Sea Turtle Research and Conservation: Lessons From Working In The Field [1 ed.] 9780128210291, 012821029X

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Sea Turtle Research and Conservation

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Sea Turtle Research and Conservation Lessons From Working In The Field

Edited by

Brad Nahill Co-founder and President SEE Turtles Portland, OR, United States

Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier 125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, United Kingdom 525 B Street, Suite 1650, San Diego, CA 92101, United States 50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions. This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein). Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility. To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-0-12-821029-1 For information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals Publisher: Charlotte Cockle Acquisitions Editor: Anna Valutkevich Editorial Project Manager: Emerald Li Project Manager: Niranjan Bhaskaran Cover designer: Christian J. Bilbow Typeset by TNQ Technologies

Contents

List of contributors Acknowledgments Introduction

Section One 1

2

Sustainable Use of Sea Turtles Benefiting the Local Community in Rekawa Sanctuary, Sri Lanka Thushan Kapurusinghe Introduction Conclusion References Twenty-eight Years of Buggy Adventures on a Mexican Turtle Beach Madison McLoughlin and Katherine Comer Santos Introduction Educate the children Work with the local government, police, and military Know the community Don’t worry about having a degree Have some alternative income Think outside the box

Section Two 3

Working With Local Communities

Sea Turtle Field Research

Lessons From Three Decades of Hawksbill Metal Tagging From Campeche, Mexico Vicente Guzm
an-Hern
andez, Abigail Uribe-Martínez and Eduardo Cuevas Introduction The value of metal tagging studies Complementary research to metal tagging Financial considerations Final remarks References

xi xiii xvii

1 3 3 11 12 15 15 16 17 18 18 19 19

21 23

23 24 25 26 27 28

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4

5

6

7

Contents

Sea Turtle Health Assessments: Maximizing Turtle Encounters to Better Understand Health Annie Page-Karjian and Justin R. Perrault Health assessment in context Conservation medicine: Biologists and veterinarians working together Generating baseline health data Noninvasive techniques to assess wild sea turtle populations Preparation, study design, and sample collection Pain and stress reduction techniques: the three Rs Sampling nesting females Animal capture: in-water/foraging animals Physical examination Morphological measurements Collection of biological samples Blood processing recommendations Other biological samplesdbiopsies, swabs, excreta, and esophageal lavage Tagging Translating health assessment data into management strategies References

31 31 32 32 33 34 35 35 36 36 37 37 38 39 40 40 41

Applications of Photo Identification in Sea Turtle Studies Stephen G. Dunbar, Jillian Hudgins and Claire Jean Introduction Reunion Island Roat
an, Honduras Republic of Maldives References

45

Drones for Turtles Thomas Reischig and Hiltrud Cordes Introduction and background Drone usage in sea turtle conservation and research Challenges for antipoaching drone operations on Boa Vista Project setup Flying a night mission Results and strategic considerations Conclusion and outlook References

57

The Challenges of Maintaining a Hatchery in Rural Costa Rica Annie Koehler Clift Temperature and the nasties The raccoon war

45 46 48 50 53

57 58 59 60 63 64 66 67 69 69 71

Contents

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People management References

Section Three 8

9

Plastic & Sea Turtles

73 74

75

Sea Turtle Conservation Curacao and Green Phenix Sabine Berendse Sea Turtle Conservation Curacao Green Phenix Lessons learned

77

Plastics Versus Turtles: An Overview of the Uruguayan Case Daniel Gonzalez-Paredes and Andres Estrades Introduction The creation of Karumbé Plastic pollution in Uruguayan waters Tackling the plastic pollution issue Bibliography

83

78 79 81

83 83 84 85 89

Section Four Tourism and Sea Turtles

93

10

95

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Sea Turtle Ecotourism Brad Nahill Introduction Why sea turtle ecotourism Benefits of sea turtle tourism Challenges and risks Tourism niches Recommendations Bibliography Case Study: The Evolution of Tourism and Sea Turtle Conservation at Tortuguero National Park, Costa Rica Jimena Gutiérrez-Lince, Michelle Dorantes Palacios and Rold
an A. Valverde Tortuguero National Park and the growth of tourism Creation of a turtle guide system The creation of the spotter system Current tourism challenges in Tortuguero National Park Lessons learned References

95 96 97 98 100 103 104

105

106 106 109 110 110 111

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12

Contents

Lessons in Community Involvement in Sea Turtle Tourism Kate Charles Grenada and Ocean Spirits Sea turtle tourism in Grenada The origin of turtle tourism in Grenada Tourism impacts at Levera beach Addressing tourism impacts Government interventions Closing the beach Carrying capacity Lessons from Grenada Reference

Section Five 13

14

15

The Trade in Sea Turtle Products

Working With Small-scale Fishers in the Southwest Indian Ocean to Understand Illegal Take, Trade, and Use of Sea Turtles Jessica L. Williams Sea turtles of Mozambique Studying illegal take Methodological issues Logistical issues References Busting Bekko: The Nexus Between Local and International Advocacy to End Japan’s Import of Tortoiseshell Marydele Donnelly Introduction Lesson 1. Base advocacy on science and research Lesson 2. Work collaboratively and share credit Lesson 3. Use every available tool Lesson 4. Negotiate in good faith and try to understand the position of all stakeholders Lesson 5. Persevere!! Lesson 6. Beware of the downsides of success References Stopping Illegal Hawksbill Trafficking in Cartagena de Indias, Colombia Cristian Ramirez-Gallego and Karla Georgina Barrientos-Mu~noz Introduction Step 1. Diagnosis and characterization Step 2. Building local and international support

113 113 114 115 116 117 118 118 119 120 120

121 123 123 124 125 127 131

133 133 133 134 135 137 137 138 139

141 141 141 143

Contents

ix

Building international support Education and outreach Step 3. Capacity building of enforcement officials References

Section Six 16

Sea Turtle Bycatch

Addressing Sea Turtle Bycatch in Developing Countries: A Global Challenge That Requires Adaptive Solutions for the 21st Century Jesse F. Senko and Michel A. Nalovic Introduction Case study 1: A collaborative fisheries research partnership between French Guiana’s Regional Fisheries Committee and World Wildlife Fund French Guiana’s artisanal gillnet fishery: different fishery, same approach Case study 2: A collaborative partnership between Arizona State University and the Grupo Tortuguero Discussion Relationship building Developing and planning a research project References Further reading

Section Seven 17

18

Climate Change & Sea Turtles

Thermal Effluent and Impacts on Thermoregulation of Aquatic Reptiles: Response to Rapid Changes in Water Temperature Sheila V. Madrak and Rebecca L. Lewison Introduction from Dr. Sheila V. Madrak Case study References Studying the Thermal Profile of Nesting Grounds to Infer Potential Impacts From Climate Change on Sea Turtles Mariana M.P. B. Fuentes, Maria A.G. dei Marcovaldi and Paulo Lara The context to monitor the thermal profile of nesting grounds What question do you want to answer? Understand your study area Data collection and monitoring Data management Important considerations

144 145 146 147

149 151 151

153 155 158 159 160 161 162 165

167 169 169 170 174

177 177 178 179 179 181 181

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Contents

Section Eight 19

Natural History 2.0: The Power of Direct Experience in Understanding, Connecting With, and Conserving Nature in the Tech Age Bryan P. Wallace The little naturalist in all of us Natural history and sea turtles Turtle flotillas, lurking jaguars, and watching nature at work Without observations, what do we really know? The power of direct observations in the tech age Toward natural history 2.0 Conclusions References

Section Nine 20

Natural History 2.0

Fundraising

Fundraising for Sea Turtle Conservation Brad Nahill Introduction Ten fundraising tips Social media and fundraising Primary funding sources Case study: Marine Life Protection Act Case study: Nature’s Path Organic Foods Case study: Baby Turtle School Fundraising Contest Case study: Billion Baby Turtles Program Conclusion

Index

183

185 185 186 189 191 192 195 197 197

199 201 201 202 205 206 211 214 215 216 218 219

List of contributors

Karla Georgina Barrientos-Mu~ noz Fundaci on Tortugas del Mar, Envigado, Antioquia, Colombia; Wider Caribbean Sea Turtle Conservation Network e WIDECAST, Envigado, Antioquia, Colombia Sabine Berendse Curacao Kate Charles

Sea Turtle Conservation Curacao & Green Phenix, Willemstad,

Ocean Spirits, Grenada

Annie Koehler Clift Coyote, Costa Rica Hiltrud Cordes

Sea Turtle Conservation, Turtle Trax SA, San Francisco de

Turtle Foundation, Cologne, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany

Eduardo Cuevas CONACYT-Universidad Autonoma del Carmen, Spatial and Movement Ecology Laboratory, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales, Ciudad del Carmen, Campeche, Mexico Maria A.G. dei Marcovaldi Fundaç~ao Pr o Tamar, Bahia, Brazil Marydele Donnelly Sea Turtle Conservancy (ret), Gainesville, FL, United States Michelle Dorantes Palacios Rica

Sea Turtle Conservancy, Tortuguero, Limon, Costa

Stephen G. Dunbar Marine Research Group, Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, United States; Protective Turtle Ecology Center for Training, Outreach, and Research, Inc. (ProTECTOR, Inc.), Loma Linda, CA, United States; Protective Turtle Ecology Center for Training, Outreach, and Research - Honduras (ProTECTOR - Honduras), Diagonal Agun #2759 #3 Colonia Altos de Miramontes, Tegucigalpa, Honduras Andres Estrades

Karumbé NGO, Montevideo, MVD, Uruguay

Mariana M.P. B. Fuentes Department of Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Fl, United States Daniel Gonzalez-Paredes Karumbé NGO, Montevideo, MVD, Uruguay; James Cook University, Townsville, QLD, Australia Jimena Gutiérrez-Lince Sea Turtle Conservancy, Tortuguero, Limon, Costa Rica

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List of contributors

 Vicente Guzm an-Hern andez Area de Protecci on de Flora y Fauna Laguna de Términos, CONANP, Ciudad del Carmen, Campeche, Mexico Jillian Hudgins Claire Jean

The Olive Ridley Project, Stockport, Cheshire, United Kingdom

Kelonia, Observatory of Marine Turtles, Saint Leu, La Réunion, France

Thushan Kapurusinghe Province, Sri Lanka Paulo Lara

Turtle Conservation Project (TCP), Panadura, Western

Fundaç~ao Pr o Tamar, Bahia, Brazil

Rebecca L. Lewison Sheila V. Madrak

San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, United States San Diego Miramar College, San Diego, CA, United States

Madison McLoughlin The Science Exchange Sea Turtle Internship Program, San Diego, CA, United States and Puerto Vallarta, Jalisco, Mexico Brad Nahill

SEE Turtles, Portland, OR, United States

Michel A. Nalovic French Guiana Regional Fisheries Committee, Matoury, French Guiana; Groupe de Travail Tortue Marine France, Paris, France; Trans Océans Tortues Marines, Cayenne, French Guiana; International Union for the Conservation of Nature’s Marine Turtle Specialist Group, French Guiana Annie Page-Karjian Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute, Florida Atlantic University, Fort Pierce, FL, United States Justin R. Perrault

Loggerhead Marinelife Center, Juno Beach, FL, United States

Cristian Ramirez-Gallego Thomas Reischig

Fundaci on Tortugas del Mar, Envigado, Antioquia, Colombia

Turtle Foundation, Cologne, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany

Katherine Comer Santos The Science Exchange Sea Turtle Internship Program, San Diego, CA, United States and Puerto Vallarta, Jalisco, Mexico Jesse F. Senko School for the Future of Innovation in Society, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, United States Abigail Uribe-Martínez Facultad de Ciencias Naturales, Spatial and Movement Ecology Laboratory, Universidad Aut onoma del Carmen, Ciudad del Carmen, Campeche, Mexico Rold an A. Valverde Sea Turtle Conservancy, Tortuguero, Limon, Costa Rica; Department of Biological Sciences, Southeastern Louisiana University, Hammond, LA, United States Bryan P. Wallace

Ecolibrium, Inc, Boulder, CO, United States

Jessica L. Williams Marine Conservation Biologist, Tartarugas para o Amanh~a, Praia do Tofo, Inhambane, Mozambique

Acknowledgments

Nahill: I’d like to thank my family, who made my career in this field possible. First, thanks so much to all of the contributors to this book. Your work and passion for sea turtles inspires me. I also want to give my deep appreciation for all of my mentors, who helped build my confidence and guided my unique path in sea turtle conservation. First and foremost is Dr. Wallace J. Nichols, who has come up with nearly every great idea that SEE Turtles has done. Other pivotal influences include Marydele Donnelly, Didiher Chacon, Maureen Cunningham, Deb Smucker, Chris Pesenti, and Patty Lynch. Last but not least, huge thanks to all of our SEE Turtles donors, sponsors, and partners without whom the organization would not exist. Section 2: Cuevas: We sincerely thank the technical and operative personnel on the beach working every night for almost 30 years, and with whom the collaboration agreements were stated regarding metal tagging in Campeche: Punta Xen (Quelonios, A. C.), Chenkan (APFFLT CONANP-UACAM), Isla Aguada (CRIP Carmen-APFFLT CONANP), Isla del Carmen (DECOL Cd. del Carmen A.C.), Sabancuy (UNACAR), San Lorenzo (SEMARNYD-SECOL-SMAAS-SEMARNATCAM), Chacahito (APFFLT CONANP); and to regional collaborators Playa de Llano (R. Bravo), Ría Lagartos (RBRLCONANP), Isla Blanca (PNIC CONANP), Puerto Morelos (PNAPM CONANP), Sian Ka’ an (J. Carranza), Southeast Rock (C. Lagueux). Thanks also to the National Fisheries Institute in Mexico (especially to R. M
arquez), the National Commission of Natural Protected Areas in Mexico (especially to L. Sarti), Pronatura Península de Yucat
an; the Archie Carr Center (especially to P. Eliazary), and Xcaret (A. Arenas) for giving the metal tags along these decades. Thanks to the General Direction of Wildlife in SEMARNAT for the permits for tagging individuals and the researchers in the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean who have been willing to exchange information to evaluate sea turtle connectivity. Thank you! Dunbar: We are extremely grateful to all the dive shops, dive guides, interns, volunteers, and citizen-scientists in all three locations of our studies, who have partnered with us in contributing their invaluable photographs and information. These data are the foundation of our respective studies, and the continuing and growing contributions of citizen-scientists are critically important for expanding the efforts to conserve and protect not only sea turtles, but marine species in all ocean habitats around the world. SGD extends his special thanks to Rafael Brioso, Paulo Shikanai, Kathy Berner, and their Splash Inn dive staff in Roat
an, Honduras, for their continuing support of ProTECTOR, Inc. research, as well as Dustin Baumbach and Marsha Wright for their

xiv

Acknowledgments

research contributions in this area of sea turtle studies. This work was done under appropriate permits from the government of Honduras. JH is extremely grateful to all their Olive Ridley Project staff who spent time processing photos and entering metadata into their database. She would also like to acknowledge their Olive Ridley Project donors for their contributions to their project. This work was done under permits issued by the Maldives Environmental Protection Agency. CJ is extremely grateful to all those involved in the PID monitoring project in Reunion. She also thanks all interns that took part in the processing of photographs into the TORSOOI database, and particularly Alice Carpentier and Mathilde Benezech. This work was supported by DEAL Reunion and KeloniadReunion des Musees Regionaux under the National Action Plan for sea turtles in the French territories of the southwest Indian Ocean. Reischig: This project is carried out in cooperation with and with the approval of the following Cape Verdean government institutions: Direcç~ao Geral do Ambiente, Policia Nacional Verde, and Agência de Aviaç~ao Civil. It is funded by MAVA Fondation pour la Nature, Foundation Temperatio, Lotex Foundation, Eva Mayr-Stihl Foundation, and other donors of Turtle Foundation, contributions which we extremely appreciate. Special thanks go to the drone pilots, whose tireless, regular night work made the success of the project possible. Clift: Acknowledgments: I extend an enormous thank you to CREMA and Turtle Trax for the years I was employed by them and their continued support; Randal Arauz, Maddie Beange, Lotti Adams, and to all our incredible research assistants and volunteers over the years. Section 3: Gonzalez: Authors thank all members and volunteers of Karumbé for their unconditional support in our conservation efforts done over all these years. We also are very grateful to all community members, labor sectors, educational centers, governmental organizations, and people in general, who collaborated and contributed to our initiative. Section 4: Charles: I want to acknowledge WIDECAST and the Ministry of Agriculture, forestry and Fisheries of Grenada for their continued support of Ocean Spirits. A special thank you to Dr. Clare Morrall of St. George’s University for her constant support and guidance and always having her door open to help. Thank you to the dedicated Dr. Kenrith Carter of Dr. Carter veterinary services for never saying no, teaching me to stay grounded, and reminding me what really matters in conservation. Finally, thank you to Kester Charles, Ocean Spirits field manager, my husband for being at my side on my journey since my life in Grenada began. Section 5: Ramirez: We thank the vendors and artisans we interviewed for their collaboration with relevant information and the certified turtle-free souvenir shops. Special thanks to Rogelio Perea, Capitan Carlos Andrés Martínez, and Ana Catalina Noguera who have been crucial for the success of the project for a long time. We thank all members of the government and private institutions of Colombia for their contributions and patience with this project: Procuraduría General de la Naci
on, Personera Distrital de Cartagena de Indias, Establecimiento P
ublico Ambiental de Cartagena, Policía Nacional de

Acknowledgments

xv



Colombia (Area de Protecci
on Ambiental y Ecol
ogica, Area de Protecci
on al Turismo
y Patrimonio, Area Control Portuario y Aeroportuario), Biology students from the University of Cartagena, Parques Nacionales Naturales de Colombia, Armada Rep
ublica Colombia, Corporaci
on de Turismo de Cartagena, Guardia Ambiental Voluntaria de Colombia, Corporaci
on Autonoma Regional del Canal del Dique, Gerencia de espacio p
ublico y movilidad de Cartagena de Indias, and Alcaldía Mayor de Cartagena de Indias. Additionally, some mass media such as Blue Radio, Radio Policía Nacional and El Tiempo, El Universal (newspapers) were key in raising awareness on a larger scale and disseminating the objectives of the project in Cartagena. Thanks to members of the Ramirez Gallego family, who were crucial to the data collection, logistics, lodging, and meals during the first 5 - years surveys. Fundaci
on Tortugas del Mar, World Wildlife Fund, SWOT, SEE Turtles, and J. Berman Memorial Foundation provided financial support to this multiyear project. Our thanks to Brad Nahill for suggestions and helpful comments to improve the manuscript. The authors declare that this type of studies in Colombia to date does not require permits. The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare. Section 6: Senko and Nalovic: We would like to thank the myriad fishers who have inspired our work and contributed much of their time, resources, and knowledge in advancing fisheries and sea turtle conservation, including Juan Pablo Cuevas, Felipe Cuevas, Julio Solis, Jesus “Don Chuy” Lucero, Ranulfo Mayoral, Captain Suckram, Captain Sue-chee, and Captain Richardo. We also would like to thank the many scientists, students, conservation practitioners, and engineers who have contributed to our case studies, including the NGO Grupo Tortuguero de las Californias, Agnese Mancini, John Wang, Lekelia Jenkins, Janie Reavis, Jennifer Blain Christen, Mark Bailly, Christopher Lue Sang, Aimée Leslie, Karen Eckert, Thea Jacobs, Michael Goryll, Stuart Bowden, Laura Napierowski, Hiram Rosales Nanduca, Sergio Flores-Ramirez, Mike Osmond, Fred Senko, John Mitchell, Martin Hall, Jeff Gearhart, Jocelyn Medaille, Georges Karam, Benoit Detoisi, Laurent Kelle, Damien Chevalier, Troy Hartley, S. Hoyt Peckham, Daniel Aguilar, Wallace J. Nichols, and Bryan P. Wallace. Funding for case study one was provided by the EU funds for Fisheries (FEP), the EU Funds for fisheries and Maritimes Affairs (FEAMP), the French Biodiversity Agency (OFB), and WWF France. Funding for case study two was provided by the Disney Conservation Fund, National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, and National Science Foundation. The views and conclusions contained in this document are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as representing the opinions or policies of the US Government, the French Government, the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, and WWF or their funding sources. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute their endorsement by the US Government, the French Government, the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, and WWF or their funding sources. Section 7: Fuentes: Dr. Fuentes is thankful for the support from the National Science Foundation.

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Acknowledgments

Section 8: Wallace: Like all of us biologists, my interests in and love for the natural world were stoked by many mentors, friends, and luminaries. Perhaps my most important influences along the way were Holly Coovert, the firstdand bestdtrue naturalist I ever knew; Walt Bien, who could make nature seem magical, even in New Jersey; Dona Esperanza Jaen, whose lifetime of experiences earned her more knowledge than most university-trained “scientists” will ever have; and Enrique Chaverria, who taught me more about Costa Rica’s natural history than I ever got in graduate school. Among the luminaries, Peter C.H. Pritchard shone the brightest in the sea turtle world, and I thought about him and his life’s work while writing this chapter. I also thought about Rafe Sagarin, whom I did not know well, but whose intellect and creativity I greatly admire, and whose perspective on ecology and observation is an inspiration. Finally, of course, I thank my kids, who remind me to just look and play and enjoy.

Introduction

Sea turtles are one of nature’s true connectors. They connect the ocean and land, bridge distant parts of the ocean, and bring people together in their conservation, research, as well as celebrations and conflicts. Their shells were one of the most widely traded items on earth for centuries. Their meat and eggs have fed millions of people. And seeing them in the wild can have a tremendous impact on people’s emotions and psyche, whether a seasoned researcher or a kid swimming in the ocean for the first time. Sea turtles have been consumed for their eggs, meat, and shells for thousands of years, by indigenous peoples and political elites and everyone in between. It wasn’t until the 1800s though that the global scale of the sea turtle trade became large enough to threaten entire species. In the mid-1900s, conservation efforts started in many places and after decades of hard work by people around the world, those efforts are now bearing fruit in increasing populations around the world. Since the early 1950’s, researchers from around the world have been studying their behavior, physiology, ecology, and more. Once the scale of the threats to these species became clear, people around the world have worked to protect them through advocacy, patrolling nesting beaches, studying the impacts of climate change and plastic pollution, and developing tourism as a funding and conservation tool. This collective experience is itself an incredibly valuable tool and this book aims to harvest some of that and share it with the broader community. As I read through this collection of stories of working with and for sea turtles from experts and novices alike, a number of themes emerged. For those out there wanting to make working with these animals a career, keep these things in mind as you get started or even if you’re 20 years into your career.

Problem-solving skills Whether on a remote nesting beach or a stuffy conference room, you’re going to encounter challenges. So when you reach these moments, jump in head first and find a solution. This book includes examples of people starting a nesting beach conservation program in Mexico without a degree in biology, launching an effort to clean up plastic pollution in Curacao, and attaching cameras to sea turtles to study their prey. Have egg collectors learned your patrolling schedule? Change it up. Not finding evidence of sea turtle hunting? Look on the other side of dunes.

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Introduction

Be flexible This skill goes hand in hand with problem solving. While it is important to build off of the decades of experience working with these animals, don’t be afraid to try new things. Examples of creative problem solving in this book include using chilis and human urine to prevent predation of nests by iguanas and raccoons (respectively). In Tortuguero National Park in Costa Rica, large crowds of tourists began to impact both the nesting turtles and the visitor experience, so Sea Turtle Conservancy came up with a new approach, using spotters to find turtles in the right nesting phase and keeping people off the beach until the moment they could approach the turtles. My fundraising chapter shows how a regular trip to the supermarket can become donor prospect research.

Connect with the community Gone are the days when you can work in isolation on your research. Successful programs are ones that involve all of the local stakeholders. This book shows the power of outreach and collaboration to deliver impressive results in reducing bycatch in French Guiana and Mexico and working with sellers and engaging enforcement officials to dramatically reduce the tortoiseshell trade in Cartagena, Colombia. Finally, ending the legal worldwide trade in tortoiseshell required help from a coalition of conservation organizations, government officials, and concerned people.

This work is not always fun It may seem a romantic notion to stroll a deserted tropical beach under the moon and stars, looking for a fascinating and ancient species. But working with these animals can be heartbreaking, dangerous, stressful, and at times, disgusting. In these case studies, you’ll hear about nest excavations that ruined eating eggs for one researcher and another who had to literally fight off aggressive raccoons. In some circumstances, you might need to overcome resistance from a local community or butt heads with a stubborn government. For those who not only survive but thrive under these conditions, working with sea turtles can be incredibly rewarding.

Thorough planning is essential A clear lesson from this book is how important it is to invest time at the outset of a research or conservation effort to plan for the long term. Examples of this need can be found in case studies on sea turtle health assessments, experimenting with drones as a tool to monitor nesting beaches in Cape Verde, long-term tagging research in Mexico, and studying the impact of climate change in Brazil.

Introduction

xix

Commit to the long term Some work with sea turtles can have an immediate impact, such as the first season patrolling on a previously unprotected nesting beach. But it takes time to truly see the impact of some research and advocacy efforts. In the case study on tagging in Mexico, it took 20 years to learn some aspects of these animals’ life cycle. Likewise, it took decades of effort between when hawksbills were first added to CITES Appendix I to when Japan reluctantly stopped taking its exception, ending the legal international trade.

Collaborate and communicate Whether you need to explain to a diver how best to capture a sea turtle image, why people should better manage or use less plastic, or convince a donor to support your work, the ability to communicate clearly is one of the best skills you can develop. Along with communicating, collaboration with all of your possible allies dramatically increases your likelihood of success. Communication skills can help to resolve disagreements on who benefits from turtle tours, how best to adapt fishing gear without reducing catch, and getting buy-in from local communities. With these skills and tips from people from around the world in your hand, now it’s time to get out there and start making a difference. Brad Nahill

Scientific and common names of sea turtle species and current IUCN status Leatherback turtle: Dermochelys coriacea (Vulnerable) Hawksbill turtle: Eretmochelys imbricata (Critically endangered) Green turtle: Chelonia mydas (Endangered) Loggerhead turtle: Caretta caretta (Vulnerable) Olive ridley turtle: Lepidochelys olivacea (Vulnerable) Kemp’s ridley turtle: Lepidochelys kempii (Critically endangered) Flatback turtle: Natator depressa (Data deficient)

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Section One Working With Local Communities

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Sustainable Use of Sea Turtles Benefiting the Local Community in Rekawa Sanctuary, Sri Lanka

1

Thushan Kapurusinghe Turtle Conservation Project (TCP), Panadura, Western Province, Sri Lanka

Introduction Sri Lanka is located at the southern tip of India, separating from the mainland by the shallow seas of the Gulf of Mannar. The green turtle, olive ridley, leatherback, loggerhead, and the hawksbill turtle come ashore to nest on the beaches of Sri Lanka [1]. All five species are listed by the IUCN as critically endangered, endangered, or vulnerable. Despite the international legislation and the local legislation of Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance (FFPO) of 1972, sea turtles are still being extensively exploited in Sri Lanka for their eggs and their meat. In addition, turtle nesting beaches are being disturbed by coastal development activities such as building hotels, beach nourishment, piling break waters, etc., and feeding habitats, such as coral reefs and sea grass beds, are being destroyed by marine pollution and overexploitation. Many turtles are accidentally caught and drowned in fishing gear annually, while the critically endangered hawksbill turtle has been hunted to the brink of extinction for its attractive carapace to provide raw materials for the illegal tortoiseshell trade [2e5]. Sea turtle-based tourism in Sri Lanka is largely represented by the existence of the illegal turtle hatcheries located along the western and southern coastal areas [6]. The turtle hatchery owners buy turtle eggs from the poachers and rebury them in their hatchery enclosures. The resulting hatchlings are kept in tanks for several days prior to releasing them in to the sea and used as tourist attraction. In addition, juvenile sea turtles are also kept in captivity in these hatcheries for tourism [7]. There is no doubt that tourism provides the major income for these hatcheries enabling them to maintain their facilities. Additionally, some turtle hatcheries accept fee-paying foreign volunteers to generate more income. However, these hatcheries are in a doubtful situation as many hatchery practices are not properly contributing to the conservation of sea turtles in a scientific manner. Ex-situ conservation of sea turtles is represented by these turtle hatcheries initiated by various organizations, hotels, and individuals along the western and southern coasts of Sri Lanka [4]. Poorly maintained hatcheries typically adopt procedures that disregard the sex ratio produced and/ or have no regard in ensuring the hatchlings undergo their vital imprinting process [8]. The Turtle Conservation Project (TCP) of Sri Lanka was established in December 1993 by a group of young enthusiastic volunteers with the aim of conserving marine turtles and their critical habitats in Sri Lanka. The project aims to facilitate the Sea Turtle Research and Conservation. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821029-1.00001-5 Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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Sea Turtle Research and Conservation

implementation of sustainable marine turtle conservation strategies through education, research, and community participation. TCP conducts research and surveys to gain valuable knowledge about the status of marine turtles. The hands-on conservation of marine turtles is achieved by community-based conservation and management programs. The educational and awareness programs and research opportunities provided by the TCP for both local and foreign nationals, coupled with nature tourism activities such as the “Turtle Watch,” enable TCP to act as a model for responsible tourism.

Ecotourism in Rekawa TCP has selected Rekawa, a small fishing village on the south coast of Sri Lanka, for the community-based turtle conservation activities. Rekawa is located on the border of the intermediate and dry climatic zones of Sri Lanka and borders on a large saline lagoon surrounded by extensive mangrove forests. Income generating activities for the families in the Rekawa area back in 1993 included agriculture, lagoon fishing, fishing, coral mining, and others such as masonry, carpentry, government services, and labor [9]. When TCP first arrived in Rekawa in 1993, there were many environmentally destructive practices followed by local community members. The coastal community in Rekawa exploited marine and coastal resources for their survival due to poverty. Poaching of all sea turtle eggs, slaughtering of turtles for meat consumption, and mining corals posed direct threats to marine turtles in Rekawa. Among the destructive practices observed were mining sand, mining shells from the lagoon, cutting mangroves, poaching wild animals such as black nape hare, mouse deer, and jungle fowl [10]. Although many of these natural resources are legally protected, coastal communities continue to use coastal resources in a destructive manner, violating existing environmental laws. This is a complicated socioeconomic problem and causes a great challenge to the government of the Sri Lanka. Contributory factors to the destruction of coastal ecosystems include lack of education about marine and coastal resources, lack of law enforcement, and lack of community participation in conservation and management of coastal resources. TCP has conducted an extensive socioeconomic survey to understand the environmental and community issues in order to design a community-based conservation program for the Rekawa Village [11]. The common practices that had been implemented for the conservation of natural resources in Sri Lanka were to ban or prohibit the use of a particular natural resource and to arrest, fine, or jail the perpetrators. The other method was to declare particular areas having significant biodiversity value as protected areas (national parks, strict nature reserves, sanctuaries, etc.). These methods did not take the lives of local communities, most of whom lived well below the poverty line, into serious consideration. The members of these communities who are less educated and struggling to feed their families depend on natural resources from their surrounding environment. Understanding community attitudes to conservation and its linkage with conservation behaviors needs a sound understanding of a variety of socioeconomic and cultural factors [12].

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When TCP identified the issues that needed to be addressed, the solution clearly appeared as a wide-angle community-based ecosystem conservation approach. TCP’s aim was to develop a mechanism that will allow the community to utilize their natural resources in a sustainable manner, which will allow them to earn an income while preserving and managing natural resources. After conducting a series of community meetings and surveys, TCP realized the close connection between the coastal communities and coastal resources, which heavily depend on each other. As a solution, TCP implemented various community livelihood, community infrastructure development, environmental restoration, and awareness programs. One of these was our turtle watch nature tourism initiative in Rekawa Village [1,13] to address the environmental problems and break out of the vicious cycle of poverty and resource destruction. TCP developed the concept which we refer to as the “Community-Based Ecosystem Conservation Approach” (CBECA) to address the problems previously described. When TCP decided on a community-based approach, it meant the direct and indirect involvement of the community in the implementing process and gaining benefits from the project. In this case, the local community benefits through various community livelihood and infrastructure development projects, education and awareness programs, and capacity and skills development programs. In ecosystem conservation, although the TCP’s main focus is on protecting sea turtles, the link of this species as a flagship with other species and habitats is critical for the survival of sea turtles both on land and in water. Therefore, TCP has not only focused on protecting sea turtles, but also other habitats such as coral reefs, nesting beaches, beach vegetation, mangroves, sea grass beds and lagoons, etc. There are seven main components in this approach namely (1) Community livelihood development, (2) Community infrastructure development, (3) Environmental restoration and management, (4) Education and awareness/capacity development, (5) Partnership building/networking, (6) Knowledge management and sharing lessons learned, and (7) Promotion and utilization of traditional knowledge and local culture. The successful implementation and execution of the projects and training programs are embedded within the seven components of the CBECA. TCP’s nature tourism programs are conducted as a part of the “community livelihood development” component.

Nature tourism in Rekawa TCP trained a selected group of local people as tour guides in 1998 with the assistance of the Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority (SLTDA) and Sri Lanka Hotel School, which resulted in them receiving their guide licenses. The Turtle Watch, the nature tourism program in Rekawa which involves ex-turtle egg poachers as nest protectors/tour guides, is one of the best examples of the alternative livelihood provisions for destructive natural resource practices. These guides were then employed on the beach, and visitors pay a fee to experience the turtle watches in Rekawa. We generated publicity for the program through the TCP website, printed materials (such as brochures, leaflets, and posters), electronic and print media, and promotional presentations at hotels and guest houses.

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The profit of the Turtle Watch nature tourism initiative has been shared by the stakeholders of the project. Ten percent of the tourism income has been allocated for the Rekawa community tour guides and 35% for the Turtle Conservation Fund (TCF) that covers the future salaries of the nest protectors when funding gaps occur. In addition, 25% was allocated for the Nature Friends of Rekawa (NFR), 10% for the Community Welfare Fund (CWF), 10% for the Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWC), and lastly 10% for the TCP to continue their conservation and other community programs in Rekawa. During the tourism period of 2002e03 (during the cease-fire period), a sum of Rs1,050,000 (about US$9500) was raised from the Rekawa nature tourism program. However, this mechanism was changed in 2012 once the tourism and beach patrols were handed over to the community. Currently the NFR collects the tourism income and uses it for their salaries, to maintain the visitor center, purchase equipment, etc. Current tourism income of the NFR exceeds by 8 million Sri Lankan Rupees (about US$47,000 per year). TCP’s turtle watch nature tourism program and other nature tourism initiatives are well organized with social and cultural sensitivity. People in the Rekawa Village are well cultured and are very friendly and hospitable toward the tourists who visit the site for turtle watch program. During the night time, guides are dedicated to the tourism program which they carry out delicately. TCP motivated the villagers of Rekawa for an enthusiastic performance in the initiated program. Therefore, they always focus on a positive response. TCP’s initiative never had a negative impact on the culture, but always worked toward the betterment of the society. TCP’s Rekawa nature tourism promotional brochures educate the tourists about social and cultural sensitivity, and well-trained TCP officials and wildlife officials are carefully regulating the program. In order to reduce the environmental impact of tourism, TCP and NFR conduct periodic beach cleaning programs to keep the beach clean with the assistance of school children and TCP’s dedicated volunteers. In addition, they have placed garbage collection bins on the beach. Turtle watch guidelines have been put in place at Rekawa beach, and tourism promotional publications include the turtle watch guidelines. These guidelines are strictly adhered to by locals as well as tourists. A signboard displaying turtle watch guidelines is erected at the TCP visitor center in Rekawa. The guidelines include the prohibition of flash photography when watching turtles; no disturbance to turtles, eggs, or hatchlings; no beach fires; and no trash on the beach. TCP’s education and awareness programs conducted at tourist hotels also help to reduce the environmental impacts.

Benefits to the Rekawa community The impact of TCP’s economic benefits provided to the local community can be measured by comparing the status of the Rekawa Village in early 90s and its present status. TCP has provided electricity, water, and shelter for many community members in Rekawa. With the funds raised from tourism, TCP has donated books for the Rekawa school library, and these are used by many children in the village. Before, the road to the beach was not in good condition, and then TCP used the income gained from “turtle watch” tourism fund to renovate the beach road. Today hundreds of visiting tourists and locals are benefiting from this renovated road.

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TCP has formed community-based organizations (CBOs) such as NFR, a community Batik group, and a fish breeding group, and provided alternative livelihood development skills training for these CBO members. TCP also provides the equipment and initial stocks of material/raw material and provides the initial capital needs through a revolving fund scheme. Turtle egg poachers are now employed as turtle nest protectors and tour guides through the in-situ turtle nest protection program. Furthermore, TCP has also implemented community skills development programs such as primary school programs, computer classes, free English language classes, swimming training, and disaster preparedness training. We established children’s clubs to involve children in the coastal ecosystem conservation and management process, providing them with necessary awareness through various educational programs. Further, TCP implemented community health programs such as medical clinics, free herbal drinks for school children, community welfare services, and first aid training. TCP has formed a local performing arts group and art school in Rekawa in order to preserve the local culture. Local children receive training from this school, and tour groups are entertained by the local cultural dancing group and gaining benefits from the TCP’s tourism program. Part of the income received from the TCP’s Turtle Watch tourism initiative has been donated to this art school for purchase of equipment. TCP’s visitor center in Rekawa, which is currently under construction, will provide a stage for this local dancing group to perform and make an additional income while preserving the local culture. Furthermore, TCP ensures that both women and men play an integral part in the implementation of the activities. While men are working as turtle nest protectors, activities such as coir mat production, sewing garments, batik production, and coastal vegetation restoration programs directly involve many women. Both men and women attend the progress evaluation meetings. In addition TCP has kids clubs and youth clubs working in environmental conservation activities in Rekawa.

Benefits to the Rekawa environment Prior to the implementation of CBECA, all the turtle eggs were poached in Rekawa and hundreds of live turtles were transported to Jaffna (northern part of Sri Lanka) for meat consumption. In addition, occasionally turtles were killed for meat. However at present, all turtle nests are protected in-situ and hatchlings are produced and released immediately and no killing of turtles takes place on Rekawa’s beach. The TCP, through the Department of Wildlife Conservation, was able to declare Rekawa beach as Sri Lanka’s first marine turtle sanctuary. Therefore, not only the turtles but also the beach is legally protected. Because of the sanctuary status, future private tourism development activities can be regulated by the Department of Wildlife.

Benefits to Sri Lanka tourism and wildlife institutions Institutions such as the Department of Wildlife Conservation and the Sri Lanka Tourist Board have benefited from this project with training provided to the wildlife officers on research and conservation techniques such as sea turtle biology, conservation, and

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management. Students and researchers, both local and foreign, benefit through academic research facilities provided at Rekawa. This is especially beneficial for those who are involved in postgraduate studies. Genetic studies have been carried out in association with the University of Peredeniya, Sri Lanka. Satellite tracking programs were conducted in conjunction with Marine Conservation Society (MCS), University of Exeter, and Wildlife Institute of India (WII). The tourism industry in Sri Lanka has benefited through the Rekawa turtle conservation project. After the project implementation, Rekawa has been recognized as one of the top 10 eco-friendly destinations named by online travel community IgoUgo, owned by Travelocity in January 2008. The list is based on recommendations from IgoUgo editors who reviewed the journals by some of its 350,000 members with comments by the travelers listed. This recognition has promoted the Rekawa turtle watch benefiting the tourism in Sri Lanka. Further, local and foreign volunteers benefit from working at the Rekawa project, gaining firsthand experience and knowledge on Sri Lanka’s natural resources especially on community-based coastal ecosystem management.

Awareness, attitudes, and capacity building TCP took a leading role in developing the capacity of the local community in managing their own resources in a sustainable manner. TCP has provided training programs for locals in nature tourism, supplied guide books for Rekawa library on wildlife in Sri Lanka, conducted free English language classes, provided vocational training to develop their capacity and take responsibility of their livelihood. Aided by the English classes conducted by TCP, now they are able to communicate with tourists, while having fair ability in reading and understanding. When TCP began conservation activities in the village of Rekawa, the people were pessimistic about their livelihoods and were uncertain about the future. But when we helped them understand the importance of conservation of ecosystems and the hazard of overexploitation, they were willing to change their lifestyle and as a result ex-turtle egg poachers converted themselves to turtle nest protectors, and ex-coral miner women are now being engaged in environmentally friendly Batik production as their income generating activity. With the tourism income, TCP has supported various people in Rekawa Village with disabilities. In addition, politically abused local villagers and victims of the civil unrest that occurred in 1989e1990 have been immensely supported by the project, and some of them are currently employed full time at TCP. The turtle egg collectors were previously referred to as “beach boys” and were a neglected part of the community. Today, this group is no longer called “beach boys” but respectable “turtle nest protectors” of TCP. Therefore, TCP was able to change the status of the group in Rekawa.

The importance of partnerships TCP developed multiple partnerships in order to make the project a success. We facilitated in establishing CBOs, and these were linked to relevant government institutions, local business organizations, and international organizations such as the Columbus

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Zoo and Aquarium, MCS, and the UN Volunteer Program among others, for necessary training, business links, and marketing opportunities. For example, SCOTIA-USAID helped the community Batik group by financing a production facility in Rekawa. Mercy Corps helped both the Batik and Coir groups by financing for kiosks at 10 large hotels in Tangalle to display and sell community products. The project showcases how partnerships can be effectively used in the conservation of natural resources and poverty alleviation. Therefore, TCP thinks this is an ideal project, which can be replicated anywhere else in the world. In addition, TCP was severely affected by the 2004 tsunami but the giant waves couldn’t stop the TCP’s communitybased conservation efforts, as TCP was able to recover strongly and efficiently.

Lessons learned by TCP During the early nineties TCP conducted its first community meeting with the turtle egg poachers in Rekawa. We asked them how many turtles were there on the beach at night about 10 years ago. They replied saying that there were about 40e50 nesting turtles per night. Then we asked, what is the maximum number of turtles they get now (in 1994) and they replied its 15e20 turtles per night. They accepted the fact that turtles in Rekawa are rapidly declining. They also accepted the fact that if they continue to collect 100% eggs, there will not be any turtles left. We asked them what you are going to do once all the turtles disappeared from Rekawa, and they replied, “we will start killing the buffalos on the beach.” This showed us the nature of resource utilization in Rekawa. Communities use one natural resource until it is no longer available and then shift to the next available resource. Then we realized that TCP has to provide an alternative livelihood for the villagers if we are to conserve the sea turtles. Gaining in-depth knowledge on factors contributing to the environmental issues is immensely helpful. In 1998, TCP wanted to train the turtle nest protectors as tour guides. When we discussed the idea with the Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority (called the Ceylon Tourist Board at the time), they informed us that the minimum educational qualification was the candidate should have passed the GCE (General Certificate of Education) Ordinary Level Exam. Furthermore, they informed that there will be a written exam to assess the trainees at the end of the training. However, none of the turtle nest protectors had this eligibility requirement, and therefore, we had to obtain a special approval to waive the minimum required educational qualifications and also to conduct an oral examination. This showcases the requirement of flexibility when implementing community-based conservation projects. As mentioned above, TCP managed to declare the Rekawa beach as a turtle sanctuary through the department of wildlife conservation in 2006. This declaration created an issue regarding the legality of conducting tourism activities in a wildlife sanctuary. This issue was discussed with the wildlife officials, and the local police and the wildlife officials agreed to allow local people to continue with tourism activities on the beach. Flexibility in enforcing the law and understanding the community lifestyle solved the issue, and without the positive support from the community, wildlife officials would not be able to protect the beach effectively.

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There are a few important aspects to be highlighted regarding the declaration of Rekawa beach as a sanctuary. Some conservationists believe that politicians should not be involved in their conservation projects. However, the declaration of Rekawa sanctuary was made possible due to personal communications between TCP leader and the two cabinet ministers and under their influence, the Wildlife Department arranged several meetings to discuss about the Rekawa sanctuary declaration. To fulfill the requirements such as demarcating the boundaries, getting GPS coordinates, signboards, preparing of special gazette notification, etc., several institutions such as the Wildlife Department, IUCN Sri Lanka, Coast Conservation Department, and TCP worked together highlighting the importance of collaborative efforts. Although sea turtles are the primary tourist attraction in Rekawa, expansion of tourism in to other areas such as the lagoon, mangroves, bird watching, and cultural sites helped TCP to increase the tourist arrivals into Rekawa, and this provided benefits to more villagers. Diversification of attractions will increase your tourism income and also increase the beneficiaries. We also learned that when community meetings are headed by a local person from the village, other locals do not respect them as same as for an outsider. This is mainly due to the fact that these villagers are known to each other and they can be either close friends, close relatives, or belong to other political parties that they don’t like. Because they all have to live in harmony in the same village, no strict actions were taken against those who violated the working rules. As an example, if someone is working on the beach under the influence of alcohol or found sleeping on the beach while conducting beach patrols, community leaders often do not take strict action. During the implementation of Rekawa project, a considerable amount of funds was used to carry out the research activities. Salaries were paid to research officers and some TCP officers who were undertaking their MPhil and PhD degrees. However, turtle eggs are protected by the local community members by conducting 24/7 beach patrols, and therefore, the survival of the turtle species very much relies on them. Conducting research is beneficial as long as the findings contribute to the survival of the species and the continuation of the field conservation program. Therefore, allocating limited available funding for turtle research in developing countries is an issue, as the field conservation projects are struggling to continue due to lack of funds. This author strongly recommends supporting community-based field conservation projects over conducting expensive research that lacks direct impact on wildlife conservation. When TCP staff started working with the Rekawa turtle egg poachers in early 90s, these people were referred as the beach boys. Most of them did not have school education and were using alcohol and other intoxicants. Although we initially interacted only with them, gradually we started to interact with other members of the village which included educated people, villagers who were engaged in politics, religious leaders, youth groups, women groups, and school children. This expansion of communications led us to learn historical information about Rekawa and its natural resources and also about over exploitation of sea turtles. Later, TCP introduced many other community projects in order to address additional concerns in the village. This approach benefited many villagers apart from the nest protectors. This showcases the importance of using “all inclusive” approach in natural resource management. If TCP provided

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benefits only for those who destroyed sea turtle eggs, then the other villagers who did not poach turtle eggs could think that “if I also gather turtle eggs then TCP will give me some benefits.” Providing benefits to both people is more effective in communitybased conservation efforts.

Project sustainability TCP is still in the process of becoming self-sustainable. TCP’s sustainability plan includes turtle watch nature tourism program, expansion of day-time tourism, improvements for local products and services, fee-paying volunteers, diversification of community livelihoods, merchandise of community products using fair trade concept, building partnerships, showcasing and marketing of the CBECA, marketing research facilities and opportunities, fundraising through media (e.g., BBC’s Saving Planet EarthdSea Turtles documentary has covered the project cost for 2 years), further strengthening of community capacities in project administration skills, and also by maintaining the spirit of volunteerism. The recognition of the Rekawa communitybased ecosystem conservation approach allows other interested parties to study this CBECA concept and replicate the model in other parts of the world as appropriate. TCP’s Turtle Night Watch, the nature tourism program in Rekawa which involves ex-turtle egg poachers as turtle nest protectors and tour guides has won several global awards in the appreciation of services provided to the community, environment, economy, culture and, to the visiting tourists. In 1998, TCP received the “highly commended” award from British Airways “Tourism for Tomorrow.” In 2008, World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) named TCP a finalist for their “Conservation Award.” In addition, TCP received another “highly commended” award from the Virgin Holidays Responsible Tourism in 2008. Further, the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources awarded TCP the “Green Employment award” in the year 2009.

Conclusion The community-based ecosystem conservation approach concept is well worth of recognition as the existing conservation approaches in Sri Lanka heavily rely on law enforcement and not on the participatory approach for conservation. In addition, the existing emphasis on a single species conservation approach was changed in Rekawa to a wide scope ecosystem conservation approach understanding of the wide-angle picture rather than looking at a part of the problem. Use of sea turtles as a flagship species enables TCP to generate income through ecotourism that plays a vital role in project maintenance as Kruger [14] suggests that ecotourism projects with no flagship species are rarely classified as sustainable. Multidisciplinary components embedded in the CBECA provide the opportunity for all the stakeholders to act together and to share benefits from the nature tourism. Although Waylen et al. [15] attempted to describe nature tourism as a tool only suitable for awareness and attitude change, but not to change conservation behaviors, the Rekawa case study showcases that nature tourism can positively affect the behavior as well.

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In conclusion, we can summarize that turtle conservation activities in Rekawa sanctuary provide livelihoods for local community members. Provision of community livelihoods such as Batik helps conservation of coral reefs in Rekawa, and therefore, livelihood development activities can support conservation efforts. This case study highlights the ways that we can do conservation activities without compromising community development. Both conservation and community development activities can be supported by capacity development activities and education and awareness programs. Law enforcement can be used as the last resort, but in Rekawa case study, the presence of Wildlife Department officers are used as an additional tool to strengthen the community-based conservation project. Use of multiple stakeholders is one of the key reasons for the success of Rekawa model. Finally, I can conclude by saying that combination of all possible available options (conservation, livelihood development, capacity development, education and awareness, building partnerships, infrastructure development, and law enforcement) must be considered and applied as much as possible in developing and implementing community-based Protected Area Management strategies.

References [1] T. Kapurusinghe, Community participation in turtle conservation in Sri Lanka. In sea turtles of the Indo-Pacific: research, management and conservation, in: N. Pilcher, G. Ismail (Eds.), Proceedings of the Second ASEAN Symposium and Workshop on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation, Malaysia, 2000, pp. 35e44. [2] S. Fisher, Illegal turtle trade in Sri Lanka and the Maldives- an encouraging note of progress, Marine Turtle Newsletter, No. 71 (October 1995). [3] S. Hewavisenthi, Exploitation of marine turtles in Sri Lanka: historic background and the present status, Marine Turtle Newsletter, No 48 (January 1990). [4] T. Kapurusinghe, Status and conservation of marine turtles in Sri Lanka, in: K. Shanker, B.C. Choudhury (Eds.), Marine Turtles in the Indian Subcontinent, Universities Press, India, 2006, pp. 173e187. [5] T. Kapurusinghe, L. Ekanayake, M.M. Saman, D.S. Rathnakumara, Community based marine turtle conservation in Kosgoda, Sri Lanka: nesting results from 2005 to 2007, Testudo 6 (5) (2008) 40e47. [6] S. Hewavisenthi, Sri Lanka’s hatcheries: boon or ban, Marine Turtle Newsletter, No 49 (1993). [7] D. Amarasooriya, Turtle hatcheries. Is it additional disaster for the turtle fauna of Sri Lanka?, in: Proceedings of the International Conference on the Biology and Conservation of Ambhibians and Reptiles of South Asia, Kandy, Sri Lanka, 1996. [8] P. Richardson, The Marine Turtle Hatcheries of Sri Lanka: a TCP Review and Assessment of Current Hatchery Practices and Recommendations for Their Improvements, Unpul. TCP report. 1996. Turtle Conservation Project, 11, Madakumbura, Panadura, Sri Lanka, 1996. [9] R. Banda, People, Resources and Development Potentials in the Rekawa SAMP Area (Unpublished report), Coast Conservation Department, New Secretariat building, Maligawatta, Sri Lanka, 1994.

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[10] T. Kapurusinghe, A Checklist of the Fauna Composition in Rekawa, Unpublished TCP report. Turtle Conservation Project, Sri Lanka, 11, Madakumbura, Panadura, Sri Lanka, 1995. [11] T. Kapurusinghe, Destructive exploitation of natural resources and the decline of nesting marine turtle population in Rekawa, Sri Lanka. 1993e1996. Biology and Conservation of the Amphibians, Reptiles and their habitats in South Asia, in: Proceedings of the International Conference on the Biology and Conservation of the Amphibians and Reptiles of South Asia, Sri Lanka, August 1e5, 1996, 1998, pp. 189e193. [12] C.M. Holmes, The influence of protected area outreach on conservation attitudes and resource use patterns: a case study from Western Tanzania, Oryx 37 (2003) 305e315. [13] T. Kapurusinghe, Community participation in turtle conservation in Sri Lanka: a summery of community-based turtle conservation project’s (TCPs) activities in Sri Lanka, in: H.J. Kalb, T. Wibbels, compilers (Eds.), Proceedings of the Nineteenth Annual Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation, U.S. Dept. Commerce. NOAA. Tech. Memo. NMFS-SEFSC-443, 2000, pp. 57e58. [14] O. Kruger, The role of ecotourism in conservation: panacea or pandora’s box? Biodiversity and Conservation 14 (2005) 579e600, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-004-3917-4. [15] K.A. Waylen, P.J.K. McGowan, PAWI Study Group, E.J.M. Gulland, Ecotourism positively affects awareness and attitudes but not conservation behaviours: a case study at Grande Riviere, Trinidad, Oryx 43 (3) (2009) 343e351.

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Twenty-eight Years of Buggy Adventures on a Mexican Turtle Beach

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Madison McLoughlin, Katherine Comer Santos The Science Exchange Sea Turtle Internship Program, San Diego, CA, United States and Puerto Vallarta, Jalisco, Mexico

Introduction Frank Smith, at the age of 53, had little knowledge of sea turtles, and yet built a successful conservation movement in San Francisco, Nayarit, Mexico, with his only tools at the time: grit and compassion. This story starts in 1990 when the Mexican government passed a total ban on sea turtle harvest due to plummeting population numbers worldwide. The next year, the fearless retired U.S. Forest Service employee from the mountains in California moved to San Francisco (more commonly known as San Pancho) to help the turtles’ cause. Several species of sea turtles, including hawksbills, greens, leatherbacks, and olive ridleys, lay their eggs on the eastern Pacific shores of Mexico. In San Pancho, Frank encountered almost 100% poaching rates, but he stubbornly sweated through clouds of mosquitos on many a rainy night with his local and international volunteers in a bright yellow, famously unreliable, beach dune buggy saving any nest they could find. Throughout his 28 years (and counting) of turtle conservation work, Frank has dealt with poachers, law enforcement, violent storms, animal predators, and threatening cold weather among other daunting obstacles. San Pancho’s well-kept records indicate that Frank and his team of volunteers have released more than one million olive ridley hatchlings and have overall decreased the poaching rates, resulting in an increasing number of nests. When asked to look back on his story as supervisor of the turtle project Grupo Ecol
ogico de la Costa Verde, Frank offered six pieces of advice for those wanting to save turtles: • • • • • •

Educate the local children; Work with the local police and military; Know the community; Don’t worry about having a degree; Have some alternative income; and Think outside the box.

Sea Turtle Research and Conservation. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821029-1.00002-7 Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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Educate the children Poachers and dogs were destroying 95% of all turtle nests when the conservation program started its work in 1991. Frank and his friend Scott kept their heads high and eyes open as they walked the beach that first night looking to protect a nesting turtle. Waves rolled back and forth, slowly washing away turtle tracks leading to dozens of empty nest holes and poacher footprints. Each empty nest brought the spirits of the turtle men a little lower as the hopelessness began to sink in. Still, Frank refused to give up. He understood that the project was a learn-as-you-go process, especially since he was working with a very limited amount of sea turtle knowledge. He was just a gringo in a foreign land with a dream to save the turtles. Over the next 2 weeks, he walked the beach every night and was still only able to find a handful of nests before the poachers took them for sale or consumption. They were outnumbered and out-experienced by about 36 nest hunters along the six beaches they patrolled. The locals didn’t believe Frank and Scott would find more than 10 nests that season. The men were determined to prove the locals wrong. And Frank loves a challenge. Members of an early environmental group advised Frank that to reduce poaching, he needed to go to the local children. Frank and the members enlisted the help of about 20 local mothers to help teach the children about sea turtles and the environment. There was little to hold the attention of those small, squirming children, ranging in ages from six to 16. There were no VCRs in town, and it was more fun for the kids to use slingshots to kill little lizards and other animals during class. Therefore, he turned to a professor at the nearby University of Guadalajara campus who was willing to teach the children 2 days a week at the university level. To help bring the professor’s lectures down to earth, Frank and his team brought in several baskets of newly hatched marine turtle hatchlings for the group. Though all lived close to a beach where sea turtles nested, none of the children or their mothers had seen a live hatchling because almost all nests were eaten by people and animals. Their eyes lit up in wonder at the bucket of wriggling gray olive ridley hatchlings. “The kids and mothers just went crazy,” Frank said, “they just couldn’t believe those little turtles came from their beach. They fell in love with them.” Without a moment’s hesitation, everyone in class gladly raised their hands and pledged to never eat turtle eggs or turtle meat or harm a turtle again. Before long, refrigerators in San Pancho began to fill up with uneaten turtle eggs. Many poachers soon realized that there was no point in scavenging the beach for turtle eggs because their families refused to eat them anymore. Frank even got young locals to protest with him. Years ago, it was fashionable to wear boots made of turtle skin, especially when crocodiles and alligators became harder to find. Occasionally, Frank would drive into Puerto Vallarta, home to several stores that were known for selling turtle skin boots. The kids of San Pancho would load up into Frank’s vehicle for the journey. While Frank was inside asking about the current deals on turtle merchandise, the children would be outside, protesting the killing of turtles for such purposes. Frank and the small protesters were soon banned from those stores’ premises.

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“Education was as important as nest protection. Those 140 kids now have their own children and they pass the information to them,” said Frank. One of those kids was Alejandra Aguirre. After taking those classes in San Pancho, she was inspired to go to college where she got a biology degree, and now runs an award-winning turtle education program and hatchery in the adjacent town, Sayulita. She calls Frank her “turtle grandpa.”

Work with the local government, police, and military Throughout his years in San Pancho, Frank has had mostly good results working with the local and federal government. A funny example (to some of us) of failed cooperation happened late in the summer of 2001. Frank had planned a sting operation with the local police and the federal Secretary of the Environment and Natural Resources (SEMARNAT). The objective was to catch the remaining poachers of San Pancho. Frank was to patrol the beach normally and simply give the signal when he came across a nest being poached. Everything was set and ready to go. A turtle laid her nest in front of the center of town. As Frank was digging up the eggs for relocation to a safer spot, three of the sting operations officers, in full uniform complete with the standard issue AK-47 machine guns, jumped him. “They had my face in the sand and my hands in cuffs,” Frank said. He tried to explain to the two officers that he had a permit to protect the eggs; he was not a poacher, but he said it in English. “I think they knew who I was,” he said. Even so, the officers called up SEMARNAT to prove Frank’s innocence. After the phone call, Frank was released. The sting operation had failed, and after that everyone knew about Frank’s intentions to clear the beach of poachers in any way possible. The famous yellow beach dune buggy remains a valuable tool for getting nests as quickly as possible before the poachers do. Frank wrote in his newsletter, “the poacher travels the beaches barefooted, without the aid of a flashlight, and moves across the rocks between the six beaches agilely, it’s just an easy night’s work.” The sound of the engine alerts poachers that the turtle team is on its way and they cannot outrun it. Sometimes the volunteers carried night vision equipment on patrol. For a time, this kept many of the poachers on the run and wondering how the team was able to put a 1,000,000 candle power spotlight on them so precisely and quickly. In 2017, they tried a new tacticdpsychological games. “To add to the poachers’ misery, we will also be making many fake nests, disguised areas where nests and tracks never existed, including making fake empty nests and refilled nest holes,” he wrote in his newsletter. Today, instead of using intimidation, when the turtle volunteers come across a poacher, they thank them kindly for the eggs, and most of the time, the poachers hand them over. Alejandra says, “I talk to poachers with respect like they are heroes for finding the nest, it brings them closer to our side. Now they tell me where to look for more nests.” Alejandra also gets calls from the police to ask if she would like an escort on patrol. She gladly accepts the company and the cops get to experience the magic of guarding a beautiful female turtle while she nests under the stars.

18

Sea Turtle Research and Conservation

Know the community Frank says it is important for those embarking on sea turtle conservation journeys to know the language and be open to the culture of the area in which the conservation effort is in order to gain the trust and respect of the local residents. When he first arrived in 1991, Frank created waves of outrage in San Pancho by trying to stop the cultural tradition of eating turtle eggs going back centuries to the first inhabitants who were indigenous groups of this area. He knew almost no Spanish, but he feels he was largely successful in his goals because of his relationships with some locals and the trust he built with them. Juan Flores is a respected local fisherman with a big heart and a large family (which includes his niece Alejandra in Sayulita). Before 1991 he had noticed a decline in the number of nesting turtles on San Pancho beaches himself, so Juan became Frank’s first volunteer. The two shared valuable lessons about sea turtle conservation, including how to find the buried nest on the beach with a stick and to hide nests left where they were laid on the beach by brushing away the mother’s tracks so poachers would not find them as easily. Remembering how they struggled with language, Juan Flores told us, “In the early days, the bells would go ringing outside our house at night. We knew that meant to go help Frank get the broken-down buggy pulled out of the sand. ‘Buggy’ was the first word I learned in English. Manuel Murrieta, a prominent member of the community and year-round turtle volunteer, thinks Frank has come a long way in understanding Mexican culture. “Frank has changed the social environment in San Panchodpeople now respect him for his environmental cause,” he says. There is even a monument on the boardwalk honoring Frank and the team of volunteers for the millionth hatchling released in San Pancho. He also received an award for 25 years of committed work in protecting the marine turtles from the Grupo Tortuguero de las Californias (Sea Turtle Network of the Californias in English) in 2017. He wrote in his newsletter, “As I returned to the dining table, Dr. Wallace J. Nichols, who became one of the world’s leading authorities on marine turtle biology and its protection, spoke to us in English. He told several stories of being one of our volunteers in 1995 and 1996, at which time he was a young student at the University of Arizona. I was pleased and honored that our work was noticed by such a noteworthy person.”

Don’t worry about having a degree Frank is not a biologist; he has a degree in forestry. However, very rarely did not having a degree in marine biology set Frank back. One time, however, when he proposed giving a weekly presentation on the conservation of sea turtles to the guests at one of the San Pancho hotels, management turned Frank away repeatedly because he had no formal biology education. After years of proving himself, the hotel eventually allowed Frank to give his presentation, sell T-shirts, and release hatchlings in front of the hotel,

Twenty-eight Years of Buggy Adventures on a Mexican Turtle Beach

19

an event that soon became very popular with the guests and helped get the conservation message out to a wider audience. People started coming to San Pancho with a desire to see turtles and visit the project. To Frank, being in the field and having hands-on experience is much more valuable than a degree in marine biology. As of 2018, 270 turtle volunteers have come through San Pancho, all citizen scientists, passionate about helping the sea turtle population. Those volunteers learned only from their hands-on experience in the field and training by Frank and returning volunteers. You can’t argue about their success when the nursery hatching rate averages 85% over 21 years. Alejandra agrees that you don’t need a degree. Even though she graduated from a university, she says the professional internship she did at a sea turtle beach in college was the main source of her education and basis of information she uses to run her camp. It is worth noting that because she is a local, a native speaker, and has a degree, she hit the ground running and did not have the same obstacles as her “turtle grandpa” Frank. Instead, she has different ones like balancing the needs of her turtles and her children, both of which she loves dearly.

Have some alternative income Money is always a limiting factor in any turtle project. Frank has been lucky to have an alternative source of steady income from his retirement pension. Alejandra works in real estate and teaches in schools to keep her family and turtle program running. When funds are low, Frank has been known to sell neighborhood phone directories and T-shirts, and host fundraisers. Alejandra and nearby projects receive donations during hatchling releases and have successfully developed relationships with hotels and restaurants. For example, the turtle groups maintain hotels’ monitoring permits and hatcheries in exchange for salaries and/or marketing. The typical biologist is usually more interested in animals than money, but sometimes you must think outside the box to keep your project running.

Think outside the box Throughout his adventures, Frank has remained consistent in one thing: thinking outside the box. On a shoe-string budget in the jungle, he has used a beer keg as the gas tank on the dune buggy, a welcome mat as the mud flap, hot chili concoctions as repellants for hungry egg-eating iguanas, and a high-speed cyclone fan to rid termites in the box nursery. In particular, Frank has battled the weather continuously. In 1998, when El Ni~ no rains destroyed the beach hatchery, he asked SEMARNAT what would be the most effective way to save those turtles. Because relocation on the beach was impossible, they decided some of the nests would be taken off the beach and incubated in Styrofoam boxes filled with sand. Those box nests produced surprisingly high hatching success rates. So when Hurricane Kenna ripped through San

20

Sea Turtle Research and Conservation

Pancho and destroyed the beach in October of 2002, Frank’s living room floor disappeared under nest boxes filled with eggs. To this day, box nests do better than the beach hatchery nests in terms of survival in San Pancho. One reason for this could be lower temperatures in the boxes during the hot season. But low temperatures can be fatal in the cold season. Desperate to mitigate cold weather, in 2000 Frank hooked up hairdryers to a timer to get the nests in boxes back up to a suitable 32 C. In 2002, Frank switched from hair dryers to electric room heaters. In subsequent years he also tried filling all the boxes in the nursery with sand (even if they had no eggs) to keep the entire nursery at a stable temperature, what he calls maintaining thermal mass. In 2004, he had the “bright” idea to string Christmas lights in between the boxes of eggs to keep the nursery warm. The Christmas lights evolved into tube lighting placed in the bottom of the boxes. Later he tried preheating half of the sand that went into the boxes in a pan and then mixing it with cool, damp sand before packing the eggs. None of these methods were tested scientifically, so we don’t know which worked best, but the lesson is obvious: keep trying and never give up. Endangered species have no time for quitters. As Frank has shown, if you want to save sea turtles, DO IT! And to be successful faster bring your passion, courage, school kids, local community leaders, money, and crazy ideas.

Section Two Sea Turtle Field Research

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Lessons From Three Decades of Hawksbill Metal Tagging From Campeche, Mexico

3

Vicente Guzm
an-Hern
andez 1 , Abigail Uribe-Martínez 2 , Eduardo Cuevas 3 1
Area de Protecci
on de Flora y Fauna Laguna de Términos, CONANP, Ciudad del Carmen, Campeche, Mexico; 2Facultad de Ciencias Naturales, Spatial and Movement Ecology Laboratory, Universidad Aut
onoma del Carmen, Ciudad del Carmen, Campeche, Mexico; 3 CONACYT-Universidad Aut
onoma del Carmen, Spatial and Movement Ecology Laboratory, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales, Ciudad del Carmen, Campeche, Mexico

Introduction Tagging sea turtle individuals is a powerful and critical tool for research on their demography, biology, and ecology [1]. It is imperative that the implementation of any tagging program be scrupulously planned and is cognizant of long-term objectives and perspectives. The planning process and establishment of clear objectives for tagging programs is as important as the monitoring and conservation history of the species. A lack of planning makes these programs more likely to fail in the short or middle term, resulting in the loss of valuable resources, time, and information that could have contributed to the restoration of turtle populations. The Yucatan Peninsula (southeast Mexico) harbors the largest nesting population of hawksbill turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata) in the West Atlantic. In this region, there are at least two sea turtle tagging programs with mature and robust information which have operated for more than 25 years. On the west coast of the peninsula, in the Mexican state of Campeche, the sea turtle program of the Flora and Fauna Protection Area Laguna de Términos is in charge of the metal tagging program that has been in operation since 1992, tagging both adult females at their nesting beaches (in collaboration with some of the institutions in charge of sea turtle monitoring in Campeche), and immature individuals at their feeding areas. This sea turtle tagging project in Campeche, Mexico, is considered successful because of its continuous tagging and monitoring efforts in more than two decades, achieving more than 9000 working days on field, >30,000 h/men working every nesting season, and >630,000 km of beach patrolled in all these years. This investment has made possible >9300 applied metal tags to nesting and immature individuals along the coast of Campeche. Those tagging projects in Mexico that are considered successful have maintained their monitoring and tagging tasks continuously along all their life time, covering the same length of littoral for recording sea turtle individuals. All these programs were designed with particular scientific research objectives, focusing on the

Sea Turtle Research and Conservation. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821029-1.00003-9 Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

24

Sea Turtle Research and Conservation

field location and capture of individuals, and prioritizing the recapture of previously marked turtles, which represent the records of the highest value. These long-term programs provide valuable information to national decision-makers and contribute to attend international appointments as in the case of the Inter-American Convention (IAC) for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles. Systematic data analysis is crucial for the success of any tagging program, with conditions that must be conducive to the implementation of adaptive management strategies in the event that resources are scarce. Key tools that have served us to optimize resources and keep the tagging program effective are the identification of the beach segments with the highest nesting activity along the littoral of interest, as well as the knowledge of how nesters come out to lay their eggs during the reproductive season. These tools have helped us to prioritize and adjust monitoring activities to focus on the most strategic zones for resource optimization. The tagging program has provided us with demographic and reproductive data for the sea turtles. When evaluated and monitored in the long term, these data provide parameters such as the period between consecutive nesting events (inter-nesting period), the time between nesting seasons (remigration periods), fecundity per female, growth rates, and population recruitment.

The value of metal tagging studies Spatial and temporal data as monitoring efforts need to be sustained for at least 20 years to generate a robust sea turtle population trend assessment [2,3]. To maintain such a long-term project represents a huge effort in securing the necessary funding. We identified and tracked vulnerable beach nesting zones over the years and our robust tagging has tracked nesters to measure their adaptive capacity as they move to nest on adjacent beaches. This information has facilitated the implementation of adaptive management strategies in the face of drastic modifications of their nesting beaches and verifies that the females do not completely abandon the nesting region, but they may move to a more optimal segment of the beach [4]. Our tagging program also produces hard data for monitoring the impact of improper fishing practices on sea turtle populations. In terms of evaluating threats, the tagging data have defined a reference baseline of bycatch rates for immature individuals. We estimated that an average of 4 sea turtles are caught every 100,000 m2 of set gillnets a year in southeast Mexico [5]. Undoubtedly, the mark-recapture data have contributed strategic information on the spatial connectivity between nesting beaches and the feeding/residence areas at regional and international level. This information sets the geographic scale at which restoration and conservation efforts should be implemented and has also defined marine zones that are critical for strengthening the interventions to restore populations and maximize investment efforts in conservation. We have also been able to reveal connections between development areas of immature individuals and nesting beaches, which are hundreds of kilometers apart. For

Lessons From Three Decades of Hawksbill Metal Tagging From Campeche, Mexico

25

example, a juvenile hawksbill individual was initially tagged at Las Coloradas, Yucatan, and then was recorded nesting at Isla Aguada, Campeche, more than 15 years later, an estimated trip of 550 km (Gardu~ no-Andrade and Guzm
an-Hern
andez, unpublished data). An immature individual from North Campeche was also recorded nesting at Chachalacas, Veracruz, an estimated trip of 740 km (Gonz
alez-Díaz-Mir
on and Guzm
an-Hern
andez, unpublished data). The regional assessments we have done were only possible thanks to key collaborations with colleagues from adjacent critical habitats (in-water and sandy beach habitats). These led to the construction of a state database for the proper and efficient management of the tagging data [2]. Considerable information can be obtained from a correctly integrated and managed database, but it is critical to have a competent curator of the data with technical capability, a good understanding of the reproductive ecology and demographic dynamics of the species, and an understanding of the numerical analyses that are implemented. These characteristics of the curator are essential to do optimal revision and maintenance of the database, while providing feedback to the collaborative network. This strategy has been a key component in the success of larger, international projects [6]. In terms of spatial connectivity and the geographic range of movements of the turtles, a network analysis [7] demonstrated the intricate connections between nesting beaches. The stated restoration goals established in the recovery plans for this endangered species should be implemented at the same regional scale as the connectivity occurs, implying intersectoral and multinational efforts for these purposes. The tagging data are the needed input for constructing graphical products with base maps that elucidate the connectivity frame for sea turtle rookeries. We have learned that the hawksbill nesting populations on the west coast of the Yucatan Peninsula have their strongest linkage to adjacent nesting beaches, Punta Xen and Chenkan, while there are other connections that are occasional and weaker (viz. between Isla Aguada, at the entrance of the coastal lagoon Terminos Lagoon, and Chacahito, located inside the same lagoon but at the oposite extreme). This strong connection is also linked to the proportion of genetic haplotypes present at each beach [8]. The context set by the connection between rookeries may also lead to the establishment of local management units and promote stronger cooperative efforts for those connected beaches. It is easier to justify funding a sea turtle monitoring network than isolated efforts, especially under known connectivity scenarios as we present in this document; therefore, this information is part of the expected revenue that collaborative work brings, becoming a technical tool to justify funding in the long term.

Complementary research to metal tagging The connectivity elucidated by metal tagging may be also validated and enriched with other techniques and systems of individual/rookery tracking. Labastida-Estrada et al. [9] and Martínez-Arenas [8] reported a stronger relatedness between nesting females from beaches in Campeche than with individuals from other beaches, using molecular

26

Sea Turtle Research and Conservation

analysis. Two scientific tools of a totally different nature can complement one other to verify and clarify spatial and demographic relationships. Satellite telemetry is another scientific technique that has complemented tagging data, confirming several of the linkages between nesting beaches revealed by tagging data [10], and it has elucidated turtle connections with critical in-water habitats. With this complementarity, it can be concluded that most of the postnesting hawksbill females from Campeche move toward northwest and northeast corners of the Yucatan Peninsula. One last example of tagging options that has been validated in Campeche using the metal tagging program is the photo-identification technique. Labastida et al. [11] created a catalog of nesting females for southern Campeche and reached a certainty level of up to 90% for identification of individuals. This achievement was only possible thanks to the metal tag database corresponding to the nesting beaches.

Financial considerations It is not easy to sustain the cost of tagging sea turtles. Based on our experience, we estimated an overall average cost per each newly tagged female ranges from $50 to $300 USD; in this estimation we are including all the needed tasks for tagging one single nester. This variation depends on aspects such as beach longitude, annual abundance of turtles, type of vehicle used for monitoring, number of persons involved in the work, as well as the previous training on sea turtle tagging of the personnel in charge. The latter is a condition that strongly determines the annual efficiency of individual tagging in the program. Associated costs such as tag loss represent a key concern for the success of the research program. Depending on the sea turtle species and the experience of the personnel in charge, the annual tag loss may go from 15% (Chelonia mydas) to 25% (E. imbricata) [12,13]. This condition impacts both the annual cost of the project and its scientific integrity. In our experience, the proper training of the personnel working at nesting beaches and doing the tagging is key for reducing in some proportions the percentage of tag loss. We have also experienced that, whenever it is possible, having one trained person applying all the tags in the project is a good alternative for reducing tag loss, getting better outputs from the time and resources investment, and obtaining more quality data. At the end, this strategy will increase the certainty on the number of recaptures and the identification of tag-loss scars that are a proxy of previously tagged individuals that are remigrants. Worldwide, national recovery and restoration programs for sea turtle populations and their associated habitats are based mostly on demographic indicators that cannot be evaluated without a robust systematic monitoring program, which includes tagging efforts. Two examples of indicators for species restoration are the increase in reproductive individuals [14], and the statistical increase in the number of individuals in a decade [15]. It is therefore strategic to make shrewd investments and produce tangible proof and indicators of the national program’s performance to ensure continued support of long-term tagging projects.

Lessons From Three Decades of Hawksbill Metal Tagging From Campeche, Mexico

27

A common misbelief is that long-term monitoring efforts represent unnecessary expenditure only to satisfy scientific curiosity, while increasing the cost of conservation and restoration programs. A good long-term monitoring strategy will also help to identify circumstances that demand a timely intervention for protecting the investment in sea turtle tagging and conservation efforts, before the original investment is lost and new ones become even more expensive. While much vital demographic and reproductive data will not vary in periods of less than 5 years unless a natural disaster occurs, the requirement for baseline reference values demands regional and temporal contiguity over longer periods to be able to evaluate positive and negative impacts on populations and their habitats. When a tagging program is abandoned, several of the tagged individuals will continue to be registered for a few years, but the continuity of knowledge and life history being constructed over decades will be irreparably eroded in just 2e3 years. Therefore, we strongly recommend that funding agencies and governments value the economic and human investment in long-term tagging programs. These investments sustain spatially and temporally contiguous efforts to produce restoration and management indicators on which both sectors base their decisions and investments. Our experience shows recapture of individuals will take 5 years from the start of a project, given contiguous regional and temporal frames. Funding of ongoing projects will continue producing tangible outputs, making it always more expensive to start a new tagging program than sustain an existing one.

Final remarks Intrinsically, one can expect the highest informative value of long-term tagging databases to occur at the rookery and species level rather than at a single nesting beach. For this reason, working at the regional scale with standardized monitoring protocols and data collection and validation permits the integration of data from several collaborators. Long-term tagging/monitoring programs of endangered species are perfectly well justified, and the outcomes derived from their proper operation represent strategic legacies informing decision-makers and investors. Several nations have the objective of taking sea turtle populations off of endangered species lists, which requires indicators of progress toward this end. These indicators come from robust and systematic longterm tagging programs, and it is therefore imperative to sustain scientific and management efforts at regional and national levels. One of the biggest challenges is to create a national, or at least regional, database that is fed by most of the monitoring/tagging programs in the area of its scope. Transparent and fair terms of collaboration are essential for building this regional/national database, as are intuitive, participative, and clear procedures for contributing to the initiative. Finally, helpful tools that facilitate collaborator input and output can extend the benefits of networking on these important projects. Several of the collaborating stakeholders for regional or national databases need effective digital tools that facilitate

28

Sea Turtle Research and Conservation

the data systematization and queries for monthly reports as Mexican authorities request. Building a database that gives the users graphical and tabular tools built from queries of their own databases will motivate them to collaborate in regional and national initiatives. Also, the identification of minimum basic data that could be shared at regional or national level will help to build agreements and confidence of the use of data between the collaborators. At the same time, putting together at least basic biological data of the sea turtle populations and making that compilation accessible to collaborators will also add revenue to the investment of individual collaborations summing to a common wealth that is monitoring sea turtle populations at national levels.

References [1] G. Balazs, Factores a considerar en el marcado de tortugas marinas, in: K.L. Eckert, K.A. Bjorndal, F.A. Abreu-Grobois, M. Donnelly (Eds.), Técnicas de investigaci
on y manejo de tortugas marinas, UICN/CSE Grupo Especialista en Tortugas Marinas, Publicaci
on No. 4 (Traducci
on al espa~nol), 2000, pp. 116e125. [2] V. Guzm
an Hern
andez, E. Cuevas, P. García, T. Gonz
alez-Ruiz, Biological monitoring of sea turtles on nesting beach: datasets and basic evaluations, in: M.M. Lara-Uc, J.M. Rodríguez-Bar
on, R. Ríos-Mena (Eds.), Successful Conservations Strategies for Sea Turtles. Achievements and Challenges, Marine Biology, NOVA, 2015, pp. 41e77. [3] S.E. Piacenza, P.M. Richards, S. Heppell, Fathoming sea turtles: monitoring strategy evaluation to improve conservation status assessments, Ecological Applications 29 (6) (2019) e01942. [4] E. Cuevas, V. Guzm
an-Hern
andez, D. Lira, M. Frias-L
opez, P. Huerta-Rodríguez, D. Garrido-Ch
avez, M. L
opez-Castro, Influence of hard and soft structures for beach recovery and stabilization on sea turtle nesting habitats in the Yucatan peninsula, Mexico, in: J.A. Daniels (Ed.), Advances in Environmental Research, vol. 62, NOVA Publishers, 2018, pp. 41e82. [5] V. Guzm
an-Hern
andez, J.J. Velazco, P. García-Alvarado, Captura incidental de tortugas marinas asociadas con la pesca ribere~na en cinco puertos de Campeche, México, Final Report Defenders of Wildlife/APFFLT-CONANP, 2009, 30pp.þ2anexes. [6] Archie Carr Center for Sea Turtle Research, Cooperative Marine Turtle Tagging Program, 2014. https://accstr.ufl.edu/resources/tagging-program-cmttp/. (Accessed 20 01 20). [7] G.A. Pavlopoulos, M. Secrier, N. Moschopoulos, T.G. Soldatos, S. Kossida, J. Aerts, R. Schneider, P.G. Bagos, Using graph theory to analyze biological networks, BioData Mining (2011) 4e10. [8] A. Martínez-Arenas, Estructura Genética de la tortuga carey (Eretmochelys imbricata) en sitios de anidaci
on y alimentaci
on en el Atl
antico mexicano (Master in Science thesis), Postgraduate Program in Marine sciences and Limnology, UA-Mazatl
an, Universidad Nacional Aut
onoma de México, 2017, 56pp.þ4anexes. [9] E. Labastida-Estrada, S. Machkour-M’Rabet, P. Díaz-Jaimes, J.R. Cede~ no-V
azquez, Y. Hénaut, Genetic structure, origin, and connectivity between nesting and foraging areas of hawksbill turtles of the Yucatan Peninsula: a study for conservation and management, Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 29 (2) (2019) 211e222.

Lessons From Three Decades of Hawksbill Metal Tagging From Campeche, Mexico

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[10] E. Cuevas, F.A. Abreu-Grobois, V. Guzm
an-Hern
andez, M.A. Liceaga-Correa, R.P. Van Dam, Post-nesting migratory movements of hawksbill turtles Eretmochelys imbricata in waters adjacent to the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico, Endangered Species Research 10 (2008) 123e133. [11] E. Labastida-Estrada, P. Huerta-Rodríguez, D.T. Gonz
alez-Castillo, Foto-identificaci
on de tortugas carey y verde en playas de Chenkan e Isla Aguada, Campeche, México, in: E. Cuevas-Flores, V. Guzm
an-Hern
andez, J.J. Guerra-Santos, G.A. Rivas-Hern
andez (Eds.), El uso del conocimiento de las tortugas marinas como herramienta para la restauraci
on de sus poblaciones y habitats asociados, Universidad Aut
onoma del Carmen, 2019, pp. 89e98. [12] B.I. Gonz
alez-Garza, Aspectos reproductivos de la tortuga Carey (Eretmochelys imbricata, Linnaeus 1766) en Isla Holbox, Quintana Roo: 1990 e 2005 (Graduate thesis), Facultad de Ciencias Biol
ogicas, Universidad Aut
onoma de Nuevo Le
on, 2007. [13] V. del C. Méndez-Matos, V. Guzm
an-Hern
andez, G. Rivas-Hern
andez, Din
amica poblacional de hembras de Tortuga blanca (Chelonia mydas) en el estado de Campeche, México, in: E. Cuevas-Flores, V. Guzm
an-Hern
andez, J.J. Guerra-Santos, G.A. Rivas-Hern
andez (Eds.), El uso del conocimiento de las tortugas marinas como herramienta para la restauraci
on de sus poblaciones y habitats asociados, Universidad Aut
onoma del Carmen, 2019, pp. 171e188. [14] National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, 2019. https://www.nfwf.org/seaturtles/Documents/ sea-turtle-business-plan.pdf. (Accessed 20 01 20).
[15] Comisi
on Nacional de Areas Naturales Protegidas, 2009. https://www.gob.mx/cms/ uploads/attachment/file/350214/PACE_Tortuga_Carey.pdf. (Accessed 20 01 20).

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Sea Turtle Health Assessments: Maximizing Turtle Encounters to Better Understand Health

4

Annie Page-Karjian 1 , Justin R. Perrault 2 1 Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute, Florida Atlantic University, Fort Pierce, FL, United States; 2Loggerhead Marinelife Center, Juno Beach, FL, United States

Health assessment in context Within the health connections among humans, animals, and our shared ecosystems known as the One Health paradigm, wildlife health investigations play a critical role in linking biological, social, and environmental determinants that interact to affect organismal ability to cope with change [1,2]. Animal health has been defined as a “state of physical and psychological well-being and of productivity, including reproduction,” and disease is thus a nonbalanced perturbation of one or more body function(s), including responses to infectious and noninfectious agents [3]. Disease can lead to reduced growth rates or fecundity, increased metabolic requirements, and/or changing patterns of behavior, and can ultimately cause death [4]. In wildlife, health and disease are most effectively measured by evaluating characteristics of the animals and their ecosystems that affect their vulnerability and resilience [2]. Sea turtles are keystone species that are essential for critical ecological processes [5]. When such species are affected by disease, it can significantly impact the entire community of organisms within an ecosystem [6]. To effectively protect valuable wildlife assets including sea turtles, efforts should focus on preventing potential health risks, instead actively mitigating ongoing or existing health impacts [2]. The goal of population health surveillance is to help identify and manage potential threats to sea turtle health and provide data for management and conservation strategies [7]. Assessment of health indices refers to observable parameters that can be used to indicate the individual turtle’s or group’s state of health. Scanning (passive) surveillance usually involves investigating carcasses or tissues from dead turtles, and often corresponds to clinical surveillance of rehabilitation cases. Alternatively, targeted (active) surveillance involves proactively sampling dead or living turtles for the purpose of detecting a selected disease or pathogen(s), whether or not the turtles are sick [7,8]. It is critical that targeted surveillance efforts, which are often crosssectional studies involving point sampling, produce large enough sample sizes to generate reliable prevalence estimates [9].

Sea Turtle Research and Conservation. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821029-1.00004-0 Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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Conservation medicine: Biologists and veterinarians working together Sea turtle health investigations are best served by a multidisciplinary and integrative approach including surveillance and research, led by collaborative teams of biologists and veterinarians or other health professionals [10]. Within the framework of field projects, sea turtle biologists, field ecologists, and population managers provide invaluable knowledge of local sea turtle populations and ecological dynamics, while veterinarians contribute detailed knowledge of physiology, host-pathogen interactions, and immunity. This framework involves enacting the principles of Conservation Medicine, a discipline based on the One Health paradigm which has been described as “the application of medicine to augment the conservation of wildlife and ecosystems.” [11]. Biologists and veterinarians should both fully participate in project planning and realization; thus, veterinarian’s involvement should not be limited to animal emergencies or critical wildlife immobilization events [7,12]. Holistically understanding the role of environmental changes in sea turtle disease emergence and persistence requires understanding issues related to disease ecology, such as the influence of disease on population dynamics, the effects of chronic and more subtle diseases on sea turtle fitness, and the effects of disease on small or isolated populations. Through the tenants of disease ecology, made possible by biologists and veterinarians working synergistically together, subtleties such as the effects of pathogens on individuals can be translated into population effects that can be mitigated through management strategies. Collaborations between experts in population health and disease ecology increase our understanding of complex systems, such as relationships between environmental factors and infection, clinical disease expression, or disease severity within populations [6]. As the field of sea turtle health investigation and the accompanying public interest in sea turtle health issues continue to grow, the result is a more diverse group of people with various backgrounds and skill sets working together to develop solutions to wildlife disease issues. Such collaborative work is essential; it can be enriching for everyone involved, and lead to elegant, multidisciplinary, comprehensive studies that bring about true changes to benefit animals and people. These collaborative interactions may inevitably also lead to some communication problems that can arise as people from various fields may have received different training and approach issues in different ways based on their background [6]. Mutual respect for each participant’s field of expertise and open communication are critical for effective and productive collaboration. The contributions of all parties should be fully delineated, agreed upon in writing, and acknowledged, from study design and project planning to publication of results.

Generating baseline health data The initial step of beginning to assess the health of sea turtle populations is to generate population-specific baseline health data to form the foundation of a health database and

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to create an archived sample collection that is representative of that population over time. Thus, it is essential to store data and samples in ways that enable later use in retrospective analyses [8]. Baseline health data and sample archives will enable managers to understand pathogen distribution, effects, and epidemiology; assess ecosystem disturbances over time and appreciate the impacts of climate and other environmental changes on complex systems; distinguish introduced and/or emergent diseases; and understand any existing causal associations between pathogen(s) and disease [7,13]. Archiving samples and data allows us to learn from the past and contributes to saving resources and increasing sample sizes in future surveys [7]. If a tissue sample archive is not available for retrospective analysis, samples can be accumulated over several years until a required sample size is achieved [8]. Once baseline health data are established, to begin to assess sea turtle population health over time, we can examine systematic differences in health across populations, investigate biological pathways linking determinants to health outcomes, and try to better understand how different determinants influence health outcomes over time and throughout a turtle’s life cycle [7]. An effective, comprehensive sea turtle health surveillance program will combine various complementary aspects of health investigation, such as scanning and targeted surveillance approaches with archiving of biological samples, field and laboratory studies, outbreak investigation, predictive modeling, and risk assessment. Sampling campaigns should also include systematic collection of metadata because health assessment data can be influenced by various environmental (e.g., location, climate, habitat quality) and individual (e.g., sex, life-stage class, physiological state) factors [7]. If possible, a priori power analyses of sample size should be carried out prior to commencing health assessments [14]; the resource equation approach has shown utility with wildlife studies [15]. Sample sizes should be large enough (N
20) to establish blood analyte reference intervals, with larger sample sizes preferred to generate more robust reference ranges. Reference intervals allow us to understand changes in blood analytes in response to health and disease through comparisons to blood analytes of normal, healthy individuals [16,17]. Values that fall outside of reference ranges can then be used to assess disease or other physiological changes [18,19]. The American Society for Veterinary Clinical Pathology provides reference interval guidelines that should be followed for data publication [18,20].

Noninvasive techniques to assess wild sea turtle populations While the species, study objectives, and environmental conditions involved in a sea turtle health study will dictate the types of samples and collection methods, in some cases noninvasive health assessment is the preferable or required approach to learn about disease transmission and dynamics. Noninvasive health assessment is defined here as the collection of samples for health assessment without the need for turtle capture or immobilization. This approach has many advantages, including avoidance of stress or risk of potential harm to animals (and humans) during turtle capture and restraint activities.

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In certain types of studies, noninvasive sample collection is required to avoid sampling bias [21]. Alternative methods for assessing sea turtle health information include evaluating data from animals slaughtered for food, surveillance of diseased animals admitted to rehabilitation centers, performing clinical examinations within the context of animal translocation, photo-trapping, infrared thermal imaging, utilization of museum specimens, and questionnaires and interviews with wildlife managers and hunters to obtain information on disease occurrence [7]. By combining these data with geographic information system technology and spatial data analysis, we can better understand and predict regional disease exposure risks [21].

Preparation, study design, and sample collection Sea turtle health assessments require significant planning. Considerations prior to commencing health assessments include acquisition of funding and permits (if required) at the state, federal, and international levels. Working with threatened and endangered species is a privilege, and assessing animal health comes with the cost of stress to the animal [2]. Therefore, efforts to maximize each sampling encounter should occur so that as much as possible can be learned from every individual animal included in the study. Planning is essential to ensure proper sample handling and processing and to produce accurate and reliable data. Samples that are collected or analyzed improperly result in wasted time and funding, and resultant data often will not pass peer review for publication. Given the growing number of analytical tests that may be performed with biological samples, it can be tempting to include a broad range of parameters and then derive meaning from the results. However, it is the research question and experimental design, not the analytical tools used, that should produce meaningful results. Why, what type of, and how data should be collected are key questions that need to be addressed when designing a study. Molecular techniques and other advanced tools may then be applied thoughtfully to answer important questions [21]. Datasheets should be designed to include, at minimum: date and time the animal was encountered (including pursuit times if relevant); personnel information; location/GPS coordinates of the sampling/capture site; species; tag numbers/information; measurements including curved and straight carapace lengths and widths; body mass; life-stage class (e.g., immature, mature, juvenile, subadult, adult); physiological state (e.g., foraging, nesting, migrating, debilitated); sex; environmental conditions; samples collected; photographs; and descriptions of external physical examination (e.g., presence of injuries or developmental abnormalities, abnormal scute patterns, epibiota) [19]. Other information to consider is the time between capture and blood sampling, as stress hormones (e.g., corticosterone) can increase within minutes of capture initiation [22]. We prefer to print datasheets on Rite in the Rain paper (RainWriter, Hayden, Idaho, USA), which does not disintegrate in wet environments. Sampling lists, including number of aliquots of each sample type, should also be planned beforehand.

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Cryovials and cryogenic storage boxes are necessary, in addition to cryomarkers that don’t fade with moisture or freezing. Also required are coolers with ice and/or icepacks in which to store samples. Sample storage is important: ultralow freezers (80 C) are preferred for storing biological samples long-term, to minimize temporal- and storagerelated decay over time [23]. Sample list review and data entry should be performed on the day of collection, as errors can occur when entering data days after collection. Freezer organization, including documentation of sample placement within the freezer, is critical to avoid future frustration in locating samples.

Pain and stress reduction techniques: the three Rs Prior to beginning health-based studies using live animals, all efforts should be made to minimize pain brought about by sample collection and enact the pain and stress reduction principles of the Three R’s: replace, refine, and reduce [24]. Two such sea turtle studies employed the “refinement” principle of the 3 Rs by examining salt gland secretions as a potential surrogate to contaminant and metabolomic analysis in blood in an effort to avoid pain associated with venipuncture [25,26]. Additionally, “reductionary” principles can be enacted with health studies through power analyses or the resource equation approach, to keep sample sizes to a minimum while still achieving project objectives [15]. Although sea turtles are typically outwardly stoic, they are wild animals and interacting with humans is a stressful event for them. Thus, it is always best to remain quiet when interacting with sea turtles, and only speak when necessary. Quick, yet careful sampling techniques using conservative movements should be employed, and the turtle should be returned to its natural environment as quickly as possible. A maximum handling time should be predetermined and adhered to for each turtle encounter. Gloves should always be worn to protect both the researcher and the animal from zoonotic pathogens. To prevent hyperthermia, sea turtles should be kept shaded and moist during sampling (i.e., covered with a cool wet towel), especially in temperatures >26e27 C (w80 F). In cooler environments, avoid using damp towels and instead use water- or petroleum-based lubricants (e.g., Vaseline) to prevent desiccation of the turtle’s skin. Environmental temperatures 100%) at five of the six reefs, while one had reef habitats showing advanced decline. Several of the populations within these reefs are growing at 150% to 222% per year, indicating that

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many new recruits are arriving at the reefs, and that these reefs may not yet have reached carrying capacity. Sites with high turtle growth rates generally had the lowest variability, suggesting these sites are the most stable, with turtles immigrating and remaining at these sites. Sites with low turtle growth rates had higher variability indicating either greater instability or that habitats became unsuitable. Combined high growth rates and high variability indicated high recruitment, although turtles did not remain in the area.

Lessons Learned This study has shown that opportunistically collected PID data can be used to create real-time views of turtle abundances and survival in local reefs, and can begin to fill gaps in scientific data. This PID project has harnessed a large workforce for a costeffective, noninvasive research project to study turtle population dynamics and growth. This project has also given us an opportunity to increase environmental awareness among community members and tourists and to inspire both groups to protect turtles by increasing their economic value. Based on preliminary analyses, populations are stable or growing at many reefs, and the Maldives appears to provide excellent habitats for recruiting juvenile hawksbills. The lack of robust abundance baseline data from the archipelago makes the detection of a decline challenging. However, this work underlines the importance of simple, long-term monitoring programs that contribute reliable information to help assess the conservation status and efficacy of management strategies. Data such as these can feed into the Maldivian government’s management plans, inform future marine protected area creation, and highlight areas of concern where intense monitoring should be focused.

Conclusion Despite the differences in the three studies presented, some commonalities have emerged. All three studies showed that PID can be a cost-effective and noninvasive way of gathering a great deal of information on the study of animals. However, care must be taken to inform participants about the possibility of disturbing the animals and changing their behavior. Because all three studies were in-water investigations, we determined that for the PID data to be meaningful and useful in this context, a minimum amount of information is required including the dive site name, information about the turtle (approximate size, sex if distinguishable, flipper tag number, life stage), submitter name and email, and the submission of as high-quality photographs as possible. The number of participants in these citizen scienceebased studies was variable over time, and required substantial (although different) efforts from the research teams in following-up with contributors to ensure data consistency. If divers are only partially committed or are only engaged in the process for the initial stimulation of contributing to research, contributors will often reach a low level of input saturation, and will quickly abandon the process, no matter how noble or worthy the project may appear.

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This situation may lead to sporadic data inputs (whether in time or space), which may then be difficult to analyze, as long time series are needed to determine survival, emigration, growth rates, and other important factors for species conservation and recovery. In sea turtle research, PID extends beyond the ability to identify individual turtles within their marine habitats. Relatively new developments and tools in the realm of PID are allowing researchers to use remote re-sightings provided by citizen scientists to track individuals and evaluate their home ranges, as well as understand population dynamics of selected groups that reside in specific reef or sea grass habitats. However, when we consider the ability to collect data through smartphone and web-based applications, we begin to imagine new ways in which PID could be used to further sea turtle research. One example might be to use photo data to track individual turtles along their migration routes wherever they come in proximity to SCUBA diving activities. These data could provide detailed information on turtle activities while on their migrations to and from their nesting grounds. Another example is in identifying individuals through a global image database that actively crawls the internet mining images that could then be used to identify individual turtles around the world [26] whenever the database is queried from a mobile phone or other electronic device [26]. In this case, the idea is to develop portfolios on individual turtles and provide real-time metadata information on everything from laying history and migration routes to disease exposure and genetic links to other turtles. The field and laboratory applications for PID in sea turtle research are still in their relative infancy, but are an emerging tool to improve sea turtle research and conservation on a global scale.

References [1] A.S. Carpentier, C. Jean, M. Barret, A. Chassagneux, S. Ciccione, Stability of facial scale patterns on green sea turtles Chelonia mydas over time: a validation for the use of a photoidentification method, Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 476 (2016) 15e21. [2] S.G. Dunbar, H.E. Ito, Picture Perfect: Photography for Hands-Off Turtle Monitoring the State of the World’s Sea Turtles (SWOT), X, 2015, pp. 10e11. [3] S.G. Dunbar, H.E. Ito, K. Bahjri, S. Dehom, L. Salinas, Recognition of juvenile hawksbills Eretmochelys imbricata through face scale digitization and automated searching, Endangered Species Research 26 (2014) 137e146. [4] G. Schofield, K.A. Katselidis, P. Dimopoulos, J.D. Pantis, Investigating the viability of photo-identification as an objective tool to study endangered sea turtle populations, Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 360 (2008) 103e108. [5] J. Reisser, M. Proietti, P. Kinas, I. Sazima, Photographic identification of sea turtles: method description and validation, with an estimation of tag loss, Endangered Species Research 5 (2008) 73e82. [6] J.L. Williams, S.J. Pierce, M. Fuentes, M. Hamann, Effectiveness of recreational divers for monitoring sea turtle populations, Endangered Species Research 26 (2015) 209e219.

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[7] S. Ciccione, J. Bourjea, Nesting of green turtles in Saint Leu, Reunion Island, Marine Turtle Newsletter 112 (2006) 1e3. [8] H. Sauvignet, A. Pavitrin, S. Ciccione, D. Roos, Premiers résultats des campagnes de dénombrements aériens des tortues marines sur la cote ouest de La Réunion, Bulletin Phaeton 11 (2000) 8e12.
[9] C. Michalowski, Etude de l’indice d’abondance et des facteurs de répartition d’une population de tortues vertes, Chelonia mydas, par la méthode du transect aérien sur la cote ouest de l’ıle de la Réunion (Océan Indien), Biologos 6 (2007) 15e28. [10] C. Jean, S. Ciccione, K. Ballorain, J.-Y. Georges, J. Bourjea, Ultralight aircraft surveys reveal marine turtle population increases along the west coast of Reunion Island, Oryx 44 (2010) 223e229. [11] C. Jean, S. Ciccione, E. Talma, K. Ballorain, J. Bourjea, Photo-identification method for green and hawksbill turtles e first results from Reunion, Indian Ocean Turtle Newsletter 11 (2010) 8e13. [12] A. Chassagneux, C. Jean, J. Bourjea, S. Ciccione, Unraveling behavioral patterns of foraging hawksbill and green turtles using photo-identification, Marine Turtle Newsletter 137 (2013) 1e5.
[13] K. Ballorain, Ecologie trophique de la tortue verte Chelonia mydas dans les herbiers marins et algueraies du sud-ouest de l’océan Indien, 2010. [14] P. Chambault, M. Dalleau, J.-B. Nicet, P. Mouquet, K. Ballorain, C. Jean, S. Ciccione, J. Bourjea, Contrasted habitats and individual plasticity drive the fine scale movements of juvenile green turtles in coastal ecosystems, Movement Ecology 8 (2020) 1e15. [15] S. Colwell, Entrepreneurial MPAs: dive resorts as managers of coral reef marine protected areas, InterCoast Newsletter (1999) 4e5. [16] D.S. Baumbach, S.G. Dunbar, Animal mapping using a citizen-science web-based GIS in the Bay Islands, Honduras, Marine Turtle Newsletter 152 (2017) 16e19. [17] D.S. Baumbach, E.C. Anger, N.A. Collado, S.G. Dunbar, Identifying sea turtle home ranges utilizing citizen-science data from novel web-based and smartphone GIS applications, Chelonian Conservation and Biology 18 (2) (2019) 133e144. [18] M.D. Berube, S.G. Dunbar, K. R€utzler, W.K. Hayes, Home range and foraging ecology of juvenile Hawksbill sea turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata) on inshore reefs of Honduras, Chelonian Conservation and Biology 11 (1) (2012) 33e43. [19] J.P. Crall, C.V. Stewart, T.Y. Berger-Wolf, D.I. Rubenstein, S.R. Sundaresan, HotSpotter e patterned species instance recognition, in: 2013 IEEE Workshop on Applications of Computer Vision (WACV), 15e17 Jan. 2013, 2013, pp. 230e237. [20] S.G. Dunbar, D.S. Baumbach, M.K. Wright, C.T. Hayes, J. Holmberg, J.P. Crall, T.Y. Berger-Wolf, C.V. Stewart, HotSpotter: less manipulating, more learning, and better vision for turtle photo identification, in: 37th Annual Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation, 15e20 April, 2017, Las Vegas, NV, 2017, p. 77. [21] H. Zahir, A. Hafiz, Sea turtles in the Maldives, in: National Report for the IUCN MTSG Northern Indian Ocean Sea Turtle Workshop and Strategic Planning Session, 13e18 January, Bhubaneswar, India, 1997, p. 16. [22] J. Frazier, S. Salas, D. N.T.H, Marine Turtles in the Maldives Archipelago, Ministry of Fisheries and Agriculture, Malé, Maldives, 1984, p. 53. [23] J.A. Mortimer, M. Donnelly, Eretmochelys imbricata . The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2008: e.T8005A12881238 (IUCN SSC Marine Turtle Specialist Group), 2008, p. 121. ˇ

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[24] W.L. Kendall, K.H. Pollock, The robust design in capture-recapture studies: a review and evaluation by Monte Carlo simulation, in: D.R. McCullough, R.H. Barrett (Eds.), Wildlife 2001: Populations, Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, 1992, pp. 31e43. [25] J.L. Laake, RMark: an R Interface for Analysis of Capture-Recapture Data with MARK, 2013. [26] A. Leslie, C. Hof, D. Amoraocho, T.Y. Berger-Wolf, J. Holmberg, C.V. Stewart, S.G. Dunbar, C. Jean, The Internet of Turtles, The State of the World’s Sea Turtles (SWOT), XI, 2015, pp. 12e13.

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Drones for Turtles Thomas Reischig, Hiltrud Cordes Turtle Foundation, Cologne, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany

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Introduction and background The Cape Verde archipelago hosts the world’s third largest nesting population of the loggerhead turtle, with about two-third of the population nesting on Boa Vista island [1]. The population is classified by the IUCN as “endangered” [2] and belongs to the 11 most threatened sea turtle populations in the world [3]. Anthropogenic influences such as targeted hunting or bycatch in fishing operations, pollution at sea and on the beaches, and uncontrolled tourism development are contributing significantly to sea turtle and hatchling mortality. However, the most serious threat is poaching of nesting females for their meat. In 2007 alone, 1200 turtles were reported to be killed on the beaches of Boa Vista, representing about a third of that year’s nesting population [1]. Now, with support by the local government, three NGOs (Cabo Verde Natura 2000, BIOS.CV, and Turtle Foundation) and two community-based initiatives are actively protecting about 60 km of nesting beach on Boa Vista by conventional nighttime beach patrolling. Until 2017, nesting female mortality on the island was reduced by about 80% compared to the 2007 number. In addition to the beach patrols, all conservation NGOs on Boa Vista have been carrying out various activities in the areas of environmental education, public relations, community participation, and advocacy. In 2017, the three groups joined forces forming the “Projeto Tartaruga Cabo Verde” in order to increase effectiveness by distributing tasks and focal points. In the long term, these measures are intended to make expensive and intensive beach patrols dispensable. However, changes in the population’s awareness and attitudes take timedit is therefore not yet foreseeable when the beaches can be left alone or with only a minimum of random checks carried out by the local authorities. Further, poaching activity on remote beaches with high nesting density in the north and east of Boa Vista remained high. In 2017, 235 poaching cases were reported on Boa Vista. Of these, 214 cases alone occurred within a range of only about 15 km in the east of Boa Vista, where about 50% of the island’s nesting activity takes place. This area is monitored, however logistical and geographical conditions prevented achieving the goal of a 95% reduction in poaching as work on other beaches were able to accomplish. On the other beaches, poaching still occurs in the range of 5e35 cases per year in total, since even closely meshed patrols can be outwitted by experienced poachers.

Sea Turtle Research and Conservation. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821029-1.00006-4 Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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Finally, conventional patrolling of many kilometers of beach is expensive. On Boa Vista, all NGOs together operate eight temporary beach camps during the nesting season, involving about 100 seasonally hired rangers and other staff. The costs for salaries and logistical efforts have to be covered every year, thus straining the fundraising capabilities of all organizations involved. This structure entails a considerable risk for severe setbacks in conservation success when fundraising is difficult and current patrolling schemes cannot be maintained. Taken together, alternative techniques that can supplement or even replace conventional beach patrolling at lower cost are highly desirable. These techniques should have the following objectives: • • •

Improving the effectiveness of existing beach patrols by elimination of residual poaching activity, Covering surveillance gaps in cases where, for financial, logistical, and geographical reasons, beach patrols cannot be sufficiently implemented, and Gradual replacing of successful conventional beach programs by more cost-effective methods while maintaining the reduced rate of poaching.

On Boa Vista, local conservation authorities launched an effort to control sea turtle poaching called the Sea Turtle Surveillance Task Force (STSTF). Turtle Foundation assists this initiative through developing and implementing new techniques, providing staff, educating personnel, and knowledge transfer. The concept of the STSTF involves the activities of coordinated special teams using night-vision drone technology [4], ground-based night-vision equipment, and search dogs working closely together with the local law enforcement authorities. While previous strategies focused primarily on prevention of poaching activities by the presence of rangers and volunteers on the beaches, who were not supposed to intervene with the poachers, the more active approach of the STSTF involves detection, intervention, and prosecution of poaching activities. This chapter focuses on the drone project, since this is currently the most developed part of the project.

Drone usage in sea turtle conservation and research In recent years, unmanned aerial vehicle (UAVs) or drones have become increasingly useful for a number of applications in sea turtle research and conservation. These applications include population and activity surveys on nesting beaches and foraging grounds, habitat mapping, beach profiling, and monitoring of anthropogenic influences (reviewed by Ref. [5]). The rapid development of technical possibilities combined with simplicity of operation and attractive prices now makes drone technology accessible to nonexperts. Previously, drone systems required considerable technical knowledge to set them up and operate. Now, highly integrated and portable systems are available that are easy to use and deliver professional quality video and photo material. In the meantime, there are more possibilities for image evaluation, including the use of artificial intelligence for image processing and object recognition that can be useful for, e.g., automated counting of sea turtles on arribada beaches or in shallow water [6].

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Several efforts are currently underway to deploy drones in direct antipoaching or other law enforcement activities in nature conservation, e.g. in Africa to protect rhinos and elephants [7]. However, despite some successes deterring poachers [8], apparently the big breakthrough of this technology is still missing, and there is still hardly any evidence that poachers were arrested solely based on drone surveillance [9]. One reason for this is the large areas that have to be screened regularly, which poses technical and logistical challenges as well as methodological difficulties in detecting poachers on the ground. Nevertheless, while not being a magic bullet, drone technology is already significantly expanding the possibilities in controlling wildlife poaching in appropriate cases. Technical and strategic developments will likely open further areas of application and demonstrate the power of this technology. In the field of sea turtle protection, there have been few applications of drones for direct poaching control to date. Since sea turtles mostly nest at night, poachers going for turtle meat rather than eggs are also active at night. Therefore, night-vision technology for drones is needed, which is still expensive and requires advanced skills of the drone operators and support team. By the time we started our project, no comparable initiative was known to us; only later we learned about a still unpublished night-vision UAV project for sea turtle conservation started in Surinam (Michael Hiwat, personal communication). Compared to the situation in mainland Africa, where large areas have to be monitored, drone surveillance on beaches offers a compelling advantage. Instead of timeconsuming and energy-intensive scanning in two-dimensional space, the drone has more or less just to track the beach line while still being able to overlook a strip up to several hundred meters wide in the hinterland of the beach. This allows for repeated and closely meshed monitoring of several kilometers of beach during a particular surveillance mission. Therefore, we estimated the probability to encounter poachers during mission flights sufficiently high enough to justify the start of a sea turtle antipoaching project with night-vision UAVs.

Challenges for antipoaching drone operations on Boa Vista While planning the deployment of night-vision drones for antipoaching missions on Boa Vista, we had to consider a variety of challenges. We roughly divided them into social and legal challenges, technical challenges, and strategic challenges. Social and legal challenges: • • •

Drone usage had to be discussed with and approved by stakeholders including local communities and collaborating conservation organizations. Drone antipoaching missions had to be approved by local governmental bodies including nature conservation agencies and law enforcement authorities. Close collaboration with law enforcement authorities is mandatory because antipoaching drone missions without tangible consequences for the perpetrators are useless.

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Drone missions had to be in accordance with local flight regulations, especially since this work requires activities like flying at night and flying beyond visual range (BVR), which in most countries are both subject to governmental approval if not completely forbidden.

Technical and operational challenges: • • • • • •

Since turtles nest at night, poachers are active at night. Therefore, a suitable sensor technology and affordable sensor/drone platform combination had to be found. The system should be able to operate in distances covering several kilometers while streaming video uninterrupted with sufficient quality. The system should provide sufficient airtime for distance and observation flights before the battery needs to be changed. The system should be resilient against the harsh local environmental conditions such as sand, salt, moisture, and wind. The system should be easy to transport and to set up on the operation location. The system should be easy to operate and to maintain by nonexpert people who receive basic education for this job.

Strategic challenges: •

About 30 km of high-risk beaches on Boa Vista have to be covered with drone surveillance. However, only a fraction of this area can be covered during one surveillance mission per night. Thus, suitable strategies have to be developed in order to operate effectively without alerting the poachers as much as possible.

Project setup The preparation for the drone project involved various discussions with stakeholders to raise awareness for the project and to clarify both its expected outcomes and limitations. Toward the end of this phase, in collaboration with ConservationDrones.org, an organization that develops drone applications for nature conservation, we gave a theoretical and practical presentation of a night-vision drone system was given to governmental and nongovernmental stakeholders. At this time, the local nature agency set up the Task Force, which aims to intensify monitoring of nesting beaches beyond the conservative beach patrolling activities of the local NGOs. This measure was motivated by a new Cape Verdean law enacted in spring 2018, which declared the killing of sea turtles an official crime and imposed heavy fines and imprisonment for repeat offenders. Previously, turtle poaching was merely an administrative offense and hardly ever prosecuted by the authorities. Turtle Foundation committed to deliver consulting services as well as technical, logistical, and human resources for the development of the new STSTF. Besides operating a drone unit, the project envisions the establishment of a conservation dog unit, with dogs trained for detecting parts of poached sea turtles in the field and other locations such as airports and harbors. While the dogs and their handlers were trained in Switzerland and first deployed in Boa Vista in 2019, the drone team started its activity during the first half of the 2018 nesting season, closely working with the local police.

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Clarifying legal issues of drone operation on Boa Vista In response to the popularity of drone usage also for leisure activities, which often causes conflicts with other interests, many countries have issued tight drone regulations in recent years. In most countries, flying drones is forbidden at night and BVR. This means that the drone has to always stay in the line of sight of the operator, even if it is technically possible to fly the drone with help of the streamed video of its camera in the so-called first-person-view (FPV). This regulation restricts the operational distance to a few hundred meters under good visual conditions. However, until now there is no special law in place on Cape Verde regulating drone operations, and all flight activities are under control of the national civil aviation agency Agência de Aviaç~ao Cabo Verde (AAC). We formally applied for BVR/FPV flying drone at night for antipoaching missions, and received approval under certain obligations, such as always informing the tower of the local airport the time and location of drone missions.

Selecting sensor/camera For night vision, in principle three different technologies come into question: residual light amplifiers, near infrared cameras, and thermal infrared cameras. Residual light amplifiers work with light in the visual spectrum and require a minimum of light; they are used, e.g., in night-vision goggles but hardly in commercial drones. Near infrared cameras are dependent on an infrared light source, thus are range limited, and therefore, also not established in drones. Commonly, the technology of choice are cameras detecting thermal infrared radiation, which work with a microbolometer sensor detecting long infrared wave lengths in the waveband between 7 and 14 mm. Since thermal infrared is emitted from the surface of all objects, modulated in frequency and intensity by their temperature, thermal cameras “see” in complete darkness. This technology is established for the use on drones in various applications. During our tests in April 2018, we confirmed that on the beaches of Boa Vista the heat signature of a human body is detectable against background under general local conditions.

Selecting an UAV system and additional equipment When selecting a suitable combination of thermal camera and drone platform, we had to weight a number of technical aspects against the costs, which ranged from several thousand to several tens of thousands of US dollars. Since financial resources were limited and the project had a clear experimental character, we selected the DJI Inspire 1 V2.0 quadcopter drone in combination with the Zenmuse XT thermal camera with a resolution of 640
512 pixels. This camera is actually the established Tau2 camera produced by FLIR Systems (USA) integrated in a three-axis gimbal for DJI drones. The gimbal attaches the camera to the drone while compensating for drone movements and stabilizing the image. The drone is controlled via a remote control unit to which a standard tablet computer (Apple iPad) is attached. The tablet runs the software (DJI Go) for controlling various

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functions of the drone, including camera operation, and displays the live video feed from the drone’s camera. The drone platform, thermal camera, remote control, tablet computer, and software form a highly integrated system that is both affordable and easy to use, and which can also be learned by sufficiently talented people without special technical background. The main drawback of this system is the limited flight time, which rarely exceeded 12 min in field conditions while leaving enough reserve for getting home and landing. We compensated for this disadvantage as much as possible by optimizing the surveillance flights to the point where they can be safely completed up to the maximum distance and back in the limited flight time and by purchasing enough batteries to allow for subsequent mission flights. Additionally, we purchased a conventional 60 Wh car battery and a voltage converter to recharge the drone batteries in the field. With the combination of seven drone batteries and the car battery and recharger, we were able to complete up to 12 to 13 single mission flights per night. The operational range for a flight was 2 to 2.5 km (approx. 1.2 to 1.6 mi). With regard to the energy supply for regular drone operations over several months in a remote location, it must also be considered that the drone batteries have a limited lifetime, often not much more than 100 flights. Additional equipment included basic tools, cleaning material for the drone, spare parts (propellers), boxes, and pockets for the equipment. For the drone, the remote control, and the batteries we purchased a tightly closing, durable, padded plastic case, which enables safe water- and dust-proof transport on the open loading area of the pickup truck. The ground is usually covered with sand at the sites of operation, so we used a 6
3 m plastic tarp for safe take-off and landing, which was attached to the ground with iron sticks. For transport of team and equipment, we used a 4
4 pickup (Toyota Hilux), which provided enough space for five people (two drone operators and policemen/ground team) and for the equipment stored in boxes on the loading platform.

Drone operation For this kind of sensitive activity, finding skilled, trustworthy, and reliable team members is the key. At the end of an application and evaluation procedure testing several candidates, we found two drone operators who were thoroughly educated for their tasks. The training included theoretical instruction and performing a first flight practice with a drone simulator and with toy drones. The training with the actual mission drone started from daytime flights in the line of sight with basic flight and landing exercises. Advanced training included FPV flights and night flights in controlled conditions. Since landing at night with the view of the thermal camera only turned out to be the most critical flight phase, suitable landing procedures had to be developed in which the operators were thoroughly trained. It is extremely important to always keep an eye on the remaining flight time in order to enable a safe return home from a distance and still have enough time for a safe landing on the tarp under all conditions. A very helpful tool for recording and reviewing flight activities is the cloud service Airdata.com (Airdata UAV, Inc.), which allows uploading and online storage of flight

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data recorded by the drone operating software. Among comprehensive technical data that is recorded continuously during flight, the data includes a cartographic representation of the flight path, which can be overlaid over a satellite map of the operation area. This makes it easy to review situations, detect operational and technical sources of issues, and discuss flights and problems with the drone operators even if the instructor or supervisor is not on location.

Flying a night mission For every nighttime beach surveillance mission, we selected a distinct beach area covering several kilometers of connected nesting beaches among roughly 30 km of high priority beaches. After the drone operators and the ground team approached the beach area of operation in the late evening or early night, we parked the car facing the main wind direction, and prepared the landing tarp in front of it. Finally, we prepared the drone equipment including car battery and voltage converter for recharging the drone batteries and made the drone with the thermal camera flight ready. The first flight usually took place after dusk and followed the beach line straight in one direction at a travel speed of about 40e50 km/h. We flew it at least 100e200 m landwards from the water line, while maintaining an altitude of 50e80 m over ground. During the flight, the pilot in command could monitor a detailed thermal image of the scene on the screen of the tablet, which allowed easy orientation on landmarks such as the shoreline or other topographical structures. In order to be able to react quickly to any situation, the flights were always carried out in full manual mode without automatic following of predefined flight paths. During the flight, the pilot in command paid attention to heat signatures in the landscape that could indicate the presence of people. Through a connected field monitor, the second operator was also able to watch the scene, taking the advantage that, unlike the pilot, he could concentrate exclusively on the image. During such a flight (called by us “surveillance flight”), the pilot could maneuver the drone to inspect any structure or situation of interest, including trails leading from nearby hills down to the beach site, which are known to be used by poachers. After around 2e2.5 km, if nothing suspicious was recognized, the pilot turned the drone to fly back to the operation location while maintaining the initial speed and altitude, either following the path of the outward flight or, depending on the topographical and strategical situation, flying some 100 m landwards in parallel to increase the surveilled area. If we detected human presence on the beach during a surveillance flight, the flight profile was changed from “surveillance flight” mode to “observation flight” mode, meaning that the drone stayed with the person(s) or slowly circled around them to observe their behavior. In general, during the observation flight, we maintained a distance of at least 150 m from the person. At this distance, especially near the sea, the drone was barely audible and thus remained unrecognized, since additionally, we also covered the position lights of the drone with tape.

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In general, we left about 25% of the battery capacity after the return home to allow a safe landing. Directly after noting flight information and changing the battery, the drone team performed the same flight profile in the other direction of the beach. Thereby, around 4e5 km of nesting beach could be surveilled from one operation location. After finishing the second flight and confirming that no unidentified person was at or near the beach, the team connected the empty batteries to the charger and paused for 15e30 min before repeating the flight schedule in both directions of the beach. Generally, if everything went normal, after midnight the mission was ended, and the team returned home. There, the equipment was thoroughly cleaned, and all used batteries were connected to chargers to be prepared for the next mission. Since on Boa Vista rain generally occurs only around September, the most important environmental factor influencing drone missions is the northeasterly trade wind. Fortunately, the loggerhead turtle nesting season corresponds with the season of lower wind speeds. However, constant wind speeds over 10 m/s, which is the limit for safely flying this kind of drone, are not rare, then forcing the drone to stay on the ground on those nights.

Results and strategic considerations While the essential technical requirements for safe and successful nighttime drone missions were established in 2018, the strategical aspects of the project are still in development. In 2018, the drone unit was the first active part of the STSTF. It started its service with first live missions in August 2018, while the turtle nesting season was already in full swing and the poachers were active. On Boa Vista, poaching activity occurs mainly on about 30 km of high-risk beaches in the northwest, northeast, and east of the island out of a total of about 60 km of nesting beaches. The reason for this is the proximity to human settlements, the high nesting densities especially on the eastern beaches, and difficult accessibility of certain beach areas for the patrol teams. Therefore, drone surveillance activities were concentrated on these areas, with a further focus on those approximately 15 km of beach in the east that are under particular poaching pressure. One of the most important observations during the 2018 and 2019 nesting seasons, where the drone missions took place, was the steep decline of poaching activities. In 2018, a record number of loggerhead sea turtles nested on Boa Vista, exceeding any previous annual nest number by at least three times. These numbers greatly challenged the beach patrols in their duty to protect the turtles and offered poachers many opportunities to strike. Nevertheless, only 70 poaching incidences were recorded by end of the season, which was less than a third compared to the previous year. In 2019, again a year with above-average nesting activity but with the team starting of drone surveillance missions from the beginning of the season, only 19 poaching incidences were counted on Boa Vista. Where the drone was used, no poachers or poaching activities were directly detected during all drone operations, and thus of course no poacher was arrested.

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The new drone-based antipoaching activities quickly became known to most people on this small island. In fact, we heard rumors from the villages that the active poachers, probably not more than 20 and all of them known, were considerably unsettled by the drone operations. They had to fear being arrested on the beaches, and additionally, they had no real idea of the technical possibilities or limitations of the drone, with the result that drone operations apparently became a highly deterrent factor for poachers. A further important point is the new law with its considerably increased punishment of killing sea turtles, which came into force at nearly the same time as the drone operations started. While stricter legislation might rarely have a quick effect on the underlying offense, the combination of both the new law and the drone surveillance together might be a major reason for the historically low sea turtle poaching numbers on Boa Vista for the seasons 2018 and 2019. However, other factors could be the increased interest and activities of the police against turtle poaching under the new law and the increased outreach and education activities of the conservation NGOs during the past years. From our investigation, we know that most poachers walk to beaches in the beginning of the night from Sal Rei, the main town of Boa Vista, to the northwestern beaches. The other place they come from is one of the three villages in the northeast of the island to the northeastern or eastern beaches. Therefore, it is advantageous for the drone team to take up position in the early evening before they arrive. Once selected, the mission location should be silently kept and not be left for another place until end of the mission to not expose the ongoing activities. During the missions we recognized that under certain conditions (bright moonlight and elevated position), the car was still recognizable from larger distances. Since we used different cars, it turned out that a white car, despite being near the pale sand, was especially conspicuous. We countered this problem by using a camouflage net to cover the car. Further, since at night also small light sources can be detected from large distances, we had to take care that light produced by tablets, monitors, and charging devices was thoroughly covered. Generally, the drone team had to learn to act silently in darkness, with only shaded red light allowed in case of need. From an appropriately selected operation location, up to 5 km of beach could be continuously monitored in a given mission during the critical phase of the night. Consequently, an important strategy was to randomly select the location for each new mission. Further, the drone team always changed the weekday for their weekly off-day to further increase unpredictability of mission timing. Since there are only a few access roads to the beaches, some of which pass through the northeastern villages, the drone team’s car quickly became known among the population. Thus, the team often took detours to make it difficult for poachers to deduce the location of the operation from sightings of the vehicle. Following these simple rules, we carried out roughly 70 drone missions in each of the 2018 and 2019 nesting seasons. More than half of these missions were accompanied by two police officers, who were ready to intervene if the drone team discovered suspected activity on the beaches, including the possibility of arresting poachers.

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Conclusion and outlook The rapid and significant decrease in sea turtle poaching on Boa Vista in conjunction with the introduction of beach surveillance with night-vision drones indicates that this new technique can contribute considerably to deter poaching. However, as is often the case in criminology, it is reasonable to assume that the purely deterrent effect might wear off at some point. Poachers will likely get used to the possibility of being observed by the night-vision camera and learn to see the drone less mystically and more as a technical device with some superior capabilities. It is possible they will learn to detect the weak points of the system and adapt to the strategies of drone surveillance. From the behavior of the poachers, we already suspect a tendency to be more active in less intensively monitored areas and on days with high wind conditions when the drone cannot fly. While these assumptions cannot yet be proven, it is clear that in future it will be very important to stay ahead of the poachers by constantly enhancing existing strategies and developing new approaches. In the present case this means that in the framework of the activities of the STSTF, drone surveillance will become part of an integrated and coordinated system, which also involves search dogs and special ranger patrols equipped with thermal nightvision devices. In contrast to only having policemen staying with the drone operators during the whole mission, the ground teams will be constantly present in the field while being radio-connected with the drone operators. The ground teams will not physically interfere with poachers caught red-handed, but will be able to carefully approach the crime scene even if poachers are still active, and collect evidence (videos, photos, objects used by the poachers, etc.) that can be used by the law enforcement authorities for effective prosecution of the detected poaching case. While poachers on Boa Vista are generally nonviolent and immediately try to escape without being recognized, of course special safety rules will apply for the ground teams in case of an encounter with poachers, foremost keeping their distance. We are interested to see if this approach of using night-vision drones for poaching control would perform in other sea turtle conservation projects with comparable threat profile. In any case, close collaboration with law enforcement authorities and obtaining the necessary permits from the responsible authorities are prerequisites for such a project. Further, suitable systems are still not cheap, especially compared to commercial drones with daylight cameras, which are now commonly used in sea turtle research and conservation. Added to this are the costs for personnel, training, consultation, logistics, etc. However, these costs can be put into perspective when comparing with the costs of a full-fledged beach patrol program. Taken together, beach surveillance with night-vision drones could be a promising approach to effectively control sea turtle poaching on nesting beaches, either in combination with conventional beach patrolling or in appropriate cases, even as single direct protection measure.

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References [1] A. Marco, E. Abella, A. Liria-Loza, S. Martins, O. Lopez, S. Jiménez-Bord on, M. Medina, C. Oujo, P. Gaona, B.J. Godley, L.F. Lopez-Jurado, Abundance and exploitation of loggerhead turtles nesting in Boa Vista island, Cape Verde: the only substantial rookery in the eastern Atlantic, Animal Conservation 15 (4) (2012) 351e360, https://doi.org/10.1111/ j.1469-1795.2012.00547.x. [2] P. Casale, A. Marco, Caretta caretta (North East Atlantic Subpopulation). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, 2015, https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-4.RLTS.T83776383A83776554.en. [3] B.P. Wallace, A.D. DiMatteo, A.B. Bolten, M.Y. Chaloupka, B.J. Hutchinson, F.A. AbreuGrobois, J.A. Mortimer, J.A. Seminoff, D. Amorocho, K.A. Bjorndal, J. Bourjea, B.W. Bowen, R. Due~nas, P. Casale, B.C. Choudhury, A. Costa, P.H. Dutton, A. Fallabrino, E.M. Finkbeiner, R.B. Mast, Global conservation priorities for Marine turtles, PLoS One 6 (9) (2011), https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0024510. [4] T. Reischig, E. Resende, H. Cordes, Drones for Turtles: Controlling Poaching of Nesting Loggerhead Sea Turtles With Night Vision Unmanned Aerial Vehicles on Boavista Island, Cabo Verde, African Sea Turtle Newsletter, (2018) 10, https://static1.squarespace.com/static/ 54ea2dbbe4b0a4a224750342/t/5c32e0e170a6adec3ee11a23/1546838253478/AfricanþSe aþTurtleþNewsletterþ%2310.pdf. [5] A. Rees, L. Avens, K. Ballorain, E. Bevan, A. Broderick, R. Carthy, M. Christianen, G. Duclos, M. Heithaus, D. Johnston, J. Mangel, F. Paladino, K. Pendoley, R. Reina, N. Robinson, R. Ryan, S. Sykora-Bodie, D. Tilley, M. Varela, B. Godley, The potential of unmanned aerial systems for sea turtle research and conservation: a review and future directions, Endangered Species Research 35 (2018) 81e100, https://doi.org/10.3354/ esr00877. [6] P.C. Gray, A.B. Fleishman, D.J. Klein, M.W. McKown, V.S. Bézy, K.J. Lohmann, D.W. Johnston, A convolutional neural network for detecting sea turtles in drone imagery, Methods in Ecology and Evolution 10 (3) (2019) 345e355, https://doi.org/10.1111/2041210X.13132. [7] M.A. Olivares-Mendez, C. Fu, P. Ludivig, T.F. Bissyandé, S. Kannan, M. Zurad, A. Annaiyan, H. Voos, P. Campoy, Towards an autonomous vision-based unmanned aerial system against wildlife poachers, Sensors (Switzerland) 15 (12) (2015) 31362e31391, https://doi.org/10.3390/s151229861. [8] T. Snitch, Satellites, Mathematics and Drones Take Down Poachers in Africa, The Conversation, 2015. https://theconversation.com/satellites-mathematics-and-drones-take-downpoachers-in-africa-36638. [9] R. Nuwer, High above, drones keep watchful eyes on wildlife in Africa, The New York Times (2017). https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/13/science/drones-africa-poachers-wildlife.html.

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The Challenges of Maintaining a Hatchery in Rural Costa Rica

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Annie Koehler Clift Sea Turtle Conservation, Turtle Trax SA, San Francisco de Coyote, Costa Rica

I moved to Guanacaste, Costa Rica, in 2014. I was 23 and had graduated from the University of Tampa a couple of months earlier with a degree in marine biology. Stumbling into a job coordinating a sea turtle nesting project was a dream come true. I was hired by Turtle Trax S.A. and CREMA (Centro de Rescate de Especies Marinas Amenazadaseat the time Programa Restoraci
on de Tortugas Marinas or Pretoma) to coordinate their most remote sea turtle nesting beach, Caletas, which is a nesting beach primarily of olive ridleys, along with the occasional green or leatherback. Our beach camp, 10 km of dirt road to the nearest small town of just 100 residents, had no running water, one light bulb powered by a single solar panel, an oil drum turned into a wood burning “oven,” and a well that supplied us with water clean enough to shower with but not quite to drink. It was paradise. Coming into this position, I was sure the biggest hardship I would face would be spending 9 months with the bare minimum, no wifi or connection to the outside world, no refrigerated foods, and no hot showers. However, I quickly found that in reality, the largest hurdle would be the hatchery. All our work on this beach would come down to this sacred center of camp, the plot of sand where the nests we relocated from the beach would incubate in the safety of our protection. Managing a hatchery, at its core, means managing a system of recovered nests, but it is far more than that. The responsibilities of keeping a well-maintained hatchery vary greatly with the location, as does most conservation and fieldwork. The Caletas hatchery was incredibly multifaceted. Rising temperatures threatened nest development, and we faced increased predation risk due to the location and surrounding environment. Following are the unique challenges and stories of managing an isolated hatchery during an El Ni~ no event in a rebounding ecological system.

Temperature and the nasties The year 2014 was a record-breaking year of dryness and heat brought to Guanacaste by a massive El Ni~ no event that lasted a total of 3 years [1]. The nesting season for olive ridley turtles, who nest on beaches of the Pacific coast, coincides with the country’s rainy season. In July, the beginning of the nesting season, Turtle Trax had already taken note of the dry and hot start to the season and covered half of the Caletas hatchery with a mesh roof. While the west side of the hatchery was provided shade from the roofing material, the east side of the hatchery was left uncovered to compare temperatures and nest Sea Turtle Research and Conservation. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821029-1.00007-6 Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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success. Both sides had HOBO pendant loggers buried at nest depth in various areas of the hatchery, and at least two nests on each side were equipped with a HOBO as well, nestled between eggs about half way down within the clutch. When it came time for the nests on the east side to hatch, we waited patiently. In this area olive ridleys have about a 45-day incubation period, but it can range from as low as 42 and as high as 60 days [2]. Forty-five days went by and we continued to wait. A couple nests hatched with very low success early on in the waiting period, but after that the hatchery seemed to hit a lull. Each day a couple more nests hit that 45-day mark and the numbers of unhatched nests continued to pile up. We continued to wait. At around day 50e52 on some of the nests, we dug a small peep-hole down to the top eggs to try and see if there was any activity. You want to be sure that when nests are overdue there isn’t something like packed sand keeping the hatchlings from emerging. All we found were eggs. Day 60 on some of the nests rolled around and we decided to open a few of the eggs we had checked up on. They were still squishy to the touch and didn’t feel like there was a developed hatchling inside. Soup poured out of the eggs we opened, a thick, putrid, yolky liquid. Things weren’t looking good for the lot of nests incubating in the uncovered half of the hatchery. To cover our bases and be sure we weren’t interfering with any development, we waited until around day 65 to begin excavating (the process of digging up and recording data on nest materials). And thus began my week long endeavor of excavating nearly 20 unhatched nest, a heart-wrenching and incredibly smelly endeavor. This happened to coincide with a period of time where we had no volunteers signed up to help at the project, and we were between research assistants. My supervisor, Maddie Beange, came out to the camp to offer support, and we spent our days digging up dead nests, opening every egg, recording its contents, staging development (which usually meant no detectable development or faint spots of eye pigment), and describing the rotten eggs, which appeared so similar to runny scrambled eggs that the experience deterred me from eating eggs (chicken!) or anything mildly resembling them for an entire year. I have found myself in quite a few disgusting nest excavations, like the time I fell into a leatherback nest excavation while being swarmed by mosquitos and flies in the middle of a storm. Or the time a rogue wave came up and tipped over a bucket containing excavation goo, dumping it all over me while I try to rescue the data notebook and the eggs I hadn’t yet recorded. If your undergrad experience is anything like mine, you have sat through many hours of your professors preaching, “You want to do field work on the beach? I hope you like mosquitoes!” This is accurate advice, by the way, but it’s entirely worth it. Because even though we get eaten alive by mosquitoes, find ourselves up to our eyeballs in rotten eggs, become deeply sleep deprived, and at some point endure devastating loss, we also get to learn, spend our time with enchanting animals, discover ways to help the species we love, and make a change in the world. The covered side of the hatchery was due to hatch next and we waited anxiously, wondering if the mesh roof would have provided any temperature decrease, and therefore an increase in nest success. The temperature comparison of the HOBOs buried in only sand led us to believe the shade had a beneficial effect, but we needed the temperature of the HOBOs in the incubating nests combined with the nest success rates

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to know if we should cover the entire hatchery with roofing. We were delighted when nests started to cave in, showing signs of hatching. In reviewing the temperatures from the nests with HOBOs, we saw that the nests on the uncovered side spent significant time above 35 C, the upper limit of nest incubation, and above which we start to see complete nest mortality [3]. In comparison, the nests from the covered side incubated at temperatures well enough below 35 C to develop. It was evident that if the weather were to continue, we would need to put roofs on not only the Caletas hatchery, but the rest of the hatcheries at the other beaches run by Turtle Trax as well. Nests from the uncovered side of the hatchery showed hatchling success rates ranging from 0% to 75%, whereas nests from the covered side were hatchery were hatching with success rates of up to 99%. The mesh roof decreased incubation temperatures, keeping them below 35 C, and closer to the pivotal temperature (the temperature at which we see half females and half males develop [4]) of olive ridleys at 30.5 C. Even with great success rates that we could attribute to the roofing, often reaching 95e98%, we were still logging incubation temperatures that would favor female development [3,4]. Our temperature monitoring also included placing HOBOs along the beach where nests would naturally be left to incubate if we didn’t intervene. At every zone along the beachfront, the sand was too hot for nests to develop. Any nest left in-situ to incubate naturally on the beach would not have hatched, meaning that without our project, the nesting beach of Caletas would likely have produced close to zero hatchlings in 2014. Without this system, the 2014 El Ni~ no could have been catastrophic to nest success at Caletas, and the rest of Turtle Trax’s beaches. As this case illustrates, a thorough temperature monitoring system and protocol is vital to every hatchery project. It’s the only responsible way to manage a hatchery, plus it provides excellent research opportunities.

The raccoon war Although Caletas is a wildlife refuge, protected from becoming developed, the ecosystem had been disrupted years prior due to intensive rice farming. As an ecosystem bounces back to its natural state, food webs can take a while to rebound, and the predator/prey balance can become disproportionate. In many recovering ecosystems, raccoons, being scavengers with high fecundity, generally rebound faster than their local predators, like coyotes. During the 2014 nesting season, we battled constantly with troops of raccoons who viewed our hatchery as a buffet. I had been warned that raccoons were going to show up eventually, but my first few weeks were raccoon-free. In hindsight, it was probably the several days of excavating pungent, overheated nests that finally drew them to us. I was alone in camp washing dishes in our little kitchen cabin when I looked out at the hatchery and saw our first raccoon visitor. It took several seconds for me to register what I was seeing, as it was midday, and raccoons are well known for their nocturnal hijinks. I ran out yelling, furious that anything would have the audacity to mess with my hatchery. It hadn’t been

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destructive yet, but if it had gone unnoticed, it could have devastated the entire nest and probably more. With that, the war with raccoons began. Raccoons are like frat boys. As soon as one knows where the party is, all his friends will show up. We couldn’t keep them out of camp. We posted someone in the hatchery around the clock, then two people. The racoons were that aggressive. They had no concern for our presence, climbing over the walls while being shouted at. I’ve never been so afraid of a small mammal. They were like shrunken grizzly bears, angry and oblivious to our efforts to protect the hatchery. We started team hatchling releases so we could make protective barriers around them to keep the raccoons from grabbing them off the beach. We walked buckets of hatchlings all the way down the beach, 3 km from the hatchery, and the raccoons still showed up. They began to associate us with dinner, even with all our efforts to scare them off. They followed us on patrol, waiting for us to lead them to fresh nests. While I was collecting eggs from a nesting turtle one night, a raccoon appeared out of nowhere, inches from my face. I tried to protect the eggs I was collecting while my patrol partner tried to scare the raccoon away. Unfazed by our efforts, he grabbed a bag of eggs we had from a previous nest and took off down the beach, my assistant in hot pursuit. It was a full-on war. I had never experienced nor heard of anything like it. Desperate to be able to sleep at night, to even be able to sit in the hatchery during the day and read a book without feeling like everyone had to be on high alert, we got creative. We trimmed hair off our own heads and sprinkled it around the hatchery; apparently this works to deter deer from orchards. We lit candles and tiki torches because they’re supposed to be afraid of flame. We peed in the sand surrounding the hatchery because someone went into town on their day off and read that raccoons don’t like the smell of human urine. No one is proud of this, but in desperation we filled tin cans with wet sand and threw them at the raccoons. I hit one between the eyes and he fell over. As soon as I began to cry, believing I’d killed him, he jumped up and ran straight at me. I found myself running from an animal that probably weighed 5% of my own body weight. All our efforts had dishearteningly little effect, and we were exhausted. Extending our roofing mesh to fully enclose the hatchery was the leg up we needed to win the war. We built a fortress around our nests. We still had someone in the hatchery full-time to make sure they never succeeded in getting in. For several nights, they still showed up, but once they realized they weren’t getting in, they moved on. As the season progressed we started to hear coyotes on a rare occasion. By today, the ecosystem has regained a lot of strength and food webs have balanced out, but predators pose a threat to all hatcheries. I sincerely hope that no one ever has to combat the extent of raccoons that we did, but my advice for you is to have a strong foundation from the beginning. Enclose your hatchery as well as you can and as soon as possible. Prevention is by far the easiest form of protection. Be aware of potential predators in your area. Stray dogs can be the most detrimental, with the ability to dig and chew through nearly anything. Sadly, they’re also usually starving, making their drive to attain food insatiable. If you do have a predation problem, get creative and don’t give up.

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People management One of the things I’m most grateful to have gained during my time working in Costa Rica and with hatcheries is a realization and respect for the importance of good management. I was fortunate to be able to learn from some really incredible and inspiring people while also getting to know what leadership styles worked for me. One night I was woken up by a panicked and worried volunteer who was on hatchery duty. Aside from protecting the hatchery from predators, the assigned hatchery watch person was responsible for supervising nests that were due to hatch; collecting hatchlings, recording data, and releasing hatchlings. This volunteer woke me up, nearly in tears, exclaiming she had no idea where all the hatchlings came from but they were all over the hatchery. Around 5 days before a nest is due to hatch we place a canasta (a small basket-like piece of net that encloses the nest) around it, so when hatchlings emerge, they are contained. On rare occasions, the sand will settle wrong, or the hatchlings will dig up outside their canasta. Something like this probably happened while the volunteer dozed off in the hatchery. She woke up to find what she perceived were hundreds upon hundreds of hatchlings all over the hatchery. She must have been horrified. She had never worked with sea turtles before, had most likely never worked with any endangered animal, and here she was, given this huge responsibility that she thinks she just failed at. She was terrified, and I think we’ve all been there. She could have collected all the hatchlings herself (they can’t get too far because they’re still enclosed within the hatchery) and then made up numbers to put in the data booklet on how many emerged from which nests, no one would have ever known of the fiasco or that the data was falsified. But she didn’t do this. She came and asked for help. I also think about the different ways I could have responded when she woke me up. I could have been angry with her for falling asleep while on duty, especially on a night when we were expecting a lot of hatching activity. I could have been angry with her for waking me up when sleep at a night patrol project is so precious. But all I remember feeling was a sense of gratitude that she felt comfortable enough with me to come and seek support. The hatchlings were indeed all over the hatchery, but it wasn’t as much of a mess as her panicked state led me to believe. I simply showed her how we could turn our red lights on and use that to draw them to us, since light and sound guide them to the water. We can use their physiological drive to our advantage. We collected the hatchlings and made note of the scenario in the data booklet. No data is better than false data. Most importantly, I thanked her for coming to me and seeking help, for feeling comfortable enough to wake me up knowing I wouldn’t be mad at her. The strain from sleep deprivation and general stress of working with these species can lead to valid burnout. To continuously run a successful project it is important to be mindful of this, not only in yourself but in your colleagues, staff, and volunteers as well. It was important for me to realize that my volunteer felt comfortable coming to me that night and made me recognize that I wanted to put a conscious effort into cultivating that security. I also saw how guilty she felt about the entire situation and

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I knew all too well that awful feeling. While working with these incredible species of course you are going to feel guilty when you mess up, even if it’s as minor as accidentally falling asleep in the hatchery. It is a privilege to be able to work with these animals, but with that privilege comes an incredible amount of responsibility. We must remember that we are only human and are doing the best we can. Everyone makes mistakes, which will lead to sad and painful outcomes; sometimes you’ll lose hatchlings or even whole nests. Try to remember that without us, entire beaches may not produce a single nest in a season, or hatchlings may emerge only to be eaten by overpopulated raccoons. I learned a lot of lessons that season. If we had left nests to incubate outside of the hatchery, they all would have succumbed to overheating. Go easy on yourself and those you are working with. Coming down too hard on someone can scare them away from fieldwork or working with animals entirely, and if we are going to save declining species we need all the help and personnel we can get. It is easy to get burned out. Remember to take breaks, delegate and, forgive yourself and others. And finally, don’t get bogged down in the decline as we battle our way through this mass extinction. We are in the midst of a great turnover as humans learn to be good stewards of this planet, and the fieldwork we do now informs essential policies and conservation practices that can get us into balance.

References [1] https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/cdo-web/. Climate Database, 2004 through 2016. [2] P.T. Plotkin, Biology and Conservation of Ridley Sea Turtles, JHU Press, 2007. [3] T. Wibbels, D. Rostal, R. Byles, High pivotal temperature in the sex determination of the olive ridley sea turtle, Lepidochelys olivacea, from Playa Nancite, Costa Rica, Copeia 1998 (4) (1998) 1086e1088. [4] C.J. McCoy, R.C. Vogt, E.J. Censky, Temperature-controlled sex determination in the sea turtle Lepidochelys olivacea, Journal of Herpetology 17 (4) (1983) 404e406.

Section Three Plastic & Sea Turtles

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Sea Turtle Conservation Curacao and Green Phenix

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Sabine Berendse Sea Turtle Conservation Curacao & Green Phenix, Willemstad, Curacao

I’ve been living in Curacao since 2006, most of my adult life, dedicating 9 years of my time on this Caribbean island to nature conservation. In the first couple of years on the island I worked as a full-time volunteer for Uniek Curacao, an organization that protects nature areas by increasing the appreciation for those areas, actively organizing cleanups. During my internship, my focus area was Ascencion, a beautiful area along the windward side of the island with one very unattractive aspect: plastic pollution. Inhabitants of Curacao knew Ascencion by the name “Plastic Bay” because the inlet in the area looked just like a plastic landfill. Layers and layers of plastic were brought in by the sea. My tasks at the time included organizing cleanup activities, as well as educational trips in the area around the inlet and collecting information about unique things in this area. One of the highlights in Ascencion was, and still is, a sea turtle lookout. On the rocks where the inlet starts, you are guaranteed to see sea turtles coming up for air while foraging. The plastic landfill, no more than 100 m away from their prime feeding area, was a major contrast to that natural beauty. I felt very strongly that something needed to be done, because in my eyes this was a huge disaster. That’s the main reason I stayed on as a full-time volunteer. I felt like a change was needed and I could contribute in a positive way. Uniek Curacao is led by Theo van der Giessen, a remarkable character who was a great initiator of diverse environmental and social projects; working with him has been a real pleasure and has taught me many things. After about 4 years, I didn’t feel like the actions we were undertaking had the effect they needed to have, so I stopped. When we would clean up a certain area, it would be a mess again within a week. It started to seem as if all the efforts we put in to cleaning the island were futile. With that feeling growing stronger I couldn’t work with the same dedication as before, and I decided to make a career shift. After a break from nature conservation, I became the head of the department parks for CARMABI. CARMABI is a nonprofit NGO, once started as a marine research institute in 1955 but over the years developed into an organization that manages the natural parks and does environmental education. In 2014, I was asked to set up a sea turtle nesting monitoring program in Shete Boka. There was some historical data for nesting activity there for 1993, but nothing more after that. The government had asked CARMABI to set up a minimum monitoring in the Shete Boka area, which entailed looking for nesting activities of sea turtles on two specific beaches. I tried setting this monitoring up with the park rangers, but that didn’t go as smoothly as I expected. They already had a heavy workload and the time it took to Sea Turtle Research and Conservation. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821029-1.00008-8 Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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do the monitoring properly took them away from other tasks that in their opinion had higher priority. That was one of the main reasons we started to work with volunteersd people with time that have a real interest in learning more about sea turtles. This probably is the best decision we could have made for sea turtle conservation on our island. Although we were just asked to monitor two inlets, we started looking at other beaches and we found nesting activities on quite a few different beaches. We soon realized it doesn’t make sense to just look at two beaches if gaining knowledge about nesting populations is the goal. Therefore, we extended the monitoring to the prime nesting area of Curacao, which is Klein Curacao. When we broadened the monitoring, we were fairly sure that the government would support this financially, since they were the ones that needed to know about the status of the nesting sea turtle population. Unfortunately, they did not. We convinced two boating companies to offer day trips to Klein Curacao to take two of our volunteers along. We registered all the nesting activity and we also collected as much plastic as we could carry from the windward side of the island three times a week. Lots of guests were always complaining about the marine debris that covered the windward side with multiple layers. The fact that we started to clean up the island and that the guests also appreciated the efforts and took an interest in our conservation work, the boating companies started to see the added value of taking us along. The island looks completely different now that the marine debris is removed and weekly cleanups ensure it stays that way. With a large group of volunteers from different backgrounds, it’s not always easy to manage. We do emphasize that if people are joining as a volunteer to Klein Curacao they are there to work, which means looking for sea turtle activity, collecting marine debris, and taking pictures of turtles from a respectful distance for the resident database. At the end of 2016 I went through a rough patch both personally and professionally; I was diagnosed with burnout. Running this sea turtle program in my free time while also being head of the department parks where I was responsible for the management of two national parks and a museum wasn’t compatible for me. I decided not to stay in a situation where I got sick, and against everybody’s advice, I resigned my paid job. This for me was a very difficult period of time but after I changed the circumstances in which I was clearly overloaded, I very soon started to feel better. I realized that the most valuable things we had accomplished for sea turtle conservation was done by the dedicated group of volunteers and now I had more time to spend on this.

Sea Turtle Conservation Curacao I have always been very fortunate to be surrounded by a very diverse group of supportive people that share my passion for sea turtle conservation. When I took the leap of faith to fully dedicate to sea turtles, a group of people with complementary skillsets came together to help me officially establish Sea Turtle Conservation Curacao (STCC). Very shortly after we officially started with STCC, a private party gave a substantial donation to enable us to start up the organization in a sustainable manner. Through that amazing contribution my colleague Ard, as well as myself, were able to receive a part-time salary.

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Although we had a great headstart financially, making sure an NGO becomes financially sustainable is quite challenging. That aspiration requires some long-term strategies. You need good self-motivated people involved and you need some means to attract and retain them. That automatically means that we would have to find additional funding because the primary funding only supports two part-time salaries. To acquire additional funding, we applied various strategies. 1. We partnered with a local precious plastic initiative called Limpi. They make turtle sculptures from marine debris that our volunteers collect along the beaches. They also make turtle keychains out of postconsumer plastic, which reduces waste and helps us generate awareness. These items sell really well and they are giving us additional income. 2. Foundation grants: We were able to create some projects with the help of grants; however, they do take up a lot of time and energy and the chances of getting these grants aren’t very high. If you can get feedback when proposals are rejected you can improve your skills and with that your chances, but we haven’t been very successful in this regard. 3. Corporate funding: We have a nest adoption program as well as other sponsorship packages. A mutually beneficial partnership is the way to approach these, because the businesses can get exposure through our network and they can display the action they are taking to support local conservation efforts. 4. Crowdfunding: We are on the Global Giving platform which enables us to receive donations from all over the world. It offers other benefits as well, such as training options and support. The main challenge with crowdfunding is that you really have to engage people and ask them to make a donation. If you don’t ask them directly, nothing happens and people do not always have the means or the will to help. 5. Charity events: We did several events to raise money, like a concert onboard a luxurious ship. People tend to like this way of contributing because they have something nice to do and they are supporting a charity at the same time. The key is when you offer something that they already like and they support sea turtle conservation, they are more motivated to help. However, the risk is that you will be focused on selling tickets and organizing the event, which distracts from the core business which is protecting sea turtles. 6. Invest a lot in getting exposure: We believe art is a good way to engage people in a nonconfrontational way. This requires some investment, mostly of time, but for us this has resulted in an education center in a popular mall, open to the public 7 days a week. 7. Get creative: We set up a social enterprise called Green Phenix to tackle one of the biggest threats to sea turtles around Curacao and possibly the world. This will also provide additional funding for conservation activities.

Green Phenix In 2018 I applied to Present Your Startup with Sea Turtle Conservation Curacao. In my quest to make STCC financially sustainable, I am willing to try things outside of my comfort zone. Although I didn’t really consider STCC to be a startup, I was chosen as a participant and I got to do a 3-minute pitch in front of a professional jury. I was extremely nervous, shaking intensely, but I was talking about my passion and a few minutes into the talk the nerves faded. My pitch resonated. That night I got five sea turtle nests adopted, I won the public choice award, and won a place in the Caribbean finals of the program.

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Although I had won this round, I was very self-aware that I had been lucky. I had no experience with public speaking, and it really made me more anxious than I thought was acceptable. Thinking about how I could train myself in this regard, I thought I could do with some extra practice. That’s the reason I joined the Haarlem2Harlem pitch competition in New York. With nobody there that knew me, I was sure I would have a good practice experience. The advice I got from several business coaches that joined that trip was: go big, or go home! So I thought, “let’s try that.” On stage, I asked for US $500,000 for 5 years in a row, a total of US$2.5 million. I won that evening but unfortunately, I didn’t get the funding I wanted, but my victory was in the news in Curacao and it gave me a lot of exposure. During the trip to New York, the idea for Green Phenix was born. I would set up a business, a social enterprise to reduce the amount of plastic that ends up in the ocean, develop awareness, and donate part of the proceeds to sea turtle conservation initiatives, thus making them more sustainable. I created a business plan and presented this in the Caribbean Finals of Present Your Startup as well as in the international finals. This whole process was a very educational experience that helped me to grow, increase my network, and improve my professional skills. However, I was extremely disappointed that after being in all these competitions I still did not find the funding required to scale the conservation efforts. But I did meet Giacomo Booi. He saw my pitch in the finals of Present Your Startup online and he decided to also start working on his dream to stop the plastic pollution problem on his birth island Curacao. He left his job in Germany where he was raised, and after getting to know each other a bit better, we decided to join forces and start Green Phenix together. Our goal is to recycle as much postconsumer plastic as possible to prevent waste. We were looking at machines like Precious Plastic, which are suited for high quantities. Precious Plastic is a global initiative that provides open source machines to enable people to start small-scale recycling. We found some very passionate machine builders in Spain that had developed 3D printers that use PET flakes instead of filament as fuel. That makes the whole recycling process a lot easier, and it also offers a solution to a plastic waste stream that we could not recycle locally before. They brought two of their printers to the island, as well as two extruders and a grinder. These machines enabled us to recycle three types of plastic: PET, HDPE, and PP. In the summer of 2019, we had the machines with a relatively high capacity to recycle plastic on the island. However, in order to optimize the performance of the machines, we also needed to collect and prepare postconsumer plastics in high volumes. That is labor-intensive because the plastic needs to be sorted by type and color. For bottles this means the lids, rings, and labels need to be removed and the bottles need to be shredded into flakes of a certain quality. We contacted the Ministry of Labor Affairs and in collaboration with them, we started a pilot project that started with 12 long-term unemployed locals to teach them about plastic recycling. This helped them reintegrate into society, gave them a meaningful way to spend the day, and will give them the opportunity of a job at the end of the 1-year program.

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The 3D printers we use are mainly for educational purposes and we use the extruders to make plastic beams that can be used as an alternative to wooden beams that otherwise needed to be imported. We sell granulate, beams, and end products such as furniture items. To make bigger, long-lasting items like furniture, we need to collect a lot of plastic. With an interactive awareness campaign, we were able to present to 3000 schoolkids and teach about the connection between conservation and consumer behavior. We showed them how the 3D printer worked with a live demonstration, and we took a specially designed bike shredder into the classroom so the kids could help us prepare the plastic they collected for recycling. In total, the kids collected 30,573 bottles. This doesn’t even come near to the numbers we aim to recycle, but it is an essential step in engaging the public and encouraging them to recycle. We also worked with a tour operator to offer a bus tour for the classes that collected the most plastic, which was an essential incentive that contributed to the success of the program. The next phase of the program will have incentives of 3D printing training sessions, so we can contribute to innovating education on the island. After operating in my home for 6 months, we have now moved to a new production facility. The new production facility enables us to scale the project. This means less plastic will end up in the landfill and in the environment. We will also be creating more employment opportunities and developing more meaningful products that are made by the people for the people. Our overall impact will increase significantly in 2020. We started intensifying our partnerships with the hospitality sector, and they are contributing by ensuring their plastic and aluminum is being collected separately from other waste streams, and they are paying us for related services. With the extended partnerships we are able to recycle more locally, but we can now also export high quality recyclables. The results we were able to accomplish with STCC and Green Phenix are due to the amazing group of volunteers and supporters that believe in our project.

Lessons learned Working with the goal to protect sea turtles and their habitat and creating social employment opportunities is for me a huge privilege. At times it has been challenging but so far, the journey has been worth every hardship. I think everyone has their own specific way of working, but there are a few things that have worked really well for me. 1. Make regular assessments on how you can optimize your impact. Take time to look at specific problems and challenges from a distance, then focus on the root cause and the needed change to get to a desired outcome. Then aim high. Identify the people that can help create the needed change. Be proactive and think of win-win situations, because usually the people with the power want to get something out of partnerships. Make sure you know where you are going. Have a specific goal you want to achieve and work toward that goal on a daily basis. 2. Surround yourself with positive people with diverse skillsets. Successful operations always are pushed by strong teams, in which the team members complement each other. When you work together with different types of people, there should be a binding factor, which is working for the greater good.

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3. Stay focused on the goal or mission you have and the good you are doing. Sometimes you might get down, for instance, because of a lack of funding. This might have you focusing on a need to generate more income. Obviously, funding is important, but in my experience, when you focus on what is lacking, it doesn’t really work. Focus on the good work you are doing, trust the process, and actively promote the positive work you are doing. This for me has attracted all the help I needed. 4. Collaborate. Work together with other parties. This is extremely important. If there are others that can do something better then you, by all means let them. That is good, because then you can focus on something that you do best which has added value. When it comes to protecting species and habitats or creating social employment opportunities there is no such thing as competition.

Plastics Versus Turtles: An Overview of the Uruguayan Case

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Daniel Gonzalez-Paredes 1, 2 , Andres Estrades 1 1 Karumbé NGO, Montevideo, MVD, Uruguay; 2James Cook University, Townsville, QLD, Australia

Introduction Plastic pollution is now considered to be one of the main threats to the marine environment [1]. Between 4.8 and 12.7 million tonnes of plastic are estimated to enter the oceans every year (Jambeck et al., 2015), affecting key habitats and wildlife. Plastics are ubiquitous and persistent pollutants that tend to undergo fragmentation and be concentrated in oceanic gyres and coastal fronts by the combined actions of winds and currents. When these garbage patches overlap with key habitats for sea turtles, the consequences for these species are dramatic. Ingestion, bioaccumulation, and entanglement, among others, are frequent impacts of plastic pollution on sea turtles’ health, which are facing this threat in both neritic and pelagic habitats. This is the case in Uruguay where dozens of turtles are found stranded every year along the coast with clear evidence of interaction with plastic debris. Since 1999, the local NGO Karumbé has been working tirelessly for the conservation of these amazing marine creatures. These are the experiences of the Karumbé initiative in the last 20 years.

The creation of Karumbé In 1999, a multidisciplinary group comprising researchers, conservationists, and educators concerned about the conservation of sea turtles in Uruguay decided to launch Karumbé, which means turtle in Guarani, a South American indigenous language. The original idea was born after the experience lived by several of the founders working on nesting beaches along the Mexican Pacific coast years before, which gave these youngsters incredible motivation to try replicating these conservation actions in Uruguay. At that time, very little was known about sea turtles in the country, just a few carapaces housed at the National Museum of Science and several reports by fishermen who had seen these amazing creatures swimming around or entangled in their fishing gear. Aiming to bridge this knowledge gap, our first step was to identify the species present in Uruguayan waters and the ecological role that they were playing in this latitude within the South Atlantic Ocean. We conducted numerous surveys across the

Sea Turtle Research and Conservation. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821029-1.00009-X Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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Uruguayan fisheries, and we soon found enough evidence supporting our belief that our waters hosted adult loggerhead and leatherback turtles searching for food into the Rio de la Plata estuary and the coastal zones. Moreover, we determined through exhaustive expeditions along the coast that Uruguay has with important foraging grounds rich in algae and macrozooplankton for green turtles. The area hosts an important stock of early juveniles of the species recruited mainly from breeding sites on Ascension Island (UK) and other rookeries across the Atlantic [2,3]. Once we identified the species present in Uruguayan waters, the next step was to assess the main hazards threatening the turtles in this latitude. The incidental capture of sea turtles in fisheries and habitat degradation were our main concerns. The reports of bycatch in both longline and trawler fisheries were numerous, more than expected. Additionally, the loss of key foraging grounds for sea turtles was reaching alarming levels. Therefore, our conservation efforts were initially aimed at facing these threats. After some years of working closely with the fisheries and several government departments incidental captures were reduced considerably thanks to mitigation programs and new marine protected areas that were declared by protection laws. Twenty years later, we are now facing a new meaningful threat for sea turtles in Uruguaydplastic pollution. At Karumbé, we have been witnessing how this threat has increased during the last two decades, now reaching alarming levels. Juvenile green turtles are the most affected species due to the ingestion of plastic debris, which can lead to sublethal effects such as a decrease in nutritional gain, exposure to the chemicals leaching, and bioaccumulation of toxic plasticizers [4e7]. But plastic also can cause turtles’ death through lacerations or blockage of the digestive tract and consequent starvation [8e10]. Indeed, we estimate that the number of deaths caused by plastic ingestion is higher than deaths for bycatch in Uruguay at present. Our studies revealed that the presence of plastic debris in green turtle digestive tracts increased from 14.5% in the period 2001 to 2003 to 75.5% in the period 2009e2013 [11] and appears to be an ever-growing issue. Furthermore, since plastic hazards are affecting the early life stages of the species in Uruguay, the future viability of the Chelonia mydas subpopulation in the South Atlantic region could be compromised (see regional management units [RMUs] in Ref. [12]).

Plastic pollution in Uruguayan waters The dramatic situation about plastic pollution versus sea turtles in Uruguay is mainly due to two key factors. On one side is the high level of plastic pollution within Uruguayan waters. The main sources of plastic contributing to this high concentration are first, all the garbage generated in human population settlements along the Rio de la Plata and the Uruguayan coast such as Buenos Aires and Montevideo, where waste management programs are rather deficient [13,14]; and second, debris arising from the Paran
a River and its main tributaries, all of which drain into the estuarine areas of the Rio de la Plata [15]. Additionally, this accumulation of plastic is enhanced by a benthic salinity front within the estuary system that acts as barrier and accumulates debris

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[16,17], as well as the confluence of the Brazilian and Malvinas currents off the coast of Uruguay, creating a convergence zone for sediments and plastic debris [18,19]. On the other side, the green turtle has a marked seasonal occurrence in Uruguayan waters, driven mainly by changes in sea surface temperatures [20,21]. During the austral summer and early fall, the water reaches above 20 C due to the influence of the Brazil Current, a warm water current flowing southward, which enhances the highest aggregations of green turtles in Uruguay. Meanwhile, during the austral winter and spring, the influence of the Malvinas Current, a cold water current flowing northward, cools the water below to 15 C. Thus, green turtles tend to migrate to the north following the retreat of the Brazil Current. Due to this seasonal migratory pattern, turtles are shifting continuously between neritic and pelagic habitats. That means the green turtle reflects certain plasticity in its feeding behavior, which allows them to adapt their feeding to local environmental conditions, from a mainly benthic-based and herbivorous diet in neritic habitat to a broader and omnivorous diet in pelagic zones [22,23]. Hence, the combination of these two specific factors: a) the massive aggregation of plastics in the area, and b) the migratory patterns and adaptive feeding behavior of juvenile green turtles, makes the likelihood of plastic ingestion for green turtle really high in the area, placing Uruguay as one of the major hotspots for plastic ingestion by green turtles around the world (Bugoni et al., 2001; [7,11,24e27]).

Tackling the plastic pollution issue In view of this alarming situation, at Karumbé, we decided to refocus a good deal of our attention on the issue of plastic pollution and to set up a series of actions to face this growing threat for sea turtles. All of our conservation efforts, including this new challenge that we are currently facing, are rooted in three fundamental pillars: Research, Rehabilitation & Reintroduction, and Education.

Research The hazard of plastic pollution on the green turtle population present in Uruguay became clear for us from the beginning, with the first findings of stranded turtles with their guts full of plastics. However, we needed to understand what the real magnitude of this issue was and to determine its adverse effects on the turtle’s health. To achieve this goal, we are currently developing two parallel research lines on the plastic pollution issue. First, we are conducting a comprehensive analysis of plastic ingestion rates by juvenile green turtles in Uruguay. This assessment covers a representative range of turtles in different health conditions, including dead turtles (stranded and bycaught), injured turtles (with different diagnosis), and healthy wild turtles. This broad range of turtles, at the same time, is providing three different sources of samples:

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(1) Gastrointestinal contents from dead turtles. Through necropsies (see methodology in Ref. [28]), we collect the contents differentiated by section of the digestive tract: esophagus, stomach, and intestines, for searching the presence of plastic. The analysis of samples from each section of the digestive tract allows us to determine the distribution of plastics along the digestive system and determine areas with higher accumulations. Usually we find that the intestines are the section accumulating a greater amount of plastic debris. (2) Feces samples from injured turtles held in rehabilitation treatment and healthy wild turtles under monitoring. All of the turtles reaching the Karumbé rehabilitation centers are held in individual tanks. We continuously monitor the presence of feces in the monitoring tanks, at least three times daily. This protocol allows us to assess the plastic ingestion in live animals on different health conditions. An important factor to be considered is the length of the monitoring period, which is directly related to the upper limit of the intake passage time for each species according to the size class and life stage. (3) Gastric lavage samples from wild-caught turtles. We perform this technique only in healthy turtles, because it is not without risk. This process may compromise the health of the turtles, and should be limited to people with appropriate training and expertise. The methodology is well described in Refs. [29e31]; Forbes (1999), Witherington (2002). Another caution is to be aware of is that it is only possible to collect esophagus and stomach contents, which does not ensure the retrieval of all of the ingested content.

Once plastic fragments are isolated and cleaned, those are quantified, categorized, and characterized following standard procedures. The result of this analysis allows us to evaluate plastic ingestion patterns and changes in rates of ingestion over time. Second, we are evaluating the dynamics and levels of plastic pollution in Uruguayan waters. Through computational oceanic circulation models and adding an input-model on drift trajectories, we are analysing the spatial and temporal movement patterns and potential accumulation areas of plastic debris. In addition, we are conducting samplings both on the beaches and in-water within the main foraging grounds for green turtles in Uruguay. The plastic we collect are quantified, categorized, and characterized following the same procedures used for the plastic encountered in the gut of studied turtles. The expected outcomes will improve our understanding of the mechanisms and factors involved in the threat process of the plastic ingestion. After completing these two research lines, we eventually aim to develop a risk assessment of plastic ingestion for green sea turtles in Uruguayan waters. By combining the results and findings of these researches, we will be able to assess the likelihood of plastic ingestion according to specific levels of exposure to plastic pollution. This impact evaluation will contribute toward the design of effective mitigation strategies and conservation plans for the species in Uruguay and more broadly across the Southwestern Atlantic region. Even more, these outcomes could help to develop a standard and replicable method to assess the risk of plastic ingestion for sea turtle stocks worldwide according to specific levels of plastic pollution.

Rehabilitation and reintroduction Uruguayan waters are considered a key feeding and developing area for at least three sea turtle species: green turtle, loggerhead, and leatherback. This implies a large number of

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stranded turtles, dead and alive, reaching the coastline. Moreover, we have registered more than 2200 stranded turtles in the last 20 years ([32] and data not published). Thus, one of our first challenges was to attend to as many turtles as we can reach. Certainly, it was not easy due to funding constraints. Twenty years ago we did not have a single vehicle to rescue the turtles nor cell phones to receive real-time stranding alerts. The early years were hard, carrying out really long beach surveys and keeping contact with fishermen just in case they would encounter a turtle entangled in their gillnets. Over the course of years, Karumbé has been developing a stranding and rescue network. We have drawn the attention of a significant number of volunteers and concerned citizens thanks to a continued outreach and the launch of multiple campaigns on social media. This increase in public engagement has made the rescue alerts received by the organization grow exponentially. Nowadays, we can manage successfully the rescue of around 70e80 turtles annually, which are transferred to our rehabilitation facilities for their treatment and recovery. At present, Karumbé has two rehabilitation centers managed by a veterinarian team of specialists in sea turtles. The principal center is located in Montevideo, which we named the “Turtle Hospital.” It is fitted with advanced equipment to properly attend the most complicated cases. The second one is a humble facility attached to our basecamp in La Coronilla (a coastal community), where we provide first aid and simple treatments to the rescued turtles. Astonishingly, more than 80% of these rescued turtles show evidence of plastic ingestion. The cases differ in severity level; some turtles just present a few pieces of plastics that are usually expelled after administrating a soft diet and some laxatives. However, with other turtles diagnosed with gut obstruction, which leads to starvation, their recovery gets very complicated and most of them, unfortunately, end up dying. Plastic debris is deeply affecting this population and the numbers speak for themselves: we are only able to recover 40% of rescued turtles. Even more, it is somewhat frustrating to know that, after releasing the recovered turtles again to the sea, their chances to keep ingesting plastics remain high, as we have observed in some capture-recapture individuals.

Education We strongly believe that all these conservation efforts must be closely linked to increased environmental awareness; otherwise they are meaningless. As a conservation organization, we have a commitment to make visible the impacts on the environment of issues such as plastic pollution, empowering people to think critically about it and involving them to reverse this critical situation. In 2005, we created the Sea Turtle Visitor Center as a place to create awareness about the conservation of sea turtles and their habitats, acting as a link between society and the environment [33]. Karumbé is currently operating three visitor centers in strategic locations: Montevideo, La Paloma, and La Coronilla. In these centers, the visitors are provided with clear and simple information about sea turtles through a guided tour across different sections. They are introduced to the amazing world of sea turtles, discovering relevant information about their biology and ecology as well as the hazards threatening them.

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Across this exhibition, we set up a section dedicated exclusively to the threat of plastic pollution, showing explicit material about its impact on turtles’ health. Among this material, what stands out is a series of crystal jars containing samples of plastics ingested by turtles. In order of increasing quantity, we show jars with a few fragments encountered in feces of healthy turtles, to a mass of plastic collected from the gut of a turtle that died caused by this obstruction and consequent starvation. After this grim section, we continue with a talk about “What I can do to mitigate these impacts?” offering the visitor a set of simple recommended actions. The visit finishes having a look at the rehabilitation area, where visitors can observe directly when the veterinarian staff are working on the recovery of turtles. Our aim when designing this exhibition circuit was for the visitor to end the tour with a positive message: “Together, we can save the turtles from the threat of plastic!” These visitor centers are definitely the best outreach platform for our initiative and the number of visitors has been growing, nowadays receiving around 15,000 people every year. We also have a long history of developing social programs and working closely with coastal communities. The Karumbé team provides workshops on topics such as responsible consumption, litter management, and “The Three Rs” (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle) in order to raise awareness and empower locals to tackle the problem of plastic pollution in their surrounding environment. Additionally, we offer skills training to those sectors with a relevant presence on our coasts such as coastguards, lifeguards, or fishermen. These courses consist of basic procedures to provide first aid to stranded turtles, or how to rescue an entangled turtle in fishing gear. These actions reinforce the relationships between the different actors involved in the preservation of the turtles, strengthening the collaboration framework. In the field of environmental education, Karumbé has been implementing the program “Aula Tortuguera” (Turtle Classroom in English) since 2010, seeking to generate empathy in the students for environmental conservation using the turtle as a flagship species. We encourage children to investigate and discover aspects of the biology and ecology of sea turtles through different educational resources such as games, workshops, or engaging and funny talks. Some schools have been applying these educational activities in their programs for a long time, demonstrating real interest and a firm commitment for conservation. Hence, Karumbé offers to these schools an advanced educational program where they have the possibility to adopt a turtle under rehabilitation treatment. Once we get an agreement, we schedule a visit to the rehabilitation facility so the students can meet the adopted turtle. During the visit, the veterinarian staff shares its diagnosis and how the turtle got injured (e.g., partial obstruction caused by ingestion of plastic), introducing at the same time the topic of plastic pollution. In the following weeks, the students will follow the turtle treatment day by day until its recovery and return to the sea. During this process, we encourage the groups of students to investigate different topics related to the study case such as biology concepts including their life cycle; geographic concepts such as where the turtles come from; and environmental concepts such as what the impacts of plastic pollution are. This activity represents an excellent tool for engaging students to investigate about sea turtles and related topics, while at the same time we expand our conservation message.

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Above all else, the best reward for our work is when we get to return a rehabilitated turtle to the sea. This is a very special moment and a fantastic opportunity to share these achievements with local people, involving them with our mission. Usually we make a public call for all those wishing to participate in these emotionally rewarding events. It should be mentioned that sometimes these activities include more than 1000 people. The ceremony begins with a general presentation about sea turtles and conservation. Next we explain the story of the individual turtle being released, how it wound up with so much plastic in it, and how the recovery process took place. We continue engaging people through games, songs, and dances in a relaxed and enjoyable atmosphere until the height of the ceremony when all the attendants come together with us on the shore to finally return the turtle to the sea. All these actions and activities always have represented a true process of learning for us. We have felt pleased with our achievements and we also have learned about our mistakes. Any initiative about conservation of nature is definitely a long-term career, and sometimes it becomes really challenging. However, our determination and commitment for the preservation of these creatures have made it possible that after 20 years of tireless work we still keep going strong. We are facing now a relatively new threat to sea turtles, where we are the ones ultimately responsible. Thus, the solution necessarily involves ourselves. Our responsibility as conservation organizations is to spread the message in order to raise awareness about sea turtles and involve people in conservation efforts and mitigation plans as well as to empower them to demanding a change in policies and the current patterns of plastic production and consumption. Perhaps this will be a long and arduous route, but as said by one of the most influential Uruguayan writers, Eduardo Galeano, “Many small people, in small places, doing small things, can change the world.”

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as, R. Míguez-Lozano, J.C. Xavier, G. Martinez-Souza, A. Carranza, New insights in Southwestern Atlantic Ocean Oegopsid squid distribution based on juvenile green turtle (Chelonia mydas) diet analysis, Marine Biodiversity 45 (4) (2015) 701e709, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12526-014-0272-x. [23] G.M. Vélez-Rubio, L. Cardona, M. L
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[33] A. Bauza, A. Aisenberg, Karumbé educational project: an approach to fishing communities, in: Proceedings of the Twenty Third Annual Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SEFSC-536, 165, 2006. [34] F. Galgani, G. Hanke, S. Werner, L. Oosterbaan, P. Nilsson, D. Fleet, S. Kinsey, R.C. Thompson, J. Van Franeker, T. Vlachogianni, Guidance on Monitoring of Marine Litter in European Seas, Publications Office of the European Union, 2013. [35] A.L. Valente, I. Marco, M.L. Parga, S. Lavin, F. Alegre, R. Cuenca, Ingesta passage and gastric emptying times in loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta), Research in Veterinary Science 84 (1) (2008) 132e139, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2007.03.013.

Section Four Tourism and Sea Turtles

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Sea Turtle Ecotourism Brad Nahill SEE Turtles, Portland, OR, United States

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Introduction Seeing sea turtles in the wild has been a popular activity for tourists for decades. These animals in many ways are ideal for wildlife watching due to their charisma, calm nature, predictable behavior, and worldwide distribution. On a nesting beach, the trance-like state that females go into while digging and laying gives people the opportunity to approach them, which when done carefully has limited negative impacts on the turtles. Perhaps more than any other animal, sea turtles are especially suited toward volunteer tourism (aka “voluntourism”) since basic data collection can be done by non-scientists (though they should always be supervised by trained biologists). Tourism can be a very effective way to generate much needed funding for conservation and research, provide manpower to monitor long nesting beaches or large foraging areas, and involve and benefit nearby communities. While well-managed turtle watching can have many positive impacts, the unfortunate truth is that in many places around the world overtourism or poorly managed tourism (or a combination of both) can and have had significant negative impacts on sea turtles and their habitats. Tourism infrastructure such as lighting, hotels, marinas, and boardwalks can damage nesting beaches and marine habitats and lead to behavior changes in both adult females and hatchlings. Treating wild animals as playthings or fodder for photos happens frequently as travelers search for ways to impress their friends on social media. Balancing the need to protect wild animals like sea turtles versus the economic value of one of the world’s largest industries and employers is a challenging task for managers and administrators. Done well, turtle watching benefits both conservation and research efforts and nearby communities while minimizing damaging impacts on sea turtles, other species, and their habitats. Wildlife tourism can help to reduce illegal wildlife trafficking and encourage governments and communities to invest in protecting endangered species, showing that these animals are worth more alive than dead. A recent report from the World Travel and Trade Organization showed that wildlife tourism generated more than US$120 billion to global GDP and provided jobs for over 9 million people, more than five times the estimated economic value of illegal wildlife trafficking. A 2009 WWF report titled Money Talk: Economic Aspects of Marine Turtle Conservation estimated that sea turtle tourism draws three times as much money as the sale of turtle products including eggs, meat, and shells.

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The value of turtle watching is a personal issue to me, as well as an important issue. I did not grow up being interested in sea turtles or really in nature or wildlife at all. I never had a pet turtle, looked for turtles in the wild, or even watched the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles. When I looked for an opportunity to volunteer with a conservation project after graduating from college with a degree in Environmental Economics, I was open to any location or environmental issue. Volunteering with sea turtles was by far the dominant option, so I ended up at Playa Langosta, part of the Las Baulas National Marine Park in Costa Rica in 1999. But even though I did not begin that experience looking to start a career in sea turtle conservation that was the result, and now I run an award-winning non-profit that works to protect sea turtles through what we call “conservation travel.”

Why sea turtle ecotourism Bringing travelers to participate in sea turtle projects or observing them in the wild has had tangible benefits for many organizations and educational institutions around the world. According to Money Talks, at least four locations around the world focused specifically on turtle generated more than $1 million gross revenue in 2009, providing local jobs, funding monitoring efforts, and discouraging consumptive uses of sea turtles. SEE Turtles, the US-based non-profit that I lead, has generated more than US$1 million for conservation programs and communities in Latin America and completed more than 5,000 volunteer shifts through our conservation travel program. Nesting beaches such as Tortuguero National Park in Costa Rica have seen nesting numbers climb significantly, as they became popular turtle watching sites (see case studies later in this chapter for more about that park). With hundreds of sea turtle nesting beaches spread around the world, as well as countless foraging and mating areas and migration routes in the ocean, the need for large numbers of people to monitor sea turtles is evident. While millions of dollars are invested in sea turtle research and conservation every year by governments, private donors, educational institutions, and businesses, the need for funding continues to outpace actual funds available. For this reason, many field programs turn to tourism as a way to fill the financial gap. My first paid experience working with sea turtles was also in Costa Rica, on Playa Negra on the Caribbean coast, for Asociacion ANAI. My colleagues and I were launching a new program on a previously unmonitored leatherback nesting beach located between two popular tourist destinations, Puerto Viejo and Cahuita. Funding for the first year of that project came from a student travel company called EcoTeach, which brought student groups to visit the beach for a presentation and to observe the nesting. To supplement that funding, we created a program to offer travelers and volunteers the opportunity to see the nesting, allowing us to survive the 5-month nesting season and providing support to cover the several mile stretch of beach we were covering.

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Benefits of sea turtle tourism Sea turtle conservation projects around the world accommodate tourists for one primary reason: money. With so many projects competing for a relatively small pot of donations, developing tourism has become a very important source of income for many organizations. There are many forms that income from tourism can take, from entrance fees at protected areas (if those fees are reinvested in conservation), to fees for volunteering and providing food and lodging, payments for daytrips, donations by tour operators or hotels, or sales of merchandise. This income can diversify your organization’s funding and reduce dependence on outside donations. But income is not the only motivation; tourists can also be enlisted in providing volunteer support, helping to cover large areas and reduce staff costs. Having additional people on a patrol can increase safety and coverage of the beach for longer periods of time. Volunteers can also help complete other important tasks like building and maintaining hatcheries, collecting data, cleaning beaches, and participating in educational programs. Done well, tourism can also help benefit local communities and provide alternatives to exploitation. Many remote areas where sea turtles nest or forage have few economic alternatives to eating turtle eggs or meat or selling them on the black market. But as tourism develops and grows, it can diversify coastal economies and provide jobs for people who used to participate in the exploitation. After all, who better to hire to monitor beaches or foraging areas than those who have spent their lives looking for them and learning their behaviors from their parents? I’ve befriended many people who grew up eating turtles and eggs who became some of the most dedicated protectors of sea turtles I’ve ever met. When a community starts to benefit from protecting sea turtles, an internal pressure on those continuing to eat or sell them develops, which can be stronger than any law. As much as possible, be sure to involve local residents who are interested. For example, your project can help train guides to make sure they provide a good experience for guests and manage travelers to ensure a minimal impact on the turtles. You can also partner with local hotels and restaurants to bring volunteers or tour groups or find local homes that are willing to rent out rooms for homestays. Travelers also can become lifelong supporters and turtle enthusiasts. They can become donors to your organization if you cultivate that interest (see Chapter 8 on fundraising for sea turtle conservation). Visitors can also be a great marketing tool, so be sure to encourage them to share their photos on social media (and to tag your accounts), so their friends see what a great experience they had. Another way that travelers can be helpful for conservation is with their voices; encourage them to advocate for sea turtles and other wildlife to decision-makers. If enough travelers show they care that can be enough to convince governments or companies to support conservation and stop development projects that could impact important habitats. There are several examples of people being changed by their experiences with sea turtles. Years after volunteering with Kemp’s ridley project in Texas with the legendary Ila Loetcher, a man named James Inhofe became a powerful senator from

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Oklahoma. While known more as a climate change skeptic, when the Marine Turtle Conservation Act was first proposed as a bill in 2003, Senator Inhofe became a cosponsor and was a major reason for its passage. This legislation led to the creation of the Marine Turtle Conservation Fund, which has provided millions of dollars in funding for projects and organizations around the world.

Challenges and risks Construction on nesting beaches. Marinas built in sensitive habitat. People disturbing turtles. Plastic waste left on beaches. Recreational boats striking turtles. The harmful effects of tourism on sea turtles cover a wide range of human behavior and planning decisions. Some of these impacts can be managed with education and supervision, while others are the results of decisions made by governments and businesses with little or no input from communities and conservation organizations. But any organization that wants to work with tourists should have an idea of how tourism affects sea turtles and neighboring communities, weigh the positive and negative impacts, and work to reduce those that cause harm to wildlife and people. Behavioral issues that can harm sea turtles include: • • • • •

Stressing out sea turtles on the beach and in the water by inappropriately touching them, taking flash photos at night, or blocking their way; Littering of plastic waste, ending up in the water, where it can entangle or be ingested by wildlife, or on the beach, where it can impede movement; Obstructing nesting beaches by leaving things such as furniture or tents out on the beach overnight; Using toxic chemicals like sunscreen or insect repellant and then touching animals or going into the sea where it can pollute waterways; and Damaging boating practices, such as anchoring on coral reefs, speeding through wildlife habitat, and discharge of fuels into the water.

Coastal development issues that impact sea turtles include: • • •

Building of infrastructure such as hotels and marinas on sensitive coastal habitat; Lighting from homes and buildings impacting nesting turtles and hatchlings; and Sand renourishment projects to replenish beaches for tourism.

There are also concerns about tourism’s impact on communities, which can include: • • •

Tourist behavior that can offend residents or crime such as littering, disrespect of local customs, drug abuse, sex tourism, and other behaviors; The seasonality of tourism, especially when related to turtle nesting seasons, can create a boom or bust economy; and Jobs created by tourism, if managed by international businesses, are often low wage jobs with little security.

One risk of bringing tourists to participate in or observe sea turtles at your location that many projects don’t take into account is liability. If someone were to get injured while walking on the beach or falling out of a boat, it can lead to significant legal issues

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and lawsuits. Working with established tour operators is one way to reduce this liability, as those companies will have insurance for their clients that will cover them. They may also be willing to help you do a safety audit to reduce risk as well. Regardless, your organization should have a plan in place to reduce any risks and how to respond in the event of an injury or accident. That plan should include how to transport people to the nearest medical facility and training in first aid for staff.

Turtle tourism case studies Beach camping at Maruata, Mexico Maruata is a small town on the Pacific coast of Mexico roughly halfway between Manzanillo and Ixtapa. It is a beautiful spot with a great beach for swimming, dramatic rock formations, and restaurants along the beach ready to serve the tourists that come to camp here. It is just a few miles from Colola Beach, the world’s most important nesting beach for black sea turtles, and during nesting season, some of Colola’s turtles displace to this beach, looking for space to nest. According to Carlos Delgado of the University of Michoacan, in the 1970s, backpackers began showing up at Maruata, bringing along their tents and proclivity for marijuana. Eventually, the town became known as a place to party (nicknamed “Marijuata”), and backpackers camped on the beach, had parties, and lit fires throughout the night. As the site grew in popularity, the turtles suffered. Marijuana became de facto legal in the town and government agencies who monitored nesting became unwelcome by the local business owners who benefited from the tourism. This has helped the economy of town but not the turtles. The light from the fires attracted hatchlings, resulting in their death in many cases. Even when hatchlings were released at the far end of the beach, they swam back to shore toward the fires. On a recent visit with a group of SEE Turtles travelers, we walked to a landmark tower of rock on the coast known as the “Finger of God” (Dedo de Dios). There were few tourists around but a family sat nearby at their home with a large water tank out front. I wandered over to say hello and saw what was in the tank: hatchlings swimming around. The owner shared that they give them to tourists to release for a small amount of money. While this may be a treat for the traveler who wanders by, it does not help those hatchlings, whose yolk sack has likely been consumed. Are tourists threatening the existence of black turtles on this beach? Probably not. Are they a positive force for conservation? That also seems unlikely. But at best, the local community in this town sees the turtles as a resource to exploit. The government doesn’t have the will or resources to enforce the laws and with few other sources of income, the tourists take precedence.

Leave no trace ordinances in Alabama (USA) Leave No Trace is a set of principles created by US Forest Service, National Park Service, and Bureau of Land Management in the 1960s as a way to reduce the impact of humans on the outdoors. Along the Gulf Coast of the United States, a number of

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municipalities are enacting policies using these principles, which primarily require residents and visitors to remove all beach equipment and disposable items by a specified time. As noted above, these things left on the beach during nesting season can impede both nesting females and hatchlings. According to a 2020 study by Matthew Ware and Mariana Fuentes of Florida State University’s Marine Turtle, Research, Ecology, and Conservation Group, approximately 600 tons of material were removed from two of the beaches studied, including tents, chairs, and umbrellas over the period from 2016 to 2018. Two of the beaches studied had roughly 18% fewer obstructed crawls after the ordinances were put in place while another beach without a Leave No Trace ordinance saw an increase of more than 45% obstructed crawls.

Case study: public sea turtle watches in Florida, USA The beaches of Florida are both the top state for sea turtle nesting in the US as well as one of the country’s most popular spots for tourists. This presents an opportunity to engage the public about these animals and encourage conservation-oriented behavior. Many beaches offer public sea turtle watches, where visitors receive an interpretive presentation, and then are accompanied to the beach by trained staff to observe the nesting process. Participants are asked to give a voluntary donation for the experience, which goes to the local sea turtle program. The leader guides the group single file along the edge of the water to minimize the likelihood of disturbing turtles who have not yet begun to lay their eggs and are more susceptible to disturbance. Any unsupervised visitors are asked to join the turtle watch and the leader uses a red light to minimize disturbance. Groups observe one turtle per watch and then are accompanied off the beach. To determine how effective the turtle watch interpretive programs are in changing behavior, staff from Disney’s Animals, Science and Environment studied the turtle watch conducted at Vero Beach, which is near the Archie Carr National Wildlife Refuge, one of the world’s largest nesting beaches for loggerhead turtles in 2013e14. Researchers conducted pre- and post-activity surveys along with followup after 6 months to determine long-term behavior. While the researchers believed that the turtle walk participants were predisposed toward proconservation behaviors beforehand, over the long-term, more than 75% of respondents participated in actions that were recommended during the turtle walk. These behaviors included recycling, avoiding littering, educating others, and donating to conservation.

Tourism niches If your program is interested in tapping into the positive benefits of tourism, it is important to determine what kind of tourists you are looking for and orient your program and promotion toward those kinds of travelers. A daytripper will look out for very different things than a tour operator bringing a group of adults for a week. Which type of traveler will work best depends on a number of factors including what goals you have for the program, what types of travelers come to your area, and what infrastructure you have, if any.

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Daytrips These travelers require the least amount of work and infrastructure and a program can be set up quickly. However, to generate enough income to be worthwhile, it can take a significant number of customers as each one won’t be paying a significant amount. This type of traveler works well when there are nearby hotels that cater to international travelers and access to the beach or study area is easy. The more attractive you can make your tour trip, the better it will do. For example, don’t just bring people to the beach and look for turtles. You can offer an educational presentation to teach people about these animals, how your research helps, and how they can contribute. Give tourists something to take home like a sticker or postcard and offer to sell them souvenirs to take home. Often you can work with the hotels to put together a package including transportation and promote it to their clients. They will usually want a commission, and in some cases, the concierge will also receive a portion of the cost. One great way to get a program for daytrippers off the ground is to organize a tour for local hotels and businesses so they can see the turtles and understand the experience (known as an FAM or familiarization tour). Put together promotional materials to put in hotel lobbies, focusing on large images ideally with both sea turtles and people in them. Point people toward a website where they can learn more or to ask for the trip at the front desk. When people complete the activity, be sure to get their contact information, encourage them to follow you on social media, and to leave a review on websites like Trip Advisor, Google, and Yelp, which are a primary way that travelers learn about activities.

Voluntourism Volunteer travel (aka “voluntourism”) has become a popular way for people to give back and have unique experiences. The sea turtle community learned early on that in places like Costa Rica people would pay to work on nesting beaches. Many projects now sustain themselves through this kind of tourism, though there are a range of demographics that do this kind of travel and your program should gear itself toward the ones it is most likely to attract. Places with more rustic conditions are better suited to younger travelers, such as college students or recent graduates that are willing to put up with harsher conditions for lower costs. If you have nicer facilities and charge more, you can gear your program toward older travelers who have more disposable income. Travelers want to feel like their trips have a positive impact, so don’t only focus on the actual turtle work. If your beach has significant plastic waste, organize a beach cleanup. At the beginning of nesting season, enlist their help to build hatcheries or maintain your station. Encourage their artistic side by having them create murals or signs that attract new travelers and educate visitors. Or they could help tend a garden that helps to feed travelers and staff. Early in my career, I created a program that helped connect volunteer travelers with several different nesting beaches in Costa Rica. We would pick them up at the airport, have a place for them overnight, and then take them to the project and help orient them. Initially, our marketing extolled the romantic side of the work: walking on moonlit

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Caribbean beaches, studying charismatic animals, learning new languages, etc. However, we realized that we were attracting the wrong kind of people for this type of travel. Many would arrive and quickly tire of the long walks, the bugs, rain, and rustic conditions and leave unhappy, sometimes early and demanding refunds. So we changed it up, putting the bad stuff front and center, then telling people, “if you can put up with this, it could be the best experience of your life.” That seemed to work; our numbers didn’t drop and we received volunteers more suited to the conditions. You always want to set proper expectations for volunteer travelers and give as much information about the work and conditions as possible.

Cruise ship tours If your project is within a short distance of where cruise ships dock, cruise ships can be a great way to bring visitors to your project. This type of passenger works best when you can offer daytime activities as passengers stay on the ship and don’t often leave at night (at least in time to get out to see nesting turtles), so in-water activities can be a good fit. One thing to keep in mind is that these groups can get quite large, so be sure your project has the capacity to manage that kind of group. One example is Latin American Sea Turtles (LAST), who has a project on Costa Rica’s Osa Peninsula, that works with National Geographic’s travel program to bring passengers from their small cruises to the country. The groups visit their research station and then observe as turtles are caught in nets in the Golfo Dulce to study and release. LAST staff also give an educational presentation on the ship. These trips are helping to fund the project both through donations and providing the funds necessary to conduct the research.

Tour operators Many tour operators are looking for hands-on ways for their clients to get involved in supporting conservation. Working with tour operators to bring groups for overnight or multi-day visits can be a great way to avoid both intensive staff time to market tours and manage groups, as well as a way to reduce your organization’s liability if someone were to get injured. One of the great things about the larger tour operators is that many of them also have funds to support conservation projects, so your project may be able to tap into those additional funds over and above the income from the tours. The key with tour operators is to research them to see if they have trips in your country and are focused on outdoor or wildlife activities on their trips. Look for ones that promote their environmental friendliness as well and that travel to your country. Also, try to find operators that use accommodations that fit either your project’s level of comfort or the level of accommodations available near your site. Don’t try to convince a luxury operator to stay in a very rustic lodge, it won’t work. The easier it is for an operator to include your project in an itinerary, the easier you will be able to convince them. Contact their in-country director if they have one and invite them for a visit. Note that setting these kinds of groups up can require a lead time of a year or more before groups start arriving, so this is a long-term plan if you go this route.

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Student travel Students can be a great way to reach your organization’s educational goals while also supporting the financial needs of the project. The biggest thing to keep in mind with students is that safety is the highest priority. If your beach or area have safety concerns, either with those who may want to collect turtles or eggs, or other factors like drugs or gangs, then this isn’t the right market for your project. The more you can demonstrate the safety of your project to the schools themselves or student tour operators, the better your chances for success will be. That includes developing an emergency management plan, training anyone who will drive the students (or getting professionals) by boat or vehicle, and developing activities with minimal risk (so a turtle rodeo is a bad idea in this case). The easiest way to bring student groups to your project is to work through student travel operators. In Latin America, two of the primary operators are EcoTeach and Ecology Project International. Operators like these can provide a great way to connect with schools in the United States. You will also want to focus on the educational aspects of your programs. Put some time into preparing presentations about different aspects of sea turtles and your work. Some projects have created small educational centers with displays and samples, like carapaces, hatchlings preserved in formaldehyde, and examples of equipment used. This is also a great place to display any posters created for your project that might be gathering dust on a shelf somewhere.

Tourism marketing There are many low-cost ways to promote your products to a wide audience. Social media is a great way to reach people at no cost (other than your time). I recommend focusing primarily on Facebook and Instagram, which are the most popular and easiest to build audiences. You should also look into Google Grants if you have a non-profit organization; you might be eligible for free advertising. If you offer a volunteer program, there are a number of free or low-cost directories to promote your program. If you offer day trips, you may want to focus on flyers and advertising in the nearest tourist destination at places like restaurants and local hotels. Guidebooks like Lonely Planet are another place to contact to see if they will list your project. You can also find other tourist attractions in your area and offer to promote them to your visitors and vice versa.

Recommendations For those looking to start a new tourism program, we suggest the following: •

Focus on traveler experience from arrival to departure. Think through how they will arrive, where they will go, what can you do to improve the experience, and how will you take payment.

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Conduct surveys at every opportunity to learn ways to improve your products. Gather contact information as frequently as possible and encourage visitors to follow you on social media and provide reviews on places like Trip Advisor and Yelp. Set accurate expectations for visitors before they arrive. If your place is rustic, tell your travelers that, for example. Spend time developing your interpretation program, including a presentation, what information will be imparted to visitors during the experience, and how you will maintain contact with them. Visit other similar attractions whenever possible. You can learn a lot from visiting a turtle project which has been bringing visitors for a long period of time. Visit other kinds of tourist attractions as well, in your area.

Bibliography [1] J. Rachel Smith, B. Witherington, J.E. Heimlich, R.J. Lindborg, E. Neidhardt, A. Savage, Public sea turtle watches serve as effective environmental education, Environmental Education Research (2019), https://doi.org/10.1080/13504622.2018.1509300. [2] S. Troëng, C. Drews, Money Talks: Economic Aspects of Marine Turtle Use and Conservation, WWF-International, Gland, Switzerland, 2004. www.panda.org. [3] M. Ware, M. Fuentes, Leave No Trace ordinances for coastal species management: influences on sea turtle nesting success, Endangered Species Research 41 (2020) 197e207. [4] World Travel, Tourism Council, The Economic Impact of Global Wildlife Tourism, 2019 (London, United Kingdom).

Case Study: The Evolution of Tourism and Sea Turtle Conservation at Tortuguero National Park, Costa Rica

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Jimena Gutiérrez-Lince 1 , Michelle Dorantes Palacios 1 , Rolda
n A. Valverde 1,2 1 Sea Turtle Conservancy, Tortuguero, Lim
on, Costa Rica; 2Department of Biological Sciences, Southeastern Louisiana University, Hammond, LA, United States

Tortuguero is located on the northeast Caribbean coast of Costa Rica. Each year, between March and October, its 32 km of coastline witness the nesting process of four species of sea turtles: greens, leatherbacks, hawksbills, and loggerheads. Green turtles are by far the most abundant. In fact, Tortuguero is considered the most important nesting beach for green turtles in the Western Hemisphere. Every year, between 17,400 and 37,290 females come to lay their eggs in Tortuguero [1], and their presence has provided a source of income for Tortuguero villagers for hundreds of years. Income generation began with the extractive use of their meat and eggs and now, following the creation of the Tortuguero National Park (TNP), turtles are central to ecotourism activities, which is the center of the local economy. There has always been a very close relationship between the people from Tortuguero and the thousands of turtles that annually arrive at their beach to reproduce. In preColumbian times, before the 1500s, the first Tortuguero settlers depended on the natural resources available in the region to survive, and sea turtles and their eggs were a central part of their diet. By the 1700s, Tortuguero was widely known by merchants and seamen for the impressive number of turtles found during the nesting season. Subsequently, Europeans began trading the valuable turtle meat, oil, and shells with the Zambo-Miskitos indigenous people, who were skilled fishermen in the collection of sea turtles. By the beginning of the 20th century, Tortuguero had a large-scale export operation of sea turtles. This commerce reached such prominence that in 1912 an 18-ton ship called “Vanguardia” extracted turtles regularly from the area. Up to the first half of the 20th century, green turtles were particularly sought after, since they represented the main ingredient in turtle soup, so the abundance of nesting green turtles in Tortuguero drew the attention of the industry [2]. In the 1950s, Dr. Archie Carr visited Tortuguero for the first time. He was a conservation biologist who initiated the scientific research and monitoring program of the nesting population of sea turtles at this important beach. In 1959, his initial work led to the creation of the Caribbean Conservation Corporation, which later became the Sea Turtle Conservancy (STC). The work of Dr. Carr through this organization paved the way to establish Tortuguero National Park in 1970. In order to Sea Turtle Research and Conservation. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821029-1.00011-8 Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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perform sea turtle research, the STC employed local villagers to assist in turning the turtles to tag them, representing the first time a sea turtle was valued monetarily for a reason other than consumption in Tortuguero. These sea turtle studies drew public and academic attention to the status of the nesting population and concern grew for the intense exploitation that the green turtles were suffering by the turtlers (people who caught and sold turtles, locally known as “veladores”) and the considerable number of them that were sold in national and international markets. Due to the pressure and concern from several conservation groups, endangered species legislation was adopted in many countries in the 1960s, resulting in a decrease of the international market for sea turtles [2]. In the 1970s, the overexploitation of turtle populations, accompanied by new conservation initiatives such as the Convention for the International Trade of Endangered Species (CITES) in 1973, led to the decline of the commercial turtling industry around the world [3,4].

Tortuguero National Park and the growth of tourism In 1970, Tortuguero National Park was established, which significantly changed the lives of the residents of Tortuguero by restricting their access to the natural resources they counted on for their daily activities. The economy in the village suffered, the population decreased as people left to look for work elsewhere, and the remaining inhabitants survived with subsistence farming, hunting, and fishing [3,4]. After the establishment of the national park, the community in general had a negative attitude toward it. Eleven years after its creation, many of the residents still felt the standard of living was worse than before the creation of the park [3]. The daily monitoring of Tortuguero’s sea turtle nesting populations began in 1971. The STC hired locals to perform track count surveys, providing another source of income from sea turtles without direct take of adults or eggs. Soon after, in the mid1970s, a man-made canal was completed, which linked Tortuguero to the rest of Costa Rica, providing an easier way to access the village. The creation of the park and the canal helped to increase the number of visitors, and this growth resulted in economic improvement for the people of Tortuguero. Many tourists were attracted by the idea of seeing green turtles nesting on the beach and the beauty of the surrounding rainforest; and residents found a new source of income to provide for their families by starting local businesses or becoming turtle guides. The booming tourism industry changed the mindset of the community toward conservation and helped to create a new appreciation for the protection of the natural resources in the area.

Creation of a turtle guide system At the end of the 1980s, throughout the green turtle nesting season, more than a few tourists used to wander the beach of Tortuguero at night. There was no regulation established to control this activity and prevent disturbance to the turtles. Tourists

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looked for females performing their nesting process, used white lights, took pictures with flash, walked without paying attention, and scared some turtles away. Some tourists began to show interest in participating in organized tours and demonstrated concern about rules or precautions that should be taken while being around a sea turtle. Motivated by the interest of some of the visitors, a group of 10 local residents started to take people to the beach to look for turtles and charged a few dollars for the activity. This group decided to set aside part of the profits obtained to create a fund for the community, since they considered that they were benefiting economically from a resource that they felt belonged to the community. This was the precedent for the creation of the Guide Association [5]. In 1990, the first sea turtle tour guide training workshop was organized by the STC and TNP, with the aim to create a system of guided sea turtle tours to help mitigate the negative impact the visitors had on the turtles. This workshop also provided environmental education to the local community and to national and international visitors and served as an additional source of income for locals [6]. The first workshop involved 12 Tortuguero residents. They were trained in natural history of sea turtles, park regulations, and communication skills. After training, the new guides started participating in a pilot program, taking people to the beach. Due to its performance, two rules were established early on: (1) each guide could only take 10 tourists to the beach at a time, since bigger groups were harder to control and resulted in a less enjoyable visitor experience and (2) flashlights were not allowed, except for trained guides. The year following the pilot program, a Guides Cooperative was created where guides organized themselves to assign the tours, and profits were equally distributed among them, since there were more participants on the tours on the weekends. During this time, most of the tourists who participated in guided walks indicated being satisfied with the experience [6]. Regrettably, this organization only worked for a couple of years, due to the lack of organization and cooperation between the participants. Different guide organizations have been created over time, most of them with little success. The national park has promoted the tours by allowing only tourists with guides to enter the park to observe sea turtle activity. In March 1991, after the pressure and concern shown by the STC and TNP about tourists wandering on the beach without regulations, a tourist zone of 6 km of beach was decreed and guidelines were established by the government of Costa Rica to regulate the sighting of turtles. Since then, the rules previously established by the tour guides were now mandatory by the government; regulations also included that flash photography was only allowed after the onset of egg laying to avoid disturbing the turtles. After applying these regulations, STC researchers observed that requiring tourists to go out accompanied by a guide minimized disturbances to sea turtles on the beach [6]. Over the next couple of years, the STC continued organizing the Turtle Guide Course, each year with a bigger audience. After 1994, the national park took charge of providing the course to interested participants [5]. Over time, the national regulations on tourism were changing and other institutions got involved in the organization of the Tour Guides Workshop. The last workshop took place in 2014, with the participation of around 140 guides. The training workshop does not happen every year

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anymore to avoid exceeding the number of guides allowed on the beach. In the end, this workshop became an important component in the operation of the ecotourism activities in Tortuguero, since no guide can give turtle tours without taking this workshop. At the end of the 1990s, most of the guides had the impression that the arrival of foreign tourists had improved the quality of life in Tortuguero and their work as guides had significantly increased their income. However, the situation was not perfect: on one side, the STC was often concerned about the protection of the natural resources and restriction of the extractive use of these in the area. On the other side, some locals wanted to use those resources more. For example, some guides and long-term residents still believed that locals should have the right to eat turtle meat [5]. These differences often sparked conflict between STC and local people. However, the income generated by tourism helped both sides to find a balance between conservation and the community’s need to earn a living [7]. Year after year, the number of visitors increased and the organization of the turtle tours evolved with it. By 2001, a system to regulate the distribution of guides along the beach was established with the intention of spreading out the impact that the tours were creating on the nesting turtles. The tourist section of the beach was divided into sections, two shifts were created every night, and each guide could take a maximum of 10 tourists in a group (plus a limit of three children under the age of 12). Each section and shift had a maximum capacity of 110 participants including guides. So, if a guide wanted to take a group on a tour, they should have a turtle guide permit (obtained through the workshops) and, at a set time during the day, go to STC’s information kiosk in the center of town, where park staff were in charge of assigning the permits for the night. Each guide could request the section of the beach and the shift they preferred on a first-come, first-serve basis. The park kept a record of the guides and the number of people taken on a tour, as well as the section and the shift each guide covered to avoid any violation of the required limits. If the selected section was within the park limits, each tourist needed to present proof of the payment to enter the national park. Unfortunately, this format created tensions with some guides, especially the ones with more than one job, since it was not possible for them to go early to request their preferred assignment of positions [5]. Over time, other problems related to the sea turtle tour guide system arose. The unorganized and competitive way in which some independent guides attracted tourists for turtle walks resulted in negative impressions among visitors about the guides and about Tortuguero in general, a problem that still persists today. Some guides have proposed a more formal and stronger Guide Association, which could help to organize better the guides, improve their image by providing them with uniforms so they are easily identified, and set stronger rules about their behavior around tourists [5]. Another problem that has not yet been solved is the lack of quality control over the sea turtle tour guides. Some of them do not have a real commitment to the conservation cause. Often, these guides provide a bad experience to the visitors by taking the groups out of the beach before the nesting process has finished, not taking care of the visitors while walking in the dark, or just by not giving the correct information, because of lack

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of interest in doing research. A proposal from some guides to improve this situation is to create a continuous training program that encourages a long-term commitment from the participants, instead of the once-a-year training. Ideas include offering English classes or long-term classes about sea turtles or conservation [5].

The creation of the spotter system At the turn of the new millennium, the number of tourists visiting Tortuguero kept rising steadily, and with them the number of tours providing the nesting turtle experience. This increase in activity has affected the nesting turtles by causing a change in their activity patterns. Researchers have noted that the numbers of false crawls (the tracks turtles leave behind when they emerge from the ocean but do not successfully nest) were higher in the section of the beach where tourism was allowed. Therefore, once again, another measure was needed to reduce the impact affecting the nesting turtles. The STC, the Ministry of the Environment, Energy, and Telecommunications (MINAET), and representatives from the community (primarily members of the development association and hotel owners) changed the tour system in 2004 in an attempt to reduce the disturbance to the turtles [8]. In its first year, the new system was only implemented in the public area of the beach. Then in 2005 it was expanded to include the area inside the national park [9]. The new system incorporated “The Turtle Spotter Program,” where spotters patrolled alone on the beach looking for turtles in the appropriate nesting phase, so they could be watched by tourists with minimal impact. In the meantime, tour groups waited in a location behind the vegetation corresponding to their assigned section of the beach, and then were directed by radio to where a turtle could be seen. Tour groups now were required to meet, approach, and leave the beach using the path behind the vegetation in the upper beach, minimizing the time spent in the areas were turtles were nesting. After the new system was implemented, it reduced the disturbance to the turtles and increased nesting numbers while also creating new jobs for Tortuguero residents [8,9]. The first turtle spotters were a group of 14 people from the village. They received training for 3 days, which was mainly focused on learning to differentiate the phases of the nesting process. In 2019, 18 people were working for the Spotter Program during the nesting season. During the first few years, the new system was mainly funded by the contributions of eco-lodges and small hotels in town. Since 2016, it was compulsory that every tourist participating in a turtle tour contribute to fund the operations of the program. Currently, a percentage of the profit made from the spotter program goes to the park and another percentage goes to fund community needs, such as maintenance of school buildings, paving of sidewalks, and construction of a community center and main dock, among others. The spotter program has had some challenges since its inception. At the beginning, it was not easy for the local guides to accept it, particularly because it was supported by the STC, which is mainly staffed by foreigners. However, on nights of bad weather, tour guides did not have to walk on the beach to look for the turtles, a chore that

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they happily left for the spotters who patrolled the beach every night. The management of the spotters program has changed hands frequently over the years, making it difficult to have administrative stability. One suggestion made by people from the community was to make it clearer the way the profit made from the spotter program was invested and used, since the profits normally go to TNP and to finance the program itself by whoever is managing it that year, though part of it is also used to support local causes.

Current tourism challenges in Tortuguero National Park From the point of view of the tourists, the change of tourism management has not affected the perception that they have had about the experience. They considered the turtle tour generally a good experience, though bad impressions related to the sense of overcrowding and the feeling of disturbing the turtles while they observe the nesting process persists in both types of management [10]. However, these negative perceptions do not affect the overall experience, since the tourists still consider it a good experience as long as they see a turtle nesting or experience getting in touch with nature in one of the tours in the rainforest. Nevertheless, all the groups involved in the organization of the turtle tours need to pay constant attention to avoid affecting the tourists’ experiences [8]. A problem that has arisen in recent times due to the presence of tourists is the disturbance of the nests that are about to emerge. The anxiety and desire to have a photo taken with a hatchling has led to the increase in premature, inappropriate, and illegal excavation of nests by local people without any turtle education, or even guides that take their groups to the beach looking for hatchlings, a problem that needs to be addressed in the near future by TNP authorities. In summary, the changes implemented in the management of the sea turtle nesting populations at TNP have never been accepted easily or immediately by the Tortuguero community, especially since they were presented by outsiders. A period of adjustment has always been necessary, but the changes have finally been accepted because they work and translate into benefits for them and for the community, especially on the economic side. The greatest achievement of the tourism industry in Tortuguero and the implementation of all the changes to the sighting system is that the turtles and their nests can find a safer place now than they could 60 years ago.

Lessons learned Over the decades that STC, TNP, and the Tortuguero community have worked together to improve the situation for the turtles, residents, and tourists, there have been several lessons useful for sea turtle projects who want to implement tourism as a tool for conservation. Long-term conservation efforts on nesting areas can reverse the decline of turtle populations, as well as they can bring development in the communities. The change in the use of the turtles from the extractive use to the ecotourism approach proved that the turtles are worth more alive than dead [11].

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But the benefits of nature conservation are not immediate, and the protection efforts and changes can at times result in the short-term in a local economic decline, which can later increase gradually and provide social and economic development in the long term. In Tortuguero, one of the main limitations in the acceptance of new management schemes was that proposals for change were usually designed by a foreigner, which was perceived by locals as a way of trying to take away their source of income. However, in the long term, what made easier the transformation from the direct take of sea turtles and eggs to a conservation scheme was the direct connection between sea turtle conservation and the income generated by ecotourism. Constant work and involvement with the community has helped the STC create better relations with local residents. In addition, these efforts have also created new generations involved in the conservation of the natural resources. The involvement of locals in the management of the natural resources in the area is critical, as participation of locals leads the community to be more receptive to improvement measures in the management of their resources.

References [1] S. Tr€oeng, E. Ranking, Long-term conservation efforts contribute to positive green turtle Chelonia mydas nesting trend at Tortuguero, Costa Rica, Biological Conservation 121 (2005) 111e116. [2] J. Parsons, The Green Turtle and Man, University of Florida Press, Gainsville, 1962. [3] S. Place, The impact of national park development on Tortuguero, Costa Rica, Journal of Cultural Geography 9 (1) (1988) 37e52. [4] S. Place, Nature tourism and rural development in Tortuguero, Annals of Tourism Research 18 (1) (1991) 186e201. [5] J. Peskin, Local Guides’ Attitudes Toward Ecotourism, Sea Turtle Conservation, and Guiding in Tortuguero, Costa Rica, The Department of Geography, University of Florida, Gainesville, 2002. [6] S.K. Jacobson, R. Robles, Ecotourism, sustainable development, and conservation education: development of a tour guide training program in Tortuguero, Costa Rica, Environmental Management 16 (6) (1992) 701e713. [7] L.M. Campbell, Conservation narratives and the received wisdom of ecotourism: case studies from Costa Rica, International Journal of Sustainable Development 5 (3) (2002) 300e325. [8] Z.A. Meletis, E.C. Harrison, Tourists and turtles: searching for a balance in Tortuguero, Costa Rica, Conservation and Society 8 (2010) 26e43. [9] A. De Haro, S. Troëng, E. Harrison, R. Silman, D. Rodríguez, E. Obando, Evaluation of new turtle-tour visitation system at Tortuguero, Costa Rica, in: The International Sea Turtle Society’s 26th Annual Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation, Crete, Greece, April 2006. [10] Z.A. Meletis, Wasted Visits? Ecotourism in Theory vs. Practice, at Tortuguero, Costa Rica (Ph.D. Thesis), Duke University, Durham, USA, 2007. [11] S. Tr€oeng, C. Drews, Money Talks. Economic Aspects of Marine Turtle Use and Conservation, WWF-International, Gland, 2004.

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Lessons in Community Involvement in Sea Turtle Tourism

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Kate Charles Ocean Spirits, Grenada Like many marine biology graduates, I dreamed of a life in flip-flops, an office on the beach, and saving the ocean one creature at a time. After graduation, however, I landed a 9 to 5 job in Scotland; but after several winter months I could no longer face the dark, freezing cold days. I packed my bags and set off for an island adventure on a sea turtle volunteer project in the Caribbean in 2010. A decade later, I am still here living in the countryside with goats, geckos, and frogs, running a sea turtle NGO, becoming a voice for sea turtle conservation on a small island called Grenada, and I (mostly) wouldn’t have it any other way! I have found myself handling situations in ways I would have thought impossible before becoming a marine conservationist. Early on, I learned conservation in the Caribbean was not going to be easy, especially when I was initially labeled the outsider. To be successful, I quickly learned to adapt, be patient, and appreciate the smallest of steps in the right direction. I wanted to share some of the challenges I faced over the last decade, how I have attempted to tackled these hurdles, and the lessons I have learned from my own mistakes (there has been many), all while juggling island life with limited internet and days with no electricity or water.

Grenada and Ocean Spirits A little background to begin withdGrenada is the last volcanic island in the Lesser Antilles, just 33.8 km in length and 19.3 km wide with a human population of approximately 107,000. The island has been home to Ocean Spirits, a local NGO who for two decades have been conducting sea turtle research and conservation efforts island-wide. Their research has shown that Grenada hosts the third largest leatherback turtle nesting beach in the region with close to 1000 nests annually recorded. Ocean Spirits was created by a Welsh tourist, Carl Lloyd, who was vacationing in Grenada in 1997 and was shocked at the decomposing slaughtered leatherbacks he came across on the nesting beach. He formed partnerships with local dive stores and returned the following year to conduct track counts to gauge the population size, and established Ocean Spirits in 1999. The main nesting beach, Levera, is just 0.75 km in length at the northern tip of Grenada where the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea meet. The beach is considered remote with dirt road access and it has a very dynamic sand structure as a result of

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wave action and is constantly reshaping. At the rear of the beach runs a strip of vines backing onto a dry forest. Through this data collected at this beach, in 2001 legislation was introduced to ensure leatherback turtles are protected all year round from illegal slaughter and egg harvesting. Unfortunately the same cannot be said for hawksbill, green, and loggerhead turtles in Grenadian waters, which still face a 7-month legal hunting season on any turtle over 25 lb. in weight.

Sea turtle tourism in Grenada Tourism in Grenada is an important sector for the local economy. According to the United Nations World Tourism Organization, over 168,000 visitors came to Grenada in 2017 bringing US$ 499 million in revenue ([1]). There have been growing concerns that our sea turtles and their nesting beaches are coming under increasing demand by overseas visitors which has led to undesirable practices that do not benefit the sea turtles or their habitats. The turtle watching tourism industry has boomed in Grenada on Levera beach, going from just a few hundred visitors annually to a 100 individuals per night, resulting in thousands of people creating foot traffic throughout the nesting season. Conducted within appropriate guidelines, turtle-based tourism can be a positive force for the conservation of turtles. However, tourism can also be destructive of sea turtles when it does not have proper regard for their ecological needs. Increased tourism has brought increased beach traffic resulting in several negative interactions occurring that have had to be mitigated and addressed to ensure a symbiotic relationship can exist between ecotourism and sea turtles. There have been three main positives I have been able to associate with the turtle tours: 1. Generating awareness of sea turtles for tourists and local residents. Through turtle tour guides providing simple presentations to visitors prior to each visit to the nesting beach, an understanding, appreciation, and growing respect of turtles has developed among those who did not know about the issues turtles face. We have seen many local residents take an interest in sea turtles after their first turtle tour and return on numerous occasions to see nesting turtles again with family and friends. 2. Creating alternative livelihoods. Historically community members have relied on turtle meat and eggs as a form of nutrition and income to sustain their families. They were unaware of the negative impacts their actions were having on turtles, and only through learning about sea turtle importance and their benefits for the communities has a sense of understanding developed. The first opportunities to train as patrol researchers with Ocean Spirits was given to members of the local communities who relied on turtle fishing as a source of income. These fishers gained skills in data collection and sea turtle biology and were able to see the value of sea turtles during their training. Their new knowledge was then shared with their own communities through awareness evenings, school visits, and student summer camps. There has been some success with two fishers choosing to convert to researchers and still remain in their roles 15 years later. Tour guiding training opportunities were offered to members of the community currently unemployed to ensure the local communities benefit from the turtle tours.

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3. Generating local revenue. Based on data collected by Ocean Spirits, leatherback turtles are worth more alive than dead. Each individual nesting female has the potential to generate US$2340 per nesting season through tours. Turtle meat is selling at the same price as fish, just US$3 per lb, showing that they are worth more alive than by being hunted.

Additionally through tourism, the revenue can be spread throughout the surrounding communities rather than just a few individuals who benefit from a slaughter. Due to the location of the nesting beach being over an hour’s drive from the main tourist zone on the island, it is becoming increasingly common that people interested in turtle tours spend the night close to the nesting beach. This has brought income to local guest houses, places to eat, and beach-side bars.

The origin of turtle tourism in Grenada Ocean Spirits first introduced turtle watching to Grenada in 2004 with members of the communities closest to the nesting beach completing a week-long training workshop and becoming appointed turtle tour guides. The initial set up was simple; Ocean Spirits assigned the various tour operators with a designated night to bring their guests and a local tour guide was assigned for each booking. Each tour operator paid their guide directly and gave a percentage back to turtle conservation. As part of a project funded by Rare, an international NGO, in 2007, Discovery Grenada Turtle Tours (DGTT) brand was formed. Rare provided the needed technical support. DGTT is a Grenadian-run business that formed a partnership with Ocean Spirits and took over the coordination of tour operators and tour guides. DGTT held a training retreat for community members wishing to become tour guides. The company changed the way turtle tours were run, offering to pick up guests late afternoon, conducting a coastal tour followed by a beach-side dinner before their tour. This package became very popular, and with DGTT donating a large contribution to conservation, Ocean Spirits was able to fund 10 researcher positions to survey the second largest nesting beach in the country in addition to the main nesting beach. This success showed that turtle tours were able to generate enough revenue not only to fund tour guide positions and benefit the tourism economy but could also be beneficial to the research data collection too. By 2009, growing interest by community members led to facilitated discussions by the Government of Grenada Fisheries and Ocean Spirits on how turtle tourism could continue to move forward with mutual benefits for turtles and local residents. An independent community owned and managed NGO called SPECTO (St. Patrick’s Environmental Community Tourism Organization) was launched as a result. They took over the coordinating of local tour guides and tour operators and decided their own pricing structures. They chose to design their own turtle watching models and excluded Ocean Spirits in the process. This was the first of many lessons in turtle tours that was learned; in hindsight a gentlemen’s agreement and trust were not strong enough to ensure that a partnership remained. A signed MOU should have been put in place to ensure Ocean Spirits

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remained part of the turtle watching process. DGTT disappeared due to rising conflicts with SPECTO over sharing the turtle watching resource. It was not in the interests of the directors of DGTT to be involved in confrontation so the decision to step back and allow SPECTO to launch was made. The community group no longer allocated each tour operator an assigned night, but rather took bookings whenever there were groups interested in visiting the nesting beach, which led to large numbers of individuals being booked onto the same night hoping to witness a nesting turtle.

Tourism impacts at Levera beach This first issue Ocean Spirits tried to address was to stabilize beach vegetation, which had been trimmed and removed to create easier access along the beach pathways for visitors who struggled to walk through the vines. These vines play an important ecological role, holding the beach in place against strong wave action, and the loss of stabilization has resulted in the loss of beach and decreased the size of the nesting grounds. In attempts to mitigate this, Ocean Spirits planted 500 sea grape and almond trees and an alternative pathway through the dry forest vegetation at the rear of the beach created for foot traffic to pass along. The 2017 installation of a white street light to provide visitors and beach security guards enforcing the closed beach act with visibility at night at the beach entrance has become the first artificial light source at the nesting beach. The light was installed at the request of SPECTO. It has become an issue; causing hatchling disorientation, despite Ocean Spirits best efforts to request the light is fitted with a shield, bulb changed to red light or removed from this location to date this light is still present. The current solution in place is any nests hatching in the lit up zone of the beach are now transported to a darker zone of the beach by Ocean Spirits and released. Unfortunately this is not the only light issue as tourists move along the beach to avoid trip hazards they are often led by white lights along the vegetation pathway, despite it being further back from the beach the bright white light is often visible on the nesting beach and further risks disorienting turtles. To allow for the smooth running of both research and turtle watching, an unofficial agreement was created in 2016 by a newly formed committee: Levera Management Committee (LMC). This committee consisted of representatives from the Fisheries Division, the Tourism Department, the Forestry Department, law enforcement, Ocean Spirits and SPECTO. The document created defined the roles Ocean Spirits played on the beach in terms of research and conservation, and the role SPECTO played in turtle tours, the document was for both parties involved to abide by, but this unfortunately is not always adhered to. Once visitors are on the beach, there is a risk of obstruction and disturbance of emerging turtles especially when visiting groups are large and unmanageable for tour guides so group size recommendations of 13 persons to each tour guide was given. Considerable care is generally taken by tour guides to manage crowds and ensure visitors behave appropriately but there can be a lack of the patience and understanding

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that is required by both visitors and their guides as everyone waits for a suitable nesting turtle to view. Once a group is around a turtle to view the nesting process, there can be issues of flash photography and increased noise levels that has led to turtles being disrupted and abandoning their nesting attempts. Currently tour guides are allowed (against Ocean Spirits recommendations) to let their visitors touch the turtle during the egg laying phase, as it is still believed by many that the turtle is in a trance at this point. However the movement of persons around the turtle creates disturbance and hinders the researchers who are collecting data. There is a concern for transmitting diseases from visitors to the turtles or vice versa. Ocean Spirits also is concerned about visitors using sunscreen and insect repellents containing chemicals which can still have traces remaining on their hands and can be toxic to sea turtles. Many actions by visitors and tour guides that they believe to be helpful are actually detrimental to the survival of hatchlings. The contamination issue arises again when tourists think they are helping hatchlings to the ocean. This handling can also cause disorientation with light being used to see the hatchlings and prevent the natural imprinting on their journey down the beach. This journey is important to strengthen the flipper muscles before entering the ocean, where hatchlings are at risk of being washed back or not being able to outswim predators.

Addressing tourism impacts Since the unofficial agreement in place was not working as expected by Ocean Spirits, a “Best Practices” and “Carrying Capacity” mechanism were created and submitted to the Ministry of Tourism for approval and to be followed by all turtle tour guides. These protocols were based on the WIDECAST (Wider Caribbean Sea Turtle Conservation Network) recommendations and existing protocols. Ocean Spirits recommended the following: i. Visitors arrive at the nearby Interpretation Center away from the nesting beach, to be greeted by their assigned tour guide and can be briefed on expectations and rules and provided with an educational presentation. ii. The group then travels with their guide to the nesting beach and remain at the designated waiting area at one end of the beach. In the waiting area, noise levels should be kept to a minimum and the use of white light is prohibited. It is advised that tour operators make their clients aware that they will be outdoors for potentially a few hours and to come prepared with warm clothing, rain gear, and something to sit such as a towel. iii. Researchers patrol the beach until a turtle is encountered. This turtle is not approached until she is settled and begins digging the body pit. Once the researcher is satisfied the turtle is settled, researchers alert the tour guide and they may lead their group along the beach walking close to the surf line or using the walkway through the dry forest. iv. The use of flash lights by visitors is not permitted and red filter lights should be used by the tour guide only to lead a group along the beach. v. The tour guide should walk slightly ahead of their group to ensure no other emerging turtles or hatchlings are disturbed in their movements along the beach.

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vi. The tour guide must exercise great caution to prevent disturbing emerging turtles on their walk along the beach. If a newly emerging turtle is encountered, the tour group must stop and wait at least 10 m (33 ft) from the turtle. vii. Under no circumstances should persons pass in front of emerging turtles. The group must pass behind the turtle to reach their intended nesting turtle or remain 10 m (33 ft) from the turtle until the researcher confirms the turtle is settled and that it is safe to approach. viii. Visitors must be instructed to remain with their group and remain quiet at all times, including in the waiting area which is a potential nesting location. ix. Visitors will only approach the nesting turtle during the digging of the egg chamber and must approach from the rear of the nesting turtle. x. At no time should visitors get too close to the chamber, which can cause sand to fall back inside or the chamber to collapse. xi. The group should form a U-shape at the rear of the turtle to allow visibility for all the group members. Tour guides should direct visitors to rotate positions around the turtle periodically so all visitors get to view the process clearly. Adequate space should be given to allow researchers collecting data to work comfortably. xii. Contact with the nesting turtle is permitted only after all the eggs have been deposited and must be done under the supervision of the tour guide. Contact must not impede nest covering or the turtle’s return to the ocean. xiii. There must be no usage of insect repellent containing DEET (diethyltoluamide) as this is extremely toxic and potentially permeable to the sea turtles. xiv. The use of flash photography and lights for filming is not permitted. xv. After the turtle has returned to the ocean, the visitors must remain with their tour guide either to view another turtle or be escorted back to the beach access point. xvi. It is important to remember that the tour groups should not impede the research and conservation work of the researchers and the safety and well-being of the nesting turtle is the priority.

Government interventions The sustainability of sea turtle nesting tours depends on the extent to which sea turtle populations visiting a beach are maintained and protected. Diminished nesting numbers or the absence of nesting sea turtles threatens the turtle tour product for Grenada. To address the large number of visitors per night, two mitigation strategies were introduced by Ocean Spirits and the Fisheries Division. Firstly the Government of Grenada Fisheries Division introduced a “closed beach act” and secondly a carrying capacity per night recommendation was created by me to guide tours on their bookings.

Closing the beach The “closed beach act,” while a well-intentioned attempt to protect the nesting beach and control visitor numbers, left local communities upset and angry toward conservation efforts due to a lack of public consultation prior to the enforcement. Residents felt

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their free access and right to be on the beach had been removed. The act stipulates that no person should be present on the nesting beach between 18:00 and 06:00 for the duration of the nesting season (April 1steAugust 31st) unless they are accompanied by a tour guide or a researcher or carry an issued permit. Permits can be issued to persons utilizing the beach for purposes other than turtle watching, such as traditional beach fishing, crab collecting, or hunting for wildlife within the dry forest area. The permitting system process, however, did not reach surrounding communities, and fishers and hunters only heard they could no longer be in the area at night. The “closed beach act” further aggravated individuals who historically have visited the nesting beach to watch turtles nest for free. The tour guide organization chose not to offer free local tours but rather a reduced rate per person, which many felt was too high and unaffordable for the average family. To prevent further aggravation, an informal meeting with local fishers was scheduled to explain the reasoning behind the closure and to reassure them that their access would remain. After plenty of discussion, they left the meeting happier and felt the limited beach access would actually indirectly benefit them by knowing their own boats docked on the beach are more protected against theft. The fishers and crab hunters who visit the beach at night are incredibly curious about the nesting leatherback turtles and often approach researchers to ask questions and watch the nesting process. Now fishers will often be the first to call and notify Ocean Spirits of the first track each season. Ocean Spirits tried to mitigate tension with local communities by offering educational tours free to community groups and schools which alleviated some of the pressure, but unfortunately to date there are still issues over local tour costs. Members of the local communities believe the SPECTO turtle tour rate EC$20 (US$7.50) per person for a citizen is too high.

Carrying capacity The second strategy was to introduce a “carrying capacity” document to guide the number of visitors per night throughout the season. This was done to ensure the protection of the nesting turtles and along with giving visitors the best possible experience. The carrying capacity was calculated using seasonal averages of successful nesting recorded between the tour operating time frame 7:30 p.m. to 12:30 a.m. over 2-week periods from April until July, the peak turtle nesting months. To allow for seasonal variability, the nesting averages were taken over a 5-year period. The recommendations showed that the number of tours permitted at the start of the season should be limited to 1 to 2 groups since 0 to 3 turtles on average can be expected before midnight. The peak season allows up to 5 to 6 groups per night with 7 to 8 turtles expected before midnight. Based on the maximum number of tourists per nesting turtle being 13, the nesting beach could still accommodate 4628 visitors within a season. This is a much higher number of visitors than currently visit the nesting beach within a season; therefore, it is about better management of the number of visitors per night than the total number of visitors permitted per season.

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It is important to remember the numbers reported are the estimated average number of sea turtles visiting the nesting beach each season based on the data collected. When dealing with wildlife their numbers can fluctuate and can be uncertain. I recommend conducting an annual evaluation of nesting numbers and turtle visitors so the carrying capacity can be adapted when data shows it is needed. All the stakeholders involved in turtle nesting need to remain adaptable and flexible to deal with the unpredictability of sea turtle populations. There will always be variations in the numbers of nesting turtles visiting due to their varying inter-nesting periods of 3e6 years. When two turtles are nesting within close proximity of each other, we recommend maintaining the “carrying capacity” of 13 persons so that two groups of visitors do not form in close proximity to each other, exceeding the carrying capacity of each turtle. Additionally, if two turtles are facing each other, it is not suitable for a group to be at the rear of one of these nesting turtles since one turtle would be facing the people, which could cause disruption. These circumstances are rare but must be considered as nesting turtles in these positions are not suitable for viewing by a tour group.

Lessons from Grenada So far in my career I have learned that conservation doesn’t always mean a win-win situation. But rules and regulations being implemented without the initial input of communities will almost always result in conflict and the inability to negotiate best practices with the people on the ground. It is crucial that local communities that have used and relied on resources are included in the decision-making process from the beginning, to encourage them to understand and take ownership of the change needed to benefit conservation and themselves. Trying to sell an idea to local communities once it is already in place and being implemented will likely result in failure. I believe turtle conservation should always be the priority and maybe I am biased, but without this resource there would be no turtle watching. Therefore the needs of the tourists should always be second to what is best for the turtles. It is vital that everything is being done to protect Grenada’s turtle nesting population and ensure their nesting ground remains suitable for creating future generations of sea turtles to ensure our own children and grandchildren can marvel at the amazing creatures sea turtles are.

Reference [1] A.M.R. Montanez, Grenada Tourism Revenue 2005e2017, 2019. Viewed 4th March 2020, https://www.statista.com/statistics/814785/grenada-tourism-revenue/.

Section Five The Trade in Sea Turtle Products

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Working With Small-scale Fishers in the Southwest Indian Ocean to Understand Illegal Take, Trade, and Use of Sea Turtles

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Jessica L. Williams Marine Conservation Biologist, Tartarugas para o Amanh~a, Praia do Tofo, Inhambane, Mozambique

At the end of my undergraduate studies in marine science and conservation biology, I fell straight into sea turtle conservation biology. It seemed perfect; interesting research questions about the still cryptic life history of sea turtles, guaranteed time in the field to collect data during nesting season, and working long nights and then back in the office to pull all the data together. After a quick preliminary 3-month trip, I saw an opportunity to relocate to Mozambique and begin my own sea turtle conservation project, as there was a large coastline, a lot of conservation issues to tackle, and few people already doing so.

Sea turtles of Mozambique In southern Mozambique, the nesting turtle season runs from October through to March. The area was supposed to be a prime nesting beach for a population of loggerhead sea turtles and also leatherbacks, both of which are shared populations between southern Mozambique and South Africa. In my first few months, I walked, a lot, day and night, looking for nesting turtles or signs they were still coming here. I spoke with locals, business owners, dive centers, and other marine biologists, trying to find out some background information for the area, “If these are such good nesting beaches, then where are all the turtles?” I would ask. They would answer, “Oh yeah we saw one a while back, but they don’t really come here anymore”. I started changing my walks; instead of walking along the tide line looking for signs of fresh nesting turtles or hatchling tracks going to the sea, I started climbing up into the sand dunes. There they were, all the turtles, or at least what dishearteningly felt like all the turtles. Turtle bones and carapaces, each hollowed out with only a thin layer of rotting meat left inside. The evidence was stark and unsettling. This discovery is what prompted me to start my research project here and led me into this research niche of illegal take and trade of sea turtles. The small town of Praia do Tofo became my home base for the past 10 years, and I’ve been learning from a lot

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of trial and error. This case study is a collection of field anecdotes about what it’s like to set up a project in a new country, learn a new culture, operate in new languages, and ask questions about clandestine activities. I often feel like, from the outside, the situation can seem so simple, and this certainly was more of my attitude when I first arrived. I hadn’t yet learned that conservation work in developing nations requires deciphering a complex web of social, cultural, political, and economic factors, and it’s easy to overlook the significance of some of these. I quickly learned that the turtles themselves are the secondary aspect to conservation in Africa and really my work is about 90% human-focused and the other 10% on animals. I found that the more time I invested in learning the context of a place, the better I was to be able to adapt my mindset. I’d like to use my experience working in remote communities in Mozambique and Madagascar to describe some of the issues (both textbook and beyond the textbook) that I’ve faced working in the region. I hope that it may provide useful insight for those considering to undertake similar efforts.

Studying illegal take Illegal take of sea turtles is widespread and largely uncontrolled throughout Mozambique and Madagascar despite legal protection frameworks in both nations. Illegal take consists of a mixture of intentional hunting, accidental captures, and opportunistic retention of the bycatch. While turtle excluder devices (TEDs) are mandated in both countries, commercial fisheries bycatch and pressure from unquantified illegal, unregulated, and unreported (IUU) fishing is suspected to be a significant and potentially increasing threat in the southwest Indian Ocean (SWIO) region. I’ve been documenting and characterizing illegal take, trade, and use of turtles in the SWIO region at the small-scale fisheries level. The dynamics of illegal take of sea turtles are complex: effort, motives, and drivers can vary widely, even across small geographic areas [1]. Quantifying the rates of illegal take in small-scale fisheries (SSF) has generally relied on two methods: direct observations (i.e., looking for carcasses, meat, eggs, or bones) and interviews with fishers or specialist hunters. Both methods underestimate rates of capture and mortality due to the covert behaviors adopted by fishers, the capture techniques employed, and underreporting of capture rates to reduce negative implications to fisher livelihoods [1]. Direct observations are a relatively simple technique; however they rely on being in the correct place and time to detect the evidence. Interviews with fishers, community fishing councils, village chiefs, fisheries officers, and local authorities can be a lot more complex. This case study discusses some of the unexpected scenarios that have occurred while I’ve been surveying in the field for illegal take and trade in Mozambican and Madagascan fishing communities. These learnings can be roughly sorted into the following categories: methodological, logistical, ethical and cultural issues and emotional and diplomacy skills.

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Methodological issues One of the key methodological issues is preventing misunderstanding. Using interviews to monitor illegal take can be challenging because it relies on everyone involved in the project understanding the intention of each interview question. The team often comprises of a principal investigator (PI) like myself and a research assistant, a local focal point who may act to translate regional dialects, and often a fisheries officer or field staff from government environment department. The bigger challenge arises in being able to detect when misunderstandings and lack of comprehension are occurring and promptly correcting it. This may seem like a simple and easy task to do, but when you are working in two or more languages, it is highly likely that it will occur at some point during the interviewing process. Misunderstanding of the question can occur across a few different levels. For example, it may occur between the PI and the focal point or the fisheries/government officer regarding the overall aims of the project or how exactly the methodology will be implemented. A relatively easy way to prevent this is with a kickoff meeting in each new field location to explain the project, the types of information being sought from participants, the research questions that are trying to be answered, and the format of the interview (e.g., one on one, group, written, verbal, audio recording, or film). Where possible, it is also best to do a practice interview on those at the kickoff meeting, so they are familiar with the content, style, format, and duration. I also need to point out that it is not ideal from a methodological perspective to have a government or a fisheries enforcement officer shadow you while you conduct this kind of work. This is likely to deter potential participants and introduce a degree of bias into the respondent’s answers; however, in some locations this is unavoidable. In such circumstances, I have managed to explain the sensitivities of the survey and vulnerability of participants and that their participation is both voluntary and can be anonymous. I usually ask the officer to meet with their village contacts, line up the next potential respondent, and wander around the community while we conduct the interviews under a quiet shady tree. I rely on local intel from the contacts on the ground when working in remote or unsurveyed areas. If the focal points and government liaison do not understand the point of the project, this often leads to incorrect participants being suggested or survey communities being nominated (something which is hard to realize until after you’ve arrived at a remote village or attempted a few interviews). Another issue I’ve experienced in both Mozambique and Madagascar is that the focal points and government contacts are often extremely limited in their knowledge of what happens in their official jurisdictional area because they have no means to regularly make site visits or inspections due to limitations like lack of access to cars, fuel, funding, or poor road access. This is often exacerbated to the extreme that they don’t have phone credit to be able to call ahead on a regular basis and ask for updates from the village fishing council/chiefs. In both countries, it is not uncommon to find out the local contact had not been able to make site visits in more than a year (often to locations that are only 20 km away!)

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In some situations, misunderstanding occurs between the interviewer and the respondent. Either there are direct language barriers or a lack of literacy skills to understand the question being asked or the response. These situations are the easiest to detect because they often yield no answers, blank faces and shrugs, or nonsensical responses. There are a few ways to minimize these misunderstandings from impacting the quality of the information generated in the interview. Firstly, when designing the questionnaire a lot of consideration must be made into the wording of the questions to ensure they are worded in the simplest possible way. This allows for clear and concise translations and to maximise chances of the respondent understanding the question. Before the first interviews, a brief pilot study is undertaken to road test the questions with a group of nontarget respondents. This allows for any wording issues or translation issues to be identified and tweaked. Even though this was considered for when designing and trialing questions on a recent project I was working on in Northern Mozambique, there still seemed to be a mixed interpretation of a question leading to conflicting responses regarding questions about bycatch. This term “bycatch” we found to cause a lot of confusion in the pilot surveys, so it was altered to “accidental catch.” Despite this wording change, when we reviewed our results slightly over 20% of respondents indicated targeted catch would be released, which highlighted that the confusion between intentional and unintentional captures was still an issue. This result is also likely to have reflected some of the fishers concerns about the legality of catching turtles, given that many of the interviews were conducted in the presence of fishery officers or community fishery cooperative members, potentially leading to false statements [2]. Key questions, especially those that are considered sensitive are strategically valuable to repeat, for instance, asking the respondent to divulge how many times they may have caught, bought, or eaten turtle. Wording the key questions in slightly different ways and repeating a second time within the interview acts as a way to double-check for comprehension, consistency, and truth in the responses provided. From a time management perspective, translating “on the fly” between two or three languages in each interview session takes a significantly longer time to achieve. A long interview can create interview fatigue in the respondent (or the translator) which may add bias or a lack of descriptive/quantitative detail into their responses. It’s also essential that the translator understands the importance of remaining neutral when asking questions and translating the responses directly. I’ve had issues in the past with translators who translate what they think I want to hear. They had a habit of paraphrasing most of the responses into very biased answers and similar phrases that kept repeating despite the respondent. It took me a while to detect this when I first started doing interview work but it slowly became evident. The more time I spend with the translator, the better feel I get for their personality and vocabulary including some distinctive phrasing they were partial to use. Having a well-trained translator who understands the aims of the survey and concerns for survey bias makes the process much more streamlined. They can also help redirect the respondent back on topic when they go off on a tangent. It’s great to save time but sometimes they have to be indulged slightly and this usually ends

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with unusual and amusing anecdotes. In Madagascar, an older fisher told me midinterview an odd but elaborate story about how he could hunt a leatherback turtle by catching and using an electric ray. He described throwing the electric ray onto the turtle to kill it by electrocution and the turtle would quickly die. He joked that he had yet to try it out on a whale. A final consideration regarding focal points and translators is that the background and perceived community status of the focal point/translator can impact the success of the interviews in that village. Cultural and traditional village hierarchies are complex and not easy to understand without spending considerable amounts of time in a particular village. The age, status, and employment affiliation (or sometimes political association) may strongly influence which fishers choose to participate and the level of information they choose to divulge. It’s not always easy to perceive the full implications of this, particularly in a rapid assessment style project where many villages each with their own dynamics are surveyed briefly. Given the sensitive topic of researching illegal take and trade, it often takes a mixed-methods approach to collect information from many different sources to represent the bigger picture. By this, I mean using a mixture of social science, common sense, and some investigatory skills to answer your research questions. This often requires triangulating all the stories and information collected to get a plausible hypothesis. Sometimes it feels more like connecting the web of lies, especially when the topic of the questions asked are sensitive and often incriminating. For instance, asking about knowledge of sales prices can often help provide insight into how widespread the market is and how recently it was active. In areas where trade genuinely does not exist, this question cannot be answered and thus respondents are usually quick to respond. In locations where markets are more elusive, the knowledge of price can only be answered by those directly participating in the trade or those who had observed it or knew someone connected to it.

Logistical issues The next series of challenges to be aware of and to attempt to overcome are those I’ve grouped into a logistical category, for instance, working in remote areas, especially where internet, apps, and smartphones are not widely used. The lack of connectivity in these areas generally implies that there is limited up-to-date knowledge that is easily accessible before arriving at the site, such as road conditions, travel times, and seasonal barriers like floodwater levels or conditions of bridges. Generally this implies that there is limited up-to-date knowledge of road conditions, travel times, and seasonal barriers like floodwater levels or conditions of bridges. Access to some villages and island communities can often be dictated by tidal regimes, allowing for a short window of time around low tide (if accessing by car) or high tide (if arriving by boat) to complete the work scope.

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Timing the arrival of the research team into the village (i.e., weddings, funerals, religious or political events) and what hours of the day are appropriate to conduct interviews also need to be considered. It’s invaluable to have some local information regarding tides, weather conditions, and fishing habits of your target demographic to propose suitable hours to conduct interviews. It’s useless trying to meet with fishers early in the morning on the first day of good weather after 6 days of no fishing or to ambush fishers as they return from an all-day/night fishing trip as they will be tired and hungry. Many of these logistical hurdles are often overlooked, especially in the initial planning stages when daily interview quotas or project quotas are set. It can often feel disappointing when these quotas aren’t met and sample sizes are smaller than you’d hoped (or what your boss, funding agency, or university department was dreaming for). However, I think this is one of the big lessons I’ve learned and accepted, in that real life impacts on perfect science. These logistical challenges frequently arise on any fieldwork trip (or at least all of mine), and they often lead to plans being abandoned and adapted on the road. They lead and force you to develop an invaluable skill as a field-based conservationist, a skill I like to refer to as “winging it.” Winging it or what might be termed as “adaptability” on a CV is essential in fieldwork, especially the type of interview work I’ve been focused on, where a snowball approach guides who to interview and which locations to survey next. Added to that are those suites of logistical challenges mentioned above which result in even the best-laid plan being pushed to the wayside. Adaptability and flexibility in both thinking and plans are critical in the field. It’s a skill that seems counter to those taught in undergrad about the rigorous, repeatable, and replicate nature of the scientific method. In its essence, it’s the ability to recognize when something isn’t working and either adjust, adapt, or abandon and in the case of the latter, quickly devise and implement a new approach. And repeat again if necessary. What works in one location may not work in another, and that’s ok.

Ethical and cultural issues Ethical and cultural sensitivities are huge challenges to be aware of. They deserve a dedicated in-depth review; however, I will only attempt to mention briefly on topics such as informed consent, anonymity, and livelihood security. Informed consent for each participant is absolutely critical. Depending on the participant and their literacy levels, this may come in written or verbal forms with an information sheet with relevant details. In Mozambique and Madagascar where literacy levels in fishing villages are often low, I’ve experienced that written consent forms and information sheets often intimidate and distance participants; the formality of the paperwork makes people feel uncomfortable. The majority of the time, I try to keep the interview process as lowtech and paper-free as possible; we sit on the floor, along a tree stump, or on the side of the boat with the participant and the only paper materials we use are sometimes maps, photos, or ID diagrams to help distinguish species encountered. I also like to draw little line diagrams (e.g., of a fishing net setup) and sketches to help clarify issues where possible.

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It is absolutely essential to offer and ensure anonymity to interview participants. This has been fundamental part of my work when using informants to reporting on illicit trade especially when it implies high-level corruption by NGOs, police, and government. The other scenario where it becomes essential is when talking to turtle hunters about total catches or market locations and trade routes, as they are divulging incriminating evidence. In this scenario, the interview is conducted without ever asking the participants name or age and provide them with the option to talk about a personal account or what they have witnessed by others. Sometimes participants choose to respond only in the past tense, so as not to incriminate themselves in the response. This switching from past and present tense can often make it difficult to accurately estimate past and current catch rates, another pitfall of the methodology one that can only be clearly acknowledged and conservatively accounted for when interpreting results. This then leads into the issue of livelihood security, whereby a respondent must feel like their livelihood, current or future, is not at risk by participating in the interview. In the southwest of Madagascar, in Vezo culture hunting a turtle with a spear known as a “teza” is a rite of passage which teenage boys undergo in their process to become men. This behavior to hunt and consume turtle is inherently part of Vezo culture. However with the national legislation imposing a ban on all turtle fishing and hunting, turtle hunting is a clandestine behavior. Fishers from remote villages on the south coast, where enforcement is limited or often nonexistent, continue to hunt turtles, generally mature green turtles which they capture, keep alive and then sail 2e4 days by pirogue (small wooden sailboat) to arrive at the nearest provincial capital. The fishers time their arrival into the city port to coincide with nightfall to minimize the risk of detection by provincial authorities. Here the turtles are sold for 40,000e120,000 Ariary (US$11e35) per animal depending on the size. If they can fit 10 turtles in their boat, they can earn up to $350 USD per expedition (1,300,000 MGA) [3]. This money is used to buy building materials such as corrugated tin roofing, timber beams, and furniture for their houses. The fishers explained that, in their remote villages, there is no alternative to earn this kind of money and considered turtle fishing a reliable way to get a significant cash injection a few times a year when needed to cover major costs. Put simply, they rely on turtles to build their houses and participating in such interviews can make them feel like they are putting their livelihood at risk.

Emotional and diplomacy skills Emotional and diplomacy skills seem pretty obvious, but actually they are not always the easiest to apply and take considerable effort to apply. When applied appropriately, these skills may result in improved relationships between the research team and the community or individual fishers and for each party to develop mutual respect. Included in this skillset are tools and qualities such as active listening, emotional intelligence, rapport, politeness, and showing empathy. The other scenario I’ve experienced which relates to this is about remaining calm and diplomatic in challenging situations. It’s easy to take on an attitude and exhibit behavior that personifies a radical and passionate conservationist. At fishing landing points when marine megafauna are landed, the go-to response is to create a dramatic scene with

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yelling, accusations, invasive photography and videography, or hostile interactions with the fishers and/or authorities for not doing their job (or your perception of their job). What is key to managing this situation well is to employ those skills of tact, emotional intelligence, and diplomacy in order to ensure understanding of other people and being sensitive to their beliefs, ideas, and feelings. From time to time, the reality of working on the ground in developing nations is that you may have to witness your favorite animals suffering or being inhumanely slaughtered. It’s important to remember how to be diplomatic in difficult situations, especially when surveying, because you are there to be an observer and listen without judgment, not to educate or lecture when the goal is to collect unbiased data. The final idea I want to present is that of preserving long-term relationships for the benefit of conservation goals. It is unrealistic to believe that community, government, and stakeholder relationships can be preserved if you lose your cool and cause a scene. Saving a single animal by all means necessary can often be harmful if not impede the long-term conservation efforts for the species, its habitat, and the broader ecosystem in an area by harming the relationship with the local community. Long-term relationships are also strengthened by prioritizing follow-up visits to disseminate research results to ensure the sharing of information back to the community. This is a key part to maintaining a healthy balance in the relationship between the dynamics of give and take.

A final note The conservation struggle in developing countries is a long and arduous path, but this is the frontline for conservation, where the most are at risk and the most meaningful and rapid changes can be made. The richest biodiversity areas left on the planet are home to some of the poorest and most vulnerable communities in the world. These communities, as the inherent guardians of these hotspots, require advocates to provide support and guidance to allow them to implement sustainable management techniques (through both traditional and new methods) in order to protect the resources they rely on to continue their very survival. The challenge for these communities to sustainably use and manage their resources is heightened by emerging, aggravated, and international threats (like commercial IUU Chinese fishing fleets). These areas desperately need people who are dedicated and willing to commit themselves long term on the ground to really try to get to the heart of a community and collaborate with the community to develop and implement sustainable management and meet long-term conservation goals. I think it’s easy and normal to feel overwhelmed by the scale of work needed and the rate of change required in the face of escalating and imminent threats. My best advice to you for this is to find whatever it is for you that helps you to stay grounded, maintain a healthy work-life balance in order to sustain you for the long journey that conservation entails, and learn to focus on and celebrate the tiniest of wins. Working on the ground in these fishing communities has been (and is) a privilege; it has humbled me, taught me to be grateful for the luxuries and luck I’ve had in my life, and expanded my mindset, my emotional intelligence, empathy, and interpersonal

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skills. I’ve exponentially increased my skills in patience and adapted to a very different concept of time and time management. I’ve also struggled; it’s been heart-wrenching to see suffering people and animals, frustrating to see governments who don’t advocate for the interests of their most vulnerable people, or blatant corruption and exploitation occurring. At points, this work has made me physically sick with malaria or injured having to cut a parasitic larvae egg-sack out of my toe with an acacia thorn. But it’s also been hilarious, fascinating, and immensely rewarding to share moments and connections with amazing people. I have been loaned the flip-flops off the feet of one fisher-woman because she was worried my work boots would be ruined walking out across the intertidal to go inspect a new community mussel farming setup, and that going barefoot would result in my feet being cut open by razor clams and urchins. I’m endlessly inspired by the warm and generous reception I receive in each place. On the hardest days, it’s always incredibly motivating and uplifting to see a fishing community release a turtle from a gillnet, defend their turtle nests from migrant fishers, for one fisher to switch to a more sustainable gear type, and to hear conservation wisdom being excitedly shared between community members, old and young. One of the most tremendously rewarding experiences has been to demonstrate the success of safeguarding a turtle nest and upon excavating after a successful emergence of the majority of the clutch, finding one remaining hatchling stuck in the bottom of the nest and sharing its safe release. It is a special moment to introduce local fishers (who had been fishing the same 5 km stretch of beach for 40 years) to their first-ever leatherback hatchling and share the experience of the turtle crawling into the ocean and swimming away. These small successes keep me going. For the next generation of upcoming conservationists, there is so much to do. The world needs people who are excited by challenge and a life of adventures, ready for a few tears and a lot of laughter. I’m sure by the fact that you are here reading this chapter you are probably one of those emerging conservation champions. As they say in Mozambique, “Força!” (strength) and good luck.

References [1] J. Williams, Multidisciplinary Insights into the Conservation and Biology of Sea Turtles in Mozambique (Ph.D. Thesis), College of Marine and Environmental Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, Australia, 2017. [2] N.J. Pilcher, J. Williams, Assessment of the Status, Scope and Trends of the Legal and Illegal International Trade in Marine Turtles, its Conservation Impacts, Management Options and Mitigation Priorities in Mozambique, 2018. Report to the CITES Secretariat Project S-527. SSFA/2018/DKA. 69pp. [3] J.L. Williams, N.J. Pilcher, Assessment of the Status, Scope and Trends of the Legal and Illegal International Trade in Marine Turtles, its Conservation Impacts, Management Options and Mitigation Priorities in Madagascar, 2018. Report to the CITES Secretariat Project S-527. SSFA/2018/DKA. 72pp.

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Busting Bekko: The Nexus Between Local and International Advocacy to End Japan’s Import of Tortoiseshell

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Marydele Donnelly Sea Turtle Conservancy (ret), Gainesville, FL, United States

Introduction This chapter is about a great conservation victory: ending Japan’s centuries-old legal import of tortoiseshell, known as bekko, from the hawksbill turtle. Because Japan was the world’s major importer of tortoiseshell in the 20th century, banning bekko imports in the early 1990s was critical to saving the hawksbill from extinction. I am proud to have contributed to this complex and multiyear endeavor, which required hard work and perseverance by many individuals, organizations, and governments. Today, the illicit tortoiseshell trade continues in numerous countries, but shutting down bekko imports from around the world was the most important action that could have been taken to safeguard the species into the future. From start to finish, work to end Japanese bekko imports pitted the fate of the hawksbill against economic interests and cultural traditions. From nesting beaches to warehouses to cramped or sleek offices, biologists and others invested years of effort in collecting data, compiling statistics, writing reports, reviewing legislation, attending meetings, and advocating for trade bans. CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) was the framework for our work. CITES became increasingly important as more nations ratified the treaty and provided the ultimate leverage of US economic sanctions on Japan to close the trade.

Lesson 1. Base advocacy on science and research CITES came into existence in 1975 as global attention focused on protecting species endangered by international trade. By the first Conference of the Parties (COP1) 2 years later, an initial list of endangered species had been adopted. Recognizing that sea turtles were among the world’s most exploited animals and already were listed as threatened species by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the hawksbill and five other sea turtle species were included on Appendix I, a listing which prohibited trade except under extraordinary circumstances. By 1981, all sea turtles were listed on Appendix I. Sea Turtle Research and Conservation. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821029-1.00014-3 Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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In 1979, conservationists presented the first comprehensive report on the global sea turtle trade at the World Congress on Sea Turtles in Washington, D.C. The report documented extensive trade in hawksbills, greens, and olive ridleys by dozens of nations, with Japan being a major importer of hawksbill shell and other turtle products [1]. Not surprisingly, biologists attending the meeting expressed alarm about dramatic hawksbill declines. Japan has a long history of bekko carving and has often cited the importance of its traditions and culture in maintaining the trade. When Japan joined CITES in 1980, it took numerous reservations (exceptions) to CITES Appendix I trade bans, including hawksbills, greens, and olive ridleys, but under international pressure, reduced annual bekko imports from about 40,000 kg to a fixed quota of 30,000 kg. Set arbitrarily by the Japanese government without a biological basis, the quota represented about 28,000 adult turtles. After acceding to CITES, Japan continued to import bekko from many nations, including CITES nations, in contravention of the treaty. During the 1980s, sea turtle trade, especially in green turtles, became a contentious issue at CITES meetings. This issue reached a boiling point in 1985 at COP5 when delegates rejected seven proposals to allow trade in wild hawksbills and wild, ranched, or farmed greens. This was a David and Goliath meeting, with some of the world’s most powerful nations, including the United Kingdom and the United States, supporting one or more proposals to reopen the sea turtle trade, which the conservation community opposed. It was here at this meeting that I became a sea turtle advocate. In the aftermath of COP5, two complementary reports were commissioned for CITES to clarify sea turtle status and trade: a global survey of hawksbill and green turtle nesting and exploitation conducted by the World Conservation Monitoring Center (WCMC) and a landmark study of sea turtle trade in Japan from 1970 to 1986 produced by TRAFFIC (Japan). These reports proved to be timely and powerful. The Japanese trade report [2] was distributed at COP 6 in 1987, the WCMC report [3] was published for COP 7 in 1989. Although population surveys were incomplete for most countries during the 1980s, the two CITES reviews documented extensive population declines and trade by CITES and non-CITES nations. Additionally, they provided evidence that the number of adult hawksbills killed annually for Japanese bekko imports may have been equivalent to the number of hawksbills nesting around the world each year. TRAFFIC (Japan) also compiled data on the trade in olive ridleys and greens and the relatively new trade in decorative stuffed turtles from Indonesia which consumed 577,000 juvenile hawksbills and about half as many juvenile greens between 1970 and 1986. For the 17 years reviewed, Japanese imports represented a whopping two million turtles.

Lesson 2. Work collaboratively and share credit A special opportunity arose during COP 6 in 1987 when Tom Milliken from TRAFFIC (Japan) arranged for several of us to meet with members of the Japanese delegation to discuss trade violations and the urgent need to protect hawksbills. Several months later

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the bekko industry agreed to stop importing shell from CITES Parties by the end of the year. Because the killing of small turtles for stuffing undermined their longer-term interests, they also unsuccessfully lobbied the Japanese government to stop it. That trade continued until 1990. Several months after COP 6, I attended the Second Western Atlantic Turtle Symposium (WATS II) to present information on bekko exports from the Caribbean, based on the work of TRAFFIC (Japan). Since 1970, more than half of Japan’s bekko imports had originated from 26 Caribbean countries, with the majority shipped from Cuba, Panama, Haiti, and the Cayman Islands. These imports represented 244,000 large hawksbills. With most countries reporting fewer than 100 nesting hawksbills each year, Japan’s role in the dramatic decline of the region’s hawksbills was clear. Over the next several years, I made five trips to the Caribbean and worked with members of the Wider Caribbean Sea Turtle Conservation Network (WIDECAST) and others to reduce bekko exports from legal and illegal sources. We collected trade data, queried authorities about permits, and urged Caribbean nations to join CITES. In a parallel effort in Southeast Asia, Greenpeace and the World Wildlife Fund worked to shut down extensive illegal turtle trade in Indonesia. Indonesia had joined CITES in 1979 but remained Japan’s single greatest turtle trading partner well into the 1980s. By 1992, Cuba had overtaken Indonesia to become the largest exporter to Japan. Indonesian traders also continued to stockpile bekko into the 1990s [4]. During the late 1980s, the international pressure on Japan increased as illegal bekko imports came to light. Armed with information from colleagues and authorities overseas, I met regularly with the Environmental Attache at the Embassy of Japan in Washington, D.C., to discuss irregularities in Japan’s import statistics. In 1989, the Japanese government finally prohibited bekko imports from countries with domestic legislation that forbade its export, coming into compliance with CITES Conference Resolution 4.25 more than 5 years late. The outstanding work of Tom Milliken and Hideomi Tokunaga in providing data and information on the Japanese turtle trade and insight into Japan’s turtle industries deserves special mention. Their aforementioned 1987 report was integral to our efforts.

Lesson 3. Use every available tool By 1990, global efforts to shut down all Japanese sea turtle trade were reaching critical mass. First, for several years Mexico’s prominent Grupo de los Cien (the Group of 100) had been demanding complete protection for Mexico’s six species of sea turtles and closure of the slaughterhouse in Oaxaca where as many as 75,000 olive ridley females were killed annually to supply the Japanese leather market. Their excellent campaign generated national and international attention and media coverage on the plight of these turtles. Second, for nearly 2 years prior to COP 8, which was scheduled for Kyoto in March 1992, conservationists argued that Japan should not have the honor of hosting CITES while flaunting Appendix I listings with multiple reservations. The conservation

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community including WWF, Greenpeace, the Humane Society of the United States, and others used the press effectively and urged our CITES authorities to express concern about this situation. My organization at the time, the Center for Marine Conservation (formerly the Center for Environmental Education and now known as Ocean Conservancy), was an early advocate for a change of venue unless Japan dropped its reservations. In April 1990 four US conservation organizations (the National Wildlife Federation, Center for Marine Conservation, National Audubon Society, and Environmental Defense Fund) took a dramatic step to end Japanese bekko imports: the powerful threat of US economic sanctions under the Pelly Amendment to the Fishermen’s Protective Act of 1968. This legislation authorizes the US president to embargo fish and wildlife products from nations which undermine international or fishery programs for endangered species. The wildlife clause was the perfect vehicle for addressing Japan’s sea turtle trade. When this coalition petitioned to embargo Japanese and Mexican wildlife products for undermining the conservation of hawksbills and olive ridleys, respectively, under CITES, the petition marked the first use of the wildlife clause. I supported the lawyers by providing information on illegal bekko imports and the impact of trade on hawksbill and olive ridley populations. The petition against Mexico was dropped on May 28, 1990, when President Salinas de Gortari, already under enormous pressure at home, announced a complete and permanent ban on sea turtle capture and trade in Mexico and the immediate closure of the Oaxaca slaughterhouse. During the 11 month review of the hawksbill petition by the US government, the conservation community’s efforts to shut down the bekko trade continued. In November 1990, Japan’s main tortoiseshell associations hosted 20 members of the IUCN Marine Turtle Specialist Group and other experts at the Nagasaki International Symposium on the Resource Management of the Hawksbill Turtle. The conclusion of the biologists that only 15,000 hawksbills nested annually around the world was a huge, unexpected blow to the industry. This was followed by my review of extensive continuing irregularities in imports, including shipments from CITES countries, large quantities of shell from non-CITES countries with few hawksbills, and shipments from non-CITES countries which had not or did not allow exports. Less than 2 weeks later, the 18th IUCN General Assembly in Perth adopted a consensus resolution calling upon Japan to drop its Appendix I CITES reservations. International criticism and its interest in hosting COP 8 ultimately resulted in Japan withdrawing several reservations, including greens and olive ridleys. With bekko becoming increasingly difficult to obtain, Japan reduced its annual quota to 20,000 kg and ended the trade in stuffed juvenile hawksbills and greens. Fifteen months later, COP 8 was held in Kyoto as planned. The review of the Pelly petition against Japan lasted until March 21, 1991, when the US government certified that Japanese nationals were undermining hawksbill conservation. The following day, Japan requested negotiations to avert an embargo of its wildlife products, in all likelihood fearing for their cultured pearl industry. Because my organization was a petitioner and I was an outspoken opponent of the bekko trade, Japan’s environmental attache asked me to meet with a representative from the

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Ministry of Trade and Industry before official negotiations began. Our discussions focused on the imperiled status of the hawksbill that had prompted the petition. The attaché and I remained in contact throughout the negotiations.

Lesson 4. Negotiate in good faith and try to understand the position of all stakeholders Over the course of the negotiations, Japan finally committed to ending bekko imports. Ultimately, the two sides agreed that Japan would withdraw its hawksbill reservation in 3 years on a date certain (later established as July 1, 1994) and in the intervening months from July 1, 1991, until December 31, 1992, they would reduce the annual bekko quota to 5000 kg. Between January 1, 1993, and July 1, 1994, the quota would be dropped to zero and the reservation would be withdrawn after 18 months [5]. The delay allowed Japanese negotiators to offer their industries a step-by-step closure rather than immediate cessation in imports. The industry had been shrinking for several years as legal bekko was becoming more difficult to obtain, and the government already subsidized programs to retrain younger artisans in new materials. The industry’s large stockpile of shell, held by individual dealers, was expected to last until the aging carvers retired in their seventies and eighties. Nevertheless, Japan’s agreement to stop actual bekko imports by the end of 1992 threw the industry into turmoil. On July 29, 1994, Japan officially dropped its hawksbill reservation. About 6 months later we were informed that the dealers’ existing stockpiles consisted of 188,000 kg of shell, representing about 177,358 turtles. At that time, the industry itself and the government estimated annual use was about 14,000 kg. Thus, the stockpile was expected to last until 2008.

Lesson 5. Persevere!! Perseverance was critical to the final resolution of the tortoiseshell issue. While enduring years of Japanese intransigence, many of us feared that the trade would continue until the hawksbill was extinct. During the last half of the 20th century, Japanese bekko consumption had severe and ofttimes irrevocable impacts. In many areas where hawksbills are not biologically extinct today, they are often ecologically extinct and can no longer fulfill their roles in marine environments. The exploited populations which survive have lost genetic diversity as well as numbers. More than 15 years passed from the time hawkbills were included on CITES Appendix I in 1977 until Japan officially ended imports at the end of 1992 with its zero quota. The trade consumed about 712,000 large hawksbills between 1970 and 1992 [6] and more than 600,00 stuffed juveniles between 1970 and 1990. During the Pelly Amendment negotiations in 1991, Japanese representatives stated that the bekko industry expected to petition CITES to reopen a restricted bekko trade in

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the future. In 1997 and 2000 Cuba’s proposals to reopen limited trade with Japan met widespread opposition at CITES because the Cuban hawksbill fishery in its own waters was capturing turtles foraging there from around the Caribbean. Neither proposal received the votes needed to pass. Cuba’s shell stockpile remains warehoused in Havana.

Lesson 6. Beware of the downsides of success Hawksbills, and all other sea turtles, remain on CITES Appendix I. Over time, ending the bekko trade has paralleled some hawksbill nesting increases, especially in the Wider Caribbean, where significant exports to Japan had occurred for many years. Protecting beaches and ending hawksbill capture in foraging areas has resulted in nesting increases in Panama, Mexico, US Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, and Barbados. Similar increases have been reported in the Seychelles and the Turtle Islands shared by Malaysia and the Philippines. But hawksbill nesting also continues to decline from the east coast of Africa to southeast Asia, Indonesia, Australia, and the islands of the Pacific. For many populations, this trade had a severe impact, for others the effects are irrevocable. Based on past and anticipated future declines of 80% in three generations, hawksbills were first listed as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals in 1996 and remain there today. Today bekko sales thrive in Japan. Unlike many countries, Japan does not have domestic legislation to implement CITES trade restrictions. While domestic sales are legal, bekko products cannot leave Japan, and new raw shell cannot be imported. What is the source of this shell? Do dealers still have older reserves and if so, how much bekko is stockpiled? A substantial but unknown portion of today’s market may be older bekko reworked into more contemporary jewelry. That older bekko is available is not surprising, given the huge volume of shell imported into Japan in the 20th century. But how resilient is older shell for reworking, and how many Japanese carvers are working today? If reports are true that older pieces are exported to India for restyling and then returned, these exports and reimports violate CITES. Hawksbill nesting increases in some areas have sparked Japanese interest in resurrecting bekko imports on a small scale, including advocates in the Japanese sea turtle community who support Japan’s tradition of bekko carving. The flip side of bekko production includes mundane objects such as cigarette lighters, shoe horns, and crass souvenirs, hardly what one would call craftsmanship or traditional art. In a world where the illicit tortoiseshell trade already flourishes, reopening any legal bekko trade is not a viable option. A recent report by the Too Rare To Wear campaign detailed 10 countries where the illegal trade is still happening on a large scale and another 30 where it is happening on a smaller scale. The report details a sharp increase in suspected bekko imports to Japan since 2016 [7]. Considering former and present day trade abuses and the deleterious impact of the historic bekko trade on hawksbill populations around the world, resurrecting even limited bekko imports is a very bad idea.

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References [1] D. Mack, N. Duplaix, S. Wells, Sea turtles, animals of divisible parts: international trade in sea turtle products, Pp. 545e563, in: K.A. Bjorndal (Ed.), Biology and Conservation of Sea Turtles, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C, 1982, 583 pp. [2] T. Milliken, H. Tokunaga, The Japanese Sea Turtle Trade 1970e1986, A Special Report prepared by TRAFFIC(Japan) for the Center for Environmental Education, Washington, D.C, 1987, 171 pp. [3] B. Groombridge, R. Luxmoore, The Green Turtle and Hawksbill (Reptilia: Cheloniidae): World Status, Exploitation and Trade, Secretariat of CITES, Lausanne, 1989, 601 pp. [4] C. Barr, Current status of trade and legal protection for sea turtles in Indonesia, Marine Turtle Newsletter 54 (1991) 4e7. [5] M. Donnelly, Japan bans import of hawksbill shell effective December 1992, Marine Turtle Newsletter 54 (1991) 1e3. [6] A. Meylan, Hawksbill turtles still endangered, Nature 391 (1998) 117. [7] B. Nahill, P. von Weller, H. Barrios-Garrido, The Global Tortoiseshell Trade. Too Rare To Wear Campaign, SEE Turtles, Beaverton OR, 2020.

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Stopping Illegal Hawksbill Trafficking in Cartagena de Indias, Colombia

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~oz 1,2 Cristian Ramirez-Gallego 1 , Karla Georgina Barrientos-Mun 2 1 Fundacion Tortugas del Mar, Envigado, Antioquia, Colombia; Wider Caribbean Sea Turtle Conservation Network e WIDECAST, Envigado, Antioquia, Colombia

Introduction During the 20th century, millions of hawksbills were harvested, mainly for tortoiseshell markets of Europe, the United States, and Asia, where the shells were used to create hair combs, eyeglass frames, rings, bracelets, spoons, bowls, and other trinkets [1e3]. The hawksbill turtle is one of four sea turtle species that nests in the Colombian Caribbean coast. This country has extensive national legislation and has signed several international treaties and agreements for protecting sea turtles. However, despite these legal protective measures, there are few enough implementation strategies in place to protect hawksbill turtle in Colombia [4]. The city of Cartagena de Indias, located on the northwest Caribbean coast of Colombia, is the second most popular tourist destination in the country. As of the early 2000s, tortoiseshell handicrafts in Cartagena were commonly observed being sold in markets that catered to both domestic and foreign tourists without any regulation or enforcement of law [5e8]. But, in 2008, the market situation in the city was unknown. In this chapter, we present the three steps that were carried out in the project what we have called the “Iniciativa Carey” (Hawksbill Initiative in English) to stop the tortoiseshell illegal traffic in Cartagena de Indias, Colombia: (1) Diagnosis and Characterization; (2) Building Local and International Support, Education, and Outreach, and (3) Capacity Building of Enforcement Officials.

Step 1. Diagnosis and characterization In 2008 we were young biology students, with all the desire and energy to save sea turtles. It was inconceivable to us that what was on paper did not apply in real life. For example, the illegal trade in tortoiseshell handicrafts in Cartagena happened under everyone’s nose; it was an issue that seemed to be normalized by Colombian society. There is an adage that says, “If you can’t measure it, you can’t manage it,” so we sought to get as close as we could to this illegal trade. So, during the first years of our research (2008e12), our objective was to identify, locate, and describe the level of tortoiseshell trade [8]. Sea Turtle Research and Conservation. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821029-1.00015-5 Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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Initially, we looked for the tortoiseshell markets, where we confirmed that they were the points of greatest concentration of national and foreign tourism: the old walled city. This is comprised of three neighborhoods: San Diego, La Matuna, and Getsemaní. During the 5 years of diagnosis and characterization, we spent one week each during the low and high tourist seasons conducting research. We researched two different types of points of sale: street artisans and vendors, and commercial (souvenir) shops. We identified and quantified points of sale, numbers and type of articles offered, and conducted unstructured conversations when possible at the points of sale to ascertain the price and origin of the handicrafts. We also asked the sellers who the main buyers were and if they knew about the prohibition of the sale of tortoiseshell. Photographs and short videos helped considerably in determining counts of items, especially when many of small items were offered for sale by a single vendor [8]. All street vendors and artisans surveyed were aware that it was illegal to sell sea turtle products. However, they displayed their ID card permits from City Hall of Cartagena, which support their activity as artisans-vendors, which apparently includes the sale of tortoiseshell handicrafts. We identified that the tortoiseshell trade was associated with higher income tourists, as the vendors were concentrated in areas close to prestigious hotels, restaurants, and shops [8]. The American and French citizens, followed by Spanish and Colombian (mainly from the interior of the country) were the most common tortoiseshell handicrafts buyers identified by artisans and vendors. In lesser proportions, Italians and nationals from several Latin American countries were also mentioned as tortoiseshell crafts buyers. By purchasing and taking those products across borders, these tourists not only violated the national laws of Colombia but also international treaties such as CITES (which prohibits the unauthorized transfer of sea turtle products among nations) and the national laws of the countries to which they returned [8]. We estimated that 1800 to 2800 items per year were offered for sale during the first 5 years of this study. Our estimated average of sales per year is 2593 hawksbill turtle items, consist of 14 different products. The most common were jewelry articles, particularly pendants and rings. Uncommon products and offered only by two artisansvendors were necklaces and miscellaneous items including cooking ladles and butter knives. Prices of these items ranged from US$3 for a ring and US$15 for a bangle to US$40 for a large and elaborate necklace, which was one of the most expensive hawksbill items seen during these surveys [8]. The tortoiseshell handicraft prices varied considerably and depended on the size and design, the season (low or high tourist season), and the origin of tourists. We observed a 33e60% increase in the prices of the same type of hawksbill items in high tourist season. All street artisans and vendors claimed that when buyers were not Spanish speakers, they could sell their products at prices two or three times higher, compared to Spanish-speaking tourists. We noted that four artisans sold a large variety of hawksbill items, with each vendor remaining in the same location on the street year after year, during the 5 years of surveys. Prices of handicrafts were similar among all the street artisans and vendors surveyed [8]. According to our conversations with artisans and street vendors, the shells and crafts came mainly from the Alta Guajira (Guajira Peninsula) in northern Colombia,

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and to a lesser extent from the Rosario and San Bernardo Corals National Natural Park, 45 km southwest of Cartagena Bay. We never observed police or other law enforcement agents challenge the vendors on the legality of selling hawksbill products; instead, we often saw police officers chatting with hawksbill artisans and crafts vendors [8]. Based on our first results, we found that 20e37% of all observed vendors offered products made from hawksbill shell during 2008e12 [8], similar to 30% that was reported by Reuter and Allan [5] during their survey in 2006. This can only mean that the sale of hawksbill products had remained fairly steady in Colombia, regardless of national and international laws prohibiting this. However, there are no official statistics available on the hawksbill sea turtle trade in Colombia, despite the requirement that a report should be submitted annually by CITES Member States in fulfillment of their obligations under Article VIII of CITES. However, authorities in Cartagena seemed to be unaware of the illegal activity, given that the city hall issued permits for the sale of hawksbill products, and policemen were never observed to challenge vendors on the legality of selling hawksbill products [8]. In addition, we took data on the supply of turtle meat. Of the 12 local, traditional food, and seafood restaurants surveyed, two were found offering sea turtle meat in their menu, such as turtle stew, turtle minced, or chopped socky. Both restaurants were in the Getsemaní neighborhood of the old walled city, where we observed no hawksbill turtle handicrafts for sale [8]. We were unable to identify which species of sea turtle the meat came from.

Step 2. Building local and international support The lack of actions at the institutional level in Colombia to stop the hawksbill trafficking was a sign of either the ignorance of the laws and their lack of compliance by the competent authorities or they know that it is illegal, but they do not consider it a priority. At that time in Colombia, the priorities of the armed forces were to attack drug trafficking fiercely, and in places like Cartagena, the priority has always been to ensure the safety of tourists. With this not very encouraging panorama, we understood that if our attitude was to denounce the hawksbill merchants or to denounce the authorities to their control entities for not doing their job, we were not going to advance our objective of protecting the hawksbill turtle. Two results could have happened that would be more discouraging: they would not pay attention to us, because the authorities themselves were unaware or blind to the problem, or the authorities would retaliate against us. Under this social and political inertia, it was very important not to get discouraged and lose focus. In this kind of situation, it helps to start with who you know. In our search for meetings with the key actors to present the problem and our findings, we had an advantage in our favor, the regions of our birth. This seems somewhat minor, but for a first approach to the key actors it was essential. One of us is from Cartagena and knew what doors to knock on in the city and the local accent in a first approach gave confidence to the key

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actors so that the meeting was more familiar. The other person, from the interior of the country, helped in that first meeting to subtly apply pressure, making the case that by eliminating the sale of tortoiseshell handicrafts in the city tourists like her were going to better appreciate Cartagena and support the economy of the city. A fact that surprised us in these first meetings was that some officials from various environmental and tourism entities were unaware of the illegality of the products and were also unaware that the “tortoiseshell” came from the shells of a sea turtle. In their imagination, one of the people believed that the tortoiseshell came from a sea stone. There we discovered that beyond reporting on the situation, we had to educate and sensitize people about hawksbill turtles at the institutions. Being very careful, we first approached the different institutions that are directly responsible for dealing with the crime of hawksbill turtle trafficking in the city. We sought to make it clear to them that what we intended was not to attack them for not carrying out their work, but instead our desire was to support them in the fight against this crime in a coordinated and inter-institutional way. But not everything was easy in those meetings; one of the difficulties we faced with several of the institutions in which the responsibility of enforcing laws about species trafficking fell was that responsibility was passed on to others. How could we overcome this challenge? We decided to meet with all the entities with whom we had previously met, so they could not transfer their responsibilities. We were also invited to Procuraduría General de la Naci on (Office of the Attorney General of the Nation), an entity that monitors compliance with the responsibilities of public institutions in Colombia. Indeed, when all the institutions were together and were reminded of their responsibility to curb the hawksbill trafficking, they recognized their responsibility and gave ideas of how we could work in a coordinated way, without one entity overriding the responsibilities and jurisdiction of other entities. We then created a network in which were different departments of the National Police, three environmental entities (two local and one national), the local tourism entity of Cartagena, several secretaries of the City Hall of Cartagena (Alcaldía Mayor de Cartagena de Indias), and a secretary of the Bolívar state government. Involved the city’s tourism entity was strategic, since a significant part of the city is focused on tourism, and the hawksbill traffic coincided with those tourist areas. Therefore, we had a player within the team that was very interested in putting pressure on the other environmental and police entities to fulfill their functions to show tourists and locals a city that respects its marine fauna. This first meeting was vital for the process that we were going to start leading with actions, because we all managed to understand the role of each entity and how each one could contribute from their functions. Most importantly, understanding was achieved between officials from different entities, who did not know each other and performed similar functions, but in different jurisdictions of the city.

Building international support One of the first tasks we had was to sensitize and train the entity officials themselves to take action. After that, we needed to support with economic resources and personnel to

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carry out actions in the field, all the strategies that we created together. So, we presented a first diagnosis of the hawksbill trade situation from 2008 to 2011 [9] at the International Sea Turtle Symposium 2012. There the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) showed interest in what we were doing, and at the end of 2014 we obtained funding from US Fish and Wildlife Service for the project together with this organization. Also, in 2014 we presented the proposal to the State of the World’s Sea Turtles (SWOT), which provided a small grant. Thanks to these two international grants, we started to execute the strategies in alliance with many of the key actors in Colombia. Among those first national and local allies with whom the strategies and actions in the field were built were biology students from the University of Cartagena and officials from national parks of Colombia, Environmental and Ecological Police of ColombiadCartagena, The Colombian Navy (Armada Republica Colombia), Environmental Guard of ColombiadCartagena, Public Environmental Establishment of Cartagena (EPA), Autonomous Corporation of the Canal del Dique (CARDIQUE), Cartagena Tourism Corporation (CORPOTURISMO), and City Hall of Cartagena. Additionally, some mass media such as radio stations: Blue Radio, Radio National Police, and print publications: El Tiempo and El Universal, were key in raising awareness on a larger scale in Cartagena and at the national level. Thanks to this perseverance, in 2017, we received the attention of the SEE Turtles organization, which to date is promoting its own campaign called “Too Rare to Wear,” in which it seeks to reduce demand of tortoiseshell around the world. Under this campaign, in 2017, in-country partners conducted surveys in eight countries to assess the availability of hawksbill merchandise for sale at tourist destinations in Latin America and the Caribbean. The data we had collected from the hawksbill trafficking in Cartagena, Colombia, was included in the report titled Endangered Souvenirs, Hawksbill Sea Turtle Products for Sale in Latin America & the Caribbean [10]. Colombia was the second largest site for this trade in the region according to the data [10]. Starting in 2017, we joined the “Too Rare to Wear” campaign and have received financial support, outreach, and educational materials from SEE Turtles to continue the work of reducing trade of tortoiseshell in Cartagena. Among the new strategies implemented together with SEE Turtles in Cartagena are joint efforts with the tourism industry to do extensive outreach of the hawksbill turtle threat situation and educate travelers to avoid buying handicrafts of hawksbill. For example, now many of the shops, artisans, and vendors who previously sold hawksbill handicrafts have promised not to sell these products anymore. We have certified their shops with an environmental certification as “We don’t sell turtle products” that they proudly exhibit in their shops. This both gives travelers an alternative to do their souvenir shopping and puts pressure on remaining shops and vendors to stop selling them. At this moment we have certified 51 turtle-free souvenir shops in Cartagena.

Education and outreach Previous survey research in 2015 has shown that at least 70% of travelers (both domestic and foreign) (N ¼ 510 persons) are unaware of this threat to sea turtles. Therefore, we inform and raise awareness about hawksbill turtles to travelers who commonly

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transit the streets of the main tourist areas of Cartagena by warning them about the risks that they would incur with the law if they purchased tortoiseshell handicrafts. These efforts aid to ensure that travelers know what to look for and why these products should be avoided. This outreach includes informational displays at shops and other key tourist spots that include a “Too Rare to Wear” tortoiseshell guide to help identify these products. In order for the artisans and the general public to have confidence in the commitment we wanted to obtain that they would not sell more hawksbill handicrafts, we held awareness sessions in conjunction with officials from the government agencies previously listed. This was to show that many local and national institutions were engaged and that there would also be many watchful eyes that would be controlling the marketing of tortoiseshell handicrafts. This awareness-raising campaign is the responsibility of two institutions within Cartagena, but the places from where the hawksbill carapaces came for the manufacture of handicrafts were the responsibility of other institutions. Therefore, the exercise of all entities working together was very significant, because it was the opportunity to create bonds in the field between the institutions and for everyone to get behind a common goal, to save the hawksbill turtle.

Step 3. Capacity building of enforcement officials Educational measures for people and for artisans were essential as a measure of generating knowledge and awareness of the hawksbill turtle, and of course to discourage those who wanted to continue marketing hawksbill handicrafts. But we could not neglect building technical capacity in government agencies to control and reduce the illegal marketing of these handicrafts. We carried out theoretical-practical workshops for the identification of genuine tortoiseshell versus faux products (synthetic). In these workshops we trained personnel from different entities who, depending on the geographical location in which they are based, bear the responsibility of controlling the trafficking of species in Colombia. Although many of these entities work to prosecute environmental crimes, their personnel have very little contact with nature. In fact, many of the trained people have never seen a sea turtle in a direct way. Therefore, in these workshops the first thing we did was to make people fall in love with the turtle with very good images and videos and by showing them the turtles’ role in ecosystems and what would happen if the turtles ceased to exist. Then they were taught the cruel way the turtles are killed for the tortoiseshell handicrafts industry. Next we proceeded to teach the regulations that protect sea turtles nationally and internationally, and all the guidelines that must be considered for the correct identification of genuine tortoiseshell handicrafts versus faux tortoiseshell. Our goal was to build a larger team that was invested and passionate about protecting the hawksbill turtles that was technically trained in the regulation and identification of hawksbill handicrafts so that the project was successful and continued over the long term.

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It would be illogical and irresponsible for us to assume that a theoretical workshop would be enough for the officials of the entities in charge of controlling the traffic of tortoiseshell to identify these products without any mistakes. The task of discerning between what is a tortoiseshell handicraft and what is an imitation is a demanding and complex task. Each artisan sells at their point of sale a mix of handicrafts, which can include genuine tortoiseshell, faux tortoiseshell, and similar-looking products like cow horn in which, with coloring and shapes, they seek to sell as if they were genuine tortoiseshell. These officials have never seen a hawksbill turtle in the wild and they are just getting acquainted with the coloring, texture, and shape patterns of hawksbill handicrafts. Therefore, after having carried out the hawksbill identification workshops, we accompanied these officials to those places where there was commercialization of hawksbill handicrafts, in order to reinforce what they had learned and test their new skills. Subsequently, we proceeded with the operation of seizing handicrafts and other products of the hawksbill turtle. In the first seizure carried out in December 2015, we counted more than 536 pieces of tortoiseshell between jewelry and large kitchen utensils. In the last seizure carried out in July 2019, we only counted 28 pieces of tortoiseshell jewelry. We believe it is very important to give positive feedback for the work carried out by the control institutions in these seizure operations so that they feel proud of their efforts, so we made sure the results were widely disseminated in the internal bulletins of the participating institutions and in press and radio notes at the local and national level. Today, Cartagena de Indias, the success of this inter-institutional work and continuous actions with government authorities and tourism officials, is an example and symbol of hope for other places in the region that seek to reduce the commercialization of sea turtles. Cartagena has reduced by an estimated 95% the sale of hawksbill handicrafts since 2015 through the hard work of everyone involved. An average of about 2900e3500 products for sale at any one time were offered in 2015, while in 2019 the average number of hawksbill products offered was only 120e220 pieces.

References [1] A.B. Meylan, M. Donelly, Status justification for listing the hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) as critically endangered on the 1996 IUCN red list of threatened animals, Chelonian Conservation and Biology 3 (2) (1999) 200e224. [2] A.B. Meylan, Status of the hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) in the Caribbean region, Chelonian Conservation and Biology 3 (2) (1999) 177e184.  [3] J.J. Parson, The hawksbill turtle and the tortoise shell trade, in: Etudes de Géographie Tropicale Offertes a Pierre Gourou, Mouton, Sorbonne, Paris, 1972, pp. 45e60. [4] K.G. Barrientos-Mu~noz, C. Ramirez-Gallego, V.P. Paez, Tortuga carey. Eretmochelys imbricata (Linnaeus 1766), in: M.A. Morales-Betancourt, C.A. Lasso, V.P. Paez, B. Bock (Eds.), Libro rojo de reptiles de Colombia, Instituto de Investigaci on de Recursos Biologicos Alexander von Humboldt (IAvH), Universidad de Antioquia, Bogota, D.C., Colombia, 2015, pp. 127e131.

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[5] A. Reuter, C. Allan, Tourists, Turtles and Trinkets: A Look at the Trade in Marine Turtle Products in the Dominican Republic and Colombia, 2006. Field Report, TRAFFIC, 12 pp. [6] A. Br€autigam, K.L. Eckert, Turning the Tide: Exploitation, Trade and Management of Marine Turtles in the Lesser Antilles, Central America, Colombia and Venezuela, TRAFFIC International, Cambridge, UK, 2006, 534 pp. [7] INVEMAR (Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras), Determinaci on de la distribucion y del estado actual de conservacion de las tortugas marinas en el Caribe Colombiano, 2002. Final Report, INVEMAR, Santa Marta, Colombia, 159 pp. [8] C. Ramirez-Gallego, K.G. Barrientos-Mu~noz, Illegal hawksbill trafficking: five years of records of the handicrafts and meat trades of the hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) in Cartagena de Indias, Colombia, Journal of Aquaculture & Marine Biology 9 (3) (2020) 101e105, https://doi.org/10.15406/jamb.2020.09.00284. [9] C. Ramírez-Gallego, K.G. Barrientos-Mu~noz, Characterization of handicraft and meat trades of hawksbills (Eretmochelys imbricata) from 2008 to 2011 in Cartagena de Indias, Colombia. Oral presentation, in: 32nd Annual Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation. Huatulco, México, 11th e 16th March 2012. [10] E. Harrison, P.v. Weller, B. Nahill, Endangered Souvenirs Hawksbill Sea Turtle Products for Sale in Latin America & the Caribbean. Too Rare To Wear, 2017.

Section Six Sea Turtle Bycatch

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Addressing Sea Turtle Bycatch in Developing Countries: A Global Challenge That Requires Adaptive Solutions for the 21st Century

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Jesse F. Senko 1 , Michel A. Nalovic 2, 3,4,5 1 School for the Future of Innovation in Society, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, United States; 2French Guiana Regional Fisheries Committee, Matoury, French Guiana; 3Groupe de Travail Tortue Marine France, Paris, France; 4Trans Océans Tortues Marines, Cayenne, French Guiana; 5International Union for the Conservation of Nature’s Marine Turtle Specialist Group, French Guiana

Introduction Fishing effort in coastal regions has proliferated over the past few decades in the face of rapidly increasing demand for seafood [1]. Small-scale (hereafter termed coastal) fisheries are ubiquitous in coastal regions worldwide and comprise the vast majority of the world’s fishers [2,3]. These fisheries provide a vital source of income and livelihood to coastal communities that often have few economic alternatives [4e6]. In addition to playing a major economic role in coastal communities, fisheries provide an important source of protein and essential nutrients in rural areas where nutritionally comparable food sources can be scarce. Coastal fisheries also have intrinsic importance to the identity, values, and cultures in many of the communities they occur in. However, despite their` importance, incidental capture (i.e., bycatch) of nontarget species in these fisheries is notoriously difficult to assess and manage [7]. In particular, bycatch of sea turtles in coastal fisheriesdprimarily in gillnets, longlines, and trawlsdhas been linked to decline in populations worldwide [8,9]. Sea turtle bycatch is prevalent in coastal fisheries of developing nations, where fishing communities are generally marginalized with high rates of poverty, limited access to education, and few livelihood alternatives [4,6,10]. These important socioeconomic and institutional factors can limit the ability and willingness of fishers to reduce their sea turtle bycatch, especially if there are perceived economic costs such as increased fuel or operating costs, diminished operational efficiency, or reduced target catch [10e12]. As such, there has been growing recognition that, in developing nations, strategies to mitigate sea turtle bycatch must address the human dimensions of bycatch. Social networks as well as community-based fishing cooperatives or councils have shown promise by improving communication and knowledge transfer between managers, scientists, and fishers, but new solutions are needed [10,13,14]. Sea Turtle Research and Conservation. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821029-1.00016-7 Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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We have developed a collaborative model for sea turtle bycatch reduction in the 21st century that leverages community-based conservation and innovation. Our approach incorporates the socioeconomic and ecological sustainability of fisheries, long-term conservation funding, market-based approaches to seafood supply chains, and community development and education. Our global model understands the social, economic, and ecological drivers behind sea turtle bycatch and uses this knowledge to develop real-world solutions. For example, when coastal fishers use high bycatch gear (e.g., gillnets), a more diverse catch can increase resilience through other species of fish that can be taken to market, or fish catches that can be consumed locally or used as bait in other fisheries. Thus, traditionally nonselective or high bycatch fisheries are, in many cases, important to maintaining resilience of coastal fisheries. Sea turtle bycatch has traditionally been managed by reductions in fishing effort or bycatch caps, but these approaches can be costly for coastal communities because they usually close or restrict fishing effort [15]. For example, a recent fisheries closure in Mexico, established to reduce loggerhead turtle bycatch, eliminated the seasonal income of thousands of fishers and their families [16]. By contrast, solutions such as gear modifications may be more successful than closures or bycatch caps at managing bycatch of sea turtles and other marine megafauna, in part because they allow fishers to fish in their desired locations [15]. However, despite their promise, several bycatch reduction technologies (BRTs) that have demonstrated success in experimental trials have yet to be adequately implemented in active fisheries due to differences between controlled trials and real-world conditions, as well as operational challenges associated with their use [11]. A new global approach to sea turtle bycatch mitigation is needed that can work in diverse local contexts and simultaneously meet social, economic, and ecological needs. This approach can only come from integrating knowledge between local fishers and conservation scientists, practitioners, and managers. In the United States, the benefits of collaborative fisheries research have been clear with enhanced credibility and legitimacy of scientific findings in the minds of stakeholders, with potential to increase acceptability of management actions. Indeed, innovations that reduce bycatch can create greater mutual understanding and trust among partners, and opportunities to integrate diverse sources of knowledge about coastal and marine environments where fisheries and sea turtles intersect [17e22]. The collaborative research approach has been increasingly adopted by government, industry, and associations [21,23], as well as conservation organizations, such as the Nature Conservancy and WWF’s Smart Gear program. Collaborative fisheries research is also emerging internationally, including in Central and South American fisheries. In this chapter, we focus on small-scale or coastal fisheries, as opposed to industrialscale fisheries, due to their importance in shaping coastal communities and propensity to incur high sea turtle bycatch. We explicitly focus on coastal fisheries due to their economic and cultural roles in coastal communities. Bycatch mitigation approaches employed for highly regulated industrial-scale fisheries, such as in the United States, are not typically applicable to coastal fisheries where top-down enforcement is limited or nonexistent [9,10,24].

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Industrial-scale fisheries can be effectively managed differently, and management regimes generally consist of regulations, consumer demands, sustainability assessments (e.g., ecolabeling), and chain of custody from ocean to plate [10]. However, these approaches prove less effective for coastal fisheries in developing nations. For a comprehensive literature review on fisheries bycatch of marine megafauna that includes sea turtles, we recommend Komoroske and Lewison [10]. Here, we provide two case studies and key lessons learned from both, while highlighting priorities for future sea turtle conservation action and research. The first case study comes from French Guiana, which is considered to be the French department that has implemented the most measures to reduce sea turtle bycatch as part of an ongoing collaboration between fishers, biologists, and institutional actors [25,26]. The second case study highlights community-based conservation innovation in coastal gillnet fisheries in the Gulf of California, Baja California Sur, Mexico.

Case study 1: A collaborative fisheries research partnership between French Guiana’s Regional Fisheries Committee and World Wildlife Fund (Michel A. Nalovic) To reduce sea turtle bycatch in artisanal gillnet fisheries, fishers, through the Commitée Régional des Pêches Maritimes et Elevages Marins de Guyane (CRPM G), the local fisheries organization, had the opportunity to propose solutions to reduce fuel expenditures, eliminate polluting practices (e.g., emptying ballast water and oil at sea, keeping trash on board), and reduce overall bycatch. One of the options proposed over two decades was the adoption of the classic Turtle Excluder Device (TED) [27]. Indeed Gueguen [28] estimated that the French Guiana shrimp trawling fleet was responsible for the bycatch of 1000 olive ridley turtles per year. An evaluation of the efficiency of existing TEDs and other grid style excluder devices under full commercial fishing conditions was proposed by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and performed by gear technicians from the French Institute for the Exploitation of the Sea (IFREMER). Results from these trials showed a 27% loss of shrimp production (Unpublished IFREMER data), which was deemed unacceptable by the fishing industry. Following these trials, WWF proposed to help train the CRPM G’s technical staff on the use of TEDs by a gear specialist from NOAA Fisheries Harvesting Systems Branch office, located in Pascagoula, Mississippi, USA. This new capacity allowed the fishing industry in French Guiana to conduct its own experiments at sea including TED trials. Tests conducted at sea revealed that standard TEDs were successful at maintaining target shrimp catch and eliminating bycatch of sea turtles as well as larger sharks and rays. However, the TED showed only small reductions in total bycatch [29], and was not efficient at reducing the massive amounts of finfish bycatch, which can regularly reach a ratio of 10 kg of bycatch for every 1 kg of shrimp in tropical shrimp trawl fisheries [30]. The industry in French Guiana therefore sought improvements in the TED performance [29].

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The trials also led to fishers having a better first-hand understanding of the TED’s effects on selectivity of the catch. This new knowledge inspired them to propose modifications to the existing TED models that could help them reduce finfish and thus overall bycatch. In particular, the fishers suggested reducing the spacing between the bars and the use of flat bars, rather than round bars. Flat bars were suggested because the reduced surface from bars that were less thick was expected to result in less hydrodynamic drag and turbulence ahead of the selective grid. Following the acquisition of this gear, validation by at-sea trials, and experiments of different TED models using sampling protocols for comparison of towed gears [31], the fishing industry’s perception of TEDs and BRTs began to change. The CRPM G, which was responsible for conducting the experiments, allowed for all of the fishing industry’s members to access the results quickly and officially through a series of consultations. These regularly held meetings and exchanges acted as a steering committee and led the industry to call on the federal government to establish a new requirement for the use of the modified TEDs on all shrimp trawlers operating in French Guiana. The TTED law (Trash and Turtles Excluder Device) improved the selectivity of the original TED and was voluntarily adopted by the industry in March 2008, later becoming mandatory by government decree in January 2010 [29]. To facilitate the industry, WWF, in partnership with the CRPM G, requested a grant from the EU funds for fisheries for a project called “Toward the adoption of the selectivity system Trash and Turtle Excluder Device (TTED) by the shrimp trawlers of French Guiana.” The objective of the program was to train captains, crews, and net menders on TED use and maintenance, order and acquire high quality TEDs and extra materials to fix damaged TEDs, and support the implementation and adoption of the new TEDs. In the end, the development of a new TTED with two inches of spacing between flat bars resulted in a significant total bycatch reduction without target shrimp loss for the French Guiana shrimp trawl industry [31] and effectively eliminated sea turtle bycatch. The process changed the perception of the fishing industry toward conservation of sea turtles and working with environmental NGOs. The current perception among fishers is that the TED was tailored to the specific conditions of its fishery and was a product of their own innovation and stewardship. French Guiana is considered the French overseas department to be the most proactive of the six total overseas departments working to reduce bycatch of sea turtles [25]. There were times when the industry could have backed out of the US TED certification program and stopped using TEDs altogether. However, fishers continued to use TEDs despite the government’s refusal to inspect their use from 2014 to 2017. In 2017, the CRPM G even produced a report arguing that TEDs should be included in the EU rule books for use by all countries wishing to export wild caught shrimp to the EU [32]. In June of 2019, the CRPM Guyane, the French National Fisheries Committee, WWF, and the French Government advocated to include the new TEDs for the first time in the EU technical measures for fisheries. The addition of TEDs to the EU technical measures for fisheries and resulting regulations [33] set a precedence to make TEDs mandatory for all countries wishing to export wild caught tropical shrimp to the EU, much like the United States did 30 years earlier. Maritime affairs has since conducted 11 at-sea inspections of TED use and the results indicate 100% compliance [34].

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The French Guiana TED project has drawn the attention of other French departments who are investigating the possibility of creating similar initiatives to address sea turtle bycatch in other fisheries [26]. Overall, the collaborative research approach in French Guiana produced concrete and enforceable conservation outcomes and benefits, gave fishers a voice and respect by integrating their knowledge to develop tailored, effective technological solutions to protect sea turtles, and developed an enhanced sense of ownership to the solution and stewardship among fishers. The TTED initially developed in French Guiana has since been evaluated successfully in the Suriname Seabob shrimp fishery through the Sustainable Management of Bycatch in Latin America and Caribbean Trawl Fisheries (REBYC-II LAC) FAO program and is slated to be evaluated by NOAA Fisheries for use in the Gulf of Mexico shrimp fishery.

French Guiana’s artisanal gillnet fishery: different fishery, same approach The collaborative approach we developed has continued to influence fisheries in French Guiana given that the trust established between industry, environmental NGOs, and scientists has spilled over into another fisherydthe artisanal gillnet fleet. The French Guiana gillnet boats operate much like other gillnet vessels in the wider Guiana region, with the major difference being the amount of fishing effort of French Guiana’s neighbors, which have many more boats and fish with longer nets. In 2017, the PALICA Project (Pêcheries Actives pour la Limitation des Interactions et des Captures Accidentelles translation: “Fisheries working toward the Limitation of Bycatch”)da collaboration between the CRPM G and WWF, informed, evaluated, and helped articulate a plan by the artisanal gillnet fleet to comprehensively address bycatch of sea turtles, as well as other protected species [35]. This work was implemented with commercial fishers and their representatives from the inception of the development of ideas on potential solutions to reduce sea turtle bycatch in the region. This project interviewed boat owners and fishers from different communities along the French Guiana coast in order to better understand the context, perception, complexities, and issues that could affect artisanal fisher’s willingness to work toward addressing sea turtle bycatch. The fishers appeared to appreciate the consultative process, since they felt that their voice was being heard and taken into account. These consultations took almost 9 months, culminating in a report [35] that proposed two general approachesdone involved change of behavior, and the other was technological, or gear based (selectivity). Two new projects arose from these approaches, the first one was based on negative experiences by fishers who recounted encountering large numbers of olive ridley turtles in their nets. Project staff explained to the fishers that olive ridley turtles exhibit a unique behavior where the turtles aggregate in front of nesting beaches to come ashore to lay eggs in events that can bring up to 500 individuals on the beaches of Cayenne in one night. Learning about this behavior, known as an “arribada” in Central America,

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brought about the reoccurring question from fishers as to whether or not it was possible to predict when these mass nesting events would occur. Thus, the French Guiana Project “Arriba” (Alerte aux Risques Relatifs aux Interactions Bloquant les Arribadas translation: “Warning of the risks associated to interactions preventing arribadas”), was established. The Arriba project seeks to create and develop a warning system for fishers to be informed when an arribada event is occurring so that fishers can voluntarily displace their fishing effort away from the area occupied by turtles, in real time. In line with the collaborative approach, the fishers help define how the warning system will function. To inform the process, we are planning to solicit contributions from a variety of sources including scientists conducting telemetry studies on olive ridley turtles, NGOs responsible for patrolling the nesting beaches, and fishers. The National Center for Scientific Research of France (CNRS) will equip three turtles in the early part of the nesting season with fine-scale tracking devices and monitor their movements. The Kwata Association, which patrols the nesting beaches and monitors nesting activity, will help predict the first peaks that mark the cadence of the upcoming peaks. Finally, fishers will be asked to inform the CRPM G when and where they encounter olive ridley turtles at sea or in their nets. By using this cross-disciplinary approach, entities that do not traditionally work together can share useful information and can jointly develop the warning strategy in real time. Secondly, fishers who receive the warning and choose to dismiss it will likely encounter a large number of turtles in their nets. This may seem counterintuitive, but we anticipate that fishers who have to deal with the consequences (damaged gear, lost time, and possibly embarrassment) may be more likely to participate and accept the information at a later date. To determine if our approach is successful, the warning system will operate for another 2 to 3 years and observations at sea will note the actual presence or absence of fishing vessels during the French Guiana arribada events. The second project is slated to begin in July of 2020 and will focus primarily on technological components and mechanics of bycatch with gillnets. We will evaluate three gear modifications that aim to reduce sea turtle bycatch while maintaining target catch. These tests were chosen by the gillnet industries’ fishers and prioritized by their willingness to actually implement potential gear modifications if deemed successful. The tests aim to evaluate strategies to mitigate bycatch of leatherback turtles in gillnet fisheries. Below, the tests are described in order from least to most complex. The foraging behavior of leatherback turtles may lead to entanglement of their large front flippers in ropes and cables of fishing gear, and may be the result of turtles approaching buoys and biting them [36]. Bite marks were observed on floats entangled around leatherback necks in French Guiana. Leatherbacks will readily consume a variety of edible and inedible slow-moving and buoyant objects. Although this behavior is adaptive in exploiting large concentrations of medusae, these turtles regularly mistakenly ingest plastic bags and other floating marine debris (e.g., Refs. [36e40]. Gillnet floats in French Guiana tend to be made of Styrofoam or white plastic [41,42]. This material is used because it is readily available, cheap, and easy to manipulate. During at-sea observations conducted by the CRPM G in French Guiana, we found that at least 20% of leatherbacks were entangled in float lines of gillnets and not the actual mesh of the net [42]. However, this is believed to be an underestimate since

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entanglement was observed in the float lines and the mesh of the gillnet simultaneously without the possibility of knowing whether entanglement was initiated at the float line or in the mesh [42]. Leatherbacks are not able to see the color red [43]. This visual limitation may be the key to developing a new gear modification for the gillnet fleet of the Guianas, such as changing the color of a float involves minimal financial expenditures. As such, two boats using Styrofoam floats will be equipped with cameras that turn on only when an algorithm detects actual fishing is occurring so as to not impede on the fisher’s privacy. In conjunction with these cameras, we will paint half of the floats (86) red to match the number of floats that will remain white. During retrieval of the gillnets, the cameras will record images that reveal if leatherbacks are bycaught in the segments of the gillnet that have the white or red floats. The next two experiments will test whether bycatch of leatherbacks and other sea turtles can be reduced by allowing the top of the water column to be free from floats and gillnet gear. Recent findings indicate that green turtles rarely descend below 2 m in depth while swimming between nesting events [44], while observations at sea showed that 82% of leatherbacks were caught in the upper portion of gillnets [45]. To gather data at sea, the project will conduct experiments with observers on board to allow a direct comparison of bycatch and target catch of experimental and standard gillnets. As per other studies conducted to evaluate LED lights to reduce bycatch of sea turtles, the two boats that participated in these tests will operate in close proximity and with identical fishing effort (gear deployment time, soak time, and retrieval time) following other similar studies (see references on net illumination). Test two will compare the bycatch of turtles and capture of target species of two gillnets, one with a vertical profile measuring 4 m in height (experimental gear) and the other measuring 6 m in height (control gear). Apart from this modification, all other gear including manufacturer and date of construction will be the same. The third test will compare nets of identical construction except for the floatation, with the control net having standard float lines widely used today and the experimental net having experimental floats included on the top line of the gillnet and, as such, completely submerged and out of sight of the leatherbacks apparent interest in floating objects. According to the Proceedings of the Technical Workshop on Mitigating Sea Turtle Bycatch in Coastal Net Fisheries, this approach warrants investigation. This test is by far the most complex as it will be necessary to first determine the ideal amount of floatation to guarantee that the gillnet has an optimal opening configuration to catch fish and is not causing the gillnet to float above the sea floor. To do so we have initiated a partnership between the CRPMEM Guyane and NOAA Fisheries to use depth sensors to verify the actual position of the net and compare the control and experimental gillnets top and bottom-line positions during fishing activities. In November of 2019, Jeff Gearhart from NOAA Harvesting Systems Branch in Pascagoula, Mississippi, USA, traveled to French Guiana for a 3-day at-sea expedition with the author of this case study. They conducted the first trials of experimental submerged floatation aboard a boat made available by the Abchee and Sons fishing company. The preliminary results were presented the next day to a room of boat owners and members of the French Guiana Marine Turtle Action Plan. NOAA Fisheries

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provided sensors and the software package and protocols to the CRPM G to be used to continue the sea turtle bycatch reduction work. Once the ideal floatation amount is determined, the CRPM G will organize a consultation among its fishers to determine the best shape and size of floats to be used, giving the industry a say in the way the experiment will be conducted.

Case study 2: A collaborative partnership between Arizona State University and the Grupo Tortuguero (Jesse Senko) Sensory-based BRTs that use visual cues to alert or deter sea turtles to the presence of fishing gear can reduce their bycatch [46e50]. Recently, net illumination has emerged as a BRT with strong potential to reduce sea turtle bycatch in coastal gillnet fisheries at night while maintaining catch rates of some target fish species. Gillnet illumination has reduced sea turtle bycatch in paired trials by 40e74% in peer-reviewed published studies (i.e., [48e53]. Although the exact mechanisms behind net illumination remain unknown, it is believed to reduce sea turtle bycatch by providing a visual cue that alerts and deters turtles to the presence of gillnets [48]. While testing of gillnet illumination has expanded into coastal fisheries worldwide, a hurdle to broad-scale implementation is the need to address their energy use and design. Illuminating gillnets with nonrechargeable batteries presents challenges in terms of energy consumption and operational efficiency. Light levels in current LEDs begin to diminish after several weeks of use, which requires their batteries to be changed biweekly or monthly (depending on use) to maintain effectiveness. In turn, frequent battery change-outs result in exorbitant additional costs for coastal fishers and concerns over environmentally safe disposal. For example, current LEDs use two AA batteries and have generally been placed every 10 m along the float line. Thus, one gillnet vessel fishing with 1 km of net would require 100 LEDs, resulting in 200 AA batteries for every change-out. Additionally, current LEDs were designed for longline fisheries, and they hang vertically from the net and weigh it down, while also snagging frequently and requiring a complex locking mechanism to replace batteries, all of which makes their design less optimized for gillnet fisheries. To address the challenges associated with current gillnet illumination technology, we worked with fisher leaders in Baja California Sur, Mexico (BCS), and a team of engineers at Arizona State University to develop a more pragmatic and costeffective method of illuminating gillnets. Our team has been partnering with local fishers at BCS over the past decade and have cultivated strong relationships with fishers in several coastal communities [54,14]. In January of 2018, we held our first of three fishery workshops with local fisher leaders from northwestern Mexico to discuss developing renewable-powered net illumination. Each of the three fishery workshops was coordinated in partnership with the Mexican NGO Grupo Tortuguero de las Californias. We held a subsequent fisheries workshop in Oaxaca, Mexico,

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following a mass fisheries bycatch mortality event in which over 300 olive ridley turtles were found dead in a single gillnet. In all three fisher workshops, fishers suggested developing a lighted buoy that could be easily integrated into their existing gear. We thus chose to design the lights to effectively mimic a buoy that could be threaded onto the float line of a gillnet. The lighted buoys float just like a traditional buoy, and thus offset costs of actual buoys, which make up approximately 20% of the total cost to build a gillnet [24]. Notably, this design offered full integration into gillnets with little to no modification necessary. Through our fishery workshops, we also learned that different fishers prefer different size and types of buoys, highlighting the need to develop pragmatic but also flexible approaches that can be taken to scale. Converting from AA-battery powered lights to solar power resulted in the entire unit becoming substantially lighter. It also eliminated the need for a sealed release mechanism, which was complex, difficult to maintain, and had a cumbersome waterproof seal that needed to be opened and resealed with each battery exchange. This approach allowed us to retain similar properties of proven LEDs employed in previously published studies. The use of solar power also allowed us to replace the AA batteries with rechargeable cells, since they provide a high recharge cycle count of several hundred cycles. Moreover, the solar cells are lightweight and provide a flat discharge characteristic, simplifying the circuit component count to maintain constant light output over time. Rechargeable cells are used in every cellphone and are the prevalent technology in portable electronics, which allowed us to rely on existing technology. Taken together, the latest rechargeable cells in the buoys can hold 500þ charge cycles, which substantially reduces costs over nonrechargeable cells, especially over an entire fishing season.

Discussion Like bycatch of other vulnerable marine megafauna, sea turtle bycatch occurs in a dynamic marine and socioeconomic context. Sea turtles, their ecosystems, and people who depend on marine resources respond to rapidly changing conditions and multiple stressors [10]. As such, addressing sea turtle bycatch in the 21st century requires creative, highly integrated, and innovative approaches that are adaptable in a similar way to the complex human-natural systems in which bycatch occurs. The ultimate success of sea turtle bycatch solutions is highly dependent on context due to a range of social-ecological factors such as fisheries dynamics; oceanographic and ecological conditions; political drivers; infrastructure; cultural, social, and economic conditions; or scale [10,13]. Nonetheless, the collaborative process, skills, and competencies are consistent and can produce effective solutions across a wide range of diverse contexts. From our two cases studies, a clear theme that emerged is the inclusive approach to community-based sea turtle and fisheries conservation. In both case studies, scientists worked with local fishers as well as practitioners and/or engineers. This exchange of

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knowledge led to the development of emerging solutions and new insights that are likely to benefit both sea turtles and fisheries alike. These case studies developed conservation solutions that were tailored to their specific conservation and fisheries context, which helped contribute to their success. Notably, the foundations for these case studies were built on long-standing relationships with local fishing communities. These relationships were cultivated over several years where researchers spent time on boats and in fishing ports with local fishers, learning their struggles, getting to know them on a personal level, and showing empathy for their situation. Below, we highlight actions that proved successful across both case studies, as well as general recommendations for engaging in participatory fisheries research. Finally, both authors of this chapter acknowledge the benefits of having been influenced by previous work and the experience of collaborative fisheries researchers and practitioners. During the International Sea Turtles Symposium held in New Orleans in 2014, a special plenary session on bycatch was organized. At the time both authors were conducting graduate research on bycatch and had the opportunity to participate in the workshop and witness the presentation by Dr. Martin Hall entitled “Collaborating with fisheries to reduce bycatch: 30 years of education” [55]. We highly recommend this video to those interested in fisheries and bycatch, as it gives unique explanations to certain principles to addressing bycatch that are based on experience rather than built on empirical or published data.

Relationship building It is clear from both case studies that building relationships among diverse stakeholders is paramount. This includes actively working to understand and appreciate each other’s knowledge, build trust and respect, and emphasize a shared message of hope and resilience, as well as a shared sense of responsibility for marine resources. Below, we include key factors in building relationships with fishers and coastal communities for conservation scientists and practitioners interested in working on seas turtle bycatch. •

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EmpathydEmpathy is perhaps the single most important trait to possess when working in participatory fisheries research. Notably, empathy moves beyond sympathy, which simply acknowledges what another human is going through. Having empathy toward fishers and their very real day-to-day struggles is a fundamental piece of the relationship building puzzle. Empathy shows them that you actually care about them and are not simply sympathetic to their situation. This distinction is crucially important, as we have found that many researchers are sympathetic to fishers, but not necessarily empathetic. HumilitydRecognize that you can learn from fishers in the same way that they can learn from you. Also, although they may not possess your vocabulary, many of them can teach you a lot to about sea turtles and marine ecosystems. In fact, both authors have learned more about sea turtle ecology from fishers than their graduate educations. Being humble will go a long way in the coastal fisheries and communities you seek to work in.

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CommunicationdEffective communication does not simply include speaking the language of the country you are working in, although this is clearly important. Rather, effective communication requires understanding the cultural context of the stakeholders you are working with and their host country. Moreover, communication should be open, transparent, and inclusive. It is not necessarily a deal breaker if you do not speak the language, but if this is the case, you must find a trusted local partner who lives in the community that you can work with. Also, if you do not speak the language, try your bestdyou will be viewed as someone who is trying and cares, and forgiven for your lack of the language. ListeningdWhen working with fishers, it is important to listen carefully to what they are saying. We have found that good listening results in a more engaging dialogue, and that fishers are much more likely to be receptive to you when they feel like you are listening to them. Genuineness and a sense of humordPeople like being around others who are genuine and have a good sense of humor. Fishers are no different. Buy them lunch and have a beer (if you drink alcohol) with them.

Developing and planning a research project Conducting fisheries research, and especially working with fishers and fishing communities, involves planning and foresight. Below, we include key factors in developing fisheries related research projects and partnerships. •

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EmpoweringdWhere possible, empower fishers to tackle problems that are important to them, not just scientifically exciting. When we sought to build a solar-powered light, fishers suggested we develop a lighted buoy instead. This seemingly small suggestion resulted in a BRT that could more easily be integrated into their existing gillnet gear. Fishers also felt empowered that their design ideas were taken into account, resulting in more fishers who wanted to participate in the project. Generating hope and excitement for the futuredFishing is extremely unstable, and the high variability associated with catches can be quite stressful for fishers and their families. Also, fishers’ experiences with resource managers or conservation practitioners in the context of sea turtles tend to be negative, as they are often trying to either impose burdensome regulations or reduce their fishing effort, which in turn reduces their profits. Thus, we have found that it is vital to present a message of hope and resilience to fishers and their communities. It is important to remember that fishers and their communities will generally view their work with you as a source of pride, but do not take this for granted. Keep them excited and engaged! Extensive preplanningdFisheries workshops involve a lot of planning. It is imperative to provide food and coffee, and where possible, funding for participants to attend. Patience and long-term commitmentsdBuilding relationships and research projects takes time. Be patient and show up frequently. It is critical that you continue to show up year after year, even if only once per year, as this demonstrates you are committed to them and the project. Developing clear, relevant, and agreed-upon objectivesd Having expectations is normal from both the conservation and fisheries standpoint, but making these expectations reflect objectives and realistic goals is vital to limiting feelings of frustration or disappointment.

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Objectives are dependent on the maturity of the context, partnership, and even level of knowledge of the bycatch issue. It is probable that the bycatch issue will not be resolved immediately or by the end of the first project initiated, and that things may not work as planned because of unknown issues or variables that cannot be predicted. But you should build on this to move forward and improve upon the previous attempt. We have found that it is easier to build on successes than on failures; hence, it is important to think critically about the different potential outcomes and to agree on realistic objectives which will, inevitably, approach the conservation we are working toward. Careful consideration and attention to group dynamicsdBe cognizant of the fact that you may need to facilitate group dynamics. Being flexibledWhen working in fisheries, it is important to be flexible and have an open mind. A willingness to compromise is especially important; remember, your research project is their livelihood, and compromising will likely pay dividends in the long term.

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[45] B. Leclerc, Amelioration des connaissances sur les captures accidentelles de grands vertebres par les fileyeurs de Guyane en vue de leur limitation, CRPMEM Guyane, WWF Guyane (2015). [46] A. Southwood, et al., Sound, chemical, and light detection in sea turtles and pelagic fishes: sensory based approaches to bycatch reduction in longline fisheries, Endangered Species Research 5 (2008) 225e238. [47] J.H. Wang, L.C. Boles, B. Higgins, K.J. Lohmann, Behavioral responses of sea turtles to lightsticks used in longline fisheries, Animal Conservation 10 (2007) 176e182. [48] J.H. Wang, S. Fisler, Y. Swimmer, Developing visual deterrents to reduce marine turtle bycatch in gill net fisheries, Marine Ecology Progress Series 408 (2010) 241e250. [49] J. Wang, J. Barkan, S. Fisler, C. Godinez-Reyes, Y. Swimmer, Developing ultraviolet illumination of gillnets as a method to reduce sea turtle bycatch, Biology Letters 9 (2013) 20130383, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2013.0383. [50] E. Gilman, Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council, IUCN, Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, Indian Ocean e South-East Asian. In: Proceedings of the Technical Workshop on Mitigating Sea Turtle Bycatch in Coastal Net Fisheries, Honolulu, HI, 20e22 January 2009. [51] A. Bielli, J.A. Shigueto, P.D. Doherty, B.J. Godley, C. Ortiz, A. Pasara, J.H. Wang, J.C. Mangel, An illuminating idea to reduce bycatch in the Peruvian small-scale gillnet fishery, Biological Conservation (2019), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2019.108277. [52] N. Ortiz, J.C. Mangel, J. Wang, J. Alfaro-Shigueto, S. Pingo, A. Jimenez, et al., Reducing green turtle bycatch in small-scale fisheries using illuminated gillnets:the cost of saving a sea turtle, Marine Ecology Progress Series 545 (2016) 251e259. [53] M. Virgili, C. Vasapollo, A. Lucchetti, Can ultraviolet illumination reduce sea turtle bycatch in Mediterranean set net fisheries? Fisheries Research 199 (2018) 1e7. [54] J. Senko, A.J. Schneller, J. Solis, F. Ollervides, W.J. Nichols, People helping turtles, turtles helping people: ́understanding resident attitudes towards sea turtle conservation and opportunities for enhanced community participation in Bahia Magdalena, Mexico, Ocean & ́ ́ Coastal Management 54 (2011) 148e157. [55] VASG (2014). https://vaseagrant.org/martin-hall-ists-2014/.

Further reading [1] EU (2014). https://ec.europa.eu/fisheries/cfp/emff_fr. [2] M.A. Nalovic, A. Bardiot, Reduction des Effets du Chalutage des Crevettes sur L’ecosysteme, 2010, pp. 90e97. [3] M.A. Nalovic, An Evaluation of a Reduced Bar Spacing Turtle Excluder Device in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico Offshore Shrimp Trawl Fishery, 2014 (A Thesis Presented to The Faculty of the School of Marine Science The College of William and Mary in Virginia In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science). [4] M. Nalovic, Sacchi, et al., Reduction des captures accidentelles de tortues marines dans le chalutage guyanais. Communication du colloque "Tortues Marines en France metropolitaine et d’outre-mer". MNHN Paris, 20e22 Janvier 2010, Bulletin de la Societe herpetologique de France (2011). N double special.

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Section Seven Climate Change & Sea Turtles

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Thermal Effluent and Impacts on Thermoregulation of Aquatic Reptiles: Response to Rapid Changes in Water Temperature

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Sheila V. Madrak 1 , Rebecca L. Lewison 2 1 San Diego Miramar College, San Diego, CA, United States; 2San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, United States

Introduction from Dr. Sheila V. Madrak Navigating the waters of sea turtle research can be at once exhilarating and daunting, especially as an early career scientist in graduate school. Like many doe-eyed graduate students, I felt certain my contributions to sea turtle research would be substantial and novel. Looking back, I now realize that every bit of research that can expand our larger body of knowledge is important. I also learned an invaluable lesson: that the trajectory of our path may not always be as we intend, but with some careful guidance, hopefully it leads us to what we need. When I first applied to graduate programs to study sea turtle movement and behavior, I was keen to enter a direct PhD programdbypassing a master’s degree. I was fortunate to be interviewed for a position in the department that was my top choice. Excitedly, I spent the candidate weekend engaging with current graduate students, meeting with faculty in the department, and learning about how I might fit into the lab. On the last day, the professor I was eager to work with informed me that I was not likely to be offered a position (through no fault of my own) and recommended that I complete a master’s degree, then reapply. My disappointment was palpable. This professor suggested I reach out to Dr. Michael Salmon at Florida Atlantic University (FAU). So, I sent Dr. Salmon an email, very late in the application season, to see if I might be considered for a spot in his lab. I was accepted and happily headed off to FAU. Completing my master’s degree at FAU was a necessary and vital step in my career. I learned the rigors of academia, dramatically improved my technical writing skills (in large part thanks to Dr. Salmon), and I experienced the unpredictable nature of working with wildlife. But beyond all of that, it was during my time at FAU that I met Dr. Rebecca Lewison, who later became the advisor for my PhD. She was there to present our graduate seminar and I was fortunate to have lunch with her before her presentation. I was so impressed by Dr. Lewison’s research in fisheries bycatch, her easy and charming personality, and the fact that she had a well-

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rounded life outside of her academic endeavors. As a young woman entering a career in science, Dr. Lewison was someone that I aspired to be like. So, when it came time to apply for doctoral programs, my trajectory had changed again, and I wanted nothing more than to work with Dr. Lewison. I still recall the first time we spoke on the phone about what would become my doctoral research. The project centered around the closure of a power plant located on the shore of San Diego Bay and the population of green turtles that inhabited the waters adjacent to the plant. The opportunity for an in-water sea turtle project with a conservation focus was exciting. I encourage students and young professionals to be open to all opportunities for study with sea turtles (or any organism of interest for that matter). Even though I had never even considered that a power plant would be central to my research, it turned out to be an exceptional assignment. The following case study represents a portion of the work I conducted for my doctoral research through the Joint Doctoral Program in Ecology, under the mentorship of Dr. Lewison, with substantial guidance from Dr. Jeffrey Seminoff and Dr. Tomoharu Eguchi (NOAA Southwest Fisheries Science Center’s Marine Turtle Ecology and Assessment Program), and Dr. A. Peter Klimley (University of California, Davis).

Case study Background Human activities influence the environment on a planetary scale and have led to an overall trend of global warming worldwide. However, temperature anomalies observed at local levels demonstrate both warming and cooling, which can vary spatially. Human activities can also have direct impacts on temperatures, through recreational, governmental, and industrial use. The unprecedented variability in temperatures experienced across landscapes and seascapes highlights the need to understand how organisms will respond to these temperature shifts, making this an important area of study for young scientists. Power generating plants have emerged as unlikely candidates to study the effects of temperature change on aquatic organisms, like sea turtles. Industrial power plants that utilize once-through cooling (OTC) systems discharge thermal effluent into freshwater and/or marine environments, and the heated discharge often significantly affects the local habitat, creating an unnatural thermal ecology [1]. These types of power plants are common around the world, and their effects on local ecosystems are comparable making them opportune study sites. Animals which inhabit these altered environments exhibit physiological and behavioral changes that are similar across power plant sites. For example, species inhabiting thermal effluent areas typically do so in high concentrations of individuals, with a pronounced aggregative effect in and around the effluent channels [2e10]. In addition to aggregative effects, thermal effluent has also been linked to changes in dispersal and movement patterns [2,11e13], prevalence of disease [9,14e16], and increased growth rates [2,9,17]. Of these responses to thermal discharge, the aggregative effect is, by far, the most prevalent and common.

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Ectotherms, like sea turtles, may be particularly susceptible to the impacts of thermal discharges that cause changes in the water temperature. Sea turtle species in Brazil, Chile, and the United States have shown high numbers in the thermal effluent areas of industrial plants [3,5,7e9,13]. High densities of green turtles in the thermal effluent area of a steel plant in Espirto Santo, Brazil, were suggested to coincide with an abundance of green alga species, the preferred dietary item for these turtles [9]. Sea turtles in Mejillones Bay, Chile, clustered in a thermal discharge area that overlaps with a South American sea lion habitat (Otaria flavescens). Interestingly, the sea lions, whose diet was formerly supplemented by waste from local fisheries, switched to preying on sea turtles and have been documented feeding on these turtles in high numbers [5,7]. Research has shown that thermal effluent influences sea turtle physiology; increased growth rates and larger adult sizes of turtles have been reported across several studies of power plant discharge areas [2,8,13,17]. A foraging aggregation of east Pacific green turtles in San Diego Bay, California, which utilized the thermal effluent area of a fossil-fuel based OTC power plant, also exhibited faster growth rates than other areas for this population [8,13,17]. In fact, growth rates for these turtles were some of the fastest reported for this species, and were comparable to tropical Caribbean populations inhabiting much warmer ambient water [8,13,17]. Eguchi et al. [17] suggested that the fast growth rates for turtles in San Diego Bay could be attributed directly to increased metabolic rates from warmer water and indirectly to high protein prey availability in and around the effluent area. The authors suggested that these turtles may also experience a reproductive benefit from larger size and earlier maturity (increased reproductive output). Despite existing research, knowledge of the physiological and behavioral effects of rapid temperature shifts on mobile aquatic species remains limited, in part, because of the logistical challenges associated with studying animal responses in natural systems. Relatively rapid shifts in water temperature will occur as OTC power facilities become outdated and are replaced with cleaner, more efficient technologies, a trend already happening in many areas [18]. As a result, plant closures provide an opportunity to conduct natural experiments on how quickly species respond to changes in the thermal environment at local levels. The population of east Pacific green turtles that resides in San Diego Bay, where an OTC power plant was in operation for more about 50 years until 2010, provides a powerful context to address the data gaps of how mobile reptiles respond to rapid temperature shifts.

Green turtles in San Diego Bay San Diego Bay is one of the largest natural bays on the California coast and is a highly urbanized aquatic environment with anthropogenic influences from military, industrial, commercial, and recreational users. The South Bay Power Plant (SBPP) was located in Chula Vista, California, near the southern portion of SDB and began operation in 1960. The SBPP generated and discharged thermal effluent into San Diego Bay until 2010. The green turtles residing there are part of an over-wintering and foraging aggregation that has been observed the Bay as early as the 1890s and has been the focus of numerous research studies [8,13,17,19e25].

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Researchers have studied turtles routinely in the thermal discharge area of the plant since the SBPP began operations [19,20]. More recent research on this population of turtles used acoustic biotelemetry [21e24] to track turtle movements and found that turtles aggregated in and around the thermal effluent area [21], becoming more active in the eelgrass pastures adjacent to the discharge area during the day, and seasonally demonstrating a preference for the effluent area during winter months, most likely because it served as a thermal refuge from significantly colder water in adjacent areas [21,22]. The SBPP was slated for decommissioning by the State of California. So, on December 31, 2009, two of the power plant’s four generators were permanently shut down. Complete decommissioning of the plant occurred 1 year later on December 31, 2010. As expected, the water temperature in the effluent area changed measurably once the SBPP shut down [23]. During SBPP operation, thermal discharge frequently exceeded 30  C, which in winter months (December through March) was more than double the temperature of the unaffected ambient water. Average winter water temperature in the effluent area prior to the closure was approximately 17 C. Following closure water temperature was significantly colder with a mean of approximately 14 C [23]. Using acoustic telemetry before and after the SBPP closure, we found that green turtles in SDB displayed behavioral plasticity and coped with the loss of warmth by both varying their spatial distribution, and altering the balance between activity (e.g., movement, foraging) and rest [22]. Spatial distribution of tagged turtles was coincident with warmer water temperatures (than ambient)dturtles in winter were not detected in average water temperatures below approximately 14 C. Additionally, turtle activity levels were significantly lower in winter months, especially after the closure of the SBPP. Comparisons of dive behavior before and after the SBPP closure revealed that turtles in SDB rested for significantly longer periods of time when water temperatures were below 14.4 C, revealing a negative relationship between dive duration and water temperature [24]. These findings align with research on other populations of green turtles which have also shown similar behavioral responses in distribution and dive duration as a function of water temperature observed in other coastal areas [25e27]. More recently, Eguchi et al. [13] used satellite telemetry and found that home range of this population has expanded since the SBPP closure.

Discussion In light of projected changes in water temperature, uncertainty remains as to how rapid temperature shifts will affect the world’s coastal environments [28] in part because of the limited opportunities to study these changes in natural environments. A clearer understanding is needed as to how aquatic populations will respond behaviorally and physically to thermally dynamic environments changing at an unnaturally rapid rate. Power plant closures provide one of the only in-situ experiments that can inform our understanding of the behavioral and physiological responses larger mobile species may exhibit.

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Existing literature suggests that relatively rapid changes in water temperature will very likely have substantial impacts on aquatic organisms, both in terms of controlling the timing of movement and the availability of adequate resources at their destination sitesdboth in breeding and nonbreeding areas [29,30]. The aggregative behavior and site fidelity to effluent areas that many aquatic reptiles have exhibited can result in mismatched timing for reproductive cycles and migration, and decreases in food abundance or availability. Physiological consequences from thermal effluent have been found to lead to increased metabolic rates resulting in increased growth rates and larger body size. The research on Eastern Pacific green turtles before and after the decommissioning of the SBPP revealed a relatively rapid behavioral response to changing water temperature [23,24]. The San Diego Bay case study suggests that aquatic reptiles like marine turtles can respond to relative rapid shifts in water temperature. Organisms in habitats at geographic range boundaries are most susceptible to water temperatures approaching lethal limits, typically between 10e15  C. Large ectotherms, like sea turtles, may cope by exhibiting behavioral responses in order to maintain necessary physiological processes. Endothermic species, like Florida manatees, may have a more difficult time coping with the loss of thermal effluent as the lower temperature lethal limit for these organisms is substantially higher than that of ectotherms. The observed behavioral plasticity of green turtles in San Diego Bay has important implications for other species that utilize thermal effluent areas of OTC power plants, especially as other power plants face decommissioning. Although it is likely that changes in ocean water temperatures will differentially affect mobile species based on habitat, life history, and migratory strategy, anthropogenic influences have already been demonstrated to have a major impact on aquatic species. Research centered around OTC power plant closures can continue to provide insight into how sea turtles and other aquatic (freshwater and marine) species may respond considering climate change. The utilization of existing and future plant closures provides a unique opportunity for students and early career scientists to study sea turtle thermoregulation, movement, and behavior without the difficult logistics of captive experiments while collecting in-water data. The use of acoustic telemetry is time-intensive but cost-effective, making its use accessible to students and young professionals. Further, these studies require coordination from a variety of stakeholders, and so collaboration is key to the success of similar future research. We coordinated closely with the local, regional, and federal government agencies as well as SBPP operators, other student researchers, and the general public. Sea turtle conservation, in general, necessitates collaborative efforts to contribute to the larger body of knowledge. And so a project that requires stakeholder coordination provides an early career opportunity to engage in such practices. In-water sea turtle studies are far fewer in number than land-based studies. As a result, we typically know more about adult females and hatchlings than adult males and juveniles due to the ease of access to nests. With the need for more in-water studies, aggregations found at thermal effluent outfalls are opportune for the capture-mark-recapture of sea turtles. There are certainly logistical challenges to any in-water research of sea turtles, but these efforts are necessary to improve on the larger body of sea turtle information, especially given the environmental effects sea turtles face as a result of anthropogenic influence.

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References [1] N. Madden, A. Lewis, M. Davis, Thermal effluent from the power sector: an analysis of once-through cooling system impacts on surface water temperature, Environmental Research Letters 8 (3) (2013) 035006. [2] J.W. Gibbons, R.R. Sharitz, Thermal ecology: environmental teachings of a nuclear reactor site, Bioscience 31 (4) (1981) 293e298. [3] M. Donoso, P.H. Dutton, Forage area identified for green turtles in northern Chile, in: Proceedings from the 20th Annual Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation, 2000. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SEFSC-477. US Department of Commerce (274). [4] G. Hoisington IV, C.G. Lowe, Abundance and distribution of the round stingray, Urobatis halleri, near a heated effluent outfall, Marine Environmental Research 60 (2005) 437e453. [5] R.A. Sarmiento-Devia, C. Harrod, A.S. Pacheco, Ecology and conservation of sea turtles in Chile, Chelonian Conservation and Biology 14 (1) (2015) 21e33. [6] G.B. Bentall, M.T. Tinker, The Effect of the Moss Landing Power Plant Thermal Discharge Plume on Sea Otter Behavior and Distribution, 2006. A report submitted to the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary Integrated Monitoring Network (SIMoN) and Monterey Bay Sanctuary Foundation. [7] C.G. Guerra-Correa, C.M. Guerra-Castro, P. Bolandos, A. Silva, P. Garfias, Sea turtle congregations in discrete temperate shoreline areas in cold northern Chilean coastal waters, in: Proceedings of the 27th Annual Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation, US Department of Commerce NOAANMFS Southeast Fisheries Science Center, 2008. [8] T. Eguchi, J.A. Seminoff, R.A. LeRoux, P.H. Dutton, D.L. Dutton, Abundance and survival rates of green turtles in an urban environment: coexistence of humans and an endangered species, Marine Biology 157 (8) (2010) 1869e1877. [9] E. Torezani, C. Baptistotte, S.L. Mendes, P.C.R. Barata, Juvenile green turtles (Chelonia mydas) in the effluent discharge channel of a steel plant, Espirito Santo, Brazil, 2000e2006, Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 90 (2) (2010) 233e246. [10] D.W. Laist, C. Taylor, J.E. Reynolds III, Winter habitat preferences for Florida manatees and vulnerability to cold, PloS One 8 (3) (2013) e58978. [11] T.M. Murphy, I.L. Brisbin, Distribution of alligators in response to thermal gradients in a reactor cooling reservoir, in: J.W. Gibbons, R.R. Sharitz (Eds.), Thermal Ecology. AEC Symp. Ser. (CONF-730505), National Technical Information Center, Oak Ridge, TN, 1974, pp. 313e321. [12] T.M. Murphy, Distribution, Movement, and Population Dynamics of the American alligator in a Thermally Altered Reservoir (Unpublished M. Sc. thesis), University of Georgia, Athens Georgia, 1977. [13] T. Eguchi, J. Bredvik, S. Graham, R. LeRoux, B. Saunders, J. Seminoff, Effects of a power plant closure on home ranges of green turtles in an urban foraging area, Endangered Species Research 41 (2020) 265e277. [14] H. Haines, W.C. Kleese, Effect of water temperature on a herpesvirus infection of sea turtles, Infection and Immunity 15 (1977) 756e759. [15] R.H. George, Health problems and diseases of sea turtles, in: P. Lutz, J.A. Musick (Eds.), The Biology of Sea Turtles, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1997, pp. 363e385. [16] J.Y. Swimmer, Relationship between basking and fibropapillomatosis in captive green turtles (Chelonia mydas), Chelonian Conservation and Biology 5 (2) (2006) 305e309.

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[17] T. Eguchi, J.A. Seminoff, R.A. LeRoux, D. Prosperi, D.L. Dutton, P.H. Dutton, Morphology and growth rates of the green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) in a northern- most temperate foraging ground, Herpetologica 68 (1) (2012) 76e87. [18] R.A.M. Peer, K.T. Sanders, The water consequences of a transitioning US power sector, Applied Energy 210 (2018) 613e622. [19] M.L. Stinson, Biology of Sea Turtles in San Diego Bay, California, and the Northeastern Pacific Ocean (Master’s thesis), San Diego State University, San Diego, California, 1984. [20] D. McDonald, P. Dutton, Fibropapillomas on sea turtles in San Diego Bay, California, Marine Turtle Newsletter 51 (1990) 9e10. [21] B.D. MacDonald, R.L. Lewison, S.V. Madrak, J.A. Seminoff, T.E. Eguchi, Home ranges of East Pacific green turtles, Chelonia mydas, in a highly urbanized temperate foraging ground, Marine Ecology Progress Series 461 (2012) 211e221. [22] B.D. MacDonald, S.V. Madrak, R.L. Lewison, J.A. Seminoff, T. Eguchi, Fine scale diel movement of the east Pacific green turtle, Chelonia mydas, in a highly urbanized foraging environment, Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 443 (2013) 56e64. [23] S.V. Madrak, R.L. Lewison, J.A. Seminoff, T. Eguchi, Characterizing response of east Pacific green turtles to changing temperatures: using acoustic telemetry in a highly urbanized environment, Animal Biotelemetry 4 (22) (2016). [24] S.V. Madrak, Influence of Temperature on Habitat Use by East Pacific Green Turtles (Chelonia mydas) in an Urbanized Environment (Doctoral Dissertation), Joint Doctoral Program in Ecology: San Diego State University, San Diego, California and UC Davis, Davis, California, 2016. Proquest (11154, 15867). [25] G.C. Hays, F. Glen, A.C. Broderick, B.J. Godley, J.D. Metcalfe, Behavioural plasticity in a large marine herbivore: contrasting patterns of depth utilisation between two green turtle (Chelonia mydas) populations, Marine Biology 141 (5) (2002) 985e990. [26] A.L. Southwood, R.D. Reina, V.S. Jones, D.R. Jones, Seasonal diving patterns and body temperatures of juvenile green turtles at Heron Island, Australia, Canadian Journal of Zoology 81 (6) (2003) 1014e1024. [27] J. Hazel, I.R. Lawler, M. Hamann, Diving at the shallow end: green turtle behaviour in near-shore foraging habitat, Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 371 (1) (2009) 84e92. [28] M. Edwards, A.J. Richardson, Impact of climate change on marine pelagic phenology and trophic mismatch, Nature 430 (2004) 881e884. [29] R.A. Robinson, H.Q.P. Crick, J.A. Learmonth, I.M.D. Maclean, C.D. Thomas, F. Bairlein, M.C. Forchhammer, C.M. Francis, J.A. Gill, B.J. Godley, J. Harwood, G.C. Hays, B. Huntley, A.M. Hutson, G.J. Pierce, M.M. Rehfisch, D.W. Sims, M.B. Santos, T.H. Sparks, D.A. Stroud, M.E. Visser, Travelling through a warming world, Endangered Species Research 7 (2009) 87e99. [30] L.A. Hawkes, A.C. Broderick, M.H. Godfrey, B.J. Godley, Climate change and marine turtles, Endangered Species Research 7 (2) (2009) 137e154.

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Studying the Thermal Profile of Nesting Grounds to Infer Potential Impacts From Climate Change on Sea Turtles

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Mariana M.P. B. Fuentes 1 , Maria A.G. dei Marcovaldi 2 , Paulo Lara 2 1 Department of Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Fl, United States; 2Fundaç~ao Pro Tamar, Bahia, Brazil

The context to monitor the thermal profile of nesting grounds Projected changes in our climate ring alarm bells to impacts on sea turtle reproductive output, since the temperature in which eggs incubate affects the sex of hatchlings as well as their incubation. Warmer temperatures result in higher production of female hatchlings and a reduction in hatching success. To understand and monitor the impacts that projected increases in temperature may have on sea turtle reproductive output, it is necessary to first determine the current temperatures at sea turtle nesting grounds. Information on the current thermal profile at sea turtle nesting grounds provides baseline information to compare temperatures and, if needed, a temperature to target with interventions (e.g., hatcheries) as climate change progresses. For locations where interventions are already taking place, measuring nest temperatures allows comparisons to actual nest temperature and for anticipating overheating risk and taking cooling measures as pertinent. Further, information on current temperatures at sea turtle nesting grounds, together with projections of changes in air and sea surface temperature, allows for projections of future temperatures at nesting grounds and estimation of sex ratio and productivity at specific sites under different climate change scenarios. Given the plethora of information that temperature at nesting grounds can provide, several projects have started to measure the temperature of sea turtle nests and nesting grounds globally. Measuring sand temperature seems very easy until you start considering your sampling design, approach, data collection, resources, and upkeep of equipment. We discuss several factors that need to be considered below based on lessons from a long-term project (þ10 years) monitoring the thermal profile of 14 key loggerhead and hawksbill turtle nesting grounds across five states in Brazil.

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What question do you want to answer? The first step toward determining your monitoring design and effort is to clearly determine what you are trying to answer by monitoring temperature at sea turtle nesting grounds. For this, consideration of the geographic scale and level of resolution is necessary as well as how you will use the data collected. Make sure you know why you are collecting the data, the questions you want to answer, and how it will be analyzed, as this will help with your sampling design. For our project in Brazil, we were interested in obtaining long-term information on the thermal profile of sea turtle nesting grounds across a large spatial extent to identify potential changes. We were also looking for areas that historically have lower temperatures, which are good candidates for conservation, or areas that have extremely high temperatures, which would be good candidates for intervention. We were not necessarily interested in understanding variability within a nesting ground or temperatures of nests; however, we acknowledged that variance might occur within a nesting ground. Hence, our goal was to monitor temperature at as many nesting grounds as possible across the whole nesting extent for loggerheads and hawksbill turtles in Brazil, while still capturing some of the variability of temperatures within nesting grounds. For this research, we decided to focus on the most important nesting grounds for each species while also capturing the whole latitudinal extent of nesting. Within each selected nesting ground, we deployed three temperature dataloggers at average nest depth across a transect from the middle of the beach, where most turtles nest, to the beach dune. This allowed us to capture some of the thermal variability within our sites. When selecting the transect and deployment locations, we focused on areas which were most representative of nesting in the region. Studies focusing on obtaining detailed information of nesting grounds need to have a good understanding of the study area. Things to consider when developing your research questions include: • •

•

What is the scale (local, regional, or national) of information that you are interested in? This will determine the spatial extent of your study area and number of temperature dataloggers that will be needed. How are you going to use the data obtained? Are you interested in determining and/or predicting the sex ratio of hatchlings being produced at the nesting ground or monitoring for changes in the thermal profile of the nesting ground? Determining how the data will be used is crucial to determine whether you should monitor for nest temperature or the temperature of the nesting ground. Importantly, always think about how you are going to analyze the data before collecting it. How much resources do you have? Unfortunately, the resources that you have to purchase temperature dataloggers will dictate the potential scope of your project and questions that you can answer (see section on data collection and monitoring). As well as consideration for monetary resources, there is the need to think about the logistics of monitoring and personnel available (see section on data collection and monitoring).

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Understand your study area The temperature at sea turtle nesting grounds may vary among and within beaches. Thus, before deploying the temperature dataloggers and implementing a temperature-monitoring project, it is useful to have basic information on the study site, as this may strongly influence the temperature observed and may help explain observed thermal patterns across the beach. Things to consider include beach width, slope, sand characteristics (e.g., composition, albedo, water content), shading, and vegetation, as well as nesting distribution and site selection. If you are interested in capturing variability of the thermal profile within a nesting ground and their drivers, sampling at locations with different microenvironments/characteristics is crucial. For our project in Brazil, we were not necessarily interested in capturing variability of microenvironments, but rather to capture temperature at the most representative locations for which turtles were nesting. So we deployed our transects in locations where most nesting was known to occur and those that were representative of nesting environments. For example, we deployed a temperature logger in the vegetation, as hawksbill turtles like to nest in areas with vegetation. Information on the nesting ground characteristics will help determine the locations for temperature monitoring. Importantly, the number and locations for deployment of temperature dataloggers will vary depending on: (1) your research question, (2) the total area of the beach, (3) microenvironments within the nesting ground, (4) distribution and density of nesting with the nesting ground, and (5) available budget for temperature-monitoring dataloggers. Ideally, the temperature monitoring locations should be broadly representative of the total available nesting area. As temperatures observed at nesting grounds are influenced by weather, it is also useful to monitor for both air and sea surface temperatures at the nesting ground as well as for precipitation. This information is particularly important when projecting future temperatures at nesting grounds.

Data collection and monitoring Several temperature dataloggers are available including ibuttons, TinyTag, Hobo, Omega, and VENCO dataloggers. When selecting dataloggers, apart from cost considerations, it is important to consider the temporal scale of the project and deployment duration, which need corresponding logger memory and battery, as well as the resolution and accuracy of data needed. Some commonly used temperature dataloggers, such as the ibuttons, have accuracy of 1 C and a resolution of 0.5 C. While this might be enough to provide a broad understanding of the thermal profile of nesting grounds and nests, it does not provide the resolution necessary for sex determination studies. When possible, we recommend waterproof dataloggers; if these are not available, researchers have prepared the loggers for use in wet or damp conditions by sealing it with a small plastic bag. However, whether this affects temperature readings is still to be determined.

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Once the type of datalogger and sampling design has been determined, it is extremely important to collect detailed information on the location of the dataloggers. One of the easiest thing is to lose a temperature datalogger on a nesting ground. We suggest using several marking methods, as a position taken with a handheld GPS is not accurate enough to ensure that the logger can be easily found. The location of the dataloggers can be determined using triangulation by measuring the distance or the angle to at least two permanent markers, e.g., trees or structures. If loggers run along a transect, distance from a permanent marker in the back-beach should be recorded. Drawings and photos can also be useful. To help us find our dataloggers in Brazil, we attached the dataloggers to a PVC/ wooden pole with a fishing line. However, in some of the more populated areas and where we were concerned about people pulling the poles and/or stealing our devices, we instead buried (10 cm deep) a metal screen 0.5 m from where the datalogger was deployed, which was later found with a pole with a hook. It is important to consider the material used to secure/locate the dataloggers, as in some places, especially in developing countries, people will take the material (e.g., PVC pipes) to use in their homes, for example. To avoid this, we made holes in the pipes to make them worthless to someone who might want to take it. Monitoring sites periodically will help avoid loss of equipment, as it will help identify any nest disturbance (e.g., humans and predators), changes in beach morphology and modification, and loss of structures that were used to locate the dataloggers. Thus, it is important to designate someone to check on all sites periodically, ideally daily. This might be difficult in remote areas, and where personnel is limited. These limitations can be overcome by training local community members who are interested in the project. It is also important to consider who will collect the data and how often. If dataloggers are not deployed inside the nests, it is recommended to download data from loggers often to avoid losing too much data. Additionally, this provides an opportunity to check on the dataloggers to make sure they have not been disturbed and are still buried at the initially determined depth. For our project, we downloaded data every 3 months but monitored the dataloggers daily. In addition to on-the ground monitoring, we also monitored for storm surges and retrieved our dataloggers when expecting big storms (a similar approach can be conducted in locations that experience hurricane activity). Importantly, detailed information needs to be recorded every time a datalogger is retrieved, moved, or lost, so that “data gap” can be interpreted. When logistically possible, depending on your research question, it might be worth considering monitoring temperatures both during nesting and non-nesting periods, as this may provide information on temperature relationships to onset of nesting, facilitate predictions on how sea turtles might shift timing of nesting with climate change, and whether a shifting nesting season will buffer some of the projected changes in climate.

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Data management Although often overlooked, it is important to develop a data management plan which will ensure that data are accurate, complete, and reliable. A plan will minimize data loss, facilitating data sharing and changes in project management, as well as longterm upkeep of the project. Thus, it is important to consider whether the data are being collected consistently; how the data is organized, compiled, and labeled; the metadata; as well as responsibilities for data management. Basically, you should ask yourself, “Would a colleague be able to take over my project tomorrow, or make sense of the data without talking to me?” If the answer is yes, then you are managing your data well. Data management plans are particularly important for long-term projects with a variety of data providers, which was the case for our project in Brazil. Collecting nesting ground temperature data across 14 beaches meant that we had to have a very clear idea of how the data would be compiled, organized, and stored. Thus, we developed a central database specific for this project with a clear protocol on data entry and description of metadata. We also appointed a point person to help with any issues related to data collection and storage and that who was responsible for collating and organizing the datasets as they were collected. After 10 years, this has facilitated the use of the datasets, data analysis, and sharing. Throughout the project it is important to consider who will be the data users and the purpose of the data, making any necessary modification as the project needs to be adapted.

Important considerations Our case study provided some important learning lessons which we have discussed here, however it is important to consider each study individually. Nevertheless the following considerations should be made: • • • • • •

Make sure you know why you are collecting the data and what research questions you want to answer; Identify what data you need to answer your research question, this will ultimately guide your sampling design; Understand your study area; this will help determine your sampling design; Appropriately mark the locations of the dataloggers; losing dataloggers is extremely easy; Monitor your study site to make sure dataloggers do not become exposed or are taken from the site; and Develop and implement a data management plan, this will make project management and data analysis and interpretation a lot easier.

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Section Eight Natural History 2.0

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Natural History 2.0: The Power of Direct Experience in Understanding, Connecting With, and Conserving Nature in the Tech Age

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Bryan P. Wallace Ecolibrium, Inc, Boulder, CO, United States

The little naturalist in all of us When I was a kid growing up in the landlocked, flat, patchwork landscape of farms and pavement in the US Midwest, I wanted to be a marine biologist. Naturally. Why? Because I thought whales or sea turtles needed to be saved from extinction? Because I thought we should only eat seafood caught and provided by responsible, sustainable sources? Because I was worried about the effects of sea level rise and ocean acidification? Actually, it was none of those things. It was because I couldn’t believe that animals like whales and turtles and sharks and cleaner shrimp and seahorses and jellyfish and albatrosses existed on the same planet I lived on. It was because whales could dive into the deep, dark ocean holding their breath just like I did when swimming in a shallow, chlorinated pool in my neighborhood. And because sharks had rows and rows of teeth that they shed and grew back like I did (sort of). And because albatrosses could sleep while flying for days and days over the open ocean (I could not relate to that at all, but it amazed me anyway). I wanted to witness those animals, to share the same space, air, water, and moments with them. To know them. As I’ve gotten older, I spend less of my time as a professional marine biologist watching and interacting with nature while actually in nature, and a lot more time sitting at a computer making, reviewing, editing, co-producing, submitting, delivering, and filing electronic documents that are ostensibly about things like sea turtles and other natural resources. This is one of the reasons I’m so glad to have children. Being the sweet, naïve, mini-humans they are, they still think that I’m a marine biologist. They don’t want to know about emails and reports and contracts. They want to hear stories about what I’ve seen, what I’ve touched, what I’ve done, in the wild. And when I watch them watch nature, it reminds me of the curly-haired kid I once was, growing up in Ohio reading and daydreaming about blue whales and their car-sized tongues. I know it’s cliché to appreciate the wonder and awe and purity that kids feel when interacting with nature. But that doesn’t mean it isn’t worth bringing it up again. My Sea Turtle Research and Conservation. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821029-1.00019-2 Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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kids see the world the way we all need to see the world. When we hike in the Rocky Mountain forest habitats near where we live in Colorado, USA, my kids collect rocks that have eye-catching shapes or sparkles. They roll pinecones down hills. They watch and giggle at scurrying chipmunks and scolding squirrels. They pry open dried scat and owl pellets. A hike for me is usually a respite, a chance to unshackle myself from my desk and be free with dirt under my feet and sky above my head. I tend to move vigorously through my surroundings, wanting exercise and decompression while using all my senses to soak in as much as I can. My 6-year-old daughter, Selma, walks slowly, stops frequently, picks up and examines things, talks about what she sees. She is known in our family for her eagle eyes; she can spot an insect trudging through high grass, a dead lizard flattened, dried, and rolled in dirt next to the trail, a small song bird hiding within tangled branches of a tree. My 9-year-old son, Leander, is more like a Labrador retriever; he moves fast, darting here and there, attention grabbed by interesting sights and sounds, excited by everything. Both kids can turn any stick into a magic wand, rocks into dinosaur eggs, and flowers into fireworks. They know names of many common birds, mammals, trees, and plants around where we live. The kids don’t care about data or models or reports. They just keep their eyes and brains open, take it all in, and try to make sense of it. And for those of us working in nature conservation, having those kidlike nature experiences is essential for understanding and appreciating the world that we are dedicated to keeping healthy.

Natural history and sea turtles Many of the most influential scientists in world history were steeped in techniques of natural history, namely the power of direct observations [1]. Linneaus’s system of binomial nomenclature put taxonomic structure to the Earth’s dizzying variety of organisms, largely through his keen (and somewhat weird) fixation on differences in their reproductive parts. Audubon and others made birding “cool” for scientists and the public alike by bringing to life in beautiful detail the diversity of bird shapes, colors, and adaptations. Most famously, before he changed the field of biology (and the world) with his theory of evolution by natural selection, Darwin wrote vast volumes on the intricacies of barnaclesdbarnacles!dthat were based on decades of painstaking, tedious observation of minute variations in their form and function.1 His Origin of Species is replete with examples from direct observation of natural phenomenon, features of different species exposed to different conditions, and many other topics that provide essential structuring to support his revolutionary theories [2]. The practice of careful observation to support conclusions about nature and how it works wasdand isdthe foundation of biological study and wildlife conservation [3]. 1

These examples of Linnaeus, Audubon, Darwin, and many others, are chronicled in detail in Richard Conniff’s The Species Seekers [1]. The book provides a rich and entertaining history of many European naturalists who made it cool to be fascinated with nature.

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This is also true for sea turtles. The early (and many) works of naturalists like P.E.P. Deraniyagala, Archie Carr, Peter Pritchard, and others laid the foundation for Westernstyle scientific research of sea turtle biology and life history. For example, who among us sea turtle field researchers hasn’t done something similar to Deraniyagala’s approach to evaluating the effectiveness of a leatherback covering her nest? Throughout this phase the turtle did not appear to move from the nest and it was only by comparing the animal’s position with a haversack I had laid down when first she commenced to dig, that it became apparent that she had moved quite 2 metres during 10 min . after she had gone, three of us dug for an hour with our hands but were unable to locate the eggs. [4].

I love reading these older natural history-type papers, in large part because they are written in such different styles than today’s research articlesdless peer-reviewed scientific journal paper style and more prose-like style you’d find in their personal daily journal. But just as their writing styles were different, so, too, was the research community’s understanding of basic aspects of sea turtle biology. I remember as a new student of sea turtle biology being shocked by Deraniyagala’s unabashed, objective description of testing the depth of a leatherback’s nesting trance by smacking it in the face with a stick to see if such a stimulus would interrupt its egg laying2 [4]. But at the time, he was the only Western-style scientist who had observed and reported a leatherback actually nesting! Imagine having no published research on which to rely when making an observation of what wasdeven at the timedconsidered a dinosaur-like animal. How would you investigate the most basic aspects of its biology and behavior if presented with a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity? In the tradition of Deraniyagala et al.,3 I’ve been mesmerized by the rote, rhythmic, automatic nature of turtle nesting on countless occasions. But to me, what makes sea turtle nesting behavior so amazing is that it isn’t unique to sea turtles. Flopped down on my belly, breathing lightly in reverence of the sacred act of nesting, I’ve watched hardplated tortoises scrape depressions in parched desert sand as well as feisty painted turtles and grouchy snapping turtles dig holes in moist riparian soil in ways strikingly similar to their saltwater cousins. When I watch one turtle species, I toggle through mental images of the others doing the same thing, and the kaleidoscope of evolution brings the many visions into a common focus. Digging nests is just something turtles do, because that’s what they’ve done for a really long time. Watching sea turtles make their nests recalls a common turtle ancestor from hundreds of millions of years ago, but we already know a lot about turtle evolution. What more can we learn from directly observing such a basic behavior? Surely nothing really interesting, right? That was my attitude when some of my fellow graduate students approached me with what I thought was a goofy idea: they wanted to make note

2 3

It did not. But without the hitting!

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of which flipper each nesting leatherback left hanging in the nest cavity when egglaying began. “Who cares?” was my first response, followed by some dismissive comment about how it would not matter to a turtle’s nesting success, or the survival of her hatchlings, so there was unlikely to be any naturally selected pattern, in which casedagaindwho cares? They explained to me that lateralized behaviordor “handedness” in human termsdwas actually a thing in nature that existed and that people studied. However, there was apparently no research on the topic for sea turtles, or turtles in general, despite there being such an obvious candidate behavior for the existence of lateralization: nest excavation by turtles. They convinced me that we could collect the data without compromising all other essential beach monitoring tasks. I agreed with an eyeroll and patronizing smile. We began noting on field data sheets whether the left or right flipper was hanging in the nest when the turtle started laying eggs, and continued to collect this very simple observation for five seasons. When they compiled and analyzed the resulting heap of data, my colleagues found, surprisingly, that leatherbacks nesting at Playa Grande, Costa Rica, did, in fact, show signs of “flipperedness.” Nearly 2000 observations of 361 individuals showed a slight “right flipper bias” at the population level [5]. This study didn’t change the sea turtle research world nor turn the tide of sea turtle conservation. But it did show that keen observation and curiosity could provide a new perspective on a seemingly well-known aspect of animal behavior and ecology. But natural history is not the exclusive realm of formally trained scientists from European backgrounds. As anyone who has spent time doing field work in a place where they don’t actually live can tell you, no one knows their environment like the people who live there. One of the best “natural historians” I’ve ever encountered was Esperanza Rodríguez, a woman who did not receive much formal schooling, but knew more about turtle biology than me and my fancy doctoral degree ever will. Do~na4 Esperanza never designed experiments, ran statistical analyses, or published papers in research journals. But she had a deeper understanding of how the beach worked, how the waves and the moon and the wind and the rain influenced where and when olive ridleys versus leatherbacks would nest. She knew how to approach the turtles, how to handle them, and how they responded to stimuli in their environment. She could talk about how things had changed over timedthe shape and contours of the beach and the dunes, where and when turtles liked to nest. I’ve interacted with countless people like Do~ na Esperanza whom I consider to be true “naturalists” in the sense that they have an inherent understanding of nature because their lives and livelihoods are one with their natural surroundings. It’s not knowledge you get from running models or reading textbooks or piles of research papers, or from reading anything at all, really. It’s the kind of knowledge built up over countless hours of observing while simply being in a place long enough to gain its rhythm, its cadence.

4

In Spanish, the prefix “Do~na” (or “Don” for a man) is a term of respect used when addressing usually an older person. It is frequently, but not exclusively, used in formal settings.

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Turtle flotillas, lurking jaguars, and watching nature at work Recently, I got to spend a week at Nancite, an isolated beach tucked into Santa Rosa National Park in northwest Costa Rica. Unplugged from computers, smartphones, and electricity in general, I found a rhythm that was different to my normal everyday. Long, hot days in still air under the tree canopy, filled with the repetitive sound of waves smashing onto the beach were bookended by dark nights full of dancing stars and hundredsdthousandsdof nesting sea turtles. While I had read a lot about arribadas5 and seen plenty of photos and videos, I had never actually witnessed one in person. The night I arrived to Nancite, the event had not started in earnest yet, but dozens of turtles nested all the same. After 3 days of build-up in the numbers of turtles on the beach, the arribada finally exploded in utter chaos. Turtles were bumper cars running into each other all over the beach, flippers smacking faces, turtles arm-wrestling for space to nest, eggs being unearthed and flung across the sand surface. Hard turtle bellies slapped wet sand during arrivals and departures that went on all night and into the morning. I helped Luis Fonseca and Wilberth Villachica conduct standard census techniques for estimating arribada nest abundance, counting and checking for flipper tags, with barely a break to put hand on hips and take a breath. Finally, as the morning sky pushed out the nighttime darkness, I sat on a log, completely exhausted. Multiple turtles insisted on walking over my feet, bonking into my shins, much like my dog might when he’s ready to go outside. I raised my gaze through bleary eyes from the ground to the horizon and saw an endless stretch of churned sand and dozens of turtles still nesting, finishing, or returning to the sea. But the arribadas aren’t the only show in town at Nancite. The night I arrived, a jaguar came on the beach and killed a nesting female turtle. Using motion-detecting cameras, Luis, Wilberth, and colleagues were able to document more than 20 individual jaguars (males, females, and cubs) as well as other species feasting on the turtle carcasses. Trail cameras set up along wildlife corridors within the forest behind the beach had revealed not just jaguars, but pumas, ocelots, jaguarundis, white-tailed deer, tayras, raccoons, curassows, and more, all sharing the small area bordered by the rocky hills to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. Jaguars depredated three more turtles just in the time I was there, each time dragging their prey behind the green curtain backstopping the beach. When they do this, they provide marine nutrients to themselves, their offspring, scavengers, decomposers, and eventually, plants through the sand itself. In death as in life, turtles are the common thread stitching together land and sea. My brief experience in Nancite was so different to my typical interactions with sea turtles these days. I am computer-bound in a home office in the middle of the USA. I write about turtles, I have teleconferences with other professionals where we talk about 5

Synchronized mass nesting events during which thousands to tens of thousands of olive or Kemp’s ridley sea turtles emerge to lay their eggs on the same beach over a period of several days each month.

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turtles but barely mention their names amidst discussions of model outputs, strategic plans, priority actions, and budget limitations. My knowledge about sea turtles, such that it is, is largely based on established research findings, themselves derived from objective, detached experimental protocols. But sitting at Nancite, deliriously sleep-deprived, having witnessed a flotilla of turtles invade a remote tropical beach, while hungry jaguars prowled unseen and the warm Pacific curled and crashed on shore, I was thinking in a very different way about turtles. I thought about them as living things, swimming, mating, nesting, and surviving (or not). I thought about them as one piece in a perpetually flowing mosaic, impossible to remove and invaluable to making sense of the whole. Sitting there on that log, live turtles smacking my legs, dead turtles in the forest, vultures arriving for a morning meal of turtle eggs excavated by other turtles, I was bewildered, overwhelmed, and exhilarated. No amount of reading or writing or webinars could have given me that perspective. I felt like a kid. Obviously, there is nothing like sitting on that log, as a part of the scene unfolding around me. Short of being there, another recentdalbeit virtualdexperience pulled me out of the cerebral and into an imaginative place of wonder. I got this feeling when I watched an aerial video shot by National Geographic Explorer Vanessa Bézy off Ostional, a different arribada beach in Costa Rica [6]. The drone-based video starts with part of the beach and the water just past the surf break within the frame during an arribada event. You can see several turtles are visible at or just below the surface, floating, swimming slowly, attempting to mate, or diving. The frame of the video then slowly pans out, widening your field of view, as meditative piano music drifts through your consciousness. As the frame expands, more turtles are visible at the blue-green surface. Slowly expanding, so many more turtles. Even more turtles. And then more, impossibly more. The frame continues to expand, beyond your ability to count, to even conceive of the quantity of sea turtles in one area at one time. You hope for it to stop so that your sense of what is possible can catch up to what you’re seeing. You are left with your mouth agape, head spinning, eyes unblinking, watching the gauzy horizon appear, turtles continuing on forever. But here’s the important part: beyond being incredibly moving, Vanessa’s video is also a critical piece of scientific information. That video provides data about a fundamental question: How many turtles are there? Once turtles come ashore, we know how to count nests, and nesting females. But how many arrive at the beach and when? How many males are there? Do more females arrive than actually end up nesting? Quantitative approaches can help translate what we observe into what we can estimate. But the observation comes first. No complex statistical estimation of turtle densities using environmental covariates and incorporating assumptions about parameter estimate uncertainty can provide the kind of information that Vanessa’s drone video could. No amount of code could reveal the true turtle abundance like seeing with your own eyes an endless surface of living, breathing, mating turtles stretching over the surface of the planet. And as Vanessa and others are showing us, use of new and improved ways of simply observing and asking questions is revolutionizing how we study wild sea turtles and other facets of the natural world.

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Without observations, what do we really know? Sea turtle sciencedlike biodiversity science in generaldhas advanced remarkably in recent decades. The proliferation of research papers and graduate degrees attest to this. All of this accumulated knowledge leads us to believe that we know so much about our study subjects. But even the studies with the largest sample sizes are just tiny snippets, individual frames in a long, multi-part, 3D movie. We track the movements of many animals over a few years and call it an authoritative description of habitat use. We count only egg-laying females on a beach and say we understand how entire turtle populations work. We know intricate details of their high-seas migrations and diving behavior, of the molecular makeup of their tissues, of the development of their embryos, of how their blood clots, of how they stay warm in cold water. But we know precious little about what they do when they’re just being turtles. Which, of course, is always. When I was a new graduate student, I got to go to Costa Rica to help with a project led for decades by Jim Spotila of Drexel University and Frank Paladino of Purdue University-Fort Wayne. This project has made the leatherbacks nesting at Parque Nacional Marino Las Baulas one of the best-studied sea turtle populations in the world. The project has trained dozens of graduate students and generated numerous publications on many aspects of leatherback biology, ecology, and physiology, from how conditions within leatherback nests affect embryonic development to how oceanographic conditions affect leatherback migration and reproduction. When I first arrived, some were starting to ask the question, what’s left to learn? Of course, the answer to that question (and in sea turtle biology generally) is that there is: a LOT! Fundamentally, what does the world look like to a turtle? To try and answer this question, Richard Reinadthen post-doctoral researcher running the fieldwork when I arrived, now a professor at Monash University in Australiadwas working with National Geographic’s Crittercam program to deploy fancy cameras on nesting females. These cameras allowed Richard to sneak a peak into their underwater lives away from the beach. I remember peering over Richard’s shoulder watching the footage, thrilled at the prospect of being able to see what a leatherback could see, while it was doing whatever a leatherback does. Would we see feeding? Other turtles? Predators? What adventures do leatherbacks have when they’re beneath the waves? What Richard and colleagues saw was a lot of . blue water. Hours and hours of blue water. Turns out, while hanging around nesting beaches, turtles swimda lot. They also rest a lot, sometimes floating around or lying on the bottom. And they breathe occasionally. And then they swim some more. But, much like our own routine, perhaps boring daily lives, the monotony was occasionally punctuated by some really exciting moments. For example, in several of the videos, male leatherbacks appeared, which was surprising given that we weren’t sure whether they showed up off nesting beaches like their mates. Males’ mating attempts looked more like car crashes than romantic encounters, complete with sudden, unexpected collisions, jarring movements, and rollovers [7]. Like other turtles, leatherback mating attempts seemed quite violent, complete with biting and other displays of physical dominance. I think about those turtle “home videos” a lot when pondering animals in the wild. We observe animals for extremely brief periods, whether directly with our own eyes or

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with the help of fancy tracking equipment. But what about the rest of their lives, dayto-day, hour-to-hour? What is it like to be a sea turtle in a thunderstorm at sea? What is it like to swim up and down in the water, at night? What does a sea turtle think when it sees a whale or a huge container ship? Do turtles play? With what? With whom? Conversely, when I see a turtle underwater while snorkeling or diving, I wonder what that moment would look like on a graph of data recorded by some instrument. The data points collected electronically or summarized in specific categories of behavior would probably say that nothing interesting happened. Those data would not capture how the turtle spent long, slow, minutes hovering over the bottom, next to an enormous rock, looking around, looking down, looking right at me. Thinking. Don’t get me wrong. Models and maps and lots of rigorously collected data are wonderful, even essential. As much as any other scientist, I love crunching data and making figures and using sophisticated analytical tools to reveal hidden patterns in the data that allow me to synthesize conclusions. I’m continuously amazed by all the new ways people come up with to statistically model things like animal movements through complex, multidimensional environments. But I often wonder whether all of our innovation on the quantitative and analytical front is really advancing what we know about animals and our natural world, not to mention conservation of such things. How many models are needed and how complicated do they need to be? For whom? For what? Science for science’s sake is certainly a noble pursuit, but we should be honest when these endeavors are effectively academic exercises instead of trying to masquerade them as critical to conservation. When complicated model structures rest on unsound or underdeveloped empirical foundations, making them more complicated does not make them better. If it is not yet obvious, I think those empirical foundations are the most vital parts. I think that the most important skill we need as ecologists and conservationists is to directly, acutely, and carefully observedto really knowdthe subjects of our research. This isn’t just because we all want to satisfy our inner kids (although that is justification enough, I think). Our analytical science gets better when it is based on a solid foundation of real observations [8].

The power of direct observations in the tech age In my view, this is today’s version of natural historydone that grounds maps and models in direct observation, experience, and inference of what we’re trying to analyze in the first place. This “Natural History 2.0” gives rich context to our analysis of rigorously collected and analyzed data. It allows us to see each data point in otherwise anonymous datasets as individual animals, facing unique challenges and making independent decisions. It connects our application of arrays of codes and interpretation of model outputs to who animals are and what they do as animals in the wild. As Natural History 2.0 practitioners, we can still be observers; we can still get our feet wet, stain our knees, and dirty our hands. But now, we also get to use a lot of cool, modern tools to link our direct observations to rigorous quantification and analyses so that we can better understand our world [8].

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One project in particular illustrated for me how this Natural History 2.0 approach can provide unique and powerful perspectives on sea turtle biology and conservation. In perhaps my favorite project I’ve ever worked on, I got a chance to collaborate with Mike James and his long-term leatherback monitoring project in Nova Scotia, Canada. Mike and colleagues have worked together with Nova Scotian fishermen for 20 years to generate perhaps the best dataset in existence about the critical role of foraging areas for widely distributed leatherbacks [9]. Much of what Mike has learned has been through multi-year satellite tracking of female and male leatherbacks who visit the highly productive waters off Nova Scotia each summer into early fall to take advantage of a smorgasbord of pumpkin-sized jellyfish. Mike and his mathematically minded collaborators applied state-of-the art statistical modeling approaches to identify areas where the tracking data said that leatherbacks were spending most of their time [10]. These state-space models identify apparent changes in certain behavior parameters, such as turning angle and travel speed, to infer that an animal is doing something different from simply traveling along a straight line at a constant speed. The idea is that areas where animals are doing something more interesting might be areas that more important for the animals. This is relevant because distinguishing areas of high use within a broader geographic range can give resource managers more precise information about where, specifically, leatherbacks seem to focus their time for critical behaviors like finding food. These tracking data and state-space modeling outputs gave Mike and colleagues a more nuanced view of leatherback habitat use in Canadian waters, highlighting particular areas where leatherbacks appeared to be preferentially feeding. But he wanted to get a better view of how turtles actually lived in those waters. To do this, he deployed video cameras coupled with dive recorders on leatherbacks to obtain visual footage of leatherbacks feeding, which would enable quantification of how many jellyfish leatherbacks eat in a typical period of natural behaviors. This is where I got involved, together with another collaborator, Michael Zolkewitz, to help Mike sift through the hours and hours of video footage. Like Richard Reina’s hours of blue water swimming by female leatherbacks off their nesting beach, Mike’s footage also included extended periods of open water in front of swimming leatherbacks. But Mike’s videos were unique in one crucial respect: turtles ate a lot of jellyfish. On average, leatherbacks ate 15 jellies per hour of footage, with one turtle taking down more than 70 in less than 3 h! [11] Turtles swam through the soupy water chowing on jellyfish like hungry Pac-Man crushing ghosts. On several occasions, turtles would still be chewing on a just-caught jelly when their noses would bump another pulsating jelly, floating in mid-water. The patient turtles would finish chewing, swallow, and open wide to nosh the next victim. The cameras gave us an unprecedented, front-row seat to how leatherbacks gorge on all-you-can-eat jellyfish buffets. The number and frequency of jellyfish consumed varied from turtle to turtle, likely showing the patchy distribution of prey, and possibly variation in how capable individual leatherbacks are at finding the good food patches. Because the videos typically only lasted a couple of hours, and leatherbacks are feeding in Canada for a couple of months, our analyses were only a tiny glimpse into leatherback foraging ecology. Nonetheless, the first-flipper accounts, recorded

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by the leatherbacks themselves, allowed us to see leatherback lives in vivid detail; we were even able to quantify things like how many bites turtles took, how many times they breathed. But so what? How important are all these jellies to leatherbacks? How much energy can they get while chowing down in cold, Canadian waters? To answer these questions, we combined our direct observations gained from watching hours of leatherback summer vacation videos with mathematical models to quantify the importance of this feeding area for leatherbacks trying to meet their overall energy demands. We estimated that, in just 3 months of feeding in Atlantic Canada, an adult female leatherback could acquire nearly one-third of what she needs to fuel a 2-year breeding cycle, and male and subadult leatherbacks on annual cycles could meet more than half of their energy needs [12]. These results showed why leatherbacks migrate thousands of kilometers away from the warm tropics to brave cold waters at high latitudes: these places have the most abundant and most predictable food. Without these areas, leatherbacks would be forced to swim around for longer periods in search of less reliable food sources. But perhaps the most important discovery we made was quite unexpected and was only possible through direct observation of leatherback underwater behaviors. The state-space models based on leatherback tracking data said that not all areas were equal in terms of foraging quality, that some were inferred to be more important than others to leatherbacks for finding and capturing prey [10]. However, our camera-based data, coupled with GPS points recorded while turtles surfaced to breathe, told a different story. Rather than cruising through some areas to focus foraging effort in particular spots, leatherbacks were always feeding. Whether they were traveling relatively quickly along a straight path or changed direction a lot and slowed down, working a very tight area, turtles never stopped snarfing jellyfish. Our integration of tracking data and direct observations had shown that the entire area is important to leatherbacks. Their different behaviors on the surface simply reflected their individual responses to what was in front of them in the real world. And if this was true for leatherbacks feeding in Canada, it raised a bigger question in my mind: To what extent can we rely on model-based estimates of animal habitat use when making critical decisions about how and where to allocate limited resources for protection and conservation? Put another way, do satellite tracks and models really tell us what animals do and what they need? For me, this experience underscored that our observations of animals actually behaving are at least as important as our ability to write code and build complicated models. As we know, models are only as good as their inputs and assumptions. And to the extent that we can base inputs and assumptions on what our subjects really do and really experience, the more likely those models will be to provide useful results for the real world. This is the essence of a Natural History 2.0 approach. Our challenge as researchers, consumers, enthusiasts, and lovers of nature is to be a new generation of naturalists, using age-old powers of direct observation both to fuel our passion for the natural world as well as inform our strategies to live as responsible citizens of that world.

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Toward natural history 2.0 So, what does true natural history look like now that we are creatures of technology, coding, computers, cloud-based data storage? Perhaps another way to ask the question is: How can new technology help us go back to our roots as children of nature, watching, probing, thinking, wondering, and knowing? Natural History 2.0 represents an interdisciplinary approach that is centered on direct observation and experience, while leveraging potent quantitative methods to enhance how well we know animals and ecosystems [8]. Below is a brief introduction to a few tools that, when combined with our own hands, shovels, dipnets, binoculars, and buckets already in our naturalist toolboxes, provide us with new ways to observe and understand nature. And those new observations will undoubtedly bring new ideas and possibly new approaches for conservation as well.

Drones As shown in Vanessa Bézy’s video [6], drones or unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are the “down-to-Earth” version of satellite-derived observations of what happens at or near the planet’s surface. They can capture visual images and physical and biological information at different spatial and temporal scales and often at a savings of cost and time to researchers. UAVs have already been used in a wide variety of conservation applications, ranging from quantifying abundance and density of numerous species to identifying land-use changes to monitoring illegal trafficking of wildlife [13]. In sea turtle research, UAVs have been deployed to count sea turtle nests on beaches and sea turtles in the water, among many other uses [14]. The bird’s-eye images provided by UAVs give us an entirely new perspective on what we study, one that we can couple with our usual view from the ground [15].

Underwater monitoring But what about the 99% of the time that sea turtles are beneath the water’s surface, eluding our view from air or ground? How do we get a look at what they’re doing underwater? As described above, turtle-borne cameras have been in use for nearly two decades, and never fail to reveal compelling images of turtles’ underwater lives. But these cameras provide a somewhat limited picture, constrained to the area directly in front of the turtle. We can see what a turtle sees, but without seeing the turtle itself, and its reactions to its environment. Emerging innovations on underwater monitoring are remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) or autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) that can follow animals on their adventures [16]. For example, one type of AUV, termed Remote Environmental Monitoring UnitS (REMUS), or “Turtle-Cams,” have shown great promise in locating, following, and filming leatherbacks (and other critters) underwater [17]. REMUS give researchers a completely unique frame through which to see their study animals move through their environments, respond to stimuli, and behave naturally where humans have never been able to go. In addition, REMUS

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not only provide visual information but also simultaneously collect environmental data to allow joint analyses of observed behaviors within environmental conditions at an extremely fine-scale.

Camera trapping and photo ID Understanding animal life history, including survival, reproductive output, growth, and other traits rely on “capture-mark-recapture” approaches that typically require giving individual animals a unique tag to identify it on future occasions. However, getting hands on animals is not always possible or even feasible. Fortunately, researchers have devised ways to “capture” animals for study without touching their subjects at all. Techniques such as camera trapping and photographic identification (photo ID), however, can allow researchers to document a species’ presence and relative spatial distribution, and even recognize individual animals through identifying unique patterns of their appearance. Capturing animals using visual means is a widespread practice in wildlife monitoring, and has demonstrated great potential for sea turtle research as well. For example, camera traps are used in studying cryptic terrestrial species in remote areas around the world [18], like those our colleagues are using in places like Nancite. Motion-activated cameras can be mounted on instruments or structures at seadsuch as oil platformsdto monitor sea turtle presence. And, if enough images are collected, they can even be used to identify individual animals. Marine mammal biologists have known for decades that photo ID is a powerful tool for monitoring populations and their constituents. The sea turtle community is now building libraries of uniquely identified individual turtles through analyses of facial scute patterns and other identifying marks, which allow researchers to track individuals through time and get a sense of the numbers of turtles in specific areas (e.g., Ref. [19,20]). In addition, photo ID allows researchers to really think about turtles not as herds of basically indistinguishable automatons, but as collections of unique, and uniquely behaving, individuals [20].

Citizen science As we all know, classically trained scientists are not the only ones who can collect data to contribute to scientific understanding of biodiversity. The term du jour “citizen science” refers to sightings, behaviors, and other basic data collected by people without graduate degrees or research grants but who nonetheless observe and report such information. In the bird world, citizen science data are a bedrock of long-term population status assessments, namely Audubon’s Christmas Bird Count [21] and the North American Breeding Bird Survey [22]. The online data repository eBird [23] compiles and displays sightings of bird species reported by birders around the world. Data reported to eBird are now being useddin combination with predictive models incorporating climate datadto forecast the progress and timing of migrations of several bird species from tropical wintering areas to summer breeding areas. The global army of citizens, armed with smartphones, binoculars, or just pencil and paper, can extend the reach of scientists to achieve monitoring coverage that would be impossible

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otherwise. Citizen science for sea turtle research holds great potential, for example, in documenting illegal trade in turtle products or in engaging SCUBA divers to “capture” turtles encountered during dives using only their cameras [e.g., Ref. [20]].

Conclusions I’m excited for what’s to come in this Natural History 2.0 era. Existing tools will continue to be put to new and exciting uses, and new tools are surely on the horizon. To be clear, knowing animals better might not necessarily help protect or conserve them better. It might not actually inspire the public or decision-makers to make choices that value nature conservation or save endangered species. But using observation and experience to know animals better reconnects us to our natural world, and makes us better, more responsible neighbors and stewards. And that little kiddthat young naturalistdinside each of us gets to stay muddy and wet, curious and content. See you out there.

References [1] R. Conniff, The Species Seekers: Heroes, Fools, and the Mad Pursuit of Life on Earth, W.W. Norton & Company, New York, 2011. [2] C. Darwin, On The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life, John Murray, London, 1859. [3] R. Sagarin, A. Pauchard, Observation and Ecology: Broadening the Scope of Science to Understand a Complex World, 2012, Island Press, 213. [4] P.E.P. Deraniyagala, The nesting habit of the leathery turtle, Dermochelys coriacea, Ceylon Journal of Science B 19 (3) (1936) 331e336. [5] A.E. Sieg, E. Zandona, V. Izzo, J.R. Spotila, F.V. Paladino, Population level “flipperedness” in the eastern Pacific leatherback turtle, Behavioral Brain Research 206 (2009) 135e138. [6] V. Bézy. This could be the biggest turtle swarm ever seen. National Geographic. https:// www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2019/11/olive-ridley-sea-turtle-swarm-filmed-costarica/. (Accessed 29 November 2019). [7] R.D. Reina, K.J. Abernathy, G.J. Marshall, J.R. Spotila, Respiratory frequency, dive behaviour and social interactions of leatherback turtles, Dermochelys coriacea during the inter-nesting interval, Journal of Experimental Biology and Ecology 316 (2005) 1e16. [8] C. Walden-Schreiner, Y.-F. Leung, T. Kuhn, T. Newburger, Integrating direct observation and GPS tracking to monitor animal behavior for resource management, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 190 (2018) 75, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-018-6463-3. [9] M.C. James, S.A. Sherrill-Mix, K. Martin, R.A. Myers, Canadian waters provide critical foraging habitat for leatherback sea turtles, Biological Conservation 133 (2006) 347e357. [10] I.D. Jonsen, R.A. Myers, M.C. James, Identifying leatherback turtle foraging behavior from satellite telemetry using a switching state-space model, Marine Ecology: Progress Series 337 (2007) 255e264.

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[11] B.P. Wallace, M. Zolkewitz, M.C. James, Fine-scale foraging ecology of leatherback turtles, Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution (2015), https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2015.00015. [12] B.P. Wallace, M. Zolkewitz, M.C. James, Discrete, high-latitude foraging areas are important to energy budgets and population dynamics of migratory leatherback turtles, Scientific Reports 8 (2018) 11017. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-29106-1. [13] S. Wich, L.P. Koh, Conservation Drones: Monitoring and Mapping Biodiversity, Oxford University Press, 2018, p. 144. [14] A.F. Rees, L. Avens, K. Ballorain, E. Bevan, A.C. Broderick, R.R. Carthy, M.J.A. Christianen, G. Duclos, M.R. Heithaus, D.W. Johnston, J.C. Mangel, F. Paladino, K. Pendoley, R.D. Reina, N.J. Robinson, R. Ryan, S.T. Sykora-Bodie, D. Tilley, M.R. Varela, E.R. Whitman, P.A. Whittock, T. Wibbles, B.J. Godley, The potential of unmanned aerial systems for sea turtle research and conservation: a review and future directions, Endangered Species Research 35 (2018) 81e100. [15] T. Reischig. Drones for turtles: night-vision anti-poaching drone missions significantly decreased sea turtle poaching activities on Boa Vista, Cape Verde. In: B. Nahill (Ed.), Sea Turtle Research and Conservation: Lessons from Working in the Field. Elsevier. [16] R.J. Smolowitz, S.H. Patel, H.L. Haas, S.A. Miller, Using a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) to observe loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) behavior on foraging grounds off the mid-Atlantic United States, Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 471 (2015) 84e91. [17] K.L. Dodge, A.L. Kukulya, E. Burke, M.F. Baumgartner, TurtleCam: a “smart” autonomous underwater vehicle for investigating behaviors and habitats of sea turtles, Front. Mar. Sci. 5 (2018) 90, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2018.00090. [18] A. Caravaggi, P.B. Banks, A.C. Burton, C.M.V. Finlay, P.M. Haswell, M.W. Hayward, M.J. Rowcliffe, M.D. Wood, A review of camera trapping for conservation behaviour research, Remote Sensing in Ecology and Conservation 3 (2017) 109e122. [19] G. Schofield, K.A. Katselidis, P. Dimopoulos, J.D. Pantis, Investigating the viability of photo identification as an objective tool to study endangered sea turtle populations, Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 360 (2008) 103e108. [20] S. Dunbar, J. Hudgins, C. Jean Applications of photo identification in sea turtle studies: In: B. Nahill (Ed.), Sea Turtle Research and Conservation: Lessons from Working in the Field. Elsevier. [21] National Audubon Society, The Christmas Bird Count Historical Results, 2010. Available: http://www.christmasbirdcount.org. [22] J.R. Sauer, K.L. Pardieck, D.J. Ziolkowski Jr., A.C. Smith, M.-A.R. Hudson, V. Rodriguez, H. Berlanga, D.K. Niven, W.A. Link, The first 50 years of the North American breeding bird survey, The Condor: Ornithological Applications 119 (2017) 576e593. [23] B.L. Sullivan, C.L. Wood, M.J. Iliff, R.E. Bonney, D. Fink, S. Kelling, eBird: a citizenbased bird observation network in the biological sciences, Biological Conservation 142 (2009) 2282e2292.

Section Nine Fundraising

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Brad Nahill SEE Turtles, Portland, OR, United States

Introduction When I first started working in sea turtle conservation, I was eager to make my mark but unsure of how I could contribute. I’m not a biologist and don’t have the degree or discipline for the intensive studies required to get a PhD. But I figured out I could use my writing skills and motivation to do good by raising money for sea turtle conservation efforts. There is no degree you can get in fundraising, so I set about teaching myself how to go about it. I took a 1-day workshop at a local university, reached out to people I knew for advice, and jumped in head first. One of my first fundraising research efforts was accidental. I was working for the new (at the time) nonprofit side of EcoTeach, a student ecotourism company that supports several turtle research efforts and social projects. I was walking down the aisle of the local Fresh Fields supermarket (since taken over by Whole Foods) and noticed a wild animal on a bar of chocolate. I picked up the bar, which was surely more expensive than I could afford at the time, and saw that the company donated a portion of profits to wildlife conservation. That company was Endangered Species Chocolate, a very small company in 2001 but is now one of the leading organic chocolate companies in the world. On the next aisle, I saw kids cereal boxes with cheetahs, pandas, and other wild animals, and their boxes also said they donated to conservation. That company was Nature’s Path Organic Foods, also a smaller company back then but now is the world’s leading organic cereal company. After these discoveries, the rest of the shopping trip was spent combing the aisles for other prospective corporate donors. I contacted both companies right away. Both declined at the time; they were small and already had their partners lined up. But I held onto their contacts and regularly checked back in to see if they were bringing on new partners. Eventually Endangered Species Chocolate became the single largest donor to my work in my career, along with providing hundreds of bars of donated chocolate and promotion on their turtle bars and social media. Nature’s Path has now supported our work for a decade and their newest product (as of publication) has a sea turtle on the box with our logo, with every purchase saving a turtle hatchling. I didn’t do anything especially innovative to bring in these sponsors. I just paid attention to who was out there, made contact, followed up and developed relationships, built a program worth supporting, and engaged with these companies as frequently as possible. Fundraising for sea turtles is not complicated. They are charismatic Sea Turtle Research and Conservation. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821029-1.00020-9 Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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megafauna, they provide important functions in their habitats, and they need lots of help. All you need to add to that is an effective case on why you or your organization can help protect them. Hopefully this chapter will provide some guidance and helpful tips on your path to raising the funds needed to study and protect these animals. This chapter will delve into some of the main types of conservation donors, case studies on successful (and unsuccessful) experiences, and some advice for fundraisers that I’ve learned in my 20 years of raising funds for conservation.

Ten fundraising tips Focus on the story Storytelling is one of the oldest forms of human communication and remains one of the most effective. Much of fundraising is about developing an emotional connection between the prospective donor and your work; the more compelling your case is, the better your chances of receiving funding in most cases. Organizations that focus solely on their work with dry scientific language and jargon, without telling any kind of story in their fundraising, can miss out on donors. While storytelling isn’t necessarily effective or appropriate in every situation, in my opinion it is the single biggest factor in getting funding from individuals, students, and in many cases, corporate sponsors. It may not be effective with some foundations (particularly the larger ones with staff who have expertise in conservation) and government agencies, but their applications should make it clear how much of a story they want to hear. Stories have a structure and so should your pitch. Begin your story with what the situation was like before your work started or even further back if you have historical information. Why are you doing the work you do, what problems are you trying to solve? Next, talk about how you or your organization got started; what challenges were overcome, what resistance did you face? How did you work through those problems? Make the story personal and human by talking about your experience, or that of people that benefit from the work. Follow that with what successes you have had and be as concrete as possible. Finish with how that donor can help be a part of the success and remember to use second person language rather than first person for this part (“you” instead of “I”).

Simple, concrete, and emotional Unless you are communicating with an expert in this field who sees a lot of fundraising pitches (such as the aforementioned large foundations and government agencies), you want to keep your language simple. Remember that most people don’t know what hatching success rates or haplotypes are, so try to avoid jargon wherever possible. Simplicity is the premise behind my organization’s Billion Baby Turtles program (see case study for more information). With the simple, concrete message of “every donation saves baby turtles,” we are able to attract new donors, sponsors, and schools

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every day. How many turtles do you study? How much plastic waste do you collect? How can your research shed light on their life cycles and how would that impact their management? Spend some time figuring out the best and simplest way to get your impact across. Finally, don’t shy away from using an emotional pitch. People give primarily with their hearts, which is why storytelling is so important. Use high quality imagery (photos and videos) to help make that emotional connection, preferably where you can clearly see the eyes of both the turtles and the people that work with them (this is a subtle but important way to create a bond with the subjects of the photos).

Be confident and persistent If you are going to raise funds for any cause, you will need to learn to deal with rejection. In my 20 years of fundraising, I have raised millions of dollars from hundreds of people, companies, foundations, and schools. But my success rate with grant proposals funded versus declined is probably under 10%. A rejection doesn’t stop me from looking for the next prospective funder. You know your work is contributing to learning about or protecting important wild animals, so be confident when you ask for funds, whether it is from a family member or the Packard Foundation. One of the best pieces of advice I have received was from a former colleague at Ocean Conservancy named Patrick Raitt. I was frustrated after trying for a second time to get funding from Endangered Species Chocolate by calling the company headquarters and talking to a low-level staff person who quickly declined. I was venting to Pat and paraphrasing, he said, “Never take a no from a person who can’t give you a yes.” I took that advice and keep researching until I found a contact who could say yes, and eventually did receive a grant from the company. Another example of persistence paying off is our Too Rare To Wear campaign. I first decided that our organization should start working on the tortoiseshell trade in August of 2015 while visiting Nicaragua and seeing how common this trade continued to be. I spent the next few months putting together a work plan for the project and started writing proposals that fall. I sent more than 25 proposals to foundations in the United States and elsewhere, most of whom declined. It took until late in 2016 when the first substantial funding came in and we could officially launch the program, a year and a half later. Since then, the program has helped our organization win awards and now has a regular group of donors to help sustain it.

Find your niche There are hundreds of sea turtle conservation organizations around the world. Only a handful has truly unique populations like Escobilla, Mexico, or historic significance like Tortuguero, Costa Rica. To stand out, you need to analyze what it is that makes your work worth someone’s money. Think about questions like how important your nesting beach is within the country you operate or the regional management unit.

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Do you also offer things other than protecting a nesting beach, like community education or development, unique research opportunities, or new research that has advanced knowledge about these animals.

Be transparent With so many nonprofits out there asking for donations, and many news stories about fraudulent organizations, being transparent about where donations go is important. One easy way to do that is to follow the requirements of GuideStar (Guidestar.org) for their “Seal of Transparency” and use the seal on your website and donation materials. If your organization is part of any kind of third-party affiliation like One Percent for the Planet (onepercentfortheplanet.org) or has won any awards, include that too. Anything that can provide evidence of your organization’s legitimacy can help establish your organization’s credibility. We also suggest including specific information on where the money goes and how much is set aside for overhead or fundraising or other uses. In the United States, if your organization does an IRS 990 form, link to that on your website.

Build your lists and social media following The larger your network, the more donations you will be able to bring in. Encourage visitors to your website, donors, volunteers, and anyone else who interacts with your organization to sign up for an organization newsletter (whether by email or mail) and to sign up for your social media accounts. The importance of social media for fundraising has declined as fewer of your followers see your posts with Facebook’s algorithm, but email remains perhaps the most effective way to fundraise, so take every opportunity to grow that list. See below for more information on fundraising on social media.

Keep in touch Follow-up is key to both bringing in new donors and having past donors continue giving every year. Consider creating a regular update specifically for donors, whether by mail or email. With your institutional donors (foundations, corporations, government agencies), make sure you follow any dates for reporting, and if you have a direct contact, send them updates of your progress throughout the year.

Prioritize your time There are a lot of ways to raise money but not all of them are effective uses of your limited available time. Generally events are the most time-consuming way to raise funds and I personally would only recommend that strategy if you have a large base of local funders and supporters you can draw on with potential to raise a large amount of money. Most donations are made late in the year (late November and December), so focus fundraising campaigns for that time of year. In the United States, the biggest fundraising day is called “Giving Tuesday,” which is the Tuesday after Thanksgiving weekend.

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Gift incentives Offering some kind of thank-you gift to donors can be a way to help build a stronger connection with your organization and bring in new donors. But don’t feel the need to give everyone who donates something, many donors just want their support to go direct to the programs. If you do give things away, look for items that are easy and inexpensive to mail, such as stickers, to avoid spending a lot of your donations on shipping. In the case of our organization, we initially offered gifts at every level of donation, which both took up a lot of staff time preparing those gifts and cost the organization money in postage and in some cases to purchase the gifts. But as we grew, we started scaling back incentives to the point where we now only give thank-you gifts for our turtle adoption packs and for kids who fundraise. Over that time, not only have we brought in more individual donations, we have saved a lot of money and staff time in the process, so donation gifts are not as important as they might seem.

Start close to home If your organization is new and you don’t have much of a reputation or contacts, the best way to get started is to ask friends and family for support. While this may not be easy, the people close to you are the ones most likely to support your work. As your organization grows and evolves, you will find new opportunities for donors, but until you get to that point, approach those who know you best. If you are starting a field program, reach out to local businesses for initial support. Look for businesses that might benefit from the people you bring to do research or turtle watching, like hotels, tourism businesses, or dive shops. Any businesses that promote themselves as “eco-friendly” would also be good prospects. See the below section on business sponsors for tips on how to approach these kinds of donors.

Social media and fundraising Social media has quickly become one of the most important ways to raise money over the past decade. Unfortunately by the time this book is published, much of the advice I would give would be obsolete. But there are a few developments on the primary social media networks that are helpful to know about, and I can share some things that have and have not worked for my organization. Facebook is by far the biggest social media platform in the world and the most common one for fundraising. Over the past couple of years, Facebook has added a few ways that organization can raise funds through their platform, which should be standard for any nonprofit looking for donations. Please note that as of publication, these tools are only available in some countries and require enrollment with their payment processing (you can find this information in Facebook’s Help Center). One great thing about receiving donations from Facebook is that they don’t charge any fees like credit card fees, so your organization receives 100% of any money donated. They also send

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donation receipts, which can save you time, though following up with these donors can be challenging in this way. • • •

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Donate button: Be sure to add one of these to every page you have so visitors to your page can quickly and easily donate. You can also add the button to individual posts, though we haven’t found that to be an especially successful way to fundraise to date. Facebook fundraisers: Organizations and individuals can set up fundraisers to support any organization that is verified by Facebook. They are simple to set up and can help reach potential donors through your followers. Giving Tuesday: During each of the last few Giving Tuesdays (the first Tuesday after Thanksgiving in the United States), Facebook has provided matching funds for many organizations. This should be part of a larger strategy for Giving Tuesday that we are not able to address in this chapter. Instagram: You can now add a donate button to your Instagram page and allow people to add donation stickers to their stories. This platform has become a way for organizations to find us, and we now regularly receive interest from potential donors through private messaging.

Email (including electronic newsletters) remains one of the most effective ways to raise funds. Be sure to collect as many addresses as you can through your donors, volunteers, and other supporters (though we recommend allowing people to opt in, instead of automatically opting people in, which can cause people to report emails as spam). Keep subject lines and emails short and to the point and put multiple links to your donation page as far up in the email as possible. People don’t read till the end of every email, so you risk losing people before they get to the button if it is far down in the email. Use as much imagery as possible (and make photos links to your page) and make sure your emails are mobile-friendly. Services such as Mail Chimp or Constant Contact will do this automatically and offer tips for improving your emails. Many email marketing tools will also allow you to personalize your emails with the subscriber’s name, which we recommend (and be sure to get names when you collect emails).

Primary funding sources Funding for sea turtle research and conservation primarily comes from individuals, private foundations, government agencies, businesses, and tourism. While this is not an exhaustive list, these are the best areas to focus efforts for the maximum impact. For ideas on how to develop tourism as a way to generate income, please see Chapter 4 (Tourism and Sea Turtles), as well as the case study on Green Phenix in Chapter 3 (Plastic and Sea Turtles) for another way that one organization is raising funds by recycling plastic waste.

Individual donors The first money I raised for sea turtle conservation with the EcoTeach Foundation was through a family friend who was a strong financial supporter of conservation

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programs. Even though I had known this person since I was a small child, my hands were sweaty as I sat down in the office of his company. Personalized autographed photos with presidents and senators looked over my shoulder as I made my pitch. Knowing this person had a beach house in New Jersey, I explained to him how leatherback turtles can eat nearly their weight in jellyfish per day while feeding, making life easier for swimmers along the US East Coast. That one little fact caught his attention, and I walked out of the meeting with a $1,000 check. I learned later that he used that story at cocktail parties to tell others about his support for sea turtle conservation. Raising funds from individual donors is the easiest way to start fundraising with a new organization. As I note above, starting with friends and family is a great way to kickstart your efforts and build a donor base for your project or organization. One of the first people to give me advice on raising funds was from Rod Mast, who at the time was vice president of Sojourns at Conservation International, which as I joked with him, should have been “Vice President of Taking Super Rich People to Visit Conservation Projects.” One thing Rod stressed to me at the time was that any individual donor must meet several criteria, including capacity to give (i.e., money to donate), propensity to give (do they give to charities), and a connection to your cause. While friends and family might initially give because they know you, to truly develop a strong group of reliable donors, you need to help people make an emotional connection to these animals and your work. Some of your strongest prospects will be those who see your project in person, so after you approach close people, focus on anyone who visits your project, whether as a tourist or volunteer. Invite your bigger donors to come and visit as well, if they haven’t, to help develop that connection. Symbolic adoptions are a common way that sea turtle and other wildlife organizations raise funds from individual donors. Each organization does it a little differently, but generally they will include a certificate (get a good printer) that is personalized either with the donor name (or someone a donor chooses as a gift), or if you are able to allow the donor to name the turtle, along with other gifts like plush turtles, stickers, and other gifts. Many organizations offer different levels of adoption, with more gifts for larger amounts of money. These gifts increase your cost to raise funds and involve a significant amount of time to create and send, but they can be a great way to develop a connection with the donor. One thing to keep in mind is to be as clear as possible that these adoptions are symbolic; I’ve seen more than one occasion people think they are getting live baby turtles in return from us despite explicitly saying the adoptions are donations for conservation. A few tips to consider for raising donations online through a website or donation site: •

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Recurring donations: Give donors the option to donate monthly or quarterly, as a way to develop a steady and predictable stream of monthly funds. This is an increasingly common and popular way to raise donations and most fundraising software should have this option. Over the past 2 years of fundraising for my organization (2018 and 2019), approximately 7% of our donors have been recurring but they have accounted for about 20% of individual donations received. Processing fees: If you use Stripe or Paypal to process donations by credit cards, make sure you apply for their reduced rates for nonprofits. This helped us to lower our fees by about

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25% (from 2.9% to 2.2%). Also, look for the option to ask donors to cover credit card fees as part of their donation. Over the past year (2019), since our organization started using this option, roughly 40% of donors have covered these fees, saving our organization more than $200. Dedications: Many people want to give a donation as a gift or to honor someone, or ask others to donate for special occasions like birthdays, weddings, or memorials. Ask for the honoree’s email and offer to send them a note about the donation and where it is going. Since we implemented this option in 2018, approximately 36% of our donations have been dedications. Response emails: Be sure to set up emails that are automatically sent to donors so their gifts are acknowledged. This will save time at tax time and gives an additional opportunity to promote your programs, so spend some time putting together a letter that reinforces your message and gives additional opportunities to get involved, such as volunteer programs, social media accounts, or other programs of your organization. Establish credibility: Put key information on your donation page, such as your key successes, confirmation of your tax-exempt status, any certifications or awards, and where the money will go.

Private foundations Generally private foundations are created and run by wealthy families or individuals (or their heirs) and have a specific set of priorities and/or geographic areas that they fund. These foundations provide a significant part of the funding for many wildlife conservation groups around the world, but they can be especially challenging for new or small organizations. Many of them do not accept unsolicited proposals or inquiries and focus on a small number of grantees that they know well. Even some foundations who have open applications do not provide much information on their priorities or proposal processes, which can make determining how good of a fit they might be very difficult. Getting a foundation grant is also in most cases very competitive; most of them receive 10 or 20 times more proposals than they can fund. For this reason, it is important to prioritize which grants to go after, comparing how closely your work aligns with their priorities, the size of available grants versus how time consuming the proposal might be, or if you have a connection who can help advocate for your work. Fundraising from foundations is often about cultivating connections and relationships with their staff or board members. A group’s board of directors can be very helpful in opening these doors; having well-connected board members is key if your organization hopes to focus on this area. Many foundations are moving toward a “venture philanthropy” approach, using principles of venture capitalism that are very focused on things like measuring success, concrete outcomes, and specific deadlines. One of the challenges of this kind of philanthropy is that donors won’t commit to funding over a longer period of time, focusing instead on quick wins and moving on to new opportunities after a year or two. The majority of funding that I have raised in my career has come from foundations, and here are a few things I have learned about successfully obtaining grants from these funders:

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Do your research The more you know about a potential funder, the better your chances are of creating a proposal that will attract funding. If the foundation has a website, spend some time getting to know their priorities (both in terms of what programs they support and their geographical preferences), look up their staff and board to see if you can find a connection, and make sure they are open to receiving inquiries or proposals. Often you can quickly rule out a foundation based on whether they allow proposals, where they prefer to fund, and what they prioritize. Spend some time looking through who they have funded to see if there are groups who do similar work to yours. Also look at the grant amounts they give to figure out how much to ask for. You never want to ask for too much or too little; my general rule of thumb is to request an amount closer to their minimum level of giving than to go for a higher amount before there is a relationship and then work to grow their giving over time. One useful thing, especially if the foundation doesn’t have a website with much information, is to look up their IRS 990 Form (if based in the United States). All foundations are required to make these available, and you can look them up for free on websites like Guidestar.org. Though these documents are often long and somewhat incomprehensible, you can get information including addresses, what grants they have given (and how much), and who their board members are. Another way to find prospective foundations is by researching other conservation organizations. If the foundation funds similar work to yours, they could be a good prospect. Many organizations will list their funders on their websites, in annual reports, and on 990 forms (at least their larger donors). LinkedIn can be a good way to make a connection with staff at foundations, though I recommend limiting contact through the site as many people prefer to be contacted through their employer. Many foundations are now starting to use social media, which can also provide helpful information on what their priorities are.

Build a proposal template Once you have a group of prospective foundation funders, you will want to put a lot of effort in your proposal. When I work as a consultant with organizations who are trying to build this area, I encourage them to put together a template with as much information as they can put together, including an introduction, details on activities, timelines, budgets, deliverables (what outcomes you are hoping to achieve), partners, problem statement, and organization history. A good way to make sure your template has as much information as possible is to look at proposal requirements for some of your prospects. Each foundation will want different information but you usually find quite a bit of overlap. Once you have your template complete, you can then adapt it toward the specific priorities of the foundation. This method can significantly increase the number of proposals you get out the door and save a lot of staff time. I suggest having two templates, a full proposal and a two-page inquiry, which is the first step that many foundations use to narrow down the number of full proposals they

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receive. The inquiry should be very succinct and including the most important information: what is the problem you are trying to solve and how you will go about solving it.

Be SMART As noted above, foundation staff, especially at larger foundations with long histories of giving, can be experts in your field. Through your research, be sure to know if the person reading the proposal knows the intricacies of your field. If they do, cut the background information and focus very specifically on your strategy in as much detail as allowed (many proposal formats will limit the number of words or characters in any given section). For example, you can assume that the people reviewing your proposal for the National Fish & Wildlife Foundation’s sea turtle fund know what their threats are. If they are not sea turtle experts, you will want to provide as much context as you can about what the problems are and why they should care about your work. When creating goals (or objectives), a very important part of almost any proposal, you want to use what are called SMART goals (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, and Time-bound). Having a goal that is unrealistic or not measurable is a common way that a foundation will decline a proposal. There are many online tools available to work on your goals (just Google it).

Follow instructions and deadlines With so many applications coming in, the people reviewing these proposals will be looking for any reason to eliminate yours. It may seem like a no-brainer, but missing a deadline or not following instructions for applying happens frequently, and reflects poorly on an organization. Be sure to follow word counts whenever they are given (many online applications won’t allow more words than allowed to be submitted). Budgets often have very specific information that needs to be included and sometimes templates are provided.

After the proposal Once your proposal or inquiry is out the door, it is time to wait. Check to see if they give a timeframe for a response. If you don’t hear back in that time, look for a contact (preferably by email) to follow up to see if there is any additional information you can provide and if they have made a decision. Unfortunately many foundations won’t alert the organizations that do not get funded, so you may never hear back. If you do hear back and they decline, it’s a good idea to try to follow-up to see why. You might learn something about your proposal that will make future ones more effective. If you do receive funding, be sure to set an alert for when the report is due. Getting a foundation grant is hard work, but if you meet your goals and communicate effectively, it gets much easier once a relationship is established. Ask your contact if you can provide occasional updates as you go or if they are available to meet. The better relationship you can develop, the more likely you are to receive future funding.

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Case study: Marine Life Protection Act When I wrote foundation grants for the Ocean Conservancy earlier in my career, we had a once-in-a-generation opportunity to advocate for marine protected areas (MPAs) along the California coast through a law that was passed in the state called the Marine Life Protection Act in 1999. Ocean Conservancy was well-positioned at the time as a leader in this area with a strong group of staff based in the state. But the resources required to rally the public and build a case for a strong system of MPAs in the state were significant, and the organization needed to expand its fundraising in the state to meet this need. My first step was to spend time with the California staff to understand this opportunity as thoroughly as possible, especially the strategy the organization was building to take advantage of it. Translating work in the field to a proposal format can be challenging, but I find that examples of past projects can be a very effective way to make your case, so I also researched ways that the organization advocated successfully for MPAs in other regions. From there, I built my inquiry and proposal templates. Once I had a proposal ready, I dug into the foundations that fund conservation work in California, which is a very fertile area for this kind of funding. I created a spreadsheet of prospects, dividing them by priority based on their funding levels, who they gave to, and whether the organization had a relationship with them. Since they don’t require a major investment of time, I sent an inquiry to any of them who accepted them. To help establish relationships with these foundations, I contacted several of them who were open to contact and traveled to California to meet them. I learned the hard way on that trip to know as thoroughly as possible any foundation you want to meet so that you do not waste their time or yours. In one meeting, it became clear quickly that the foundation did not fund the type of work we did, making it a short meeting and drawing the ire of a vice president, who I had taken along, for wasting their time. The end result of this effort was more than a million dollars raised for the 2-year MLPA process. We brought in several new donors to the organization, including prominent foundations like the Goldman Fund who had not previously supported our work. Between 8% and 20% of California state waters were protected (depending on the region) through the hard work of the Ocean Conservancy team, which now a decade later is proving some of the arguments my colleagues made in support of a strong statewide system of MPAs. While this was a pretty unique situation where was a confluence of a very significant opportunity, a strong and well-respected team in place, and a large number of prospective donors, the process that we used can be replicated to build a foundation fundraising program for most organizations.

Corporate sponsors In many ways, corporate funds are easier to obtain than foundation grants, though unless you are soliciting grants from a large company, generally the amounts will be smaller. But as with private foundations and larger donors who come from the business world, a focus on concrete results is key to getting funds from businesses. Unlike the

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other kinds of donors, business sponsors want to be seen as socially responsible and many are interested in reaching new audiences through their donations and prefer (or require) that their donations come with recognition. Corporate giving can come in several forms. Some larger companies act more like private foundations (or even have a corresponding corporate foundation) where they have detailed proposal processes, deadlines, and reporting. Many companies, especially smaller and newer ones, are looking for “cause marketing” partnerships, where each sale of a product includes a donation to a nonprofit. In addition, many companies will provide in-kind donations of products or things to give away at an auction or event. Companies that do cause marketing in particular are interested in being able to educate their customers on their donations in the simplest and most concrete way possible. For larger donors, consider developing a program specifically named for the sponsor or offer a way to involve their customers or social media followers to participate, such as naming a turtle. A great example of this is Sea Turtle Conservancy’s annual Tour de Turtles, where they put trackers on various turtles and see how far they go. Sponsors can name their turtle and the event receives significant publicity. My organization offers two levels of cause marketing sponsorships, one being an official sponsorship that comes with use of our logo, photos, and recognition on our website and our social media accounts. We ask for a donation of $250 for this kind of partnership, which covers the time required to set it up (paperwork, website, social media, etc.). The sponsor then subtracts that amount from the total donation due at the end of the agreement period (usually 1 year but sometimes 2 if the sponsor requires it). Before implementing this system, we tried several times having sponsorships with new companies who promised to donate. We spent significant time promoting them, only to receive very small donations or none at all, which is why we now ask for donations up front. Some companies are not interested or able to do that, but we have found that we raise more money in less time by having this requirement. When a sponsor uses your logo in their promotion, they are benefitting from your organization’s efforts to develop a reputation, and that is worth something, so don’t be afraid to ask for money up front for the privilege of using that or other assets of the organization. One note of caution in this kind of fundraising is that fraud is common, whether intentional or accidental. As our organization’s reputation has grown, we now find companies with no intention of donating taking our logo and putting in on their website, which is both difficult to find and to address through legal measures. One way that can help is by trademarking your logo in your home country; with that trademark, some website hosts and social media platforms will take down fraudulent claims. Sometimes the fraud is unintentional; many brand-new businesses are started by people who don’t think about using someone’s photos, logos, or other assets without permission. Often those new businesses, if approached gently, will quickly remedy the situation and can become great partners. A few tips if you find companies using your name without permission: •

Regularly search for your organization’s name on Google and scroll through to see who is using your name on their websites.

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• •

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Trademark your organization’s logo. This can be a fairly expensive and time-consuming process but in cases like we mention above, the only way to report these violations to social media networks or web hosting services, you need to complete this step for them to take action. Look up their domain host. You can do that through the ICANN website (lookup.icann.org). Sometimes you can find direct contact information for the people behind the website though if the website is fraudulent, that may be unlikely. You can learn who the domain registrar is (such as GoDaddy) and report fraud to them. Be sure to follow the above step and give them your trademark number for them to take action. You can also try reporting fraudulent social media posts to the social media company though that is not always successful. Instagram appears to be a place where this type of most prevalent, so we suggest setting up an account there to help track these things.

In my own fundraising, I look at corporate sponsors differently than most of my other donors. I see them as partners in a mutually beneficial relationship, as opposed to us just asking for money. Our cause marketing sponsorships come with a written agreement laying out the amount donated per product sold, use of our logos and photos, any reporting requirements, things along those lines. The other type of cause marketing sponsorship we have is less formal, where we give permission to use our name and link to our website. Tourism businesses are often receptive to conservation programs, especially those that cater to wildlife enthusiasts. Local hotels and tour operators like to show that the company supports local programs, especially if combined with tours to see the turtles nesting or in the water. Offer a variety of packages depending on the donation level that might include photos or posters for their office, use of your logo and photos on social media, promotion on your social media accounts, or presentations for their clients. Often you can get great feedback from businesses by asking them what would be most valuable that you could provide. Please see Chapter 4 on Tourism and Sea Turtles for more information. One subject that can be controversial is receiving funds from companies whose business practices can be threats to sea turtles. Ask yourself if you feel comfortable being associated with a large hotel that leaves out beach furniture or lights up nesting beaches, oil companies who have a record of spills that damage large parts of the ocean, or aquaria that have captive sea turtles and other marine life. Some organizations have no issues accepting money from any company that wants to donate, while others are very picky about who they partner. When I worked for Ocean Conservancy, the organization received criticism for getting funding for its International Coastal Cleanup from some of the world’s largest polluters, like Coca Cola, Dow Chemical, Philip Morris, and Illinois Tool Works (ITW), the company that makes many of the world’s six pack rings. If you partner with a company that causes significant environmental damage, it can cause individual donors or socially responsible businesses to avoid giving to your organization. There have been pressure campaigns from activists to nonprofits who take funding from polluting companies to stop, causing significant bad exposure for the organization. My organization, SEE Turtles, has a policy to only take funding from companies that don’t have direct impacts on sea turtles, such as fossil fuel companies, plastic

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manufacturers, and large resort hotels who don’t have good practices relating to these animals. Zoos and Aquaria can be an especially challenging one for sea turtle conservation organizations; many treat their animals well and do a lot of public education but many people, especially activists, oppose keeping any animals in captivity for entertainment purposes and will shame any organization that takes funds from them.

Case study: Nature’s Path Organic Foods Nature’s Path, which was still a small company early in my career when I found them on the supermarket shelf, has grown into (at the time of publication) the world’s largest organic cereal company and one of the largest organic food companies. Their products are sold all over the world and can be found in most US supermarkets. Their EnviroKidz line of cereals and snacks is especially popular, and each one focuses on a different animal (which is what first attracted me to the company). In addition to providing funding (1% of sales of this line) to wildlife organizations, they also use their packaging to educate people about the animals and the organizations they support. I first received a small grant from Nature’s Path for sea turtle bycatch and education while I was working at Ocean Conservancy. I took an opportunity to drive up to visit their headquarters near Vancouver, Canada, while getting ready to move to Oregon. That initial meeting allowed us to establish more of a relationship with the company and learn about their goals and gauging interest in a turtle-themed product. Their funding also helped launch SEE Turtles in 2008. When I left Ocean Conservancy, I maintained my relationship with them and continued to partner with them on educational programs. I more formally pitched a turtle-themed cereal on my next visit a year later, going as far as mocking up a cereal box cover. Later, in a meeting with their marketing and EnviroKidz teams, one of their employees shot down the idea, explaining that they preferred cute and furry animals which more appeal to children. Our cofounder, Wallace J. Nichols, was in that meeting and was ready with a response, explaining that sea turtle hatchlings fit perfectly the scientific standard for cuteness (something about the size of the eyes in relation to the size of the head), leaving the person quiet. But the idea had taken hold and over the next couple of years, we worked with the company to develop a new product, though technical snags prevented them from becoming reality. In the meantime, Nature’s Path kept funding our work, providing seed money for our Billion Baby Turtles and Too Rare To Wear programs. They also decided to offer wildlife trips as a sweepstakes to generate publicity and interest in their products. We ran trips to Costa Rica and Belize with their staff and customers, which was a great way to help them develop an emotional connection to these animals and build individual relationships. Finally in 2019, the company was ready to move forward with its newest product, Turtle Splash. We worked with them to find photos, create educational materials for the box (both inside and outside), and the company agreed to donate for every box

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sold to our work. Our Billion Baby Turtles program was the perfect fit; we were able to figure out the math so that every box sold would save one hatchling (see that case study below for more information). They created a website where each box had a unique code that can be used to personalize a certificate for the hatchling, a great way to engage their customers. They also encourage their customers to purchase our adoption packs, and we created a page geared toward kids that they included on the box. The company now says that they want every one of their product donations to have the kind of simple yet concrete impact that we offer with Billion Baby Turtles.

School fundraising In the United States, many schools, especially those in more affluent areas, will hold fundraisers for nonprofits. These fundraisers can be a significant amount of work, for both whoever organizes it for the school (be it a teacher, club, student, or administrator) as well as for the organization. But fundraising in schools can be a great way to both engage students in conservation and raise money at the same time. My organization has seen a significant increase recently of individual or small groups of kids raising money in their neighborhoods and on social media for sea turtles. In addition, some universities will provide funding for field research projects, though generally that involves a professor from that college to lead the research, which makes it a difficult way for projects to raise funds unless there are strong connections to universities. When encouraging schools to participate in a fundraiser, it is important to make it as easy as possible for the organizer. Walk them through the steps of explaining the fundraiser (and where funds go), how to collect the funds, how to submit them, and what kind of recognition they will get. Ask your sponsors who have kid-friendly products to donate them to give as prizes and help share the word on their social media accounts. Personalized certificates for the student or class is a great way to give them something tangible for their efforts.

Case study: Baby Turtle School Fundraising Contest One of my earlier ideas for raising funds for Billion Baby Turtles was to organize a contest that schools across the country can participate in. I put together a kit with examples of how to fundraise that I found online, detailed where the funds would go, and laid out a set of rules that I borrowed from similar contests (it is usually a good idea to consult a lawyer about these kinds of promotions as many states have differing laws). I asked my corporate sponsors Nature’s Path, Endangered Species Chocolate, and Pura Vida Bracelets to donate prizes for the schools that raised the most money. We promote the contest through our partners and social media, give the schools a month or so to fundraise, and offer a set of resources that teachers can use to make the effort an educational experience, including live online presentations, videos, lesson plans, and more. We offer a variety of prizes, including postcards and stickers, activity

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books, certificates, and turtle flags, as well as giving away a free spot on one of our trips for a teacher. At the end of the period, the schools turn in their funds and we determine three winners based on different categories, most funds raised, most raised per student (for schools with small class sizes), and most raised for an elementary school. Recently we also added a category for individual students and small groups. The creativity that these students and teachers show in their fundraising is inspiring. We have had students raise over US $1,000 selling reusable straws or other plastic alternatives. Some hold bake sales with turtle-shaped cookies or sell our postcards and stickers for $1 each, which can save 10 hatchlings. From 2013 to 2019, we have had more than 2500 students from 70þ schools raise more than US $30,000 for our Billion Baby Turtles program.

Government funding This is the area of fundraising that I don’t have a lot of experience with, so my insight will be somewhat limited. These kinds of funds can come from a wide variety of agencies or ministries such as ministries of the environment or tourism, national park systems, wildlife management agencies, or aid agencies like US AID, or even multilateral or semi-governmental bodies like the World Bank or the United Nations. In addition, in some countries, foreign embassies have funds for social and environmental projects. Some of the largest dedicated sources of funding for sea turtle conservation fall into this category, specifically the Marine Turtle Conservation Fund (MTCF) of the US Fish & Wildlife Service (US FWS), and the Sea Turtle Program of the National Fish & Wildlife Foundation (NFWF). These funds have very specific program and geographic priorities but both will fund sea turtle conservation programs around the world and their staff are knowledgeable about sea turtles and the issues they face. One important stipulation of MTCF grants is that applicants need to have letters of support from the government of the country where the funds are being spent. In addition, US FWS has other funds that can support sea turtle conservation efforts such as the Wildlife Without Borders program.

Case study: Billion Baby Turtles Program SEE Turtles cofounder Dr. Wallace J. Nichols was the inspiration behind this program, which initially was created based on the idea that $1 could save a hatchling. We began this program in 2013 by researching this cost with a number of our partners in Latin America, asking different organizations to calculate their cost per hatchling saved. This is a simple equation where the organization adds up their total budget for protecting nesting beaches, including salaries for patrollers, equipment, and hatchery costs (if applicable). Then, they take their average number of hatchlings (over a 5-year period if available) and divide that by the total cost, resulting in a rough estimate per hatchling.

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We realized that the cost in many cases was well lower than $1 each, depending on the number of hatchlings (beaches with more nests generally had lower costs). But we did not want to only focus on saving the most hatchlings per dollar donated. So we developed a set of criteria for which projects we would support with the funds raised, including the importance of the beach for the species on a global or regional level, the funds available for the organization, how well the organization is managed, local community involvement, and how endangered are the species being protected. That way, we could still fund smaller but important projects and balance out those higher costs with larger beaches with lower per hatchling costs. In the first few years of Billion Baby Turtles, we focused on a small number of projects with which we (J. Nichols and I) had some familiarity and knew they fit our criteria. The initial number of hatchlings saved per dollar donated was roughly five hatchlings saved per dollar donated. That cost included SEE Turtles keeping 10% of donations to cover our expenses such as staff time, credit card fees, and bank fees. However, as the program grew and we began funding more beaches with larger nesting numbers, the number of hatchlings rose to 10 per dollar donated. As the program grows, we are now offering request for proposals for specific types of projects, such as hawksbill nesting beaches or new beach conservation programs. Funds for this program come from a variety of sources, including our conservation tours, schools and students (see case study above), individual donors, corporate sponsors, and foundation grants. The simple message of “10 baby turtles saved for every dollar donated” has become a powerful message that resonates with individuals and businesses alike. By making our impact concrete, providing attractive graphics and photos, and being transparent about how the funds are used, the program is rapidly growing. For the first few years of the program, we provided between US $30,000 to $50,000 in grants per year. Initially, the corporate sponsorships were the easiest to obtain; SEE Turtles had a significant social media presence by that point and several relationships that we were able to build upon. Our assumption was that individual fundraising would be simple and powerful, and focused a lot of energy on “crowdfunding,” using websites like IndieGogo with the hope of going viral and raising a lot of funds quickly. But that didn’t work out the way we expected; our first 3 years of the program we raised less than $10,000 per year from individuals and paid significant fees to the platform and credit card companies. So we switched to raising funds through our website and kept working to reach more people and show our impact as the program grew slowly but steadily. Like a beach with its first hatchlings returning to nest after years of protection efforts, our individual donations grew slowly and then suddenly quickly. We went from roughly $10,000 raised each year from 2015 to 2017 from individuals, to more than US$25,000 in 2018 and 2019. I wish I knew what caused that jump, but other than working patiently to develop connections with our donors and reach larger audiences, I’m not sure exactly how that happened. Corporate donations also took a jump in 2018, growing to more than $30,000, after years of being between $10,000 and $20,000. We now no longer need to spend much time reaching out to new companies; instead we focus on those companies that approach us, more than half of which we find become sponsors, sometimes for years.

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One bit of advice about working with smaller and newer companies that give lower amounts, it only takes one company to take off to become large donors. When we first started working with Pura Vida Bracelets, donations from sales of a specific bracelet barely broke $1,000. But the company has now become a major brand and we receive more than $10,000 per year from them alone, the result of sales of just one of dozens of varieties of bracelets the company has. Just because a company is new or the donation is not large does not mean it is not worth the effort. But be sure that the smaller donations require less management, you don’t want to invest large amounts of time in smaller partnerships.

Conclusion Fundraising for sea turtle conservation has its inherent benefits and challenges. They are charismatic animals with many enthusiastic fans around the world, and sometimes they will find you if you are visible enough. But with that popularity comes competition, both between your organization and among other endangered wildlife. If you can articulate your work’s story and niche, identify the most likely funders, and cultivate the important relationships, you can build a strong fundraising base to sustain your organization over a long period of time.

Index A AA-battery powered lights, 159 Animal capture, 36 Antipoaching drone operations, 59e60 Aquatic reptiles, thermoregulation case studies, 170e173 San Diego Bay, Green turtles in, 171e172 South Bay Power Plant (SBPP), 172 Arizona State University, 158e159 Attitudes, 8 Aula Tortuguera, 88 Aviaç~ao Cabo Verde (AAC), 61 Awareness, 8 B Baby turtle school fundraising contest, 215e216 Baja California Sur, Mexico (BCS), 158e159 Baseline health data, 32e33 Beach camping at Maruata, Mexico, 99 Bekko, Japan International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), 133 negotiations, 137 perseverance, 137e138 science and research, 133e134 share credit, 134e135 stakeholders, 137 tool, 135e137 World Conservation Monitoring Center (WCMC), 134 Beyond visual range (BVR), 60 Billion baby turtles program, 216e218 Biological samples collection, 37e38 Biopsies, 39 Blood processing, 38e39 Boa Vista, 59e60

additional equipment, 61e62 legal issues of, 61 operation, 62e63 project setup, 60e63 sensor/camera, 61 UAV system, 61e62 Building international support, 143e145 Building local support, 143e144 C Camera trapping, 196 Capacity building, 8 Capture-Mark-Recapture (CMR), 45 CARMABI, 77 Charity events, 79 Coastal development issues, 98 Communication, 161 Community-based organizations (CBOs), 7 Conservation medicine, 32 Convention for the International Trade of Endangered Species (CITES), 106, 134e136, 138 Corporate funding, 79 Corporate sponsors, 211e214 Crowdfunding, 79 Cruise ship tours, 102 D Data collection, 179e180 Data management, 181 Datasheets, 34 Daytrips, 101 Deadlines, 210 Dedications, 208 Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWC), 6 Diplomacy skills, 129e130 Direct observations, 192e194 Drones, 195

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Drones (Continued) antipoaching drone operations, 59e60 background, 57e58 Boa Vista, 59e60 additional equipment, 61e62 legal issues of, 61 operation, 62e63 project setup, 60e63 sensor/camera, 61 UAV system, 61e62 conservation, 58e59 drone operation, 62e63 first-person-view (FPV), 61 introduction, 57e58 night mission, 63e64 operation, 62e63 project setup, 60e63 research, 58e59 Sea Turtle Surveillance Task Force (STSTF), 58 social and legal challenges, 59e60 strategic considerations, 64e65 unmanned aerial vehicle (UAVs), 57e58 usage, 58e59 E Ecotourism, 4e5, 96 benefits of, 97e98 case studies, 99e100 Beach camping at Maruata, Mexico, 99 leave no trace ordinances, Alabama, 99e100 public sea turtle watches, Florida, 100 challenges, 98e100 coastal development issues, 98 communities, 98 niches, 100e103 cruise ship tours, 102 daytrips, 101 marketing, 103 student travel, 103 tour operators, 102 voluntourism, 101e102 risks, 98e100 travelers, 97 visitors, 97 Ectotherms, 171 Education, 87e89 Emotional skills, 129e130

Index

Empathy, 160 Empowering, 161 Esophageal lavage, 39 Ethical issues, 128e129 Excreta, 39 Extensive preplanning, 161 F First-person-view (FPV), 61 Florida Atlantic University (FAU), 169 Flotillas, 189e190 Foundation grants, 79 Fundraising baby turtle school fundraising contest, 215e216 billion baby turtles program, 216e218 concrete, 202e203 confident, 203 corporate sponsors, 211e214 deadlines, 210 emotional, 202e203 follow-up, 204 gift incentives, 205 government funding, 216 individual donors, 206e208 instructions, 210 Marine Life Protection Act, 211e214 nature’s path foods, 214e215 niche, 203e204 persistent, 203 primary funding sources, 206e210 private foundations, 208 proposal, 210 template, 209e210 research, 209 school fundraising, 215 simple, 202e203 SMART, 210 social media, 204e206 start close, 205 story focus, 202 time, 204 transparent, 204 G Genuineness, 161 Gift incentives, 205 Government funding, 216 Green Phenix, 79e81

Index

Green turtles, 171e172 Grenada addressing tourism impacts, 117e118 carrying capacity, 119e120 mechanism, 117 closing the beach, 118e119 government interventions, 118 lessons from, 120 Levera beach, 116e117 Levera Management Committee (LMC), 116 Ocean Spirits, 113e114, 117e118 origin, 115e116 Sea turtle tourism, 114e115 Wider Caribbean Sea Turtle Network (WIDECAST), 117 Grupo Tortuguero, 158e159 H Hatchery, rural Costa Rica people management, 73e74 raccoon war, 71e72 roofing mesh, 72 temperature, 69e71 Hawksbill metal tagging from Campeche, Mexico final remarks, 27e28 financial considerations, 26e27 long-term tagging/monitoring programs, 27 mark-recapture data, 24 metal tagging, complementary research to, 25e26 satellite telemetry, 26 systematic data analysis, 24 tagging data, 25 tagging sea turtle individuals, 23 Yucatan Peninsula, 23 Health assessment data, 40e41 Home videos, 191e192 Humility, 160 I Illegal hawksbill trafficking, Cartagena de Indias, Colombia building international support, 143e145 building local support, 143e144 characterization, 141e143 diagnosis, 141e143 education, 145e146

221

enforcement officials, capacity building, 146e147 Iniciativa Carey, 141 outreach, 145e146 Illegal take of sea turtles, 124 Illegal, unregulated, and unreported (IUU), 124 Incidental capture, coastal fisheries AA-battery powered lights, 159 Arizona State University, 158e159 Baja California Sur, Mexico (BCS), 158e159 careful consideration, 162 communication, 161 empathy, 160 empowering, 161 extensive preplanning, 161 flexible, 162 genuineness, 161 Grupo Tortuguero, 158e159 humility, 160 industrial-scale fisheries, 153 listening, 161 long-term commitments, 161 objectives, 161e162 patience, 161 relationship building, 160e161 research project, 161e162 sense of humor, 161 Trash and Turtle Excluder Device (TTED), 153 Turtle Excluder Device (TED), 153 World Wildlife Fund (WWF), 153 Individual donors, 206e208 Industrial-scale fisheries, 153 Iniciativa Carey, 141 International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), 133 In-water/foraging animals, 36 K Karumbé creation, 83e84 L Large-scale export operation, 105 Levera Management Committee (LMC), 116 Logistical issues, 127e131 Long-term tagging/monitoring programs, 27

222

M Madagascar, 125 Management strategies, 40e41 Marine Conservation Society (MCS), 7e8 Marine Life Protection Act, 211e214 Mark-recapture data, 24 Metal tagging, complementary research to, 25e26 Mexican turtle beach children education, 16e17 community, 18 degree, 18e19 local government, 17 military, 17 police, 17 sea turtles, 19 Secretary of the Environment and Natural Resources (SEMARNAT), 17 Microenvironments, 179 Ministry of the Environment, Energy, and Telecommunications (MINAET), 109 Monitoring, 179e180 Morphological measurements, 37 Mozambique, 123e124 N Nancite, 189 Natural History 2.0 approach camera trapping, 196 citizen science, 196e197 drones, 195 photo ID, 196 underwater monitoring, 195e196 Nature tourism, 5e6 Negotiations, 137 Niches marketing, 103, 203e204 Night-vision drone technology, 58 Noninvasive techniques, 33e34 O Observation flight mode, 63 Olive Ridley Project (ORP), 50 Once-through cooling (OTC) systems, 170, 173 P Partnerships, 8e9 People management, 73e74

Index

Perseverance, 137e138 Photographic identification (PID), 196 Capture-Mark-Recapture (CMR), 45 definition, 45 maldives, 49e53 Olive Ridley Project (ORP), 50 reunion, 46e48 Roatan, 48e50 robust design (RD), 51 Sandy Bay West End Marine Reserve (SBWEMR), 48 TORSOOI PID software, 47 Pilot program, 107 Planning, 34 Plastic bay, 77 Plastic pollution Aula Tortuguera, 88 computational oceanic circulationmodels, 86 definition, 83 education, 87e89 issue tackling, 85e89 Karumbé creation, 83e84 rehabilitation, 86e87 reintroduction, 86e87 research, 85e86 samples, 85e86 Uruguayan waters, 84e85 Primary funding sources, 206e210 Principal investigator (PI), 125 Private foundations, 208 Processing fees, 207e208 Project sustainability, 11 Public sea turtle watches, Florida, 100 Q Quantitative approaches, 190 R Raccoon war, 71e72 Recurring donations, 207 Rehabilitation, 86e87 Rekawa Sanctuary, Sri Lanka attitudes, 8 awareness, 8 benefits to, 6e7 capacity building, 8 community-based organizations (CBOs), 7 ecotourism, 4e5

Index

Marine Conservation Society (MCS), 7e8 nature tourism, 5e6 partnerships, 8e9 project sustainability, 11 tourism, 7e8 Turtle Conservation Project (TCP), 3e4, 9e11 wildlife institutions, 7e8 Relationship building, 160e161 Research project, 161e162 Response emails, 208 Reunion, 46e48 Roatan, 48e50 Robust design (RD), 51 Roofing mesh, 72 S Sample collection, 34e35 Sampling nesting females, 35e36 San Diego Bay, Green turtles in, 171e172 Sandy Bay West End Marine Reserve (SBWEMR), 48 Satellite telemetry, 26 School fundraising, 215 Sea Turtle Conservancy (STC), 105e106 Sea Turtle Conservation Curacao (STCC), 78e79 CARMABI, 77 charity events, 79 corporate funding, 79 crowdfunding, 79 foundation grants, 79 get creative, 79 Green Phenix, 79e81 plastic bay, 77 Sea Turtle Conservation Curacao, 78e79 social employment opportunities, 81e82 Sea turtle health assessments animal capture, 36 baseline health data, 32e33 biological samples collection, 37e38 biopsies, 39 blood processing, 38e39 conservation medicine, 32 datasheets, 34 esophageal lavage, 39 excreta, 39 health assessment data, 40e41 in-water/foraging animals, 36

223

management strategies, 40e41 morphological measurements, 37 noninvasive techniques, 33e34 pain, 35 reduction techniques, 35 physical examination, 36 planning, 34 preparation, 34e35 sample collection, 34e35 sampling nesting females, 35e36 stress reduction techniques, 35 study design, 34e35 swabs, 39 tagging, 40 Sea Turtle Surveillance Task Force (STSTF), 58 Secretary of the Environment and Natural Resources (SEMARNAT), 17 Sense of humor, 161 Share credit, 134e135 Small-scale fisheries (SSF), 124 SMART, 210 Social employment opportunities, 81e82 Social media, 204 South Bay Power Plant (SBPP), 172 Southwest Indian Ocean (SWIO), 124 cultural issues, 128e129 diplomacy skills, 129e130 emotional skills, 129e130 ethical issues, 128e129 illegal take of sea turtles, 124 illegal,unregulated, and unreported (IUU), 124 logistical issues, 127e131 Madagascar, 125 methodological issues, 125e127 Mozambique, 123e124 principalinvestigator (PI), 125 small-scale fisheries (SSF), 124 southwest Indian Ocean (SWIO), 124 turtle excluder devices (TEDs), 124 vulnerable communities, 130 Spotter system creation, 109e110 Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority(SLTDA), 5 State-space modeling outputs, 193 Stress reduction techniques, 35 Student travel, 103 Surveillance flight, 63

224

Swabs, 39 Systematic data analysis, 24 T Tagging, 23, 25, 40 Tech age, 192e194 Temperature, 69e71 Temperature dataloggers, 179 Too Rare to Wear campaign, 145 TORSOOI PID software, 47 Tortuguero National Park (TNP), Costa Rica, 105 Conventionfor the International Trade of Endangered Species (CITES), 106 growth of tourism, 106 pilot program, 107 Sea Turtle Conservancy (STC), 105e106 spotter system creation, 109e110 tourism challenges, 110e111 turtle guide system, 106e109 Vanguardia, 105 Tour operators, 102 Trash and Turtle Excluder Device (TTED), 153 Travelers, 97 Turtle Conservation Fund (TCF), 6

Index

Turtle excluder devices (TEDs), 124, 153 Turtle guide system, 106e109 Turtle Spotter Program, 109 U Underwater monitoring, 195e196 Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAVs), 57e58 Uruguayan waters, 84e85 V Vanguardia, 105 Visitors, 97 Voluntourism, 101e102 Vulnerable communities, 130 W Wider Caribbean Sea Turtle Network (WIDECAST), 117 Wildlife institutions, 7e8 World Conservation Monitoring Center (WCMC), 134 World Wildlife Fund (WWF), 144e145, 153 Y Yucatan Peninsula, 23