1.3= 104 sherds (P12497– P12600); CS.5.1.4= 41 sherds (P12833–P12873); CS.5.1.5= 28 sherds (P12928–P12955); CS.5.2.5= 3 sherds (P13075–P13077); CS.5.8= 9 sherds (P13083–P13091); CS.2.41.10= 5 sherds (P13270–P13274); CS.5.9= 4 sherds (P13205–P13208); CS.2.43.2= 1 sherd (P13308); CS.2.43.3= 5 sherds (P13311–P13315); CS.2.48= 2 sherds (P13338–P13339); CS.2.50.2= 2 sherds (P13342– P13343); CS.2.50.5= 14 sherds (P13347–P13360); CS.2.51.8.3= 6 sherds (P13385–P13390); CS.2.51.8.14= 1 sherd (P13397); CS.2.52.4= 3 sherds (P13399–P13401); CS.2.52.5= 6 sherds (P13409–P13414); CS.2.52.6= 5 sherds (P13418–P13422); CS.2.55.1= 6 sherds (P13467–

Period: L.Islamic Description: This class of porcelain is well-known. Kennet (2004: 51) describes it as “… a well–established class of porcelain. It is covered with a transparent lime– alkali glaze and decorated with underglaze cobalt. It is possible to sub–divide and date CBW based on the style of decoration…”. The ware includes small white and brown grits. Walls’ thickness is c.1 mm to 1 cm. Origin: China Sites: CS.9.5= 10 sherds (P00121–P00130); CS.2.62= 1 sherd (P00225); CS.3.1.3= 12 sherds (P00247–P00252 & P09098–P09103); CS.7.1.2= 5 sherds (P00298–P00299 & P00302–P00304); CS.9.1.6= 6 sherds (P00357–P00362); CS.4.1.3= 3 sherds (P00375–P00377); CS.9.10= 7 sherds (P00403–P00408 & P00426); CS.1.4= 2 sherds (P00431– P00432); CS.1.5.2= 11 sherds (P00510–P00515 & P11954–P11958); CS.3.7.1= 11 sherds (P00737–P00747); CS.2.55.1= 3 sherds (P00833–P00835); CS.4.12.2= 5 sherds (P01409–P01413); CS.9.4= 2 sherds (P02210– P02211); CS.7.1.4= 4 sherds (P02773–P02776); CS.1.5.5= 5 sherds (P02815 & P08064–P08067); CS.4.1.1= 9 sherds (P07559–P07560 & P08051–P08057); CS.4.1.6= 3 sherds (P07602–P07604); CS.2.24= 1 sherd (P07616); CS.5.1.6= 5 sherds (P07768–P07772); CS.3.5.2= 7 sherds (P07887– P07893); CS.9.6= 4 sherds (P07996–P07999); CS.3.1.5= 1 sherd (P09492); CS.5.1.2.1= 6 sherds (P12468–P12473); CS.5.1.3= 7 sherds (P12763–P12765 & P12800–P12803); CS.5.1.4= 1 sherd (P12898); CS.5.1.5= 1 sherd (P13024); CS.5.8= 7 sherds (P13164–P13170); CS.2.43.1= 1 sherd (P13306); CS.9.1.1= 4 sherds (P13968–P13971); CS.9.1.2= 8 sherds (P14306–P14313); CS.9.1.3= 1 sherd (P14722); CS.9.1.5= 2 sherds (P15260–P15261); CS.9.1.7 = 8 sherds (P15829–P15836); CS.9.2.1= 7 sherds (P16205–P16211); CS.9.2.2= 2 sherds (P16279–P16280); CS.7.1.1= 1 sherd (P18042) Total sherds: 175 sherds Figures: 264 (A–G); 265 Parallels: Kush and al–Mataf (Kennet 2004: 51–52) & Surface collection from Northern Oman (de Cardi & Doe 1971: figs. 12, Nos.1–16, pp: 261; figs. 45–47) Class Code: BAHLA Class Name: Bahla Ware Period: L.Islamic Description: Medium coarse, well-fired glazed earthenware with conchoidal fracture. The original surface and core are pale yellow to a light grey and a pinky red. The glaze is often on both the interior and exterior surfaces and

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Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula P13472); CS.2.55.4= 3 sherds (P13491–P13493); CS.2.56.7= 3 sherds (P13510–P13512); CS.2.63= 1 sherd (P13591); CS.2.64= 2 sherds (P13603–P13604); CS.9.1.1= 83 sherds (P13741–P13823); CS.9.1.2= 94 sherds (P14086–P14179); CS.9.1.3= 152 sherds (P14395– P14546); CS.9.1.4= 84 sherds (P14783–P14866); CS.9.1.5= 119 sherds (P14996–P15114); CS.9.1.6= 56 sherds (P15321–P15376); CS.9.1.7 = 80 sherds (P15590– P15669); CS.9.1.8= 46 sherds (P15860–P15905); CS.9.2.1= 38 sherds (P16097–P16134); CS.9.2.2= 39 sherds (P16236–P16274); CS.9.4= 4 sherds (P16500– P16503); CS.9.8= 12 sherds (P17080–P17091); CS.5.7= 1 sherd (P17693); CS.6, Tomb 6= 2 sherds (P17725– P17726); CS.5.10, Tomb 2= 4 sherds (P17872–P17875); CS.5.10, Tomb 13= 4 sherds (P17916–P17919); CS.7.1.1= 30 sherds (P17920–P17949); CS.7.1.2= 66 sherds (P18077–P18142); CS.7.1.3= 22 sherds (P00290–P00291 & P18385–P18404); CS.7.1.5= 19 sherds (P18725– P18743) Total sherds: 2693 sherds Figures: 266 (A–D); 267 (A–H); 268 Parallels: Whitcomb 1975: 129; al–Mataf: KHUNJ (Kennet 2004: 42–43)

often crazes very finely. There is some variation in the fabric and glaze colour. This is a well–established class of ceramic that was widely exported to the Western Indian Ocean, the Near East, and the Mediterranean …”. Walls’ thickness is c1–8 mm. Origin: imported, China Sites: CS.2.62= 2 sherds (P00224 & P13574); CS.1.5.5= 2 sherds (P08068 & P08258) Total sherds: 4 sherds Parallels: Kush (Kennet 2004: fig.18, pp: 115) Class Code: ENAML Class Name: Enamelled Chinese Porcelain Period: L.Islamic Description: Chinese porcelain fired under certain low degrees of temperatures and includes a very fine red– coloured enamelled decoration over thick or transparent glazes (Kennet 2004: 52). Walls’ thickness is 1 mm to 1 cm. Origin: imported, China

Class Code: BBAHW

Sites: CS.1.5.5= 1 sherd (P08259); CS.1.5.2= 1 sherd (P11963); CS.3.1.1= 1 sherd (P08650)

Class Name: Blue Bahla Ware

Total sherds: 3 sherds

Period: L.Islamic

Parallels: Al–Mataf (Kennet: 2004: 52).

Description: This class is similar to the Bahla Ware (BAHLA) but it is distinguished by its blue glaze that covers both the interior and the exterior surfaces. It is coarse ware with smooth fracture and medium firing. The fabric original surface is light red (Munsell 2.5YR, 7/6), and the core is light red (Munsell 2.5YR, 7/6). Walls’ thickness is c.3 mm to 1 cm. This class has only found on one site (CS.4.1.1) in al–Qaryatain village, and it has not been recorded at any other site, at least within the surveyed area. The sherds might belong to one single large open– mouthed jar.

Class Code: MISLAM–LISLAM

Origin: Local–made, Bahla

Class Name: M.Islamic to L.Islamic Period: M.Islamic to L.Islamic Description: This class includes all the coarse wares that bear similar characteristics of both Middle Islamic and Late Islamic periods in which it was difficult to assign them with certainty to any of these two periods. Thus, they were classified under the broader chronological period between both Middle Islamic and Late Islamic. Origin: Local?

Parallels: No parallels with the blue colour but the fabric is similar to the above indicated Bahla ware with parallels from al–Mataf (Kennet 2004: 42–43)

Sites: CS.2.52.4= 1 sherd (P02871); CS.2.62= 34 sherds (P03098–P03115 & P13575–P13590); CS.9.5= 31 sherds (P03180–P03210); CS.2.41.3= 6 sherds (P13209–P13214); CS.2.41.9= 39 sherds (P13231–P13269); CS.2.63= 5 sherds (P13592–P13596); CS.9.1.1= 98 sherds (P13988– P14085); CS.9.1.2= 34 sherds (P14361–P14394); CS.9.1.8 = 42 sherds (P16055–P16096); CS.9.2.1= 18 sherds (P16218–P16235); CS.9.2.2= 106 sherds (P16339– P16444); CS.7.1.2= 46 sherds (P18339–P18384)

Class Code: CELADON

Total sherds: 460 sherds

Class Name: Celadon Stone Ware

Parallels: ?

Period: L.Islamic

C.1.8– RECENT

Description: This ware is well-defined through the literature as “Longquan Celadon”. Kennet (2004: 49) states that “Longquan Celadon has a good quality, light grey stoneware body covered in a thick green glaze that

Class Code: EUROP

Sites: CS.4.1.1= 10 sherds (P00076–P00079 & P10446– P10451) Total sherds: 10 sherds Figures: 269

Class Name: European Porcelain Period: Recent

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Appendices Description: This class describes a recent type of porcelain that had been manufactured in Europe. The tradition might be developed from the Far Eastern porcelain. This class was largely produced and exported to widespread area, including the Oman Peninsula in which it had been used until the late 1970s. It is decorated with painted and glazed geometric and floral motifs. The ware itself is thin and medium fired with smooth fracture. Walls’ thickness is c.1–8 mm. Origin: Europe Sites: CS.9.5= 7 sherds (P00143–P00149); CS.2.62= 2 sherds (P00227–P00228); CS.7.1.2= 6 sherds (P00305– P00310); CS.9.1.6= 4 sherds (P00363–P00366); CS.1.4= 4 sherds (P00433–P00436); CS.2.55.1= 2 sherds (P00836– P00837); CS.5.13, Tomb 1= 2 sherds (P00889–P00890); CS.7.1.4= 3 sherds (P04181–P04183); CS.4.1.1= 17 sherds (P07545–P07558 & P08061–P08063); CS.4.1.6= 1 sherd (P07605); CS.4.1.5= 38 sherds (P07637–P07674); CS.5.1.6= 1 sherd (P07765); CS.7.1.3= 3 sherds (P07847– P07840); CS.2.57= 1 sherd (P07930); CS.9.6= 2 sherds (P08000–P08001); CS.3.1.4= 1 sherd (P09357); CS.4.5= 4 sherds (P11622–P11625); CS.5.1.2.1= 2 sherds (P12476– P12477); CS.5.1.3= 6 sherds (P12781–P12786); CS.5.1.4= 1 sherd (P12914); CS.5.1.5= 3 sherds (P13034–P13036); CS.5.8= 4 sherds (P13177–P13180); CS.2.55.4= 2 sherds (P13503–P13504); CS.9.1.1= 3 sherds (P13972–P13974); CS.9.1.2= 2 sherds (P14358–P14359); CS.9.1.7= 3 sherds (P15826–P15828); CS.9.2.1= 3 sherds (P16212–P16214); CS.9.2.2= 4 sherds (P16275–P16278); CS.9.10= 1 sherd (P17455); CS.7.1.1= 3 sherds (P18043–P18045); CS.4.1.4 = 4 sherds (P19073–P19076)

sherds (P07675–P07744); CS.5.1.6= 16 sherds (P07749– P07764); CS.7.2= 21 sherds (P07773–P07793); CS.7.1.3= 14 sherds (P07855–P07868); CS.2.60= 4 sherds (P07873– P07876); CS.3.5.2= 32 sherds (P07894–P07925); CS.2.57= 14 sherds (P07931–P07944); CS.9.6= 3 sherds (P07993–P07995); CS.1.5.4= 13 sherds (P08123– P08135); CS.1.5.6 = 28 sherds (P08378–P08405); CS.2.3= 6 sherds (P08470–P08475); CS.3.1.4= 2 sherds (P09355– P09356); CS.3.1.5= 8 sherds (P09479–P09486); CS.3.1.6= 2 sherds (P09518–P09519); CS.3.7.3= 1 sherd (P10219); CS.4.1.4= 4 sherds (P11048–P11051); CS.4.12.1= 1 sherd (P11716); CS.5.1.1 = 7 sherds (P12136–P12142); CS.5.1.2= 11 sherds (P12293–P12303); CS.5.1.2.1= 2 sherds (P12474–P12475); CS.5.1.3= 15 sherds (P12766– P12780); CS.5.1.4= 5 sherds (P12909–P12913); CS.5.1.5= 6 sherds (P13028–P13033); CS.2.43.3= 1 sherd (P13330); CS.2.52.4= 1 sherd (P13408); CS.2.64= 2 sherds (P13606– P13607); CS.9.1.1= 1 sherd (P13975); CS.9.1.2= 1 sherd (P14360); CS.9.1.6= 1 sherd (P15535); CS.9.1.7= 3 sherds (P15837–P15839); CS.9.2.1= 1 sherd (P16215); CS.9.4= 1 sherd (P16507); CS.9.8= 2 sherds (P17172–P17173); CS.7.1.1= 13 sherds (P18046–P18058); CS.7.1.4= 3 sherds (P18644–P18646) Total sherds: 413 sherds Parallels: Al–Mataf (Kennet 2004: 52–53) Class Code: WHW Class Name: White Ware Period: L.Islamic to Recent?

Class Code: MODERN

Description: Thin, medium–fired coarse unglazed earthenware with smooth fracture. The surface is light yellow to creamy white and the core is light gray to yellow with white, brown and gray small rounded inclusions of c.1–2 mm in size and covers 1% of the body sherd. Decoration includes incised wavy and horizontal lines. Walls’ thickness is c.1–6 mm.

Class Name: Modern Porcelain

Origin: Iran & Iraq? Local?

Period: Recent

Sites: CS.5.2.5= 4 sherds (P07543 & P13080–P13082); CS.7.2= 46 sherds (P07801–P07846); CS.1.5.4= 15 sherds (P08092–P08106); CS.1.5.5= 2 sherds (P08256–P08257); CS.1.5.6= 34 sherds (P08320–P08353); CS.1.8= 5 sherds (P08423–P08427); CS.3.1.1= 6 sherds (P08600–P08605); CS.3.1.2= 8 sherds (P08792–P08799); CS.3.1.3= 17 sherds (P09104–P09120); CS.3.1.4= 11 sherds (P09338– P09348); CS.3.1.5= 10 sherds (P09493–P09502); CS.3.1.6 = sherds (P09520–P09524); CS.3.5.1= 16 sherds (P09719– P09734); CS.3.5.2= 9 sherds (P09801–P09809); CS.3.5.3= 18 sherds (P09933–P09950); CS.3.7.3= 22 sherds (P10197–P10218); CS.3.7.5= 8 sherds (P10336–P10343); CS.4.1.1= 4 sherds (P10497–P10500); CS.4.1.2= 1 sherd (P10538); CS.4.1.3= 7 sherds (P10804–P10810); CS.4.1.4 = 54 sherds (P10983–P11034 & P19082–P19083); CS.4.1.5 = 51 sherds (P11224–P11274); CS.4.1.6= 10 sherds (P11500–P11509); CS.4.5= 29 sherds (P11593–P11621); CS.4.12.1= 13 sherds (P11717–P11729); CS.1.5.1= 2 sherds (P11817–P11818); CS.5.1.1= 6 sherds (P12130– P12135); CS.5.1.2= 11 sherds (P12282–P12292); CS.5.1.3

Total sherds: 139 sherds Figures: 270 Parallels: Kush and al–Mataf (Kennet 2004: 44).

Description: This class belongs to the most recent Far Eastern porcelain types, and it is often decorated with transfers (Kennet 2004: 52). It is largely produced and imported to widespread area, including the Oman Peninsula in which has been used for long time even until recent times. Walls’ thickness is c.1 mm to 1 cm. Origin: Far East origin (mainly Japan in the 20th century) Sites: CS.4.1.1= 32 sherds (P00080–P00083, P07563– P07589 & P08058); CS.9.5= 3 sherds (P00131–P00133); CS.2.62= 5 sherds (P00229–P00233); CS.7.1.2= 8 sherds (P00292–P00297 & P00300–P00301); CS.1.5.1= 6 sherds (P00318–P00323); CS.4.1.3= 1 sherd (P00378); CS.9.10= 2 sherds (P00409 & P17452); CS.1.5.2= 8 sherds (P00516– P00519 & P11959–P11962); CS.4.12.2= 1 sherd (P01407); CS.1.5.5= 2 sherds (P02807 & P08069); CS.5.2.4= 1 sherd (P06341); CS.4.1.6= 10 sherds (P07606–P07615); CS.2.24 = 19 sherds (P07618–P07636); CS.4.1.5= 70

249

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula = 19 sherds (P12601–P12619); CS.5.1.4= 7 sherds (P12902–P12908); CS.5.1.5= 3 sherds (P13025–P13027); CS.2.50.5= 2 sherds (P13373–P13374); CS.2.55.1= 4 sherds (P13487–P13490); CS.2.55.4= 3 sherds (P13500– P13502); CS.2.56.7= 1 sherd (P13513); CS.2.62= 2 sherds (P13572–P13573); CS.9.1.1= 2 sherds (P13986–P13987); CS.9.1.2= 20 sherds (P14338–P14357); CS.9.1.3= 22 sherds (P14689–P14710); CS.9.1.4= 16 sherds (P14950– P14965); CS.9.1.5= 10 sherds (P15271–P15280); CS.9.1.6 = 4 sherds (P15484–P15487); CS.9.1.7= 12 sherds (P15847–P15858); CS.9.1.8= 2 sherds (P16053–P16054); CS.9.2.2= 2 sherds (P16337–P16338); CS.9.5= 14 sherds (P16795–P16808); CS.9.6= 11 sherds (P17069–P17079); CS.9.10= 5 sherds (P17429–P17433); CS.5.1.6= 7 sherds (P17827–P17833); CS.7.1.2= 7 sherds (P18332–P18338); CS.7.1.3= 19 sherds (P18489–P18507); CS.7.1.4= 3 sherds (P18678–P18681) Total sherds: 622 sherds Parallels: Kush and al–Mataf (Kennet 2004: 57, figs. 28, types 109–110: pp: 124). Class Code: LISLAM–REC Class Name: L.Islamic to Recent Period: L.Islamic to Recent? Description: This class includes all the coarse wares that bear similar characteristics of both Late Islamic and Recent periods in which it was difficult to assign them with certainty to any of these two periods. Thus, they were classified under the broader chronological period between both Late Islamic and Recent. Origin: Local? Sites: CS.2.54= 16 sherds (P00001–P00008 & P13459– P13466); CS.2.68= 2 sherds (P00027–P00028); CS.2.69.2= 2 sherds (P00074–P00075); CS.9.5= 46 sherds (P00161– P00162, P00648–P00654 & P01700–P01736); CS.4.1.3= 50 sherds (P00380–P00381 & P10820–P10867); CS.9.10= 37 sherds (P00421–P00425 & P17456–P17487); CS.1.4= 4 sherds (P00439–P00442); CS.2.52.6= 4 sherds (P00597– P00600); CS.2.52.4= 1 sherd (P00691); CS.3.1.3= 20 sherds (P01183–P01202); CS.9.2.2= 35 sherds (P01462– P01496); CS.2.41.10= 4 sherds (P01677–P01680); CS.2.53 = 5 sherds (P01819–P01823); CS.1.5.5= 6 sherds (P02418–P02419 & P02810–P02813); CS.5.4= 3 sherds (P02491–P02493); CS.6, Tomb 6= 10 sherds (P02497– P02506); CS.2.51.5= 3 sherds (P02708–P02710); CS.7.2= 14 sherds (P02781–P02794); CS.2.67.29= 5 sherds (P02968–P02972); CS.2.63= 5 sherds (P02973–P02977); CS.2.41.9= 40 sherds (P03047–P03086); CS.4.5= 21 sherds (P03087–P03097 & P11626–P11635); CS.5.15, Tomb 4= 2 sherds (P03388–P03389); CS.4.13, Tomb 9= 11 sherds (P03669–P03679); CS.9.2.1= 24 sherds (P04085– P04096 & P08037–P08048); CS.3.1.6= 14 sherds (P04118–P04122 & P09557–P09565); CS.5.2.2= 8 sherds (P04128–P04135); CS.3.2= 6 sherds (P04303–P04305 & P09566–P09568); CS.4.9= 6 sherds (P04470–P04471 & P11637–P11640); CS.9.1.8= 5 sherds (P04599–P04603); CS.5.1.4= 22 sherds (P04604–P04612 & P12915–P12927);

CS.2.41.3= 6 sherds (P04843–P04848); CS.2.69.3.1= 15 sherds (P04849–P04863); CS.1.5= 60 sherds (P04913– P04972); CS.9.4= 6 sherds (P05032–P05037); CS.4.12.1= 17 sherds (P06127 & P11730–P11745); CS.2.61= 6 sherds (P07276–P07281); CS.4.4= 25 sherds (P07471–P07482 & P11579–P11591); CS.2.69.1.8= 1 sherd (P08049); CS.1.8= 1 sherd (P08428); CS.2.2= 5 sherds (P08429–P08433); CS.2.3= 25 sherds (P08479–P08503); CS.3.1.2= 60 sherds (P08822–P08881); CS.3.5.2= 20 sherds (P09863– P09882); CS.3.5.3= 10 sherds (P10027–P10036); CS.3.7.5= 33 sherds (P10344–P10376); CS.4.1.1= 70 sherds (P10501–P10517 & P18931–P18983); CS.4.1.2= 87 sherds (P10539–P10625); CS.4.1.4 = 225 sherds (P11052–P11136 & P19084–P19223); CS.4.1.5= 74 sherds (P11279–P11352); CS.4.1.6= 63 sherds (P11510– P11572); CS.1.5.1= 42 sherds (P11858–P11899); CS.1.5.2= 49 sherds (P12068–P12116); CS.5.1.1 = 44 sherds (P12143–P12186); CS.5.1.3= 29 sherds (P12804– P12832); CS.5.1.5= 26 sherds (P13049–P13074); CS.5.8= 24 sherds (P13181–P13204); CS.2.43.3= 5 sherds (P13331–P13335); CS.9.1.3= 46 sherds (P14737–P14782); CS.9.1.4= 24 sherds (P14972–P14995); CS.9.1.5= 40 sherds (P15281–P15320); CS.9.1.6= 40 sherds (P15536– P15575); CS.9.1.7= 14 sherds (P15576–P15589); CS.7.1.1 = 15 sherds (P18062–P18076); CS.7.1.3= 16 sherds (P18531–P18546); CS.7.1.4= 34 sherds (P18691– P18724); CS.7.1.5= 17 sherds (P18806–P18822) Total sherds: 1705 sherds Parallels: ? Class Code: OGIW Class Name: Other Glazed Islamic Ware Period: Islamic? Description: This class includes all the unidentifiable earthenware sherds that bear glaze or traces of glaze. These are small and/or badly eroded. Walls’ thickness varies between 1 mm and 1 cm. Origin: ? Sites: CS.9.5= 6 sherds (P00134–P00139); CS.7.1.2= 1 sherd (P00311); CS.9.10= 15 sherds (P00410–P00420 & P17434–P17437); CS.1.4= 1 sherd (P00443); CS.2.55.1= 2 sherds (P00831–P00832); CS.4.1.1= 3 sherds (P07561– P07562 & P08060); CS.4.1.6= 8 sherds (P07594–P07601); CS.4.1.5= 4 sherds (P07745–P07748); CS.7.1.3= 4 sherds (P07850–P07853); CS.2.57= 1 sherd (P07929); CS.9.6= 15 sherds (P08002–P08016); CS.1.5.5= 2 sherds (P08260– P08261); CS.1.5.6= 2 sherds (P08406–P08407); CS.3.1.1= 2 sherds (P08651–P08652); CS.3.1.2= 3 sherds (P08819– P08821); CS.3.1.3= 13 sherds (P09121–P09133); CS.3.1.4 = 19 sherds (P09319–P09337); CS.3.5.1= 4 sherds (P09735–P09738); CS.3.5.2= 8 sherds (P09851–P09858); CS.3.5.3= 4 sherds (P10023–P10026); CS.3.7.3= 11 sherds (P10220–P10230); CS.3.7.5= 21 sherds (P10315– P10335); CS.4.1.3= 2 sherds (P10818–P10819); CS.4.1.4= 10 sherds (P11037–P11042); P19078–P19081); CS.4.9= 1 sherd (P11636); CS.5.1.2= 5 sherds (P12306–P12310); CS.5.1.3= 13 sherds (P12787–P12799); CS.5.1.4= 1 250

Appendices sherd (P12901); CS.5.1.5= 2 sherds (P13037–P13038); CS.2.43.3 = 1 sherd (P13329); CS.2.50.2= 1 sherd (P13346); CS.2.51.7.1= 1 sherd (P13379); CS.2.52.3= 1 sherd (P13398); CS.2.60= 4 sherds (P13521–P13524); CS.9.1.1= 10 sherds (P13976–P13985); CS.9.1.2= 10 sherds (P14328–P14337); CS.9.1.3= 12 sherds (P14723–P14734); CS.9.1.4= 2 sherds (P14970–P14971); CS.9.1.5= 9 sherds (P15262–P15270); CS.9.1.6= 6 sherds

(P15526–P15531); CS.9.1.7= 7 sherds (P15819–P15825); CS.9.1.8= 1 sherd (P16049); CS.9.2.1= 1 sherd (P16216); CS.9.2.2= 4 sherds (P16282–P16285); CS.9.4= 2 sherds (P16508–P16509); CS.5.1.6= 2 sherds (P17825–P17826) Total sherds: 258 sherds Parallels: ?

Fig. 210: Umm an-Nar vessel bases: UMFW (A, D, E), UMGCCW (B, K, M), UMFGW (C), UMCGW (F-I) & UMTFRW (J, L)

251

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 211: Umm an-Nar body sherds: UMHFRW (A), UMPGW (B, C, F), UMFRPW (D) & UMFBPW (E)

Fig. 212: Umm an-Nar vessel rims: UMFBPW (A), UMRYW (B), UMCW (C), UMTGW (D) & UMPGW (E, F)

Fig. 213: Umm an-Nar vessel rims: UMPGW (A-B)

252

Appendices

Fig. 214: Umm an-Nar body sherds with painted decoration: UMPGW (A-C)

Fig. 215: Umm an-Nar rim sherds: UMFRPW (A) & UMFBPW (B-I)

253

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 216: Umm an-Nar rim sherds: UMFRPW (A-G)

254

Appendices

Fig. 217: Umm an-Nar rim sherds: UMFBPW (A-G)

255

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 219: Umm an-Nar vessel rims: UMFBPW (A-J)

Fig. 218: Umm an-Nar vessel bases: UMHFRW (A), UMRYW (B, D, E), UMCW (C), & UMFBPW (F)

Fig. 221: Umm an-Nar pierced lugs: UMTFRW (A-B)

Fig. 220: Umm an-Nar vessel rims: UMFBPW (A-E)

256

Appendices

Fig. 222: Umm an-Nar vessel bases: UMRYW (A-E)

Fig. 224: Wadi Suq vessel bases: RYWS (A-B)

Fig. 223: Umm an-Nar vessel rims: UMFW (A), UMGCCW (B, G), UMFGW (C), UMCW (D), UMTFRW (E, H, I) & UMCGW (F)

257

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 225: Wadi Suq bases: RYWS (A-B)

Fig. 226: Wadi Suq rims: RPWS (A-B)

Fig. 227: Early Iron Age vessel rims: FPEIA (A-D), VPBEIA (E), PEIA (F) & BREIA (G)

258

Appendices

Fig. 228: Early Iron Age vessel rims: THFEIA (A, C), LFEIA (B), CEIA (D, F) & VTCEIA (E)

259

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 229: Early Iron Age vessel bases: LFEIA (A), RLEIA (B), TREIA (C), FPEIA (D) & PEIA (E)

Fig. 230: Early Iron Age rims: GMCEIA (A) & LFEIA (B-F)

260

Appendices

EIA

Fig. 231: Early Iron Age perforated spout (A) & pierced lug (B): LF

Fig. 232: Early Iron Age vessel bases: THFEIA (A), RYEIA (B), GSCEIA (C), RFEIA (D) & PEIA (E-H)

261

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 233: Early Iron Age rim with incised decoration: THFEIA

Fig. 234: Early Iron Age body sherds: FPEIA (A-B), GSCEIA (C) & PEIA (D)

Fig. 235: Early Iron Age vessel rims: VTCEIA (A), PEIA (B, C, E) & FPEIA (D, F, G)

262

Appendices

Fig. 236: Early Iron Age painted sherds: FPEIA (A-D)

Fig. 237: Early Iron Age painted sherds: FPEIA (A-D)

Fig. 238: Early Iron Age pierced lug: TREIA

263

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 239: Early Iron Age incised and projected decoration: GSCEIA (A-F)

Fig. 240: Early Iron Age sherd with snake appliqué (A) & parts of bases (B-C): GSCEIA

Fig. 241: Early Iron Age vessel bases: RBCEIA (A), CEIA (B-C), HFEIA (D) & GMCEIA (E-F)

264

Appendices

Fig. 242: Late Iron Age vessel rims: LGCLIA (A-F)

265

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 243: Late Iron Age/Samad vessel rim with incised wavy line decoration: LGCLIA

266

IA

Fig. 244: Late Iron Age/Samad body sherd with incised and projected decoration like the sun-flower: LGCL

Appendices

Fig. 245: Late Iron Age vessel bases: CLIA (A, C, D, G-I), CRYLIR (B, E) & TCLIA (F)

267

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 246: Late Iron Age body sherds: TCLIA (A-B) & CLIA (C-H)

Fig. 247: Late Iron Age vessel rims: CLIA (A-D, F, H) & TCLIA (E, G)

268

Appendices

Fig. 248: Late Iron Age vessel rims: CLIA (A, C-E) & TCLIA (B)

Fig. 249: Late Iron Age vessel bases: CLIA (A, C, E, G, I), TCLIA (B, D, F) & DGCLIA (H)

269

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 250: Late Iron Age/Samad vessel rims with nail print or pitted decoration: CLIA (A-B)

Fig. 251: Late Iron Age/Samad body sherd (A) and part of handle or knob with dot and circle decoration (B): CLIA

IA

Fig. 252: Late Iron Age/Samad broken rim with incised or pitted decoration (A) and body sherd with dot and circle decoration (B): CL

270

Appendices

Fig. 253: Late Iron Age/Samad body sherds with incised and pitted decoration: CLIA (A-D)

Fig. 254: Late Iron Age/Samad vessel rims: TCLIA (A-F)

271

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 255: Pottery sherds of possibly Early Islamic: GGEI (A-D)

NMIW

Fig. 256: Middle Islamic Nabhani ware

272

Appendices

NMIW

Fig. 257: Middle Islamic Nabhani ware

273

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 258: Middle Islamic vessel bases: GWMI (A-B), SGRF (C) & YCWMI (D); and body sherds: GWMI (E-G, K) & SGRF (H-J, L)

274

Appendices

Fig. 259: Middle Islamic vessel rims: CMI (A-F)

275

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 260: Middle Islamic vessel bases: CMI (A-J)

276

Appendices

Fig. 261: Body sherds of Middle Islamic Sgraffiato ware SGRF

277

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 262: Body sherds of Middle Islamic Sgraffiato ware SGRF

Fig. 263: Example of Late Islamic Combed ware

278

Appendices

Fig. 264: Chinese Blue-and-White Late Islamic bowl rims and bases (A-G)

279

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 265: Example of Late Islamic Chinese Blue-and-White Porcelain

Fig. 266: Bahla Late Islamic vessel rims (A-D)

280

Appendices

Fig. 267: Bahla Late Islamic vessel bases (A-H)

281

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Fig. 268: Example of Late Islamic Bahla Ware

Fig. 269: Example of Late Islamic Blue Bahla Ware

282

Appendices

Fig. 270: Example of Recent European Porcelain

283

APPENDIX D SITES TRANSLITERATION

This appendix is designated as a list of all the sites’ names mentioned within this study, either those recorded by the Wadi Andam Survey or those important ones recorded by other survey projects. Sites’ names are spelt according to their pronunciation in the local dialect. This is in order to provide a ‘reader guide’ that makes it easy to spell the

‫ء‬ ‫ب‬ ‫ت‬ ‫ث‬

Μ b t Ε

‫ج‬ ‫ح‬ ‫خ‬ ‫د‬

j Ή Ο d

‫ذ‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ز‬ ‫س‬

Ψ r z s

correct names of sites/locations as well as to be as a guide for any future works that might cite or refer to these sites. Sites’ transliteration in this appendix is based on that used by the Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies, which follows the following standard:

‫ش‬ ‫ص‬ ‫ض‬ ‫ط‬

Ί Β Ρ Γ

‫ظ‬ ‫ع‬ ‫غ‬ ‫ف‬

Ξ Κ Υ f

‫ق‬ ‫ك‬ ‫ل‬ ‫م‬

q k l m

‫ن‬ ‫ﻩ‬ ‫و‬ ‫ي‬

The sites are listed in alphabetical order as the following: Site In English Abayah Abu al-Abyadh Abu Dhabi ad Daffah ad Dariz Adam Aflaj Aflaj al-Budu Ahin Ain al-Faidha Aint Ajman Akab Akhdar al-‘Akaba al-A’yoon al-Ain al-Alayah al-Alya al-Amqat al-Aqir al-Araqi al-Aryam al-Ashkharah al-Batin al-Batinah al-Bayda al-Bidya al-Buhais al-Buraimi al-Bustan al-Dhahirah al-Dhakhilyah al-Fueda al-Fulayj al-Ghalilah al-Ghoryeen al-Gubra

Arabic Transliteration ΚAbāyah Abw al-AbyaΡ Abw Нaby ad Daffah ad Darīz Adam al-Aflāj Aflāj al-Badw ΚĀhin ΚAin al-FāyΡah ΚAint ΚAjmān ΚAqāb AΟΡar al-ΚAqabah al-ΚUywn al-ΚAin al-ΚAlāyah al-ΚŪliā al-ΚAmqāt al-ΚŪqr al-ΚArāqy al-Aryām al-AΊΟarah al-BāΓin al-BāΓynah al-BayΡā al-Bidyah al-BūΉaiΒ Al-Būraimy al-Bustān al-Нāhirah al-DāΟylyah al-Fweida Fulayj al-Гalīlah al-Гoryīen al-Гubrah

284

Site in Arabic

‫ﻋﺒﺎﻳﺔ‬ ‫أﺑﻮ اﻷﺑﻴﺾ‬ ‫أﺑﻮﻇﺒﻲ‬ ‫اﻟﺪﻓﻪ‬ ‫اﻟﺪرﻳﺰ‬ ‫أدم‬ ‫اﻷﻓﻼج‬ ‫أﻓﻼج اﻟﺒﺪو‬ ‫ﻋﺎهﻦ‬ ‫ﻋﻴﻦ اﻟﻔﺎﻳﻀﺔ‬ ‫ﻋﻨﺖ‬ ‫ﻋﺠﻤﺎن‬ ‫ﻋﻘﺎب‬ ‫أﺧﻀﺮ اﻟﻌﻘﺒﺔ‬ ‫اﻟﻌﻴﻮن‬ ‫اﻟﻌﻴﻦ‬ ‫اﻟﻌﻼﻳﻪ‬ ‫اﻟﻌﻠﻴﺎ‬ ‫اﻟﻌﻤﻘﺎت‬ ‫اﻟﻌﻘﺮ‬ ‫اﻟﻌﺮاﻗﻲ‬ ‫اﻷرﻳﺎم‬ ‫اﻷﺷﺨﺮة‬ ‫اﻟﺒﺎﻃﻦ‬ ‫اﻟﺒﺎﻃﻨﺔ‬ ‫اﻟﺒﻴﻀﺎ‬ ‫اﻟﺒﺪﻳﻪ‬ ‫اﻟﺒﺤﻴﺺ‬ ‫اﻟﺒﺮﻳﻤﻲ‬ ‫اﻟﺒﺴﺘﺎن‬ ‫اﻟﻈﺎهﺮة‬ ‫اﻟﺪاﺧﻠﻴﺔ‬ ‫اﻟﻔﻮﻳﺪﻩ‬ ‫اﻟﻔﻠﻴﺞ‬ ‫اﻟﻐﻠﻴﻠﻪ‬ ‫اﻟﻐﺮﻳﻴﻦ‬ ‫اﻟﻐﺒﺮة‬

n h w y

Appendices

al-Haddah al-Hail (Hayl) al-Hajar Mountains al-Hajir al-Hamra al-Hamriyah al-Hind al-Hubat al-Hubi al-Huqf al-Jabeeb al-Jauf al-Jinah Al-Jumaira al-Kamil Wa al-Wafi al-Kharma al-Khashibah al-Khat (Khatt) al-Khawd al-Khurais al-Madam al-Majazah al-Manzifah al-Mataf al-Mudhaybi al-Mudhayrib al-Muqatta al-Musala al-Musfah al-Niba' al-Qabil al-Qaryatain al-Qassimiya al-Qusais al-Rabi al-Rams al-Rawadhah al-Saruj al-Sayab (Assayab) al-Shari'ah al-Shariq al-Sharqiyah al-Sila' al-Sufouh al-Thabiti al-Thuqaibah al-Uwainah al-Wafi al-Washahi al-Wasil Al-Wasit al-Wusta Amalah Arja as Safarfir as Seeb A'seelah (Asilah) Asimah Awabi Awafi Bahla Balad Seet (Sayt)

al-Дaddah al-Дail Jibāl al-Дajar al-Дājir al-Дamrā al-Дamriyah al-Hind Lu-ДbāΓ al-Дuby al-Дuqf al-Jabīb al-Jawf al-Jināh al-Jumaira al-Kāmil Wa al-Wāfi al-Еarmā al-ЕaΊibah al-Еat al-ЕawΡ al-ЕuraiΒ al-Madām al-Majāzah al-Manzifah al-MaΓāf al-MuΡayby al-MuΡayrib al-MuqaΓā al-MuΒalā al-Musfāh al-NabΚa al-Qābil al-Qaryatain al-Qāsimiyah al-QuΒaiΒ al-Rāby ar Rams Ar RawΡah al-Сārwj al-Sayāb al-ЗarīΚah al-Зāriq al-Зarqyah al-SilΚa al-Сafwah al-Лābity al-Лuqaibah al-ΚŪwainah al-Wāfy al-WāΊiΉy al-WāΒil al-WāsiΓ al-Wstā ΚAmalah ΚArjā as Сafāfīr as Sīb AΒīlah ΚAsīmah al-ΚAwāby ΚAwāfy Bahlā Balad Sīt

285

‫اﻟﺤﺪﻩ‬ ‫اﻟﺤﻴﻞ‬ ‫ﺟﺒﺎل اﻟﺤﺠﺮ‬ ‫اﻟﺤﺎﺟﺮ‬ ‫اﻟﺤﻤﺮاء‬ ‫اﻟﺤﻤﺮﻳﺔ‬ ‫اﻟﻬﻨﺪ‬ ‫اﻟﺤﺒﺎط‬ ‫اﻟﺤﺒﻲ‬ ‫اﻟﺤﻘﻒ‬ ‫اﻟﺠﺒﻴﺐ‬ ‫اﻟﺠﻮف‬ ‫اﻟﺠﻨﺎﻩ‬ ‫اﻟﺠﻤﻴﺮا‬ ‫اﻟﻜﺎﻣﻞ واﻟﻮاﻓﻲ‬ ‫اﻟﺨﺮﻣﺎء‬ ‫اﻟﺨﺸﺒﻪ‬ ‫اﻟﺨﺖ‬ ‫اﻟﺨﻮض‬ ‫اﻟﺨﺮﻳﺺ‬ ‫اﻟﻤﺪام‬ ‫اﻟﻤﺠﺎزﻩ‬ ‫اﻟﻤﻨﺰﻓﻪ‬ ‫اﻟﻤﻄﺎف‬ ‫اﻟﻤﻀﻴﺒﻲ‬ ‫اﻟﻤﻀﻴﺮب‬ ‫اﻟﻤﻘﻄﺎ‬ ‫اﻟﻤﺼﻠﻰ‬ ‫اﻟﻤﺴﻔﺎﻩ‬ ‫اﻟﻨﺒﻊ‬ ‫اﻟﻘﺎﺑﻞ‬ ‫اﻟﻘﺮﻳﺘﻴﻦ‬ ‫اﻟﻘﺎﺳﻤﻴﺔ‬ ‫اﻟﻘﺼﻴﺺ‬ ‫اﻟﺮاﺑﻲ‬ ‫اﻟﺮﻣﺲ‬ ‫اﻟﺮوﺿﺔ‬ ‫اﻟﺼﺎروج‬ ‫اﻟﺴﻴﺎب‬ ‫اﻟﺸﺮﻳﻌﺔ‬ ‫اﻟﺸﺎرق‬ ‫اﻟﺸﺮﻗﻴﺔ‬ ‫اﻟﺴﻠﻊ‬ ‫اﻟﺼﻔﻮﻩ‬ ‫اﻟﺜﺎﺑﺘﻲ‬ ‫اﻟﺜﻘﻴﺒﻪ‬ ‫اﻟﻌﻮﻳﻨﻪ‬ ‫اﻟﻮاﻓﻲ‬ ‫اﻟﻮاﺷﺤﻲ‬ ‫اﻟﻮاﺻﻞ‬ ‫اﻟﻮاﺳﻂ‬ ‫اﻟﻮﺳﻄﻰ‬ ‫ﻋﻤﻼ‬ ‫ﻋﺮﺟﺎ‬ ‫اﻟﺼﻔﺎﻓﻴﺮ‬ ‫اﻟﺴﻴﺐ‬ ‫أﺻﻴﻠﻪ‬ ‫ﻋﺴﻴﻤﻪ‬ ‫اﻟﻌﻮاﺑﻲ‬ ‫ﻋﻮاﻓﻲ‬ ‫ﺑﻬﻼ‬ ‫ﺑﻠﺪ ﺳﻴﺖ‬

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Bandar al-Jissa Bandar al-Khayran Barka Barzaman Bat Bidbid Bidiyah Bilad al-Maaidin (Muaidin, Maaidin Bilad Bani Bu 'Ali Bilad Bani Bu Hasan Bilad Seet (Sayt) Bimah (Bimmah) Bir Bara Bir Sayf Bisya Bithnah Buwshar (Baushar, Bawshar) Daba Dalma Darsait Dhaid Dhayah Diba (Dibba) Dibab Dima wa At Taiyyin Dubai Eastern Hajar ed-Dur (ed-Door) Emirates Fahud Fashgha Firq (Farq) Fujairah Ghalilah Ghanadha Hafit Harat al-Nizar Harat al-Yaman Harat ar-Raha Hat Hili Husn Khor Ibra Ibri Idhn Indian Ocean Izki Jebel al-Hammah Jebel Hafit Jebel Suleman ‘Ali Jebel Qard (Check??) Jala'an Jarda Jazirat al-Hamra Jebal Bu Rzuz Jebel Akhdar Jebel Shams Julfar Kalba Khadra Bani Dafa'a Kharimat Khor al-Manahil

Bandar al-JaΒah Bandar al-Еīrān Barkā Barzamān Bāt Bidbid Bidiyah Bilād al-MuΚaidin Bilād Banī Bw ΚAlī Bilād Banī Bw Дasan Bilād Sīt Bimah Bīr Barā Bīr Sayf Bisyā BiΕnah BwΊar Dabā Dalmā Dārsīt al-Аaid Џāyah Dibā Џabāb Dimā wa al-Кāyīn Dubay al-Дajar al-Зarqy al-Dwr al-Īmārāt Fuhwd FaΊΥah Farq al-Fūjairah Гalīlah ГanāΡah Дafīt Дārat al-Nizār Дārat al-Yaman Дārat ar RaΉā HāΓ Hīlī ДiΒin Еwr Ībrā Ībry ĪΡn al-MuΉīΓ al-Hindi Īzky Jebel al-Дammah Jebel Дafīt Jebel Sulimān ΚAlī Jebel Qard JΚalān al-Jardā Jazīrat al-Дamrā Jebel Bw Ruzūz al-Jebel al-AΟΡar Jebel Зams Julfār Kalbā ЕaΡrā Banī DafāΚa Еuraimat Еwr al-Manāhīl

286

‫ﺑﻨﺪر اﻟﺠﺼﺔ‬ ‫ﺑﻨﺪر اﻟﺨﻴﺮان‬ ‫ﺑﺮآﺎء‬ ‫ﺑﺮزﻣﺎن‬ ‫ﺑﺎت‬ ‫ﺑﺪﺑﺪ‬ ‫ﺑﺪﻳﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﻼد اﻟﻤﻌﻴﺪن‬ ‫ﺑﻼد ﺑﻨﻲ ﺑﻮﻋﻠﻲ‬ ‫ﺑﻼد ﺑﻨﻲ ﺑﻮﺣﺴﻦ‬ ‫ﺑﻼد ﺳﻴﺖ‬ ‫ﺑﻴﻤﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﻴﺮ ﺑﺮا‬ ‫ﺑﻴﺮ ﺳﻴﻒ‬ ‫ﺑﺴﻴﺎ‬ ‫ﺑﺜﻨﻪ‬ ‫ﺑﻮﺷﺮ‬ ‫دﺑﺎ‬ ‫دﻟﻤﺎ‬ ‫دارﺳﻴﺖ‬ ‫اﻟﺬﻳﺪ‬ ‫ﺿﺎﻳﻪ‬ ‫دﺑﺎ‬ ‫ﺿﺒﺎب‬ ‫دﻣﺎ واﻟﻄﺎﻳﻴﻦ‬ ‫دﺑﻲ‬ ‫اﻟﺤﺠﺮ اﻟﺸﺮﻗﻲ‬ ‫اﻟﺪور‬ ‫اﻹﻣﺎرات‬ ‫ﻓﻬﻮد‬ ‫ﻓﺸﻐﻪ‬ ‫ﻓﺮق‬ ‫اﻟﻔﺠﻴﺮة‬ ‫ﻏﻠﻴﻠﻪ‬ ‫ﻏﻨﺎﺿﺔ‬ ‫ﺣﻔﻴﺖ‬ ‫ﺣﺎرة اﻟﻨﺰار‬ ‫ﺣﺎرة اﻟﻴﻤﻦ‬ ‫ﺣﺎرة اﻟﺮﺣﻰ‬ ‫هﺎط‬ ‫هﻴﻠﻲ‬ ‫ﺣﺼﻦ ﺧﻮر‬ ‫إﺑﺮا‬ ‫ﻋﺒﺮي‬ ‫اﺿﻦ‬ ‫اﻟﻤﺤﻴﻂ اﻟﻬﻨﺪي‬ ‫إزآﻲ‬ ‫ﺟﺒﻞ اﻟﺤﻤﻪ‬ ‫ﺟﺒﻞ ﺣﻔﻴﺖ‬ ‫ﺟﺒﻞ ﺳﻠﻴﻤﺎن ﻋﻠﻲ‬ ‫ﺟﺒﻞ ﻗﺮد‬ ‫ﺟﻌﻼن‬ ‫اﻟﺠﺮداء‬ ‫ﺟﺰﻳﺮة اﻟﺤﻤﺮا‬ ‫ﺟﺒﻞ ﺑﻮ رزوز‬ ‫اﻟﺠﺒﻞ اﻷﺧﻀﺮ‬ ‫ﺟﺒﻞ ﺷﻤﺲ‬ ‫ﺟﻠﻔﺎر‬ ‫آﻠﺒﺎ‬ ‫ﺧﻀﺮاء ﺑﻨﻲ دﻓﺎع‬ ‫ﺧﺮﻳﻤﺔ ﺧﻮر اﻟﻤﻨﺎهﻴﻞ‬

Appendices

Kharma Khawr al-Jaramah Khor Fakkan Khuwisi (Check??) Kuria Muria Kush Liwa Liwa Lizq (Luzq) Madkhal al-‘Akaba Mahadhah Mahleya Manah Manal Maqbarat Al-A'immah Maqbarat Al-Uwaynah Marawah Masirah Maysar (Muyasar) Mintirib Miskin Mleiha Mowaihat Mullaq Musandam Muscat Muti Muwaylaha Muweilah (Muwaylah) Nasla Nizwa Oman Qalahat Qarn Bint Sa'ud Qarn Qantarat Nizwā Qaryat Sallut Qatarah Qidfa Qurayat Rafag Ra's al Khabbah Ras al-Aysh Ras al-Hadd Ras al-Hamra Ras al-Jinz Ras al-Khaimah Ra's ar Ru'ays (Ruways) Ra's ash Shaqallah Ra's ash Sharik Ras Lima Ra's Madrakah Ras Quamylah Ra's Sheikh Mas'ud Rous al-Jibal Rub al-Khali Rubkah (Check??) Rumaitha Rumeilah (Rumaylah) Rustaq Sabkhat Matti Saham Saiq (Sayq)

Еarmā Еwr al-Jarāmah Еwr Fakān ЕuwaiΒy Kwriā Mwriā KwΊ Līwā Liwā Luzuq MadΟal al-ΚAqabah MaΉaΡah MaΉlyā ManaΉ Manāl Maqbarat al-Eīmah Maqbarat al-ΚŪwaynah MarāwaΉ MaΒirah Al-Maysar (al-Muyasar) al-Mintirib Miskin MleiΉah Muwaihāt Mūlāq Musandam MasqaΓ ĪmΓy MuwaylaΉah MuwaylaΉ NaΒlah Nīzwā ΚŪmān Qalahāt Qarn Bint SΚūd Qarn QanΓarat Nizwā Qaryat Sallūt al-QaΓārah QadfaΚa Qurayāt Rafaq Rās al-Еabah Rās al-ΚAiΊ Rās al-Дad Rās al-Дamrā Rās al-Jinz Rās al-Еaimah Rās ar Ruways Rās al-Šaqlah Rās al-ŠāriΟ Rās Līmā Rās Madrakah Rās Qūmaylah Rās al-ŠaiΟ MasΚawd Rūws al-Jibāl ar RubΚa al-Еāly RubΟah RumaiΕah Rumaylah ar Rustāq SabΟat ĪmΓy СaΉam Sīq

287

‫ﺧﺮﻣﺎ‬ ‫ﺧﻮر ﺟﺮاﻣﻪ‬ ‫ﺧﻮر ﻓﻜﺎن‬ ‫ﺧﻮﻳﺼﻲ‬ ‫آﻮرﻳﺎ ﻣﻮرﻳﺎ‬ ‫آﻮش‬ ‫ﻟﻴﻮا‬ ‫ﻟﻮى‬ ‫ﻟﺰق‬ ‫ﻣﺪﺧﻞ اﻟﻌﻘﺒﺔ‬ ‫ﻣﺤﻀﺔ‬ ‫ﻣﺤﻠﻴﺎء‬ ‫ﻣﻨﺢ‬ ‫ﻣﻨﺎل‬ ‫ﻣﻘﺒﺮة اﻵﺋﻤﺔ‬ ‫ﻣﻘﺒﺮة اﻟﻌﻮﻳﻨﺔ‬ ‫ﻣﺮاوح‬ ‫ﻣﺼﻴﺮة‬ ‫اﻟﻤﻴﺴﺮ‬ ‫اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺮب‬ ‫ﻣﺴﻜﻦ‬ ‫ﻣﻠﻴﺤﺔ‬ ‫ﻣﻮﻳﻬﺎت‬ ‫ﻣﻼق‬ ‫ﻣﺴﻨﺪم‬ ‫ﻣﺴﻘﻂ‬ ‫اﻣﻄﻲ‬ ‫ﻣﻮﻳﻠﺤﻪ‬ ‫ﻣﻮﻳﻠﺢ‬ ‫ﻧﺼﻠﻪ‬ ‫ﻧﺰوى‬ ‫ﻋﻤﺎن‬ ‫ﻗﻠﻬﺎت‬ ‫ﻗﺮن ﺑﻨﺖ ﺳﻌﻮد‬ ‫ﻗﺮن ﻗﻨﻄﺮة ﻧﺰوى‬ ‫ﻗﺮﻳﺔ ﺳﻠﻮت‬ ‫اﻟﻘﻄﺎرة‬ ‫ﻗﺪﻓﻊ‬ ‫ﻗﺮﻳﺎت‬ ‫رﻓﻖ‬ ‫راس اﻟﺨﺒﻪ‬ ‫راس اﻟﻌﻴﺶ‬ ‫راس اﻟﺤﺪ‬ ‫راس اﻟﺤﻤﺮا‬ ‫راس اﻟﺠﻨﺰ‬ ‫راس اﻟﺨﻴﻤﺔ‬ ‫راس اﻟﺮوﻳﺲ‬ ‫راس اﻟﺸﻘﻠﻪ‬ ‫راس اﻟﺸﺎرخ‬ ‫راس ﻟﻴﻤﺎ‬ ‫راس ﻣﺪرآﻪ‬ ‫راس ﻗﻤﻴﻠﺔ‬ ‫راس اﻟﺸﻴﺦ ﻣﺴﻌﻮد‬ ‫روس اﻟﺠﺒﺎل‬ ‫اﻟﺮﺑﻊ اﻟﺨﺎﻟﻲ‬ ‫رﺑﺨﻪ‬ ‫اﻟﺮﻣﻴﺜﻪ‬ ‫رﻣﻴﻠﻪ‬ ‫اﻟﺮﺳﺘﺎق‬ ‫ﺳﺒﺨﺔ اﻣﻄﻲ‬ ‫ﺻﺤﻢ‬ ‫ﺳﻴﻖ‬

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

Saiwan Salut Samad as Shan Selme Sharjah Sharm Shimal Shir Siba’ Sinaw Sir Bani Yas Soa’al Sohar Strait of Hormuz Sulaymi Suq al-Qadim Sur Suwaiq Suwayh Tarif Tawi Arja Tawi Hulays Tawi Said Tawi Silaim Tell Abraq The Arabian Gulf The Arabian Peninsula The Arabian Sea The Sea of Oman The Oman Peninsula Tikha Tiwi Ubaid Umm al-Qaiwain Umm an-Nar Umm az Zumul Wa'ab Wadi al Bathā Wadi al-'Ain Wadi al-Fulayj Wadi al-Hawasinah Wadi al-Jiri Wadi al-Jizi Wadi al-Kabir Wadi al-Kharma Wadi al-Mazari'a Wadi al-Qawr Wadi al-Rak Wadi al-Umayri Wadi al-Wushail Wadi Andam Wadi Bani Awaf Wadi Bani Ghafir Wadi Bani 'Umr Wadi Bunzar Wadi Far'a Wadi Fizh Wadi Garbi Wadi Ghul Wadi Halfain (Halfayn) Wadi Haqil Wadi Kalbu

Сīwān Salwt Samad al-Зān Selmy al-Зāriqah Šaram Зimal Šīr Sibā Sināw Сīr Banī Yās SuΚāl СuΉār MaΡyq Hurmuz al-Sulaymi al-Sūq al-Qadīm Сūr al-Sūwaiq as SuwayΉ Кarīf Кawī ΚArjā Кawī Дulays Кawī SΚīd Кawī Sulaim Tell Abraq al-Еalīj al-ΚAraby Зibah al-Jazīrah al-ΚArabyah BaΉar al-ΚArab Еalīj al-ΚŪmān Зibah al-Jazīrah al-ΚŪmānyah КiΟah Кīwī al-ΚŪbaid Ūm al-Qaiwain Ūm an-Nār Ūm az Zumūl WaΚab Wādī al-BaΓΉā Wādī al-ΚAin Wādī Fulayj Wādī al-Дwāsinah Wādī al-Jirrī Wādī al-Jizī Wādī al-Kabīr Wādī al-Еarmā Wādī al-MazāriΚa Wādī al-Qawr Wādī al-Rāk Wādī al-ΚŪmayry Wādī al-WuΊail Wādī ΚAndām Wādī Banī ΚAwaf Wādī Banī Гāfir Wādī Banī ΚŪmar Wādī Bwnzār Wādī al-FarΚa Wādī FizΉ Wādī al-Гarby Wādī Гūl Wādī Дalfīn Wādī Еaqīl Wādī Kalbwh

288

‫ﺻﻴﻮان‬ ‫ﺳﻠﻮت‬ ‫ﺳﻤﺪ اﻟﺸﺎن‬ ‫ﺳﻠﻤﻲ‬ ‫اﻟﺸﺎرﻗﺔ‬ ‫ﺷﺮم‬ ‫ﺷﻤﻞ‬ ‫ﺷﻴﺮ‬ ‫ﺳﻴﺒﺎ‬ ‫ﺳﻨﺎو‬ ‫ﺻﻴﺮ ﺑﻨﻲ ﻳﺎس‬ ‫ﺳﻌﺎل‬ ‫ﺻﺤﺎر‬ ‫ﻣﻀﻴﻖ هﺮﻣﺰ‬ ‫اﻟﺴﻠﻴﻤﻲ‬ ‫اﻟﺴﻮق اﻟﻘﺪﻳﻢ‬ ‫ﺻﻮر‬ ‫اﻟﺴﻮﻳﻖ‬ ‫اﻟﺴﻮﻳﺢ‬ ‫ﻃﺮﻳﻒ‬ ‫ﻃﻮي اﻟﻌﺮﺟﺎ‬ ‫ﻃﻮي ﺣﻠﻴﺲ‬ ‫ﻃﻮي ﺳﻌﻴﺪ‬ ‫ﻃﻮي ﺳﻠﻴﻢ‬ ‫ﺗﻞ أﺑﺮق‬ ‫اﻟﺨﻠﻴﺞ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﻲ‬ ‫ﺷﺒﺔ اﻟﺠﺰﻳﺮة اﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ‬ ‫ﺑﺤﺮ اﻟﻌﺮب‬ ‫ﺧﻠﻴﺞ ﻋﻤﺎن‬ ‫ﺷﺒﺔ اﻟﺠﺰﻳﺮة اﻟﻌﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ‬ ‫ﻃﻴﺨﻪ‬ ‫ﻃﻴﻮي‬ ‫اﻟﻌﺒﻴﺪ‬ ‫أم اﻟﻘﻴﻮﻳﻦ‬ ‫أم اﻟﻨﺎر‬ ‫أم اﻟﺰﻣﻮل‬ ‫وﻋﺐ‬ ‫وادي اﻟﺒﻄﺤﺎ‬ ‫وادي اﻟﻌﻴﻦ‬ ‫وادي اﻟﻔﻠﻴﺞ‬ ‫وادي اﻟﺤﻮاﺳﻨﺔ‬ ‫وادي اﻟﺠﺮي‬ ‫وادي اﻟﺠﺰي‬ ‫اﻟﻮادي اﻟﻜﺒﻴﺮ‬ ‫وادي اﻟﺨﺮﻣﺎء‬ ‫وادي اﻟﻤﺰارع‬ ‫وادي اﻟﻘﻮر‬ ‫وادي اﻟﺮاك‬ ‫وادي اﻟﻌﻤﻴﺮي‬ ‫وادي اﻟﻮﺷﻴﻞ‬ ‫وادي ﻋﻨﺪام‬ ‫وادي ﺑﻨﻲ ﻋﻮف‬ ‫وادي ﺑﻨﻲ ﻏﺎﻓﺮ‬ ‫وادي ﺑﻨﻲ ﻋﻤﺮ‬ ‫وادي ﺑﻮﻧﺰار‬ ‫وادي اﻟﻔﺮع‬ ‫وادي ﻓﺰح‬ ‫وادي اﻟﻐﺮﺑﻲ‬ ‫وادي ﻏﻮل‬ ‫وادي ﺣﻠﻔﻴﻦ‬ ‫وادي ﺣﻘﻴﻞ‬ ‫وادي آﻠﺒﻮﻩ‬

Appendices

Wadi Mahram Wadi Qa'aid Wadi Qant Wadi Raki Wadi Sahtan Wadi Samad Wadi Shab Wadi Sunaysal Wadi Suq Wadi Suqt Wadi Tayin Wadi Wutayya Wahiba Sands Western Hajar Yasat al-Sufla Yasat al-Ulia Zabi Zahir Zahra Zammah Zukayt (Zukait)

Wādī MaΉram Wādī al-QuΚad Wādī Qant Wādī Rākī Wādī al-SaΉtan Wādī Samad Wādī Šāb Wādī Sunaysal Wādī Swq Wādī SuqΓ Wādī al-Кāyīn Wādī al-WuΓayah Rymāl Wyhaibah al-Дajar al-Гarby Yāsāt al-Suflā Yāsāt al-ΚŪliā Zābī Zāhir Zahrā Zammah Īzkait

289

‫وادي ﻣﺤﺮم‬ ‫وادي اﻟﻘﻌﺪ‬ ‫وادي ﻗﻨﺖ‬ ‫وادي اﻟﺮاآﻲ‬ ‫وادي اﻟﺴﺤﺘﻦ‬ ‫وادي ﺳﻤﺪ‬ ‫وادي ﺷﺎب‬ ‫وادي ﺳﻨﻴﺴﻞ‬ ‫وادي ﺳﻮق‬ ‫وادي ﺳﻘﻂ‬ ‫وادي اﻟﻄﺎﻳﻴﻦ‬ ‫وادي اﻟﻮﻃﻴﺔ‬ ‫رﻣﺎل وهﻴﺒﺔ‬ ‫اﻟﺤﺠﺮ اﻟﻐﺮﺑﻲ‬ ‫ﻳﺎﺳﺎت اﻟﺴﻔﻠﻰ‬ ‫ﻳﺎﺳﺎت اﻟﻌﻠﻴﺎ‬ ‫زاﺑﻲ‬ ‫زاهﺮ‬ ‫زهﺮا‬ ‫زﻣﻪ‬ ‫ازآﻴﺖ‬

APPENDIX E OTHER FINDS DESCRIPTION The aim of this appendix is to present the other archaeological finds (e.g. metals, shells, softstone, beads, etc.) rather than pottery (see Appendix C) collected during the survey from different sites. It will provide details about the collected find such as its number (e.g. W.D.001), general area of discovery (e.g. al-Fulayj), site number where it was collected from (e.g. CS.1.2.1), possible dating and a description of its characteristics. Object No

CS.1.2.1 CS.4.13, Tomb 8 CS.4.13, Tomb 8 CS.4.13, Tomb 8 CS.4.13, Tomb 8 CS.4.13, Tomb 8 CS.4.13, Tomb 8 CS.4.13, Tomb 8 CS.2.69.2

?

Flint worked piece

W.D.010

al-Fulayj al-Qaryatain al-Qaryatain al-Qaryatain al-Qaryatain al-Qaryatain al-Qaryatain al-Qaryatain Khadra Bani Dafa’a Khadra Bani Dafa’a

Period Possible 5th millennium BC Arabian Bifacial Tradition (ABT) Early Iron Age Early Iron Age Early Iron Age Early Iron Age Early Iron Age Early Iron Age Early Iron Age

CS.2.69.2

?

W.D.011 W.D.012

al-Khashbah al-Khashbah

CS.5.10, Tomb 27 CS.5.13, Tomb 4

Early Iron Age Early Iron Age

W.D.013

CS.1.4, Tomb 1

?

W.D.014

al-Fulayj Khadra Bani Dafa’a

CS.2.67.10

Early Iron Age

W.D.015 W.D.016

Siyudian al-Ghoryeen

CS.2.4 CS.2.43.2

Wadi Suq ?

W.D.017 W.D.018 W.D.019 W.D.020 W.D.021 W.D.022

CS.5.10, Tomb 2 CS.5.10, Tomb 2 CS.5.4 CS.5.10, Tomb 4 CS.4.13, Tomb 9 CS.4.13, Tomb 9

Early Iron Age ? ? ? Early Iron Age Early Iron Age

CS.2.67.17

Early Iron Age

CS.2.67.17

Early Iron Age

Fragment of shell

W.D.025 W.D.026

al-Khashbah al-Khashbah al-Khashbah al-Khashbah al-Qaryatain al-Qaryatain Khadra Bani Dafa’a Khadra Bani Dafa’a Khadra Bani Dafa’a al-Khashbah

Flint worked piece Red-Orange cylindrical stone bead; 4 mm diameter and 1.4 cm long; Fig. 75 Pierced white rounded stone bead; 9 mm diameter; Fig. 89 Pierced red cylindrical bead; 1.1 cm long and 5 mm diameter; Fig. 75 Pierced white disc bead; 1 cm diameter; the hole 3 mm diameter; Fig. 89 Pierced green carnelian bead; 1.2 cm long and 3 mm to 5 mm diameter; Fig. 75 Shell fragment Pierced white rounded stone bead, ca. 6 mm diameter; 3 mm hole diameter; Fig. 89 Green shiny stone Small pierced disc/rounded stone bead; 4 mm diameter Green shiny stone Red pierced carnelian rounded bead; 6 mm diameter; Fig. 75 Complete shell; Fig. 87 Pierced white disc/rounded shell bead; 1 cm diameter; Fig. 89

CS.2.67.17 CS.5.13, Tomb 2

Early Iron Age Early Iron Age

W.D.027

al-Khashbah

CS.5.13, Tomb 2

Early Iron Age

W.D.028

al-Khashbah

CS.5.13, Tomb 2

Early Iron Age

W.D.029

al-Khashbah

CS.5.13, Tomb 2

Early Iron Age

W.D.030

al-Khashbah

CS.5.13, Tomb 2

Early Iron Age

W.D.031

al-Khashbah

CS.5.13, Tomb 2

Early Iron Age

Complete shell with green traces from inside; Fig. 87 Pierced red rounded stone bead; 3 mm diameter; Fig. 92 Pierced white rounded stone bead; 3 mm to 1 cm diameter; Fig. 92 Pierced white rounded stone bead; 3 mm to 1 cm diameter; Fig. 92 Pierced white rounded stone bead; 3 mm to 1 cm diameter; Fig. 92 Pierced white rounded stone bead; 3 mm to 1 cm diameter; Fig. 92 Pierced white rounded stone bead; 3 mm to 1 cm diameter; Fig. 92

W.D.001 W.D.002 W.D.003 W.D.004 W.D.005 W.D.006 W.D.007 W.D.008 W.D.009

W.D.023 W.D.024

Area

Site

290

Description Possible unfinished tool made of reddish flint as it appears from the patina; Fig. 41 Stone pierced grey rounded bead; Fig. 86 Stone pierced grey rounded bead; Fig. 86 Pierced white-brown stone bead; Fig. 86 Red carnelian bead; 2.5 cm long and 4 mm diameter; Fig. 86 Stone pierced black rounded bead; Fig. 86 Pierced stone white rounded bead; Fig. 86 Stone pierced black rounded bead; Fig. 86

Appendices

W.D.032

Mahleya

CS.2.51.8.6

?

W.D.033 W.D.034 W.D.035 W.D.036 W.D.037 W.D.038 W.D.039 W.D.040 W.D.041 W.D.042 W.D.043 W.D.044 W.D.045 W.D.046 W.D.047 W.D.048 W.D.049 W.D.050 W.D.051 W.D.052 W.D.053 W.D.054 W.D.055 W.D.056 W.D.057 W.D.058 W.D.059 W.D.060 W.D.061 W.D.062 W.D.063 W.D.064 W.D.065 W.D.066

al-Qaryatain Mahleya al-Ghoryeen al-Ghoryeen al-Ghoryeen al-Ghoryeen al-Ghoryeen al-Ghoryeen al-Ghoryeen al-Ghoryeen al-Ghoryeen al-Ghoryeen al-Ghoryeen al-Ghoryeen al-Ghoryeen al-Ghoryeen al-Ghoryeen al-Ghoryeen al-Ghoryeen al-Ghoryeen al-Ghoryeen al-Ghoryeen al-Ghoryeen al-Khurais al-Khurais Brazaman al-Khashbah al-Khashbah al-Khashbah al-Khashbah al-Khashbah al-Khashbah Mahleya al-Ghoryeen Khadra Bani Dafa’a Khadra Bani Dafa’a Khadra Bani Dafa’a Khadra Bani Dafa’a al-Khashbah al-Khashbah al-Khashbah al-Khashbah al-Khashbah al-Khashbah al-Khashbah Mahleya Mahleya Mahleya Mahleya

CS.4.1.5 CS.2.51.1 CS.2.63 CS.2.63 CS.2.63 CS.2.63 CS.2.63 CS.2.63 CS.2.63 CS.2.63 CS.2.63 CS.2.63 CS.2.63 CS.2.63 CS.2.63 CS.2.63 CS.2.63 CS.2.63 CS.2.63 CS.2.63 CS.2.63 CS.2.63 CS.2.63 CS.3.8.1 CS.3.8.1 CS.7.1.2 CS.5.13, Tomb 4 CS.5.13, Tomb 4 CS.5.13, Tomb 4 CS.5.13, Tomb 4 CS.5.13, Tomb 4 CS.5.13, Tomb 4 CS.2.57 CS.2.60

Iron Age? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Early Iron Age Early Iron Age Early Iron Age Early Iron Age Early Iron Age Early Iron Age ? ?

Fragment of glass bracelet of green, light green, yellow & brown colour Fragment of softstone vessel’s lid of possible rectangular or square vessel; gray Grinding stone ; Fig. 195 Fragment of shell; Fig. 208 Complete shell; Fig. 196 & 208 Complete shell ; Fig. 208 Fragment of shell ; Fig. 208 Complete shell ; Fig. 208 Complete shell ; Fig. 208 Complete shell ; Fig. 208 Complete shell ; Fig. 208 Fragment of shell Fragment of shell Fragment of shell Fragment of shell Fragment of shell Fragment of shell Fragment of shell Fragment of shell Fragment of shell Fragment of shell Fragment of shell Fragment of shell Complete shell Complete shell; Fig. 177 Fragment of shell; Fig. 177 Fragment of shell Complete Shell Fragment of shell Fragment of shell Fragment of shell Fragment of shell Fragment of shell Fragment of shell Fragment of shell

CS.2.67.14

Early Iron Age

Fragment of shell

CS.2.67.14

Early Iron Age

Complete shell; Fig. 196

CS.2.67.14

Early Iron Age

Fragment of shell

CS.2.67.14 CS.5.14, Tomb 8 CS.5.14, Tomb 8 CS.5.14, Tomb 8 CS.5.14, Tomb 8 CS.5.14, Tomb 8 CS.5.13, Tomb 3 CS.5.13, Tomb 3 CS.2.55.1 CS.2.55.1 CS.2.55.1 CS.2.55.1

Early Iron Age ? ? ? ? ? Early Iron Age Early Iron Age ? ? ? ?

Fragment of shell Fragment of shell Complete shell; Fig. 196 Fragment of shell Fragment of shell Fragment of shell Fragment of shell Fragment of shell Fragment of shell Fragment of shell Fragment of shell Fragment of shell

W.D.067 W.D.068 W.D.069 W.D.070 W.D.071 W.D.072 W.D.073 W.D.074 W.D.075 W.D.076 W.D.077 W.D.078 W.D.079 W.D.080 W.D.081

291

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

W.D.092 W.D.093 W.D.094 W.D.095 W.D.096 W.D.097 W.D.098 W.D.099 W.D.100 W.D.101 W.D.102 W.D.103 W.D.104 W.D.105

Khadra Bani Dafa’a Khadra Bani Dafa’a Khadra Bani Dafa’a al-Ghoryeen al-Ghoryeen al-Ghoryeen al-Ghoryeen Mahleya Mahleya Mahleya Khadra Bani Dafa’a al-Khashbah al-Khashbah al-Khashbah al-Khashbah al-Khashbah al-Khashbah al-Khashbah al-Ghoryeen Mahleya Mahleya Mahleya Mahleya Mahleya

W.D.106

al-Ghoryeen

CS.2.52.4

Umm an-Nar

W.D.107 W.D.108

al-Qaryatain al-Qaryatain

CS.4.3 CS.4.3

Early Iron Age Early Iron Age

CS.2.67.26

Early Iron Age

Large complete shell Large complete shell Fragment of shelh Fragment of shell Fragment of shell Complete shell; Fig. 196 Fragment of shell Fragment of shell Fragment of shell Complete shell Fragment of shell Fragment of shell Fragment of shell Fragment of shell Fragment of softstone vessel; possible part of rim with incised double circle and dot row between two horizontal lines; 5 mm rim thick Parallels can be found in the Umm an-Nar tombs at Bat (Frifelt 1975b: fig.28e: 418); Hili Tomb B (al-Tikriti 1981: Pls. 138-139); Hili North, Tomb A (Cleuziou & Vogt 1983: fig.10, Nos.7-9: 52 &1985: fig, No.3: 8); Hili Tomb N (Hadu 1989: Pl.13: 66) and Ajman Tombs A and B (al-Tikriti 1989b: Pl.45, Nos. C-G); Fig. 63 Fragment of rectangular or square softstone vessel with three incised horizontal lines just under the straight rim of c.4 mm thickness; gray to greenish ; Fig. 84 Complete shell Small bronze/copper leaf-shaped arrowhead with mid-rib; 3.3 cm long; handle 1 cm long & 3 mm wide Rumeilah (Boucharlat & Lombard 1985: Pl.62, Nos. 1-7)

CS.2.67.26

Early Iron Age

Fragment of shell

CS.2.67.26

Early Iron Age

CS.5.13, Tomb 4

Early Iron Age

Fragment of shell Fragment of softstone vessel; of the same vessel with (W.D.113 to W.D.115); with rounded/straight rim & two incised horizontal lines just under the rim & tangeld-opposed traingulas? and incised dots; 4 mm rim thickness; very smallvessel (cup?) with open-rounded mouth. Rumeilah Period II (Boucharlat & Lombard 1985: Pl.60, No.4) and the Honeycomb cemetery at Bawshar Area (Costa et al 1999: cf. figs. 17-19: pp: 63-65

W.D.082 W.D.083 W.D.084 W.D.085 W.D.086 W.D.087 W.D.088 W.D.089 W.D.090 W.D.091

W.D.111

Khadra Bani Dafa’a Khadra Bani Dafa’a Khadra Bani Dafa’a

W.D.112

al-Khashbah

W.D.109 W.D.110

CS.2.67.24

Early Iron Age

Fragment of shell

CS.2.67.24

Early Iron Age

Fragment of shell

CS.2.67.24 CS.2.52.3 CS.2.52.3 CS.2.52.3 CS.2.52.3 CS.2.51.7.2 CS.2.51.7.2 CS.2.51.7.2

Early Iron Age ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

Fragment of shell Fragment of shell Fragment of shell Fragment of shell Fragment of shell Complete shell; Fig. 196 Fragment of shell Fragment of shell

CS.2.68 CS.5.1.4 CS.5.13, Tomb 2 CS.5.13, Tomb 2 CS.5.13, Tomb 2 CS.5.13, Tomb 2 CS.5.13, Tomb 2 CS.5.13, Tomb 2 CS.2.52.6 CS.2.51.8.7 CS.2.51.8.7 CS.2.51.8.7 CS.2.51.8.7 CS.2.51.8.7

? ? Early Iron Age Early Iron Age Early Iron Age Early Iron Age Early Iron Age Early Iron Age ? ? ? ? ? ?

292

Appendices

Early Iron Age

Fragment of softstone vessel; of the same vessel with (W.D.113 to W.D.115); with rounded/straight rim & two incised horizontal lines just under the rim & tangeld-opposed traingulas? and incised dots; 4 mm rim thickness; very smallvessel (cup?) with open-rounded mouth. Rumeilah Period II (Boucharlat & Lombard 1985: Pl.60, No.4) and the Honeycomb cemetery at Bawshar Area (Costa et al 1999: cf. figs. 17-19: pp: 63-65 Fragment of softstone vessel; of the same vessel with (W.D.113 to W.D.115); with rounded/straight rim & two incised horizontal lines just under the rim & tangeld-opposed traingulas? and incised dots; 4 mm rim thickness; very smallvessel (cup?) with open-rounded mouth. Rumeilah Period II (Boucharlat & Lombard 1985: Pl.60, No.4) and the Honeycomb cemetery at Bawshar Area (Costa et al 1999: cf. figs. 17-19: pp: 63-65 Fragment of softstone vessel; of the same vessel with (W.D.113 to W.D.115); with rounded/straight rim & two incised horizontal lines just under the rim & tangeld-opposed traingulas? and incised dots; 4 mm rim thickness; very smallvessel (cup?) with open-rounded mouth. Rumeilah Period II (Boucharlat & Lombard 1985: Pl.60, No.4) and the Honeycomb cemetery at Bawshar Area (Costa et al 1999: cf. figs. 17-19: pp: 63-65 Long bronze/copper leaf-shaped arrowhead with mid-rib; 5.8 cm long; handle 1 cm long & 3 mm wide Rumeilah (Boucharlat & Lombard 1985: Pl.62, Nos. 1-7)

Early Iron Age

Complete shell, Fig. 68

?

A piece of flint Pierced gray stone with 2.3 cm diameter & 8 mm hole diameter ; Fig. 88 Fragment of green glass Fragment of green glass Fragment of green glass Pierced gray stone spindle-whorl of domed/Beehive shape & incised decoration of horizontal and vertical lines as well as circle with horizontal and vertical lines; 2 cm diameter base & 7 mm top-hole diameter; Fig. 74 Fragment of softstone vessel with projected/reliefed band (3 mm wide) & incised decoration of horizontal lines ; Fig. 74 Fragment of shell Fragment of shell Fragment of shell A piece of copper sheet

W.D.113

al-Khashbah

CS.5.13, Tomb 4

Early Iron Age

W.D.114

al-Khashbah

CS.5.13, Tomb 4

Early Iron Age

W.D.115

al-Khashbah

CS.5.13, Tomb 4

Early Iron Age

W.D.118

Khadra Bani Dafa’a Khadra Bani Dafa’a Khadra Bani Dafa’a

W.D.119 W.D.120 W.D.121 W.D.122

al-Qaryatain Mahleya Mahleya Mahleya

CS.2.69.1.3 CS.4.13, Tomb 1 CS.2.51.8.4 CS.2.51.8.4 CS.2.51.8.4

W.D.123

Siyudian

CS.2.4

Wadi Suq

W.D.124 W.D.125 W.D.126 W.D.127 W.D.128

Siyudian Siyudian Siyudian Siyudian Siyudian

CS.2.4 CS.2.4 CS.2.4 CS.2.4 CS.2.4

W.D.129 W.D.130

Khadra Bani Dafa’a al-Khashbah

CS.2.69.1, Tomb 4 CS.5.10, Tomb 2

Wadi Suq Wadi Suq Wadi Suq Wadi Suq Wadi Suq Possible 5th millennium BC Arabian Bifacial Tradition (ABT) Early Iron Age

CS.2.51.8.6

?

Small flint arrowhead; Fig. 42 Iron/copper? of 3.2 cm diameter; Fig. 90 Fragment of glass bracelet of green, light green, yellow & brown colour

CS.2.67.9

Early Iron Age

Fragment of shell

CS.2.67.9

Early Iron Age

Fragment of shell

CS.2.67.9

Early Iron Age

Fragment of shell

CS.2.67.9

Early Iron Age

Fragment of shell

W.D.116 W.D.117

W.D.131 W.D.132 W.D.133 W.D.134 W.D.135

Mahleya Khadra Bani Dafa’a Khadra Bani Dafa’a Khadra Bani Dafa’a Khadra Bani Dafa’a

CS.2.69.1, Tomb 3 CS.2.69.1, Tomb 3

Early Iron Age ? ? ?

293

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula

W.D.141

Khadra Bani Dafa’a Khadra Bani Dafa’a Khadra Bani Dafa’a Khadra Bani Dafa’a Khadra Bani Dafa’a Khadra Bani Dafa’a

W.D.142

Khadra Bani Dafa’a

W.D.136 W.D.137 W.D.138 W.D.139 W.D.140

W.D.144

Khadra Bani Dafa’a Khadra Bani Dafa’a

W.D.145 W.D.146 W.D.0147 W.D.0148

Khadra Bani Dafa’a Siyudian Siyudian Siyudian

W.D.143

CS.2.67.9

Early Iron Age

Fragment of shell

CS.2.67.9

Early Iron Age

Fragment of shell

CS.2.67.9

Early Iron Age

Fragment of shell

CS.2.67.9

Early Iron Age

Fragment of shell

CS.2.67.9

Early Iron Age

Fragment of shell

CS.2.67.9

Early Iron Age

CS.2.67.9

Early Iron Age

CS.2.67.9

Early Iron Age

Fragment of shell Fragment of softstone vessel with rounded mouth & bear incised decoration of wavy, spiral, horizontal lines and hatching as well as everted triangles and circles with dot design Rumeilah Period II (Boucharlat & Lombard 1985: Pl.60, No.4) ; Fig. 96 Fragment of softstone of possible square or rectangular vessel bear incised decoration of wavy, spiral, horizontal lines and hatching as well as everted triangles and circles with dot design Rumeilah Period II (Boucharlat & Lombard 1985: Pl.60, No.4) ; Fig. 96

CS.2.67.9

Early Iron Age

CS.2.67.9 CS.2.4 CS.2.4 CS.2.4

Early Iron Age Wadi Suq Wadi Suq Wadi Suq

294

Rounded pierced gray stone bead; 1 cm diameter. Chlorite bowl consists of semi-rectangular spout of around 1.9 cm wide and 4.3 cm long. The whole bowl mouth diameter is around 13.5 cm and the base diameter is 7 cm while the bowl’s depth is around 5.4 cm. It includes incised decoration of horizontal lines around the rim and two above the base. Wadi al-Qawr (Magee, Per.Com) ; Fig. 94- 95 A badly eroded pin; Fig. 76 Pierced red carnelian bead Pierced red carnelian bead

APPENDIX F CHI-SQUARED TEST This appendix includes an attempt to test some of the quantitative differences which have appeared from the data analysis within the study, particularly those in Chapter Four, Section Two. This test will use the simple Chisquared test in order to show that the differences in sherd numbers between different periods are indeed statistically significant and not simply chance occurrences of numbers. In other words, the main question is whether or not the distribution of sherds in relation to site/village could be a matter of chance because if, for example, all sites/ villages were evenly occupied then it would be logical to presume that we ought to come across more or less the same density of sherds in each site/village. This represents the “theoretically-derived null hypothesis for calculating expected frequencies” (cf. Shennan 1988: 65–76).

each site) and (the total number of sherds for each period), then we would expect: the total number of sherds from each site multiplied by the total number of sherds from each period divided by the total number of sherds from all sites. For example in Table I: 1. 1,119 [CS.1] X 1,329 [U.Nar] ÷ 15,419 (all sherds) = 96.44925092 [the expected number of Umm an-Nar sherds within CS.1]). The same can be done with all cells within the table. After extracting the expected numbers of sherds, the following formula is applied: X2= k (Oi-Ei)2 Ei

X2= the symbol representing chi-squared; K= the number of categories; Oi= the observed number of cases in category i; and Ei= the expected number of cases in category i.

The calculation of the chi-squared test for these tables is based on the difference between the observed (here are the total number of sherds from each site/village and period) and expected values for each category. This can be calculated by multiplying the number of categories which is the number of cells within the table (in Table I: 1, for example, there are six site/village categories multiplied by nine period categories, so the number of cells, as it can be seen from the table is 6 X 9 = 54). The expected values are generated by the presumed “null hypothesis”. Thus, if there are altogether (here the total number of sherds from

This formula is applied in the tables presented in this Appendix using Microsoft Excel 2003. As can be seen from all the tested tables below the distribution of sherds between sites and periods across the categories is the same (X2 = 0.00 [null]). This confirms that the differences in sherd numbers between different periods are indeed statistically significant and not simply chance occurrences of the numbers.

Actual no. of Sherds CS.1

CS.3

CS.4

CS.5

CS.7

CS.9

Total/Period

U.Nar

Period

30

27

2

1,155

12

103

1,329

E.I.A

10

6

131

143

0

20

310

L.I.A/Samad

50

74

89

65

17

263

558

Islamic

5

85

28

23

5

100

246

264

729

581

112

37

756

2,479

M.Islamic

0

0

0

0

46

329

375

L.Islamic

479

1,546.00

979.00

880.00

716

2,874.00

7,474

L.Islamic-Recent

220

293

818

215

172

437

2,155

Recent

61

46

183

82

74

47

493

1,119

2,806

2,811

2,675

1,079

4,929

15,419 Total/Period

M.Islamic-L.Islamic

Total/village Expected no. of Sherds

CS.1

CS.3

CS.4

CS.5

CS.7

CS.9

U.Nar

Period

96.44925092

241.8558

242.2867

231

93.00156

424.8421

1329

E.I.A

22.50

56.41

56.52

53.78

21.69

99.10

310.00

L.I.A/Samad

40.49562228

101.5467

101.7276

96.80589

39.04806

178.3762

558

Islamic

17.85290875

44.76788

44.84766

42.67786

17.21474

78.63895

246

M.Islamic

179.9079707

451.1365

451.9404

430.0749

173.4769

792.4633

2479

M.Islamic-L.Islamic

27.21479992

68.24373

68.36533

65.05772

26.24197

119.8765

375

L.Islamic

542.4091056

1,360.14

1,362.57

1,296.64

523.02

2,389.22

7474

L.Islamic-Recent

156.3943836

392.1739

392.8728

373.865

150.8039

688.89

2155

Recent

35.7783903

89.71775

89.87762

85.52922

34.49945

157.5976

493

1119

2806

2811

2,675

1079

4929

15419

Total/village X2

0.00

Table I: 1 shows all the sherd counts by period from all the six surveyed villages, including both PCAs and OVAs

295

Settlement Patterns, Development and Cultural Change in the Northern Oman Peninsula Actual no. of Sherds Period

CS.9

Total/ Period

0

3

292

5

141

182

CS.1

CS.3

CS.4

CS.5

CS.7

U.Nar

28

15

2

244

L.I.A/Samad

28

0

7

1

4

37

27

23

5

57

153

240

445

473

100

37

327

1,622

Islamic M.Islamic

0

0

0

0

46

174

220

L.Islamic

448

853

847

597

710

1,796

5,251

L.Islamic-Recent

150

151

696

174

112

257

1,540

M.Islamic-L.Islamic

Recent

57

13

177

71

53

18

389

Total/village

955

1,514

2,229

1,210

968

2,773

9,649

CS.1

CS.3

CS.4

CS.5

CS.7

CS.9

Total/ Period

U.Nar

28.90040419

45.81698

67.45445

36.61727

29.29381

83.91709

292

L.I.A/Samad

18.01326562

28.55716

42.04353

22.82309

18.25847

52.30449

182

Expected no. of Sherds Period

15.14302

24.00684

35.34428

19.18644

15.34916

43.97026

153

M.Islamic

160.5358068

254.5039

374.6956

203.4014

162.7211

466.1422

1622

M.Islamic-L.Islamic

21.77427713

34.51964

50.82185

27.58835

22.07068

63.2252

220

L.Islamic

519.7124054

823.921

1213.025

658.4838

526.787

1,509

5251

L.Islamic-Recent

152.4199399

241.6375

355.7529

193.1185

154.4948

442.5764

1540

Recent

38.50088092

61.037

89.86227

48.78122

39.02498

111.7937

389

955

1,514

2,229

1,210

968

2,773

9,649

Islamic

Total/village X2

0.00

Table I: 2 shows the sherd counts by period from only the PCAs

Actual no. of Sherds CS.1

CS.3

CS.4

CS.5

CS.7

CS.9

Total/Period

U.Nar

Period

2

12

0

911

12

100

1,037

E.I.A

0

4

131

143

0

0

278 376

L.I.A/Samad

22

74

82

64

12

122

Islamic

1

48

1

0

0

43

93

M.Islamic

24

284

108

12

0

429

857

M.Islamic-L.Islamic

0

0

0

0

0

155

155

L.Islamic

31

693

132

283

6

1,078

2,223

L.Islamic-Recent

70

142

122

41

60

180

615

Recent

4

33

6

11

21

29

104

154

1,290

582

1,465

111

2,136

5,738

CS.1

CS.3

CS.4

CS.5

CS.7

CS.9

Total/ Period

27.83164866

233.1352

105.1819

264.7621

20.06047

386.0286

1,037

E.I.A

7.461136284

62.49913

28.19728

70.97769

5.377832

103.4869

278

L.I.A/Samad

10.09132102

84.5312

38.13733

95.99861

7.273614

139.9679

376

Islamic

2.495991635

20.90798

9.432903

23.74434

1.799059

34.61973

93

M.Islamic

23.00069711

192.6682

86.92471

218.8053

16.57842

319.0227

857

M.Islamic-L.Islamic

4.159986058

34.84664

15.72151

39.57389

2.998432

57.69955

155

L.Islamic

59.66225166

499.7682

225.4768

567.5662

43.00331

828

2,223

L.Islamic-Recent

16.50575113

138.2625

62.37888

157.019

11.897

228.9369

615

Recent

2.791216452

23.38097

10.54862

26.55281

2.011851

38.71453

104

154

1,290

582

1,465

111

2,136

5,738

Total/Village Expected no. of Sherds Period U.Nar

Total/Village X2

0.00

Table I: 3 Shows the sherd count by period from only OVAs

296

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