Service, Satisfaction and Climate: Perspectives on Management in English Language Teaching [1 ed.] 9781849509978, 9781849509961

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INNOVATION AND LEADERSHIP IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING VOLUME 2

SERVICE, SATISFACTION, AND CLIMATE: PERSPECTIVES ON MANAGEMENT IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING BY

JOHN WALKER Massey University

United Kingdom – North America – Japan India – Malaysia – China

SERVICE, SATISFACTION, AND CLIMATE: PERSPECTIVES ON MANAGEMENT IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING

Emerald Group Publishing Limited Howard House, Wagon Lane, Bingley BD16 1WA, UK First edition 2010 Copyright r 2010 Emerald Group Publishing Limited Reprints and permission service Contact: [email protected] No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying issued in the UK by The Copyright Licensing Agency and in the USA by The Copyright Clearance Center. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the text, illustrations or advertisements. The opinions expressed in these chapters are not necessarily those of the Editor or the publisher. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-1-84950-996-1 ISSN: 2041-272X (Series)

Emerald Group Publishing Limited, Howard House, Environmental Management System has been certified by ISOQAR to ISO 14001:2004 standards Awarded in recognition of Emerald’s production department’s adherence to quality systems and processes when preparing scholarly journals for print

CONTENTS PREFACE

vii

PART ONE: CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND CHAPTER ONE

ELT AS A SERVICE

CHAPTER TWO

ELT SERVICE AND STUDENT SATISFACTION

25

CHAPTER THREE

SERVICE CLIMATE IN ELT

41

3

PART TWO: STUDENT PERCEPTIONS CHAPTER FOUR

STUDENT VIEWS OF ELT SERVICE

53

CHAPTER FIVE

STUDENT SATISFACTION WITH ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING CENTER SERVICE

69

PART THREE: PROVIDER PERCEPTIONS CHAPTER SIX

STAFF PERCEPTIONS OF THE SERVICE DIMENSION IN ELT

CHAPTER SEVEN

SERVICE CLIMATE IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING CENTERS: A SURVEY OF PROVIDERS v

99 115

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CONTENTS

CHAPTER EIGHT

ARE THEY AS SATISFIED AS WE THINK THEY ARE? COMPARING STAFF AND STUDENT PERCEPTIONS OF ELTC SERVICE QUALITY

143

CHAPTER NINE

FINDING AN IDENTITY: THE TERTIARY MANAGER’S VIEW OF ELT WORK

157

PART FOUR: APPLICATIONS AND ISSUES CHAPTER TEN

SERVICE OPERATION APPLICATIONS IN ELT

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CHAPTER ELEVEN

RESEARCHING ELT MANAGEMENT

199

CHAPTER TWELVE ISSUES AND IMPLICATIONS FOR ELT MANAGERS

231

REFERENCES

239

APPENDIX 1

257

APPENDIX 2

263

PREFACE This book fills the gap that exists between the world of English language teaching (ELT) and the world of commerce. ELT is a major worldwide service industry with a dual nature, and a unique set of issues and challenges. It is an educational service, yet functions almost entirely within a commercial context. It employs professional, specialist teachers. Its students are clients who pay for the service rendered. It has a strong cross-cultural dimension. Perhaps the dual nature of English language teaching centers (ELTCs), inhabiting as they do the middle ground between business enterprise and educational institution, is a major reason for the fact that so few ELT management research studies can be found in the literature, especially studies reporting empirical research, and more particularly, studies that acknowledge the status of ELT as a service. This book does both of these things. The journey to this point has been long and eventful. As a beginning teacher with a degree and a fresh diploma in ELT, I cut my teeth in an overseas development role in the newly independent East Africa of the 1960s. As many English language teachers do, I subsequently took up contracts in a range of ELT contexts around the world, including high schools, military education, industry training, and the tertiary sector. On the way, I ‘‘progressed through the ranks’’ and morphed—as many in this field do—from teacher to manager. Like most in my position, faced with managing programs, students, and other teachers, I did my job with no formal management qualifications and did my learning primarily on the job. It was only when I studied management on a formal basis, gaining a second Masters degree and a PhD along the way, that I was able to grasp how management theory—and especially services management theory—could be practically applied to the world I had belonged to for several decades. When I completed my (probably) final metamorphosis to management academic in a New Zealand business school, I was able to enjoy the luxury not only of time, but also of encouragement to conduct research into ELT from a management perspective. It is out of these research activities that this book has evolved. Services management is still something of an emergent discipline. This is perhaps one reason why the major theme of this book—that ELTCs are vii

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PREFACE

service operations—has, so far, been largely overlooked by most of the small band of writers and researchers working in the area of ELT management. A major purpose of this text is to remedy this omission by uncovering some of what has hitherto been unknown; it is not the intention to develop new theories or models of services management. Instead, existing services theory is applied to ELT service operations in order to illuminate what is taking place ‘‘on the ground’’ and ‘‘at the front line’’ in ELTCs. In order to set the scene, the extensive services literature is drawn on to demonstrate that ELT fits comfortably within conventional service parameters and that the work of English language teachers corresponds to most of the fundamentals expected of service providers. Two constructs fundamental to services management—customer satisfaction and service climate—are examined with reference to the ELT context. In the succeeding chapters, two major empirical research projects are described which investigated these constructs in ELTCs in New Zealand. The work of ELT managers in the tertiary sector is also examined. The findings from these studies offer novel insights on the services context of ELT from the perspective of students, teachers, administrative staff, and managers. Like other areas of management, services management encompasses models, tools, and frameworks that can be applied to assist services managers in dealing with practical problems and issues. A number of these are outlined, together with suggestions for their application in an ELT context. Given the dearth of published research in the area of ELT management, it is timely to include a chapter aimed at encouraging those wishing to become involved in ELT management research and offering suggestions for potential areas of research interest. Finally, implications are drawn for ELT managers. This book is the first of its kind and so should be of value as a resource for the ELT field and also to a number of specific audiences. It is likely to be of interest not only to ELT program managers, directors of studies, and business owners, but also to teachers and administrators interested in gaining an insight into services aspects of ELT, as well as graduate students studying ELT management as part of a major in education or linguistics. It may find other audiences as well in the wider fields of language teaching and education more generally. It was an honor to be asked by Professor Martha Pennington, a pioneer of ELT management research, to contribute to the new Emerald series on Innovation and Leadership in English Language Teaching. As one of the first to research and publish in the area of what is now known as ELT management, Martha has been a major inspiration to the research described

Preface

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here. She is a valued colleague, without whose expert guidance this book would not have come to fruition. I would also like to acknowledge the many managers, business owners, senior teachers, administrators, and teachers in New Zealand ELTCs, not to mention the students themselves, without whose help and cooperation the research studies described here would not have been possible. Thanks also go to my partner of many years, Dr Ute Walker, upon whom I can always call for specialist knowledge, wisdom, advice, and encouragement. John Walker

PART ONE CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

CHAPTER ONE ELT AS A SERVICE$ INTRODUCTION Set up as a response to global demand for English language proficiency, English language teaching centers (ELTCs) are the mainstay of a major global education industry that is particularly well established in ‘‘inner circle’’ countries (Edwards, 2004) such as Britain, the United States, Australia, and New Zealand. ELTCs are English language teaching (ELT) providers that offer courses to paying, non-native speaker students, and are staffed by teachers with specialist qualifications in English as a second language (ESL). Typically, ELTCs are either privately owned companies or entities subsumed within colleges, faculties, or schools of universities or polytechnics. Since ELTCs are set up to make a profit for their owners, they are a good example of the fusion of the educational and the commercial imperatives. The application of business style management and marketing models to the administration of educational programs (Barlow, 1994; Greenwood & Gaunt, 1994) has been a discernible trend in recent times. The fact that general management and administrative theory is effectively transferable to an educational setting has gained wider acceptance in ELT circles (Savage, 1996). This is evident from, for example, the existence of an International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language (IATEFL) ELT Management Special Interest Group (SIG) and newsletter, the publication of a number of textbooks on ELT management (e.g., Impey & Underhill, 1994; Pennington, 1991; White, Hockley, van der Horst Jansen, & Laughner, 2008), the gradual appearance of articles in ELT journals written from a management or quasi-management perspective, some of which report empirical research (e.g., Bordia, Wales, Pittam, & Gallois, 2006; Crichton, 1994; Stoller & Christison, 1994; Waites & Wild, 1992), as well as universities offering tertiary qualifications in ELT management. $

Adapted from Walker, J. (2000a). ESOL teachers as service providers. Prospect, 15(1), 23–33 and Walker, J. (1998). TESOL as a service. EA Journal, 16(2), 30–39.

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An occasional feature of such literature is allusion to the ‘‘services’’ offered by ELTCs (e.g., Impey & Underhill, 1994; Strange & Rossner, 1993; White, Martin, Stimson & Hodge, 1991). A number of writers have also referred either directly (e.g., de Waal, 1994; Godfrey, 1994; Hirons, 1994; Savage, 1996) or indirectly (Pickering, 1994) to ELT as a service. The distinction between services and a service is significant. ELT operations might offer, as part of the overall package, ‘‘services’’ such as courtesy transport, homestay placement, or access to leisure activities, which would normally be the responsibility of administrative or ancillary staff. Increasingly, however, it is accepted that English language teachers deal with students who are, in effect, customers (Crichton, 1994) or clients and that the teaching-learning component of an ELT operation should also be regarded as part of the overall service offering. As Barlow (1994) writes, all the staff of ELTCs should be aware ‘‘that they have a dual role of providing a service to the public, and whilst providing that service, to make [the ELT provider] commercially viable’’ (p. 15). The fact is, rather than merely ‘‘providing services,’’ ELT organizations provide a service. That is, they are service operations whose purpose is to create an integrated learning experience for paying students. As such, everyone in the ELT organization is a service provider, whether manager, faculty, or administrative staff.

SERVICE ATTRIBUTES AND ELT According to the eminent Swedish services researcher, Gummesson (1987, p. 22), services are ‘‘ . . . something that can be bought and sold, but which you cannot drop on your foot.’’ Tongue-in-cheek definitions apart, the task of defining the exact nature of a service is fraught with difficulty and some lack of consensus in the literature, perhaps partly as a result of the fact that the notion of a service as a separate entity within the fields of marketing and management is barely three decades old. There appear to be about as many definitions, ranging from the simple to the complex, as there are services management and marketing experts, for instance: Zeithaml and Bitner (1996): Services are deeds, processes and performances (p. 5). Vargo and Lusch (2004): The application of specialized competences (knowledge and skills) through deeds, processes and performances for the benefit of another entity or the entity itself (p. 2).

5

ELT as a Service Kotler (1988): . . . any activity or benefit that one party can offer to another that is essentially intangible and does not result in the ownership of anything. Its production may or may not be tied to a physical product (p. 477). Gro¨nroos (2007): A service is a process consisting of a series of more or less intangible activities that normally, but not necessarily always, take place in interactions between the customer and service employees and/or physical resources or goods and/or systems of the service provider, which are provided as solutions to customer problems (p. 52).

Gro¨nroos’ struggle to shoehorn the essence of a service into one sentence puts the problem into perspective. Given the disparity between offerings, it is difficult to discern one definitional theme that might apply to ELT as a service. However, already from these four sample definitions, it is possible to glean some of the key terms which are frequently used by researchers to describe services, for instance, intangible, process, performance, interaction. To what extent do such key terms apply to ELT service operations? Four terms that have been consistently used in an attempt to identify the generic features of a service, within a context of differentiation from physical products, are the four so-called IHIP attributes (Lovelock & Gummesson, 2004; Zeithaml, Parasuraman, & Berry, 1985), namely intangibility, heterogeneity, inseparability—sometimes referred to as simultaneity (Fitzsimmons & Fitzsimmons, 2004)—and perishability. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, these characteristics functioned as something approaching ‘‘the four pillars of service.’’ However, with the changing nature of business, and in particular the advent of information technology, ‘‘the four pillars’’ have come in for increasing criticism, and are perceived as being flawed (e.g., Lovelock & Gummesson, 2004; Vargo & Lusch, 2004) despite the fact that some prominent researchers still regard them as of some, albeit limited, usefulness (Edvardsson, Gustafsson, & Roos, 2005). To what extent can these four classic characteristics be applied to ELT service operations, and what other service characteristics can be ascribed to them?

Intangibility More than any other, intangibility is the characteristic that was developed to differentiate the sale and production of services from the sale and production of goods: when you purchase a camera, you end up with a tangible good; when you purchase a consultation with a doctor, you do not. However, there are obvious weaknesses here. Nowadays, many types of

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service (e.g., retail services, automobile repair, hospitality, air travel) are associated in some way with a tangible outcome or ‘‘facilitating goods’’ for the customer (Fitzsimmons & Fitzsimmons, 2004, p. 20) as part of the service purchase, that is, goods exchange ownership during the service process. Even a visit to the doctor might end with (very tangible) medication included in the bill. Undeniably, there are services that may be purely intangible, for instance, types of entertainment or sport. But the fact remains that there are so many exceptions that it is difficult to assign with confidence the descriptor intangible to services across the board. To what extent, then, can we say that ELT service is intangible? What is perhaps relevant for ELT is that regardless of the degree of involvement of tangible goods, the fact remains that the act of performing the service is in itself an intangible. In an ELT operation, performing the service consists principally of teaching, that is, an intangible process aimed at the intellect (Fitzsimmons & Fitzsimmons, 1994) of the ESL student. In addition, many of the service interactions outside the classroom that students become involved in are undoubtedly intangible—for instance, obtaining information from the receptionist, consulting a teacher on career plans, or interacting with the host family. ELT providers may ‘‘tangibilize’’ (McLaughlin & Coffey, 1990) their service provision, for instance, by including learning materials, stationery, or ancillary promotional items such as T-shirts and souvenirs in the price of the service package. However, the core teaching and learning activities, as well as a range of other provider-student interactions, remain intangible. Thus, we can probably conclude that while ELT service has some tangible elements, intangibility characterizes much, or even, most of what takes place. Also, the acknowledgment of such intangibility is valuable for both ELT researchers and managers, as it points to a potential difficulty students may have in assessing the quality of the service provided because of a lack of reference points. As a result, tangible aspects of the ELT service such as office and classroom decor, the facilities in the student lounge or computer lab, or the level of hygiene in the restrooms may become important proxy measures for service quality in the minds of students (Bitner, 1990, 1992; Schneider & Bowen, 1995).

Heterogeneity Heterogeneity in service operations refers to a potential degree of variability in terms of the quality of the service provided compared to the level of standardization that is possible with a manufactured product. This is largely

ELT as a Service

7

a consequence of the fact that the service provision is viewed as a social interaction, the success of which is partly a function of the knowledge, skills, personal attributes, and degree of involvement of the people involved, both the customers and providers (Wright, 1995). All other things being equal, the interactions between two separate customers with internet problems and two separate support staff in an ISP call center, for instance, might reach rather different outcomes. However, it has been pointed out (e.g., Gummesson, 2000; Vargo & Lusch, 2004) that homogeneity is indeed a feature of many service types, for instance, banking services such as those involving the use of ATMs, information provided on websites, and some medical procedures. These are often the result of efforts to achieve a degree of standardization, efficiency, and effectiveness associated with quality assurance actions. Elements of higher (tertiary) education may even be homogeneous, since the same lecture could be delivered to hundreds of university students (Vargo & Lusch, 2004). The question is, then, to what extent is the ELT service heterogeneous? ELT providers may achieve levels of homogeneity in areas such as publicity materials, website design and content, and even standardized administrative techniques for dealing with students (through, e.g., the use of service scripts). They may even strive for homogeneity in the classroom service provision, for instance, through the use of one set of learning goals or one standard textbook or set of learning materials for a specific level of student proficiency. However, as further discussed below, the ESL student is the coproducer of the ESL service. According to Finocchiaro (1989), ‘‘individual learners restructure, in their own way, the material we present—based on past experiences in acquiring knowledge and solving problems’’ (pp. 17–18), while factors such as age, aptitude, ability, aspirations and needs, first language, and previous language learning experience are crucial factors in a student’s success with a particular ELT program. Harmer (1991) pointed out that while a textbook may be written for a general audience, each class is unique and students need to be treated individually. Therefore, even at identical levels of proficiency, with a standardized curriculum, techniques, and learning materials, individual learner characteristics will inevitably preclude the possibility of each student receiving an identical service. Furthermore, even within one institution, an ESL student is unlikely to remain with one teacher for the entire period of study, particularly if the student progresses through proficiency levels or takes different types of course. Variations in individual teacher performance, experience, skill level, dedication, personal and professional attributes, and other personal qualities are likely to introduce a further element of heterogeneity into the

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teaching-learning context. In terms of ancillary services such as homestay, homogeneity of service delivery would be difficult, if not impossible, to achieve—despite the use of training, information sessions, and written guidelines for homestay families. In fact, in a world where manufacturers are now using flexible manufacturing processes to customize products, heterogeneity might actually be an advantage that service managers should capitalize on (Vargo & Lusch, 2004). Thus, the inherent heterogeneity of ELT service implies a potential level of customization and personal service that ESL students might welcome.

Inseparability or Simultaneity Traditional wisdom taught that because manufacturing takes place largely away from the presence of the customer, production and consumption are separated; services, on the other hand, can be produced and consumed only when the service provider and the service customer interact simultaneously (Fitzsimmons & Fitzsimmons, 1994) and are therefore referred to as inseparable. Thus, carrying out a transaction in the bank or visiting an optician involves both the provider and recipient of the service being present at the same time. Critics (e.g., Lovelock, 2000) have pointed out that not only are some goods produced with the involvement of the customer (e.g., bespoke tailoring or customized home building), some services are produced separately from the customer (e.g., information on websites or movie production). It may be that the issue of whether a service is inseparable or not hinges, for particular service types, on definitions of production and consumption. In terms of ELT service, much the same circumstances apply as for heterogeneity. Some aspects of the service might be produced away from the student, for instance, materials for a self-access or learning center, written instructions for students on practical aspects of living in a new culture, or the cleaning of restrooms. However, because the ESL student is a co-producer, the core aspect of the ELT service, classroom learning, is inseparable. Controversies over incidental language acquisition versus conscious learning aside (Krashen, 1981, 1982, 1985), the ELT classroom is intended as a venue for activities which ideally will lay the foundations of learning through, for example, habit-formation. Such activities are facilitated by the teacher in conjunction with the students, that is, the service is produced and consumed simultaneously, even though learning may continue to occur after the event. Student interactions with administrative staff and activities with a homestay family, are, likewise, inevitably

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inseparable. Where inseparability is concerned, the challenge for ELT service managers lies in the issue of quality control. Because manufacturers can decouple production and delivery of goods, concurrent quality control is easier (e.g., automobiles are quality inspected before they leave the plant). This is more difficult in services like ELT with a high degree of inseparability in some activities, where such forms of quality control cannot be exercised (Schneider, Bowen, Ehrhart, & Holcombe, 2000), particularly given issues of variability in the ‘‘quality,’’ that is, the abilities and language proficiency, of the ESL student who represents an ‘‘input’’ into the service. This means that management efforts have to be directed at enhancing the entire service climate (Schneider & Bowen, 1995). In particular, managing the human dimension becomes critical to the success of the service outcome. This issue is further developed below (see ‘‘Customer/Client Participation’’).

Perishability The characteristic of perishability refers to the belief that a service cannot be kept on inventory as tangible goods can (Gro¨nroos, 1990). For instance, unoccupied hotel rooms cannot be stored and sold at a later date. Planes that take off with empty seats represent a loss of revenue. However, perishability cannot be cited as a distinctive characteristic of services since ‘‘clearly, tangible goods are perishable, some of them highly so. Elements have halflives, bananas rot, bread gets stale and moldy, and automobiles rust and become inoperative’’ (Vargo & Lusch, 2004, p. 331). Conversely, services can be stored in systems. For instance, bank accounts can be stored on a website awaiting the customer’s access. Even hotels have been described as ‘‘a store of rooms’’ (Gummesson, 2000, p. 124). Nevertheless, perishability does become a specific issue for services where capacity, rather than output, is concerned. A manufacturing company can inventory goods up to a point as a hedge against fluctuation in demand. Their value is then realized by the company when the goods are eventually sold. Some service types, by contrast, are able to realize value only when customers provide input into the service provider’s capacity by way of their demand. Thus, a restaurant that has capacity ready in terms of waiters, kitchen staff, tables, and food cannot realize value until patrons sit down and start ordering. In the same way, an ELT service cannot realize the value of its capacity in terms of faculty and administrative staff, classrooms, equipment, and facilities until students begin to arrive to take advantage of the capacity that is offered. In this way, we can say that part of the ELT service, that is, the capacity, and thus the

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value potential (Vargo & Lusch, 2004), is indeed in danger of perishing if it is not utilized. This is why managing capacity and demand is a bread-andbutter chore for managers of specific types of services. While an ELTC can store information on websites and can inventory learning materials, the core activity of the institution, which is classroom teaching and learning, cannot be stored, nor can other administrative and ancillary activities. Demand is variable, and it may not always be possible to predict when students are going to arrive to take advantage of the spare capacity available. For these reasons, this single issue—the balancing of capacity and demand—may represent a major part of the work of ELT managers—and a major headache. The relative unpredictability of demand can have considerable ramifications for all ELTC stakeholders. It can impact on profitability, determine the employment conditions of teachers who cannot expect to be hired on permanent contracts, and cause problems within day-to-day operations since classes may be disrupted as a result of sudden changes in the demand on the ELTC’s resources. Such practices are likely to influence the levels of student satisfaction with the service. Strategies to deal with the unpredictability of demand include taking a systems approach by controlling the scheduling of capacity against demand (e.g., through weekly program plans and teaching schedules); building flexibility into the operation (e.g., through hiring temporary teaching staff or renting overspill teaching space); and manipulating demand so that it more closely matches the available capacity (e.g., through advertising and promotion, including special deals and offers.) It would seem, therefore, that while flawed and possibly no longer the generic characteristics of services that they were once deemed to be, the IHIP attributes still have some relevance when it comes to ELT as a service. It remains to be seen what other common service characteristics can be ascribed to ELT operations.

Customer/Client Participation A service is essentially a performance in which customers, when physically present, actively participate (Rathmell, 1966). The customer is involved to varying degrees in the provision of the service, ‘‘contributing information and physical and mental effort’’ (Bateson, 2002, p. 110), which has the potential to have an impact not only on the nature, the quality, or the timing of the service received (Gro¨nroos, 1990), but also on customer satisfaction (Mills & Moberg, 1982). The level of customer expertise can determine

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achievement and success, thus determining levels of satisfaction. For instance, the willingness of a hospital patient to cooperate with medical staff may have a significant influence on the success of the treatment; a customer’s skill in using an internet website can determine the success or failure of a sales transaction and delivery of goods. ESL students are likewise involved in the production of the service by participating in language teaching and taking part in optional activities. Without the presence of the student, the service could not be provided. Even at the cognitive level, ‘‘the learner’s active participation in the learning process is a fundamental premise’’ of basic learning theories (Finocchiaro, 1989, p. 53). Furthermore, the skills, motivation, and interest in learning on the part of the student are important inputs that influence success and can determine satisfaction. The so-called ‘‘good’’ English language learner becomes a more efficient, effective, retentive consumer of the service by adopting proactive—rather than passive—behaviors such as developing strategies for getting practice both inside and outside the classroom or using context to assist comprehension (Nunan, 1991; Rubin & Thompson, 1983). To some extent, therefore, students can determine the success of the English language service delivery through the strategies they adopt and the way they manage their learning. Service customers have also been referred to as ‘‘partial employees’’ (Bowen, 1986) of the organization. Particularly in knowledge-intensive services, enhanced role clarity, motivation, and the ability to share information and accommodate expertise on the part of client ‘‘partial employees’’ increase the likelihood of project success and client satisfaction (Bettencourt, Ostrom, Brown, & Roundtree, 2002). The ‘‘partial employee’’ metaphor is particularly applicable to ELTC clients who are likely to develop a close attachment to a particular ELTC and its faculty and administrative staff over an extended period of time and whose ‘‘membership’’ of the organization may blur the distinction between organizational ‘‘outsider’’ and ‘‘insider.’’ Indeed, the services concept of the customer as co-producer of the service (Fitzsimmons & Fitzsimmons, 1994), which presupposes the active collaboration (but limited control) of the service provider, has its parallels in the notion of the English language teacher as facilitator, participant, and resource (Harmer, 1991; see below).

The Service Encounter The interaction or service encounter (Czepiel, Solomon, Suprenant, & Gutman, 1985) between the customer and service provider has been referred

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to as the moment of truth (Normann, 1984). By this is meant the unique opportunity the service provider has to demonstrate the quality of the service. In the next moment, the opportunity will have been lost because the customer leaves or moves on. ‘‘If a quality problem has occurred, it is too late to take corrective action. In order to do so, a new moment of truth must be created’’ (Gro¨nroos, 2007, p. 81). A customer may pass through a series of encounters with service providers while accessing a particular service. In the mind of the customer, each encounter is a snapshot of the organization’s service quality, contributing both to the customer’s overall satisfaction and that customer’s willingness to do business with the organization again. From the perspective of the organization, each encounter is an opportunity to showcase its status as a quality service provider and thus shape feelings of customer loyalty (Zeithaml & Bitner, 1996). From the perspective of the customer, each encounter represents the creation of value. Such encounters are integral to a relationship marketing (Berry, 1983) strategy that aims to manage long-term relationships with customers in order to enhance the enterprise’s future survival (Schneider et al., 2000). The nature of the service provider-customer interaction is therefore fundamental to the production of the core value of the service (Czepiel et al., 1985; Lovelock, 1992; Schmenner, 1995). Provider-customer co-creation of value is central, while ‘‘the interactive, processual, experiential, and relational natures form the basis for characterizing service’’ (Edvardsson, et al., 2005, p. 118). During the ELTC service provision, an ESL student experiences innumerable interactions with a series of service providers, from administrative staff, to English language teachers, to homestay families, possibly over an extended period of time. Thus, the student’s perception of service quality can be the result of a fairly complex set of encounters and relationships with front-line staff. However, the service providers most likely to have the greatest influence on student perceptions are the ESL teachers since they are responsible for the delivery of the core content of the service, spending most formal service time with the student. ESL teacher roles and skills have much in common with those of service providers (see below) and they can be a key influence on the quality of the service encounter and thus on student perceptions of the quality of the service. Service staff also have boundary-spanning roles in their interaction with customers (Yoon, Beatty, & Suh, 2001) since, given the long-term and personalized nature of many service encounters, they are increasingly expected to be ‘‘part-time marketers’’ (Gro¨nroos, 1990, p. 176; see also Chapter Three), engaging in relationship-management activities in addition to their allotted ‘‘technical’’ functions (Laing & McKee, 2001).

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It is not clear to what extent student loyalty in ELT is affected by the quality of the service encounter. Anecdotal evidence indicates that the vast majority of students access a particular ELTC’s service only once, possibly over an extended period of time. The notion of repeat business may not therefore be applicable to ELTC service. However, the quality of interactions could influence student loyalty in terms of the student’s decision to stay with a provider or not, for the period the customer has set aside for the language instruction. There is anecdotal evidence that some students do ‘‘shop around’’ ELTCs until they have found one that suits their temperament and learning style. Furthermore, word-of-mouth recommendation is a well-known influence on customer choice of provider (see discussion below) and could also be construed as a proxy for loyalty. Satisfied ESL students are then more likely to demonstrate their ‘‘loyalty’’ to a provider by recommending the provider to a friend. Given that the quality of the service provider-student interaction could be instrumental in influencing extension of patronage or a decision to recommend, the nature of the service encounter, as well as the quality of both administrative and teaching staff, therefore, become paramount for the ELTC. A key aspect of this interaction is the quality of the service provider’s communication with the customer. Not only should front-line providers be trained to communicate effectively (Mudie & Cottam, 1993), communication prior to and during the service provision should be accurate and timely (Zeithaml & Bitner, 1996). Providing customers with accurate information about the service they are paying for is the key to treating them as competent adults (Schneider & Bowen, 1995). Unless ELTCs are able to use students’ own languages as a medium of communication, poor English language proficiency on the part of students may hinder communication and lead to feelings of disempowerment and inadequacy, as well as a perceived lack of information about the service they are participating in.

ESL TEACHERS AS SERVICE PROVIDERS Since ELT is a service, the fact that ESL teachers are, inevitably, service providers may not sit comfortably with some. While Crichton (1994), for example, maintains that the student’s relationship with the ELT organization as a paying client may require ‘the teacher’s role to incorporate that of service provider in the marketing chain, making the teacher accountable to the client for the product supplied’’ (p. 11), even those ESL teachers who embrace the commercial realities of ELT may draw the line at being

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described as service providers, particularly if they perceive themselves as being equated with workers in stereotypical service industries. The fact is, however, that nowadays the term service applies to a wide range of enterprise types, including professional services such as law, accountancy, health care, banking, the arts, and even the church (Fitzsimmons & Fitzsimmons, 1994). Each service type may possess unique characteristics, depending on the nature of the service provided, the clientele, or the particular expertise of the service providers. Despite this diversity, as demonstrated by the IHIP attributes, services normally share a number of common features to some extent or another. The corollary, therefore, is that ESL teachers—particularly if they are working in a commercial environment—are service providers. While ESL teachers may experience tension between their role as linguists and educators on the one hand, and the demands of a commercial service operation on the other, the fact is that ELT is an industry (Strevens, 1987)—or more specifically, a service industry—that enjoys a billion-dollar turnover worldwide. Since commercial ELT operations exist within a competitive service environment, success is likely to be linked to sound business practice and especially sound services management practice. This may involve ESL teachers heeding Meinke’s (1990) call to ‘‘begin applying the useful disciplines of the business world to their activities’’ (p. 760). ESL teacher essentials have been conceptualized as consisting of an experience base, an affective base, and a knowledge base (Richard-Amato, 1996). These are likely to comprise classroom experience, attitudes, motivation, and empathy as well as themes such as a grounding in linguistic theory and second language acquisition, a knowledge of teaching methodology, and familiarity with learner needs and language learning strategies. While these essential ESL teacher prerequisites are acknowledged—and to some extent are an operationalization of them—a number of related key roles and skills can also be identified which are typical of ESL teacher work. These roles and skills demonstrate a surprising commonality with classic service provider fundamentals as described in the services management literature, representing a singular insight into the service provider aspect of ESL teacher work.

ESL TEACHER SERVICE PROVIDER ROLES Writers in the services literature (Bitran & Hoech, 1992; Gro¨nroos, 1990; Palmer & Cole, 1995) identify the key roles of service providers as

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ELT as a Service

participant/co-communicator, manager, consultant, and controller. ELT writers (Harmer, 1991; Littlewood, 1981) have used virtually identical terminology to describe some of the key roles of ESL teachers.

Participant/Co-Communicator Most services are based on a personal interaction between a service provider and a customer. Services research and practice stress the importance of the service provider as participant in this interaction since it ‘‘defines the quality of the service in the mind of the customer’’ (Fitzsimmons & Fitzsimmons, 1994, p. 161). Research evidence (Armistead & Clark, 1994) has found that service provider attitudes in their interactions with customers are perceived to be among the most important factors for customer retention and repeat business. The concept of the teacher-student(s) interaction is likewise seen as a key concept in ELT and the notion of interactive teaching as a central plank of interactive-communicative ELT methodology (Richard-Amato, 1996; Rivers, 1987). According to Richard-Amato, the participants in the interaction are affected and frequently changed by it and the surrounding social situation. Such interaction is important since it is not only integral to sound methodological practice but is likely to provide one of the rare opportunities for learners to experience quality target language input (Harmer, 1991; Nunan, 1991). The nature of the teacher-student interaction is therefore likely not only to influence students’ attitudes to and success in the second language but also their attitude towards the teacher and the institution.

Organizer/Manager Service providers often have to ‘‘manage’’ the service interaction. This involves planning the activity, organizing it in terms of, for example, assigning roles and tasks to customers and other service personnel and ensuring that the desired quality level is maintained. Part of this may be, for instance, explaining to the customer how to participate optimally in co-production of the service (Palmer & Cole, 1995). A bank, for instance, may need to ‘train’ customers in the use of a telebanking service. Airline personnel may have to ‘train’ inexperienced air passengers informally in for instance, checking in, going through security, and getting ready for take-off (Bowen, Chase, Cummings & Associates, 1990). The ESL teacher likewise ‘‘manages’’ classroom activities by planning them, ensuring that learning

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runs smoothly and effectively by assigning roles and tasks to students and providing clear instructions; initiating and closing activities; and verifying the effectiveness of what has been done through feedback and assessment. Some form of ‘‘training’’ may be necessary since, according to Tudor (1996), learner training ‘‘is a crucial part of the [second language] teacher’s role in the learner-centered approach’’ (p. 275). This might include: developing the learner’s familiarity with particular methodologies, grammar functions, register, and appropriacy; learner awareness in terms of learning goals and learning options, as well as self-awareness as a language learner (Tudor, 1996); learner strategies such as organizing and evaluating one’s own learning or the effective use of cognitive processes (Brown, 1994); learning to deal with unfamiliar vocabulary (Harmer, 1991); or technical skills like the use of various media and self-access facilities.

Controller The issue of control is a significant one for service contact personnel. Since the customer and service provider are jointly involved in producing the service, the question arises: Who is in control of the process at any particular time? While customers may wish to perceive that they are in control of the situation (Gro¨nroos, 1990), ‘‘giving customers control over the service process has a great destabilizing potential’’ (Bitran & Hoech, 1992, p. 359). The question of who actually should be in control may depend very much on the type of service being provided. While a patient undergoing surgery has no choice but to let the surgeon take over, clients of a lawyer may wish to retain some control of the direction of their case. Often too, ‘‘in order to keep uncertainty within manageable limits, client conduct within the service organization must be monitored and deviations from acceptable behavior minimized’’ (Bowen et al., 1990, p. 105). A doctor, for instance, with a talkative patient and a full waiting room, may need to use control to expedite matters. A service provider, therefore, should know when it is appropriate to exercise control and when not to. A similar situation applies within the ELT classroom. There may be occasions when the teacher has to be in a controlling role, for example, when conducting learner training, introducing new language, or doing lockstep activities (Harmer, 1991). However, at other times, facilitation would be more appropriate—for example, during more communicative-interactive activities such as simulations, role plays, pair work, or group work. Like other service providers, a teacher must have the inherent flexibility to know when it is appropriate

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ELT as a Service

to exercise control over the interaction, for the sake of effective learning and ultimately for the good of the student, and when it is better to relinquish control partly or completely. A teacher who exercises control inappropriately relative to the learning context may end up with bored or confused students—or both. ESL teachers likewise may be required to minimize deviations from ‘‘acceptable behavior’’ in the classroom by exercising authority over disruptive or uncooperative students.

Resource, Consultant, Adviser Service providers are often accorded a consultant or advisory role. This is most evident in service categories traditionally perceived as ‘‘professional’’ such as law, accountancy or management consulting, of which a large part of the work consists solely of doling out help and advice to clients. Simply being on call to guide ongoing customer self-diagnosis when problems arise has been described as a key role of some service providers (Bitran & Hoech, 1992)—for example, in the area of IT or health. Crosby (1991) describes the problem-solving role of some service providers in ‘‘providing expert counseling on the customer’s present and future needs’’ (p. 273)—for example, within areas such as investment and insurance. ESL teachers adopt this role when they function as a language resource within the classroom (Harmer, 1991) or as a source of general guidance and help (Brown, 1994), providing ‘‘important psychological support for learners, especially for those who are slow to develop independence’’ (Littlewood, 1981, p. 19). The teacher’s assistance could extend outside the classroom in the form of advice on the learner’s personal short-term and long-term goals and strategies in terms of, for example, methodology, autonomous learning, study advice, or choice of tertiary institution, as well as practical advice on surviving in an unfamiliar culture.

ESL TEACHER SERVICE PROVIDER SKILLS Within the services literature (e.g., Irons, 1994; Lovelock, 1995), it is commonplace to attempt to identify sets of skills and attributes which successful service contact persons would be expected to possess. According to Brown (1994), numerous ELT ‘‘experts’’ have likewise listed desirable attributes of the ‘‘good’’ language teacher. Such lists may differ in various ways, and it would be dangerous to apply them superficially since effective

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teaching is contingent on a complex array of factors within the teachers, the learners, and the context (Brumfit, 1984). However, complementary to technical/pedagogical skills there are perhaps three fundamental skill areas that successful ESL teachers can be expected to have mastered and which they have in common with other service providers: communicative skills, interpersonal skills, and reflective or analytical skills.

Communicative Skills The services literature traditionally stresses appropriate communicative skills and behaviors on the part of the service contact person during interactions with service customers. For example, customer satisfaction improves as service employee communication skill levels increase. Among the key employee skills found to be necessary are active listening and a nonthreatening communication style (Bitran & Hoech, 1992). Active listening is also a key skill for service providers (Irons, 1994; Lovelock, 1995; Schneider & Schechter, 1992). Service providers who are skilled at interpreting nonverbal cues from their customers have the highest levels of sales (Tansik, 1985, 1990) while the use by service providers of open-ended questions and paraphrasing is another important skill (Rossi, 1993). Much second language pedagogy and research is likewise built around the use of communication on the part of both the learner and the teacher. Effective communicative skills are therefore almost taken for granted as being part of the repertoire of the ESL professional. One much-researched area, for example, is teacher talk, which might involve communicative strategies such as adjustments of speech rate and volume, illustrations, questions, rephrasing, simplification, and prompting (Richard-Amato, 1996). Rivers (1987) commented on the use of communicative/interactive strategies in the classroom to convey and receive authentic messages that might mean using ‘‘nonverbal cues to add aspects of meaning beyond the nonverbal’’ (p. 4). Nonverbal communicative behaviors such as eye contact, gestures, facial expression, and posture, as well as active listening and the use of silence, are also commonly cited as useful teacher communication strategies.

Interpersonal Skills and Qualities Findings from services research have ‘‘reinforced the commonsense position that the quality of interpersonal contact is vital in service encounters’’

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(Adelman, Ahuvia, & Goodwin, 1994, p. 140) since the front-line service provider represents the entire organization in the eyes of the customer, and the attitudes, skills, and competencies of providers can influence the success of an organization. According to Lovelock (1995), many organizations have become aware that ‘‘nurturing the skills and motivation of their people can create a source of competitive advantage’’ (p. 211). High contact service providers have a strong need for interpersonal skills, for being ‘‘interpersonally pleasant and attractive’’ and displaying ‘‘pleasant emotions’’ to customers (Tansik, 1990, p. 157). Bitran and Hoech (1992) also identified social sensitivity which involves not only ‘‘skilful adjusting of behavior to fit demands of a [customer] call and . . . figuring out how others are likely to act and react [but also] . . . skilful use of control and assertion’’ (p. 347). Parasuraman, Zeithaml, and Berry’s (1988) research found that empathy towards the customer on the part of service providers is one of the key service attributes that customers associate with service quality. Courtesy, helpfulness, professionalism, social skills, and pleasing appearance are also commonly cited (Fitzsimmons & Fitzsimmons, 1994; Gro¨nroos, 1990; Lovelock, 1995), attributes associated with service orientation (see Chapter Two). ESL teachers share this need for interpersonal skills since, according to Stevick (1980), ‘‘the teacher is by far the most powerful figure in the classroom [and] sets the tone for the interpersonal atmosphere’’ (p. 17). To Stevick (1980), the teacher’s manner, in particular, radiating enthusiasm for the task of teaching and conviction of its value, is the most important of the language teacher attributes. While it might be argued that ‘‘good’’ second language teacher attributes may up to a point be context-dependent, a number of researchers have suggested desirable ESL teacher qualities or behaviors that correspond closely to those cited for other service providers. Since interactive language teaching involves facilitating willing student participation and initiative, according to Rivers (1987), emotional maturity, perceptiveness, and sensitivity on the part of the teacher to the feelings of others are required. Among attributes offered by Finocchiaro (1989), Brown (1994), and Tudor (1996) are human intuition, cultural sensitivity, enjoyment of people, enthusiasm, warmth, humor, patience, friendly manner, sensitivity to student problems, as well as pleasing appearance; but on the whole, empathy is seen to be particularly important. There is anecdotal evidence to suppose that while technical competence on the part of the ESL teacher is indispensable, other things being equal, students will tend to highly rate a teacher who is warm, friendly, and approachable.

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Reflective/Analytical Skills A number of writers on services management have stressed the need for reflective skills on the part of effective service providers. Irons (1994), for instance, described the need for interpersonal competence, one element of which is ‘‘the capacity to learn from one’s experience of oneself ’’ (p. 58) during the service encounter. Bitran and Hoech (1992) concluded that a reflective style is an important process skill of many front-line service workers, particularly when dealing with conflict. Rossi (1993) saw service contact persons as having the responsibility for continuous self-learning through activities such as reading, research, and inquiry. Such self-analysis may lead to an appreciation of the wider service operation environment, as well as to continuous improvement and excellence. Within ELT service provision, this notion has its counterpart in the concept of the reflective teacher. In this capacity, ESL teachers are likely to assess the origins, purposes, and consequences of their work (Zeichner & Liston, 1985). This approach holds that by such systematic, critical analysis of self in a teaching context, teachers will be able to effect continuous improvement of their work. Moving away from the ‘‘how’’ to the ‘‘what’’ and ‘‘why’’ enables the teacher to see teaching and management techniques as part of the broader educational purpose and to locate teaching within the broader socio-cultural context (Bartlett, 1990). While some might argue that the reflective approach on the part of the ESL teacher may be operating at a far more sophisticated level than that required in some other service provider jobs, there is no denying that regardless of service type, reflective techniques are essentially the same and have a similar intention, namely, to provide improved or excellent service for the customer and also, perhaps, enhanced job satisfaction for the service provider.

The Dramaturgy Analogy The concept of the dramaturgy analogy has been used by a number of writers (Deighton, 1994; Lovelock, 1995; Palmer & Cole, 1995) to describe the nature of the service encounter as a performance. This sees the entire service operation as akin to a theater environment, with a ‘‘front stage/onstage’’ where service encounters occur; ‘‘performers’’ (customer contact personnel); a ‘‘backstage’’ where a production team works in support of the performers; and an ‘‘audience’’ (customers). Before the performance, personnel may have to rehearse a ‘‘script’’ (specific lines or formulae), attend rehearsals,

ELT as a Service

21

and be coached in specific behaviors such as eye contact or voice control. While onstage, they may have to wear a ‘‘costume’’ (uniform or dress code), in addition to ‘‘acting’’ in a certain controlled and self-monitored manner. While the dramaturgy analogy might apply most commonly in the various hospitality/leisure sectors (e.g., hotel reception, restaurant, retail services, and real estate sales), it is also relevant in educational services (Halliday, Davies, Ward, & Lim, 2008); and ELT operations represent a particularly pertinent application. A backstage crew (ELTC administrative staff) supports the actors (ESL teachers), who perform onstage (ESL classroom), coordinated and led by the director (ELT manager/director of studies), and play to an audience (ESL students). Indeed, it is not uncommon for ESL teachers to view their lesson as a performance, wear a ‘‘costume’’ (for role plays), study ‘‘a script’’ (lesson outline), and use ‘‘props’’ (realia) to infuse their lesson with realism. They may get nervous before going ‘‘onstage’’ but overcome their nerves once they are ‘‘on’’; and they may use artistic skills, exaggerated gestures and movements, mimicry and facial expressions, as well as voice modulation and humor, to win over the audience and even to get them to participate. According to Stevick (1980), language teachers are essentially ‘‘performing,’’ while there is in teaching a ‘‘requirement of play acting’’ that involves teachers in ‘‘mask-changing’’ (p. 29). Likewise, second language teaching is in part, a kind of artistic performance depending largely on the characteristics of a particular teacher (Pennington, 1990).

ELT AS A PROFESSIONAL SERVICE Although English language teachers have struggled to gain professional recognition (Pennington, 1992), a glance at the websites of ELT providers and ESL teacher associations indicates that, these days, people in the ELT world commonly refer to themselves as professionals and to their job as a profession. The term profession has traditionally been applied to occupations such as those of doctors, lawyers, and accountants, and the issue of whether specific occupations are, or are not professions continues to be controversial (e.g., Myers, 2008). However, nowadays, the appellation professional is not confined to discrete occupational groupings, but is applied more generally to a wide range of services in areas such as IT, agriculture, research, consultancy, and education (Dawson, 2005) that previously might not have been thought of as professional services (Swailes, 2003). The question is, what do such professional services have in common?

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Several classification schemes exist. According to one such scheme (Haywood-Farmer & Nollet, 1994), professional service providers would possess several of the following characteristics ‘‘to a reasonable degree’’:  specialized knowledge and/or a high degree of training in intellectual rather than physical skills;  use of individual judgement and autonomous and independent action;  performance of work that intimately affects the affairs of others;  performance of work designed to develop the profession’s body of knowledge or skills;  provision of a service that is advisory and problem-oriented  self-motivation;  identification with and adherence to the standards and conduct of a profession, possibly in preference to those of an employer (p. 6). It could be argued that all of these characteristics apply to ELT services, or at least to the ESL teachers who work in ELT services. Most would be expected to have specialized knowledge and qualifications in second language teaching. They are required to use their individual judgment in teaching and advising students. Their work is, to some varying extent, of an autonomous character, and self-motivation is required. Helping to raise learners’ second language proficiency could be considered potentially lifechanging for students, while the teachers’ work may also involve counseling and pastoral care. Within ELT there is a strong spirit of community of practice that promotes and disseminates ESL knowledge and skills (e.g., Johnson, 2006; Singh & Richards, 2006). Although there may not be specific codes of conduct, there are well-established professional associations, such as Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc. (TESOL) (USA), IATEFL (UK), Australian Council of TESOL Associations (ACTA) (Australia), and Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages Aotearoa New Zealand (TESOLANZ) (New Zealand), which attempt to promote professional standards. According to these descriptors, there appears to be a reasonable case for including ELT operations within the professional service classification of Haywood-Farmer and Nollet (1994).

ESL STUDENTS AS CLIENTS If we accept that ELT is a professional service, it follows that the consumers of that service, the students, are clients. Despite clients’ increasing

ELT as a Service

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sophistication (Dawson, 2005), they do not normally enjoy expert power (Armstrong, 2003; French & Raven, 1959) due to an asymmetry of skills and knowledge between client and provider. So, as clients of a law firm purchase the legal expertise they themselves do not possess, an English language student likewise purchases the knowledge and expertise of English language practitioners. Clients may be right about their wants but not about their needs (Armstrong, 2003). A sick patient may want to get well but may have to be persuaded by a doctor that a particular course of medical treatment is what the patient needs to achieve this. Likewise, a student may want to commence English language classes at a particular level, but has to be counseled that a placement test indicates that this level is too ambitious. Unlike customers, clients cannot always expect guarantees (Armstrong, 2003). A lawyer cannot guarantee that he can win a court case for a client. Instead, the client is entitled to a professional standard of service, which is usually safeguarded ultimately by the statutory body overseeing the legal profession. Similarly, while ELTCs can guarantee certain aspects of their service such as timeliness, cleanliness, teacher qualifications, standard of equipment, and the standard of service/treatment, they cannot normally guarantee outcomes. An ELT center cannot guarantee that a student is going to be ready to sit an external examination within a certain period of time, or that the student is going to pass the examination. A professional service provider could decline a client’s request for service (Armstrong, 2003). For instance, a lawyer might advise a client not to pursue a case because the lawyer thinks it is unwinnable, while a surgeon might cancel an operation because the patient has a poor chance of survival. In the same way, an ELTC could decline to enroll a student if the student’s English is simply not up to the basic proficiency standard required, or if there are ethical reasons to do so, such as suspicions that the person is not a bona fide student. Clients establish relations with professional service providers (Beck, Beares, & Siegel, 2001), often of lengthy duration, that can represent the core value of the service in the client’s mind (Howden & Pressey, 2008). In the case of some providers such as lawyers or doctors, the relationship could last a lifetime. While such longevity could not be claimed for ELT service, a feature of its extended nature is that students may establish a relationship with an institution and its members of several weeks’, and sometimes months’ or years’, duration. The extended period of contract may have a significant influence on both their satisfaction with the service and the quality of the outcomes. Especially close bonds have been reported, not only between students and teachers, but also between students and host families (see Chapter Four), which for years afterwards come to symbolize the

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significance of the service experience to the student. Acceptance of the client status of ESL students, irrespective of age or background, should furnish ELT members with fairly clear guidelines about how their own students should be treated.

CONCLUSION We can see that, by their nature, the main features of ELT operations, and particularly the teaching-learning components of such operations, appear to be consistent with some of the conventional descriptors of the essential nature of a service, as explored in the services management literature. Furthermore, in terms of some of the roles and skills required, as well as the nature of the work itself, ESL teacher work embodies classic service provider fundamentals. ELT managers—and particularly those concerned about the performance of their organizations—can capitalize on these existing strengths by applying services management concepts to enhance the quality of their operations. Teachers, in addition, should become better acquainted with services management principles and therefore, as Kingsley (1998) recommended, function as professional consultants and marketers ‘‘so that they see themselves as satisfying customers rather than just teaching students’’ (p. 8). It is curious, however, that both the concept of ELT as a service and the related idea of ELT management as essentially service operations management have received scant attention in the serious academic literature. While most of the small group of writers on ELT management have tended to rely on general management theory, there appears to have been little attempt to explain and interpret ELT in terms of services management theory. Savage (1996) rightly commented that it was time to establish a more theoretical base for ELT management rather than to rely on the acquisition of management expertise through the ‘‘school of hard knocks.’’ If ELT is indeed a service, it is likewise time to establish a services management ethos for ELT based on services management theory and best practice. This would involve examining the possible application of well-known service models and tools to ELT operations management, as well as conducting and reporting on empirical research, with a view to enhancing efficiency and effectiveness, and, ultimately, improving the quality of the ELT operation to the benefit of both student customers and service providers. These themes are further developed in Part Four of the present work.

CHAPTER TWO ELT SERVICE AND STUDENT SATISFACTION INTRODUCTION Service organizations may choose a number of methods for measuring their performance. Financial measures of performance, for instance, such as return on investment, have been used in such comparative studies (Denison, 1990; Kotter & Heskett, 1992; Siehl & Martin, 1990). An additional approach for English language teaching centers (ELTCs) might be to measure student English language proficiency gain since this is the principal raison d’etre of ELTCs. This would mean ensuring that students were tested at the beginning and conclusion of their language course, using the same standardized test. However, such a measure would present a limited view of the entire service provision, since it does not take into account other components of the ELTC experience such as the homestay, facilities, or activities program. In the services sector, customer satisfaction is often taken as an indicator of performance. Since satisfying customers is a primary obligation on companies, all company activities, policies, and programs should be assessed in terms of how well they meet this obligation (Peterson & Wilson, 1992). There is more than adequate evidence in the literature of performance as either a direct or an indirect driver of satisfaction (Bolton & Drew, 1991; Churchill & Suprenant, 1982; Oliver, 1980; Spreng, MacKenzie, & Olshavsky, 1996; Tse & Wilton, 1988; Wirtz & Bateson, 1999; Yi, 1990). The effectiveness of service operations is viewed in the services literature largely as a function of customer satisfaction with the service process (Gro¨nroos, 1990; Peterson & Wilson, 1992; Wilson, 2002) because ‘‘the focus is on value through the lens of the customer’’ (Edvardsson et al., 2005, p. 118) and assessment of the quality of a service organization’s output is entirely in the mind of the customer, regardless of any objective efficiency measures or ‘‘expert’’ opinion (Bowen & Ford, 2002). ‘‘Quality [of service] is whatever the customers say it is and the 25

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quality of a particular service . . . is what the customers perceive it to be’’ (Buzzell & Gale, 1987, p. 111). Measures of customer perceptions of service process outputs or service levels are, moreover, considered to represent good practice in terms of service performance measurement (Voss, Johnston, Fitzgerald, & Sylvestro, 1990). It seems, therefore, that customer satisfaction has substantial support as at least one key indicator of service performance.

CUSTOMER SATISFACTION According to Lovelock, Patterson, and Walker (1998), satisfaction is: a consumer’s post-purchase evaluation of the overall service experience . . . an affective state or feeling reaction in which the consumer’s needs, desires and expectations . . . have been met or exceeded (p. 116).

Customer satisfaction encompasses a number of related cognitive and affective elements on the part of the customer, including expectations, confirmation/disconfirmation, needs, regret, dissonance, performance evaluation, perceived quality, value judgment, attribution of outcomes, mood, and emotions such as anger or delight, as well as equity (Liljander & Mattsson, 2002; Oliver, 1997; Olsen & Johnson, 2003; Szymanski & Henard, 2001). Indeed, satisfaction may be influenced by so many factors, including the referent’s age, general level of life satisfaction, and the number of purchase choices available—not to mention the cost of the service to the customer— that Peterson’s and Wilson’s (1992) comment that ‘‘operationally, customer satisfaction is a complex and elusive phenomenon’’ (p. 68) would seem to be something of an understatement. Nevertheless, as Lovelock’s definition implies, customer satisfaction is commonly conceptualized in the marketing and services literature as an outcome of the comparison which customers make between their prior expectations of the service performance and their actual perceptions of the quality of that performance. This conceptualization is known as the disconfirmation of expectations paradigm (Cardozo, 1965; Churchill & Suprenant, 1982; Oliver, 1980) or DE for short. Yi’s (1990) review showed that there is substantial empirical evidence supporting the role of DE in the formation of satisfaction/dissatisfaction. Further studies (e.g., Danaher & Haddrell, 1996) have continued to provide support. Meta-analysis of satisfaction studies showed that, along with equity, disconfirmation had the strongest correlation with satisfaction on average (Szymanski & Henard,

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2001). The importance of disconfirmation to the satisfaction process should lead managers to focus on improving disconfirmation levels, avoid situations where they make promises to customers that they fail to deliver on (Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry, 1985), and match their service delivery to customer expectations (Gutek, Groth, & Cherry, 2002). Within the service experience, the operation of the disconfirmation paradigm leads to customer satisfaction or dissatisfaction with a range of service encounters, which over time crystallizes into perceived service quality (Patterson & Johnson, 1993). Despite occasional opposition (e.g., Spreng et al., 1996; Martinez & Martinez, 2009), the idea that perceived service quality leads to customer satisfaction with the service provision continues to receive endorsement in the literature (e.g., Carrillat, Jaramillo, & Mulki, 2009; Carrilat, Jaramillo, & Mulki, 2009; Gro¨nroos, 2007; Maddern, Maull, Smart, & Baker, 2007). Satisfied customers are likely to inform friends or relatives about their positive experience by word-of-mouth (WOM) recommendation, which potentially can enhance sales for the provider (Kingman-Brundage, 1994). However, dissatisfied customers might spread negative WOM (discommendation). Although claims about the numbers of people told by WOM spreaders may be apocryphal (So¨derlund, 1998), research repeatedly confirms that there is a significant correlation between customer satisfaction and the spreading of positive WOM (Dubrovski, 2001). WOM, furthermore, has been shown to influence the expectations of potential customers of a service (Devlin, Gwynne, & Ennew, 2002). When a service failure occurs, customers who experience a positive and speedy recovery of service demonstrate a strong inclination to spread positive WOM about their experience (Swanson & Kelley, 2001). WOM has been shown to be particularly relevant in an educational context: Australian universities’ ‘‘alumni are potentially the most powerful promotional tool they possess’’ (Patterson, Romm, & Hill, 1998, p. 136). International students are particularly dependent on WOM because language barriers and a lack of time, money, and knowledge to research and evaluate information about services increases their reliance on information from other international students who are more knowledgeable (Pires & Stanton, 2000), thus making the latter more likely to be consulted by WOM seekers (Bansal & Voyer, 2000). More than half of overseas students surveyed reported that WOM was extremely or very important in their choice of an Australian tertiary study venue (Soutar, McNeill, & Lim, 1994, p. 36). Almost a third of Australian English Language Intensive Courses for Overseas Students (ELICOS) students canvassed said they relied on WOM from a friend or relative in their choice of an English language teaching

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center (Australian Education International, 2007). Word-of-mouth remains one of the most important informal marketing tools for language schools in general, not only through student personal endorsements, but through that of agents also (Evans, 2009). English language students therefore can function as informal marketers for ELTCs, but they can also spread negative WOM, thus helping to create a negative reputation for a particular destination or institution. Experienced ELTC managers would be expected to be aware of this key role of WOM in potentially creating or denying repeat business for their institutions. Fig. 2.1 demonstrates the disconfirmation and WOM process. If perceived performance fails to meet expectations, a negative disconfirmation occurs and the customer is dissatisfied or disappointed. If performance exceeds the customer’s expectations, a positive disconfirmation occurs and the customer is strongly satisfied or delighted (Oliver, 1980). Dissatisfaction/ disappointment may produce negative WOM, while strong satisfaction/ delight may produce positive WOM. Confirmation of expectations occurs when customers find that the service provided meets their expectations. This produces in the mind of the customer a ‘‘neutral’’ state, which has been referred to as mere satisfaction (Patterson, 1993). In terms of services best practice, mere satisfaction is not enough, since ‘‘marginally satisfied customers are at risk of being lured away by a competitor’s offering’’ (Lovelock et al., 1998, pp. 116–117). Positive disconfirmation is therefore far more important because it produces not just mere satisfaction but strong satisfaction, or delight. Service firms need to delight customers, since it is only delighted customers who develop the sort of loyalty behaviors firms need for longterm customer commitment (Hallowell, 1996; White & Schneider, 2000). In one study, for instance, ‘‘completely satisfied’’ customers were 42% more likely to be loyal than ‘‘merely satisfied’’ customers (Jones & Sasser, 1995). More importantly for ELTCs, it is delighted students who are more likely to spread positive WOM for the organization, thus enhancing their reputation for quality service (Lovelock et al., 1998). A key indicator for ELTCs of their performance, therefore, is the extent to which students are delighted with specific aspects of the ELTC’s service.

SOME ESL STUDENT CHARACTERISTICS AFFECTING SATISFACTION ELT student satisfaction is dependent on the value judgment the student makes of the quality of the various aspects of the ELTC service. But how

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Customer previous experience Customer wants & needs Marketing, Publicity, WOM Image of service organization Decision to purchase

EXPECTATIONS Decision not to purchase EXPERIENCE OF SERVICE

WORD OF MOUTH DISCOMMENDATION

NEGATIVE DISCONFIRMATION

DISAPPOINTMENT

WORD-OF MOUTH RECOMMENDATION PERCEPTIONS OF SERVICE PERFORMANCE

CONFIRMATION

MERE SATISFACTION

POSITIVE DISCONFIRMATION

DELIGHT

Figure 2.1. Customer Disconfirmation of Expectations and Word-of-Mouth Cycle Source: Adapted substantially from Patterson (1993)

well are students—given the fact that they are generally young persons— able to judge the service performance of an ELTC? With respect to higher education, Barnett (1992) commented: ‘‘Students of a professional service are not necessarily the best judges of the service they receive . . . ’’ (p. 17). Barnett’s point was that students might lack the knowledge, experience, and maturity to be able to judge whether particular methodologies, content,

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or courses of action represent a competent choice on the part of the educational service provider. Also, students have less-defined cognitive structures and are more outwardly focused than other, more mature, groups of consumers, meaning that inward focused factors such as affect, expectations, and disconfirmation may be less instrumental in terms of their satisfaction assessments (Szymanski & Henard, 2001). Second language students in particular may have difficulties accurately evaluating the teaching-learning component of an ELTC’s service. Their cultural backgrounds may lead them to have a different perception from their teachers of what is an effective methodology and what is not. Teachers in ELTCs, for example, commonly encounter Asian students who are used to a language teaching-learning style based on grammar-translation ideology and who reject the active-communicative methodology considered best practice in Western ELT circles. Such students may become troublesome and even disruptive if they perceive that the ELTC’s methodology conflicts with their preconceived notions of best practice. Unless students can be shown that the ELTC’s methodology actually is effective, they may register dissatisfaction with this part of the service. ELTC students may also have unrealistic expectations of what they can achieve in terms of language and study success within a specific period of time, and the realities of both the service performance and their own performance may cause severe disappointment and dissatisfaction. Although some students may retrospectively adjust their expectations of the service performance to fit with their actual perceptions (Patterson, Romm, & Hill, 1994), this may not always be the case. The success of a language course, furthermore, depends on a complex interplay of factors, not least of which is the student’s own aptitude for learning a language and willingness to expend the required levels of effort needed for success. Outcomes of language instruction may not be immediate, and it may take many months before a student is aware of having made progress. ELTC student satisfaction may also be determined by students’ status as either ‘‘novice consumers’’ or ‘‘expert consumers’’ of the service. Whereas novices do not know what to do or how to perform in terms of their role in the service provision, expert consumers do. Novices need to be taught a ‘‘service script,’’ so that they can develop the sort of confidence that will lead to effective utilization of what the service has to offer and thus, perhaps, to satisfaction with the service (Bateson, 2002). For instance, novice IT customers may need to be taught how to use a software program. In the

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same way, novice ELT students may have to acquire vocabulary-learning strategies or classroom group-work procedures. Furthermore, customer familiarity with the service process is linked to higher levels of customer satisfaction (So¨derlund, 2002). Although most ELTC students will have had prior experience of language instruction, many may not have used the services of a commercial provider, nor might they be familiar with particular instructional approaches in a specific ELT and national context. Their transformation from novices to experts may therefore be linked to the length of their stay in an ELTC: the longer they attend, the more ‘‘expert’’ they become. Length of time in the ELTC could therefore be linked to satisfaction levels. Indeed, the fact that ELT is an ‘‘extended service’’ may also impact on satisfaction in a number of different ways: for instance, in terms of relationships with academic and administrative staff and with other students, as well as moods, emotions, resilience, boredom, and fatigue, to name a few (e.g., de Ruyter & Bloemer, 1999; McGinnis, Gentry, & Gao, 2008). Levels of student satisfaction might also depend on particular ethnic, cultural, or demographic attributes of an ELTC’s clientele. There is increasing evidence in the literature, for instance, that different national and cultural groups may respond differently to a specific service provision and may express different levels of satisfaction (e.g., Espinoza, 1999; Johnson, Herrmann, & Gustafsson, 2002; Maruca, 2000; Mattila, 1999; Snow, Bartel, & Cullen, 1996; Triplett, Yau, & Neal, 1994; Ueltschy, Laroche, Zhang, Cho, & Yingwei, 2009). Language barriers and associated factors oblige consumers categorized as ‘‘ethnic’’ to rely more on WOM, as previously discussed, and also to develop more long-term relationships with service providers (Pires & Stanton, 2000). Other personal characteristics may also elicit diverse student responses. Research in a retail services context (Homburg & Giering, 2001), for instance, has shown that while age, income, and variety-seeking were important moderators of customer satisfaction and loyalty, gender and levels of customer involvement in the service were not. Youth versus age, income level, and prior experience of the service were also found to have a direct effect on levels of satisfaction with airline service provision, implying that ‘‘managers should not strive to improve mean levels of customer satisfaction without understanding the points of differentiation among the customer segments’’ (Anderson, Pearo, & Widener, 2008, p. 377). Such issues underline the importance of ELTC manager awareness of the makeup of ELTC clientele and the key marketing function of WOM among potential students.

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SOME ELTC SERVICE CHARACTERISTICS AFFECTING STUDENT SATISFACTION Service Orientation and Service Provider Behaviors Given the potential for high customer involvement and the importance of the service provider-customer interaction to the success of the service operation, the human dimension in terms of service orientation and service provider behaviors plays a key role. Service orientation refers to an individual’s orientation or attitude towards the customer in terms of providing a service (Saxe & Weitz, 1982; Schneider, 1980). It is ‘‘a set of attitudes and behaviors that affects the quality of the interaction between . . . the staff of any organization and its customers’’ (Hogan, Hogan, & Busch, 1984, p. 167). A number of studies have explored the link between service provider personality traits associated with a positive service orientation and customer satisfaction and perceptions of service quality (e.g., Baydoun, Dale, & Emperado, 2001; Brown, Mowen, Donavan, & Licata, 2002; Chandrasekhar, 2001; Kelley & Hoffman, 1997; McBride, Mendoza, & Carraher, 1997; Neng-Pai, Hung-Chang, & Yi-Ching, 2001). Personality-related service provider characteristics such as empathy, politeness, and similarity between provider and customer can have an impact on customer levels of trust in the service provider (Coulter & Coulter, 2003). Winsted (2000) identified three dimensions of service provider behavior that correlate highly with customer satisfaction, namely concern, civility, and congeniality. Customer satisfaction has also been shown to be predicated on social regard behaviors such as genuine respect, deference, and interest shown in the customer, making the customer feel valued or important (Butcher, Sparks, & O’Callaghan, 2003), while friendship with a customer is a major influence on the development of loyalty (Butcher, Sparks, & O’Callaghan, 2001). Customer-employee rapport, in terms of personal connection and enjoyable interaction, has been shown to impact positively on customer satisfaction, loyalty intent, and WOM communication (Gremler & Gwinner, 2000). Given the importance in services of the provider-customer relationship and interaction, the employee who is courteous and helpful, has an inherent predisposition to provide service, has the customer’s interests and welfare at heart, and has the ability to establish early rapport with customers (Lovelock et al., 1998) will play a key role in creating positive customer perceptions of service quality and, consequently, customer satisfaction.

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Conversely, service personnel who display deviant, anti-service behaviors can sabotage the service provision and have a negative impact on customer satisfaction (Harris & Ogbonna, 2002). A positive service orientation, together with corresponding behaviors, is therefore linked to service effectiveness. Access to inexpensive technology and the ease of copying service formats can reduce perceived differences between service providers, for example, in terms of systems, procedures, equipment, servicescape, layout, or facilitating goods. In the face of apparently identical offerings, an organization can differentiate itself from its competitors through the positive service orientation of its staff, and thus through the superior quality of its service. So important do some service firms consider this issue, that they pay particular attention to aspects of a job applicant’s personality indicative of a service orientation, rather than solely to technical knowledge or academic qualifications (Cran, 1994). Service orientation is particularly important in ELT services because of the nature of the students, who have an imperfect command of English and face the prospect of adjusting to life in an unfamiliar culture. Apart from the support needed simply to access the service effectively, they are likely to require a certain amount of assistance from service providers, sometimes of a practical nature, to enable them to settle down in their new environment. The boundary-spanning roles of the service providers may be critical here, since they involve service providers in ‘‘understanding, filtering and interpreting information and resources to and from the organization and its external constituencies’’ (Zeithaml & Bitner, 1996, p. 307). Service providers possessing attributes such as helpfulness, empathy with the students’ situation, and a concern for their welfare are also likely to contribute considerably towards student perceptions of the quality of the service they receive. While those with a service inclination are likely to be drawn into service-type employment (Schneider, 1980), this is not necessarily the case. Where ESL teachers are concerned, for example, possession of formal qualifications does not guarantee that a teacher has the necessary service orientation attributes to function as an effective service provider in a commercial environment. The corollary is that a teacher may possess limited or no teaching qualifications, depending on the ELTC employment policies, but be highly service-oriented. Despite the recognition of the role in the service provision of human aspects such as service orientation, there is a danger in over-reliance on this dimension to produce service quality at the expense of other dimensions, such as good service design, effective organization and management, and competent staff. Schneider and Bowen (1995), for instance, cautioned

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service managers against what they called ‘‘the human resources trap’’ (p. 174), which involves placing too much reliance on positive service provider attitudes and behaviors towards customers. Over-reliance on these human, service orientation aspects may make for a friendly service but not necessarily an effective one. As Sewell and Brown (1990) commented, ‘‘All the smiles in the world aren’t going to help you if your product or service is not what the customer wants’’ (p. 24). The task for ELT managers is to balance the obvious role of service orientation with other, equally important, aspects of the ELT service operation.

Tangibles and Servicescape While services may provide an intangible ‘‘product,’’ the importance of tangible aspects of the service environment should not be overlooked. Schneider and Bowen (1995) commented that customers are always looking for cues about the quality of the service, particularly when it is highly intangible. The servicescape or physical environment of a service can have a strong influence on both customers and service providers, for instance, in terms of space, furnishings, de´cor, lighting, temperature, and ambience (Bitner, 1992) and can influence customers’ behavioral intentions (Hightower, Brady, & Baker, 2002). Parasuraman et al.’s (1988) research implied that the quality of tangibles was more important than service provider empathy as a key predictor of a customer’s evaluation of service quality. The physical environment of service provider premises, as well as the interaction of service personnel and the physical environment, can have a significant effect on new customer perceptions of the corporate image of the organization (Nguyen & Leblanc, 2002). The physical environment is a determinant of trust and customer satisfaction in personalized services (Shamdasani & Balakrishnan, 2000) and in some service types is considered the most important service element (Lentell, 2000). Tangible aspects are an important element of ELTC service provision for a number of other reasons. First, the ELTC functions as a base or headquarters for ESL students, many of whom will spend much of their time there. It may be seen as a place of safety for a visitor still coming to grips with life in a different culture, perhaps even a ‘‘home from home’’ and thus fulfills one of the basic needs of service customers, that of physical and psychological security (Schneider & Bowen, 1995). Second, ELTCs need to provide facilities such as restrooms or toilets, classrooms, and refreshment rooms up to a basic level, sometimes as a statutory requirement of their

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accreditation by authorities. Students constantly interact with facilities and equipment as part of their experience of the service. For example, in many ELTCs, a kitchen/cooking facility is indispensable, enabling students to prepare food that meets their cultural, religious, or dietary requirements. Third, the tangibles inherent in the servicescape may have an enabling function for the learning process. The de´cor, comfort, and layout contribute to an ambience that may impact on the emotional and psychological state of clients-as-students, thus creating a suitable climate for learning success (Burruss, 2001; Knirk, 1992; Lyons, 2002; Reutzel & Wolfersberger, 1996). Furthermore, specific facilities and equipment may support the methodology and teaching/learning philosophy of the institution, particularly when the learners are adults (Vosko, 1991). For example, the existence of a selfaccess unit or learning center for students is fundamental in ELTCs that foster learner autonomy and consider themselves to be best practice organizations. The use of quality video and audio equipment in support of teaching/learning activities is considered de rigueur in some language learning institutions.

Service Milieu On walking into service premises, customers may immediately be struck by the mood of the place, sometimes informally referred to as good or bad ‘‘vibes.’’ Schneider and Bowen (1995) referred to this phenomenon as the service milieu. Milieu has traditionally been used in the sense of a specific environment within which a particular activity takes place. It has enjoyed widespread application within the fields of social, psychological, educational, and linguistic research—for instance, in terms of milieu teaching (Hancock & Kaiser, 1996; Hester, 1996), academic milieu (Johns, 1988), specific learning environments (Heinze, 1983; Wakeford, 1984), second language acquisition (Cle´ment & Kruidenier, 1983), second language learning (Gardner, 1979), educational administration (Helsabeck, 1980; Newberg & De Lone, 1981), educational environments (Crookston, 1975; Schaffer, 1973), and health care (Baldwin & Ramos, 1986; Berkshire & McMahon, 1994). In each case, the term milieu was used to embody the characteristics of a specific environment that in some way or other impacted on an activity or the behavior of a group of referents. To some extent, it is in this sense that the notion of milieu is used here. However, there is an additional nuance that relates particularly to service environments, and it is that of the atmosphere of a particular setting in terms of its ambience or mood.

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On entering a positive service milieu, customers should become aware of an atmosphere conducive to satisfying their needs in a focused, friendly, efficient, and supportive manner, all of which are likely to enhance levels of customer satisfaction. Supportive provider-provider relationships also represent an integral part of service milieu, making an important contribution to service outcomes and increasing customer satisfaction and loyalty (Gittell, 2002). A positive service milieu is particularly relevant in ELTCs. As ‘‘partial employees’’ (Bowen, 1986) and temporary ‘‘members’’ of the organization, students are susceptible to the influences that the organization and its permanent members may exercise on their behaviors, emotions, motivations, choices, and thus, potentially, on the effectiveness of the English language course for them personally. While the wider community is regarded as a valuable resource for the development of second language proficiency (Strevens, 1987), ELT researchers have conventionally focused on the role of the classroom as the primary context for the maintenance of an effective learning environment within the formal framework of the teaching institution (e.g., Carter & Nunan, 2001; Nystrom, 1983). An extension of this perspective considers organizational influences from systems outside the classroom but nonetheless within the ELTC that could impact on classroom performance. This is a theme that has traditionally occupied organizational researchers. Systems thinkers (e.g., Barnard, 1938; Senge, 1990) have long advocated a holistic view of organizations that recognizes the interactive nature of different intra-organizational systems and their potential to impact on each other beneficially or otherwise. Thus, awareness of these systems and sub-systems, as well as an understanding of how they operate and influence each other, can contribute towards the organization’s overall effectiveness. The ESL classroom, likewise, does not exist in an organizational vacuum. It is a sub-system within a larger ELTC system and is circumscribed by the larger system. What happens in the sub-system cannot therefore be divorced from what happens within the larger system. Part of this larger system is the service milieu. Awareness of how the service milieu impacts systemically on the ESL classroom should be of interest to ELT managers, particularly as what happens in the classroom is likely to be a major influence on a student’s overall satisfaction with the ELTC service. An ELTC’s service milieu is shaped by a complex interplay of factors, most of which have already been discussed, but the institution’s service climate (see Chapter Three) is likely to play a key role.

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MANAGING STUDENT EXPECTATIONS AND PERCEPTIONS Customer expectations are a strategic matter for service managers (Schneider & Bowen, 1995) because they can impact on customer satisfaction with a service and on the service organization’s overall success. It is thus one of the service manager’s tasks to manage, and thus shape, customer expectations, with a view to creating a positive perception in the mind of the customer of eventual service performance (Lovelock et al., 1998). Organizations traditionally do this by marketing actions, such as advertising, sales promotion, and pricing (Gro¨nroos, 2007). However, not all customer expectations are necessarily directly manageable in this way. Where ELT operations are concerned, a prospective student may have formed a perception of the reputation of the ELT provider from media sources or WOM communications. Any previous courses taken with other ELT providers may also color expectations. If, for instance, the student has had a good experience and a high standard of service, this may ‘‘set the bar’’ for the new ELT provider to meet the student’s high expectations. A student’s attitude and general outlook might also be factors; for instance, a student who has a positive outlook on life may be more tolerant and harbor more modest expectations (Johnston & Clark, 2008). Where it is possible to exercise some influence, in addition to standard marketing actions, ELTC managers should define customer expectations, inform themselves about what expectations customers have, and then manage their perceptions during the service process (Johnston & Clark, 2008). For ELT managers, defining expectations might involve a written description of the service they provide in terms of the attributes of their service that represent the quality of their offering. Such material will then form part of the marketing communications directed at prospective clients. Managers cannot fulfill customer expectations unless they know what these expectations are (see Chapter Four). ELTC managers can inform themselves about student expectations by carrying out basic market research employing student feedback systems. Apart from standard surveys and feedback forms, managers can set up focus groups or carry out some basic statistical work such as student complaint analysis. This would enable ELT institutions to gather knowledge about student characteristics, needs and wants, and any other relevant considerations, and then take the requisite action to fulfill expectations where feasible and realistic. However, some students might have unrealistic expectations (Fitzsimmons & Fitzsimmons, 2004). They

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might expect to make far more progress in terms of fluency or formal proficiency levels than is realistically possible in a given period of time (see Chapter Six). They might expect certain services from the provider that are not actually part of the package, such as meals, excursions, learning materials, or particular aspects of a homestay offering. They might expect staff to make themselves available to students to an unreasonable degree. In all such cases, complex, professional services such as ELT may need to devote additional resources to educating new students about the nature of the service—including, for instance, teaching methodology—and, specifically, about what the student can realistically achieve within a given period of time. Clear policies should be communicated to students in the most effective way under the circumstances. Written service level specifications in the student’s own language are one way of formalizing this process. Conventionally, service organizations manage customer perceptions by meeting customer expectations. An obvious, and elementary, step for ELTCs would be to actually provide what is promised to prospective students in brochures, on websites, and in other program literature or verbal pronouncements. There is much anecdotal, and some research (see Chapter Four), evidence in support of a common student complaint that some ELTCs include exaggerated or inaccurate information in their marketing materials, a practice which inevitably leads to disappointment when the expectation awakened in the student does not match perceptions—for instance, the homestay does not come up to a good standard or the center’s location is not as convenient as described in marketing materials. Even better than merely delivering on student expectations would be to ‘‘overdeliver.’’ The perceived services wisdom to underpromise and overdeliver describes a common technique for potentially creating positive disconfirmation and delight among customers. ELTC managers who subscribe to this philosophy can then avoid exaggeration, inaccuracy, and misinformation in their marketing communications, but at the same time develop a quality service operation that addresses the issue of student expectations and is thus able to generate a high degree of satisfaction and even delight among students.

CONCLUSION This chapter has outlined the satisfaction process in respect of ELT as a service, and in particular the workings of student expectations, perceptions, and the key role of WOM, in addition to some factors likely to influence

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satisfaction levels from a student and service operation perspective. However, knowledge of this area is restricted by the general lack of empirical research into ELTC management, which extends to the availability of findings from surveys of student satisfaction with ELTC performance in the academic literature. Only one set of findings based on empirical research involving a large sample and quantitative analysis appears to have been published so far (see Chapter Five). At a more informal level, ELTCs routinely survey students on levels of satisfaction with the service provided, and government education departments and other similar bodies might survey international students. Although institutions such as Australian Education International and its predecessors, for instance, regularly commission such surveys and, with some restrictions, publish results online (see: http://aei.gov.au/AEI/PublicationsAndResearch/ Default.htm), this is not always the case. Findings might not be published for commercial or confidentiality reasons, or might be restricted to a few stakeholders such as members of industry associations. There is clearly a need for more widespread empirical investigation in this area, together with the publication of findings, to enable ELT educators, ELT managers, and ELT researchers to obtain a clearer picture of levels of student satisfaction with ELT service, as well as of the processes that contribute to satisfaction outcomes.

CHAPTER THREE SERVICE CLIMATE IN ELT INTRODUCTION Ever since the work of Mayo (1933) and Roethlisberger and Dickson (1939) led to the emergence of the human relations school of management thought, the environment that people work in has been regarded as a key influence on their behavior, specifically in terms of illuminating their motivation and performance in organizations. Managers and researchers, particularly in the areas of organizational behavior and psychology, have been interested in investigating the inherent nature of organizations in order to capture those elements that may influence behavior and thus the outputs of the firm, with a view to improving productivity. Thus, interest grew in the concept of climate in the sense of an environmental feature or characteristic that affects the behavior of persons and groups and to which they are sensitive (Tagiuri, 1968, p. 18). The concept of climate as applied to organizational environments originates in Lewinian field theory (Lewin, 1936, 1951). The first mention in an organizational setting is commonly taken to be Lewin, Lippitt and White’s (1939) study of how different leadership styles create social climates that go on to affect productivity. Subsequent work was carried out by: Lewin (1951), who described the need to consider the situational and contextual factors that influence behavior and developed the equation B ¼ f (P, E), that is, behavior is a function of the person and the environment; Fleishman (1953), in his study of leadership climate in a training context; Morse and Reimer (1956), in their study of participation and decision-making among employees; Argyris (1958), in his study on group dynamics; Pace and Stern (1958), in their study of climates in colleges in the United States; McGregor (1960), who expounded the concept of ‘‘Theory X’’ and ‘‘Theory Y’’ managerial climates; Likert (1961) and Barker (1965), who made qualitative observations of natural organizational settings; and Halpin and Croft (1962), who examined the organizational climate of the U.S. schools. Tagiuri and Litwin’s (1968) work led to a 41

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consensus forming around a confirmation of Litwin and Stringer’s (1968) notion of climate as a perception or a reflection of the way people in organizations perceive and come to describe the characteristics of their environment (Verbeke, Volgering, & Hessels, 1998).

CLIMATE AND CULTURE A fundamental controversy in the literature has been the confusion between climate and culture. The popular use of the term culture as applied in the management literature to organizations is linked to the symbolic interaction and social constructionist theories of cultural anthropologists and ethnographers such as Margaret Mead (1901–1978), but it was not until the early 1980s that ‘‘the cultural perspective burst onto the organizational studies scene’’ (Denison, 1996, p. 619). Although previous writers such as Barnard (1938) had discussed the importance of norms and values in organizations, it was Pettigrew (1979) who initiated contemporary interest in the notion that organizations have cultures, in his article tracing the development of an organization’s culture over time. Deal and Kennedy’s (1982) classic was followed by a plethora of studies, both scholarly (e.g., Schein, 1985) and popular (e.g., Peters & Waterman, 1982). In spite of the fact that the terms climate and culture have different origins and are based on discrete intellectual traditions, Schneider’s (1985) comment that they were ‘‘used interchangeably for years’’ (p. 595) points to the blurring that has existed between them. By the late 1980s, some consensus seems to have emerged that climate referred to organizational members’ perceptions of a set of organizational dimensions (Reichers & Schneider, 1990) whereas the term culture was applied to the inherent nature of an organization’s values, beliefs, and assumptions. ‘‘Culture exists at a higher level of abstraction than climate and climate is a manifestation of culture’’ (Reichers & Schneider, 1990, p. 29); organizational culture deals with beliefs, perceptions, and behavior, whereas organizational climate has been built up from measures or qualitative assessments of individual perception (Pettigrew, 1990). Differences also became apparent in the purposes of climate studies and culture studies. Climate studies commonly view organizations as rational entities with defined purposes and are concerned with explaining why some organizations are more effective than others, as well as focusing on the behavior of organizational members with a view to managing and, possibly, changing that behavior. Culture studies tend to focus on an understanding of

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behavioral motivators, language, or symbolism (Hoy, Tarter, & Kottkamp, 1991; Reichers & Schneider, 1990) using description and comparison, that is, looking at the dimensions of one culture and comparing them with another. Despite perceived differences between climate and culture, it is indeed important to remind ourselves how closely related they are, as Reichers and Schneider (1990) commented: Both climate and culture deal with the ways by which organization members make sense of their environment. These sense-making attempts manifest themselves as shared meanings that form the basis for action. Both climate and culture are learned, largely through the socialization process and through symbolic interaction among group members (p. 29).

Each of the two concepts should therefore be viewed as important for an understanding of the other. In particular, climate studies should be acknowledged for their key role in providing insight into an organization’s culture. A number of writers (e.g., Turnipseed, 1988) have conceptualized climate as existing within culture and have acknowledged the possible mutual effects the two concepts have on each other. Climate is ‘‘the top layer on an organization’s culture’’ and culture includes climate (Schneider & Bowen, 1995, p. 239). According to Verbeke et al. (1998), ‘‘organizational climate is created by a group of interacting individuals who share a common frame of reference, i.e., the organization’s culture, as they come to terms with situational contingencies’’ (p. 308). Sparrow and Gaston (1996) likewise perceived ‘‘considerable overlap between the two, with climate resulting from an organization’s culture’’ (p. 694). Increasingly, therefore, climate is being seen as a ‘‘window’’ into the culture of an organization. While the two concepts are different, climate is a useful indicator of culture (Payne, 2000). In Denison’s (1996) view, culture and climate are merely different components or interpretations of the same phenomenon. Other research (Glisson & James, 2002), however, provided some evidence in support of the view that climate and culture are separate constructs.

APPLICATION OF CLIMATE TO ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING CENTERS Since the emergence of climate as an organizational concept, numerous climate studies have been carried out in a wide range of industry and organization types. One strand of such research has focused on climate in

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schools, colleges, and universities. Educational climate researchers have focused on climate type classification and in particular on identifying ‘‘positive,’’ ‘‘healthy,’’ or ‘‘open,’’ as opposed to ‘‘negative,’’ ‘‘unhealthy,’’ or ‘‘closed’’ climates (Deer, 1980; Halpin & Croft, 1962; Hoy et al., 1991). Much educational climate research has focused on the United States, British, or Australian public or state school, college, or university systems (Deer, 1980; Halpin & Croft, 1962; Hoy et al., 1991). Some studies of school climate have tended to focus on a range of generic issues such as school discipline, parental involvement, or the use and effectiveness of standardized national achievement tests. Others have tended to focus on specific domains encompassing quasi-societal themes such as diversity, multiculturalism, or racial issues (e.g., Heggins, 2001; Pewewardy & Frey, 2002; Pfeifer & Schneider, 1974). Such studies have done much to help understanding climate themes in schools, colleges, and universities in the public domain. However, they may be less useful when it comes to examining the environments of educational institutions that follow a commercial model. Although the studies of climate in public sector educational institutions may appear to have some relevance to a study of climate in English language teaching centers (ELTCs), the two organization types are dissimilar in a number of respects. Differences include the public character on the one hand versus the commercial imperative on the other, the relative ownership and structure of the organizations, the relative sizes of institutions, the range of subjects taught, the nature and duration of the student’s association with the institution, student age parameters, student characteristics and cultural backgrounds, class sizes, teaching staff qualifications and backgrounds, as well as modes of assessment and teaching philosophy. Intrinsic features of the public schools, colleges, and universities studied in traditional educational climate studies differ so markedly, in fact, from those of privately owned ELTCs that it is difficult to establish any commonality, apart from that of providing an educational service.

SERVICE CLIMATE AND ELT More relevant to the work of ELTCs is the concept of service climate. This has been defined as: Employee perceptions of the practices, procedures and behaviours that get rewarded, supported and expected with regard to customer service and customer service quality (Schneider, White, & Paul, 1998, p. 151).

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Much service climate research has attempted to identify antecedents of a positive service climate in service organizations. This exists when employees perceive that management regard quality service as important and support and reward employees who deliver such service (Schneider et al., 1998). A number of key prerequisites for a positive service climate have been proposed in the literature. These include mutual support among departments and colleagues and facilitative conditions such as sharing information with staff, providing feedback, appropriate manager behaviors, training, and the removal of obstacles to the provision of excellent service (Johlke & Duhan, 2000; Johnson, 1996; King & Garey, 1997; Schneider & Bowen, 1993; Schneider et al., 1998); the facilitation of personal career development and planning, of newcomer entry to the organization through socialization and training; and of job performance; and the fostering of an awareness of working for an organization that has a high status and image in the community (Schneider, 1994). Pugh, Dietz, Wiley, and Brooks (2002) synthesized two decades of service climate research into eight drivers of service climate, which are summarized in these manager activities: emphasizing customer orientation and service quality, supporting employees in their provision of the service, hiring motivated people, sustaining adequate employee numbers, training employees to be effective and efficient service providers, acknowledging employee efforts, rewarding employee efforts, espousing and encouraging teamwork, implementing systems that remove obstacles to superior service provision, and using customer feedback to help improve the service. A measure of service climate quality would be based on employees’ perceptions of how elements such as these were operationalized as practices or behaviors resulting in the delivery of superior service. The ELT sector has been the subject of prodigious amounts of academic research worldwide, the vast majority of which has addressed the area of ESL teaching methodology and/or related linguistic issues. However, administrative and management aspects of ESL programs in ELTCs have not been accorded the same level of interest and remain, particularly in terms of empirical research, by and large, unexplored. While service climate research increasingly examines a wider range of work contexts (e.g., Andrews and Rogelberg’s (2001) study of service climate in small businesses), that of ELTCs has not been one of them. As a result, little or nothing is known about how ELTC faculty and administrative staff perceive the service climate within their organizations. Some of the unanswered questions about service climate in ELTCs relate to issues surrounding the provision of a traditionally public benefit within a commercial environment. For instance, the importance of service

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orientation has been demonstrated to be a key feature of a range of commercially successful service and even manufacturing organizations (e.g., Burchell, Hodges, & Rainsbury, 1999; Homburg, Hoyer, & Fassnacht, 2002; O’Connor & Shewchuk, 1995; Wright, Pearce, & Busbin, 1997). It is not known, however, to what extent the various facets of service orientation are prevalent in ELTCs, in the minds of staff, nor how robust they are, compared to other aspects of the service provision, nor how prepared professional ESL teachers are to embrace the roles that are expected of service providers in a commercial environment. One such role, for instance, that of marketer, was introduced in Chapter One. Given the long-term and personalized nature of many service encounters, service providers are increasingly expected to be ‘‘part-time marketers’’ for their organizations (Gro¨nroos, 1990, p. 176). However, studies of health, accountancy, and tertiary teaching (Laing & McKee, 2001; Stratemeyer & Hampton, 2001) have reported a lack of commitment to the marketing role among professionals working in these areas. In particular, professionals who interpret the marketing function in relatively narrow terms may feel distaste at being obliged to become marketers (Laing & McKee, 2001). Although administrative and managerial staff might naturally embrace a marketer role, there is a view (e.g., Kingsley, 1998) that ESL teachers too, as service providers, should be prepared to include informal marketing in their job description, but it is not clear to what extent they are prepared to do this. An obligation to focus on commercial aspects at the expense of professional integrity can impact negatively on the professionalism of professional staff (Roberts, 2001). This implies that in organizations like ELTCs, where teachers must reconcile a professional ethic with commercial priorities, there is potential for a discrepancy between what is commercially desirable and what is professionally desirable. Anecdotally, some ELTC managers might be perceived as not being fully attuned to the professional and ethical constraints of teaching English as a second language, particularly if they do not hold a teaching qualification themselves. They might give commercial considerations precedence over educational requirements by, for instance, taking on unqualified teaching staff or by creating over-large classes and mixing students of different proficiency levels to cover a temporary surge in demand. Such practices could bring managers into conflict with ESL teachers, especially if the latter feel, in line with other professionals (Haywood-Farmer & Nollet, 1994; Stratemeyer & Hampton, 2001), that their specialist knowledge, qualifications, and expertise put them in a better position than their managers to assess the needs of their students.

Service Climate in ELT

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Another area of interest relates to the ELTC manager’s roles, attitudes, and behaviors in a services context. The responsibility for the efficacy of strategic, organizational, and administrative aspects of the ELTC service lies with ELTC managers since planning, organization, and control are classical management functions (Fayol, 1949). This duty includes formulating and communicating a service strategy, setting up structures and systems to serve the strategy, and monitoring performance. It also implies a duty to meet the requirements of accrediting institutions such as Accreditation UK (British Council, 2009) or the Australian National ELT Accreditation Scheme (2010), by ensuring, for instance, that ESL teachers are suitably qualified and trained, and that the ELTC’s policies, resources, and procedures comply with the framework standards. The importance of manager support and reward mechanisms for service staff is likewise a common services climate theme (Kopelman, Brief, & Guzzo, 1990; Koys & DeCotiis, 1991; Litwin & Stringer, 1968; Pugh et al., 2002). Manager reward structures that favor professional behavior have been shown to lead to positive outcomes for professional staff and for the organization (Boyd, Lusch, & Naylor, 2001). The key role of effective manager communication in services is self-evident (e.g., Kopelman et al., 1990; Johnson, 1996; Koys & DeCotiis, 1991), especially since forms of manager communication with service staff can influence staff outcomes (Johlke & Duhan, 2000). Perceived manager performance in these areas of ELTC service is therefore of interest. In common with all organizations, ELTC workforces are composed of sub-groups of employees. Teachers make up by far the largest sub-group in ELTCs, and traditionally the ESL profession has been populated predominantly by women. One New Zealand statistic (Haddock, 1998), for instance, put the proportion of mainly tertiary ESL female teachers at 87%. Women and men have been shown to have significantly different perceptions of some aspects of the work climate in their organizations (Kirkcaldy & Athanasou, 1999). Professional sub-cultures and administrative sub-cultures exist in a professional services environment, and cultural conflict between them can have tangible consequences for the organization (Hofstede, 1998). The same might apply to staff who have varying lengths of service with their organizations and those who are employed either on a part-time or on a full-time basis. Organization size (Sveiby & Simons, 2002) and type may also have a role to play in forming ELTC staff perceptions of the climate in their organizations, while different branches or sub-units of larger ELT providers may vary in terms of employee views of service climate (Dietz, Pugh, & Wiley, 2004).

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It should be self-evident from the foregoing that a positive service climate should in theory produce positive outcomes for a service organization, including satisfied customers. In reporting on research into service climate and satisfaction in retail stores, Wiley (1991) described strong positive relationships between customer satisfaction and how employees described key aspects of a store’s working environment: ‘‘Those stores most favorably described by employees are generally those stores most favorably described by customers’’ (p. 121). Wiley’s (1996) review of similar studies concluded that the greater the prevalence of certain leadership or organizational practices, the more energized and productive the workforce, leading in turn to greater customer satisfaction and, further, to stronger business performance. Schneider (1980) hypothesized that service employees actually desire to provide good service but often come under stress because of conflicting demands of management and customers. He maintained that positive outcomes for both employee and customer are a direct function of the extent to which the organization demonstrates a climate for service. Specifically, he set out to prove that ‘‘the way customers perceive their treatment when they use the organization’s services should be positively related to what employees say about the organization’s service practices and procedures’’ (p. 55). Schneider found a close relationship between specific elements of service climate and customer reports of superior service (Table 3.1). A number of similar investigations have provided further support for the notion of a strong link between a positive service climate and satisfied customers, as well as other positive outcomes such as customer retention and shareholder value (Anderson, Fornell, & Mazvancheryl, 2004; Gruca & Rego, 2005; Johnson, 1996; Schneider & Bowen, 1995; Schneider, Macey, Lee, & Young, 2009; Schmit & Allscheid, 1995; Tornow & Wiley, 1991; Table 3.1.

Service Climate Elements Linked to Customer Satisfaction.

Service Climate Element Service orientation/customer focus Manager behavior exemplifies superior service Efforts at customer retention Adequate numbers of well-trained staff Well-maintained equipment Good level of resourcing Source: Summarized from Schneider (1980).

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Table 3.2.

Positive Correlations between Service Climate and Customer Satisfaction.

Ranking 1 2 3 4¼ 4¼ 6 7¼ 7¼

Variable Information seeking from customers and employees about service quality Staff training Rewards and recognition for excellent service Service strategy Estimate of customer satisfaction Service systems, i.e., established policies and procedures Service support, i.e., cooperation and teamwork between units Employee service orientation

Source: Summarized from Johnson (1996).

Wiley, 1991). Johnson’s findings, for instance, included these service climate features that were closely associated with customer satisfaction (Table 3.2). Findings such as these should, in theory, also apply to student satisfaction with ELT services, particularly because of some key attributes of the ELT service operation, namely, frequency of student-staff contact, intangibility, and staff interdependence. ESL students often experience an extended service (McGinnis et al., 2008) of some weeks’ or months’ duration. In such contexts, staff-student relationships may develop through emotional contagion (Pugh, 2001), that is, ‘‘a leakage of affect during service interactions’’ that is facilitated by the frequency of contact afforded by the extended nature of the service (Dietz et al., 2004, p. 88), resulting in a close relationship between staff perceptions and student attitudes (Dietz et al., 2004); and there should in theory be a significant, positive relationship between service climate and student satisfaction (Mayer, Ehrhart, & Schneider, 2009). As previously discussed (Chapter One) ELT services are characterized by intangibility. There is also likely to be a high degree of staff interdependence, that is, a team of people cooperate closely to provide the service to the student, to the extent that the outcome will suffer if a team member does not do her/his job properly. Research shows that the higher the level of these two attributes, intangibility and interdependence, the stronger the relationship between service climate and student satisfaction ought to be (Mayer et al., 2009). However, theory is not always confirmed by practice and some of these insights are challenged to some extent by the findings of the research described in Chapter Eight.

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CONCLUSION This chapter has identified some of the service climate variables that have been found to be linked to customer satisfaction. It should be remembered, however, that most of the research cited above focused on a narrow range of service types. New Zealand ELTCs possess characteristics that set them apart from the sort of services so far subjected to service climate research. Most are small- to medium-sized enterprises, sometimes run by ownermanagers, with small workforces consisting of both professional and non-professional staff. They provide an educational service, yet function in a commercial environment. They have a young, multinational clientele that accesses the service over variable periods of time. Customer satisfaction with a service could also be dependent on individual differences within customers, the degree of customer involvement in the production of the service, or simply the appearance of the service facility and its staff.

PART TWO STUDENT PERCEPTIONS

CHAPTER FOUR STUDENT VIEWS OF ELT SERVICE$ INTRODUCTION The common conceptualization of customer satisfaction as an outcome of the comparison customers make between expectations and perceptions of the service performance has been empirically researched across a range of service types and has received wide support in the services literature (e.g., Churchill & Suprenant, 1982; Danaher & Haddrell, 1996; Oliver, 1980; Wirtz & Bateson, 1999). However, as previously pointed out, research into ESL student satisfaction is, by comparison, still in its infancy. Although some serious studies have emerged (e.g., Bordia, Wales, Gallois, & Pittam, 2008) and ‘‘official’’ reports are sometimes made available (e.g., Australian Education International, 2007), there remain problems of access to findings or limitations in terms of areas such as research focus, sample size, methodology, and data analysis. The two studies in Chapter Four and Chapter Five attempt to fill in some of the gaps in this area. The questions addressed in this chapter are: (1) what do ESL students expect from the service they purchase from English language teaching centers (ELTCs), and (2) what elements of ELTC operations are most likely to create student satisfaction? Qualitative research was utilized to throw some light on these issues.

THE INVESTIGATION In view of the lack of precedent, the research took a phenomenological rather than a positivist approach (Easterby-Smith, Thorpe, & Lowe, 1991 EasterbySmith, et al., 1991). Of importance was ‘‘thick description’’ (Geertz, 1973), $

Adapted from Walker, J. (2001a). Client views of TESOL service: Expectations and perceptions. International Journal of Educational Management, 15(4), 187–196.

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comprising detailed accounts of respondent experiences and going beyond mere quantification to: uncover respondent feelings and attitudes (Holloway, 1997); understand processes and the significance of actions (Easterby-Smith et al., 1991); and secure accurate accounts based on personal experience (Burgess, 1982). Focus-group methodology was therefore selected for its ability to use group dynamics to stimulate an elaboration and expression of points of view in an economical setting (Frey & Fontana, 1991). Permission was obtained from five ELTCs in five New Zealand cities to hold focus groups on their premises. Four of the institutions were commercial organizations and one was attached to a university. The respective managers were requested to invite students to participate who, in their opinion, were sufficiently competent in English to be able to express a point of view on the issues for discussion. The final sample comprised 5 gender-balanced groups totaling 35 respondents from 12 European, Asian, and South American countries, with an estimated age range of 20–40. Conventional focus-group methodology sometimes has to be adapted to specific research contexts (Morgan, 1997). Given the second language character of the clientele, some flexibility appeared appropriate, as attested to by the few previous accounts of the use of focus groups with ESL students (Anderson, 1996; Brogan, 1990; Day, 1995; Fowle, 1999). Each participant, for example, was sent a personal letter by the researcher explaining the rationale for the research and providing an outline of the research questions. This was done to introduce the participants to potentially unfamiliar concepts and allow them time to reflect (Vaughn, Schumm, & Singagub, 1996), as well as to enable them to prepare for an intensive discussion in a foreign language. The data was collected over a three-month period. Each focus group ran for an hour and a half to two hours and covered a number of themes based on the question: What can an ELTC do to provide a student with excellent service? The focus-group discussion was tape-recorded and transcribed, and the transcriptions were subjected to content analysis.

FINDINGS Seven broad categories of major themes pertaining to student expectations of the ELTC service are ranked in Table 4.1 in descending order of frequency of occurrence across the focus groups. Within each broad theme, specific issues were identified, coded, and the frequency noted. Table 4.2 presents the top 10 codings ranked in descending

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Table 4.1. Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Major Themes from Student Focus Groups Ranked by Frequency. Theme

ESL teacher English language teaching center milieu Homestay arrangements Systems for obtaining student feedback with the service Facilities and resources (servicescape) Effective communication with English language teaching center Procedures for placement in appropriate class/level

Table 4.2. Rank 1 2¼ 2¼ 2¼ 5¼ 5¼ 7 8 9 10

Top Student Satisfaction Drivers in Order of Frequency. Code

The ELTC environment should be friendly, comfortable, and relaxed. The ESL teacher should be available to individual students outside the classroom. The ELTC should have effective student feedback procedures in place. The ELTC should communicate effectively and honestly with students both before and during the students’ stay. The teacher should be an effective classroom practitioner. The teacher should be professional. The ELTC should be conveniently located. The ELTC should provide access to computers with effective internet capability. The ELTC should have good audio/video facilities/equipment. Host families should encourage/participate in English conversation with students.

order of frequency. These codings denote specific themes that recorded good to high frequency in at least four out of five of the focus groups. They could also be termed key satisfaction drivers for the participants in this study and the ones that are most likely to have an influence on a respondent’s decision to recommend a particular ELT institution further.

DISCUSSION The following discussion focuses on the seven broad categories presented in Table 4.1. Several miscellaneous themes and issues that could not clearly be assigned to any of the named categories or had lower frequencies are covered at the end.

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The ESL Teacher The nature of the interaction between the client/customer and front-line service provider can determine the success of the operation in terms of client/customer satisfaction (Czepiel et al., 1985; Normann, 1991). This fundamental tenet of services management found a strong echo in the focus groups: the single most frequent theme complex centered on the nature of the ESL teacher (Table 4.1) while three of the top 10 specific codings related to the teacher. The respondents’ interactions with the teacher were apparently a key influence on their perceptions of the quality of the ELTC service. The respondents viewed the ESL teacher as both a classroom professional and a counselor/advisor/coach/mentor, and also as a person with specific personal attributes (Table 4.3). As a professional, the ESL teacher was expected to be highly qualified, to know her or his subject, to be well prepared, to be aware of her or his students’ goals, and to continue to develop herself or himself professionally. In the classroom, the teacher was expected to be a skilled practitioner, Table 4.3. Rank 1¼ 1¼ 3 4 5 6¼ 6¼ Rank 1 2 3¼ 3¼ Rank 1 2 3¼ 3¼ 3¼

Desirable ESL Teacher Attributes. Frequency 1: Classroom Professional

Professional Effective classroom teacher Use good teaching materials Flexible in terms of teaching style/lesson content Good communicator Correct student errors in spoken English Know student strengths and weaknesses Frequency 2: Counselor/Advisor/Coach Be available to individual students outside classroom Motivate, encourage, push students to succeed Advisor/counselor Help students with problems Frequency 3: Personal Attributes Friendly Strict, closely direct students Interested in students Humorous but serious Patient when students have difficulties

Student Views of ELT Service

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for example, by getting everyone involved, teaching lively, interesting, and relevant lessons, and being a good time manager—but above all, by being flexible. Flexibility within service operations and on the part of the service provider is commonly seen as a key feature of service provision (Schneider & Bowen, 1995). Service provider latitude is actually encouraged in a number of service contexts (Heskett, Sasser, & Schlesinger, 1997). Non-routine demands may be anticipated (Chase & Bowen, 1991), and routine exceptions to standard practice may, over time, become accepted service variations (Kingman-Brundage, 1995). Respondents expected the ESL teacher to be flexible in terms of, for instance, textbook use and lesson style and content. Rather than imposing a framework on the students, the teacher was expected to design lessons according to student wishes, focusing on specific areas such as grammar, conversation, or vocabulary. Teachers were also expected to acknowledge varying learning styles among students and adapt their teaching styles accordingly. Actual respondent perceptions in this regard varied widely, as would be expected. Respondents told of excellent teachers who were receptive to student requests and whose sessions were stimulating and effective. However, there were also reports of boring lessons with irrelevant content and an over-reliance on standard, sometimes imported, textbooks that reflected neither the needs of the student nor the specific New Zealand context. A service should be delivered in a way that acknowledges customer/client individuality (Sasser & Fulmer, 1990; Zeithaml & Bitner, 1996), and this might be regarded as another form of flexibility. While language instruction is normally provided in a group context, the respondents in this study felt strongly that ESL teachers should assist students at an individual level, too. More than anything, the teachers should be available outside normal class time to do this. This was a recurring theme across all five focus groups and recorded the second most frequent coding, throwing new light on student expectations of the ESL teacher. The kind of personal help sometimes . . . after class, or in the breaks and if you have a question, then you can ask the teacher and he speaks only with you and explains you the reason again maybe, if you didn’t understand it before . . . . Not only in the class and then ‘‘Have a nice afternoon, see you tomorrow.’’

Such individual assistance appeared to be available to some respondents but a common perception was that teachers worked hard and were always busy and that it was basically hard to get to see them outside normal class time. Respondents also felt that the ESL teacher had a role beyond mere classroom teaching and should also be a mentor, coach, and counselor to

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students. In this capacity, the teacher was expected to encourage, inspire, and instill confidence at a more personal level, as well as counsel students on academic and personal matters. Practical assistance was similarly valued, as provided by a teacher who helped a student apply for a job and prepare for the interview. Effective service provision often depends on the personal attributes of the providers, and research has shown that customers highly value provider attributes such as empathy, courtesy, helpfulness, professionalism, social skills, and a pleasing appearance (Fitzsimmons & Fitzsimmons, 1994; Gro¨nroos, 1990; Lovelock, 1995; Parasuraman et al., 1988). The respondents cited desirable ESL teacher attributes that corresponded closely to those cited above from the services literature and also which would be expected of someone with a positive service orientation. They included friendliness, humor, and patience, as well as the ability to take an active interest in students and their welfare and to provide direction.

English Language Teaching Center Milieu Providing a service is a social process, an important part of which is the harmony and mutual support between providers, customers/clients, and the physical setting (Normann, 1991). The human factor in the success of the service provision is evident through the attitudes, skills, and emotional labor of service providers (Lovelock, 1995) who can create an emotional/ psychological service environment which fulfills the needs of customers/ clients. These encompass the need to feel secure and unthreatened; to have one’s self-esteem maintained and enhanced; and to be fairly treated within an atmosphere or milieu pervaded by the service imperative (Schneider & Bowen, 1995). The respondents in this study strongly endorsed these sentiments since, in terms of absolute frequency for all codes, the desire that English language teaching centers should be friendly, relaxed, psychologically comfortable places ranked in first place (Tables 4.2 and 4.4). The popularity of this single issue is an indication of the importance of the nature of the ELTC milieu to the respondents in this study, as expressed by this student: [The most important thing is the] atmosphere in the school. If you are happy to come to school, you are happy to study. If the school can provide anything for you but you don’t like to come to school, you are not happy to study, you can’t be successful in studying English.

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Table 4.4. Rank 1 2 3 4¼ 4¼

Desirable ELTC Milieu Characteristics. Milieu Characteristic

The ELTC environment should be friendly, comfortable, and relaxed. The ELTC should be like a family home. The ELTC environment should encourage students to speak English. The ELTC should have a mix of cultures/nationalities. It’s better if the ELTC is small.

Other students, furthermore, saw the ELTC premises as a sort of haven where they could relax in a less stressful atmosphere: I enjoyed most . . . when I come to school and I never feel alone. I have many friends. I know that I have many friends and I know that when I want to speak, I have someone for listening. When I arrived New Zealand, I was so nervous to come to school because everyone I don’t know. And of course, at that time, I couldn’t speak English properly and that I had to speak English in school, it [was] very alarming for me. But when I came to school, everyone was trying to release my frustration, to just have an enjoyable time and that’s very excellent for me. I could relax . . . .

Some respondents appeared very happy with this aspect of the milieu of their particular ELTC, which they even characterized as a ‘‘home’’ and the staff and students as members of the same ‘‘family.’’ Further key expectations of the milieu were: being multicultural in nature; having a helpful, well-informed, supportive, administrative staff; being a secure environment; and being an ‘‘English-only’’ zone where students were encouraged to use English in a natural setting. It was evident that the respondents in this study viewed the milieu as a significant influence on their psychological and emotional well-being, and thus on their motivation and the success of the English language program for them personally.

Homestay ELTCs often offer ESL students the opportunity to live in a homestay for the duration of their studies, in particular, to give students a practical immersion experience, thus enhancing rapid familiarization with the spoken language. While not all respondents had taken this option, those who had, had very clear expectations of this part of the service. Two major homestay themes can be identified (Table 4.5).

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Table 4.5. Rank 1 2 3 4¼ 4¼ 4¼ Rank 1 2 3

Desirable Homestay Characteristics. Frequency 1: Homestay Milieu

Host parents should be like substitute parents to students. Host families should provide students with a friendly, comfortable home environment. The ELTC should be responsible for ensuring the quality of the homestay. The homestay should, as far as possible, match the student’s wishes. Host families should provide decent food. Host families should spend time with students. Frequency 2: Context for Development of English Language Proficiency Host families should encourage/participate in English conversation with students. Homestay is an important part of ELTC service—opportunity to speak English. Host families should be patient/sympathetic towards students with language difficulties.

The main theme was the nature of the homestay milieu. As with the general ELTC milieu, respondents desired a friendly, comfortable atmosphere, some expecting a home away from home where they would be looked after in much the same way as they would be at home, but at the same time learning about the New Zealand way of life. Again, there were positive and negative experiences in this regard. Some younger, long-term students were clearly very satisfied and had developed close bonds with their host parents, sometimes to the extent of having a better relationship with them than with their own parents. The ultimate was to be treated as one of the family. However, respondents also debated whether a host family could possibly take on the role of a proper family, some admitting that they could not realistically expect this. Respondents further expected schools to do a good job of assigning them to homestay types that matched their wishes. However, this was not always the case. For instance, a student who had requested a homestay with children was placed with a childless family; a non-smoking student found himself in a family of smokers; a pet-lover was assigned a pet-free family, while a pet-hater got a family with dogs. Respondents said that while they expected honest, accurate, timely information from the ELTC about the homestay, this was not always provided. Such information could be ‘‘dishonest’’ by omission, by not providing a complete account of the true nature of the homestay situation. Information sent from the ELTC to the student about the host family might not be formulated in a way that students could understand. For instance, on being told her host mother liked tennis and rugby, a respondent keen on sports assumed that the host mother played these sports, and was looking

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forward to participating, too. But on arrival she discovered this meant that the host mother watched these sports on TV. While such an apparently trivial concern might be put down to cross-cultural miscommunication, it nevertheless has the potential to foster distrust of the ELTC’s motives and disappointment in the homestay situation. The issue of information extended even to the students’ rights and what they could expect the host family to do for them, as this respondent explained: I think it’s also important to have good information first, because I wasn’t really sure about my rights and my family is really nice and that. . . . But I thought, maybe, I can’t beg so many things from the family, but now I heard and now I know that’s my right to learn with the family. They have to talk with me, they have to learn with me. . . .

It appeared, therefore, that a number of respondents were disappointed in the quality of information communicated to them about the homestay. Second, the respondents emphasized that the homestay should not just be a lodging, but also a context for the development of English language proficiency. In particular, value was placed on host families taking the trouble to spend time with students and create opportunities for them to use English. [At first], my English was very poor. My host family spoke to me always. They used easy words, slowly and very clearly. I sometimes couldn’t explain, but they waited, so when I spoke to them they always encouraged me. . . . For example, they always asked me, ‘‘What did you learn today?’’ so I explained to them. . . . That’s practising English for me. . . . [M]y homestay experience was good memories for me.

However, not all host families appeared prepared to do this. Some host families were too busy with their own lives to bother with their guests and did not appear to regard interacting and communicating with them as part of their brief. Several respondents perceived their host families as being interested in the homestay income but not in them personally. Whatever their experience, respondents regarded homestay as a key component of the ELTC service, particularly in terms of oral proficiency gain. There was even a minority view that the homestay experience provided a more effective language learning context than formal lessons.

Student Feedback Effective service organizations typically survey customers in order to obtain feedback on the quality of the service provided. Studies have shown (Johnson, 1996; Schneider, Wheeler, & Cox, 1992) close correlations between

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a positive climate for service within an organization and the organization’s solicitation of and responsiveness to customer opinion. It might be assumed that ELTCs solicit student feedback as a matter of course, but information on the quality, timeliness, or validity of such surveys is not generally available. The feedback issue generated considerable comment from respondents, particularly with respect to the student feedback procedures used by English language teaching centers. Within the focus groups, there was a split between European respondents, who preferred to provide feedback directly to ELTC staff, and Asian respondents, who preferred to give it anonymously. A number of respondents reported that they were not surveyed at all or not often enough or at inappropriate times, for instance, at the end of their course when their comments were not likely to bring about any change to their own situation. Several respondents suggested that ELTCs should have more flexible systems to allow a choice of feedback channels, for example, discussion with the teacher, suggestion box, questionnaire, or interview with the manager. While providing feedback might come naturally to students from particular cultures, some respondents described the mere process of having to provide feedback as stressful. The action of volunteering critical comment directly to a ‘‘respect person’’ like a teacher or manager appeared to be culturally inappropriate. Furthermore, a perceived lack of anonymity and a fear of being linked to comments critical of ELTC staff might lead students to provide responses on feedback forms that did not necessarily represent their actual opinions, as this respondent explained: But I don’t think that anybody really tells them the truth . . . . [T]they can see . . . from your writing that it is your paper so, hey . . . It’s easier to write a positive answer than [a negative one]. . . .

Whatever the systems used, respondents desired a clear signal from management that any critical feedback students gave was being taken seriously. There were reports of positive experiences in this regard, like the ELTC that promptly purchased a second microwave oven for the student lounge in response to a student comment. However, a number of respondents reported that they had no idea how the ELTC had acted on the comments they had provided on feedback forms. Servicescape Customer contact with the tangible aspects of a service facility can have consequences for the customer’s perceptions of service quality (Schneider &

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Bowen, 1995). In one study of service quality dimensions, the dimension tangibles was more important than the dimension service provider empathy in predicting customer perceptions of overall service quality (Parasuraman et al., 1988). The physical environment of the service operation, or servicescape, can have a range of positive and negative influences on both customers and service providers (Bitner, 1992). While the service is inherently intangible, the significance of the physical paraphernalia to customers/clients should not be underestimated. The respondents echoed these ideas in describing a range of facilities and resources they felt were essential in a well-run ELTC (Table 4.6). Most of the items were the sorts of requirements one would expect, such as a comfortable student lounge and good study facilities, and perceptions in this regard were generally positive. An unexpected item was the respondents’ strong desire for far better access to internet facilities in ELTCs, mainly to stay in touch with friends and family. However, not all centers appeared to be able to meet the respondents’ expectations in this regard. A further aspect of the ELTC’s physical environment is its location, and this was another popular theme in the focus groups. Respondents expected a venue that was conveniently located in respect of the town/city center and their homestay location, with good public transport connections. Generally, most respondents appeared satisfied with the locations of their ELTCs.

Communication Effective communication between the service provider and the customer/ client may determine the success or otherwise of the service provision. Not only should front-line providers be trained to communicate effectively (Mudie & Cottam, 1993); communication prior to and during the service Table 4.6. Rank 1 2 3¼ 3¼ 5¼ 5¼

Desirable ELTC Facilities and Resources.

Desirable Facility/Resource Access to computers with internet capability Good audio and video facilities and equipment A good level of physical comfort Kitchen/student lounge/games Adequate library and study facilities Good resources and facilities in general

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provision should be accurate and timely (Zeithaml & Bitner, 1996). These service themes received strong support from the focus-group participants since an expectation of effective, honest communication between English language teaching centers and students was tied for second rank of the top 10 codings across four of the five focus groups (Table 4.2). Three specific areas were cited:  The quality of the information about the service in publicity materials;  Practical information required by students to initially access the service;  Information required by students during the service provision. Overpromising in promotional materials sets up unrealistic expectations, and actual encounters may result in customer disappointment (Parasuraman et al., 1988, Zeithaml & Bitner, 1996). While this was not generally the case, it was, apparently, the experience of a number of respondents who criticized as exaggerated, inaccurate, or even dishonest the information about ELTC programs, facilities, and services that was printed in publicity materials, posted on websites, or provided by agents. For instance, activities listed as included in fees actually had to be paid for; an agent’s promise of unlimited internet access was false; a respondent was told by an agent that the ELTC would arrange local liaison with New Zealand colleagues within her profession, but found on arrival that the center could not offer this service. Providing customers/clients with accurate information about the service they are paying for is the key to treating them as competent adults. ‘‘Protecting customers’ esteem requires making huge amounts of information available to them’’ so that they have they feeling they are still in control (Schneider & Bowen, 1995, p. 95). Unless ELTCs are able to use students’ own languages as a medium of communication, poor English language proficiency on the part of students may hinder communication and lead to feelings of disempowerment and inadequacy, as well as a perceived lack of information about the service they are participating in. Some respondents criticized their ELTCs for poor communication with them before they had left home and often felt uninformed or were given inaccurate information relating to items such as arrival times, host family details, or service offerings. After arrival and commencement of their study, they lacked information about what was expected of them both within the center and the homestay, what their rights and entitlements were, or what the local norms were; basic information about safety and security was not given; and ELTCs sometimes did not communicate a clear rationale for the costs of specific activities. Nor was the communication between the school and

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homestay providers always effective. In general, the respondents felt that ELTCs could do a much better job of communicating with them.

Placement When students first arrive at an ELTC, their English proficiency level is generally assessed by means of a written test, an interview, or a combination of methods. They are then placed in a particular class depending on the test/ interview results. Accurate initial placement can influence the subsequent service provision in terms of the student’s progress, and the issue could be a controversial one if students feel they are incorrectly placed (Table 4.7). Customers/clients of services have an expectation of fair treatment (Schneider & Bowen, 1995), and this sentiment was voiced by a number of respondents who, furthermore, expected an effective and flexible placement procedure. This, however, was not always the case: The whole test is like a lottery. You can just check all this OK, and maybe this one or this one, but in your mind you know nothing about this so you just guess and you are also guessing right.

Another respondent likewise doubted the credibility of a placement test on being promoted to a higher proficiency level after only one week of study. Respondents commonly expected to be able to switch classes or proficiency levels when they felt it was time to do so, and this sometimes brought them into conflict with the ELTC management. While some were perceptive enough to realize that existing classes were sometimes broken up and reformed for commercial reasons such as demand fluctuation, rather than for educational reasons, they expressed skepticism about the language learning rationales commonly given to them by their teachers for such management actions. Some respondents pointed out that placement procedures were superficial and did not lay enough emphasis on clearly identifying student Table 4.7. Rank 1 2 3¼ 3¼

Desirable Placement Procedures. Placement Issue

The placement procedure should be well organized and effective. The ELTC should clarify the student’s goals first. It is important that students are placed in appropriate class/at appropriate level. Students should be able to switch class if they want to.

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needs at the start of the language program. They likewise felt they were not given sufficient information about their proficiency level, the nature of the language program they were to be placed in, or the rationale for the placement.

Other Themes Several miscellaneous themes were identified which do not conveniently fit into any of the other categories or which had relatively low overall frequencies. These included expectations of a convenient ELTC location, the responsibility of the ELTC to ensure student success, to provide value for money, and to be interested in students as people and not just as a source of income, as well as issues relating to trips and activities. There was an expectation among respondents that English lessons should be interesting and taught in small classes. The administrative staff were expected to be able to provide students with the necessary information about the New Zealand environment and be friendly, helpful, and encouraging. Respondents said that they enjoyed most interaction with other people and cultures and enjoyed least poor, ineffective lessons.

CONCLUSION The study reported in this chapter revealed a number of insights into student expectations and perceptions of the service they received in New Zealand ELTCs and of the features of the service likely to influence satisfaction. The findings appeared to confirm that the ESL teacher plays a major role in the creation of satisfaction in the minds of students, not only as a classroom professional but also as a coach, counselor, and mentor. Two other themes were prominent. First, the milieu or atmosphere of the ELTC emerged as a major feature of ELT service. In terms of a friendly, comfortable, relaxed environment where students are encouraged to use English, but also as a sanctuary that doubled as a surrogate home and place of psychological security, the ELTC milieu also appeared to have a prominent part to play in the formation of student satisfaction with the service. Second, for respondents, the homestay was evidently a central plank of the English language service package, not only as a place of accommodation, but as a potentially invaluable opportunity for students to rapidly improve their

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fluency in spoken English. Other significant features of the ELTC experience were the student feedback systems, facilities, and equipment as well as location, the quality of communications from the school, and placement procedures. The respondents reported both positive and negative experiences in respect of these expectations. The findings from this study were used as the basis for the major survey of ESL students, which is described in detail in the next chapter.

CHAPTER FIVE STUDENT SATISFACTION WITH ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING CENTER SERVICE$ INTRODUCTION The effectiveness of service operations is viewed in the services literature largely as a function of customer satisfaction with the service process (e.g., Gro¨nroos, 1990; Peterson & Wilson, 1992) since assessment of the quality of a service organization’s output is entirely in the mind of the customer, regardless of any objective efficiency measures or ‘‘expert’’ opinion (Bowen & Ford, 2002). Measures of customer perceptions of the quality of the service process outputs thus represent good practice in terms of service performance measurement (Voss et al., 1990). Furthermore, service organizations like English language teaching centers (ELTCs) benefit when satisfied students make word-of-mouth (WOM) recommendations to friends and acquaintances, thereby helping to boost future client numbers. The student perspective on ELTC service is therefore of interest as a key performance indicator. With this in mind, a research study was devised to investigate levels of student satisfaction with the service performance of New Zealand ELTCs.

THE INVESTIGATION Focus groups of ESL students together with focus groups of ELTC faculty and administrative staff (see Chapters Four and Six) were set up to identify key issues surrounding ELTC service and particularly satisfaction ‘‘drivers’’ (Bowen & Ford, 2002). The findings, combined with insights from the $

Adapted from Walker, J. (2001b). Client satisfaction with English language centre service. International Journal of Educational Management, 17(7), 294–302.

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Table 5.1. Rating 1 2 3 4 5

ELTC Student Satisfaction Rating Scale.

Scale Designation

Indication

Interpretation

Far worse than I expected Worse than I expected About what I expected Better than I expected Far better than I expected

Strong dissatisfaction Dissatisfaction Satisfaction Strong satisfaction Very strong satisfaction

Disappointment Disappointment Mere Satisfaction Delight Delight

services literature and theory, were integrated into a satisfaction questionnaire that used a disconfirmation of expectations format (Cardozo, 1965; Churchill & Suprenant, 1982; Danaher & Haddrell, 1996; Oliver, 1980; Szymanski & Henard, 2001), based on a five-point Likert scale with a do not know option. Respondents were asked to circle the number that indicated their level of satisfaction with the particular aspect of the service. Table 5.1 displays the ratings with their associated designations, indications, and broad interpretations. While a rating of three indicates satisfaction with the service, this has been referred to as mere satisfaction (Patterson, 1993). For the purposes of this study, means in the range 2.6–3.4 were taken to indicate mere satisfaction. In terms of services best practice, mere satisfaction on the part of customers is not enough to produce the sort of WOM student recommendation which helps generate future business for ELTCs. Instead, students should be expressing strong/very strong satisfaction or delight. Ideally, therefore, responses should be concentrated in the better than expected or far better than expected categories. A common weakness of internally developed ELTC feedback instruments is their utilization of English as the survey language, since inaccurate comprehension by non-native speaker respondents with low English proficiency levels can limit the usefulness of the data and invite criticism of lack of content validity. The questionnaire was therefore translated into the languages of the major ELTC student groups in New Zealand at the time the study was initiated. The four translated versions were then combined with the English version to produce a multilingual format. (See Appendix 2 for the English version of the questionnaire.) Pre-testing of the questionnaire with peer groups of ELTC students led to further refinement. The final version consisted of 74 items in 9 service dimensions (below), plus a recommendation question and student personal data questions: 1. the teachers; 2. the English lessons;

Student Satisfaction with English Language Teaching Center Service

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

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the service procedures; communication; the administrative staff; the homestay; the facilities; the activities program; and general aspects of the service.

Lists of ELTCs on the New Zealand ELT marketing and industry association websites were taken as a sampling frame. At the time of the survey, these lists contained details of 21 tertiary institutions and 55 private institutions in New Zealand offering ESL courses. All 76 ELTCs were invited to participate in the research, and 30 ELTCs or some 40% of the population accepted the invitation. A total of 8 ELTCs (27%) were tertiary-owned and 22 (73%) were privately owned, these proportions almost exactly mirroring those in the general population. The geographical distribution of the participating ELTCs was also a good reflection of the national spread. Feedback data from ELTC students is sometimes criticized as potentially inaccurate since, anecdotally, cultural constraints may prevent respondents from writing what they really think about the service. Common barriers are reluctance to cause offence and fear of being associated with critical comments, especially as surveys may be supervised and completed questionnaires collated by the very staff whose performance students are assessing. To forestall such problems, the researcher personally conducted all surveys. Participants were given a multilingual letter assuring them of the confidentiality of the process and the data and emphasizing that no faculty or staff from their ELTC would see their responses. By arrangement with ELTC management, no center members were present during questionnaire completion. It was hoped that these measures would further reinforce the validity of the data. The survey was conducted over a three-month period. From a total student population of 3,858, a sample of 1,835 was taken. Of the sample, 7% or 108 students, declined to participate, 19 students were excluded for various reasons and 24 questionnaires were incomplete. A total of 1,684 usable responses were therefore obtained for a response rate of 92%. Once the raw data had been entered, it was examined for skewness and reliability, and the criteria for multiple regression were applied. Scales used to measure satisfaction have been observed to suffer from asymmetry, the findings commonly being skewed towards the top of the scale (Devlin, Dong, & Brown, 1993; Devlin et al., 1993; Rust, Zahorik, & Keiningham, 1994).

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Danaher and Haddrell (1996) recommended the use of the disconfirmation scale as it has the ability to correct this error. An examination of the data appeared to support Danaher’s and Haddrell’s endorsement, since no overall skewness was observed. Cronbach’s Alpha (Cronbach, 1951) for the complete scale was 0.9792, indicating good internal consistency. An examination of dimension intercorrelations revealed moderate to large and positive correlations (po 0.01). All assumptions for regression analysis were satisfied.

FINDINGS Selected Respondent Classification Data  52% of respondents were female and 48% male;  94% of respondents were from Asia, 4% from Europe and Russia, 1% from South America and 1% from miscellaneous regions; and  22.5% were aged 14–19 years; 62% were aged 20–29; 9.8% were aged 30–39; and 5.7% were aged 40þ years. Overview of Student Satisfaction An overview of the dimension rankings, means, and response category percentages is displayed in Table 5.2. Respondents expressed strong Table 5.2. Rank

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 a

ELTC Student Satisfaction Dimension Means and Category Percentages.

Dimension

M

Percent Worse/ Far Worse than Expecteda

Percent about what Expecteda

Percent Better/ Far Better than Expecteda

Teachers Administrative staff Homestay Service procedures English lessons General Communication Activities program Facilities

3.60 3.40 3.26 3.04 3.03 2.97 2.93 2.85 2.67

12 16 27 27 28 31 28.7 32 42.5

35 39 30 44 43 41 48.8 39 36.6

53 45 43 29 29 28 22.5 29 20.9

Percentages subjected to rounding.

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satisfaction with the teachers. Ratings for the administrative staff bordered on strong satisfaction. Respondents were satisfied with the homestay, English lessons, service procedures, general aspects of the service, communication, and the activities program. Ratings for facilities bordered on dissatisfaction. The overall picture therefore indicates mere satisfaction with the bulk of the service dimensions. In the following sections, the findings from the specific dimensions are examined in more detail in rank order according to the data.

English Teachers The data (Table 5.3) produced the highest set of scores in the satisfaction survey. The mean percentage category responses for the dimension show that almost 53% of respondents regarded the teachers as better or far better than they expected and just over 12% found them worse or far worse than expected. Across the 30 ELTCs, the means for teacher evaluation ranged from a low of 3.13 to a high of 4.12. This indicates that the respondents were, at the very least, satisfied with teacher performance and in most cases delighted, which represents a positive statement about the teachers. However, an examination of the rankings shows that the top-rated items tend to be associated with human or personal attributes such as friendliness, patience, or helpfulness. The score for teacher friendliness (M ¼ 4.04), for instance, was actually the highest out of the 74 items in the Table 5.3. Rank 1 2 3 4 5¼ 5¼ 5¼ 8¼ 8¼ 10 11 12 13

ESL Student Satisfaction with Teachers: Descriptive Data. Variable

M

SD

Friendliness Willingness to help in class Ability to be patient Communication skills Professionalism Flexibility Overall quality Lesson preparation Ability to give clear explanations Knowledge of the subject Availability to help out of class Ability to teach interesting lessons Teaching skills

4.04 3.85 3.78 3.69 3.51 3.51 3.51 3.48 3.48 3.41 3.38 3.35 3.33

0.89 0.90 0.93 0.88 0.92 0.99 0.87 0.94 0.90 0.92 1.07 0.98 0.92

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questionnaire—almost 75% of respondents viewed teacher friendliness as better or far better than they expected. The lower-rated items, on the other hand, tend to be the sorts of acquired skills or abilities expected of effective teachers, such as the ability to make lessons interesting, or the ability to explain subject knowledge. The fact that friendliness ranks top but teaching skills rank bottom is particularly noteworthy. These findings imply that respondents perceived a strong ESL teacher affective base but weaker knowledge and experience bases (Richard-Amato, 1996).

Administrative Staff The overall administrative staff mean was 3.4, and the dimension was ranked second out of the nine dimensions (Table 5.2). Over 44% of respondents found the administrative staff to be better or far better than expected, and around 16% found them worse or far worse than expected. In only two ELTCs did the mean dip below the midpoint, and the range was 2.88 to 3.88, which indicates a relatively positive result. As with the teachers, administrative staff friendliness had the highest rank in this dimension and ranked fourth out of all 74 items, over 58% of respondents saying it was better or far better than expected. The item ranking in Table 5.4 shows that the two top-ranked items are human attributes, whereas the bottom two are technical skills that would be acquired through specific training or gaining knowledge. It is striking that friendliness and ability to give the right information are ranked top and bottom, respectively. The differences between these item means are not large, but they do reveal a trend similar to that within the teacher dimension. Respondents rated administrative staff Table 5.4. Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

ESL Student Satisfaction with Administrative Staff: Descriptive Data. Variable

M

SD

Friendliness Willingness to help Availability to help Communication skills Overall quality Ability to understand student needs Ability to give right information

3.66 3.47 3.35 3.33 3.32 3.24 3.23

0.97 0.97 0.97 0.89 0.94 1.00 0.99

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more strongly on their personal attributes than on the technical skills they need for the job. Homestay Not all ESL students choose to live in a homestay, which explains why only about two-thirds of respondents completed the items in this scale. With a mean of 3.26 and a ranking of three among the nine dimensions (Table 5.2), homestay appeared to be relatively positively evaluated by respondents. Almost 43% of respondents found their homestay experience better or far better than expected and just over 27% worse or far worse. The range across the ELTCs was 2.51 to 3.79, and only one ELTC was clearly in the worse than expected range. As with the data on teachers and the administrative staff, host family friendliness (M ¼ 3.61, 56% better or far better than expected) was the most positively ranked of the nine items in this dimension (Table 5.5). The homestay atmosphere and physical comfort level were slightly more positively rated than issues surrounding the use of English. The problem of the match with the homestay requested attracted some negative comment in the focus groups, as did amount of time hosts spend with student, and the relatively modest rankings for these items (M ¼ 3.1, 3.02) may reflect these concerns. Service Procedures The service procedures dimension ranked fourth overall, with just under 44% respondents finding this item as expected, just over 27% worse or far worse than expected, and 29% better or far better than expected. Across the Table 5.5. Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7¼ 7¼ 9

ESL Student Satisfaction with Homestay: Descriptive Data. Variable

M

SD

Friendliness of hosts Atmosphere Physical comfort level Overall quality Host willingness to help with English Opportunity to speak English Match with homestay requested Quality of the food Amount of time hosts spend with student

3.61 3.35 3.32 3.31 3.22 3.16 3.10 3.10 3.02

1.17 1.21 1.18 1.18 1.24 1.21 1.15 1.24 1.25

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Table 5.6. Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

ESL Student Satisfaction with Service Procedures: Descriptive Data. Variable

M

SD

Enrollment Enquiries Overall quality Keeping you informed Placement Student feedback Homestay administration Complaints

3.32 3.15 3.03 3.02 2.93 2.92 2.86 2.81

0.90 0.98 0.87 0.99 0.99 0.97 1.09 1.02

30 ELTCs, the scores ranged from 2.59 to 3.56, and the overall dimension mean was 3.04. The means for the individual items (Table 5.6) are fairly tightly clustered around a midpoint range, which seems to indicate that there was, overall, mere satisfaction with the service procedures, but no expression of stronger satisfaction. The ranking of these items revealed no particular trend.

English Lessons Given the high ratings for the teachers, the English lessons did not fare so well, ranking fifth overall among the means of the nine dimensions (Table 5.2). The category percentage responses show that approximately 43% of respondents found the lessons as expected, and those in the ‘‘disappointed’’ and ‘‘delighted’’ categories were virtually identical at around 28–29%. Across the 30 ELTCs, the evaluations for the English lessons were not especially complimentary, ranging from a low mean of 2.52 to a high of 3.54 on the Likert scale. Only 27% of respondents, for instance, found the learning materials better or far better than they expected, and almost 48% rated the mix of nationalities in class as worse or far worse than they expected. The specific item data (Table 5.7) indicates mere satisfaction with English lessons, with the bottom-ranked item bordering on dissatisfaction. The intent of the items in this scale was to give a picture of the English lessons as divorced from the person of the teacher. Although the teacher is a prime influence on the quality of the lessons, a number of factors may be not be entirely within the teacher’s control, such as the quality of the teaching

Student Satisfaction with English Language Teaching Center Service

Table 5.7. Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

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ESL Student Satisfaction with English Lessons: Descriptive Data. Variable

M

SD

Teaching methods Interest level Overall quality Effectiveness Content Quality of learning materials Class size Relevance Mix of nationalities in class

3.21 3.17 3.09 3.08 3.06 2.97 2.92 2.84 2.61

0.92 0.91 0.84 0.92 0.86 0.96 1.08 0.98 1.20

materials or the number of students in the class. The ranking of the item means for lessons (Table 5.7) is relevant here. The items ranked first to fifth are items that the teacher would tend to have more control over, such as the interest or the effectiveness of the lessons. The items ranked sixth to ninth are those that the teacher would tend to have less control over and management more control over, such as the mix of nationalities in the class and the class size. Even the relevance of the lesson might be predetermined in a curriculum which teachers are required by management to follow. The differences in the means are not large, but they do reveal an evaluation trend, namely that respondents rated the teacher-controlled aspects of the English lessons more highly than those that tend to be under management control. The issue of management control versus teacher control of aspects of the English lessons was raised in staff focus groups (see Chapter Seven), and these findings provide an interesting comment from the student perspective.

General Items This dimension comprised a number of miscellaneous items that nevertheless reflect key student satisfaction issues, as some of the other findings in the study confirmed. The importance of these items should therefore be acknowledged. At M ¼ 2.97, the general dimension ranked seventh out of the nine dimensions (Table 5.2). Whereas 41% of respondents found the items in this dimension as expected, just over 31% found them worse or far worse, and around 28% better or far better. Across the ELTCs, means

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Table 5.8. Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

ESL Student Satisfaction with General Items: Descriptive Data. Variable

M

SD

Atmosphere Opportunity to use English Student national mix Encouragement to achieve goals Overall organization Physical comfort level Overall quality of ELTC service Rate of improvement in English Value for money of program

3.13 3.11 3.10 3.01 2.99 2.96 2.94 2.78 2.44

0.95 1.03 1.17 0.99 0.85 0.92 0.87 0.98 1.03

ranged from 2.27 to 3.49. The item ratings (Table 5.8) represent overall satisfaction, with eight out of nine items in the mere satisfaction range. The atmosphere in centers was rated top of the general item list, which is an interesting reflection on the issue of ELTC milieu, raised in the student focus groups (Chapter Four). The two weakest items were rate of improvement in English in the student’s opinion and value for money of the ELTC program. Approximately 39% of respondents perceived their progress to be worse or far worse than they expected (M ¼ 2.78). Value for money not only ranked bottom of the dimension (M ¼ 2.44), but also ranked 73rd out of the 74 individual satisfaction items. Some 52% of respondents found this to be worse or far worse than they expected.

Communication This dimension had a mean of 2.93 and a ranking of 7 (Table 5.2). Across the 30 ELTCs, the range was 2.42 to 3.41. Almost 49% of respondents found communication as expected, but more expressed disappointment (28.7%) than delight (22.5%). Focus-group participant concerns about poor communication between ELTCs and students before arrival (Chapter Four) are corroborated by the low 2.79 rating that the item received from respondents (Table 5.9). Almost 35% found this item to be worse or far worse than they expected. Although the overall communication score can be interpreted as being within the midpoint range, it does not appear that respondents were over-enthusiastic about the quality of their centers’ communication with them.

Student Satisfaction with English Language Teaching Center Service

Table 5.9.

Student Satisfaction with Communication: Descriptive Data.

Rank 1 2 3 4

Variable

M

SD

Effectiveness of communication after arrival Overall quality Accuracy of publicity materials Effectiveness of communication before arrival

2.98 2.93 2.91 2.79

0.89 0.88 0.91 0.96

Table 5.10. Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6

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Student Satisfaction with Activities: Descriptive Data. Variable

M

SD

Variety of activities Information provided by ELTC Interest level of activities Overall quality Organization of the program Value for money

3.03 3.02 2.97 2.92 2.91 2.74

1.10 0.98 1.05 1.01 1.00 1.06

Leisure Activities Approximately one-third of respondents did not provide ratings for this dimension, possibly because ELTC activities programs are often optional. The dimension ranked eighth out of the nine (M ¼ 2.85; Table 5.2). Just over 39% of respondents found their program as expected, 32% worse or far worse than expected, and almost 29% better or far better than expected. Individual ELTC ratings on activities ranged from 1.77 (the lowest rating for any dimension) to 3.59. Overall, there appeared to be mere satisfaction, as most of the item ratings (Table 5.10) are clustered around the midpoint of the Likert scale. Value for money (M ¼ 2.74) had the lowest rating, around 39% of respondents finding this item worse or far worse than expected.

Facilities Despite services’ intangible character, as discussed in Chapter One, tangible dimensions such as facilities and equipment may play a key role in the service provision as proxies for intangible foci of customer satisfaction. The low mean rating bottom ranking (M ¼ 2.67; Table 5.2) for facilities

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Table 5.11. Rank 1¼ 1¼ 3¼ 3¼ 5 6 7 8 9

ELTC Student Satisfaction with Facilities: Descriptive Data. Variable

M

SD

Classrooms Toilets/bathrooms/rest rooms Student lounge/cafeteria Overall quality Library Self-access unit Computers Video equipment Audio equipment

3.06 3.06 2.70 2.70 2.69 2.54 2.48 2.45 2.30

0.91 0.96 1.02 0.91 1.24 1.08 1.15 1.02 1.03

indicated at best borderline student dissatisfaction with this dimension, with four items clearly rated worse than expected (Table 5.11). Almost 43% of respondents were disappointed with the facilities and just under 21% delighted. Across the 30 ELTCs, the range was 1.95 to 3.53, and 12 out of the 30 ELTCs rated below 2.5 on the Likert scale, placing them in the worse than expected category. Only two ELTCs could confidently be placed in the better than expected range, and both are tertiary institutions. At percentages in the fifties, some items in this dimension recorded the highest worse than expected scores in the entire survey. For instance, approximately 57%, 54%, and 51% of respondents, respectively, found the audio equipment, computers, and video equipment worse or far worse than expected. It seems fairly clear that respondents were not at all satisfied with the facilities in the institutions sampled. A prominent feature of the data (Table 5.11) is an approximately 20% drop in response numbers for the items self-access unit, library, audio equipment, and video equipment. A possible explanation for this is that some respondents may not have been aware of the existence of these items in their centers, because several wrote comments on their questionnaires next to an item such as ‘‘There isn’t one.’’ They therefore gave no response rather than a negative rating.

Recommendation of the ELTC Since satisfied students are potential marketers for service organizations like ELTCs (Dawes, Dowling, & Patterson, 1992; Hall, 1996; Soutar et al., 1994), a measure of student willingness to recommend is a key indicator for

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ELTC managers. The survey therefore included the question: Would you recommend this ELTC to your friends? Across individual ELTCs, there was considerable variation in percentages of students who would recommend, ranging from 84% to 22%. Overall, 56% of respondents said they would recommend, 34% said they would not, and 10% gave no response. Although comparable recommendation data at this level is not widely available, an Australian survey of English language students from the ELICOS sector (English Language Intensive Courses for Overseas Students) on their overall experience in Australia (ELICOS Association, 1997) included several questions about student satisfaction with ELT programs. This returned a recommendation rate of 62%, while the most recent such survey (Australian Education International, 2007) returned a rate of 70%. Interpretation of such findings is difficult without a range of data from similar studies.

Group Differences In order to identify statistically significant group differences, respondent data was examined in terms of gender, age, nationality, and length of time in the ELTC; ELTCs were examined in terms of type and size. A t-test comparing male and female data revealed only a few significant differences of a very small magnitude (po 0.01 and po 0.05, Z2o 0.01), the only noticeable pattern being that in every case mean female ratings of ELTC service were lower than mean male ratings. This finding indicated that male and female students barely differed in their levels of satisfaction with ELTC service. Respondents indicated their age group according to the categories 14–19, 20–29, 30–39, and 40-plus. Comparison of the group data for the nine dimensions together with the recommendation data showed that the 40-plus group was most satisfied with ELTC service and most likely to recommend, while the 20–29 group was least satisfied and least likely to recommend (Table 5.12; Fig. 5.1). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed the differences between the age groups were highly significant for the recommendation of the ELTC and for six of the nine service dimensions (po 0.01), and significant for a further dimension (po 0.05). No significance was established for the dimensions of homestay and activities. The effect size for the teachers dimension bordered on the moderate (Z2 ¼ 0.049), but all other effect sizes were small (Z2 ¼ 0.01–0.03) (Cohen, 1988). The findings therefore established modest but significant differences in student satisfaction levels relative to age.

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Table 5.12.

Student Age Groups Ranked on Level of Satisfaction with ELTC Service.

Level of Satisfaction Most satisfied

Least satisfied

Fig. 5.1.

Age Group 40-plus years 14–19 years 30–39 years 20–29 years

Student Age Group Differences in Willingness to Recommend an ELTC

In order to ascertain whether student nationality influenced satisfaction levels, the data from the nine dimensions and the recommendation was examined in terms of the six major national groups in the survey and a seventh group, ‘‘other,’’ which comprised the other 35 nationalities. Analysis showed that Swiss students were most satisfied and Korean students least satisfied. Students in the ‘‘other’’ category were most willing to recommend, while students from the People’s Republic of China (PR China) were least likely to recommend (Table 5.13; Fig. 5.2). The ANOVA revealed that variation between the groups was significant ( p o 0.01) for all nine dimensions and the recommendation. While six of the dimensions displayed small effect sizes (Z2 ¼ 0.02–0.05), two, namely, teachers (Z2 ¼ 0.06) and activities (Z2 ¼ 0.06), as well as the recommendation (Z2 ¼ 0.06), bordered on a moderate effect size (Cohen, 1988), indicating greater differences in opinion between the groups on these items. These findings indicate significant differences in student satisfaction levels relative to student nationality.

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Student Satisfaction with English Language Teaching Center Service

Table 5.13.

Student National Groups Ranked on Level of Satisfaction with ELTC Service.

Level of Satisfaction

National Group

Most satisfied

Switzerland Thailand Other Taiwan Japan PR China Korea

Least satisfied

Fig. 5.2.

Student National Differences in Willingness to Recommend an ELTC

Anecdotally, students might change their perceptions of ELTC service depending on the length of time they remain in an ELTC. In order to test this notion, the data was split into six groups: Group 1 (1–2 weeks), Group 2 (3–4 weeks), Group 3 (5–8 weeks), Group 4 (9–12 weeks), Group 5 (13–26 weeks), and Group 6 (27 weeks and above). The data was then subjected to ANOVA. Included was the dimension and recommendation data as before, in addition to five items from the general dimension that might be especially susceptible to change over time, such as physical comfort level and rate of improvement in English proficiency. The findings showed that student satisfaction ratings weakened slightly as time went on, then strengthened towards the end of the period, indicating a small but gradual waning and then waxing of satisfaction. However, only four of the 15 variables

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demonstrated significance ( p o 0.01 and p o 0.05) and the effect size was small (Z2 ¼ 0.01) (Cohen, 1988). There was therefore little evidence for substantial or statistically significant variation in student satisfaction over the period of student sojourn at the ELTC. A t-test was used to compare tertiary and private sector ELTC dimension and recommendation data and the nine general dimension items. Findings showed that tertiary ELTCs scored marginally higher than private ELTCs in six dimensions, marginally lower in one and identically in two. A similar pattern could be seen in the general items as well as in the recommendation. With the exception of four dimensions and two of the general items, significance was demonstrated at the p ¼ 0.01 or p ¼ 0.05 level. Some 66% of tertiary ELTC students were willing to recommend their ELTCs compared to 60% of private ELTC students ( p o 0.05). Among the significant dimensions and items, however, the effect size was small (Z2 o 0.01), with the exception of the facilities dimension (Z2 ¼ 0.07) and the general item physical comfort level (Z2 ¼ 0.04) (Cohen, 1988). There was some support, therefore, for significant but modest variation in student satisfaction according to ELTC type, tertiary ELTCs producing the more satisfied group of students, particularly in terms of tangible aspects of the service. In order to compare student satisfaction across ELTCs of different size, the 30 ELTCs were placed into three size categories: Small (up to 99 students), Medium (100–199 students), and Large (200 students and above). The data was then subjected to ANOVA. The ANOVA showed that small ELTCs enjoyed the highest levels of satisfaction in seven out of the nine dimensions and in all general items. Large ELTCs were marginally ahead of the medium-sized ELTCs. Some 70% of students in small ELTCs said they would recommend their ELTCs, but only 57% in medium and large ELTCs said they would. With the exception of homestay, all dimensions, items and the recommendation data were significant ( p o 0.01) with effect sizes in the small to moderate range (Z2 ¼ 0.01–0.05) (Cohen, 1988). The data indicates, therefore, modest but significant differences in student satisfaction levels between ELTCs of different size, ELTCs with fewer than 100 students having the most satisfied clientele.

Predictors of Student Satisfaction When student satisfaction and student recommendation data were compared, a strong, positive correlation was evident (r ¼ 0.861, p ¼ 0.00).

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This suggests that a willingness to recommend an ELTC is closely linked to student levels of satisfaction and underlines the status of the recommendation as a key performance indicator. In order to identify predictors of satisfaction, therefore, both the satisfaction and recommendation data were subjected to regression analysis, and findings for the two sets of regressions were compared. Student ratings for individual items in the nine service dimensions were designated as dependent variables, and the overall satisfaction scores and recommendation data were designated as independent variables. From the regression data, primary and secondary predictors of overall student satisfaction ( p o 0.01) and willingness to recommend ( p o 0.01 and p o 0.05) were identified (Table 5.14). The comparison of the two sets of predictors revealed correspondences across eight of the nine dimensions. The exception was the service procedures dimension, where there were none. Those corresponding predictors (Table 5.14, italics) can be regarded as common predictors of overall student satisfaction (po 0.01). The human dimension is traditionally regarded as vital to the service process (Butcher et al., 2001; Lovelock et al., 1998; Normann, 1984). Human attributes such as friendliness and helpfulness on the part of service providers are regarded as integral to service orientation. The dimension descriptive data displayed in Tables 5.3–5.8 showed that respondents rated the ELTC service very positively on such aspects of the service. For instance, friendliness was ranked top in the teacher, administrative staff, and homestay dimensions. However, regression analysis identified no personal attributes among the 18 primary predictors of student satisfaction and the willingness to recommend. Among the 18 secondary predictors there were only two, administrative staff friendliness and encouragement to achieve goals. As Table 5.14 makes clear, the predictors of satisfaction and recommendation, rather, tended to consist of professional skills, organizational issues, or management-related aspects associated with effective service. For instance, although teachers were perceived to be friendly, it was not their friendliness but their teaching skills that were most likely to lead to a student recommendation. While elements of service orientation were highly rated by the respondents in this study, they did not actually play a prominent role in satisfying respondents or in prompting them to recommend an ELTC.

DISCUSSION This study has thrown some light on student satisfaction with the service provided by New Zealand ELTCs. A number of key student satisfaction

1. Enquiries procedure 2. Placement procedure

1. Accuracy of information in publicity materials 2. Effectiveness of ELTC communication after arrival

1. Ability to give information 2. Communication skills

1. Opportunity to speak English with host family 2. Match between homestay requested and allocated

1. Classrooms 2. Self-access unit

1. Organization 2. Information about

1. Overall organization of ELTC 2. Encouragement to achieve goals

Service procedures

Communication

Administrative staff

Homestay

Facilities

Activities program

General

1 ¼ primary predictor; 2 ¼ secondary predictor.

1. Mix of nationalities in class 2. Methods used to teach you

Lessons

a

1. Availability to help out of class 2. Teaching skills

Predictor of Student Satisfaction with ELTC Servicea

1. Value for money of program 2. Encouragement to achieve goals

1. Value for money 2. Organization

1. Classrooms 2. Self-access unit

1. Opportunity to speak English with host family 2. Match between homestay requested and allocated

1. Ability to give information 2. Friendliness

1. Accuracy of information in publicity materials 2. Effectiveness of ELTC communication after arrival

1. Student feedback procedure 2. Complaints procedure

1. Effectiveness of lessons 2. Mix of nationalities in class

1. Teaching skills 2. Teacher communication skills

Predictor of Willingness to Recommend an ELTCa

Comparison of Student Satisfaction Predictors and Recommendation Predictors.

Teachers

Dimension

Table 5.14.

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predictors were identified, which underlined managerial, organizational, and professional aspects of the ELT service. The findings showed that students surveyed were, overall, satisfied with the service they received. However, this level of satisfaction can be characterized as mere satisfaction rather than the strong satisfaction that is likely to generate WOM recommendation. The respondents were most satisfied with the front-line people who provided the service, that is, faculty and administrative staff, and the response data ranking these two groups top of the nine ELT service dimensions paints a fairly positive picture of their performance. However, these relatively high ratings are attributable more to satisfaction with the human attributes of the service provider than to satisfaction with service provider expertise. As the data showed, respondents rated both teachers and administrative staff high on items such as friendliness and helpfulness, but lower on essential job skills, thus viewing them as high on ‘‘niceness’’ but not so high on the competence required to carry out their jobs properly. Where the teachers are concerned, at the time of the survey, no national database existed that recorded the qualifications of all practicing ESL teachers in English language centers. There was therefore no way of knowing to what extent the national body was qualified to teach English. Staff respondents in the ELTC climate survey cited the hiring of under-qualified teachers as a barrier to excellence, while the hiring of qualified, experienced teachers was most likely to support it. The findings from the student satisfaction survey appear to have lent some support to these views. Considering that English lessons constitute the core activity in ELTCs and the principal reason students purchase the service, it is notable that the data indicated mere satisfaction but not delight with this aspect of the ELTC service. Although the methodology and the lesson interest level were satisfactory, respondents did not think so highly of the learning materials and perceived the lessons to be low on relevance for them. This implies that they were satisfied with how the lessons were taught, but were less satisfied with what they were taught. Respondent perception of the mix of nationalities in the class bordered on disappointment, which is not an altogether unexpected finding. Anecdotally, English language learners prefer a culturally diverse learning environment because this provides them with increased opportunities—and in a sense forces them—to use English for communication, which can only facilitate their progress. Students who venture overseas are also likely to be interested in learning about other cultures. Indeed, student focus-group participants (Chapter Four) cited a mix of cultures and nationalities as one of the desirable characteristics of an ELTC. The fact is, however, that when the survey was carried out,

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the New Zealand ELTC population was not that diverse. Only three nationalities—Chinese, South Korean, and Japanese—constituted almost 70% of the student population, while these three nationalities made up almost 85% of the survey sample. It is not surprising, therefore, that students belonging to these national groups found themselves in classes that consisted entirely of students from their own country and reacted with disappointment. The data also reveals a differentiated student response to the teacher role versus the manager role in the way lessons were organized. Respondents rated teacher-controlled aspects of lessons such as methodology or interest level more highly than manager-controlled aspects such as class size or quality of learning materials. Some faculty participants in the staff focus groups (Chapter Six) expressed concern about manager control over some aspects of their work, especially when commercial priorities took precedence over ELT best practice requirements. This particular aspect of the findings in terms of teacher control versus manager control presents some support for the faculty point of view. Respondents rated the service procedures within a mere satisfaction range. They were most satisfied with enrollment and least satisfied with complaints and homestay administration. As discussed in Chapter Three, research has identified links between a positive climate for service within an organization and the organization’s solicitation of and responsiveness to customer opinion. Two issues raised in the student focus groups were possible cultural inhibition preventing some students from complaining and the need for a variety of ‘‘complaint pathways.’’ The fact that the complaints procedure was rated last out of eight service procedures may be a reflection of these concerns. Furthermore, the lower response rate on this item might indicate that some respondents were not aware of the existence of such a procedure in their ELTCs. Service provider communication involves keeping customers informed as well as listening to them (Parasuraman et al., 1985), thus protecting their self-esteem and making them feel they are still in control (Schneider & Bowen, 1995). Communication should be accurate and timely not just during, but also prior to, the service (Zeithaml & Bitner, 1996). The findings did not provide overwhelming support for the existence of these principles in the institutions surveyed. ELTC communication with students was frequently raised in the focus groups and criticism was voiced, particularly in terms of disparities between service descriptions or agents’ promises and actual service content and quality. The survey findings indicated, at best, mere satisfaction with communication, the lowest satisfaction rating being given to ELTC communication with students before their arrival. Students

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might initially enquire about and book a language program with an ELTC either directly or through an agent or travel agency in the home country. Either way, it is possible that misunderstandings could occur if English is used to communicate with the ELTC. As the satisfaction data from the services dimension showed, where homestays are concerned, respondents were considerably less satisfied with the way they were organized than with the quality of the experience. The issue of poor matching between homestay type and student requests was raised in the focus groups and the relatively low ranking of this item in the survey appeared to confirm the focus group findings. The survey data indicated, overall, mere satisfaction with ELTC-organized homestays. Although respondents were delighted with host friendliness and pleased with the homestay milieu, they were less satisfied with the opportunity to use English and the match with their desired homestay, and least satisfied with the amount of time hosts spent with them. They perceived homestays as friendly, fairly comfortable places (despite the quality of the food) but were somewhat disappointed at being left alone so much by their hosts, particularly in terms of host assistance with English—an important issue, since some expressed the value of homestay as a better context than formal lessons for the development of their speaking skills (Chapter Four). A glance at the rankings shows that the three top-ranked items encompassed pre-existing properties of the homestay context, namely the personal attributes of the hosts (which determine the atmosphere or milieu) and the physical make-up of the home, while the lowest-rated item on the other hand, the amount of time hosts spent with students, depends on the hosts’ own personal choice—unless it is formally stated in a host-ELTC agreement or contract. To what extent ELTCs do spell this out for hosts, and even whether hosts consider spending time with students to be part of their role, are therefore issues of interest. Although some ELTCs provide detailed orientations for their host families during which such issues are clarified, other ELTCs may not go to such lengths, nor may contracts address the issue clearly enough. The importance of tangibles to service customers in terms of assessing quality, especially in highly intangible types of service, has already been pointed out. Despite this, respondents rated tangibles in terms of facilities as the most unsatisfactory dimension of the ELT service they had experienced. The data indicated at best mere satisfaction with basic facilities and dissatisfaction with other items such as tape recorders, video, and computers. The fact that, according to some respondents, their centers did not possess some of the equipment they were asked to assess is a further comment on the levels of resourcing in some institutions. It is interesting

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to compare the frequency rankings of the focus-group-desired facilities (Table 4.6) and the actual satisfaction rankings in the survey (Table 5.11). If frequency of mention in the focus groups is taken as some indication of importance of the items to the participants, the two sets of rankings suggest an almost inverse relationship—the more important the item, the lower student levels of satisfaction appear to be. Audio equipment such as tape or digital recorders constitutes the most fundamental piece of electronic equipment for a language teaching operation. Yet this is the facility category ELTC respondents were least satisfied with. Students expect computer and internet access to be an integral part of the service they are purchasing, yet computers received the third worst satisfaction rating. The item self-access unit was found to be a secondary predictor of both student satisfaction and a willingness to recommend the ELTC, yet respondents were dissatisfied with this facility, too. Since the servicescape of an ELTC might be instrumental in providing students with an effective learning environment, such perceived deficits might have an added negative impact on the quality of the learning aspect of the service provided by ELTCs. A number of findings from the regression analysis confirmed the importance of the general dimension as an overall predictor of student satisfaction, so it is notable that respondents regarded items such as the physical comfort, the organization, and the mix of students as satisfactory but only just, while one item, value for money garnered dissatisfaction. The importance of the human factor in the success of the service provision has already been stated, particularly in terms of the attitudes, skills, and emotional labor of service providers; a secure, unthreatening environment; the maintenance of student self-esteem; and fair treatment within a positive service milieu. The focus-group findings confirmed the milieu as an important issue for students, and the survey findings show that while respondents viewed the ELTC milieu as satisfactory, placing it top of the items in the general dimension, there was not as clear an expression of delight as might have been desired for such a key aspect of the service. Respondents did not, apparently, believe they were getting value for money from their ELTC programs, despite the perceived relative inexpensiveness of New Zealand English language courses compared to those of the other major provider nations. None of the data from the student focus groups or survey offered a specific explanation for this phenomenon, and further research is required to explore it more fully. One critically important issue for ESL students is their rate of improvement in English, since the fundamental purpose of such a language course—and the core service for which students are paying—is to raise their English proficiency levels. Although this issue was never directly

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raised by focus-group participants, its importance was probably taken for granted. The questionnaire item asked respondents about their rate of improvement in English language proficiency in their opinion, independent of any objective assessment. The data shows that respondents were at best merely satisfied, and their rating bordered on dissatisfaction. This finding should be seen in the light of comments in the staff focus groups about the unrealistic expectations of ELTC students regarding their rate of language proficiency gain, and it is possible this is the reason for the finding reported here. It is not clear to what extent institutions managed their students’ expectations by, for instance, clarifying prior to, and on, arrival what a particular program could and could not achieve for a student in terms of proficiency gain or the student’s own role in terms of developing vital selfdirected learning behaviors. Nor is it possible to say whom students would hold responsible for their perceived lack of progress; is it possible that some would blame themselves? The importance of a willingness to recommend the program to others is, as discussed, a key indicator both for individual institutions and for a country’s ESL industry sector, not just because it is an indication of satisfaction, but because it is a measure of potential positive WOM. The survey findings show that 56% of respondents said they would be willing to recommend their ELTC but 34% said they would not. These figures also varied significantly in respect of age and ethnicity. As indicated earlier, comparative data is hard to come by, but the previously mentioned Australian ELICOS ‘‘college’’ (i.e., ELTC) recommendation figures of 62–70% in two studies 10 years apart (Australian Education International, 2007; ELICOS Association, 1997) are of interest. If only valid responses from the study reported here were taken into account, the recommendation rate would be identical to the earlier (1997) Australian rate of 62%. So on balance, while Australian ELICOS programs seem to be doing better in this regard, the difference between the two countries is not large. Although expectation of 100% student willingness to recommend is unrealistic, the fact is that almost 45% of respondents in this study either would not recommend their ELTC or did not know if they would or not. Some ELTC managers might find this acceptable; and others may find it disappointing. Further research is indicated to obtain more perspective on the significance of differing student recommendation rates. Regardless of the actual rates, the recommendation statistic is one that ELT managers should be interested in, and they should be developing strategies to ensure that it does not remain low. While gender was not found to be a significant differentiator, the findings reported here corroborate previous research in a variety of service types to the

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effect that that both age and nationality or ethnicity appear to be significant influences on student satisfaction with ELTC service. For instance, respondents in the 40-plus age group and Swiss students were most satisfied, while those in their twenties and PR China students were least satisfied. Age and nationality differences were also evident where willingness to recommend was concerned. Why student satisfaction should be differentiated along these lines is not clear. Older students may be more tolerant and may identify more closely with teachers, who tend to be roughly in the same age group. It may be that European learning styles are more akin than Asian styles to the teaching approaches used in New Zealand institutions. European students may have a better basis for proficiency gain through closer acquaintance with English and their expectations may be more realistic. Where ELTC type is concerned, respondents studying at tertiary institutions were significantly more satisfied with the teachers, facilities, and general aspects of the service than those studying at privately owned institutions. The largest differences in satisfaction with individual facilities pertained to the library, the self-access unit, and audio/video equipment. An obvious explanation is that ELTCs within tertiary institutions are likely to be better resourced than many private centers, with access to major facilities like university libraries, so the findings may reflect this advantage. Teachers in tertiary centers might also be better qualified and are more likely to have the security of tenure, which might impact more positively on professional aspects of the service climate. Respondent satisfaction and the willingness to recommend were seen to be strongest in small ELTCs (less than a hundred students) and weakest in large ones (200 and more), the largest differences pertaining to milieu, the opportunity to meet students from different countries, and opportunities to use English. The issue of ELTC size was not directly discussed in the focus groups, but there were indirect indications of student preferences for an intimate learning environment, including the perception of the ELTC as ‘‘a family home,’’ the desire for individual assistance and availability on the part of teachers, and the wish that ELTC staff show a personal interest in students. It seems, therefore, that, with their particular style of service provision, small centers were able to do a marginally better job of satisfying the survey respondents than medium-sized and large centers.

IMPLICATIONS One of the key findings of the study, and one that goes to the heart of what embodies student perceptions of excellent ELT service, relates to those

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service characteristics rated best and worst, together with the determinants of student satisfaction. The following two lists comprise first, the ten toprated items, and second, the ten bottom-rated items, from each of the nine dimensions (where only 0.01 percentage point separated two items, both were included). A glance through the best-rated items paints a picture of what the ELTCs in question appear to be good at from the student perspective. These are revealed as, principally, the ‘‘soft’’ service skills, which are often represented by human attributes, personality, affability, being sociable and good at the easy kind of face-to-face communication characterized by a strong culture of service orientation. BEST RATED Teacher friendliness Administrative staff friendliness Host family friendliness Enrollment procedure Teaching methods Atmosphere in the center Effectiveness of ELTC-student communication after arrival Variety of leisure activities and information provided Quality of classrooms and rest rooms Thus, three key groups of ELTC providers—faculty, administrative staff, and host families—were rated top in terms of friendliness; the atmosphere of the place, something very dependent on the personal attributes of the providers and ultimately the service culture and climate, was top of the general characteristics; communication with the center after arrival, a faceto-face procedure, and enrollment, which might also be face-to-face, depending on how it is carried out, were also top-rated; and the teaching methods, presumably significantly more active-communicative than students had been used to, also came out top. In other words, the survey respondents could not fault their ELTCs on service features that appear to be heavily dependent on ‘‘people skills’’ in terms of the service providers’ personal attributes, outlook, and attitudes. WORST RATED Teacher teaching skills Ability to give right information and understand student needs Amount of time host family spends with student Complaints procedure

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Mix of nationalities in class Value for money of the program Effectiveness of ELTC-student communication before arrival Value for money of leisure activities Quality of audio equipment The second list paints a different picture. Here, the service activities which respondents perceived the centers to be worst at are largely characterized by ‘‘hard’’ service skills. The focus here is not so much on personality but on organization, that is, technical, organizational, and managerial—and perhaps also professional—issues. Thus, there was room for improvement in teaching skills and the ability of administrative staff to give the right information or understand student needs; when face-to-face communication was not involved (before arrival), that communication was less effective; where processes and organizational issues were concerned in the complaints procedure, the class composition, and the quality of equipment—again, students were not as impressed. While rudimentary, these ‘‘best’’ and ‘‘worst’’ lists provide what amounts to a snapshot of how the participants in the survey rated the ELT service. Taken together, they point to what students perceived the centers to be good at, and what they perceived them as not so good at. The suspicion therefore arises that in the ELTCs sampled there may be a lot of emphasis—in fact, maybe too much emphasis—on the innate service orientation of faculty and administrative staff, but insufficient attention given to those hard organizational skills characteristic of competent management that are likely to produce an effective service operation. The problem is compounded by what is perhaps the principal finding of the study, and one that is statistically grounded, namely, that these ‘‘people skill’’ aspects of ELTC service turn out to be predictors of neither student satisfaction nor student willingness to recommend an ELTC. On the contrary, it is precisely those hard competencies associated with professional, organizational, and managerial effectiveness—the same items that were given the bad ratings by students—that are revealed as the actual predictors.

CONCLUSION The main finding of the research reported in this chapter represents an almost perfect corroboration of Schneider and Bowen’s (1995) warning about the human resources trap (Chapter One). Those authors cautioned

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against service managers’ over-reliance on service provider attitudes and behaviors to produce customer/client satisfaction at the expense of other, basic management competencies (such as planning, organization, and control), a strategy that might make for a friendly service but not necessarily an effective one. Thus, while the human dimension remains an integral and critical part of the service provision, ELTC managers may be in danger of overestimating its role in creating and maintaining student satisfaction: the findings from the study reported here appear to show that ESL students want much more than just friendly staff.

PART THREE PROVIDER PERCEPTIONS

CHAPTER SIX STAFF PERCEPTIONS OF THE SERVICE DIMENSION IN ELT$ INTRODUCTION The research described in this chapter set out to investigate the extent of the service dimension in ELT through the perceptions of staff1 in English language teaching centers (ELTCs) in New Zealand. Given the lack of precedent and the exploratory nature of the study, the data collection was based on qualitative rather than quantitative methods (Easterby-Smith et al., 1991) and focused on respondent personal experiences (Burgess, 1982), feelings, and attitudes (Holloway, 1997) as well as processes and the significance of actions (Easterby-Smith et al., 1991). The focus-group interview was selected as a suitable methodology for its economy of effort in obtaining perceptions on a defined area of interest in a permissive, nonthreatening environment (Krueger, 1994) as well as its use of group dynamics to stimulate the elaboration and expression of opinions (Frey & Fontana, 1991).

THE INVESTIGATION The data was collected over a three-month period. Five focus-group interviews were conducted with non-management employees of five ELTCs located in five New Zealand cities. Two of the centers were attached to tertiary institutions and three were private organizations. There were a total of 32 participants, 24 ESL teachers and 8 administrative staff. Twentysix were female and six male, a ratio of 81% to 19%, which is a close approximation to Haddock’s (1998) finding of an 87% to 13% gender $

Adapted from Walker, J. (2000b). Staff perceptions of the service dimension in TESOL. The TESOLANZ Journal, 8, 39–55, with kind permission from The TESOLANZ Journal.

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split among New Zealand ESL teachers. (His study did not take in administrative staff.) The focus-group interviews had a semi-structured format and were organized loosely around these six questions:  What did the participants understand by the concept of providing excellent service in an ELT context?  How did they see their role as service providers of ELT?  What could their organization do to make sure that the service they provided to customers was of a high quality?  How could managers help their staff to provide excellent service?  What could colleagues do to support each other in the provision of ELT service?  What barriers existed to providing excellent service in ELT? The interviews were recorded on audiotape, the tapes were transcribed, and the scripts subjected to content analysis. After an initial reading of the transcripts to identify broad themes and issues, the data was examined more carefully and descriptive or interpretive codes assigned (Krueger, 1994; Miles & Huberman, 1994; Vaughn et al., 1996). As the work progressed, codes were either further refined or broadened by reformulation, or were discarded and replaced by new formulations. A master code list was then produced which listed all raw codes used and gave the code frequency for each of the five focus groups as well as a total frequency for the code. The codes were then arranged into categories or themes, each of the categories was examined for overlap and completeness, and some adjustments were made. A few items could not be found to fit into any category, and since they had very low frequency counts and did not appear to contribute anything to a better understanding of the research issues, they were discarded.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS The findings are represented here in two different ways. The first is in terms of the broad themes that emerged. Six broad thematic categories were identified (Table 6.1). These themes are the subject of the discussion in the following section. However, it is also useful to identify two key sets of individual codes. The first set of codes (Table 6.2) relates to more specific issues which were raised in all five groups and which recorded moderate to high frequencies across four or all of the groups. This combination of

Staff Perceptions of the Service Dimension in ELT

Table 6.1. 1 2 3 4 5 6

Broad Themes from Focus Groups in Descending Order of Frequency.

Services management issues Specific staff service roles/behaviors ELT manager roles/behaviors Barriers to providing excellent service Service features Workplace/HRM issues

Table 6.2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

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Codes with Moderate/High Frequency Across all Focus Groups in Descending Order.

Importance of support from colleagues Importance of establishing and maintaining customer satisfaction Importance of establishing and maintaining effective service systems Importance of managing student individual needs and wants Lack of money, resources and equipment as a barrier to providing excellent service Role of ELT staff as an interface between students and the NZ environment Importance of support from management for professional development Managing the disparity between educational and commercial demands on staff Role of ELT staff as marketers of their organization Importance of management support of staff efforts Role of ELT staff as counselors/pastoral carers Importance of ELT managers communicating effectively with/informing staff Management of students as marketers of the organization Lack of time as a barrier to providing excellent service Importance of creating a caring service environment

commonality and frequency render these codes particularly significant, and they should therefore be regarded as key service issues for the respondents in this study. The second set of codes (Table 6.3) relates to five issues that were raised in four out of the five groups and recorded moderate to high frequency in three or four of these groups. While of secondary ranking in terms of their commonality across the groups, these items nevertheless retain some significance; the relatively high frequency of the first item in the list, for instance, respondent perception of ELT as a service, would have placed it in the top five codes, had it occurred in all five groups instead of only four.

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Table 6.3. 1 2 3 4 5

Codes with Secondary Frequency in Descending Order.

Respondent perception of ELT as a service Importance of establishing/maintaining rapport with the student Nature of the customer as a barrier to providing excellent service Extension of the ELT service provision beyond the classroom Multidimensional nature of the ELT service

The two sets of codes presented in Tables 6.2 and 6.3 are also significant in terms of their content, since a number of them are also common themes in the services management literature. These are:        

the focus on student satisfaction the importance of effective service systems the management of student wants and needs staff as marketers of the organization the management of students as marketers the creation of a caring service environment respondent perception of ELT as a service establishment of rapport with students.

The presence of these items would seem to indicate the existence of a healthy service dimension among the respondents and a relatively firm awareness of their role as service providers in ELT.

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS This discussion covers the six themes presented in Table 6.1. In view of limitations on space, the focus is on the issues that displayed commonality and frequency across the groups and secondary items have therefore been omitted. Services Management Issues Analysis of the data identified services management issues as the major theme complex with a large number of high frequency codes. This category describes a series of interlinked activities and behaviors within the service environment that could be described as the very essence of the ELT service operation. Two sub-categories were identified, namely, the task environment,

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which involves the organization of work, and the student service environment, which addresses contacts between service providers and students. Task Environment Task environment issues in rank order are presented in Table 6.4. Because service jobs are frequently frustrating, demanding, and challenging, service providers maintain their enthusiasm and provide better service when they are members of a supportive team (Zeithaml & Bitner, 1996). This theme of interdependence (Mayer et al., 2009) was confirmed in the focus groups since by far the most popular topic raised was the need for a supportive, collegial, team environment as a prerequisite for the provision of excellent ELT service. Both teaching and non-teaching staff reiterated how much they relied on the support of their colleagues. The development of a team ethos was particularly important: I guess the secret of the school is that team commitment . . . . [W]e seem to enjoy working together, we share a whole heap of things together . . . . There’s a lot of interaction goes on and I think that the problem solving is done . . . through that amicable, collegial respect and cooperation and . . . discussion, basically.

This involved regular and continuous interaction with colleagues, the sharing of information about students and work content—for instance, sharing ideas and materials for classes—and knowledge of what each other was doing. Respondents likewise emphasized the need for procedures, processes, structures, and consistency as part of an overall service system: We have a lot of administrative procedures and we have to be sure that we are saying the same thing . . . and it is not easy because you’ve got to make sure that communications are good across the programs. This is . . . seen as an important part of providing a service.

Table 6.4. Rank 1 2 3 4 5¼ 5¼ 7 8

Services Management Issues, Task Environment. Task Environment Issue

Existence of supportive, collegial, team environment Establishing and maintaining effective service systems Managing disparity between commercial and educational demands on teachers Managing students as marketers of the service/organization Existence of ongoing staff interaction/communication Importance of effective management of homestay program Displaying common/consistent front to students Managing student feedback

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A feature of ELT institutions is the existence of professional educators in a commercial context and a sub-category with a high frequency in focusgroup discussion was the problem of managing the disparity between educational and commercial priorities. As one teacher commented: For me that is the biggest problem, I think, . . . the business versus teaching and I do think often the students do miss out because business wins, which unfortunately is a fact of life, but from a teaching point view, it can be very frustrating.

Some respondents reported that while best practice in ELT might dictate, for instance, smaller class sizes, commercial constraints might require a teacher to work with a group far larger than would be regarded effective. The realities of demand fluctuation might dictate a student being placed in a class of students who were at a different proficiency level, simply because it made business sense. This is likely to lead to concern on the part of ESL teachers that they are being asked to condone practices which they do not consider ethical or in the best interests of the student. A further issue related to respondent awareness of student word-ofmouth. When making a decision to purchase, potential purchasers of services are more likely to be influenced by personal, word-of-mouth recommendations than purchasers of products (Mangold, Miller, & Brockway, 1999). Thus, satisfied customers essentially act as informal marketers for the organization. Most participants in this study appeared to be mindful of the importance of word-of-mouth to them and therefore the importance of managing students as potential marketers for the organization: Word-of-mouth is our most potent tool in terms of marketing and obtaining students for the school. . . .

Student Service Environment Student satisfaction with the service was a major theme in the focus groups (Table 6.5). Respondents appeared well aware that they were dealing with clients who could take their business elsewhere or by word-of-mouth influence future business, so the most popular issue was that of satisfying students as clients, and the need to ‘‘keep them happy’’ was an oft-repeated sentiment: Your results are measured by how happy [students] are . . . . We’re in an industry where we have to please clients who pay.

Staff Perceptions of the Service Dimension in ELT

Table 6.5. Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

105

Services Management Issues, Student Service Environment. Student Service Environment Issue

Establishing and maintaining student happiness, satisfaction Managing student expectations Managing student individual needs and wants Establishing/maintaining rapport with students Establishing/maintaining caring/friendly/comfortable service environment Maintaining individual contact with students Managing student diversity Maintaining a harmonious student environment

Although a controversial issue among respondents, one important way of keeping students happy was catering to their individual wants and needs and an integral part of this might involve respondents making themselves available to students on an individual basis. Another common services theme (Lovelock et al., 1998) that was strongly represented by respondents as an important ELT service provider skill was the ability to establish early rapport with students, leading to the establishment of social bonds and higher levels of commitment on both sides. Finally, establishing and maintaining a comfortable, caring service environment was equally important. According to respondents, the management of student expectations could be tricky, particularly when there was disparity between those expectations and the reality of the ELT service context. The stock service motif of customer involvement in producing the service is particularly relevant in educational services such as ELT and, as intimated, success may partly rely on the student’s own aptitudes, skills, and industry. Respondents told of the problem that might arise if a student had an exaggerated perception not only of her actual language level but also her own abilities and therefore, for instance, an unrealistic expectation of her rate of progress in terms of language proficiency gain: Students come along expecting a quantum boost in their level of English proficiency and that is what in fact we spend by far the largest part of our time trying to provide. There is a very high expectation on what we can do. The students come, thinking that we have a magic pill. . . .

Respondents reported that there was also likely to be a conflict between the student’s perceptions of the appropriate learning methodology and the teaching/learning philosophy of the institution. Students from some

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cultures, for instance, may prefer to be taught exclusively in a formalized classroom context that emphasizes the grammar-translation methodology they are used to, while New Zealand ELT institutions that pride themselves in being at the forefront of best practice might promote more communicative approaches and learner autonomy: Their perceived need is that they’re going to learn in a classroom with a teacher, whereas our perception of how they are going to cope with their needs is by developing strategies and autonomy. . . . And there is a conflict there. It takes a long time leading a horse to water, to get that across.

The issue of student wants versus needs is another characteristic services management theme (e.g., Schneider & Bowen, 1995) and an often-asked question is, who is the best judge of what the customer actually needs? The dilemma was neatly expressed by one respondent: Sometimes I feel compromised through the fact that the students are fee paying and therefore I suppose they perceive that they have the right to dictate what they want, which doesn’t . . . necessarily correspond with what they need. . . .

ELT Staff Roles and Behaviors The roles and behaviors of service providers represent a major theme complex in the services literature. The nature of the interactions between service providers and customers/clients is fundamental to the creation of quality through the production of the core value of the service (e.g., Czepiel et al., 1985; Lovelock, 1992; Schmenner, 1995). A service job is seen as essentially a relationship (Lovelock, 1995) between the provider and the customer, the nature of which can determine the success of the service activity. As previously noted (Chapters Two and Three) service providers often have boundary-spanning roles since they operate at the interface between the organization they work for and the organization’s outside constituencies, such as customers, community groups, organizations, and other significant stakeholders (Zeithaml & Bitner, 1996, p. 307). The significance of these common services themes was confirmed in the focus groups (Table 6.6). Respondents described four role/behavioral categories and an associated set of attitudes and behaviors involved in the work of ELT service providers. First, respondents viewed themselves as an interface between the student and the New Zealand environment. This could involve providing students with practical information on how to go about accessing the New Zealand community, for instance, in terms of sports,

Staff Perceptions of the Service Dimension in ELT

Table 6.6. Rank 1 2 3 4 5

Staff Roles and Behaviors.

Frequency 1: Pastoral Care/Counseling Role Providing pastoral care/counseling Providing academic/career counseling As motivators Fostering student personal development Fostering intercultural socialization

Rank 1 2 3

Frequency 2: Student Support in New Environment Role As interface with New Zealand environment As teachers of life skills for New Zealand environment As a source of knowledge/information about New Zealand environment

Rank 1 2 3 4

Frequency 3: Service Orientation Displaying professionalism/dedication Having empathy with student situation Commitment to excellent service In loco parentis

Rank 1 2

Frequency 4: Marketing Role Marketers of the service/the organization Marketers of ELT

Rank 1 2 3

107

Frequency 5: Teaching Role Responsibility for student success Promoting student language autonomy Training students to optimally access service

hobbies, or cultural activities. It might involve explaining how New Zealand society works and teaching students appropriate behavior. You almost feel like you’re . . . an important link and if they don’t relate to you then a big part of their day and their ability to make other relationships with other native Kiwis is quite often seriously affected . . . in terms of providing a service as a teacher, you have quite a strong, an important role, . . . like an ambassador in a way. . . .

Teaching students practical lessons such as how to use the telephone, access banking services, or apply for and take a driving test might also be included in such a role. Second, respondents reported a number of roles and activities subsumed under the heading of pastoral care/counseling. This could involve providing help with personal problems, academic issues, or in motivating students to

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persevere and succeed. While some of the larger ELTCs might have counselors and homestay coordinators to do counseling work, many respondents, particularly the teachers, saw this role as a major item in their job description: Being available to listen to them and be sympathetic to them. If they’ve got a problem, really, try to help them solve it. And so I look upon it not just as a job for teaching English language as such, but becoming someone that they can talk to freely whenever they want to.

The role often took a practical form, such as taking students for medical treatment or helping them to deal with state bureaucracies. In one case, a teacher suspected that a student could not see properly so she arranged an appointment with an eye specialist and drove the student to the specialist’s office several hours away. The specialist diagnosed color blindness and the student was successfully treated. Providing motivational support and helping students with personal development was also part of the role of some respondents: They [students] couldn’t get a break back home and we’re really challenging them and opening them up to possibilities that they never considered back home, you know.

Since the majority of respondents were ESL teachers, it is not surprising that teaching was seen as an integral part of the service provider role. However, it is interesting that this role was not particularly emphasized in the focus-group discussions and it was almost taken for granted in some groups. Key issues here were a feeling of responsibility for the success of the student and a sense of the importance of promoting student language autonomy. A common theme in the services literature is that of service providers as marketers for their organizations. This view sees marketing as establishing, maintaining, and enhancing relationships with customers and other partners to meet the organization’s objectives (Gro¨nroos, 1990). While promotional activities might be in the hands of formal marketers, service providers in an organization should be ‘‘part-time marketers’’ and should act in a ‘‘marketinglike manner’’ (Gro¨nroos, 1990, p. 141). A number of respondents also took this view: We’re all marketing, every one of us has a vital role. Our jobs depend on it. . . .

The significance of the staff marketing role and its link to of managing word-of-mouth was clearly expressed by this participant: You see, this is not like a normal school. They come here because they choose to come here. They pay to come here and for that reason, every person that has any contact with

Staff Perceptions of the Service Dimension in ELT

109

that student is a vital cog in the marketing process. If they screw up, that person will go away unhappy and disgruntled and will probably tell a hundred others. If they go away happy, because each one of us has done our jobs, they might influence ten other students to come to the school, so every student is a potential marketer.

The final theme in this category was service orientation. Given the importance in services of the provider-customer interaction, the employee who enjoys ‘‘people work,’’ is courteous and helpful, and has an inherent predisposition and willingness to provide service, will play a key role in creating customer perceptions of service quality. Although respondents did not volunteer the concept of service orientation by name, it was inherent in many of the descriptions they offered of their service provider roles, in particular, the pastoral care and interface role in a cross-cultural context. Specifically, they stressed the importance of: perceiving students as individuals, rather than merely paying students; empathy with students who are struggling to function in a strange environment; fostering trust through honest dealings with students; and professional dedication to providing a quality educational service. Personality factors also played a part: You have got to connect with the students and those are the good teachers. . . . You are taught how to be a teacher but you are not taught your personality.

In some cases several respondents perceived of themselves as in loco parentis, especially with regard to younger students: I think we often feel that we are like their surrogate family, the tutors here and support staff, and when they leave us . . . it’s just like parents and the kids leaving the nest.

Desirable ELT Manager Attributes Respondents cited a number of manager roles and behaviors likely to enhance the effectiveness of ELT operations (Table 6.7). While these are items that might be attributed to a competent service manager, they would also be regarded as among the fundamentals of good general management practice. Support of staff efforts was seen as the key manager behavior, in terms, for instance, of dealing with difficult students, providing encouragement and feedback, and acting swiftly and decisively to defuse potential problems. Within a service operation that employs professional teachers, it is not surprising that respondents perceived management support for professional development as especially important. This might take the form in the organization of regular in-house seminars or training sessions, encouragement for faculty to improve teaching or academic qualifications, or support in terms of time or money to attend

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Table 6.7. Rank 1 2 3 4 5¼ 5¼ 5¼ 8¼ 8¼ 8¼

Desirable ELT Manager Attributes. Manager attribute

Encourages/supports staff professional development Is generally supportive of staff efforts Communicates effectively with staff/keeps staff informed Monitors staff performance Is aware of/understands ELT work Delegates to staff/allows staff flexibility of action Shares commercial issues with staff Praises/recognizes staff excellence Is approachable/listens to staff Has management skills/training

professional conferences. Another positive manager behavior was seen to be communicating effectively and, in particular, keeping staff informed about the state of the organization, for instance, in terms of the business direction. Some respondents, however, felt that managers withheld commercial information and provided no rationale for commercially based decisions that ultimately impacted the quality of the instruction. Barriers to Providing Excellent Service While respondents perceived the greatest barrier to the provision of excellent ELT service to be the lack of money, resources, or equipment (Table 6.8), the very nature of the students themselves could also be instrumental, particularly if the student was unwilling to cooperate with teachers implementing the learning philosophy of the institution: There’s also the different learning styles. . . . Some of them are used to being lectured to, and they’re quite uncomfortable with moving into pair work or group work and they don’t think they’re learning. So you’ve got to get them used to the fact that you can learn from others and through doing pair work practice and group work practice and that can be quite a difficult thing to break down when some of them first come.

Occasionally, a student’s cultural norms might also make providing the service difficult: With some cultures, there’s a different attitude displayed towards female teachers, as opposed to male teachers. I think that probably is a factor in some cases. We try to break it down and I think we do it quite successfully, but I think incoming students sometimes carry some of this baggage that we have to work quite hard to . . . unravel.

Staff Perceptions of the Service Dimension in ELT

Table 6.8. Rank 1 2¼ 2¼ 4 5 6

111

Barriers to Providing Excellent Service. Barrier

Lack of money/resources/equipment/appropriate materials Lack of time The nature of the student The unpredictable nature of demand versus capacity Lack of effective service systems Poor manager understanding of nature of ELT service

Two standard services management themes presented further barriers. The issue of how their organizations dealt with demand fluctuation (Fitzsimmons & Fitzsimmons, 1994) was a concern to respondents and one which could have a direct influence on the quality of the service provided since it could lead to the sort of commerce versus education discord previously discussed. The lack of adequate service systems (Schneider & Bowen, 1995) was also cited by some respondents as a concern, particularly if students did not perceive that faculty were working consistently to a standard set of procedures. While lack of time was also a frequently cited item, some respondents felt that managers themselves might represent a barrier if they had no background in ELT: There are people . . . who have a managerial type role [and] don’t understand the constraints of what we’re dealing with or the extent that we have to work, because dealing with New Zealand students and dealing with international students is a completely different ball game, so we can’t apply the same sort of rules. You can’t, say, because you’re stretched for time, just leave the classroom. You can’t really do that.

Service Features This category covers some of the additional features of the ELT service provision that arose out of focus-group discussion (Table 6.9). A major theme was respondent awareness of ELT as a service. The question of whether respondents actually saw themselves as service providers was not put directly to them, but the assumption went largely unchallenged, and most respondents appeared comfortable to use the terminology that had been initiated by the researcher. This coding, therefore, although apparently of minor importance, was actually quite significant, as it appeared to

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Table 6.9. Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

ELT Service Features. Service Feature

Staff awareness of ELT as a service Service extends beyond classroom Multidimensional nature of service Teachers work independently of each other Key role of links with local community Service extends beyond normal parameters of space and time Student expectation of staff member as friend Key role of homestay in creating student satisfaction

indicate that there was unconscious acceptance on the part of the respondents of the service dimension in their work. Another aspect of this category was the multidimensional nature of the service for both teaching and non-teaching staff. Support staff such as administrators and homestay coordinators reported after-hours involvement with students, especially if an emergency arose. For teachers, this meant that the service was not confined to teaching English since, in addition to materials preparation, which often took place outside normal hours, there were other roles to carry out: A lot of the time the service extends well beyond the classroom, the teachers. I mean, I know for the other staff it does too. Often the students will come to my home and we’re often involved with weekend sort of activities and things so it’s definitely not just, ‘‘OK, you’re coming here from nine till three and we don’t want to see you when we’re off.’’ The teaching goes on and on.

Sometimes the service transcended even further the boundaries of space and time. Former students would turn up with relatives or friends to visit, or they might contact the ELTC for help long after they had completed their course.

Workplace/HRM Issues A number of issues relating to the nature of the work environment and contractual matters were placed in this category (Table 6.10). The problems of obtaining adequate or appropriate resources were a major item and resources discussed included time, funding, teaching materials, teaching space, equipment, etc. The issue of professional development arises again

Staff Perceptions of the Service Dimension in ELT

Table 6.10. Rank 1 2 3¼ 3¼ 5

113

Workplace/Employment Issues. Workplace/Employment Issue

Resourcing issues Staff developing themselves professionally Teacher security of tenure Nature of working/contract conditions Harmonious working environment

but in this category teachers were aware of the importance of taking charge of their own professional development in terms of improving the quality of the service they were able to provide. Another theme was the situation of ESL teachers, many of whom are hired on short-term contracts or employed on a demand or an hourly basis, and the lack of job security was clearly a concern for some participants: It takes quite a while to get a permanent contract as such, as permanent as permanent is . . . and still you’ve only got four weeks’ notice, so quite often you’re doing the best for the students, but you also do have to look after yourself.

For some respondents, the lack of security inhibited their relationship with management. There were also consequences of being employed on hourly rates in terms of their own commitment to their organization: One of the problems, probably, that, you know . . . what this relates to is that teachers are paid on an hourly basis, so when you’re finished, there’s no point in sticking around.

There were therefore good arguments for ELT institutions having permanent staff: I think also having a constant staff is very, very important in terms of providing that high level of service to the students . . . . I believe that it would be detrimental to their learning if there weren’t permanent staff here that they saw on a regular basis. . . .

CONCLUSION The aim of the research reported in this chapter was to investigate the existence of a service dimension in ELT through the perceptions of ELT teachers and administrative staff of their work and roles. The findings showed that among the respondents interviewed, a fairly healthy service dimension was apparent. A number of archetypal service themes were

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identified as well as themes specific to the context of an ELT service operation. Most respondents appeared comfortable with the notion of ELT as a service and with their roles as service providers within ELT. However, several limitations of the research should be noted. Given the relatively small size of the sample, generalizability cannot be claimed. In terms of analysis, no attempt was made to differentiate between data collected from teaching and non-teaching respondents. Data from both private ELTCs and tertiary institutions was, likewise, undifferentiated and was presented in aggregated form.

NOTE 1. Unless otherwise indicated, staff is used here and in succeeding chapters to refer to both teachers and administrative staff in ELTCs.

CHAPTER SEVEN SERVICE CLIMATE IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING CENTERS: A SURVEY OF PROVIDERS$ INTRODUCTION As discussed in Chapter Three, climate studies have been carried out in a range of organizational types, and the more specialist area of service climate has become an increasingly popular topic for researchers (Mayer et al., 2009). Service climate research has been carried out in a number of service sectors, but the area of English language teaching service has not been one of them. This study set out to close this gap by extending the qualitative research described in Chapter Six to investigate staff perceptions of the service climate in New Zealand English language teaching centers (ELTCs).

THE INVESTIGATION Organizational climate is usually measured using a survey questionnaire which asks employees to rate organizational attributes on a Likert scale. Climate quality (Lindell & Brandt, 2000) is determined by the proximity of the mean to the positive endpoint of the scale. Thus on a Likert scale with ratings from 1 to 5, the closer the mean is to 5, the higher the perceived climate quality. Such a questionnaire was developed using findings from ELTC staff and student focus-group discussions on the key characteristics of superior service, combined with insights from the climate and the services literature. The questionnaire surveyed ELTC non-management administrative staff and teachers about their perceptions of the climate quality of 11 $

Adapted from Walker, J. (2007). Service climate in New Zealand English language centers. Journal of Education Administration, 45(3), 315–337

115

116

Table 7.1.

SERVICE, SATISFACTION, AND CLIMATE

ELTC Service Climate Questionnaire: Dimension Content.

ELTC Service Climate Dimensions

No. of Items

Dimension Focus: Extent to which . . .

Management service practices Management communication Management support

6

Staff service practices

6

Management effectively plans, organizes, leads, and controls in the service area. Management consults with and informs staff on service issues. Management encourages and recognizes staff efforts, fosters cooperation, provides resources. Staff understand their service role and are able to provide superior service. The service provided is focused on student needs and on creating student satisfaction. Staff are personally committed to providing superior service (service orientation). Staff possess the personal attributes required to provide superior service (service orientation). Staff are personally interested in and devoted to their students (service orientation). Work conditions are commensurate with the creation of superior service. Staff are adequately resourced for the provision of superior service. Staff are aware of how students assess various aspects of the service.

Student focus

5 6

13

Staff service ethos

3

Staff personal attributes

5

Staff concern for students

9

Employment issues

6

Resourcing

3

Staff estimate of student evaluation of the service Total

9 71

service dimensions (Table 7.1) in their institutions. The 11 service climate dimensions comprised 71 items and used a 5-point Likert scale ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree, with a don’t know (DK) option (see Appendix 1 for the questionnaire). Two open-ended questions asked respondents to cite desirable ELTC service attributes and perceived barriers to superior service. According to Glick (1985), climate cannot be said to exist in an organization unless there is employee consensus of an acceptable level on climate perceptions. Some researchers have traditionally assumed that a measure taken using a Likert scale and based on a normal analysis of variance (ANOVA) would be sufficient to demonstrate consensus. However, James, Demaree, and Wolf (1984) pointed out limitations of ANOVA in specific data collection scenarios and proposed the rwg index, an indicator of interrater agreement, as a preferred alternative (James, Demaree, & Wolf, 1993). The rwg index has been the subject of considerable debate in the

Service Climate in English Language Teaching Centers

117

literature (e.g., Kozlowski & Hattrup, 1992; Schmidt & Hunter, 1989) but has been employed with some success (Andrews & Rogelberg, 2001; Hater & Bass, 1988; Kozlowski & Hattrup, 1992; Lindell & Brandt, 2000; Schneider & Bowen, 1985). Interrater agreement was used here to control for climate consensus. A total of 30 ELTCs participated in the study. This figure amounted to some 40% of the total ELTCs identified in New Zealand at the time of the survey. Twenty-two were privately owned, and the remaining eight were schools within universities or polytechnics. From a sample of 587 staff, 275 valid responses were obtained, for a 47% response rate. Of the responses, 83% came from teachers; the remainder came from various administrative staff. A majority (80%) of respondents were female; 76% of respondents were employed full-time. A total of 63% of respondents had held their current position for a year or less, while 10% of respondents had been in their current position for more than five years.

FINDINGS The climate data was examined for evidence of extreme skewness; reliability was checked with Cronbach’s Alpha (Cronbach, 1951). Intercorrelations between the dimensions of each scale were determined. A mild skewness towards positive scores was observed (a ¼ 0.98). Alphas for individual climate dimensions are displayed in Table 7.2. Factor analysis indicated a three-factor solution, which explained 54.8% of the variance (Component 1: 23.2%; Component 2: 21.2%; Component 3: Table 7.2.

Cronbach Alphas for Service Climate Scale Dimensions.

ELTC Service Climate Dimension Sub-Scales Management service practices Management communication Management support Staff service practices Student focus Staff service ethos Staff personal attributes Staff concern for students Employment issues Resourcing Estimate of student evaluation of service

a 0.91 0.86 0.91 0.80 0.95 0.87 0.93 0.93 0.84 0.84 0.90

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10.4%). Approximately half of the variables loaded on Component 1 and/or Component 2 and approximately one-third on Component three. These three components were designated ELTC staff service orientation towards students, ELTC manager service practices, and ELTC staff work conditions. Interrater agreement values of rwg (James et al., 1984) were calculated in terms of the respondent data for each ELTC. The item means lay within a positive range of þ0.38 to þ0.80. In terms of the rwg parameters of 1.0 and þ1.0, this result confirmed moderate to high levels of staff consensus on the perceived climate quality of their institutions. As can be see from Table 7.3, staff had an overall positive perception of ELTC service climate (M ¼ 3.72). The three service climate dimensions that constitute service orientation— staff service ethos, staff personal attributes, and staff concern for students— were the most positively scored in the survey, while employment issues scored least positively.

Dimensions 1–3, Management Practices Dimension 1, management service practices, ranked sixth overall (M ¼ 3.56), presenting, on balance, a positive view of manager performance on the issues. Almost 62% of respondents agreed or strongly agreed with the statements and the Likert scale means are fairly closely clustered (Table 7.4). However, there was considerable variation between individual ELTC means, with a range of 2.24 to 4.37. The item that staff endorsed most (70.6%) was Management has a sound grasp of ELT aspects of the service. Ranked ninth (M ¼ 3.40), the management communication dimension was among the weakest dimensions in terms of percentage of positive responses (57% agreed or strongly agreed) in each category and the pattern of the means (Table 7.5). A total of 63.5% and 57.5% of respondents, respectively, agreed or strongly agreed that managers kept them informed about organizational issues and shared with them information on student feedback. Respondents appeared to have, on balance, a positive view of the way that management communicated with them. However, about 20–25% of respondents disagreed or strongly disagreed with each of the statements, around the same proportion neither agreed nor disagreed, and there was considerable variation between individual ELTCs on this dimension. The staff of two ELTCs, for instance, rated this dimension at 2.04, in contrast with a high of 4.18 for one ELTC. The weakest item related to management provision of feedback on staff performance—only just over half of respondents, around 52%, agreed or strongly agreed that this was the case.

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Table 7.3. ELTC Staff Perceptions of Service Climate Quality: Dimension Means and Category Percentages. Dimensions Respondents’ perceptions of . . .

1

Management service practices 2 Management communication 3 Management support 4 Staff service practices 5 Student focus 6 Staff service ethos 7 Staff personal attributes 8 Staff concern for students 9 Employment issues 10 Resourcing Respondents estimate of their students’ evaluation of the service provided by their ELTC 11 Estimate of student evaluation a

M

Rank

Percent disagree/ strongly disagreea

Percent Percent agree/ neither agree strongly agreea nor disagreea

3.56

6

18.53

19.63

61.85

3.40

9

22.68

20.16

57.22

3.54 3.69 3.97 4.19 4.49 4.20 3.09 3.45

7 5 4 3 1 2 11 8

19.92 14.70 07.68 03.70 01.18 02.64 32.88 27.63

19.30 17.78 16.62 10.60 03.98 11.52 22.10 12.27

60.77 67.55 75.68 85.70 94.84 85.84 44.98 60.10

M

3.33

Rank

10

Percent worse/ Percent about Percent better/ far worse than what they far better than they expected expected they expected

13.30

44.26

42.10

Due to rounding, category percentages do not total 100%.

Table 7.4. Rank

1 2 3 4 5 6

ELTC Management Service Practices: Descriptive Data. Variable

M

SD

In this English language teaching center, management . . . has a sound grasp of the ELT aspects of the service. ensures that staff are familiar with service goals. ensures that staff are familiar with service policies/procedures. leads by example in providing superior service. regularly monitors service standards. ensures staff know how to deliver superior service.

3.84 3.59 3.59 3.55 3.42 3.41

1.20 1.08 1.07 1.20 1.10 1.05

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Table 7.5.

ELTC Management Communication: Descriptive Data.

Rank

1 2 3 4 5

Variable

M

SD

In this English language teaching center, management . . . keeps staff informed about organizational issues. shares with staff-student feedback on service quality. talks to staff about the importance of superior service. consults with staff on ways to improve service. provides staff with feedback on their performance.

3.49 3.47 3.42 3.39 3.30

1.17 1.13 1.18 1.19 1.09

Table 7.6. Rank

1 2 3 4 5 6

ELTC Management Support: Descriptive Data. Variable

M

SD

In this English language teaching center, management . . . encourages staff in their efforts to provide superior service. fosters mutual cooperation and support among staff. supports professional development for staff. ensures staff have the resources for superior service. makes an effort to remove obstacles to superior service. recognizes the efforts of staff who provide superior service.

3.69 3.68 3.68 3.60 3.50 3.14

1.05 1.13 1.13 1.27 1.17 1.19

The management support dimension ranked seventh overall (M ¼ 3.54). Almost 61% of respondents agreed or strongly agreed and 20% disagreed or strongly disagreed with the items. The range among individual ELTCs was 2.33 to 4.36. Whereas the means of five of the six variables in this dimension are closely grouped together, the sixth, management recognition of staff efforts, is conspicuously low, within a midpoint range of the Likert scale (Table 7.6), and only 42% of respondents agreed or strongly agreed with this statement.

Dimension 4, Staff Service Practices This dimension was rated quite positively, ranking fifth overall (M ¼ 3.69). Almost 68% of respondents endorsed the statements and just under 15% did not. In only two ELTCs did the mean slip below the midpoint of the Likert scale. With one exception, the means for the individual items are squarely within a positive band (Table 7.7). Almost 82% of respondents agreed or strongly agreed that staff actively supported one another. However, the weakest item, at 3.07, and the one that has the highest

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Table 7.7. Rank

1 2 3 4 5 6

ELTC Staff Service Practices: Descriptive Data. Variable

M

SD

In this English language teaching center, staff . . . actively support one another to provide superior service. have the necessary skills to provide superior service. communicate effectively with one another. have a clear understanding of their service role. are empowered to make decisions that affect the quality of their work. regard marketing the organization as part of their service role.

4.05 3.86 3.85 3.82 3.52 3.07

0.88 0.86 0.98 0.92 1.05 1.17

standard deviation, figuring prominently in analyses of group differences, is the staff perception of themselves as marketers of the service: only about 41% agreed or strongly agreed with this statement.

Detailed Findings: Dimension 5, Student Focus Dimension 5, student focus, is a wide-ranging dimension thematically but one that captures much of the essence of good service practice. The dimension (M ¼ 3.97) ranked fourth overall, and some of the mean scores were conspicuously high (Table 7.8). Almost 76% of respondents endorsed the statements and just under 8% did not. This result indicates, overall, a positive perception of student focus. For instance, approximately 90% of respondents agreed or strongly agreed that it was easy for a student to access a member of staff for help (M ¼ 4.34), and nearly 86% agreed or strongly agreed that the ELTC environment was relaxed and friendly (M ¼ 4.2). In contrast, only 61% felt that the service students received matched the description in publicity materials (M ¼ 3.63).

Dimensions 6–8, Service Orientation The three service climate dimensions that constitute service orientation were the most positively scored in the survey and together registered a mean of 4.29. Respondents had a very positive view of service orientation in their ELTCs. Staff service ethos (Table 7.9) captures the staff level of commitment and attention to detail. The dimension ranked third (M ¼ 4.19), one ELTC scoring 4.77. Almost 86% of respondents agreed or strongly agreed with the statements, and just under 4% disagreed or strongly disagreed. Just over

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SERVICE, SATISFACTION, AND CLIMATE

Table 7.8. Rank

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Variable

M

SD

In this English language teaching center . . . it is easy for a student to access a staff member for individual help if a student makes a complaint, it is taken seriously and acted on. students experience a relaxed, friendly service environment. students receive ethical treatment. students are regarded as potential marketers of the organization. students experience a high standard of professional instruction. there is a focus on creating student satisfaction. the service can be adapted to suit changing student needs. there is an effective procedure for soliciting students’ opinions. there is effective communication with students. students get information they need to get the most out of the service. there are procedures to ensure the delivery of superior service. the service described in publicity materials matches that received.

4.34 4.21 4.20 4.20 4.10 4.01 3.99 3.84 3.83 3.79 3.77 3.73 3.63

0.75 0.86 0.86 0.86 0.90 0.87 0.98 0.89 1.01 0.94 0.96 1.04 1.10

Table 7.9. Rank

1 2 3

ELTC Student Focus: Descriptive Data.

ELTC Staff Service Ethos: Descriptive Data. Variable

M

SD

In this English language teaching center, staff . . . feel personally responsible for the quality of the service. are committed to providing superior service. are painstaking in their work, paying close attention to detail.

4.29 4.25 4.06

0.75 0.73 0.91

90% of respondents agreed or strongly agreed that staff felt personally responsible for service quality (M ¼ 4.29). The staff personal attributes dimension (Table 7.10) obtained the highest mean of the 11 climate dimensions (M ¼ 4.49). Almost 95% of respondents endorsed the statements, whereas only just over 1% did not. Almost 98% of respondents agreed or strongly agreed, furthermore, that staff adopt a friendly manner towards students (M ¼ 4.62), making this the highest rated item in the aggregated findings. This view is strongly supported in the student data, since teacher and administrative staff friendliness were among the highest rated individual variables. Items 2, 3, and 4 (Table 7.10) were, respectively, the second-top, third-top, and fourth-top rated items in the entire survey. Two ELTCs scored this dimension at 4.88, a very high rating. The dimension staff concern for students (Table 7.11) obtained the second highest overall mean (M ¼ 4.20). Almost 86% of respondents were in

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Table 7.10. Rank

1 2 3 4 5

Variable

M

SD

In this English language teaching center, staff . . . display a friendly manner towards students. adopt a helpful attitude towards students. exhibit patience when students have problems communicating. empathize with students’ problems in unfamiliar environment. display professionalism in their dealings with students.

4.62 4.56 4.47 4.43 4.36

0.56 0.60 0.64 0.70 0.72

Table 7.11. Rank

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

ELTC Staff Personal Attributes: Descriptive Data.

ELTC Staff Concern for Students: Descriptive Data. Variable

M

SD

In this English language teaching center, staff . . . make an effort to establish rapport with students. are sensitive to the needs of students from other cultures. actively support students to achieve English language goals. are willing to assist students adjust to life in this country. go out of their way to help a student who has a problem. cater for individual needs of students when appropriate. take an active interest in students’ welfare. are willing to counsel students with personal concerns. are willing to help students even outside normal working hours.

4.40 4.36 4.36 4.20 4.19 4.19 4.17 4.11 3.88

0.67 0.71 0.70 0.71 0.78 0.74 0.75 0.79 0.89

agreement with the items in this dimension, and just under 3% were not. Whereas the most positively viewed item was staff efforts to establish rapport with students (M ¼ 4.40, 92.6% agreed or strongly agreed), the weakest item (M ¼ 3.88) related to staff willingness to assist students outside working hours, although it still attracted 69% agreement or strong agreement from respondents. This item had the highest standard deviation of the dimension (SD ¼ 0.89), which may reflect disagreement on this issue between teaching and non-teaching respondents.

Dimension 9, Employment Issues In sharp contrast to the previous dimension, this dimension had the lowest overall mean of 3.09 and recorded some of the weakest scores among individual ELTCs, the lowest being 1.93. Around one-third of ELTCs recorded means for the dimension below the midpoint of the Likert scale.

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SERVICE, SATISFACTION, AND CLIMATE

Almost 45% of respondents endorsed the statements, but 33% did not. It is significant (Table 7.12) that the three least positive aspects of work in the minds of respondents were stress (M ¼ 2.55), pay (M ¼ 2.77), and job security (M ¼ 2.94). For instance, over 51% saw their jobs as stressful and over 45% disagreed or strongly disagreed that they were fairly remunerated for their work. On the other hand, 72% of respondents perceived the work environment to be harmonious (M ¼ 3.77). The responses in this section appear to provide a less encouraging view of ELTC service climate, although the higher standard deviation values indicate increased variance across the sample.

Dimension 10, Resourcing Although the resourcing dimension had a relatively weak ranking of 8 out of the 11 dimensions (Table 7.3), the mean rating (M ¼ 3.45) actually borders on a positive perception of the part of the respondents (Table 7.13). Over 60% of respondents agreed or strongly agreed that their ELTCs were adequately resourced but just under 28% felt they were not. Almost 70% of respondents agreed or strongly agreed that the teaching resources were of a Table 7.12.

ELTC Employment Issues: Descriptive Data.

Rank

1 2 3 4 5 6

Variable

M

SD

In this English language teaching center . . . there is a harmonious work environment. staff enjoy a satisfactory level of physical comfort. the workload is distributed fairly. staff have a feeling of job security. staff receive fair remuneration for their work. staff do not view their jobs as stressful.

3.77 3.29 3.23 2.94 2.77 2.55

1.01 1.17 1.09 1.22 1.14 1.13

Table 7.13. Rank

1 2 3

ELTC Resourcing: Descriptive Data. Variable

M

SD

In this English language teaching center . . . the teaching resources are of a satisfactory standard. the equipment is of a satisfactory standard. the facilities are of a satisfactory standard.

3.68 3.43 3.27

1.20 1.26 1.33

Service Climate in English Language Teaching Centers

125

satisfactory standard but just over 21% disagreed or strongly disagreed. Facilities received the weakest rating in the dimension, despite the fact that almost 53% felt that facilities were satisfactory. Barriers to Superior ELT Service This, the first of two open-ended questions, asked respondents to name up to three barriers to service in their ELTCs. The 165 responses obtained equated to a 60% response rate. Content analysis of the data identified five broad themes, along with a group of miscellaneous issues. The five broad themes are, in descending order of frequency, the following:     

The poor quality of the physical work environment Problems with service delivery The nature of the ELTC management The employment conditions Poor communication/lack of communication

Within these broad areas, a number of specific barriers were cited. The top 10 in terms of frequency are presented in Table 7.14, ranked in descending order. The facilities/equipment theme comprised issues such as the lack of audiovisual equipment, inferior staff workspace, and poor layout. Poor planning and organization included a range of miscellaneous and organizational problems, with no single overriding theme. The teaching resources issue referred to both general items and textbooks. In some ELTCs there were not enough textbooks to go around, and some respondents commented Table 7.14. Rank 1 2 3 4¼ 4¼ 6 7¼ 7¼

ELTC Staff Perceptions of Barriers to Superior Service (Ranked). Barriers to Superior Service

Inadequate/lack of equipment and facilities Poor planning/organization Inferior/lack of teaching resources Inappropriate staffing practices, e.g., hiring of unqualified staff Inappropriate management style, e.g., autocratic behavior Counterproductive management practices, e.g., lack of performance appraisal Lack of/poor communication, e.g., manager-staff and staff-staff Lack of space/overcrowding in the ELTC

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SERVICE, SATISFACTION, AND CLIMATE

that they were forced to illegally mass photocopy. The inappropriate staffing practices included the employment of under-qualified or inexperienced staff, while the inappropriate management style referred mainly to unsupportive, autocratic managers. There were a number of counterproductive management practices, including a failure to evaluate staff performance. The poor communication referred principally to poor management communication and the overcrowding mainly to too-small classrooms. The pay issue referred particularly to the lack of paid preparation, marking, and meeting time for teachers. The lack of professional development was, again, mainly a teacher issue.

Attributes of Superior ELT Service Respondents were asked to list up to three key attributes of superior ELTC service, in their opinion. There were 223 responses (81% response rate). Seven broad themes emerged. They are, in descending order of frequency:       

The staff The service delivery The physical work environment The management Employment conditions The ELTC milieu Communication

Within these broad areas, a number of specific attributes emerged. The top 10 in terms of frequency are presented in Table 7.15. The desirable teacher attributes were by far the most-cited items and referred principally to the need for skilled, experienced, and well-qualified teachers. Student focus involved meeting student needs, providing personal service, and showing concern for student welfare. The most desirable attributes for all staff were teamwork, dedication, and professionalism. The two most desirable manager attributes were a supportive attitude towards staff and the ability to clarify organizational goals and policies for staff. Superior administration/administration referred mainly to effectiveness and designing/delivering a quality program. Effective communication comprised mainly manager-staff communication.

Service Climate in English Language Teaching Centers

Table 7.15. Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

127

ELTC Staff Perceptions of Attributes of Superior Service (Ranked). Attributes of Superior Service

Desirable teacher traits, e.g., skilled, experienced, well-qualified Student focus/service orientation, e.g., meeting student needs, personal service, concern for student welfare Desirable traits for all ELTC staff, e.g., teamwork, dedication, professionalism Desirable ELTC manager traits, e.g., supportive attitude, ability to clarify organizational goals and policies Provision of superior teaching/learning resources Superior organization and administration Provision of superior facilities and equipment Positive atmosphere, e.g., professional, service milieu Effective communication, e.g., manager-staff and staff-staff Provision of professional development

Comparing Staff Sub-Groups The data was subjected to ANOVA in terms of gender, area of responsibility (teaching or administration), employment status (full-time or part-time), and length of time employed at the ELTC. The measure Z2 (eta squared) was used as an indicator of association strength between variables. For gender and employment status, significance (po 0.05) was demonstrated only on a few variables. However, area of responsibility and length of time in the job each accounted for significant differences (po 0.05) on a quarter of the items in the survey, mainly in the areas of management practices and perceptions of student satisfaction. An independent samples t-test was used to explore differences between the 227 teaching and the 45 non-teaching staff who responded to this question. The non-teaching staff scored higher than the teachers on 54 of the 71 variables, lower on 16, and identically on one. A comparison of the dimension means (Fig. 7.1) revealed that on all but two, the non-teaching staff members’ (NT) variable means were somewhat higher, sometimes significantly so, than the teachers’ (T) means. As a general trend, therefore, non-teaching respondents demonstrated a more positive perception of the service climate in their ELTCs than their teacher colleagues. However, in terms of the specific variable means, only 19 (25%) of the 71 items yielded a significant difference at the p ¼ 0.05 level (Table 7.16). Most of the effect sizes were small (Z2 ¼ 0.02–0.04), with a few verging on the moderate (Z2 ¼ 0.05), and large (Z2 ¼ 0.09) (Cohen, 1988). As Table 7.16 shows, only

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SERVICE, SATISFACTION, AND CLIMATE

Fig. 7.1. Comparison of Teacher/Non-Teacher Service Climate Dimension Means

two dimensions represent a clear focus of difference between teachers and non-teaching ELTC staff means: management service practices (5 out of 6 items) and estimate of student evaluation of the service (4 out of 9 items). In all cases, the non-teacher means are higher. No statistical significance could be demonstrated for the 16 higher-scored teacher ratings. Non-teachers therefore had a more positive view than teachers of management practices and of how their students evaluated the ELTC’s service, particularly in terms of the homestay and the administrative staff (p ¼ 0.01, Z2 ¼ 0.07). Other items where the differences between teacher and non-teacher perceptions were particularly conspicuous involve management talking to and consulting staff on service issues (p ¼ 0.01, Z2 ¼ 0.06 and 0.05, respectively), the staff marketing role (p ¼ 0.01, Z2 ¼ 0.09), and job security (p ¼ 0.01, Z2 ¼ 0.09). A one-way between-groups ANOVA was carried out to explore possible differences in climate perceptions among staff respondents who had been employed at their ELTCs for differing lengths of time. The raw data was collapsed into four groups: Group 1 (up to 6 months), Group 2 (7–12 months), Group 3 (13–24 months), and Group 4 (over 24 months). When the means of the 11 climate dimensions were plotted for each of the four groups an overall trend became apparent (Fig. 7.2). With one exception

129

Service Climate in English Language Teaching Centers

Table 7.16. Significant Differences Between Teaching (T) and NonTeaching (NT) Staff Perceptions of ELTC Service Climate. Variable

Staff Group

M

SD

Sig. Level

Z2

Management ensures staff familiar with service goals. Management ensures staff familiar with policies and procedures. Management regularly monitors service standards. Management leads by example in providing superior service. Management has a sound grasp of ELT aspects of service. Management routinely talks to staff on the importance of providing superior service. Management routinely consults with staff on ways to improve service delivery.

T NT T NT T NT T NT T NT T NT T NT

3.53 3.84 3.53 3.89 3.35 3.74 3.45 3.96 3.76 4.15 3.30 3.91 3.27 3.82

1.13 0.75 1.11 0.80 1.12 0.90 1.22 1.00 1.23 0.90 1.21 0.83 1.22 0.89

0.05

0.02

0.05

0.02

0.05

0.02

0.01

0.03

0.05

0.02

0.01

0.06

0.01

0.05

Staff regard marketing the organization as part of their service role. Staff have the necessary skills to provide superior service.

T NT T NT

2.93 3.74 3.81 4.07

1.16 0.95 0.90 0.62

0.01

0.09

0.05

0.02

There is a focus on creating student satisfaction. T NT There is effective communication with students. T NT Students are regarded as potential marketers T of the organization. NT

3.91 4.31 3.74 4.02 4.02 4.49

1.01 0.70 0.98 0.75 0.93 0.66

0.05

0.02

0.05

0.02

0.01

0.04

Staff empathize with students having problems in an unfamiliar environment. Staff are willing to help students even outside normal working hours. Staff have a feeling of job security.

T NT T NT T NT

4.40 4.60 3.81 4.22 2.82 3.64

0.72 0.54 0.88 0.79 1.22 0.92

0.05

0.02

0.01

0.03

0.01

0.09

What is your estimate of how your students evaluate the service procedures? What is your estimate of how your students evaluate the administrative staff? What is your estimate of how your students evaluate the homestay? What is your estimate of how your students evaluate the ELTC service as a whole?

T NT T NT T NT T NT

3.16 3.53 3.39 3.95 3.04 3.60 3.37 3.66

0.78 0.77 0.79 0.79 0.81 0.89 0.74 0.79

0.01

0.03

0.01

0.07

0.01

0.07

0.05

0.02

130

Fig. 7.2.

SERVICE, SATISFACTION, AND CLIMATE

Staff Length of Time in ELTCs: Comparison of Dimension Means

(employment issues) the climate score tended to increase the longer the respondent had been at the ELTC. Specifically, the Group 2 (7–12 months) means were generally lower than those of the other three groups, appearing to indicate that this group had the least positive view of the ELTC climate. On closer examination of the data from the ANOVA, however, it was found that only 18 of the 71 climate variable means demonstrated significant difference at the p ¼ 0.05 level. The majority of these were grouped in the student focus, concern for students and staff estimate dimensions, but not in numbers that would designate these dimensions as definite points of difference between the groups. The Z2 values ranged from 0.03 to 0.06, with the largest differences in perceptions of teaching resources and of student evaluation of teachers, lessons, and communication (all Z2 ¼ 0.06). A Tukey HSD test revealed that in 16 of the 18 cases, the significant differences were between Group 4 and Group 1 or Group 2. These results appeared to indicate modest but definite differences in perception of particular service climate elements, depending on how long respondents had been employed in their current positions at the ELTC. Specifically, respondents who had been there up to a year had a slightly less positive perception than those who had been there longer than two years.

131

Service Climate in English Language Teaching Centers

Comparing Individual English Language Teaching Centers Although means can give an overview of the overall climate in the 30 ELTCs participating in the climate survey, they provide little indication of the extent of climate perception differences between individual ELTCs. A oneway between-groups ANOVA was carried out to explore this difference. Of the 30 ELTCs, there were 15 which had at least 10 staff responses. These were selected, and differences on the 71 climate variables were plotted. Of the 71 variables, only one did not demonstrate a significant difference. Some 63 variables were significant at the p ¼ 0.01 level and seven at the p ¼ 0.05 level. The Z2 values for individual variables ranged from Z2 ¼ 0.14 to Z2 ¼ 0.55, indicating a large to very large effect size (Cohen, 1988). This result indicates considerable variation between these ELTCs in terms of staff respondents’ perception of service climate. The mean Z2 dimension values (Table 7.17) provide an overview of the extent of the differences. A ranking of the dimensions in terms of effect size (Table 7.18) revealed that the strongest effect sizes related to resourcing and management issues and the weakest related to staff service attributes or attitudes. On ranking the individual climate variables in terms of effect size, it was found that the strongest five all related directly or indirectly to tangibles, whereas the weakest five were all intangibles comprising the entire staff personal attributes dimension (Table 7.19).

Table 7.17.

Differences Between ELTCs: Mean Z2 Service Climate Dimension Values.

Climate Dimension Management service practices Management communication Management support Staff service practices Student focus Staff service ethos Staff personal attributes Staff concern for students Employment issues Resourcing Estimate of student evaluation of service

Mean Z2 0.38 0.34 0.28 0.24 0.34 0.17 0.15 0.17 0.34 0.50 0.33

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SERVICE, SATISFACTION, AND CLIMATE

Table 7.18.

Differences Between ELTCs: Service Climate Dimension Z2 Rankings.

Climate Dimension

Rank

Resourcing Management service practices Management communication Student focus Employment issues Estimate of student evaluation Management support Staff service practices Staff service ethos Staff concern for students Staff personal attributes

1 2 3¼ 3¼ 3¼ 6 7 8 9 9¼ 11

Table 7.19.

Service Climate Variables: Strongest and Weakest Effect Sizes Between ELTCs.

Five Strongest Differences

Z2

The facilities are of a satisfactory standard. The equipment is of a satisfactory standard. The service students receive closely matches that in publicity materials. Staff enjoy a satisfactory level of physical comfort. The teaching resources are of a satisfactory standard.

0.55 0.51 0.50 0.46 0.44

Five Weakest Differences Staff Staff Staff Staff Staff

display professionalism in their dealings with students. exhibit patience when students have problems communicating . . . adopt a helpful attitude towards students. display a friendly manner towards students. empathize with students having problems in unfamiliar environment.

Z2 0.16 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.14

Comparing English Language Teaching Center Type and Size Eight of the thirty ELTCs in the study belonged to tertiary institutions. In order to explore possible differences between tertiary and privately operated ELTCs in terms of service climate quality, the data from each group was examined using an independent samples t-test. At the level of the 11 climate dimensions, no significant differences could be detected in the

Service Climate in English Language Teaching Centers

133

data. However, when the individual variable means were examined, a clearer picture emerged. Of the 71 items in the survey, 23 demonstrated a significant difference at either the p ¼ 0.05 or p ¼ 0.01 level. One dimension in particular, student focus, revealed substantial differences between tertiary and private ELTCs, as 9 out of the 13 items were significantly different. With one exception, staff do not view their jobs as stressful, all tertiary ELTC staff means were significantly higher than those of private ELTC staff, indicating a more positive tertiary staff perception of these items (Table 7.20). Table 7.21 displays the four strongest differences in private and tertiary ELTC staff perceptions of service climate, all significant at po 0.01. In order to explore possible size differences between the ELTCs in terms of staff climate perceptions, the 30 ELTCs were placed into the same three size categories as for the analysis of student satisfaction (Chapter Five): Small (up to 99 students), Medium (100–199 students), and Large (200 students and above). The data was then subjected to an ANOVA. The findings revealed no appreciable difference in dimension means between the three and the same trends are apparent. The ANOVA of the individual variable means confirmed this pattern: of the 71 items, only five were significant (four at p ¼ 0.05, one at p ¼ 0.01). Effect sizes were in the small to medium range (Z2 ¼ 0.02–0.06). The significant means were not focused within any particular dimension. Smaller ELTCs scored highest in variables covering fair remuneration, physical comfort, and standard of facilities, whereas large- and medium-sized ELTCs scored highest in the two items of manager grasp of ELT and staff skills. These findings therefore provided little evidence to support the existence of significant variation among small, medium, and large ELTCs in terms of the way respondents viewed the service climate of their organizations.

DISCUSSION Faculty and administrative staff in New Zealand ELTCs have a generally positive perception of the service climate quality in their institutions. The prominence in the literature given to service orientation as a feature of effective service operations is borne out in practice by the fact that service orientation was viewed by teachers and administrative staff as the most positive aspect of the ELTC service climate, particularly staff personal attributes such as friendliness, helpfulness, patience, and professionalism. Staff commitment, personal responsibility, and a concern for student needs and welfare were also strong elements. The fact that survey respondents also

134

Table 7.20.

SERVICE, SATISFACTION, AND CLIMATE

Private and Tertiary ELTCs: Significant Differences in Staff Climate Perceptions. M

SD

SE

Sig. Level

Z2

Management consults with staff on how Private to improve service delivery Tertiary

3.31 3.72

1.23 0.95

0.083 0.130

0.01

0.03

Staff have clear understanding of their service role Staff have necessary skills to provide superior service Staff are empowered to make decisions that affect quality of their work

Private Tertiary Private Tertiary Private Tertiary

3.76 4.08 3.79 4.14 3.43 3.88

0.93 0.93 0.86 0.78 1.09 0.79

0.063 0.120 0.060 0.110 0.074 0.110

0.05

0.02

0.01

0.03

0.01

0.04

There is a focus on creating student satisfaction. The service students receive closely matches that in publicity materials. There is effective communication with students.

Private Tertiary Private Tertiary Private Tertiary

3.92 4.25 3.53 4.09 3.71 4.16

1.02 0.72 1.13 0.79 0.97 0.69

0.068 0.100 0.081 0.120 0.067 0.098

0.05

0.02

0.01

0.06

0.01

0.04

Students experience a relaxed, friendly service environment. Students get the information they need to get the most out of the service. Students experience a high standard of professional instruction. It is easy for a student to access an individual staff member for help/ advice. If a student makes a complaint, it is taken seriously and acted on. Students receive ethical treatment.

Private Tertiary Private Tertiary Private Tertiary Private Tertiary

4.15 4.41 3.72 3.98 3.92 4.41 4.28 4.59

0.87 0.75 1.00 0.75 0.87 0.73 0.76 0.67

0.059 0.110 0.070 0.110 0.059 0.100 0.051 0.094

0.05

0.02

0.05

0.02

0.01

0.05

0.01

0.03

Private Tertiary Private Tertiary

4.16 4.43 4.11 4.62

0.91 0.54 0.88 0.60

0.063 0.079 0.060 0.085

0.01

0.03

0.01

0.06

Staff are committed to providing superior service. Staff feel personally responsible for the quality of service students receive. Staff are painstaking in their work, paying close attention to detail.

Private Tertiary Private Tertiary Private Tertiary

4.18 4.55 4.24 4.51 3.98 4.40

0.74 0.58 0.77 0.58 0.92 0.76

0.050 0.081 0.052 0.081 0.063 0.110

0.01

0.04

0.05

0.02

0.01

0.03

Staff display professionalism in their dealing with students. Staff are sensitive to the needs of students from other cultures. Staff go out of their way to help a student who has a problem.

Private Tertiary Private Tertiary Private Tertiary

4.32 4.57 4.31 4.57 4.14 4.41

0.75 0.54 0.72 0.64 0.80 0.64

0.050 0.075 0.049 0.090 0.053 0.089

0.05

0.02

0.05

0.02

0.05

0.02

Variable

ELTC Type

135

Service Climate in English Language Teaching Centers

Table 7.20. (Continued ) M

SD

SE

Sig. Level

Z2

Staff actively support students in their Private efforts to achieve English language Tertiary goals Staff do not view their jobs as stressful. Private Tertiary

4.31 4.61

0.73 0.49

0.049 0.069

0.01

0.03

2.65 2.10

1.14 0.96

0.077 0.140

0.01

0.04

The teaching resources are of a satisfactory standard.

Private Tertiary

3.58 4.12

1.25 0.82

0.085 0.110

0.01

0.05

What is your estimate of how your students evaluate your service procedures?

Private Tertiary

3.19 3.45

0.82 0.59

0.058 0.092

0.05

0.02

Variable

Table 7.21.

ELTC Type

Private and Tertiary ELTCs: Strongest Differences in Staff Climate Perceptions.

Four Strongest Differences The service students receive closely matches that in publicity materials. Students receive ethical treatment. Students experience a high standard of professional instruction. The teaching resources are of a satisfactory standard.

Z2 0.06** 0.06** 0.05** 0.05**

**

po0.01.

cited service orientation themes among the top attributes of superior ELTC service (Table 7.15) underlines not only an awareness of the role of service orientation in their everyday work, but also its importance to the success of the service operation and to the staff personally. Taken together, the findings confirm the presence in ELTCs of a perceived healthy providerclient relationship (Lovelock, 1995) in terms of: provider empathy and sensitivity; boundary-spanning roles (Zeithaml & Bitner, 1996; Yoon et al., 2001) and pastoral care/counseling functions; the ability to establish rapport with students (Lovelock et al., 1998); and supporting students to achieve their language goals, even extending to an apparent widespread willingness to assist students outside normal working hours. Concern for students also figured prominently as a key attribute of superior service cited by staff when it came to meeting student needs, providing a personal service, and looking after student welfare. These issues are particularly significant in a service

136

SERVICE, SATISFACTION, AND CLIMATE

industry that has a clientele that is mainly, but not exclusively, young people who are sojourners in, or emigrants to, a foreign country. Service climate quality ratings among the 30 individual ELTCs in the study differed most on dimensions that were less positively rated overall, namely, the management and resourcing dimensions, and differed least on the dimensions that were more positively rated overall, namely, the service orientation dimensions. This commonly held, strongly positive perception of service orientation may imply that service orientation is a common denominator for ELTCs in terms of its function as a service provider attribute that ELTCs rely on for the generation of student satisfaction. Respondents viewed positively their own service practices in areas such as skill level, role comprehension, and intercollegial communication. Collegial support helps counter the frustrations and demands of service provision (Zeithaml & Bitner, 1996) and is linked to customer/client satisfaction (Johnson, 1996). The findings show that ELTC teachers and administrative staff perceived collegial support to be one of the most positive aspects of the service practice in their workplaces. However, compared to other aspects of ELTC staff service practice, there was not nearly such a strong perception among ELTC staff respondents that marketing was part of their service role. Furthermore, teachers were significantly less likely than non-teachers to perceive marketing to be part of their work. This insight corroborates previous findings (Laing & McKee, 2001; Stratemeyer & Hampton, 2001) about professionals’ attitudes to accepting a marketing role. While the exact reasons for this stance remain unclear, the implication is that managers are not clarifying for staff, especially the teachers, the role of marketing as a key service provider relationship-management activity, as advocated by services best practice. The fact that only half of respondents in the survey reported that their managers ensured that they (the staff) knew how to deliver superior service seems to support this inference. Schneider (1980) found customer focus to be closely linked to customer satisfaction. The findings reported in this chapter confirm that ELTC staff perceive a strong, positive student focus in their institutions. Although respondents were not entirely convinced that their students got the service promised by their institutions’ publicity materials, they had a particularly positive perception of student ability to access teachers and administrative staff, of the response to student complaints, of the service milieu, of ethical matters, and of the standard of teaching. Despite this, the weak rating which the estimate dimension received indicates that ELTC staff were more pessimistic about their students’ rating of them and the service they provided than they themselves were about their service provision.

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Respondents accurately perceived that students were most satisfied with the teachers and least satisfied with the facilities. This theme is discussed in more detail in the next chapter. The importance of tangibles in service operations has already been reiterated (Bitner, 1992; Parasuraman, Zeithaml & Berry, 1988; Schneider & Bowen, 1995). Although ELTC staff perceptions of resourcing in their institutions were not in a negative range, this dimension was not particularly strongly rated. Furthermore, respondents cited a lack of equipment and facilities to be number one among the top ten barriers to superior service, while inferior teaching resources and overcrowding also figured prominently as barriers (Table 7.14). Taken together, these findings lead to the conclusion that in the minds of the respondents, resources are not a strong point of service provision in New Zealand ELTCs. This view was corroborated by the poor rating which students gave to facilities in the satisfaction survey (Chapter Five). Although manager service practices, manager communication, and manager support did not rate especially highly compared to the other dimensions of ELTC service climate, a majority of ELTC staff still thought managers were doing a good job in these areas. Managers were seen to be effective in planning, procedural, and leadership areas of the service but less effective when it came to control tasks such as ensuring that staff were familiar with the fundamentals of service provision and monitoring service standards. Furthermore, managerial practices were cited by respondents as barriers to superior service, particularly with respect to resourcing, planning, organizing, leadership, communication, and staffing. The assertion, for instance, that managers hired under-qualified personnel highlights the potential for variability in the quality of the service provision (Wright, 1995) and contrasts with the perception of ELTC staff that the provision of qualified and experienced teachers is overwhelmingly the single most important attribute of superior ELTC service. Manager understanding of ELT work was cited in the preliminary focus groups as a desirable ELTC manager attribute, but a lack of understanding of ELT among managers was also cited in the survey by some respondents as a barrier to excellent service. Given the potential for conflict between managers and teachers over commercial versus educational priorities, it is significant that, according to the findings reported here, a sizeable respondent majority, most of whom were teachers, perceived that their managers did demonstrate a sound grasp of ELT aspects of ELTC service, while only a small minority believed this not to be the case. However, when the two groups were separated, and the respective data examined, it was

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apparent that the teachers, who, it can be argued, should be in a better position to judge, had a markedly more negative view than the administrative staff of this aspect of their managers’ performance. Although ELTC staff did not have an overall negative perception of manager communication with them, in relation to other aspects of ELTC service climate, manager communication did not rate highly. Staff perceived managers to be fairly effective in terms of keeping them informed about organizational issues, but they perceived managers to be less effective when it came to giving staff feedback on their performance. The respondents also perceived that they were receiving good levels of support from their managers, particularly in areas such as encouragement, fostering mutual cooperation, and supporting professional development. However, when it came to giving reward and recognition for a job well done, there was a perception that managers did not do nearly such a good job. The role of pressure on service staff in terms of work demands and time demands has been acknowledged (Koys & DeCotiis, 1991; Moos, 1974). Although the staff rating for employment issues was the weakest in the survey, it was not a negative result per se, and the ELTC work environment was still regarded by respondents as relatively harmonious. Stress, low pay, and lack of job security were particular concerns, but teachers and non-teachers had a considerable difference of opinion on the latter item. Differences between ELTC staff sub-groups in terms of their perceptions of ELTC service climate varied in their scope and their intensity. Despite previous research findings to the contrary (Kirkcaldy & Athanasou, 1999), gender can virtually be discounted as a significant differentiator between ELTC staff in terms of their service climate perceptions, as can employment status (full-time part-time). However, area of responsibility (teacher, administrator) and length of service with an ELTC were relevant to some extent. The greatest differences between teachers and non-teachers were evident in their perceptions of their managers and their students. Administrative staff had a significantly more positive view of management practices and a more optimistic view of how their students rated them than did teachers. This may be an indicator of the closer involvement by administrative staff in the management side of service operations and a less direct involvement than teachers with students. Non-teachers also had a significantly greater feeling of job security than teachers. Commercial service operations such as ELTCs are traditionally beset by unpredictability of demand (Lovelock et al., 1998), which may mean that teachers enjoy less permanent employment conditions than non-teaching staff. Many ESL

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teachers, particularly those outside the tertiary sector, are likely to be on short-term contracts and even hourly rates, and these teachers may be hired and fired according to cyclical movements in the industry, as demonstrated by the finding that approximately two-thirds of ELTC staff responding to the survey had been with their institutions a year or less. This statistic is also of interest in terms of the overall findings of the survey, since the climate perceptions of the majority of respondents were formed on the basis of experience on the job of a year or less and were slightly more negative than those of longer-serving staff. It may be that after an initial ‘‘honeymoon’’ period (up to six months), staff developed a more critical outlook on institutional climate (seven months to a year). However, as they remained with the organization, they may have become more committed to it, may have identified more closely with organizational practices and, indeed, may have become involved in formulating them and overseeing their implementation. The findings reported here appear to support this general trend, but exactly how length of service impacts on climate perceptions is still not entirely clear. While extended time working in a particular ELTC could lead to a shared perception of organizational climate (Glick, 1985; Schneider et al., 1998) and could be a factor in the development of a ‘‘collective climate’’ (Rousseau, 1988), further research is required to obtain a clearer explanation of the forces at work here. Although ELTC size appears to have virtually no effect on staff perceptions of ELTC service climate, ELTC type did play a role in the survey responses to some degree. Tertiary ELTC staff had a more positive perception of the service climate in their institutions than did staff in privately owned ELTCs, especially where student focus and staff service ethos were concerned. In particular, those working in tertiary ELTCs had a stronger perception that students received the service they were led to expect from the ELTC’s publicity materials and were likely to receive professional instruction, ethical treatment, and use satisfactory teaching resources. Staff commitment to service, feelings of personal responsibility for the service provided, and attention to detail were more evident in tertiary ELTCs as far as tertiary staff were concerned, as were an understanding of their service role, the level of empowerment, and the skills required for the job. Anecdotally, one might have expected respondents from private ELTCs to be more marketing-oriented than those in tertiary ELTCs, given an expected stronger commercial imperative among the former institutions. However, no significant difference was discerned on this issue. Taken together, these findings indicate that institutional type is a moderate determinant of ELTC service climate. The tertiary-private differences may reflect what is

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anecdotally perceived to be a higher professional standard in the tertiary ELTCs, which is likely to impact on issues such as ethics and teacher competence, but may also be a reflection of greater access to the resources, networks, and power structures of the much larger organizations. The major barriers to superior service cited by staff related mainly to organizational issues, including resourcing and managerial practices, the greatest barriers being lack of suitable facilities and equipment, with inferior teaching resources and lack of space also prominent barriers. This reiterates the staff focus-group finding citing a lack of resources as a major barrier and reflects the student evaluation of ELTC facilities as the poorest aspect of the ELTC service from the nine dimensions. At the same time, the need for qualified and experienced teachers was overwhelmingly the single most important attribute of superior ELTC service in respondents’ minds. This finding should be set against the already mentioned perceived hiring of under-qualified staff as a barrier to superior service provision and against the student perceptions of teacher skills (Chapter Five). A feature of the ranking of the desirable items is that skills, qualities, and behaviors of ELTC staff and managers appeared to respondents to be the most important attributes of superior service, whereas organizational and resourcing issues were less important. This finding presents a neat corollary to the rankings of the barriers, since in those results, inherent staff skills, qualities, and behaviors barely figured as barriers. In other words, in the minds of respondents, it was mainly organizational issues and managerial practices that prevented them from providing superior service, but it was staff skills, qualities, and behaviors that were most likely to facilitate superior service.

CONCLUSION The study described in this chapter attempted to address the dilemma of the dual commercial-educational nature of ELT services by using a services model to examine ELTC staff perceptions of the environments of their institutions as education providers. The findings indicate that teachers and administrative staff in the New Zealand ELTCs studied had a strongly positive perception of the service climate in their institutions. They perceived aspects of service orientation and student focus in their institutions in a very positive light and, with some exceptions, appeared to have a healthy appreciation of the commercial realities of their work. However, they had a

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less positive perception of issues surrounding employment conditions, resourcing, and manager performance. The implication is that ELTCs are doing a good job as far as the ‘‘soft’’ areas of services management practice are concerned, such as service orientation, student focus, service milieu, and collegial support, but that they are falling short to some extent in the ‘‘hard’’ areas, such as the basic management tasks of planning, organization, control, and communication, as well as resource allocation.

CHAPTER EIGHT ARE THEY AS SATISFIED AS WE THINK THEY ARE? COMPARING STAFF AND STUDENT PERCEPTIONS OF ELTC SERVICE QUALITY$ INTRODUCTION Delighting—rather than merely satisfying—students (Lovelock et al., 1998) is not only an operational, but also a strategic issue for English language teaching centers (ELTCs). An important part of this strategy involves awareness on the part of ELTC management and staff (including teachers and administrators) of how their students rate the service the ELTCs provide. Such awareness could furnish ELTCs with useful information for continuous improvement of their service, with a view to boosting student satisfaction to the level of delight, thus encouraging the proliferation of positive word-of-mouth recommendations. A key question to be asked is whether ELTC staff have an accurate perception of how satisfied their students are with the quality of the service ELTCs provide. A recurring theme in research in other service contexts (e.g., Schmit & Allscheid, 1995; Schneider, Parkington, & Buxton 1980; Tornow & Wiley, 1991) is the extent to which service provider perceptions and customer perceptions of particular service quality correspond. Schneider and Bowen (1995) suggested that front-line service providers—such as ELTC staff—are likely to have a good idea of how satisfied their customers are. A number of studies have reported $

Adapted from Walker, J. (2005). Are they as satisfied as we think they are? Comparing staff estimates and client ratings of service quality in New Zealand English language centres. Prospect, 20(2), 3–18.

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a close association and/or positive correlations (e.g., Wiley, 1991; Johnson, 1996) between employee estimates of customer satisfaction and actual customer satisfaction. Most of these studies have reported findings from financial and retail sectors. To what extent does the same sort of correspondence exist in the commercial ELT sector? Do ELTC staff have an accurate picture of how satisfied their students are with the service they provide? This chapter describes an extension of the investigations described in Chapters Five and Seven, which set out to answer these questions.

THE INVESTIGATION The same 30 ELTCs were involved as described in Chapter Five. The methodology for the student survey was the same. Staff focus groups were likewise used to obtain an overview of service climate, and those groups in the same 30 ELTCs were subsequently surveyed on their perceptions of the service climate quality in their institutions. The specific section of the survey that is of interest here asked teachers and non-teaching staff to estimate how satisfied they thought their students were with the service they provided. The questions in this section covered the same nine service dimensions and used the same disconfirmation scale as in the student questionnaire. Respondents were given the following instructions: For each item, please circle the number that best represents your estimate of how your students evaluate the service provided by the English language teaching center. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Far worse than they expected Worse than they expected About what they expected Better than they expected Far better than they expected

Students, it will be remembered, were asked What is your level of satisfaction with xxx in this English language teaching center? according to whether the item was better or worse than expected, as below: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Far worse than I expected Worse than I expected About what I expected Better than I expected Far better than I expected

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Ratings in categories 1 and 2 represented strong dissatisfaction and dissatisfaction, respectively; ratings in categories four and five represented strong satisfaction and very strong satisfaction, respectively. Ratings in category 3 represented satisfaction with the service provided, that is, ‘‘mere’’ satisfaction. From a sample of 587 staff, 275 valid responses were obtained, for a 47% response rate. Eighty percent of respondents were female and 20% male; 83% of respondents were teachers, and the rest worked in various administrative roles. From a student sample of 1,835, 1,684 valid responses were obtained, for a 92% response rate.

FINDINGS General Findings Fig. 8.1 provides an overview of the ELTC staff respondent service climate data (Chapter Seven) aggregated into the three categories of negative, positive, and neutral. It can be seen that ELTC staff had a very positive view of the service they provided. They were particularly positive about the service orientation in their institutions, as represented by their personal

Fig. 8.1.

Findings from ELTC Staff Service Climate Survey

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attributes, their concern for students, and their service ethos. The level of student focus was also viewed in a very positive light. Staff were least positive about employment issues, including job security, stress levels, and pay levels, and about resourcing, including teacher resources, facilities, and equipment. Fig. 8.2 displays the data from the ESL student satisfaction survey (Chapter Five) aggregated into three summary categories: dissatisfaction and strong dissatisfaction; mere satisfaction; and strong satisfaction and very strong satisfaction. As can be seen, students were moderately satisfied with the service provided by their ELTCs. The greatest satisfaction was reserved for the people who provided the service, that is, the teachers, the administrative staff, and the homestay families. Students were least satisfied with the facilities and equipment provided by their ELTCs. A simple visual comparison of the two tables reveals on the one hand, a very positive perception on the part of ELTC staff of the service climate quality in their institutions, and on the other, a positive, yet somewhat more restrained response towards the service quality on the part of the students at whom the service is aimed. In order to explore the link between ELTC service climate quality and student satisfaction further, the individual ELTC means for the 11 climate dimensions and the means for the nine satisfaction dimensions, together with the willingness to recommend, were compared by means of a Pearson’s product-moment correlation.

Fig. 8.2.

Findings from ELTC Student Satisfaction Survey

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The results showed widespread, low to moderate, positive correlations in the range 0.25–0.66 ( p o 0.05) between the service climate and satisfaction dimensions. This finding appeared to indicate a positive relationship between service climate and student satisfaction, thus corroborating previous findings from the service climate literature (e.g., Johnson, 1996).

Comparing Staff and Student Perceptions of Service Quality As previously described, one section of the ELTC staff questionnaire asked respondents to estimate how they thought their students rated the service they provided. The data from 29 responses to this question (one ELTC did not provide enough data for statistical analysis) was examined in several different ways. First, using the data from staff estimates of student satisfaction and aggregated student satisfaction data, the mean ratings provided by staff and students were ranked and a comparison was made between dimensions (Table 8.1). This revealed some approximations, but particularly striking is that the first and last ranked items are identical for both groups. The rankings show that ELTC staff had an accurate perception of what their students were most and least satisfied with, namely, the teachers and the facilities, respectively. Staff also had a fairly good idea of the relative standing of service dimensions such as the administrative staff, lessons, and activities program. Next, the mean scores for each of the service climate dimensions were compared with the overall student satisfaction scores by means of a Pearson Table 8.1. Staff Estimates of Student Satisfaction with ELTC Service and Student Ratings: Comparison of Ranked Dimensions. Rank

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Actual Dimension Ranking According to Student Rating Teachers Administrative staff Homestay Service processes Lessons Communication General Activities program Facilities

Dimension Ranking According to Staff Estimate of Student Rating Teachers Communication Administrative staff Lessons General Service processes Activities program Homestay Facilities

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product-moment correlation, and ranked according to strength. The results showed that the staff estimate dimension was not only moderately, positively correlated with student satisfaction (r ¼ 0.62, po 0.01), it also constituted the strongest correlation. This finding appeared to further corroborate some of the previous findings in the services research of a close association between staff and student perceptions of service quality (e.g., Johnson, 1996; Wiley, 1991). However, when it came to a comparison of the staff estimates and actual student ratings, a different picture emerged. First, for each ELTC, the mean staff estimates of student satisfaction were compared with the mean student satisfaction ratings (i.e., the descriptive data in each case). The estimates of staff in three ELTCs (10.4%) were very close to their students’ ratings, showing that they seemed to have a fairly accurate picture of how their students rated their service. The estimates of staff in five ELTCs (17.2%) were lower than the student ratings, indicating a more pessimistic assessment than was, in fact, the case. The estimates of staff in the remaining 21 ELTCs (72.4%) were higher than the student ratings. Some staff estimates were unrealistically optimistic, given the conspicuously lower rating their students gave their service. A t-test was then run to compare the mean staff estimates with mean student ratings of overall service for each of the nine dimensions, in order to see if there was a statistically significant difference between the two sets of data. The findings are presented in Table 8.2. Eight of the nine dimensions displayed a significant difference, most at the p o 0.01 level. No significant difference was found for the dimension teachers. This indicates that the staff estimate of their students’ satisfaction with teacher performance was fairly accurate. However, in seven of the eight remaining dimensions, the staff means were significantly higher than the student means, indicating that staff estimated their students to be more satisfied with these dimensions than they actually were. The single exception was the relative perceptions of homestay—in this dimension alone, the mean staff estimate was actually lower than that of the students. In other words, the students rated homestays more positively than ELTC staff thought they did. Taken together, these findings provide some evidence for a statistically significant gap between staff estimates of student satisfaction with the service, and actual levels of student satisfaction. A comparison of specific variables further highlighted differences between the two groups. Seven variables were identified in the service climate and student satisfaction surveys that covered identical areas and were regarded as key aspects of the service provision. The two sets of data were aggregated into two categories each, and examined to gauge, on the one hand, to what

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Table 8.2. Differences Between Staff Estimates of Student Ratings and Actual Student Ratings of Overall Quality of ELTC Service Dimensions. Service Dimension

ELTC Groups

N

Mean

SD

Significance Level

Teachers

Staff Students Staff Students Staff Students Staff Students Staff Students Staff Students Staff Students Staff Students Staff Students

251 1635 248 1659 240 1597 238 1511 242 1619 214 1056 244 1622 217 1152 246 1632

3.56 3.51 3.46 3.09 3.23 3.03 3.53 2.93 3.49 3.32 3.15 3.31 2.96 2.70 3.18 2.92 3.42 2.94

0.69 0.87 0.68 0.84 0.79 0.87 0.79 0.88 0.81 0.94 0.85 1.18 0.94 0.91 1.02 1.01 0.76 0.87

Not significant

English lessons Service procedures Communication Administrative staff Homestay Facilities Activities program Overall service

0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.01 0.01

extent staff perceived these items as positive or negative, and, on the other, to what extent students were dissatisfied/strongly dissatisfied or very satisfied/very strongly satisfied with them. Although there were some approximations, for instance, on staff friendliness, the comparison reiterated the theme of divergence between staff and student perceptions (Table 8.3). The importance of the accuracy of matching between what is promised to students and what is delivered has already been pointed out (Chapter Four). Although ELTC staff seemed to be fairly confident that they were in fact delivering to students what their institutions had promised—61% viewed this positively—their students did not have quite such a positive view, only 22% expressing strong/very strong satisfaction in that regard. A student complaints procedure is an important conduit for the expression of student grievances and may, indeed, be a statutory requirement in ELTCs. Again, staff overwhelmingly endorsed their complaints procedure—some 84%—but only 24% of students were strongly/very strongly satisfied with it. As can be seen from Table 8.3, similar gaps between the two sets of perceptions are evident for the items staff availability, student feedback, and

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Table 8.3.

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Comparison of Staff and Student Perceptions of Specific Service Variables.

Variable

Staff Perceptions, Percentage Responses Negative

Match between service description and service received Atmosphere in ELTC Staff availability Staff friendliness Student complaints procedure Student feedback procedure Equipment

Student Perceptions, Percentage Responses

Positive

Dissatisfaction and strong dissatisfaction

Strong satisfaction and very strong satisfaction

61

28

22

86 90 98 84

23 19 8 37

34 45 67 24

10

68

30

26

29

58

54

16

17

4 3 0.4 4

equipment. Given the differences in item formulation and scale conceptualization in the staff and student surveys, caution is advised in a comparative interpretation of this data. However, the specific differences noted here lend some weight to the previously noted global picture in terms of staff and student perceptions. Further tests were carried out to examine the extent of the consensus among ELTC staff in their estimates of their students’ satisfaction with the service. The same four staff sub-groups were identifiable from the data (Chapter Seven), namely, area of responsibility (administrative staff or teachers), gender, employment status (full-time or part-time), and length of time employed in the ELTC. The data from these sub-groups in respect of staff estimates of student satisfaction with the nine service dimensions was subjected to variance analysis. The findings did not indicate widespread disparity; neither gender nor employment status were indicative of significantly differing estimates of student satisfaction. Although there were indications that the longer staff were employed in an ELTC, the higher their estimate of student satisfaction, significance could be demonstrated on only a small number of items, and no clear patterns of major difference emerged. However, one category did stand out, within which a significant difference ( p ¼ 0.03) was evident, namely, area of responsibility. Specific differences were noted between the teachers and the administrative staff in their

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estimates of the dimensions communication between ELTCs and students (po 0.05); service procedures (po 0.01); administrative staff (po 0.01); and homestay (po 0.01). As was also evident from the service climate data (Chapter Seven), in each case, the administrative staff estimate of student satisfaction was significantly higher than that of the teachers. Administrative staff therefore had a more positive view than teachers of how their students rated some dimensions of their service. Of particular interest is that the administrative staff had a significantly more optimistic perception than the teachers of how their students rated their own—the administrative staff’s—service.

DISCUSSION The findings reported here appear to support elements of the conventional theory regarding service climate and customer satisfaction, yet at the same time present some challenges. As reported in Chapter Three, a range of service climate studies has reported a close relationship between a positive service climate and customer satisfaction (e.g., Johnson, 1996). Likewise, in this study, service climate perceptions and student satisfaction were found to be positively correlated in the low to medium range, while a similar finding was evident in respect of staff perceptions of student satisfaction and actual student satisfaction. The implication is that there is a positive relationship between ELT service climate and student satisfaction with ELT services. However, further explorations uncovered an anomaly: there appeared to be a significant gap between ELTC staff perceptions of student satisfaction levels on the one hand, and actual student satisfaction on the other. Both faculty and administrative staff perceived their students to be significantly more satisfied with the quality of the service provided than they actually were on seven out of the nine satisfaction dimensions. The processes that produced the staff-student perceptual gap identified in this study are undoubtedly complex and a simple rationale may be hard to find. There may be a number of explanations. First, there are several methodological issues that should be mentioned. Many of the early service climate and customer satisfaction studies reported in the literature were carried out in a narrow range of service types, typically banks and financial institutions (e.g., Schneider et al., 1980). No studies of service climate and student satisfaction in ELT services, except that presented here, have been reported to date in the literature. An assumption that has often been made by researchers is that customers are a

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homogeneous group and that findings from research carried out in one service sector are transferable to another. However, this assumption looks increasingly dubious. For instance, quality attributes may vary across industry type, between products and services, across product and service types, within industries, and across cultures (Wicks & Roethlein, 2009). The question remains whether service climate findings from other service types are entirely transferable to ELT service. Culture is also an issue that is particularly relevant to ELT services (see below), and cultural heterogeneity in a number of areas, including customer satisfaction, has been reported in the literature (e.g., Johnson et al., 2002; Mattila, 1999; Wicks & Roethlein, 2009). Furthermore, the actual linkage between service climate and customer satisfaction established in a number of studies requires close examination. For instance, as in the investigation reported here, some research that focuses on examining the relationship between service climate and client satisfaction may be based on correlational studies (e.g., Johnson, 1996). However, it should be remembered that correlations are not predictors but merely indicators of a relationship (see also Chapter Eleven). Furthermore, correlations are summary statistics, and great care has to be taken in their interpretation (de Vaus, 2002). In addition, over-reliance on significance values in conjunction with correlations may be unwise in certain circumstances, and researchers are encouraged to complement inferential statistics with descriptive measures (de Vaus, 2002) before drawing firm conclusions about the data. The moderate, positive correlation identified here between ELTC staff estimates of student satisfaction and actual student satisfaction is a case in point (r ¼ 0.62, po 0.01). This finding might lead some to the conclusion that when staff perceive high levels of student satisfaction, students indeed enjoy high levels of satisfaction. But, heeding de Vaus’ (2002) advice, a comparison of the staff estimate and the actual student evaluation for each ELTC, that is, the descriptive measures, showed that in approximately 72% of cases, the staff estimate was too high, and statistical analysis showed that in those cases the difference between the two sets of data was significant. Although staff estimates and student satisfaction were moderately positively correlated, most staff did not accurately predict levels of student satisfaction with their ELTC’s service. Comparison of data on key individual variables from both the service climate and satisfaction surveys also revealed sizeable differences, lending further support to these findings. In addition, an examination of the descriptive data in terms of the respective global means shows that while staff perceptions of the service climate were fairly positive, student

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satisfaction operated at a considerably more modest level. More research is therefore needed to examine the nature of the climate-satisfaction link and to determine its significance in terms of the two constructs. Second, there are several issues to do with the way ELTC faculty and administrative staff form impressions of student satisfaction in their respective institutions. On an informal level, they probably rely on casual interaction with students for clues and signals as to student attitudes. But cultural and language differences may obstruct both verbal and nonverbal communication and distort perceptions. This barrier may be particularly applicable to administrative staff communication with students if, as is likely, they spend less time with students than teachers do, and if they are, consequently, less ‘‘in tune’’ with student thinking. Most of the research participants in the study reported in this chapter were Asian students in their late teens or early twenties. Such a demographic is likely to have cultural characteristics that manifest themselves in a reluctance to offend older respected persons, such as teachers, by openly criticizing aspects of the service they provide. In addition, as previously discussed, long-term association with an ELTC in extended service context may transform students into ‘‘partial employees’’ (Bowen, 1986) or quasi-members of the organization. The resulting extended service encounters with ELTC staff are likely to lead to the forming of social bonds and even friendships between staff and students, especially in smaller organizations (Lovelock et al., 1998), which could further reinforce reluctance to criticize openly in front of ELTC staff. The group dynamic pertaining in classes might exert pressure on some students to remain silent, while female students from some cultures may be inhibited from speaking out in the presence of male students and/or to male staff members. Thus, for any number of reasons, in direct face-toface situations, young students might not say what they really think about the ELTC service. Third, there may be an issue to do with how student feedback is obtained. At a formal level, ELTC management and staff gain insight into student perceptions through student feedback surveys. However, as indicated in Table 8.3, almost a third of students surveyed expressed dissatisfaction with this aspect of ELTC service. Feedback procedures in some ELTCs may indeed be patchy or non-existent. In cases where feedback is obtained, findings may lack validity if inappropriate survey design and/or data collection procedures are used. For example, the use of questionnaires exclusively in English, rather than in the student’s first language, could lead to misunderstandings, depending on the proficiency level of the respondent. Furthermore, ELTC student surveys may be supervised by the very staff

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who are the subject of evaluations, a practice not likely to ease student inhibitions about giving honest responses. The perceived lack of anonymity of such contexts could lead to a form of data collection mode bias, in which students avoid making negative comments. Students could suspend critical judgment as a result of their particular cultural response style, which may require a politeness response to their ‘‘hosts’’ (Peterson & Wilson, 1992). Even in ELTCs where effective feedback procedures are used, managers may not necessarily share student feedback data with their staff, thus contributing to staff lack of awareness of what students really think. For instance, only about 58% of staff respondents (teachers and administrators) in the climate study (Chapter Seven) said that managers shared student feedback with them, while about a quarter said they did not, and approximately another quarter took a neutral position. This implies that in roughly a quarter to possibly just under half of the institutions surveyed, staff remained ‘‘formally’’ ignorant of student perceptions of their service provision. Fourth, part of the explanation may lie in national and cultural differences between the two groups of respondents under discussion here, in respect of their response to service provision. Although no nationality/ ethnicity data was collected from the ELTC staff, researcher observation in the field revealed that the overwhelming majority of staff appeared to be from European backgrounds while over 90% of the respondents were from Asian countries. As previously discussed, and as demonstrated here (Chapter Five), there is increasing evidence in the services literature to support the belief that different national and cultural groups respond differently to service provision and express differing levels of satisfaction with the same service. Research has identified significant differences in terms of service quality perceptions and satisfaction levels even among Asian customers from different Asian cultures (Ueltschy et al., 2009). Liu, Furrer, and Sudharshan (2001) found that students from cultures with low individualism and high uncertainty avoidance (Hofstede, 1980), such as South Korea, tended not to complain, even if they were dissatisfied with the service they received. Mattila (1999) reported that Asian service consumers would be more likely than Westerners to prefer a personalized service, while the latter are more likely to base their evaluation of a service on tangible clues in the physical environment. Although ELTC staff were not directly evaluating ELTC service in terms of their own satisfaction, such cultural differences between a largely Asian clientele and European service providers may have played a role in the processes occurring in the research described here.

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Finally, it has already been pointed out (Chapter Two) that customer satisfaction is a complex issue that cannot always be easily explained, while methodological issues concerning climate-satisfaction links may lack clarity. Such difficulties are further complicated by the research design used here. Although social science researchers commonly survey people about their own attitudes, it is perhaps not as usual for survey respondents to be asked about other people’s attitudes, and probably even less so for respondents to be asked to estimate other people’s satisfaction with their (i.e., the respondents’) work. The fact that there was a drop of 15% in the response rate for this question, compared to other sections of the questionnaire, is an indicator of how tricky some ELTC staff apparently found the task to be. Even those who believed themselves to be well-acquainted with student views of their service level might still have difficulty in providing an accurate estimate of their students’ satisfaction. This issue must therefore be acknowledged as a potential limitation of the study. Further research in this area is indicated, in order to further improve our understanding of the relationship between staff and student perceptions of ELTC service quality.

CONCLUSION The research reported in this chapter explored the link between staff and student perceptions of service in ELTCs in New Zealand. The findings appeared, initially, to confirm the close association reported in previous studies of other service types. However, further exploration of the data presented a more complex picture. Although ELTC teaching and non-teaching staff seemed to have a fairly good idea of what their students did and did not like about the service, there was a significant gap between staff estimates of student satisfaction and actual student satisfaction. In most dimensions, staff had a generally more positive perception than their students of the service they provided, believing their students to be significantly more satisfied than their students actually were with most aspects of the service. Administrative staff appeared to have an even less accurate perception than teachers did of levels of student satisfaction with some aspects of ELTC service.

CHAPTER NINE FINDING AN IDENTITY: THE TERTIARY MANAGER’S VIEW OF ELT WORK$ INTRODUCTION Reasor (1981) can probably be credited with the first empirical research in the area of what we now refer to as ELT management with his study of the administrative styles of ESL program directors at U.S. tertiary institutions; Matthies (1984) surveyed U.S. intensive English program directors on essential job skills; Pennington and Riley (1991a, 1991b) surveyed U.S. ESL teachers on job satisfaction; Pennington (1994) surveyed ESL administrators on their work; Pennington and Xiao (1990) examined the job of ESL program directors in tertiary institutions; and Pennington and Ho (1995) studied burnout among ESL educators in the United States, Canada, and Asia. However, these studies have examined ELT management issues almost exclusively in the United States and, as is evident, the research has largely been driven by one person. It is interesting to speculate why so little empirical research has been carried out in the area of ELT management. Could it be that since ELT is a fairly ‘‘young’’ profession, teaching and learning issues have been seen to be greater priorities and have simply taken precedence? Do ELT professionals regard management or management skills as, perhaps, unimportant or not particularly relevant to their core activity, that is, classroom teaching? A catalogue of New Zealand ESL teacher core competencies (White, 1997) appears to bear this out. Out of 54 competencies listed, the nearest item to a management-oriented competency is ‘‘able to carry out administrative $

Adapted from Walker, J. (1999b). Finding an identity: New Zealand tertiary TESOL managers talk about their work. The TESOLANZ Journal, 7, 20–35, with kind permission from The TESOLANZ Journal.

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responsibilities,’’ which was ranked fiftieth. Or is it simply that there is so little time that any kind of research is a luxury, let alone research into ELT management? Could the lack of research be related to identity issues surrounding ELT managers? As suggested in the study described here, ELT manager work is characterized by ambiguity, diversity and possible conflict between commercial and educational aspects of the job. Have potential researchers perhaps been unable to identify ELT managers as managers? Whatever the answer, the reality is that most ELT institutions, even those in the tertiary sector, operate within a competitive environment. Success is therefore likely to depend to some extent on the ability of managers to run an operation that follows principles of sound business practice within the constraints of a unique educational service context. This seems, if for no other reason, a good argument for making a greater effort to understand ELT management and to develop best practice, with a view to enhancing the effectiveness and profitability of ELT organizations. The investigation reported here attempted to do this in respect of tertiary institutions by canvassing the views of a group of tertiary English language teaching center (ELTC) managers.

THE INVESTIGATION Interviews were conducted with ELT managers in 10 tertiary institutions (universities, polytechnics, and colleges of education) throughout New Zealand with aim of gaining insights into the issues surrounding ELT manager work. Of the 10 interviewees, 7 were female and 3 were male, which approximately reflects Haddock’s (1998) finding of a male-female gender split of 13–87% among New Zealand ESL teachers. Since the study focused on qualitative issues rather than quantitative data, no further demographic information was sought. The term ELT manager was used as a generic designation for the sake of convenience: the respondents actually used a variety of titles including principal, head of department, head of school, director of studies, and senior tutor. In view of the absence of precedent and the lack of any data on New Zealand tertiary ELT manager work, the research had a phenomenological character and took a grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) approach. This approach sees a valid task of the researcher as being to develop theory based on data, rather than to collect data to prove or disprove a previously held hypothesis. The advantages of such an approach are flexibility and the ability to provide the researcher with both explanations and new

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insights (Easterby-Smith et al., 1991). The interviews, therefore, while semi-structured around questions pertaining to organizational structure, manager work, and quality issues, had a strong exploratory character. The data obtained from respondents was subjected to content analysis, and five broad categories were identified. These were:     

Position and status of the ELT unit within the organizational structure ELT manager qualifications/expertise ELT manager roles Student/client issues Staff issues. Role and Status of the ELT Unit

Within traditional management theory, structure and strategy are closely linked. The design of the structure of an organization should reflect the strategy that the organization intends to follow (Chandler, 1962). In theory, then, knowledge of the structure within which an ELT unit operates should provide some insight into the ELT unit’s place in the organization’s intended strategy. Often a key indicator is the nature of the reporting relationship between the ELT manager and his or her immediate superior. Respondents described a range of relationships. While some reported directly to the CEO of a college or a faculty head, others were subsumed within specific departments, for example, a tourism department, a communications department, or a department of language and linguistics. In one case, the ELT unit was stand-alone and the manager reported to a dedicated management board. This variance in structural approach may reflect different strategies for the ELT unit—for example, academic versus vocational—adopted by different types of tertiary institution. In some cases, however, respondents felt that there was confusion on the part of other departments about the actual role of the ELT unit. One respondent believed that ELT was not regarded as ‘‘a valid discipline,’’ and another commented that there was a lack of awareness of the nature of ELT and a perception of the unit as merely carrying out ‘‘remedial’’ work. There was also the question of whether the ELT unit was a teaching or support unit, or both. While several ELT units were formally given a service or support role for ‘‘content’’ courses in other departments, other ELT units were not, but nevertheless found themselves informally pushed into this role over time. There were other apparent misunderstandings. One institution could not appreciate the different needs of students from overseas cultures, for

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example, student reliance on individual staff members for encouragement and support. Another did not understand why language should be taught in classes smaller than ‘‘standard’’ tertiary tutorial size, and this led, in an environment of shrinking resources, to pressure to increase class sizes against the better judgment of an ELT manager. It was sometimes hard to get superiors to approve initiatives to capture new language business. As one respondent commented, ‘‘It is frustrating to have to be accountable to people who don’t understand the way we work.’’ In a few cases there was institutional resistance to the enrollment of overseas students as it was felt that they would not be able to meet the required academic standards. A respondent reported that her students were regarded as ‘‘defective,’’ despite the fact that qualified doctors and engineers were among the immigrants in her classes. However, the resistance tended to dissipate as academic departments became aware of the overseas students’ diligence in their studies and subsequent academic success. Departments which saw themselves as having a purely ‘‘intellectual’’ ethos and saw the ELT unit as having been set up largely on a commercial premise ‘‘did not want to be tainted with commercialism’’ (in the words of a respondent), despite the fact that they might indirectly benefit. As one manager commented: The problem is that we are trying to operate a business within an educational institution and that means a mixing of two different philosophies. We do make a profit but we are actually not allowed to reinvest it into the business and it goes back to [name of tertiary institution].

The general pattern of response on this issue, therefore, seemed to indicate some disparity, and perhaps confusion, surrounding the role and nature of ELT as well as questions about its status within the tertiary framework. Such views are not new and have been reported in the literature. Pennington and Xiao’s (1990) and Pennington’s (1994) survey of tertiary ESL program directors in the United States came up with similar findings, with ESL programs perceived as being of ‘‘low prestige or marginal’’ (Pennington, 1994, p. 57) and of low priority in terms of funding.

ELT Manager Qualifications/Expertise While the opportunities to obtain a business studies qualification are nowadays fairly abundant, the fact remains that large numbers of managers have no formal management qualifications. A survey, for example, of

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managers of the top 200 New Zealand companies found that only about a third had a business studies qualification, of which only a third were at tertiary level (Sagoo & Enderwick, 1995). It is still a widespread view that management is no more than common sense and that gifted persons can become skilled managers simply through their personal abilities and experience on the job (Inkson & Kolb, 1998). The situation of the respondents in this study provided an interesting variant of this view. All were highly qualified, particularly in terms of ELT, and there seemed to be a general consensus that good ELT qualifications and experience were essential to run an ELT operation. However, there appeared to be doubt in some respondents’ minds over the extent of their management skills and knowledge of management practice. The marketing role was particularly demanding; conflict was discerned between commercial and educational roles. Several respondents perceived a need for management training and/or a business qualification, while at least one was studying extramurally for a tertiary management qualification. Such sentiments have, again, already been reported in the literature. Matthies’ (1984) survey of U.S. directors of intensive English programs found that while a large majority of respondents were more than adequately qualified in the area of education, only a tiny majority had majored in management or administration. Although respondents overwhelmingly regarded management skills as the most important for the effective execution of their duties, they admitted that management was the skill area they felt least confident in. Matthies concluded that management training should be an integral part of training courses for ELT professionals. Pennington and Xiao’s (1990) and Pennington’s (1994) survey of ESL tertiary administrators in U.S. institutions came up with identical findings and conclusions.

ELT Manager Roles In an attempt to understand manager work, researchers who have studied it have over the years developed a number of different approaches towards conceptualizing it. Stewart (1982) for example perceived manager work as based on a triad of demands, constraints, and choices. Kotter (1982) classified manager work into agenda setting, implementation, and networking. Mintzberg (1973) proposed a classification into 10 roles within 3 broad interpersonal, informational, and decisional areas of work. Mintzberg’s study, in particular, emphasized the multifaceted nature of

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manager work. This notion also appears to hold true for an ELT manager’s job. From the information provided by the ELT managers in this study, it is apparent that their job involved a wide range of responsibilities, which could be classified into seven broad roles. These are (in no particular order):       

Marketer Teacher Teacher trainer/developer/coach Controller (e.g., finance, quality) Administrator/organizer Pastoral care role Liaison person

As marketers, some ELT managers reported a requirement to make overseas trips, attend educational fairs, meet with agents, and generally market their institutions. Given the importance of word-of-mouth (WOM) recommendations, particularly among Asian students in their choice of study destinations and locations (see, e.g., Soutar et al., 1994), making useful contacts on overseas trips was regarded as vital. A number of managers commented that, while they perceived marketing as one of their most important managerial responsibilities, not only was there not enough time to carry it out adequately, they did not feel they had the requisite marketing skills or—worse still—the time to acquire them. While the teacher role does not actually involve overall management responsibility, one issue related to the question of whether the ELT manager should teach or not. Some managers felt strongly that they had to keep in touch by having regular teaching duties. As one respondent put it, ‘‘I really would dislike becoming a non-practicing manager.’’ As teacher trainer, managers were largely involved in professional development activities. As controller, the ELT manager might be involved in monitoring of quality, staff performance, or finances. Several managers said they perceived responsibility for quality as being one of their key tasks. Part of the administrator role included resource allocation, that is, the allotment of budgets, acquisition and allocation of teaching materials and equipment, the organizing of courses and timetabling, and the assigning of teachers and administrative staff to specific tasks and jobs. The extent of this role, however, depended on the amount of authority the ELT manager enjoyed, which, as previously noted, could depend on structure and the reporting relationship. Several managers, for instance, reported that they

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enjoyed only limited authority to make decisions in this area. As one respondent recounted: The dean of my faculty makes decisions without consulting me, particularly in the area of management of resources. I can see where efficiencies can be made but I have little or no power to make suggestions.

A number of interviewees stressed the importance of the liaison role, which involved them in networking with a variety of professional contacts. These included other institutions—for example, to exchange information or arrange ‘‘teacher loan’’—and other ELT managers in formal or informal contact groups within national associations, as an opportunity to discuss matters of professional interest. This aspect of the manager’s roles was particularly significant, as feelings of professional isolation appeared to be common to a number of managers. Apart from the teacher role, the one role that does not seem to fit clearly into classical managerial frameworks is that which has been referred to as pastoral care. While ELT institutions generally have a homestay coordinator who might be regarded as the person particularly responsible for the welfare of students, several managers regarded this as an important aspect of their work too, one commenting that it was ‘‘a huge part’’ of her job. While no specific instances of concern were provided to the interviewer, an impression gained was that the task of ensuring the welfare and safety of young overseas students in their care was one that ELT managers took very seriously—sometimes to the point of personal anxiety on the part of the individual manager. In one case, the pastoral care role even extended to visiting the parents of students while on overseas marketing trips in order to personally update parents on student welfare and progress. Although ELT managers might be expected to be involved in planning tasks such as long-term strategy, course design, or innovative projects, the role of planner or strategist was not one that figured prominently in respondents’ reports. One respondent put this omission down to the demands of everyday administration, and her comment is one that is commonly heard from managers in other industry sectors: The operational side of my job has certainly dominated. I would really like more time to reflect, to develop strategies and to do research and other academic work.

This overview of ELT manager roles reveals the uniqueness and multifaceted nature of ELT manager work. It should, however, be borne in mind that, up to a point, while constrained by factors such as structure, managers often have some choice in the roles they play (Stewart, 1982) and

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ELT managers are no exception. More detailed research, including observational studies, would clearly help to give a more accurate picture of the nature and extent of ELT manager responsibilities.

Student/Client Issues As indicated above, concern about the welfare of students was a continuing issue for some managers, and student progress, comfort, and general happiness were also items that demanded attention. The need to monitor customer satisfaction with the quality of the service provided is a common theme in the services management literature (e.g., Gro¨nroos, 1990; Parasuraman et al., 1988), and ELT services are no different (Walker, 1999). While some ELT managers monitored student satisfaction on a very regular basis, for instance, by means of a weekly questionnaire, others preferred to survey only on the student’s departure. While the latter method may appear to be effective in terms of picking up problems, as some managers commented, it is ineffective in terms of fixing a problem for the student who has identified the issue, as the student has already gone. Since quality—particularly in service industries—is often conceptualized as what the customer perceives it to be (Fitzsimmons & Fitzsimmons, 1994), creating the perception in the student’s mind that the problem has been fixed while the student is still present in the institution would be useful, bearing in mind what has been said about the importance of WOM recommendation. Informal methods were also suggested as ways to keep up to date with student satisfaction. Some managers said they relied particularly on the perceptions, comments, and advice of their teachers regarding student emotional demeanor, attitude, and academic progress to judge whether a problem existed. Others held regular sessions with staff to update student progress and discuss concerns about individual students. In one institution, students were encouraged to write letters to management outlining their experiences with the service received. A common learning tool used by teachers is a student journal. It was pointed out that students who were too inhibited to discuss a personal problem with a member of staff were sometimes not averse to describing it in their journal. Hints or indications of difficulties expressed in journals could be taken as an early warning sign that something was wrong, and appropriate action could be taken to assist the student. Student journals therefore acted as both learning tools and devices for the ongoing informal monitoring of the student perceptions of the

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quality of the language learning experience. While some people might see an ethical problem involved in monitoring student personal writing in this way, others may feel that it is justified if the student’s own welfare is at stake. Other concerns voiced by ELT managers in relation to students were, for example, the satisfactory management of student placement at the correct language level, the monitoring of proficiency gain, problems involved in attempting to avoid a racial imbalance in individual classes, and dealing with the problems of students from a variety of cultural backgrounds. The impression gained from a number of managers’ comments was that many of the student concerns they had to deal with had as much to do with issues surrounding the student’s lifestyle as with language learning issues. One manager, for example, described what had become a familiar scenario, namely, disputes between parents and their (overseas student) children over the latter’s study and career choices. As the manager put it: ‘‘Parents [of overseas students] may have a life plan that sharply conflicts with that of the student.’’ In such a situation, the manager might be drawn into the dispute in a counseling role or even as a mediator between student and parents.

Staff Issues In talking about their interactions with their staff, ELT managers covered a number of management areas that traditionally lie within the area of human resource management, namely:  Employee recruitment and selection  Employee performance appraisal  Employee training and development. ‘‘Getting the right person’’ was regarded as an ongoing task for some of the ELT managers interviewed. While applicants for teaching posts were expected to hold traditional ELT qualifications such as a Diploma or Certificate in ELT, the point was made that personal qualities such as rapport with students, collegiality, people orientation, and cultural awareness were just as important as selection criteria. One manager gave the example of a teacher who had been appointed largely on the basis of excellent qualifications: ‘‘However, we had to let him go in the end. He just did not like the students. . . . ’’ The point of view expressed by these managers is well-known among research findings reported in the services management literature (e.g., Glynn & Barnes, 1995; Gro¨nroos, 1990; Hogan et al., 1984). While technical expertise may be important for people

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choosing to work in the service sector, personal traits centering on empathy, the ability to build rapport, and general people skills are regarded as equally important for success. Staff performance appraisal as a managerial responsibility was raised by a number of managers, but it was not seen as a particularly problematical area. While some managers negotiated a formal set of key performance indicators with their staff, others chose not to. Methods of assessment included manager-teacher interviews, manager and peer observation of teaching, self-appraisal, and student evaluation. One institution formed a special monitoring team, consisting of three or four senior faculty together with a junior faculty member, who observed every teacher in class three times a year. In another institution, the manager devolved teacher assessment entirely to faculty, who used a system of peer assessment linked into the assessment framework developed by the tertiary institution. Such practices seemed to indicate a fairly high degree of informality and workplace democracy within ELT units. The issue of professional development for teachers provided a rich vein of information. While most managers stressed the importance of professional development for both their teachers and themselves, the fact that ELT units might not share the lengthy semester breaks enjoyed by other tertiary departments meant that time was short. The situation was exacerbated by heavy teaching loads. Several institutions got around the problem by scheduling professional development sessions on a weekly basis or by closing down for several designated staff development days. A related issue was the lack of time to carry out research or to attend conferences, which might be compounded by the institution’s stance on funding, some choosing to fully or partly fund such activities but others not at all. One manager reported the difficulties she had experienced trying to convince her superiors to allow her to allocate teachers time to do research. Another pointed out that while there was enough time for staff development, her problem was that she did not have enough time to develop herself. Despite these difficulties, there seemed to be in some ELT units a serious attitude towards professional development and at least one informant reported ‘‘a steadily growing ELT research culture.’’ A point raised by several interviewees was a feeling of professional isolation from other ELT practitioners. Direct contact with peers was limited for some, particularly for the staff of institutions in the smaller centers. Conferences in areas such as ELT, language and linguistics, and cross-cultural studies were therefore regarded as something of a ‘‘life saver’’

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and not to be missed. The perceived need to keep up with new developments in ELT methodology was mentioned as a key reason for maintaining professional contact and taking the opportunity to attend as many seminars and conferences as possible. However, while there might be opportunities for ELT contacts, there appeared to be something of a vacuum in terms of managerial contacts. While some ELT managers did have the opportunity to network with their peers, others did not, or felt that the extent of their contact was not sufficient. This seemed to be an important issue for some respondents and the strong desire for interaction with other ELT managers was apparent.

CONCLUSION This chapter has outlined some key work-related issues reported by ELT managers in New Zealand tertiary institutions. While a number of significant insights have been gained, the limitations of such a study must be borne in mind. The sample was small and constraints of the interview modus meant that only a limited number of topic areas could be covered in the time available. Caution is therefore in order over the generalizability of the findings. Nevertheless, some useful data has been obtained which might serve as a catalyst for further study of the issues. Although diversity and ambiguity are well-known characteristics of virtually all manager work, this study seems to indicate that these are particularly pronounced with respect to ELT management. For one thing, tertiary ELT managers may be required to be at once linguists and researchers, language teachers, teacher trainers, school principals, academic department heads, counselors, marketers, and service managers of commercial operations. Furthermore, the nature of the tertiary ELT manager’s work context is ambiguous in a number of ways. There may be, for instance, a discrepancy between the tertiary institution’s perception and that of the ELT manager of the role and purpose of the ELT unit or department. There may exist a contradiction between the commercial and the academic or educational demands placed upon the ELT manager by the institution and the situation. There may be a disparity between the managerial skill level perceived to be required for the job of tertiary ELT manager and perceptions of the actual skills possessed by the manager.

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Such high levels of diversity and ambiguity in tertiary ELT manager work, taken together with the relative ‘‘newness’’ of the tertiary ELT manager experience and our lack of knowledge about ELT management practice, might provide one explanation for a predominant impression that arose from this study. This was that a group of well-motivated, professional managers had, paradoxically, an apparent lack of awareness of their roles as managers and were therefore uncertain as to their actual identity.

PART FOUR APPLICATIONS AND ISSUES

CHAPTER TEN SERVICE OPERATION APPLICATIONS IN ELT INTRODUCTION Service managers have a number of dedicated service models and tools at their fingertips that can assist them to more efficiently and effectively run their service operations. This chapter draws on the work of a number of services researchers to show how five service models or tools can be applied to the management of ELT operations. These are: the open-systems model, the service performance network, the service concept framework, service system blueprinting, and the walk-through audit (WTA).

APPLICATION 1: AN OPEN-SYSTEMS MODEL OF AN ELT OPERATION Manufacturing operations can choose to operate, at least partly, as a closed system. By creating scheduling systems and by setting up inventories as buffers against the vagaries of the supply chain, manufacturers can ameliorate the problems of capacity and demand. By having quality control systems or even Total Quality Management programs, they can closely monitor the quality of their products. Depending on the type, a service is less able to replicate such characteristics, because most services operate, at least to some extent, as open systems (Fitzsimmons & Fitzsimmons, 2004). ELT operations represent a good example of an open system. Specifically, the attributes of simultaneity and perishability mean that a service is open to continuous inputs from the environment and produces continuous outputs that are then ‘‘exported’’ back into the environment. Fig. 10.1 depicts a simplified chart of an ELT operation from an open-systems perspective, based on Shostack’s (1984) frontstage/back stage paradigm (discussed in more detail below). 171

STUDENT Interactions, e.g.

teaching / learning

service procedures

FRONTSTAGE OPERATIONS: Client-provider interface

ELTC PROVIDER OUTPUTS e.g., profit reputation quality satisfied students

e.g., expertise faculty & staff selection financial investment location, premises service climate

ELTC PROVIDER INPUTS

ELTC Service Operation Open System Model. Source: Adapted from Walker (1998).

MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS

FEEDBACK

e.g., language proficiency gain qualification personal achievement satisfaction

STUDENT OUTPUTS

.

Fig. 10.1.

e.g., administration, resources, computers, homestay, counseling/welfare, self-access

Management Functions e.g., service strategy, marketing, leadership, organization, quality control, performance appraisal

Support Functions

e.g., wants, needs homestay / activities program PROVIDER expectations language proficiency BACKSTAGE OPERATIONS: Management, support and set-up motivation time & money Set-up Functions e.g., PR, process student enrollment, grade placement tests

STUDENT INPUTS

WORD OF MOUTH

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The key input into the service system is the students themselves, who in this conceptualization are transformed by the service process into outputs. In some ways they represent an unpredictable, unknown quantity, as their expectations are not necessarily under the control of ELT providers—for instance, such expectations could be formed by a word-of-mouth (WOM) feedback loop. Nevertheless, the manager and institution do have the potential to influence expectations by way of marketing communications. The other feedback loop, if managers choose to utilize it, represents information from the students themselves about their perceptions of the service that can be exploited to strategic advantage. The institutions themselves provide inputs into the service operation by way of investment, time, skills, personnel, etc., and theoretically reap benefits such as profitability and reputation. Such a system makes a number of demands on the ELT operation precisely because of the relative inability to control inputs. It demands flexibility, as there may be less control over the quality, timing, frequency, and quantity of the inputs. In terms of quality, student entry proficiency levels will undoubtedly vary, and a range of classes will be needed to cater for a range of enrollments. Students will perform as co-producers of the service, thus introducing an element of uncertainty and heterogeneity. As co-producers they need to possess requisite skills and attitudes or need to be ‘‘trained’’ to co-produce effectively. The quality of the student input will influence the efficiency of the inputs the institution feeds into the system (Gro¨nroos, 2007). Unless there are contracts with overseas institutions or a well-planned enrollment schedule, ELT institutions may have to cope with unplanned student arrivals, which put unexpected pressure on the institution’s capacity. For instance, service providers may have to be flexible in terms of the tasks they are prepared to take on, and a certain amount of multi-skilling might be expected. The opposite scenario is an unexpected dearth of students and the problem of maintaining or finding ways of utilizing unused capacity in terms of teachers, administrative staff, facilities, and equipment until levels of demand re-establish themselves. Managers therefore need to be skilled in long-term capacity planning in order to cope with the highs and lows of the demand stream. Finally, an open system requires an ability to exercise quality control without the facility to intervene directly in quality. While English language teaching center (ELTC) managers can institute formal systems, for instance, to gather student feedback or audit lesson quality, the multiplicity of everyday interactions between providers and clients cannot be monitored in the same way. Thus, quality has to be built into the service operation at every level

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through ongoing activities such as professional development, projects, and quality assurance initiatives, as well as through the behaviors and attitudes of the people providing the service. Such a system requires, inter alia, services management knowledge and skills, collegial interdependence and teamwork, service orientation, and student focus—in short, a positive service climate and culture.

APPLICATION 2: THE SERVICE PROFIT CHAIN The Service Profit Chain (Heskett, Sasser, and Schlesinger, 1997) demonstrates the cause-and-effect relationship between quality service and a service firm’s performance in terms of profitability and revenue growth (Fig. 10.2). Heskett and his co-researchers attempted to establish linkages in the service delivery process through consolidating findings from their own and related studies of service organizations. Their conclusions pointed to relationships between key elements of the service process that are ultimately responsible for the success of service firms. What are these relationships and how do they apply in the world of ELT? Working in reverse order from the service outcomes, the linkages described below were identified.

Profit and Growth are Linked to Customer Loyalty Heskett et al. (1997) cited hard data showing that customer loyalty was more important than market share in a range of service industries. In other words, where services are concerned, the quality of the market share is as important as the quantity. As discussed in Chapter One, customer loyalty in the traditional sense may not apply as much in ELT operations as in many other service types since most students are unlikely to have the opportunity or the need to make use of an ELTC’s services more than once. However, students might express loyalty in other ways. For instance, they may persevere with an ELTC’s programs over an extended period of time. Students who do remain with a particular institution and are ultimately satisfied with the service they have received may express their loyalty by recommending the institution to a friend, family member, or agent, thus representing an important source of future clientele. Those who do not remain loyal may leave. There are anecdotal observations that dissatisfied or unhappy students do change English language providers or simply abandon a course halfway through. The ease with which students are able to do this

Fig. 10.2.

The Service Profit Chain. Source: Reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review. From Harvard Business Review, 72(2), Heskett, Jones, Loveman, Sasser, and Schlesinger (1994).

Service Operation Applications in ELT 175

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may depend on the terms of their contract with the provider. Not only might students that do renege on their commitment to study in the program in this way represent a loss of income for the ELTC, they might also spread negative WOM about it.

Customer Loyalty is Linked to Customer Satisfaction While Heskett et al. (1997) caution that the link between customer loyalty and customer satisfaction is not always constant, they cite specific examples of companies that have quantified customer satisfaction and have identified clear relationships to customer loyalty. In ELT, If spreading positive WOM is taken as a proxy measure of loyalty, this particular link in the Service Profit Chain is corroborated by the findings of the student satisfaction study in Chapter Five, namely, that there is a strong and positive correlation between overall levels of student satisfaction and stated willingness to recommend a particular ELTC.

Customer Satisfaction is Linked to Customer Perceived Value If customers perceive that they are getting good value from the service, they tend to be satisfied. Johnston and Clark (2008) saw value as the customer’s assessment of the service experience and service outcomes set against the costs involved. Heskett et al. (1997) similarly pointed out that central to the Service Profit Chain was the customer perceived value equation: PERCEIVED VALUE ¼ RESULTS þ PROCESS QUALITY moderated by PRICE þ CUSTOMER ACCESS COSTS (p. 40).

For an ELT client, the key result is likely to be an increase in English language proficiency levels and/or a passing grade in a standardized examination. Other intangible benefits could be happiness, satisfaction, and a feeling of achievement, as well as the establishment of friendships and acquaintances with other students and with staff. The process quality is inherent in the nature of the program that students experience and their perceptions of that quality shape their levels of satisfaction. Some ELTC programs might focus on the student experience, some may focus on the outcome, while others may emphasize both to the same extent. Both Heskett et al. (1997) and Johnston and Clark (2008) point out that financial price is only one element of the value a customer puts on a service. While price may

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be a key factor to some students in their choice of a course, to others it might take second place to other considerations such as the reputation of the program for quality, expectations of success, the location, or the program type. In the student focus groups described earlier (Chapter Four) the price or cost of ELT programs did not figure at all as an issue associated with respondent expectations and perceptions, either in terms of broad themes or specific satisfaction drivers. However, when asked the specific question in the survey, respondents rated value for money second to the bottom rank in terms of satisfaction. In addition to price, customers may have other costs in terms of accessing or acquiring a service—for instance, if a hospital visit meant a long drive, problems parking the car, difficulty locating a venue in a large complex, having to queue a long time for service, etc. However, as Heskett et al. (1997) point out, price may become unimportant when the service provider lowers the ‘‘access costs’’ for customers by making the service easier to acquire or access. An ELT provider can do this in a number of ways, for instance, through having a user-friendly website, efficient systems, competent staff, easily accessible facilities, and a convenient location. Continually informing students and communicating with them is another important method of facilitating access. Focus-group respondents (Chapter Four) criticized ELTCs for poor communication both before and during the service provision.

Customer Perceived Value is Linked to Employee Productivity In manufacturing, productivity is commonly described as the ratio between inputs and outputs, assuming constant quality of outputs. However, this formula cannot be applied to most service operations in their entirety because their open-systems nature means that the constant quality assumption does not apply. For instance, the presence of a teacher and a student in an ELT interaction immediately introduces an element of variation into the quality of the service ‘‘product.’’ While elements of the ELT service could be measured using a simple input-output ratio, for example, teacher-hour costs versus student-hour income, such a measure could not apply to the service as a whole. For this reason, other means need to be found. Gro¨nroos (2007), for instance, suggested that service productivity is a function of internal efficiency, external efficiency, and capacity utilization. Internal efficiency is what is usually meant by productivity, for instance, total input costs (e.g., salaries, rent, website, utilities) versus total revenue. External efficiency is client-perceived quality

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of the service. Capacity utilization refers to the efficient management of capacity and demand. The problem for a service like ELT is that too much emphasis on internal efficiency could however impact on external efficiency. For instance, if an ELTC paid teachers only up to the end of their allotted classroom time, a student who wished to consult a teacher after class might be rebuffed, with concomitant impacts on student satisfaction. For this reason, ELT managers need to take a balanced approach to productivity and recognize that student perceptions of service quality are a key measurement indicative of ELT service productivity.

Employee Productivity is Linked to Loyalty Employee loyalty is indicated by the rate of staff turnover, which can represent a considerable expense for businesses (De Paola & Scoppa, 2007). When long-serving staff leave, they take with them knowledge, skills, experience, and possibly also ‘‘corporate memory.’’ Recruiting, hiring, and training suitable replacements can impose a sizeable cost in terms of both money and time, but an even greater cost might be incurred in terms of loss of productivity since newly hired staff may need time to attain their full potential. In an ELT operation, the knowledge, skills, and experience of staff, in particular, the teachers, embodies the productivity and quality of the service operation. All things being equal, staff who remain loyal to an ELTC are likely to contribute to an exponential growth in service productivity and service quality. ELT managers should therefore regard staff retention as a strategic issue and employ measures to ensure that valued staff do not resign.

Employee Loyalty is Linked to Employee Satisfaction In the services satisfaction literature, much effort is devoted to the issue of customer satisfaction, but considerably less to employee satisfaction. Heskett et al. (1997) cite examples of firms where there is a demonstrable link between these two concepts: satisfied employees tend to stay, and dissatisfied employees tend to leave. The obvious task for ELT managers is to ensure that valued faculty and administrative staff are satisfied with their work situation and therefore stay on the job.

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Employee Satisfaction is Linked to Internal Quality of Work Life Heskett et al. (1997) cite a number of firms they consider to have a very positive internal quality of work life. In essence, they are referring to the service climate, in terms of issues such as the job design, employee empowerment, training and development, and rewards and recognition, as well as tangible aspects such as the servicescape, facilities, and equipment. (How service climate functions in ELT operations was covered in Chapters Three, Six, and Seven.) The Service Profit Chain therefore points to the potential for a direct link between the service value created at the heart of the service operation by managers and employees, on the one hand, and the success of the firm, on the other. The implication inherent in this model and discussed in Chapter Three is that service climate is directly linked to commercial success (Schneider et al., 2009). Heskett et al. (1997) cited implications of the Service Profit Chain for managers in terms of specific and necessary manager activities, some of which also apply to ELT services, as detailed below. Taking measures across linkages: Measures could be taken across linkages; for instance, student satisfaction could be measured in relation to staff turnover. Is there a connection? Most ELT managers will have some system for measuring student satisfaction, for example, feedback cards or surveys. But how many measure staff satisfaction? Communicating results: Managers should ensure when possible that staff are informed about the results of such measures in order to reinforce their understanding of the outcomes of the various elements of the service process they themselves are part of. Effective communication with staff and keeping them informed was ranked third in staff focus groups of eight desirable ELTC attributes (Chapter Four). In the service climate survey (Chapter Five) respondents were, on balance, satisfied with this aspect of ELTC manager work, but the detailed scores showed that there was considerable variation across individual centers: while some managers were doing a good job in this respect, others were not. Developing a balanced scorecard: This concept was popularized by Kaplan and Norton (1993). Essentially, they argued that it was one-sided to focus only on financial measures in business ventures and not to focus sufficiently on non-financial measures in operational, external, and developmental areas. Examples of such non-financial measures are innovation, customer satisfaction and retention, number of complaints, and staff satisfaction, which will each ultimately contribute to the bottom line. As Heskett et al. (1997) maintain, the Service Profit Chain is actually an example of a

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balanced scorecard applied to services (which, by their nature, the balanced scorecard is especially relevant to), but it should be adjusted to meet the needs of individual sectors and organizations. Thus, ELT managers are able to select the range of measures they consider appropriate for their particular type of operation. Designing efforts to enhance performance: Once measures have been taken, areas for improvement should be identified and an effort made to improve performance in those areas. For instance, an ELTC manager can use data from student complaints to inform and encourage staff to consider how to prevent such problems from re-occurring. Tying recognition and rewards to measures: In the service climate survey (Chapter Five), the item manager recognition of staff efforts stood out as receiving the lowest score in the manager support dimension. While respondents generally had a positive view of manager support, they felt that managers were relatively weak in terms of their ability or willingness to recognize and reward staff who were doing a good job. Heskett et al. (1997) emphasize the importance of this aspect of a service manager’s work, on the basis of results from the various measures. Encouraging internal best practice exchanges: An ELT manager can do this by providing opportunities for staff to talk about issues arising from Service Profit Chain investigations. In best-practice ELTCs, professional development sessions will be a regular occurrence. However, these will tend to focus on matters related to classroom practice and pedagogy, rather than business practice. In the staff focus groups (Chapter Four), respondents identified the willingness of managers to share commercial issues with staff as a desirable manager attribute, and in the service climate survey (Chapter Five) respondents felt that ELT managers were doing a reasonable job of keeping them informed about organizational issues. Managers might like to consider whether they are comfortable with going one step further than just informing staff, namely, initiating discussions with staff that are directly related to managerial and administrative aspects of the ELTC service operation. The obvious benefits are that not only would staff feel included and informed, they may come up with suggestions and ideas for improvement and innovation that would enhance the success of the business.

APPLICATION 3: THE SERVICE CONCEPT This section is based largely on the ideas of Clark, Johnston, and Shulver (2000). As we have seen, the service concept is a central plank of the Service Profit Chain. Johnston and Clark (2008) commented that the idea of having

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a service concept is fundamental to services operations, yet it is a notion that has not been widely researched and perhaps not widely understood. Edvardsson and Olsson (1996) described the service concept as: a detailed description of what is to be done for the customer ( ¼ what needs and wishes are to be satisfied) and how this is to be achieved ( ¼ the service offer). . . . Correspondence or agreement between customer needs and the service offer is essential (pp. 148–149).

Clark et al. (2000) went one step further and defined the service concept as: A mental picture of the service that is held by customers, employees and shareholders of the organization or ‘‘service in the mind’’. . . . [It is] a picture or statement that encapsulates the nature of the service business. . . . (pp. 72–73).

Their point was that a service may be more than just a bundle of products and encounters; in fact, it is a picture or statement that embodies the essential elements of what the service provider has to offer. A written statement of the service concept and its constituent parts is a means of ‘‘‘concretizing’ the nature of the service’’ (Goldstein, Johnston, Duffy, & Rao, 2002). It should be the starting point for the development and design of a service, since rationally, it would be impossible to set up a service operation without having a clear idea of what one’s service concept is, what its experiential elements are, and what outcomes can be expected for customers. This means that the service concept is not just an operational device, but also takes on a strategic character because it is inherent in the plan; it may even be the starting point of the plan, and it shapes all elements inherent in providing that particular service. Stages in the development of the service concept include an internal, environmental, and commercial assessment; consultations with key stakeholders, including staff and customers; market research including competitor analysis; and an internal analysis of available resources, resulting in an evaluation of the provider’s strengths and weaknesses in relation to the service concept being proposed (Edvardsson & Olsson, 1996). Particular focus should be placed on:  People, both in terms of employees (e.g., resources, input, needs) and customers (e.g., wants, needs, knowledge levels, and status as novice or experienced users);  Servicescape, in terms of, for example, facilities, equipment, location, and communication technology;  Organization, in terms of, for example, structures, processes, and supply chains;

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 Control, in terms of, for example, monitoring of quality (e.g., employee appraisal, customer feedback) and financial controls (Edvardsson & Olsson, 1996). One aspect of strategy is a decision about the target demographic(s) for the provider’s services. As previously noted, the notion of the segmented market is not a new one: research evidence now shows that particular market segments react differently to the service provision in terms of their levels of satisfaction, for instance, novice consumers of the service versus experienced consumers, and young versus elderly customers or clients (Anderson et al., 2008), as discussed in Chapter Two. Such findings corroborate those of the ESL student satisfaction study (Chapter Five), which identified similar demographic differences, for instance, in terms of nationality and age (but not gender). This implies that ELTC managers need to identify service concepts that are most highly valued by their key student market segments and combine them with other information such as cost, in order to develop an optimum service strategy (Anderson et al., 2008). A service concept has three elements: the organizing idea, a simple statement that expresses the essence of the service; the service experience for the customer, which is focused on the interaction between customer and provider; and the service outcome in terms of benefits, emotions and value (Johnston & Clark, 2008). While ELT providers appear to sell the same basic ‘‘product,’’ two ELTCs might in fact have rather different service concepts. Figs. 10.3 and 10.4 depict the service concepts of two hypothetical ELTCs. A glance through the two concepts show some commonalities but also numerous differences. LANGUAGE ADVENTURE is obviously targeted at a demographic that does not want to take language studies too seriously and may put them second after outdoor adventure experiences. This demographic does not necessarily have a plan in terms of English language proficiency. OXFORD ENGLISH, on the other hand, targets a demographic that has a specific focus: a desired specific level of proficiency and a clear plan of action. This demographic sees English not as an end in itself, but as a means to an end. Thus LANGUAGE ADVENTURE’s focus tends to be on the experience, while that of OXFORD ENGLISH tends to be on the outcome. There are obvious differences between the two providers in terms of the concept statement, the student service experience, and the student service outcome, which in turn will mean different strategies in areas such as staffing, resourcing, scheduling, teaching and learning philosophy, student

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Learn English easily through fun and adventure ORGANIZING IDEA

SERVICE CONCEPT SUMMARY

SERVICE EXPERIENCE

SERVICE OUTCOME

Fig. 10.3.

An English language teaching center that combines sport and adventure with learning English the fun way. Young, friendly instructors who know exactly what students want from an English language course.

• Small, intimate classes • Young, friendly teachers • Focus on conversation • Learn “real” English • Located in the adventure heart of NZ

• You decide how much time you want to spend in the classroom • You choose from a range of adventure sports • No pressure, pure fun • Plenty of night life • Homestay or flatting options

BENEFITS

EMOTIONS

VALUE

• Fluency boost • Make friends • Relaxing time

• Fun • Fun • Fun

• Inclusive package • Unique combinations • Inexpensive

ELTC Service Concept, Option 1. Source: Based on Johnston and Clark (2008)

welfare, accommodation, outsourcing, and even health and safety policies. While the default is likely to be one service provider offering one service concept, there is no reason why providers with greater resources cannot develop different service concepts for different demographics. Thus, the two sample ELTC service concepts could in fact be offered by one large provider, given the right circumstances and adequate resourcing. Service managers can apply the service concept as a strategic tool (Johnston & Clark, 2008). Probably its main application is to facilitate organizational alignment. A common problem in many organization types is that different functional areas may have different interpretations of the nature of the business they are in. This creates a potential for confusion and inconsistency, leading to ineffectiveness and inefficiency. The service concept in document form can be used to bring different constituencies together so that they all ‘‘pull in one direction.’’ It is possible, for example, that the disparate perceptions between faculty and administrative staff

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Service Concept for THE OXFORD ENGLISH LANGUAGE ACADEMY

ORGANIZING IDEA

SERVICE CONCEPT

Help L2 students achieve their dream of entry to an Englishmedium university.

An English language program for students that plan to study at an English-medium university with a focus on English language proficiency examination preparation.

SUMMARY

SERVICE EXPERIENCE

SERVICE OUTCOME

Fig. 10.4.

• Experienced, qualified staff • Academic English specialists • IELTS / TOEFL specialists • Academic English • Focused exam preparation • One-to-one coaching sessions

• Full 30-hour program • Weekend booster sessions • Goldstar homestay program • Academic counseling • University campus visits • Exam debrief and analysis

BENEFITS

EMOTIONS

VALUE

• Proficiency gain • Academic skills • Writing skills • Exam success • University entry

• Satisfaction • Achievement • Competency

• Targeted programs • Focused plans

ELTC Service Concept, Option 2. Source: Based on Johnston and Clark (2008)

identified in the ELTC service climate study (Chapter Seven and Chapter Eight) developed as a result of the fact that management had never conveyed an explicit service concept to the staff in these ELTCs. Staff should have a chance to articulate the basic raison d’etre of the service operation, embodied by the service concept, and to contribute to and comment on aspects of the service experience and the service outcomes for students. By the same token, managers can involve students—their clients— at the design stage in the elaboration and formulation of the service concept (Edvardsson & Olsson, 1996), thus clarifying for the wider student clientele what kind of service they are purchasing and what outcomes they can

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expect. This not only illuminates the service concept for students, it also functions as a way of managing student expectations of the service (Chapter Two). Service concepts can also assist managers contemplating design changes. The fact that a clear definition of the service exists in the service concept allows managers to compare their service with that of other providers or consider the implications of making changes to their operation. A key point is that a change to the service concept would imply concomitant changes throughout the service operation. Similarly, by considering the various elements of the service concept, the wants and needs of customers and consideration of their core competencies, managers can develop service innovations that could give them a strategic advantage over the competition. A hypothetical example could be developed for OXFORD ENGLISH. This institution’s management might consider making use of some of their current core competencies—specialist teachers, one-to-one coaching, and flexible scheduling—to write an alternative service concept aimed at a new demographic, namely, elderly immigrants. Parents of new citizens often have problems coming to grips with the language of their adopted country and may have different learning needs to those of the younger demographic—for instance, greater personal support, individual tuition, and classes scheduled at unorthodox times, such as early morning. By producing an alternative service concept for this group, the ELTC service manager not only exploits existing resources and competencies, but also creates a point of differentiation from the competition, as well as addressing supply and demand problems by smoothing actions (Fitzsimmons & Fitzsimmons, 2008).

APPLICATION 4: THE SERVICE SYSTEM BLUEPRINT Service system blueprints have been used with some success to analyze and improve service quality in such areas as financial services, banking, general practitioner services, retail services (Shostack, 1984, 1987), and health-care services (George & Gibson, 1991). This article discusses the application of service system blueprints as a quality tool to the management of ELT services, based on the work of Shostack (1984, 1985, 1987), George and Gibson (1991), and Kingman-Brundage (1992).

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The Service System Blueprint The concept of service system blueprinting was developed by Shostack (1984, 1985, 1987) in response to what she perceived as poor service quality caused by ‘‘a lack of systematic method for design and control’’ (Shostack, 1987, p. 133) of the service provision within organizations. Shostack pointed out that, compared to the design of manufacturing systems, service systems design suffers from a number of problems (Shostack, 1984), including the difficulties involved in describing and documenting processes associated with an intangible outcome and a tendency for systems to be descriptively documented rather than visualized. While Gantt and PERT (two types of flowcharts) are commonly used in systems design to enable managers to visualize processes and plot alternative courses of action, such flowcharting methods are limited where services are concerned. They do not, for example, chart the involvement of the customer in the service provision. They tend to ignore the marketing actions that support the service (Shostack, 1984). In addition, they give little indication of the structure of the organization and its significance in terms of the service process. Shostack’s solution to the problem is what she calls a service blueprint, a ‘‘tool used to depict and analyze all the processes involved in providing a service’’ (George and Gibson, 1991, p. 73.). Put simply, a service blueprint is a snapshot of a service system that comprises:  the total service system, including inputs, outputs, processes, and controls;  external relationships, such as interactions with customers and marketing actions;  interrelationships between structural elements of the service organization. Fig. 10.5 depicts the essential elements of a service system blueprint framework. Within the service process, the service activities are separated by the line of visibility. Above this line are activities seen and participated in by the customer. Below the line are activities that are generally outside the customer’s view. Activities above the line of visibility are sub-divided into two fields separated by the line of interaction: the frontstage or onstage, where the front-line service provider actions are charted, and a field for customer activities. Below the line of visibility, three separate fields are used to chart set-up, support, and management activities. Within the backstage field, frontline personnel carry out setting-up actions prior to the service provision, as well as following-up actions afterwards. The line of internal interaction separates the backstage from the actions of support personnel who contribute

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CUSTOMER Line of interaction SERVICE PROVIDER

FRONTSTAGE

Line of visibility SET-UP FUNCTIONS Line of internal interaction SUPPORT FUNCTIONS

BACKSTAGE

Line of implementation MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS

Fig. 10.5.

Service System Blueprint Matrix. Source: Based on Shostack (1984) and Kingman-Brundage (1992).

materials or services which are required in the provision of the service. Finally, the line of implementation separates support activities from management activities such as planning, controlling, and decision-making. The unique characteristic of such a visual is that, unlike a standard flowchart, the blueprint charts both process and structure. The service processes are charted on the horizontal axis, from left to right. The structure of the service organization is charted on the vertical axis. This means that lines of internal interaction can be drawn showing relationships between, for example, fornt-line providers and support staff, between internal customers and internal providers, and between various levels of providers and managers. A number of conventional symbols from flowcharting are used, for example, arrows to show the directions of the process, rectangles to indicate actions or events, and diamonds to indicate decision points. In addition, the letter W can be used to indicate a waiting point and F can be used to warn of a potential fail point in the process. The service system blueprint therefore enables both managers and service staff to see ‘‘the big picture,’’ that is, to visualize the entire service system as an integrated whole.

Creating an ELT Service System Blueprint Assuming that the system is already in place and that the blueprint is to be used in a quality assurance rather than a planning mode, a blueprint can be created by observation and analysis of work flows, interviews and focus groups of service providers, document analysis, and the use of ‘‘mystery shoppers,’’ persons whose job is to impersonate customers in order to appraise organizations’ service quality (Pires, Stanton, & Stanton, 2004). Fig. 10.6 provides an illustration of a service system blueprint of the

MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES

Line of Implementation

SUPPORT ACTIVITIES

Line of Internal Interaction

BACKSTAGE ACTIVITIES

Line of Visibility

(FRONTSTAGE)

SERVICE PROVIDER

Enroll?

MARKETING TEAM

Implement PR actions, eg place ads.

Awareness of Publicity Materials

Line of Interaction

CONSUMER

Start

No

Process student enrollment.

Confirm enrollment. Send course info.

Complete enrollment procedure.

F

Introduce to host family.

Arrive at homestay, meet host family.

F

Start language classes + activities

F

F

TEACHING TEAM

Develop and prepare courses.

Review status of programme, plan and coordinate quality activities.

Prepare financial reports.

Yes

Re-enroll?

Prepare customer satisfaction report.

Evaluate, interpret student responses.

Gather, collate student responses.

Implement programme evaluation activities.

Evaluate programme satisfaction.

Monitor expenditure.

FINANCE TEAM

Complete programme .

Implement teaching and learning activities.

Quality reports, feedback from teams

Which level? Which class?

Inform student of level/class assigned.

COURSE DEVELOPMENT TEAM

Evaluate placement test.

Implement course orientation, administer placement test.

School orientation, placement test

An ELT Service System Blueprint

Organise future programmes, allocate human, material resources.

HOMESTAY COORDINATION TEAM

Place student with host family. Monitor homestay.

Greeting & registration procedure

Arrive at venue, register.

Fig. 10.6.

Coordinate, Lead.

ADMINISTRATION TEAM

Yes No

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operations of a typical ELT service provider. The entire process which the student goes through is flowcharted above the line of visibility, from awareness of publicity materials distributed by the ELT provider, through registration, introduction to host family, placement test, English language program participation, and on to a final evaluation of the quality of the service. Note the decision points as indicated by diamonds and typical potential fail points indicated by the letter F, such as student rejection of the host family assigned or possible student disagreement with the ELT provider’s assessment of her/his language proficiency. Below the line of visibility, the management structure and the six support teams are identified, and lines of interaction running vertically indicate how the organizational structure interfaces with the backstage and frontstage activities. On the right-hand side, a feedback loop from providers to management furnishes information on student and provider perceptions of the program’s success, enabling the manager to participate in such management functions as planning, coordination, and quality control. Fig. 10.6 is intended merely as an illustration of what is possible in terms of ELT service blueprinting. ELT managers can use this illustration as guide to developing a blueprint that better fits their own ELT operation. Furthermore, this is a concept blueprint depicting a macro-level view of a possible ELT service process. From this concept blueprint it would be possible to produce a detailed blueprint of a particular segment, for example, the processes involved in the homestay coordination function. An ELT service system blueprint can have a number of useful applications for managers in the areas of planning, organizing, communication, training, and control (Kingman-Brundage, 1992).

As a Planning Tool Visualizing the service: A blueprint allows the manager to visualize the entire ELT service process from start to finish, to identify potential fail and waiting points in advance, and in general to test the viability of the process before it has been implemented. Resourcing: The ELT manager can use the blueprint to determine the likely level of resourcing required in terms of front-line teachers, support staff, materials, and equipment. The manager can also analyze how changes in resource utilization are likely to affect service delivery and outcomes (Gro¨nroos, 1990).

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As an Organizing Tool The preparation of job descriptions/employee selection criteria: The blueprint can enable the ELT manager to see exactly what service personnel do in the performance of their duties. For example, what exactly is involved in the process of student enrollment, and what skills and abilities would be expected of administrative staff in this function? The development of rational work flows: Again, the ability to see a picture of the entire service process enables the manager to manipulate processes in order to develop more logical and productive work flows. For example, how can one best organize student orientation processes? Equipment design and selection: Here the ELT manager can not only identify likely equipment required and its characteristics, but also features like frequency of use and extent of use by different personnel, such as students, of work stations, photocopiers, audiovisual equipment, and student lounge paraphernalia. Conceptualizing the visual environment of the service: Taken together with onsite scrutiny, a concept blueprint can help to give the manager a better idea of the quality and effectiveness of the visual environment of areas such as the entrance, the classroom layout, and the student lounge. The creation of tangibles: In a service sector that struggles against its own inherent intangibility, the quality and appropriateness of the ‘‘tangibles’’ created by an ELT service provider can be of key importance. Service aids such as textbooks, workbooks, brochures, forms, newsletters, certificates, and others may be instrumental in enhancing both the efficiency and the effectiveness of the ELT service and the impression of the service gained by the student. A blueprint can assist the ELT manager to determine when and where such tangibles should be utilized or to identify service gaps that could be usefully filled by tangibles. The creation of ‘‘scripts’’ for verbal interactions: Service scripts— prescribed verbal formulae for service staff to be used in their interactions with customers—are, perhaps, more likely to be associated with services such as fast-food restaurants and call centers. However, it is possible that the ELT manager may wish to develop a number of scripts for specific segments of the ELT service provision, such as in the administration, reception, or other support areas. Such scripts would be particularly useful when dealing with students whose first language is not English and might go some way towards preventing miscommunication.

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As a Communication/Training Tool Provider visualization of the overall service: Individual ELTC service providers may be focused on their particular area of the service provision and may have little opportunity to appreciate the processes of the overall service of which they are a part. For instance, teachers may be unaware of what occurs in the administration areas and vice-versa (e.g., the differences between faculty and administrative staff views of specific elements of the service climate that were discussed in Chapter Seven). This can lead to compartmentalized thinking and an inability to identify with the wider strategic goals of the organization. This ability to see ‘‘the big picture’’ is, therefore, nowadays, expected not only of managers but also of all service providers, if the organization is to realize its goals in an effective and efficient manner. A blueprint is an excellent tool for this purpose since it is relatively easy to understand. The concept blueprint can provide such an overall picture of the ELT service provision and enable staff, regardless of whether they are teachers, administrators, homestay coordinators, or host families, to see where their particular function fits in to the whole. A detailed blueprint of a service provider’s own area/function will provide a more specific picture, and ELT staff may be encouraged to develop such a blueprint themselves as a training exercise. Communication of service details: In any discussion of the details of the ELT service provision, a blueprint could be invaluable, enabling participants quickly to identify particular areas of discussion and to clarify proposals, amendments, and changes. This could be particularly useful in staff training sessions and planning meetings. Identification of student contact personnel: In larger ELT service providers, managers may not be aware of who exactly student contact personnel are or when, where, or how the contact takes place. This could lead to an inability on the part of the manager to exercise control over specific segments of the service process. A service blueprint should facilitate the identification of such contacts.

As a Control Tool Identification of gaps in service provision: This is probably one of the most important applications of a service system blueprint. Gaps refer to deficits in either process or structure indicating that key steps or elements may be missing. Gaps in the ELT service provision may be responsible for the

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creation of dissatisfaction among students, with consequent negative implications for repeat business and WOM recommendations. Such gaps might be found, for example, in the enrollment procedure or in the internal interaction between support staff and front-line providers. The use of a service system blueprint may enable identification of these gaps, and subsequent action to rectify the situation will make for a more watertight set of service processes and, it is hoped, satisfied students. Facilitation of quality control through analysis of fail points: While potential fail points can be determined during the planning process, monitoring and feedback data from providers and students should give the manager some indication of any actual fail points within the ELT service provision. A visual appreciation of these fail points and their environment within the context of a service blueprint will better enable the manager to analyze causes and develop solutions. Development of monitoring/feedback systems: One of the basic problems a manager has in exercising the control function is knowing what exactly to monitor. By virtue of its visual nature, a service system blueprint allows the ELT manager to gain a clearer picture of the entire service process and to decide which parts of it he/she wishes to devote particular attention to in terms of control activities and which parts he/ she desires feedback from. Staff appraisal: A service system blueprint can enable an ELT manager to be aware of exactly what staff do. A blueprint can also assist in goal-setting with the employee, as well as ascertaining whether goals have been achieved or not. The service system blueprint is, therefore, a tried and tested quality tool, the main benefit of which is its capacity to allow managers and service providers to visualize an entire service process and its integrated structure. It can thus provide ELT managers with a shortcut to key information about the ELT service process, simplify an otherwise complex set of concepts, and render visible that which was previously hidden. ELT managers will find that merely going through the process of developing a service system blueprint will provide them with a number of useful insights into improving the quality, productivity, and effectiveness of their own ELT operation.

APPLICATION 5: THE WALK-THROUGH AUDIT A WTA is an appraisal of a service operation undertaken to evaluate and improve the service. The auditor experiences the entire service process and

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uses a checklist or questionnaire to guide her or his assessment. A WTA is first and foremost a diagnostic tool for evaluating service performance, as well as for measuring customer satisfaction with the service, thus it is actually a control measure. According to Fitzsimmons and Fitzsimmons (2004), ‘‘The WTA is focused on the details of the service delivery process in an effort to uncover actionable items for improvement’’ (p. 432). Commonly used to audit services such as hotels, restaurants, and retail outlets, WTA has also been used in various formats to audit infection in hospitals (Bryce, Copes, Gamage, Lockhart, & Yassi, 2008), analyze the service experience in theatrical and performing arts (Hume, Mort, Liesch, & Winzar, 2006), and audit the e-learning experience (Jayasundara, 2009). An extension of the WTA, service transaction analysis or customer experience analysis, which incorporates service messages and customer emotions, was developed by Johnston (1999). It should be emphasized that a WTA is not necessarily the same as a traditional satisfaction survey. The latter is normally carried out retrospectively in a location that might be different from the service venue; for instance, it could be an online survey completed some time after customer experience of the service occurs. Thus, depending on time and place, a satisfaction survey could depend on memory recall on the part of the respondent. A WTA, by contrast, is normally performed in real time at the service venue. The auditor ‘‘walks through’’ the service operation from start to finish, which usually entails a series of encounters and experiences in different locations within the facility, at the same time recording impressions of service quality on a customized audit form. In other words, the WTA is a record of what one sees, hears, and experiences, rather than what one remembers. The respondent in a customer satisfaction survey can only be a customer who has experienced the service, while a WTA could be performed either by a customer, a surrogate customer (or mystery shopper), a professional auditor, or a member of staff of the firm being audited. However, a disadvantage of involving staff is that they are over-familiar with the service venue and operation, and thus they are unable to perceive subtle deterioration in the quality of the servicescape, the milieu, and the service quality. Fitzsimmons and Fitzsimmons (2004) recount how a major museum arranged for their staff, management, and customers to carry out the same WTA. The findings showed perception gaps on the various points of quality, not only between staff and management on the one hand and customers on the other, but also between management and staff. Such an exercise is similar to the one described in Chapter Eight, where ELTC staff estimated student satisfaction levels. Findings from such exercises are likely

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Table 10.1.

Sample Walk-Through Audit for an English Language Teaching Center. Strongly Agree Neither Disagree Agree Agree nor Disagree

1. Arriving 01. Car parking is easy. 02. The building is conveniently located. 03. The English language teaching center is well-signposted. 04. The entrance is welcoming. 2. Reception 05. The staff member at reception gives me a pleasant greeting. 06. The staff member is able to provide the necessary assistance. 07. I do not have to wait long for service. 08. There are guidebooks and leaflets available. 3. Atmosphere and decor 09. There is a friendly atmosphere here. 10. There is a professional ambience here. 11. The premises are nicely decorated. 12. The furnishings are of a high standard. 13. The lighting is of a high standard. 14. There is a high standard of comfort here. 4. Student Lounge 15. The furniture (tables, chairs) is of a high standard. 16. The cooking facilities are of a high standard. 17. The crockery and cutlery are of a high standard. 18. Appliances (e.g., refrigerator, microwave) are of a high standard. 19. There is a high standard of comfort. 20. There is a high standard of cleanliness.

Strongly Disagree

5 5 5

4 4 4

3 3 3

2 2 2

1 1 1

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

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2

1

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

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Table 10.1. (Continued ) Strongly Agree Neither Disagree Agree Agree nor Disagree 5. Classrooms 21. The furniture (tables, chairs) is of a high standard. 22. The classrooms are spacious. 23. The classrooms are comfortable. 24. The classrooms are well-equipped. 25. The temperature is at a comfortable level. 26. There is a high standard of cleanliness. 6. Rest rooms 27. Rest rooms are conveniently located. 28. There is a high standard of cleanliness. 29. The rest rooms are well-equipped (e.g., toilet paper, soap, towels). 7. Faculty 30. The teachers are helpful. 31. The teachers are friendly. 32. The teachers are professional. 33. The teachers communicate effectively with me. 34. The teachers support me in my aims. 35. It is easy to access a teacher outside normal class hours. 8. Administrative staff 36. The administrative staff are helpful. 37. The administrative staff are friendly. 38. The administrative staff communicate effectively with me. 39. The administrative staff are able to help me with the information I need. 40. The administrative staff get things done efficiently. 41. It is easy to find a staff member when I need help with something. 42. It is easy to access the manager when I need help with something.

Strongly Disagree

5

4

3

2

1

5 5 5 5

4 4 4 4

3 3 3 3

2 2 2 2

1 1 1 1

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

5 5 5 5

4 4 4 4

3 3 3 3

2 2 2 2

1 1 1 1

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

5 5 5

4 4 4

3 3 3

2 2 2

1 1 1

5

4

3

2

1

5

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1

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Table 10.1. (Continued ) Strongly Agree Neither Disagree Agree Agree nor Disagree 9. Overall impression 43. This English language teaching center is an effective venue for language learning. 44. This English language teaching center makes me feel relaxed and at ease. 45. I would recommend this English language teaching center to a friend.

Strongly Disagree

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

5

4

3

2

1

10. Further Comments We would appreciate any further comments you care to make about the English language teaching center, or your suggestions for improving our service. Please write your comments in the space below.

to represent a ‘‘wake-up call’’ for both management and staff about the true nature of their customers’ view of the service operation. A WTA can be designed on the basis of a Likert scale (see Chapter Eleven), but multiple choice options, lists, or open-ended questions can be used in some instances. The items are grouped to follow the chronological and spatial order of the service experiences, as far as this is possible. So a typical WTA might start in the car park of the organization, proceed to reception, and then progress to various parts of the facility and different encounters, depending on the nature of the service. A sample WTA for an ELTC is presented in Table 10.1. This is merely a depiction of what is possible; ELTC managers should design WTAs that are relevant to their particular service operation.

CONCLUSION This chapter has introduced five common tools or models that can be used to assist ELT service managers to both conceptualize their service operations and make practical improvements. Such tools are also useful for ELT service managers who wish to introduce services concepts to their

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faculty and staff as a means of facilitating increased comprehension of the systems, procedures, and structures, as well as the sorts of attitudes and behaviors that are likely to lead to effective service provision to their students. These five items represent only a small portion of what is available; further tools, models, and concepts can be found in good services management textbooks.

CHAPTER ELEVEN RESEARCHING ELT MANAGEMENT INTRODUCTION There is a dearth of published research into aspects of the management of English language programs for non-native speakers, and even less in the way of empirical research, that is, research that gathers data, analyzes it, and presents findings based on the analysis. The following sections take prospective researchers through the basic research process with respect to issues and problems of researching in the ELT context, and suggest potential areas of research interest (see also Fig. 11.1).

FINDING A RESEARCH TOPIC The first task for the aspiring ELT management researcher is to decide on a topic, issue, or specific area to investigate. Intuitively, a researcher will select a topic that is of particular personal or professional interest and that may be closely related to some aspect of the researcher’s role, position, or past experience. Some suggested areas of investigation in ELT management are provided at the end of this chapter. Once an area has suggested itself, the researcher should gain an understanding of the issues, including the theoretical framework and the key concepts. Normally, this would be done through an examination of the relevant literature, both past and current, and/or consultation with experts.

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IDENTIFY A RESEARCH TOPIC

GAIN AN UNDERSTANDING OF THE ISSUES

CHOOSE OVERALL APPROACH

DECIDE ON RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

COLLECT DATA

ANALYSE DATA

PRESENT FINDINGS

Fig. 11.1.

Areas of concern, importance, personal interest

Examine literature. Examine general theoretical framework. Evaluate theories.

Qualitative or Quantitative

e.g., Research questions Sample nature & size Data collection Data analysis

e.g., Focus groups Interview Online survey

e.g., Content analysis Analysis of variance

e.g., Conference paper Journal article

The Research Process

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CHOOSING AN APPROACH Once clarity has been achieved in terms of the theoretical and conceptual context, the researcher has to decide which general approach to use, that is, either qualitative or quantitative methodology, or both. The Qualitative Approach Qualitative research derives from phenomenology, the study of human experience, particularly as viewed without pre-judgment or prior assumption (Husserl, 1928). It focuses on the perspective of the research subject and attempts to understand behavior in organizations by familiarization with the people involved and their perceptions, values, rituals, symbols, beliefs, and emotions (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 1996). It is an interpretative approach (Weber, 1922) that focuses on humans, their relationship with the world (Heidegger, 1927), and their attempts to interpret and make sense of reality. The theoretical framework derives directly from the qualitative data which is obtained in a specific context and which is characterized by ‘‘thick,’’ or detailed, description. There is usually a close relationship between the researcher and the subjects (Holloway, 1997). Qualitative research may lack control, be time- and resource-consuming, and be difficult in terms of interpretation of the data, but it is regarded as a natural approach, providing insight into people’s meanings and perceptions and leading to new theories (Easterby-Smith et al., 1991). Examples of typical qualitative research methods include the use of focus groups, interviews, and case studies. The Quantitative Approach The quantitative approach is based on the scientific method that traditionally tests and verifies or refutes hypotheses. It is concerned with the observer’s rather than the research subject’s perception and involves research based on a framework imposed by the researcher (Holloway, 1997). It emphasizes directly and physically observable phenomena, under the assumption that cause-effect relationships must be logically analyzed, as well as the use of quantitative methods. Quantitative research is thus a form of positivism, that is, the belief that the world should be measured objectively rather than subjectively and that descriptions of worldly phenomena can be reduced to observable facts and the mathematical relationships between them (Coolican, 1994; Easterby-Smith et al., 1991).

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Criticism of quantitative methodology (e.g., Sapsford & Abbott, 1996) cites its artificiality, its lack of in-depth understanding of people’s lives, the use of surveys based on decontextualized variables that do not reflect the complexity of the real world, and its inability to generate new theory. On the other hand, quantitative methodology can reach larger populations with relative speed and economy, with data being subjected to statistical analysis. With its greater control and methodological rigor, increased objectivity, validity, reliability, and replicability of findings (Coolican, 1994) can be claimed. A classical example of a quantitative research design is one that is based on surveys using rating scales and large numbers of respondents. Qualitative and quantitative approaches can be regarded as complementary rather than contradictory and many researchers employ both in an attempt to exploit their differential strengths. The use of such a combination is beneficial since it tends to enhance the research design (Krueger, 1994) and provides more perspectives on the phenomena being studied, particularly when research is being carried out within organizations and with managers (Easterby-Smith et al., 1991). Such a combination was used in both the student satisfaction and service climate studies reported in Chapters Four, Five, Six, and Seven.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS The entire research design is underpinned by the research questions. These express exactly what the research goals are, and they should be formulated in such a way that they are as clear and as specific as possible. For instance, the research described in the earlier chapters used two basic research questions, namely: What kind of service climate do staff perceive exists in New Zealand ELTCs? How satisfied are students with the service provided by New Zealand ELTCs? Note that these questions are rendered specific because they are delimited in terms of three groups of information answering the questions WHAT?, WHO?, and WHERE? WHAT? WHO? WHERE?

The core piece of information being sought in the research The people who are going to provide the information to the researcher The country, region, city, institution, and/or area of study

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Note how other parts of the formulation provide further specifics about the research topic. For instance, in the first question, the word perceive makes clear that the research is not concerned with service climate from an objective standpoint, but from the point of view of a specific group, namely, how they perceive the service climate, which indicates a subjective view. Research goals can also be expressed in terms of hypotheses, which are then proved or disproved by the research findings. Regardless of the way the research goal is expressed, a clear formulation is important.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY There are many research methodology options. Probably the most common ones and the ones most likely to be used by ELT management researchers, are, for qualitative research, focus groups or interviews, and for quantitative research, survey questionnaires using rating scales. This section looks at focus groups and survey questionnaires.

Qualitative Research: Focus Groups Focus groups are recommended for their ability to quickly convey the consumer experience to business managers, the unique nature of the information gathered, and the expanded knowledge available from them (Vaughn et al., 1996). A focus group has been defined (Krueger, 1994) as: a carefully planned discussion designed to obtain perceptions on a defined area of interest in a permissive, nonthreatening environment. It is conducted with approximately seven to ten people by a skilled interviewer. The discussion is comfortable and often enjoyable for participants as they share their ideas and perceptions. Group members influence each other by responding to ideas and comments in the discussion (p. 6).

Focus groups have four basic features:    

A number of respondents participate simultaneously; The respondents interact; There is a facilitator present; There is a discussion outline (Greenbaum, 1988).

Focus groups can be used to obtain data about new topics; to generate new hypotheses; to explain attitudes, beliefs, and experiences within a specific population; to explain unexpected results; to evaluate instruments

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and programs; or to assess the effects of group interaction on a particular topic (Seal, Bogart, & Erhardt, 1998). There are a number of advantages in using focus groups as a research methodology (Frey & Fontana, 1991). They:     

can harness the potential of group dynamics to uncover new data; are less costly and more efficient than individual interviews; bring the researcher closer to more respondents; are flexible, for example, allowing the researcher to probe; provide further insight through nonverbal actions of participants.

Focus-group methodology can therefore increase the researcher’s understanding of the depth and variation of the context, can identify previously unknown language or symbolism, and can help test hypotheses. There are, however, also some limitations (Frey & Fontana, 1991) inherent in focus groups:  A relatively high facilitation skill level is required;  There may be practical problems, for example, location, group composition, and access;  There may be group process problems, for example, responses affected by group size, pressure to conform, interpersonal conflict, and production of irrelevant data;  There is a potential lack of generalizability of data to a wider population. Focus groups are particularly appropriate when     

There is a power differential between participants and decision makers; There is a gap between professionals and their target audience; Investigating complex behavior and motivations; There is a need to learn more about a degree of consensus on a topic; A friendly research method is needed that is respectful and uncondescending.

(Morgan & Krueger, 1993) Each of these scenarios pertained at least to some extent in the focusgroup studies described in Chapters Four and Six. For example, the participants were employees or students, while the decision makers were either the ELTC managers or, in some cases, the parents or families of the students. The focus-group discussion allowed people not normally consulted to express their perspectives on the issues. Two common questions often asked about focus-group interviews are how many groups are required and how many participants a group should

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have. These questions need to be set against the context of the study in terms of the size of the sample, the population, and other relevant issues. Krueger (1994) suggested that the researcher should continue to run groups until theoretical saturation occurs, that is, until little new information is provided. He recommended that the researcher evaluate the situation after the third group and go on to a fourth group only if the third has thrown up new insights. Alreck and Settle (1995) did not specify a number but made the point that one group interview might be enough if the group is representative of a homogeneous population. If not, several groups may be required to ensure a representative sample. More groups might also be needed if nationwide coverage is wanted (Krueger, 1994) or several groups depending on the differentiating characteristics of each group (Knodel, 1993). Three to five groups are therefore probably the target the researcher should be aiming at, as was the practice here. Focus groups conventionally consist of between 6 and 12 participants (Alreck & Settle, 1995; Babbie, 1998; Krueger, 1994). Numbers above 12 are not recommended because of the limitations on individual participation. Also, there is a trend towards mini-focus groups of four to six participants because of recruitment, hosting, and comfort issues involved in organizing these groups (Krueger, 1994), as well as the fact that the larger the group, the less likely it is that everyone will participate equally. Since it is unlikely that all those invited will actually show on the designated day of the group meeting, a good strategy is therefore to invite a few more people than are actually expected. Several researchers have examined the use of focus groups made up of English language students (Anderson, 1996; Brogan, 1990; Day, 1995; Fowle, 1999). Such groups represent a particular dilemma for researchers. Due to the distinctive characteristics of such groups, consideration has to be given to adapting what might be considered conventional focus-group procedure to suit the specialized ESL context, particularly in terms of the issue of language proficiency. If participants do not possess an appropriate level of fluency, it is unlikely that the researcher is going to obtain data of any value. If, in order to circumvent this problem, the researcher invites only participants who are proficient enough in English to express their views, there is a risk that the data collected will lack validity, as it may not represent the views of the population as a whole. A major assistance for the participants in such cases would be to let them have a copy of the questions before the focus-group discussion. This method was used with the student focus groups described in Chapter Four and was found to be very effective. It has been applied by a number of other researchers with the same predicament in regard to English language students as focus-group members

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(e.g., Anderson, 1996). Not only does it facilitate the participants’ comprehension of the questions and the concepts and allow them time to reflect on the issues in preparation for the session, it also assists their mental preparation for a group discussion in a foreign language and increases their confidence in speaking out on the topics in question. Alternatively, when inadequate participant proficiency in the first language of the researcher(s) is identified as an issue, a facilitator can be selected from the same ethnic or cultural group as the participants, and the discussions can be conducted in the first language of the participants. Unfortunately, this works only if all students in the group have a common mother tongue, such as the research conducted by Tang (2008). In addition to language difficulties, cultural norms and response styles can also present a barrier to the researcher. As previously noted, students from particular cultures are likely to suspend critical judgment as a politeness response if the objects of the survey are the ELTC and its faculty and administrative staff, whom they may regard as hosts or respected persons. Furthermore, in certain Asian cultures, females may be reluctant to speak out when males are present. Tang (2008) arranged his focus groups according to student ability level, even though Cantonese was the common language used, because he suspected less able students would be reluctant to speak openly in front of the top students in the class. This researcher’s experience with mixed focus groups was that European students were far more willing to express opinions than Asian students, and this may have had something to do with language proficiency as well as culture. If both issues are suspected to be present, this might be a reason to consider separate focus groups for students from different ethnic, national, or cultural groups. A further issue is the role of the researcher vis-a`-vis the students. If the researcher is a member of the administrative staff or faculty in the center where the students are enrolled, participants may be uncomfortable speaking out, especially if there is implied criticism of the service operation. In such cases, the use of a neutral facilitator is indicated, and the status of the facilitator needs to be made clear to participants at the outset.

Quantitative Research: Survey Questionnaire Formats and length: A key question for the ELT researcher is which scale to use. There are various scale formats for survey questionnaires that are explained in any good text on quantitative research. One of the most likely to be used by the ELT management researcher is the Likert scale, which is a

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cognitive, summated-rating scale based on a bipolar continuum with positive and negative ends. Respondents choose between response categories that purport to measure both direction (by agree/disagree) and intensity (by strongly or not) of their attitude towards the survey items. Each item is assigned a score, and the respondent’s attitude can then be measured by calculating a total score (Albaum, 1997; Hayes, 1998; Moser & Kalton, 1971; Sproull, 1995). Samples of the Likert scales used in the studies described in Chapters Five and Seven can be viewed in Appendix 1 and Appendix 2. There remains controversy over whether a Likert scale is an interval or ordinal scale. An interval level of measurement assumes an equal distance between scale values. An ordinal level of measurement arranges values according to their magnitudes, but the scale has no absolute zero point and the distances between values are not necessarily equal (Sproull, 1995; Zikmund, 1997). Although purists argue that Likert scales are actually ordinal scales (Coolican, 1994; Sproull, 1995), they have been found to convey interval characteristics to respondents (Madsen, 1989; Schertzer & Kernan, 1985). Furthermore, Likert scales are widely regarded as interval scales in the management, marketing, psychology, and social sciences literature. Another question is how long a questionnaire should be. The common view is that questionnaires should be brief, but the more specialized the population and the more relevant the topic is to the respondents, the longer questionnaires can be and the less important length becomes (de Vaus, 2002). Dillman (2000) found that for general surveys mailed to the public, the optimal length was around 125 items or 12 pages, at which point an increase in length led to a drop in response rates. In the surveys reported here, the maximum number of items was 82. Validity and reliability: When using rating scales, ELT management researchers have to take into account the two key issues of validity and reliability. Validity is the degree to which an instrument does indeed measure what it is supposed to measure. Validity is the most important aspect of a measure since an instrument is useless if it does not measure what it is supposed to measure (Sproull, 1995). Probably the two most common types are construct validity and content validity. Construct validity relates the questionnaire to the general theoretical framework (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 1996, p. 170) by ensuring that the constructs used have a sound basis in theory. For instance, the items in the questionnaires used here (Chapters Five and Seven) were based on the theory underpinning the constructs satisfaction and service climate and, specifically, satisfaction measurement and climate measurement. The construct validity of an instrument can be further verified by statistical procedures such as factor

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analysis (Coolican, 1994). Content validity determines the extent to which the questionnaire items adequately represent the domains and issues under study (Cooper & Schindler, 1998, p. 167). Monitoring the validity of a questionnaire involves examining the items to ensure relevance and inclusiveness and drawing on the judgment of people familiar with the field. The process therefore includes an initial investigation of the literature, qualitative methods such as focus groups, interviewing experts, and the piloting of questionnaires with sample respondent groups—all of which were carried out in the studies reported here. External reliability refers to the degree of consistency demonstrated by a measuring instrument over time, thus producing the same results on different occasions (Coolican, 1994). Should the research be replicated, it would be important to obtain consistent results, allowing the generalizability of the findings beyond the original study (Searle, 1999). An instrument’s reliability can be checked by carrying out a test-retest with the same sample at a later date, and by calculating the correlations between the scores. Unfortunately, there are practical, contextual, and psychological problems in doing this, and findings may not always be valid (Bryman & Cramer, 2001; de Vaus, 2002). The internal reliability or internal consistency of an instrument refers to ‘‘the degree to which the items that make up the [instrument’s] scale are all measuring the same underlying attribute’’ (Pallant, 2001, p. 6). A measured variable is likely to contain chance fluctuations in measurement known as random error. Any individual score on a measure will consist of both random error and the true score. Reliability is the proportion that reflects the true score. A measure of internal consistency therefore checks to see whether the score for the items on a scale correlate with each other and thus actually measure the true score rather than random error (Stangor, 1998). There are several possible methods of computing the internal consistency but the most common is Cronbach’s Coefficient Alpha for non-dichotomous responses (Cronbach, 1951). This provides an estimate of the average correlation among all of the items on the scale. ‘‘Because it reflects the underlying correlational structure of the scale, Coefficient Alpha ranges from a ¼ 0.00, indicating that the measure is entirely in error, to a ¼ 1.00, indicating that the measure has no error’’ (Stangor, 1998, p. 85). As a rule, Alpha should be at least 0.7 before the scale can be adjudged reliable. Coefficient Alpha can be easily checked using an SPSS or similar computer package. Coefficient Alpha was used to check internal consistency in both the quantitative investigations described here. Translating questionnaires: Designing questionnaires for English language students poses a similar dilemma for the ELT management researcher as the

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focus-group language issue. The use of English-only questionnaires is a common weakness of internally developed feedback questionnaires used by ELTCs. Inaccurate comprehension of questionnaire instructions and items could seriously limit the usefulness of the questionnaire and invite criticism of a lack of content validity. As with focus groups, if the researcher tries to skirt the problem by including only students with good English proficiency in the sample, the risk is that the sample is unrepresentative, and the findings may again be said to lack validity. To secure content validity, therefore, the questionnaire would ideally have to be translated into the first languages of the respondents. While an attempt to cover all of the first languages of students would be impractical, translation of the material into the languages of the majority of the population in question would at least be a step in the right direction. This course of action was taken for the questionnaire designed for the student satisfaction survey reported here (Chapter Five). An analysis of the most current student demographic data available from government sources revealed that around 83% of the student population belonged to only four language groups. By translating the questionnaire into only these four languages, 83% of the total student population at the time would have no problems understanding the content. Assuming a representative sample, 83% of students surveyed should, likewise, have no comprehension issues. The reliance of the remaining 17% of respondents on the English version of the questionnaire, it could be argued, was a limitation of the research. However, in reality, this did not appear to be a major issue either during the pre-testing sessions or during the actual survey. Researchers who choose to conduct online surveys with students may have the option of uploading to the survey website a translated version of the questionnaire, which students can access by way of a drop-down menu. Other issues influencing validity: Peterson and Wilson (1992) suggested a number of issues that can affect validity in satisfaction surveys, some of which could apply in most types of survey in ELT contexts. A form of data collection mode bias can operate, that is, the level of satisfaction or agreement expressed might depend on the type of data collection procedure used. If ELTCs collect student feedback data in class with a member of staff supervising, a perceived lack of anonymity can lead respondents to avoid making negative comments, a scenario which was confirmed by some of the student focus-group participants in the study reported in Chapter Four. The question form could influence the response. For instance, use of a positive form of words (e.g., satisfied) could result in greater reported satisfaction than a negative form (e.g., dissatisfied). The response style issue is particularly relevant in a cultural sense since ESL students from particular

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cultures might suspend critical judgment as a politeness response towards the people they are supposed to be assessing. As previously noted, customer service evaluations and satisfaction levels can vary across cultures and nationalities. Such variation is also likely to be found in a culturally and nationally diverse ELTC clientele and was identified in the research findings reported here (Chapter Five). A cross-cultural factor may also operate in terms of the type of scale used. For instance, there is some evidence (Si & Cullen, 1998) that when agree/disagree-type Likert scales are used, Asian respondents are far more likely than their Western counterparts to use a midpoint option if it is offered to them, leading to considerable differences in mean scores on the same instrument.

OBTAINING A SAMPLE Sampling involves selecting sub-groups from a population to represent that population for research purposes (Cooper & Emory, 1995). The sample can be chosen from a sampling frame, if one exists. This is a ‘‘list or other representation of the elements in a population from which the sample is selected’’ (Sproull, 1995, p. 110). For example, the 30 English language teaching centers (ELTCs) used in the investigations reported here were selected from a list of all ELTCs on a government website. Because individual centers were unwilling to release lists of students and no actual list existed nationally, there was no student sampling frame. A random sample is one that ensures that each sampling unit has an equal chance of being selected. Such a sampling method is preferred as being representative of the population and therefore more likely to lead to credible findings (de Vaus, 2002; Sproull, 1995). In practical terms this involves, for example, the selection of units of the population according to some random process, such as the use of a table of random digits (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 1996) or a random number generator from an internet source. In the case of the studies reported here, there was no access to a sampling frame of students and staff; therefore, random samples of the actual populations could not be created. This is a common problem for researchers and is often the reason why they are obliged to use a convenience sample instead. While random sampling tends to be used in quantitative studies, qualitative research methods such as focus groups normally select participants based on predetermined criteria related to the extent to which participants are homogeneous and are able to contribute to a successful focus group. The principle of homogeneity is a basic premise of focus-group

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research methodology since it helps create an environment conducive to productive discussion, and it is easier for the researcher to segregate specific opinions if the participants represent a discrete segment (Greenbaum, 1988). This kind of sampling is referred to as purposive sampling (Vaughn et al., 1996). Purposive sampling is non-random, potentially biased, and can lead to large sampling errors (Sproull, 1995). However, in using purposive sampling, researchers are less interested in generalizability than in the collection of rich data and the ideas of the members of the chosen sample (Holloway, 1997). Researchers choose a group or a number of individuals in whom they have an interest. They may be the members of a culture or a community who have knowledge of the setting or phenomenon under study. These key informants have had experience of an event or condition and are informed about the culture or topic under investigation (Holloway, 1997, p. 142). Thus, in the qualitative studies reported here, the purposive samples were two groups of key informants—ESL students and ELTC staff-drawn from two populations within the New Zealand ELT community. It is important that the samples be clearly defined. In the service climate studies presented here, the population was defined as non-management staff currently employed in English language teaching centers in New Zealand. This included both teaching and non-teaching staff. Managers were excluded since the focus of service climate research was on employee, not management, perceptions of service climate. The second population was defined as students currently enrolled in ELT courses at New Zealand English language teaching centers.

DATA COLLECTION Gaining Entry to Organizations Gaining entry to organizations and permission to access research participants to carry out research is a well-known problem for the field researcher. This is particularly the case for ELT researchers when ELTC managers function as gatekeepers (Holloway, 1997). Unless there are separate means of contacting potential participants, for example, via websites, staff professional organizations, or student organizations, access through the manager of an institution may be the only way of obtaining a sample for research purposes. Obtaining gatekeeper permission to enter the field site may involve protracted negotiation and bargaining, and according to Neuman (1994), it is ethically and politically astute to meet personally

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with gatekeepers to gain approval for the research since gaining entry is ‘‘more analogous to peeling the layers of an onion than opening a door’’ (p. 393), requiring increasing levels of trust commensurate with the depth and/or variety of access required. Easterby-Smith et al. (1991) made a valid point when they wrote: Gatekeepers will rarely provide a researcher with access purely for the love of science and knowledge. . . . Unless one can make use of networks or unless the research is clearly felt to be in the interests of the gatekeeper, the chances are that he will not be prepared to commit that most valuable resource: his time. (p. 54)

If possible, therefore, ELT management researchers would be wise to invest time in both earning the trust of ELTC managers and reassuring them that any research conducted on their premises will have a professional and an ethical basis. They should find some way to compensate the ELTC authorities for their cooperation, assistance, and time. For example, depending on the research design and purpose, as well as ethical matters, researchers might be able to prepare an individual report for the ELTC based on the research findings, or they might offer to run a professional development session of the ELTC staff based on the research findings or other relevant topics.

Ensuring Participation Nothing is worse for a researcher than putting time, effort, and money into arranging focus-group sessions with research participants and having an insufficient number of people turn up. How can the ELT researcher ensure that those people who have accepted an invitation to a focus group actually show up? As previously discussed, a ground rule is to invite more people than one needs. In addition to the original invitation, this researcher sent a personal letter timed to arrive approximately five days before the scheduled session to remind participants about the research as well as the timing and location. This opening of direct personal contact with each potential participant prior to the focus group aims to create in the mind of each one a psychological commitment to the researcher and to the research project. In addition to such techniques, researchers sometimes have to offer potential research participants an incentive to participate. This is particularly the case with focus groups and other research designs that take up sizeable amounts of participant time or that inconvenience them in some way. However, the question of providing participants cash or equivalent incentives is a

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controversial one because it might encourage favorable attitudes towards issues and attract unqualified people who are only interested in the money (Alreck & Settle, 1995). It may therefore be frowned upon by ethics committees who authorize research projects. However, it is not uncommon for researchers to pay and even to advertise in the press for research participants. There is support in the literature for the use of monetary incentives to compensate participants for their time and effort, but a level and type of compensation should be chosen that is commensurate with the task, in terms of the availability of the participants and the effort expected from them (Alreck & Settle, 1995; Krueger, 1994). Krueger (1994) commented that in practice it would be virtually impossible to conduct focus groups without attention to incentives, citing a study which found that 66% of focus-group participants saw monetary compensation as the main motivator. With respect to the qualitative research reported here, the researcher offered a cash incentive to participants of both sets of focus groups sufficient to compensate them for their time and travel. Taken together with the other measures, these methods had positive results. With only one exception, the minimum of six participants per group was achieved. Out of all those invited, only two did not show, and in both cases illness was the reason. Several participants made positive comments about being compensated for giving up their time. The participants appeared motivated to participate actively, and group sessions took on a positive, ‘‘working’’ character, resulting in a rich vein of data being obtained. These outcomes appeared to support the decision to recompense the participants in this way. Apart from situations where it is clearly fair to recompense research participants for their time or traveling costs, ideally the best incentive might be a worthwhile research project which people are interested in participating in for its own sake.

Collecting the Data: Focus Groups As previously stated, setting up and running data collection procedures for qualitative research can be a time-consuming process. Part of the time involved relates to the actual work of collecting the data. In focus groups, skilled facilitation by the ELT management researcher or other facilitator is required, particularly in view of the cross-cultural context. The facilitator needs to know how to put participants at their ease, which questions to ask, when to speak and when to stay silent, how to encourage participants to participate, and how to prevent the discussion being hijacked and ensuring

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that it stays on track. Starting and finishing on time, attending to participant physical comfort, and ensuring they have access to refreshments are further requirements for successful focus groups. A disappointing outcome for the researcher would be a focus group that has taken much time, effort, and perhaps money to organize, but which does not actually generate much useful data. An important part of acquiring the data is to ensure that it is recorded in some way. A good tape recorder or digital recording device is therefore essential to ensure that the entire discussion is captured and can be later transcribed in preparation for the next stage, content analysis.

Collecting the Data: Surveys A basic problem for researchers conducting quantitative research is to ensure a sufficient number of responses to be able to do statistical analysis. Several hundreds of responses are desirable or necessary for most statistical tests. Nowadays, surveys can easily be conducted online. However, if the ELT management researcher is surveying ESL students, it is important to consider whether an online survey alone will garner the number of responses needed. The researcher can attract respondents by ‘‘marketing’’ the survey to student interest groups or via websites and student publications, but these methods may offer no guarantee of success. Students may not fully understand the message or may be suspicious or uncomfortable about what they are being asked to do. Unless the researcher has other means of encouraging students to participate, there may be no alternative to negotiating access to ELTCs in order to issue personal invitations. The opportunity to talk to students in person enables the researcher to explain the purpose of the research, to reassure them of issues such as anonymity, and to answer their questions. Students who are confident that they are not going to be disadvantaged in any way are more likely to be willing to participate. This was the method used by the researcher for both the student satisfaction survey and the staff service climate survey, and it resulted in healthy response rates from each of the two populations.

DATA ANALYSIS Qualitative Research: Content Analysis Probably the most common form of analysis of qualitative data that ELT management researchers will be involved in is content analysis. This type of

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data analysis was used for the two qualitative studies described here (Chapters Four and Six). Content analysis involves making inferences about variables by systematically and objectively analyzing the content of the data collected during research activities and expressing the findings in quantitative form (Berelson, 1952; Sproull, 1995). The key activity is coding, that is, meaningfully dissecting qualitative data while keeping the relations between the parts intact, differentiating and combining the data, and reflecting on the resulting information (Miles & Huberman, 1994). The codes are labels or tags that allocate units of meaning to the data being analyzed (Miles & Huberman, 1994). The unit of analysis for the coding process is determined, that is, what portion of the data will be selected as the smallest unit to analyze (Sproull, 1995) which represents the themes identified in the data. The source document containing the data to be analyzed is then scrutinized, and codes are assigned to these themes. Once code assignation is complete, a frequency count can be carried out and the findings represented in summary form. This type of manifest content analysis, that is, analysis focusing on the material explicitly presented in the data collected, has a strong quantitative character and is not regarded as a qualitative research methodology (Holloway, 1997). Content analysis has a number of advantages, depending on the type of source material used. It has wide applicability in terms of the content to be analyzed, an absence of response bias, and ease of checking for accuracy (Sproull, 1995). Particularly at the manifest level of analysis, it has shown itself to be a reliable methodology although there are problems with some types of source material such that the measure is entirely in error to a ¼ 1.00, indicating that the measure as non-standard formats and older documents (Sedlack & Stanley, 1992). The major disadvantage of content analysis is that it is time-consuming (Sproull, 1995). In content analysis, the researcher is systematic in applying identical sets of methods to a consistent body of source data (Sedlack & Stanley, 1992). An example from the studies described here is the use of a specific question schedule in the focus groups. Objectivity in content analysis refers to the need for the researcher to clearly determine classification parameters in order to facilitate possible replication of the study. Analysis must therefore also be verifiable (Krueger, 1994). That is, the researcher must leave a ‘‘trail of evidence’’ (p. 130) that would allow another researcher to repeat the study and arrive at similar conclusions. In the studies reported here, the researcher created such a ‘‘trail’’ by making tape recordings of focus-group sessions, preparing transcripts and notes, and developing code and theme lists. These three requirements are encompassed by a fourth, namely, that the theory underpinning a research study should be used as a framework for

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developing data analysis (Vaughn et al., 1996). The theoretical exposition is a reflection of the research questions, and at this point it is worth reiterating the two that pertain here. The rationale for using focus-group methodology in this study was as a means of collecting data in order to identify variables to be used in the construction of two survey instruments. In terms of the ELTC staff focus groups, the variables related to staff perceptions of the service climate of the organization and their identification would help answer the first research question: What are the key elements of service climate within ELTCs in New Zealand? In terms of the student interviews, the variables related to the students’ perceptions of the service levels provided by the organizations and their identification would help answer the second research question: What criteria do students use to evaluate the service of New Zealand ELTCs? These research questions were expanded into a question schedule that was used as a discussion framework with the staff and student focus groups. When carrying out coding actions, the three most important decisions the researcher has to make relate to the selection of categories, units of analysis, and an appropriate enumeration system (Sedlack & Stanley, 1992). Holsti (1969) advised that categories should be relevant, exhaustive, mutually exclusive, independent, and unidimensional. The notion that categories should be relevant refers to the need for the researcher during the coding process to identify categories that reflect the original purposes of the research (Sedlack & Stanley, 1992) as expressed, for instance, through the research questions. The following example from the staff focus groups serves to illustrate a relevant category. The first research question was: What are the key elements of service climate within ELTCs in New Zealand? These elements are based largely, as discussed in Chapter Two, on the perceptions of employees of their workplace climate. From the climate literature, the researcher was aware that a major theme was likely to be the support obtained from the employees’ manager. In answer to the researcher’s question: ‘‘What can a manager do to help you provide excellent service?,’’ a common response from participants was that a manager should support staff professional development. While a number of supportive manager actions were cited and coded, this single category was represented in all staff groups and was in fact one of the major content categories in the data collected. Exhaustive refers to the notion that sufficient categories need to be assigned to cover any item among the data collected (Sedlack & Stanley, 1992). The success of this characteristic is really a function of how painstaking the researcher is prepared to be. In the qualitative studies

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reported here, 91 separate categories were identified from the staff data and 56 categories were identified from the student data. Mutual exclusivity of categories requires the analyst not to allocate any given piece of content data to more than one category (Sedlack & Stanley, 1992). This requirement is linked to that of independence, which means that allocating a category to a piece of data will not affect the allocation of any other data to that category. This requirement is best met by a precise definition of categories (Sedlack & Stanley, 1992). Related to this is the principle of unidimensionality, which requires that each category is derived from one classification principle, that is, a conceptual dimension can only translate into one empirical variable (Sedlack & Stanley, 1992). The coder has to be aware that a piece of data that contains two separate dimensions or themes cannot be evaluated as one dimension. In the student focus groups, for example, two separate but closely related themes that emerged were the teacher as classroom professional and the English lesson. The researcher’s perception was that focus-group participants expressed these as separate dimensions, and both could be shown to be linked to the perceived quality of the student’s experience. But according to the principal of unidimensionality, they cannot be evaluated as a single dimension. What is not clear is what the coder is to do in such a situation—desist from coding the piece at all? In this case, the researcher made a decision based on the perceived emphasis. If the emphasis was on the person of the teacher, the first dimension (teacher as classroom professional) was chosen. If the emphasis was on the classroom milieu, the second dimension (the English lesson) was chosen. This particular decision became important later when the content data was translated into questionnaire dimensions as the teacher and the lessons were placed in separate categories. Units of analysis can be a single word, a phrase, a sentence, or a paragraph (Krueger, 1994; Vaughn et al., 1996), or they can extend to the overall theme or purpose of a document or even the item itself (Sedlack & Stanley, 1992). In this study, the most common units chosen were sentences, phrases, or single words; whole paragraphs were less common. While a number of paragraphs were indeed categorized, the main problem with such a long piece of data is the risk that a number of different categories and even dimensions could be identified (Sedlack & Stanley, 1992). The nature of the data also determines what form of unitization is used, and this in turn is determined by the nature of the participants and the questioning style of the researcher. In the focus-group studies reported here, for example, there was a clear difference in the discourse styles of the student participants and the staff participants of the focus groups. The former were

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using a second language and their utterances therefore tended to be brief. At the same time, the researcher was obliged to use a more probing technique than with the staff, and the transcripts of these student focus groups are fragmented (e.g., due to hesitations, false starts, pauses, tangents). Single words and phrases were therefore the most common units of analysis here. The staff groups on the other hand were much more fluent and in-depth in their responses, as one would expect from professionals discussing their work in their own language. The researcher therefore slipped into more of a facilitator role, participant contributions tended to be longer, and there were therefore more instances of whole paragraphs being taken as units of analysis. The group dynamic played a role too, and there were clear differences in the discourse style of the staff groups, depending on such factors as the degree of cohesion of the group or the level of inhibition. The question of whether to count codes is a controversial issue but doing so does not necessarily violate statistical laws (Morgan, 1997). Although commonly used when numbers are required as part of a larger analytic framework, counting codes allows the researcher to understand what the concepts are but not why they occur, and a grounded approach may be preferable in certain cases (Easterby-Smith et al., 1991). Quantitative uses of coding are both helpful and obvious in the analysis of focus-group transcripts, and some researchers may feel uncomfortable about answering their research questions without recourse to this methodology (Morgan, 1997). Particularly in studies like those reported here, the importance of issues and themes had to be ascertained from the data collected in order to construct the quantitative instrument, and quantifying these themes seemed an obvious thing to do. The researcher has a choice of four basic enumeration systems: presence or absence, space and time, frequency of occurrence, and intensity of feeling (Sedlack & Stanley, 1992). The selection of one or the other depends to some extent on the type of data source and the practicalities involved. Frequency of occurrence is popular among focus-group researchers, having the advantages of being relatively fast, straightforward, and—at least compared to the intensity system—objective; it was the technique used here.

Quantitative Research: Data Analysis When carrying out a survey using a Likert-type scale, an ELT management researcher may be interested in generating only descriptive data. This is probably the most basic form of quantitative data and represents, for

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example, ratings, scores, ranking values, or totals. For instance, the tables of satisfaction scores for the individual items in the student survey (Chapter Five) consist of descriptive data since they are the ratings on a scale of one to five that respondents attributed to scale items in respect of their satisfaction with that item. While such data may be perfectly acceptable on its own, in some contexts it may be limited since, in order to truly verify hypotheses, it is usually necessary to examine the relationships and differences between variables, requiring the use of inferential statistics. These usually involve some sort of comparison or the establishment of an association. For instance, the comparisons described in Chapter Five between levels of satisfaction of students of different nationalities consist of inferential data and were arrived at using inferential statistics. Commonly used inferential tests are correlations, t-tests, and analysis of variance (ANOVA). Correlations: These are associations between variables, whereby values of one variable differ systematically by values of another variable (de Vaus, 2002). The two common tests of correlational association are Pearson’s product-moment correlation coefficient (Pearson’s r) and Spearman’s rho (Spearman’s). The former is regarded as more robust and powerful and is generally used with parametric data (when assumptions are made about the parameters of the population), while the latter is used with non-parametric data (when no such assumptions are made). According to Searle (1999), the three conditions for the use of the more powerful Pearson’s test are:  interval or ratio-level data;  a normally distributed population;  similar variance between sets of scores. Since these conditions were met, Pearson’s r was used to test correlational associations in both of the surveys described here, for instance, the correlation between student satisfaction and willingness to recommend an ELTC. Two key characteristics of correlation coefficients used in their interpretation are direction and strength or size (Sproull, 1995). Direction indicates either a positive or a negative relationship between variables. In the words of Sproull (1995), ‘‘A positive correlation indicates that the variables are varying together. A negative correlation indicates that as one variable is increasing, the other is decreasing’’ (p. 290). Strength or size refers to the magnitude of the correlation coefficient and is indicated by descriptor sets such as small-medium-large or low-moderate-high (Cohen, 1988; de Vaus, 2002; Sproull, 1995). The interpretation of correlational strength is somewhat controversial since it can depend on factors such as the

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type of correlation and sample size, and even on the field of study such as the social sciences or the physical sciences (de Vaus, 2002). There is therefore some disagreement among researchers about exactly how correlational strength is to be interpreted. Cohen (1988), for instance, suggested: r ¼ 0.10 to 0.29 r ¼ 0.30 to 0.49 r ¼ 0.50 to 1.0

SMALL MEDIUM LARGE

Critics of this scheme might point to the fact that a correlation of 0.50 accounts for only 25% of the variance and should not therefore be referred to as ‘‘large.’’ A rather more cautious approach was suggested by Sproull (1995): r ¼ 0 to 0.49 r ¼ 0.50 to 0.84 r ¼ 0.85 to 1.0

LOW MODERATE HIGH

From a review of the literature, it would appear that most commentators would regard a correlation of less than 0.50 as ‘‘low’’ or ‘‘weak,’’ while nothing less than 0.70 could be regarded as ‘‘high’’ or ‘‘large.’’ The interpretations used for the quantitative investigations reported here took this more conservative approach. For instance, when student satisfaction and student recommendation data were compared (Chapter Five), a positive correlation of 0.86 was found, which meant the researcher could be confident that there was a strong relationship between a student’s willingness to recommend an ELTC and student levels of satisfaction. It is important to remember that a correlation indicates only an association and does not indicate cause and effect. According to an apocryphal tale, it was once noted that in New York City there was a positive correlation between the number of pregnancies and automobile crashes. As yet, no one has proved that one causes the other! For this reason, in order to test for cause and effect, a more sophisticated type of correlational technique, regression analysis, is used. Analysis of variance: A number of the findings presented in the two quantitative studies described here were based on differences between groups. Independent samples t-tests were used to compare the mean scores of two different groups by comparing the amount of variability between two sets of scores with the overall variability (Searle, 1999). For instance, a t-test was used to see if male and female students differed in their levels of satisfaction with ELTC service (Chapter Five), but none was found.

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A one-way ANOVA was used to examine differences between groups of three or more on an independent and dependent variable (Pallant, 2001), such as the comparisons of satisfaction of students from four different age groups. Here, the finding was that there were indeed small to moderate differences between age groups in terms of their perceptions of ELTC service. Tests of Significance: These support inferential statistical procedures such as t-tests and ANOVA by assessing ‘‘the probability that a statistical result in a sample could be due to sampling error alone’’ (de Vaus, 2002, p. 364). A significance level of 0.10 indicates that there is a 10% probability that a result was based on chance, suggesting that no real difference exists between groups. A significance level of 0.01 indicates that there is only a 1% probability that the results stem from a chance effect, thus increasing the likelihood that the differences observed represent real differences in the population (de Vaus, 2002). Conventionally, 0.05 is taken as the cut-off point with small samples and 0.01 for large samples (de Vaus, 2002). Although a Pearson test may provide a correlation between variables, this is of little use by itself since the significance level must confirm that the correlation would also hold in the general population. For example, if a test produced a correlation of 0.35 but a significance level of 0.27, the likelihood would be that a random error has occurred and a zero correlation in the population would have to be assumed (de Vaus, 2002). In the t-test used to identify gender differences in levels of student satisfaction with ELTC service, for example (Chapter Five), some minor differences were identified, but significance was demonstrated on only 12 out of 74 items in the survey. This meant it was not possible to claim that there was a difference between male and female students in terms of their satisfaction with ELTC service. An overview of the main statistical procedures used in the quantitative analysis reported here is provided in Fig. 11.2.

ETHICAL ISSUES The material in this section is based on the human ethics code of ethical conduct promulgated by Massey University, New Zealand (Massey University, 2010). As with all research which includes human subjects, ELT management researchers must consider ethical issues in the conduct of their research. Particular ethical guidelines are likely to vary depending on the national and legal jurisdictions within which the research takes place, as well as the researcher’s institutional membership. However, they are likely

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ESTABLISH CONSTRUCT VALIDITY

Examine general theoretical framework. Evaluate theories. Use as basis for instruments.

VERIFY CONTENT VALIDITY

Examine literature. Conduct focus groups. Pre-test instruments.

ASSUMPTION OF INTERVALITY FOR LIKERT SCALES

VERIFY RELIABILITY

Examine data with Cronbach’s Coefficient Alpha.

EXAMINE ASSOCIATIONS BETWEEN VARIABLES

Use Pearson’s r to examine correlations and regression analysis to predict dependent variables.

EXAMINE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GROUPS

Fig. 11.2.

Use independent samples t-tests and one-way ANOVA. Apply tests of significance.

Overview of Statistical Procedures

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to be based on common principles of truth and justice and may include issues such as: minimization of harm; informed and voluntary consent; respect for confidentiality, privacy and anonymity; conflict of interest; and cultural and social sensitivity.

Minimization of Harm ELT management researchers should take steps to avoid or minimize harm not only to research participants, but also to communities, organizations, and to themselves. In particular, research participants should not be subject to harms such as distress, whether physical or emotional, embarrassment, discomfort, inconvenience, fatigue, or exploitation. Researchers should consider whether their research could impact negatively on other entities, for instance ELT institutions providing access for research, groups or organizations to which ESL students belong, or the researchers’ own institutions. The personal safety of researchers should also not be neglected during research field work.

Informed and Voluntary Consent The ELT management researcher needs to ensure that research participants are fully informed about the research. Where appropriate, the researcher should give participants information sheets explaining the research, setting out their rights as research participants, and inviting them to take part. In the case of the focus groups, participants might also sign a consent form acknowledging their understanding of the project and the focus-group processes and their willingness to take part, as well as giving consent to taperecording of sessions. If the research involves ESL students, such documentation should ideally be translated in order to ensure comprehension. The researcher should ensure that written documents giving consent are securely stored as long as needed. It is particularly important that students do not feel under any obligation to participate in the focus groups. As sojourners in an unfamiliar culture, they may lack the language proficiency, the knowledge, and the maturity to make their wishes known. In all communications, it should be stressed that participation is optional and that if they do participate, they have the right to withdraw at any time.

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Respect for Confidentiality, Privacy, and Anonymity Participants should be given guarantees regarding anonymity and confidentiality. If qualitative research is being conducted in an ELT institution, it should be made particularly clear that no one belonging to the institution will have access to tapes or transcripts. It is important that participants can be sure that any comments are treated as entirely confidential. Similar assurances are necessary when conducting surveys, particularly for ESL students, as they may be concerned that staff of their institutions will have access to completed questionnaires. Any data arising from research should remain confidential; if anyone else is involved in handling the data, for instance, to transcribe tapes, that person should be asked to sign a confidentiality agreement. A perceived lack of anonymity by the respondents is detrimental to the quality of the data they provide. It is therefore not only an ethical issue but in the researcher’s own interest to provide a clear demonstration to research participants of confidentiality. By the same token, the managers of ELT institutions may need to have the researcher’s assurance of their organization’s anonymity in the subsequent reporting of the findings. Conflict of Interest ELT management researchers are advised to avoid research that places them in a situation of conflict of interest, particularly when there might be a dependent relationship between participants and researcher. This might occur in ELT management research, for example, if teachers conduct research on their own students, managers conduct research on their employees, or an employee conducts research on other employees. If such situations are unavoidable, the researcher would be wise to clarify in writing that participation in the project will not disadvantage the participant in any way. Cultural and Social Sensitivity Cultural and social sensitivity is practiced as far as possible, for instance, in the case of a reluctance to participate in a research project. In such cases, individuals should be made to feel that their choice is perfectly acceptable. Since the ELT researcher is operating in a cross-cultural context, cultural sensitivity is especially important. Should the researcher be a visitor on the premises of an organization, sensitivity to the wishes of the members is also paramount.

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RESEARCH OPPORTUNITIES IN ELT SERVICES MANAGEMENT The fact that ELT organizations are service operations with specific services issues and problems is, disappointingly, one that has yet to make a major impact in the field of ELT management research. Pennington’s and Xiao’ s (1990) comment that ‘‘very little research has been conducted to date in the area of ESL administration’’ (p. 1) has lost little of its impact over the past two decades. There remains a dearth of research into ELT management in general and into ELT services management in particular. To date, very little empirical research has been conducted that involves hypothesis-testing through data collection, quantitative/qualitative analysis and the reporting of findings. There is a clear need for such research, especially if we are to better understand ELT management and improve the quality of ELT operations. It would be particularly appropriate to conduct research which trialed some of the service management models and concepts in an ELT context. For assistance with general services theory, readers should consult the reference list at the end of this volume. Some of the major writers and researchers in the area of services management and marketing in the past two decades are Gro¨nroos and his collaborators in the Swedish school of services; Bitner, the Fitzsimmonses, Bowen, Lovelock, Zeithaml, Parasuraman, and Berry in the United States; and Johnston in Britain. Apart from book publications, some of their research studies are listed in the References, and others will be found in any good academic database. For a detailed account of services models, theories, and tools, refer to the latest edition of Fitzsimmons and Fitzsimmons (currently the sixth, 2008), while the latest edition of Gro¨nroos (2007) provides a less technical, perhaps more philosophical approach. The following suggestions, which should provide fertile ground for the ELT management researcher, are organized into the broad management theme areas of: human resource management; service climate; planning, strategy, and organizational design; and marketing.

Human Resource Management The work of the ELT manager: One of the investigations reported here concluded that tertiary managers appeared to experience an identity problem when it came to seeing themselves as managers. If this is the case, it may now be time to clarify that identity and to recognize that the development of some sort of professional basis for ELT manager work—whether in the

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tertiary or the private sector—is long overdue. Martha Pennington has been the most prolific researcher in this area. An advance on Pennington and colleagues’ pioneering research on tertiary ELT managers would be to examine the work of ELT managers in general, while recognizing the diversity of orientation of ELT institutions around the world. The work of ELT managers and owner-managers in privately owned ELTCs would be of particular interest. Specifically, studies like those presented here need to be complemented by more detailed surveys of larger populations of ELT managers that can provide more comprehensive information on the ELT manager experience. This is a sizeable area for research and would include such topics as manager perceptions of their own role, analysis of ELT manager work, manager versus educator, ELT manager training, manager skills and attributes, the ELT manager as service manager, and management and leadership styles, including an examination of gender issues. ELT faculty and administrative staff as service providers: This would include studies of the work and roles of both ELT administrative and teachers. Of particular interest would be an investigation of the dual role of teachers as commercially oriented service providers and educators, and the consequences of possible role ambiguity for both teacher training and role performance. Strategies for the development and retention of valued service providers would be usefully examined. ELT as a professional service: ELT organizations and ELT adherents commonly refer to their occupation as a profession and to themselves as professionals. There is some evidence in support of these claims. The field of professional services firms has generated a healthy literature, with Maister’s (1993) work regarded as a seminal text. However, to date, ELT as a professional service has not been part of this literature. There is an obvious need for investigation into what it means to be professional in an ELT services context. Cross-cultural issues in ELT management: As a service sector which deals primarily with non-native speakers of English, a wealth of cross-cultural issues may demand investigation, from the training of administrative staff in managing service encounters to the design of a service for an overseas student and the management of a team of culturally diverse service providers. Training and qualification in ELT management: Although a number of universities offer tertiary qualifications in ELT management at the Masters level or ELT management as part of other Masters degrees in Education or Linguistics, little is known about the extent of such courses, their quality, or the value of their outcomes.

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Succession planning: Succession planning involves, inter alia, the development of organization members’ careers as they progress through the organization, with a view to maintaining and enhancing their effectiveness in their organizational role. Succession planning is thus linked to the issue of ELT management as a structured career within organizations that provide ESL courses. Again, little is known about the progression of ELT managers within the profession, opportunities for ELT management careers, nor the extent of qualifications within the profession.

Service Climate Application of service climate to ELT: Benjamin Schneider and David Bowen are probably the principal researchers in the area of service climate, and some of their works are listed in the reference list. The nature and outcomes of the service climate study presented here suggest a number of opportunities for future research in the area of ELT management and administration. It would be of interest, for example, to establish through replication the extent to which the findings presented here are generalizable to other countries and contexts where ELTCs operate. Furthermore, the research reported here focused on the climate perceptions of non-managerial staff. Manager perceptions of organizational and service climate, along with a range of other issues that concern ELTC managers—from strategy, to staffing, to quality control—would provide fertile ground for the ESL management researcher. Faculty and administrative staff perceptions of the service dimension in ELT: Investigations based on quantitative methods and with larger samples might confirm or challenge some of the insights reported here. Studies of teaching versus non-teaching ELT staff and private/commercial versus tertiary ELT institutions might help clarify some of the themes raised.

Planning, Strategy, and Organizational Design The design of the ELT service provision: A services system blueprint has been devised for ELT operations and the applications discussed here. However, more work needs to be done on the trialing of various ELT service blueprints in a practical context. The student as a service client: ELT institutions are among the group of service providers that have to cope with issues surrounding students who are

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also paying clients. Here the dual role of student and client bears investigation, in particular, its impact on the nature and efficacy of the provision of service. Associated issues such as student retention and student loyalty also warrant investigation within the ELT context. English language teaching centers as SMEs: Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are increasingly regarded as key elements of national economies. Although the definition of SME is internationally variable, many, if not most, ELTCs can be classified as SMEs. The fact that they are service operations too provides an added dimension of interest. To date, no research appears to have been conducted into issues surrounding ELT service operations as SMEs. Commercial versus educational considerations: Little attention has been paid to themes surrounding the operation of traditional professional educational mores within the burgeoning private educational sector. The potential for ongoing tension between commercial and educational aspects of ELT operations is a theme complex that would bear further scrutiny by researchers interested in this area of educational administration. Marketing The operation of word-of-mouth (WOM): Anecdotal reports and a few publications of empirical results indicate that this is a key source of new clientele for ELT institutions. However, more comprehensive studies are required to clarify the actual workings of WOM in the unique cross-cultural ELT context, and to produce solid empirical findings from respectable data sets. ELTC website design, operation, and effectiveness: Anyone who regularly scans the websites of ELTCs is aware of broad variation in quality in terms of design, information, and ease of use. Researchers interested in IT applications in ELT might investigate issues surrounding ELTC website design and student perceptions of their usefulness. Monitoring and Control Administrative staff and faculty appraisal: Management monitoring and control is traditionally viewed as a key strategic area of general management, but anecdotally is not always conducted to an acceptable standard. There was some confirmation of this perception in the investigations reported here, since, according to respondents in the ELT service climate

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study (Chapter Seven), management monitoring of service practices was not always carried out, while the lack of performance appraisal was seen as a barrier to excellent service. Exactly how and to what extent ELT managers both monitor service practices and appraise staff performance, as well as staff response to such control actions, would be an obvious area for the ELT researcher interested in the topic of appraisal. Managing and measuring quality in ELT: The creation of quality within a service operation is increasingly being recognized as being located within the customer-provider interaction. Attempts to measure that quality have focused on the dichotomy between customer expectations of quality and subsequent perceptions of the quality of the service received, and instruments have been devised for this purpose. Research in this area is likely to include dimensions of quality in the ELT service provision, student and other stakeholder perceptions of quality, measurement of quality, as well as cross-cultural aspects of quality measurement. An examination of the management of quality is needed, rather than just an exploration of the manager control function. The relevance of particular satisfaction measurement scales to ELT needs to be investigated, as well as the continuing viability of the disconfirmation of expectations construct (discussed in Chapter Two) as an acceptable measure of quality within an ELT context. English language teaching center milieu: This is another area which is virtually untouched. Empirical research is needed to investigate the association between the ELTC milieu and the ELT classroom and in particular, the impact of milieu on learning effectiveness and overall student satisfaction. Findings from such research could produce recommendations as to how milieu can be operationalized for the benefit of both ELTCs and their students. Accreditation schemes: Various independent, governmental, or industrybased entities are engaged in auditing and accrediting English language operations around the world. This area is ripe for investigation in terms of the make-up, operation, and outcomes of such schemes. For instance, of interest would be comparative studies of the effectiveness of accreditation schemes in different jurisdictions.

CONCLUSION This chapter has provided some guidance for ELT professionals interested in conducting research in the area of ELT management. An outline was provided of the research process with particular reference to some of the

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issues and problems likely to face the researcher operating in the ELT context. Some potential areas for research activities were also suggested. It is hoped that the information provided will encourage teachers, program directors, managers, and ELTC owners to consider getting involved in ELT management research, with a view to enhancing, expanding, and further developing this sector of the ELT community of practice.

CHAPTER TWELVE ISSUES AND IMPLICATIONS FOR ELT MANAGERS$ INTRODUCTION: ELT AS SERVICE The major theme of this work has been that English language teaching centers (ELTCs) are service operations and the people who work there are service providers. Two major studies investigated the nature of student satisfaction with ELTC service and the service climate in ELTCs, and some key findings were presented. The conclusions reached have implications both for ELT management and for ESL teachers in the areas of ELT in a commercial context, service quality and student satisfaction, and service climate.

AN EDUCATIONAL SERVICE IN A COMMERCIAL CONTEXT A distinctive characteristic of ELTCs is that they provide an educational service within a commercial context. Recent trends in public education towards greater school self-management, along with a growing public awareness of and interest in business and commerce, have put pressure on publicly funded schools to adopt a more managerial approach to school administration. While discord between the values of the professional educator, on the one hand, and that of the business manager, on the other, may be a common denominator between the private and public domains, some unique challenges arise when professional educators are confronted with the realities of functioning in a purely commercial context, such as that which exists in most ELT operations. Students, for instance, become clients, $

Adapted from Walker, J. (2001b). Client satisfaction with English language centre service. International Journal of Educational Management, 17(7), 294–302.

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who inhabit the classroom not because the law requires it, but because, irrespective of age or background, they can afford to pay for the service. These clients may have specific views on what they want to achieve within their educational experience and how they want to achieve it. Depending on prior expectations and current perceptions, they may not be averse to a direct expression of these views to service providers, nor be averse to making complaints to management, particularly if their preferred approach is at variance with that of the institution and its teachers. Likewise, in a commercial-educational world, schools and colleges become business organizations that depend for their survival on making profits. It is therefore in their interest to conform to what passes for business best practice. The absence of students equates to business failure and to unavoidable redundancy for faculty as well as administrative staff. It is consequently important for educators to grasp the reality of the commercial context in which they operate. The significance of the commercial context of ELT is also an issue for ELT teacher professional associations, which historically have concerned themselves principally with issues surrounding language, linguistics, pedagogy, and best practice—and rightly so. However, in some ELT professional quarters there appears to linger a reluctance to accept the reality that, these days, ELT has an important and unavoidable commercial aspect. This reluctance expresses itself in a number of ways, from quiet denial to disdain for those ELT practitioners who choose to concern themselves with commercial issues. It would be in the interests of teachers’ professional organizations to give more recognition to the fact that many of their members inhabit a commercial world where good service equals business success and thus security of employment. This could be done at ELT conferences, for instance, by giving more prominence to ELT management aspects of ELT work. Instead of relegating ELT management to Special Interest Group (SIG) sessions, it could become a theme for a plenary session or even an entire thematic strand for a conference. This would give ELT management the opportunity to be regarded as a mainstream issue rather than as merely a marginal one. On the other hand, it would be concerning if ELT managers were forced to make business decisions that were incompatible with educational principles. Educators, in turn, may be faced with a choice of either acquiescing to practices they consider educationally unsound and/or unethical or forgoing employment and income. The potential outcome is ongoing tension between what is commercially expedient and what is educationally desirable. Mutual recognition by management and faculty of

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both the educational and the commercial demands of ELT programs could be the starting point of a dialogue aimed at reducing such tension and finding ways and means of addressing both sets of priorities.

SERVICE QUALITY AND STUDENT SATISFACTION A positive step towards recognizing ELT as a service would be to gain acceptance that ELT operations exist within a competitive environment where success is linked to creating technical quality and functional quality, that is, what the student purchases and how it is delivered (Gro¨nroos, 2007). In terms of ELT operations, technical quality includes the tangible aspects of the service provision such as self-access facilities, computers, decor, and staff appearance; and intangible aspects such as program content. Services management wisdom teaches that functional quality can be easily replicated, and thus it is not technical but functional quality that truly differentiates one competitor from another. Functional quality resides largely in the province of those service providers who have the most potential to influence the customer’s perception of the quality of the service. In terms of ELT operations, these are the managers, faculty, and administrative staff whose skills, competency, knowledge, and service orientation shape the character of the service in the minds of students. The student satisfaction findings presented here (Chapters Four and Five) imply that the key players are likely to be ESL teachers themselves who ‘‘arguably [represent] the most significant factor in any language teaching operation’’ (McDonough & Shaw, 1993, p. 284) and are a potential source of considerable competitive advantage for their firms. However, as the findings also show, ELT managers should not place over-reliance on innate, human aspects of the service—as represented, for instance, by service orientation—to engender high levels of student satisfaction. Instead, they should consider whether they are paying enough attention to professional, organizational, and managerial issues such as establishing appropriate structures and sound systems and procedures, and ensuring that teachers and administrative staff are skilled and competent, with a view to securing an efficient and effective operation. A particular difficulty for ELT managers, faculty, and administrative staff is that of obtaining an accurate picture of levels of student satisfaction with they service they provide. From the findings reported here, it appeared that the staff surveyed did not have an accurate perception of how their students regarded them and their service. Although they understood in broad terms

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what students liked and did not like about the service, they had a significantly inflated perception of student satisfaction levels. This perception developed despite the fact that most, if not all, institutions used student surveys to collect satisfaction data. However, a feedback procedure has to be designed in such a way that valid data is forthcoming. Steps have to be taken, for example, to assure respondents of confidentiality both during and after data collection. This could involve having data collected by a third party or devising an anonymous, web-based instrument. Use of students’ first languages on questionnaires would further enhance the quality of the feedback obtained. Focus groups run by external facilitators could also be used to gauge student opinion about the service. At least a quarter, and potentially half, of staff respondents said that their managers did not share student feedback data with them. While some managers may regard data collected from students as commercially sensitive, it would be shortsighted indeed to make a conscious decision not to share such data—at least in some form—with teachers and administrative staff. The reason for this is that they are the front-line service providers: only when they themselves are aware of their students’ perceptions of the service they provide are they able to take the necessary steps towards improvement, should such steps be necessary. If staff are unaware of actual levels of student satisfaction and the reasons for dissatisfaction, they cannot be entirely blamed for not providing the kind of service that students expect. Students, on the other hand, may have unrealistic expectations of what the service can do for them; for instance, they may expect to make quicker progress than is actually possible, given their initial proficiency levels and course duration. If this is the case, it is up to ELTC management and staff to become acquainted with student expectations and then to manage those expectations, in order to bring them into line with what can realistically be achieved within the service offering. At an informal level, it may be difficult for staff to overcome students’ cultural inhibitions and obtain from students a truthful assessment of the service they are providing. Ironically, awareness of a lack of awareness may be a good initial step: if management and staff do recognize that there is potential for a problem to exist, they may then be able to take steps to try and improve the quality of informal communication between themselves and students. This could take the form of targeted in-house staff professional development sessions covering areas such as service processes and/or cross-cultural awareness. Accurate information about student attitudes to the quality of service provided is a vital strategic tool for ELTCs. Without it, they are operating

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‘‘blind.’’ As a result, they may not be able to realize the elevated levels of student satisfaction that might otherwise have been attainable. Insight into student perceptions assists ELTCs to develop an effective, quality service that is more likely to delight—not merely satisfy—students, drive student loyalty and the desire to recommend the ELTC to friends through word-ofmouth (WOM) communications, enhance its reputation, and thus help to maintain future student numbers. Finally, the survey findings provide some specific issues for the attention of ELT manager, in terms of: teachers and teaching, ELTC service milieu, homestay, student feedback systems, servicescape, communication, and placement. Teachers and Teaching Managers may wish to specify personal attributes consistent with both service orientation and the mentor/coach role in their criteria for hiring new teachers and developing existing staff. Teaching methodologies may need to be reviewed with respect to flexibility. Time might be well spent on preliminary student orientation to the preferred methodology (if one exists) of the institution. Consideration might also be given to restructuring teaching programs by reducing formal class time and substituting drop-in sessions when students can access teachers on an individual basis. English Language Teaching Center Service Milieu The mood, atmosphere, or ambience of an institution is linked to a positive service climate, and service culture, and may influence student satisfaction with the service provided. The findings reported here appear to show that the service milieu of an ELTC was a key issue for respondents taking part, particularly in terms of their psychological and emotional well-being and consequently their motivation to succeed within the English language program. The implications are that students who experience a positive, supportive ELTC milieu may be more likely to enjoy a successful outcome to their language learning activities, including formal classroom instruction. Satisfied students are likely to act as unofficial marketers for an institution, passing on WOM recommendations to friends, acquaintances, and family, thus attracting further students. The nature of the service milieu of an ELTC therefore has the potential to influence the long-term commercial success of the particular institution.

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Homestay Students expect to be placed in homestay types corresponding to their stated wishes. Information provided to students on their homestays should be monitored for accuracy and clarity. If there is an expectation that host family members share quality time with students in English conversation, this role may need to be clarified with the family and its importance emphasized. The institution may be wise to provide practical orientation and support for host family members expected to take on this role. Student Feedback Systems Alternative channels are desirable to allow students to provide comment on the ELT service. If institutions seriously value frank opinion, they may need to take action to assure timid students of anonymity in surveys. This could include redesigning both the survey instrument and the procedures for survey completion and data handling, and/or contracting consultants to do the data collection. Institutions should survey more frequently than merely on the departure of the student, and a clear message may need to be sent to students that action has been taken as a result of specific student comments. Servicescape In a service that is characterized by intangibility, tangible aspects of the service such as de´cor, furnishings, equipment, and facilities may take on increased importance in the minds of the students and may act as a proxy focus for satisfaction perceptions. The quality of physical paraphernalia is relevant, particularly quality access to the internet. Communication Information in publicity materials and other information provided to students prior to arrival should be reviewed for accuracy and staff should be aware of promises made on their behalf. Nothing irritates service customers or clients more than providers who over-promise and underdeliver. Institutions need to communicate effectively with students, particularly before their arrival, with the focus on keeping students fully informed during their stay.

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Placement The placement system may benefit from review, particularly in terms of spending more time initially with students, clarifying their goals, and ensuring that they fully understand the nature and outcomes of the English language program which they are purchasing.

SERVICE CLIMATE IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING CENTERS The findings from the service climate study presented here represent a number of specific implications for ELTC managers and administrators. In order to develop a positive service climate, they may need to address resourcing issues for staff, particularly in terms of facilities, equipment, and teaching/learning materials; they need to reflect on practices such as the hiring of unqualified teachers, which may be perceived by staff as barriers to the provision of superior service. The constraints of the unpredictability of demand and the nature of ELTC work notwithstanding, attention to ELTC staff concerns in the areas of stress, remuneration, and job security is indicated. Student focus is important, as is a positive service milieu. So too are traditional managerial tasks of planning, organization, control, and communication. Managers need to ensure, for instance, that the actual service provided meets the expectations students have developed from the information provided in publicity materials and websites; that staff have a clear understanding of management’s service strategy and of their own role as service providers in what is both a professional and commercial environment; and that effective structures are in place to serve the strategy, including monitoring and feedback mechanisms, in terms of both staff performance and student satisfaction with the service provided.

CONCLUSION This work has argued that ELT is a service. A major implication is that an integral part of the role of the ELT manager/director of studies is to become familiar with service concepts as they apply to ELT operations, to promote awareness of these concepts among teachers and administrative staff, and to facilitate the development of a climate for service within their ELT

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operations. As Pennington (1994) has maintained, there is also a need to incorporate training in management competences into preparation for ELT work. Thus, in addition to the theory and practice of ELT, ESL teacher trainers, course developers, and ELT managers should be introducing management themes into formal ELT training courses and ongoing professional development sessions. Within the content of these programs, there should be an emphasis on services and services management themes with a view to promoting among trainees as well as experienced teachers not only awareness, but also an acceptance, of their role as service providers. Such themes could also be included in the curricula of tertiary courses leading to qualifications in ELT management.

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1: English Language Teaching Center Service Management Practices

APPENDIX 1. ELT SERVICE CLIMATE QUESTIONNAIRE

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3: Service Orientation

Appendix 1 259

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4: Employment Issues

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6: Student Evaluation of English Language Teaching Center Service

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APPENDIX 2. ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING CENTER STUDENT SATISFACTION SURVEY PART ONE In Part One, you are asked for your opinion about specific areas of the English language teaching center (ELTC) service. For each item, put a circle round the number that indicates your level of satisfaction with this area of the service. Here is an example which asks a client’s opinion about the food in her homestay: Far Better Better than About what Worse than Far Worse Don’t than I I Expected I Expected I Expected than I Know Expected Expected Quality of food

5

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In this example, the client has circled the number 3 to show that her level of satisfaction with the food was about what she expected. CHOOSE ONLY ONE ANSWER FOR EACH ITEM.

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1: THE TEACHERS What is your level of satisfaction with your English teachers in this ELTC? Think about those teachers whose classes you have participated in. Far Better Better About Worse Far Worse than I than I what I than I than I Expected Expected Expected Expected Expected 01. Their professionalism 02. Their teaching skills 03. Their knowledge of the subject 04. How well prepared they are for the lesson 05. Their ability to be flexible (How well they adapt the lesson to your needs) 06. Their ability to teach interesting lessons 07. Their friendliness 08. Their communication skills 09. Their ability to be patient with you 10. Their ability to give clear explanations 11. Their willingness to help you in class 12. Their availability to help you outside class 13. Overall quality of the ELTC’s teachers

Don’t Know

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2: THE ENGLISH LESSONS What is your level of satisfaction with the English lessons in the ELTC? Far Better than I Expected 14. Effectiveness of the lessons 15. Interest level of the lessons 16. Lesson content 17. Relevance of the lessons to your learning needs 18. Quality of the learning materials 19. Methods used to teach you 20. Class size 21. Mix of nationalities in class 22. Overall quality of English lessons

Better than I Expected

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3: THE SERVICE PROCEDURES What is your level of satisfaction with the effectiveness of these specific service procedures? Far Better Better than I than I expected Expected 23. Enrolment (when you arrived at the ELTC) 24. Placement (assessing your English on arrival, putting you in the right class) 25. Information (keeping you informed about the ELTC’s procedures, regulations, etc.) 26. Complaints (dealing with student complaints about the ELTC’s service) 27. Homestay administration 28. Enquiries (dealing with student questions, requests, etc.) 29. Student feedback (asking you for your opinion about the ELTC’s service) 30. Overall quality of the ELTC’s procedures

About Worse Far Worse Don’t what I than I than I Know Expected Eqxpected Expected

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4: COMMUNICATION What is your level of satisfaction with the way the ELTC communicates with you? Far better Better than I than I Expected Expected 31. Accuracy of the information in the ELTC’s publicity materials 32. Effectiveness of the ELTC’s communication with you BEFORE your arrival in NZ 33. Effectiveness of the ELTC’s communication with you AFTER your arrival in NZ 34. Overall quality of the ELTC’s communication

About what I Expected

Worse Far Worse Don’t than I than I Know Expected Expected

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5: THE ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF What is your level of satisfaction with the ELTC staff who are NOT teachers? Far Better Better than I than I Expected Expected 35. Their friendliness 36. Their willingness to help you 37. Their availability to help you 38. Their ability to understand your needs 39. Their ability to give you the information you asked for 40. Their communication skills 41. Overall quality of the administrative staff

About what I Expected

Worse Far Worse Don’t than I than I Know Expected Expected

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IF YOU ARE NOT IN A HOMESTAY PROVIDED BY THE ELTC, PLEASE GO ON TO QUESTION 7 below. 6: YOUR HOMESTAY What is your level of satisfaction with the homestay arranged for you by the ELTC? Far Better Better than I than I Expected Expected 42. Match between the kind of homestay you requested and the homestay you got 43. Opportunity for you to speak English with your host family 44. Host family’s willingness to help you improve your English 45. Friendliness of your host family 46. Amount of time the host family spends with you 47. Atmosphere (your feeling in the homestay) 48. Physical comfort level 49. Quality of the food 50. Overall quality of your homestay

About what I Expected

Worse Far Worse Don’t than I than I Know Expected Expected

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7: THE FACILITIES What is your level of satisfaction with the standard of facilities in the ELTC? Far Better Better than I than I Expected Expected 51. Classrooms 52. Student lounge/ cafeteria 53. Self-access unit 54. Toilets/bathrooms/ restrooms 55. Library 56. Computers 57. Audio equipment 58. Video equipment 59. Overall quality of the ELTC’s facilities

About what I Expected

Worse Far Worse Don’t than I than I Know Expected Expected

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IF YOUR ELTC DOES NOT HAVE AN ACTIVITIES PROGRAM, PLEASE GO ON TO QUESTION 9 below. 8: THE ACTIVITIES PROGRAM What is your level of satisfaction with the activities program organized by the ELTC? Far Better Better than I than I Expected Expected 60. Information about the program provided to you by ELTC 61. Variety of activities 62. Interest level of activities 63. Value for money 64. Organization of the program 65. Overall quality of the activities program

About what I Expected

Worse Far Worse Don’t than I than I Know Expected Expected

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9: GENERAL What is your level of satisfaction with the following general aspects of the ELTC service? Far Better Better than I than I Expected Expected 66. Overall organization of the ELTC 67. Atmosphere in the ELTC 68. General physical comfort level in the ELTC 69. Encouragement to achieve your goals 70. Opportunity for you to meet students from different countries 71. Opportunity for you to use your English 72. Rate of improvement in your English language proficiency, in your opinion 73. Value for money of the ELTC’s program 74. Overall quality of the ELTC’s service

About what I Expected

Worse Far Worse Don’t than I than I Know Expected Expected

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PART TWO In Part Two, follow the instructions for each question. 10. YOUR RECOMMENDATION Would you recommend this English language teaching center to your friends? Please tick in a circle to indicate your opinion. 75. 76.

YES, I WOULD recommend this English language teaching center to my friends. NO, I WOULD NOT recommend this English language teaching center to my friends.

11: YOUR PERSONAL DATA Please tick in a circle or write down the information asked for. 77. I have been at this English language teaching center for ___ month(s) ___ week(s). 78.

I am a visitor to New Zealand. I hold permanent residency (PR) in New Zealand. I am a New Zealand citizen.

79. My country of origin is: My first (native) language is: 80.

My age range is:

14–19 yrs 20–29yrs 30–39 yrs 40þ yrs

81.

I am:

female male

THANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR YOUR PARTICIPATION IN THIS SURVEY.