Science and Technology 7

Citation preview

7

Dr. Kemal Akkan BATMAN (Head of Committee) Diren CİVA GÜNER Fatma Yalçın SANCAK Salih SARPTEN Ömer ÖZKAN Translated By Rüya Çağlar Perin Köşkeroğlu Seral Arapoğlu Pervin Özbeşer

Bu kitap, Milli Eğitim ve Kültür Bakanlığı, Talim Terbiye Dairesi tarafından ortaokullarda (Temel Eğitim İkinci Kademe) ders kitabı olarak geliştirilmesi uygun bulunmuştur.

Resimleyen ve Kapak Tasarım Fen ve Teknoloji Komisyonu Grafik Tasarım Mustafa DOĞAN Dizgi Mustafa DOĞAN Türkçe Düzeltme Meltem Ergin TEKİN Birinci Baskı Ağustos 2006

Baskı, Cilt

Her hakkı saklıdır ve KKTC Milli Eğitim Bakanlığına aittir. Kitabın metin, soru, resim ve şekilleri kısmen de olsa hiçbir surette alınıp yayımlanamaz.

İSTİKLÂL MARŞI

Korkma, sönmez bu şafaklarda yüzen al sancak; Sönmeden yurdumun üstünde tüten en son ocak. O benim milletimin yıldızıdır, parlayacak, O benimdir, o benim milletimindir ancak.

Bastığın yerleri "toprak!" diyerek geçme, tanı: Düşün altındaki binlerce kefensiz yatanı. Sen şehit oğlusun, incitme, yazıktır, atanı: Verme, dünyaları alsan da, bu cennet vatanı.

Çatma, kurban olayım, çehreni ey nazlı hilâl! Kahraman ırkıma bir gül! Ne bu şiddet, bu celâl? Sana olmaz dökülen kanlarımız sonra helâl... Hakkıdır, Hakk'a tapan, milletimin istiklâl!

Kim bu cennet vatanın uğruna olmaz ki fedâ? Şüheda fışkıracak toprağı sıksan, şühedâ! Cânı, cânânı, bütün varımı alsın da Huda, Etmesin tek vatanımdan beni dünyada cüda.

Ben ezelden beridir hür yaşadım, hür yaşarım. Hangi çılgın bana zincir vuracakmış? Şaşarım! Kükremiş sel gibiyim, bendimi çiğner, aşarım. Yırtarım dağları, enginlere sığmam, taşarım.

Ruhumun senden, İlâhi, şudur ancak emeli: Değmesin mabedimin göğsüne nâmahrem eli. Bu ezanlar -ki şahadetleri dinin temeliEbedi yurdumun üstünde benim inlemeli.

Garbın âfâkını sarmışsa çelik zırhlı duvar, Benim iman dolu göğsüm gibi serhaddim var! Ulusun, korkma! Nasıl böyle bir imanı boğar, "Medeniyet!" dediğin tek dişi kalmış canavar?

O zaman vecd ile bin secde eder -varsa- taşım, Her cerihamdan, İlâhi, boşanıp kanlı yaşım, Fışkırır rûh-ı mücerred gibi yerden na'şım; O zaman yükselerek arşa değer belki başım.

Arkadaş! Yurduma alçakları uğratma, sakın. Siper et gövdeni, dursun bu hayâsızca akın. Doğacaktır sana va'dettiği günler Hakk'ın... Kim bilir, belki yarın, belki yarından da yakın.

Dalgalan sen de şafaklar gibi ey şanlı hilâl! Olsun artık dökülen kanlarımın hepsi helâl. Ebediyen sana yok, ırkıma yok izmihlâl: Hakkıdır, hür yaşamış, bayrağımın hürriyet; Hakkıdır, Hakk'a tapan, milletimin istiklal!

Mehmet Âkif ERSOY

Ey Türk gençliği! Birinci vazifen, Türk istiklâlini, Türk cumhuriyetini, ilelebet muhafaza ve müdafaa etmektir. Mevcudiyetinin ve istikbalinin yegâne temeli budur. Bu temel, senin, en kıymetli hazinendir. İstikbalde dahi, seni bu hazineden, mahrum etmek isteyecek, dahili ve harici, bedhahların olacaktır. Bir gün, istiklâl ve cumhuriyeti müdafaa mecburiyetine düşersen, vazifeye atılmak için, içinde bulunacağın vaziyetin imkân ve şeraitini düşünmeyeceksin! Bu imkân ve şerait, çok nâmüsait bir mahiyette tezahür edebilir. İstiklâl ve cumhuriyetine kastedecek düşmanlar, bütün dünyada emsali görülmemiş bir galibiyetin mümessili olabilirler. Cebren ve hile ile aziz vatanın, bütün kaleleri zapt edilmiş, bütün tersanelerine girilmiş, bütün orduları dağıtılmış ve memleketin her köşesi bilfiil işgal edilmiş olabilir. Bütün bu şeraitten daha elim ve daha vahim olmak üzere, memleketin dahilinde, iktidara sahip olanlar gaflet ve dalalet ve hatta hıyanet içinde bulunabilirler. Hatta bu iktidar sahipleri şahsi menfaatlerini, müstevlilerin siyasi emelleriyle tevhit edebilirler. Millet, fakr u zaruret içinde harap ve bitap düşmüş olabilir. Ey Türk istikbalinin evlâdı! İşte, bu ahval ve şerait içinde dahi, vazifen; Türk istiklâl ve cumhuriyetini kurtarmaktır! Muhtaç olduğun kudret, damarlarındaki asil kanda, mevcuttur!

th

7 GRADE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY TEXT BOOK th

7 grade Science and Technology Text Book aims to meet the educational needs of students which are related to the nature of science & technology, key concepts of science, scientific thinking skills, interaction among science-technology-society-environment, scientific & technical psychomotor skills, scientific values, and attitudes toward science. This book acknowledges learning differences of students therefore, it is designed to provide foundation for each student to use his/her learning method to reach the cognitive, affective, and psycho-motor objectives of Science & Technology Course. Additionally, the mission of the 7th grade Science and Technology Text Book is to develop higher level thinking skills of students such as reasoning, creative problem solving, reconstruction of knowledge, and scientific thinking. In this book cultural and environmental contex were taken into consideration when examples are given. In order to reach the aims of this book, the following points should be carefully involved during the teaching process: “Entry Activities” should be presented before introducing each unit. Opening Activities will help students questioning their existing schemes and constructing new ones. “Concept maps” or “graphics” which are presented in the beginning of each unit, should be studied carefully. Concept maps or graphics, which provide an outline involving behavioral objectives of each unit, will help student to acquire the behavioral objectives. “End of Unit Tests” will help students test their individual learning. Multiple Intelligent activities which are presented at the end of each unit, will enhance the learning of each student regarding his/her intelligent type. Multiple Intelligent activities are the examples, which involve topics of units. Students can study these activities by choosing among the existing examples under the supervision of teachers or create themselves. These activities will facilitate the movement toward contemporary measurement and evaluation. We believe that this book has been designed to meet the needs of students in contemporary education systems. We predict the success of each student and feel happy.

Committee of Science and Technology

Dear Colleagues, This book contains principles, academic rules, and generalizations, which were not included very much in the 6th Grade Science and Technology Textbook. This must be perceived as a requirement of the 7th grade science and technology curriculum. Principles, academic rules, and generalizations are cognitive information forms. Similar teaching-learning methods are used to learn them Principle is the relationship between the concepts which are accepted to be true in all cases. Example: Force can move stationary objects, can stop moving objects or can change the direction of movement.

Psychology of teaching-learning emphasizes that when the learning process of students are taken into account, learning of principles involves both active and passive learning processes. However, recent educational trends emphasize that active learning increases constructive process, speed, creativity, and retention. Therefore, it can be said that, it is going to be appropriate to involve active learning methods in learning of principles. In this book, principles, generalizations, and academic rules are written in bold. Traditionally, “deduction” method is used in teaching of principles, generalizations, and academic rules.

AN EXAMPLE OF DEDUCTION METHOD IN LEARNING OF PRINCIPLES Example: Step I: Present the principle Principle: Force can move stationary objects, can stop moving objects or can change the direction of movement. Step II: Give an example of the principle Example: When we push a pram, it rolls by itself for a while and then stops. When a goalkeeper catches the ball, the movement of it is stopped.

AN EXAMPLE OF INDUCTION METHOD IN LEARNING OF PRINCIPLES Example:

PROCESS/STEPS

FOCUS QUESTIONS

Step I: Students are presented several examples and asked to organize and study the data and facts in these examples. Examples: Players hit the ball while playing table tennis. Sometime people start cars by pushing, when they do not start.

In this stage, students are kept focused with the following questions.

Step II: Students are asked to find common features or relationships in the examples.

In this stage, students are kept focused with questions such as:

Question: What did you find, see, hear, read?

What are the common features of these examples? or How this information relates with each other?

Step III: Based on the commonalities, a temporary principle (generalization or academic rule) is formed.

What can we say about these commonalities and relationships? Ask students to form a principle and write it down. PRINCIPLE:...............................................

Step IV: Test the temporary principle (generalizationacademic rule) with other knowledge

When we compare this principle with other data, does it still correct? If the principle is correct, accept it. If not, go back to the Step III and repeat it.

An Example of

“Problem Solving” or “Expository” method in learning of principles.

1. Teacher defines the problem by relating it to the targeted principle. Example: What is the relationship between force and non-moving objects? Teacher presents the problem statement by asking a question to trigger the curiosity of the students. 2. A temporary statement (analysis) for the problem is presented as a hypothesis Example: Force can move stationary objects, can stop moving objects or can change the direction of movement. In this step, teacher finds the principle and develops the hypothesis with the students. 3. Collection of data/ information. In this stage, teacher guides students as either a whole group or small groups, to collect data and find examples related to the hypothesis. Teacher gives the resources and asks the student to explore data and examples in these resources. Example: TUBİTAK Gençlik Dizisi Yayınlar - “Kuvvet ve Hareket”, Bilim ve Teknik Dergisi, Bilim Çocuk Dergisi, Focus Dergisi, Meydan Larusse, web pages. 4. Data is analyzed in the classroom. The hypothesis is tested based on the data with the students in the classroom. Example: Can forces realy move the stationary objects ? Can forces stop the moving objects ? Can forces change the direction of the movement of an objects? 5. Statement of the principle Based on the analysis, the principle is stated. If the hypothesis developed in the second stage is supported, then, it is accepted as a principle, if not, the teacher has to go back to the first stage and repeat the same procedure all over again.

“Inductive” and “Problem Solving” or “Expository” methods are recommended for the learning of principles because they support active involvement in the learning process. By this way, students both learn a dimension of the subject matter and develop scientific reasoning and thinking skills, which are accepted as important objectives in elementary education. Committee of Science and Technology

CONTENTS UNIT 1 : THE STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER Entry Activities..................................................................................................................................... The Structure and Properties of Matter.......................................................................................... The Idea of Atom During Past Three Centuries.............................................................................. 1.1 A - Inside and Outside of an Atom............................................................................................................ 1.1 B - Electron Configuration......................................................................................................................... 1.1 C - Identity of Atoms.................................................................................................................................. 1.1 D - The Differences Between the Atoms of an Element...................................................................... 1.2 A - The Periodic Table................................................................................................................................. 1.2 B - Reactions of Elemets............................................................................................................................. 1.2 C - Formation of Ions .................................................................................................................................. 1.3 A - Covalent Bonding.................................................................................................................................... 1.3 B - Physical and Chemical Charges............................................................................................................. 1.3 C - Signs of Chemical Change....................................................................................................................... TEST 1...................................................................................................................................................... Multiple Intelligence Activities..........................................................................................................

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

UNIT 2 : FORCE AND MOVEMENT Entry Activities...................................................................................................................................... 20 Force And Movement............................................................................................................................ 21 2.1 A - Forces in our Environment.................................................................................................................... 22 2.1 B - What is Force?........................................................................................................................................ 23 2.1 C - How Do We Measure Force?................................................................................................................ 24 2.2 A- Force in Action........................................................................................................................................ 25 2.3 A - Simple Machines..................................................................................................................................... 26 2.3 B - Inclined Planes in our Environment...................................................................................................... 27 2.3 C - We are Lifting Heavy Weights With Small Forces.......................................................................... 28 2.3 D - Let Us Use The Rotational Force........................................................................................................ 29 2.4 A - If There was no Frictional ! .................................................................................................................. 30 2.5 A - Let’s Move.......... ...................................................................................................................................... 31 2.5 B - Velocity and Speed................................................................................................................................. 32 TEST 2...................................................................................................................................................... 33 Multiple Intellegence Activities......................................................................................................... 34

UNIT 3 : LIGHT AND SOUND Entry Activities...................................................................................................................................... 38 Light And Sound..................................................................................................................................... 39 3.1 A - Diffusion of Light.................................................................................................................................. 40 3.1 B - Colours...................................................................................................................................................... 41 3.2 A - Lenses...................................................................................................................................................... 42 3.2 B - Directing The Light.............................................................................................................................. 43 3.3 A - How Does Sound Travel?.................................................................................................................... 44 3.3 B - Properties of Sound ............................................................................................................................. 45 TEST 3..................................................................................................................................................... 46 Multiple Intellegence Activities........................................................................................................ 47

UNIT 4 : SYSTEMS IN OUR BODY Entry Activities.................................................................................................................................... 50 Systems in Our Body........................................................................................................................... 51 4.1 A - Digestive System................................................................................................................................. 52 4.1 B - Mechanical and Chemical Digestion.................................................................................................. 53 4.2 A -Circulatory System.............................................................................................................................. 54 4.2 B - Blood Vessels and Circulation............................................................................................................ 55 4.2 C - Blood and Blood Groups....................................................................................................................... 56 4.2 D - Lymph Circulation and Natural Defenses...................................................................................... 57 4.2 E - Immunity and Microbes...................................................................................................................... 58 4.3 A - Respiratory System............................................................................................................................ 59 4.4 A - The Skeleton, Joints, Muscles......................................................................................................... 60 4.5 A - Excretory System............................................................................................................................... 61 4.6 A - Nervous System................................................................................................................................... 62 4.6 B - Brain........................................................................................................................................................ 63 4.7 A - Endocrine Glands................................................................................................................................. 64 TEST 4.................................................................................................................................................... 65 Multiple Intellegence Activities....................................................................................................... 66

UNIT 5 : OUR SENSE ORGANS AND SENSES Entry Activities.................................................................................................................................... 70 Our Sense Organs And Senses...................................................................................................... 71 5.1 A - Eyes......................................................................................................................................................... 72 5.1 B - Eyes; The Energy Changers and Their Structures........................................................................ 73 5.1 C - Image Formation and Seeing Things................................................................................................ 74 5.1 D - Focusing of Objects at Different Distance on the Retina........................................................... 75 5.2 A - Controlling the Amount of Light Entering the Eye......................................................................... 76 5.2 B - What If Images Are Not Totally Focused on the Retina!.............................................................. 77 5.3 A - The Ear; Hearing and Balance Organce............................................................................................ 78 5.3 B - Hearing................................................................................................................................................... 79 5.4 A - Skin.......................................................................................................................................................... 80 5.5 A - The Tongue and the Sense of Taste................................................................................................. 81 5.6 A - The Nose and the Sense of Smell..................................................................................................... 82 TEST 6.................................................................................................................................................... 83 Multiple Intellegence Activities....................................................................................................... 84

UNIT 6 : MATTER AND HEAT

6.1 A6.1 B6.2 A6.2 B6.2 C-

Entry Activities................................................................................................................................... 88 Matter And Heat................................................................................................................................. 89 Heat or Tempature............................................................................................................................. 90 Exchange of Heat and State Change.............................................................................................. 91 Expansion............................................................................................................................................... 92 Bi-Metal Strip...................................................................................................................................... 93 Expansion Liquid and Gases................................................................................................................ 94 TEST 6................................................................................................................................................... 95 Multiple Intellegence Activities...................................................................................................... 96

UNIT 7 : HYDROGEN, METALS, ACIDS AND ALKALIS Entry Activities.................................................................................................................................. 100 Hydrogen, Metals, Acids and Alkalis............................................................................................. 101 7.1 A- More About Hydrogen........................................................................................................................102 7.1 B- A Useful Fuel....................................................................................................................................... 103 7.1 C- The Fuel of the Future.......................................................................................................................104 7.2 A- Metals and Reactivity.........................................................................................................................105 7.2 B- Rusting............................................................................................................................................... 106 7.2 C- Alloys are Better.............................................................................................................................. 107 7.3 A- Acids.................................................................................................................................................. 108 7.3 B- Bases and Alkalis................................................................................................................................ 109 7.3 C- Colour Selection and pH.....................................................................................................................110 7.4 A- Acids and Alkalis are Opposites...................................................................................................... 111 7.4 B- Salts.................................................................................................................................................... 112 TEST 7.................................................................................................................................................. 113 Multiple Intellegence Activities.......................................................................................................114

REFERENCES......................................................................................................................................... 117

Symbols

Symbolize the questions which test the learned behaviours about the work sheet.

Symbolize the knowledge which aims to cause change in affected behaviours about the work sheet.

Symbolize the important knowledge about the work sheet.

UNIT 1

THE STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Formula

co

shown by Symbol

can be

e nb

nt

e can b

formed between

ca

ain

s

Non-metal

c o n t a i n s

covalent bonding

ELEMENT ca n

of ty pe

Ionic bonding

di ff er en t

er n ord

o nly

ged i

e nb ca

o ns tai con

Semi-metal formed between

compound

at om s

be

Metal

tom fa

co nt ai ns

do kin ne

arran

shown by

Molecule

Periodic Table contains

ATOM Group

Period

can form ions

Ion ing los or ing ain yg db me for

contains 1st group Alkali Metals 2nd group Alkaline Earth Metals

Nucleus contains

7th group Halogens 8th group Noble Gases Proton

Neutron

Electron

1

Entry Activities The size of atoms medium-sized dog

Look at the pictures below. Discuss the size of an atom with your friends and teacher. Note down the results of your discussion. Go over your results at the end of the unit.

your fingernail a soap molecule (more than 50 atoms)

All atoms are less than 1 nm in diameter.

a virus

a bacterium

a pinhead

blood capillaries red blood cells

A B

There are some changes at points A and B while the candle is burning. What type of changes do you think these are ? Discuss with your friends and write down what you think. (Evaluate your answers at the end of the Unit).

If you could break an iron nail into its smallest possible particle that carries the properties of iron, what would you get? Would you get the same result if it was possible to break other substances like water into their smallest particles? Discuss with your friends and write down your ideas. Go over your notes at the end of the unit.

2

The Structure and Properties of Matter

THE STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER It is impossible to see the atoms even with a high power microscope as they are very tiny. The electron micrographs shows large molecules which are formed by the combination of millions of atoms. You can say that the Electron Micrographs can be resembled a picture of the Great Wall of China taken from space. In the picture, you can see the Great Wall of China but not the stones that make up the wall.

The Electron Micrograph of graphite shows regular pattern of individual carbon atoms.

Great Wall of China

About 2400 years ago the Ancient Greek philosopher Democritus suggested that you could obtain the smallest particle of a substance if you divide it infinitely. The word atom comes from the Greek word Atomas which means 'indivisible'. The idea of Democritus fits the modern Atomic Theory in explaining the structures of simple substances like metals.

An iron nail is made up of iron atoms

Other Ancient Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle rejected Democritus' . Today's scientists are really impressed by Ancient Greek scientists who put forward ideas without carrying out any experiments. For about 2000 years, scientists lost interest in the structure of atom until an English scientist called John Dalton(1766-1844) proposed the Atomic Theory. In this unit, we will learn about all the atomic theories put forward and will see how atoms form structures by losing, gaining or sharing electrons. Domecritus

3

1

THE IDEA OF ATOM DURING PAST THREE CENTURIES Electrons are around the neucleus

Based on Democritus' idea of an atom, Dalton carried out experiments and concluded that an atom looked like an empty sphere. Using present day Laws of multiple The nucleus contains protons and neutrons proportions and of constant proportions, he claimed an Atomic Theory in 1807. The theory 400 BC Domecritus suggests that all things are included the following information about John dalton made of particles. elements and compounds: atomic model All substances consist of atoms ! The atoms of same type of elements are 1807 John Dalton's atomic theory. Atoms of ! the same element are all alike. They exactly the same combine to make compounds. ! The atoms of different types of 1897 J.J. Thomson finds the electron. elements are different. ! Atoms can be neither created nor 1909 Ernest Rutherford discovers the proton. destroyed during a chemical change. No atom J.J. Thomson of one element is converted into an atom of atomic model Ernest Rutherford discovers nucleus. 1911 another element. ! Atoms combine in proportions to form 1913 Niels Bohr suggests that electrons are compounds. found in shells around the nucleus. ! After Dalton, J. J. Thomson discovered electron and, in his theory (1897) claimed that 1932 James Chadwick proves that neutrons exist. an atom was a positive sphere with electrons randomly scattered in it. In the explanation of Bohr atomic his theory, he said that an atom was like a fruit model cake and the electrons were the scattered fruit in this cake. Thomson's assistant Emest Rutherford discovered nucleus of the atom in his experiments, carried out in support of Thomson's theory. For comparing the diameters of nucleus and atom, he made up his famous statement that :”If a pea is considered to be the nucleus of an atom, when it is placed in the centre of a stadium, the flies going around the stands of the stadium may be accepted as the electrons that determine the volume of the atom. ”Rutherford model considers atom to be a circle with nucleus in its centre and electrons orbiting around the nucleus. Modern In 1913, the Danish physicist Niels Bohr suggested that electrons orbit around atomic model the nucleus in certain energy levels. One could compare the Bohr Model with the Solar System where several planets turn around the sun in the same orbit. In 1932, James Chadwick discovered the presence of neutrons. According to modern Atomic Theory, atoms are clouds of electrons. Previous atomic models are still accepted today as they contain many principles of today's theories. In this unit, the atom is represented in Bohr Model as it clearly explain the formation of ions.

4

The Structure and Properties of Matter

1.1 A - Inside and Outside of an Atom Why an element is different from the others? There are 3 types of particles inside an atom. These are protons, neutrons, and electrons. Each element has its own number of protons, neutrons and electrons. Therefore, each element has its own properties. Number of Protons Number of Neutrons Number of Electrons

Helium atom Sodium atom Potassium atom

2 11 19

2 12 20 M L K

nucleus electron cloud

2 11 19 proton and neutrons cluster to gether in the centre forming the nucleus.

electrons are found around the nucleus in certain energy levels.

Atom

Nucleus is in the centre of an atom. The protons and neutrons cluster together in the nucleus. Electrons circle very fast around the nucleus in certain shells (energy levels). Electrons with nearly the same energies, share the same energy level. In atoms which have more than two electrons, there can be more than one energy level depending on their electron numbers. Mass of an electron is almost nothing compared to the masses of a proton and a neutron. The mass of an atom is determined by the mass of its nucleus. The particles inside the nucleus have special forces of attraction. There is a large space between the nucleus and the energy levels where the electrons are found.

Particle Proton Neutron Electron

Charge +1 0 -1

Mass (in atomic mass units) 1 1 0(1/1840)

Protons and neutrons have almost the same mass. The electrons are so light that their mass is negligible The total mass of 1840 electrons is equal to the mass of a single proton or a neutron. 1- What are the particles in an atom? 2- Which particles are found in the nucleus? 3- Where are the electrons in an atom? Search: find the real masses of a proton, a neutron and an electron.

Breaking down a prejudice is more difficult than breaking down an atom.

5

Did You Know? Atoms do not only consist of protons, neutrons and electrons. Scientists mention the presence of at least 37 particles in an atom. Some are leptons, quark, photons, boson, graviton.

1

1.1 B - Electron Configuration You know that protons and neutrons are in the nucleus. Electrons are arranged in shells(energy levels) around the nucleus. Electrons closest to the nucleus have the lowest energy. Electrons further away from the nucleus have higher energies. Electrons fill the energy levels starting from the innermost energy level outwards. In other words; electrons can fill the energy levels starting from the lowest energy N level to the highest ones. The first energy level is called K shell M The second energy level is called L shell , and L The third energy level is called M shell . K The electron configuration shows the number of + + + + ++ electrons in each shell, working outwards starting from the nucleus. For Example: Potassium atom has 19 electrons so its electron configuration is: arrangement of electrons in an atom.

2,8,8,1 true

2,8,9 wrong

According to the Octet rule, each energy level, except the innermost one, has a maximum eight electrons. Therefore the arrangement of the first 20 atoms is ; 1st shell 2, 2nd shell 8, 3rd shell 8 The table below shows the electron configuration and the arrangement of the electrons in the atoms for the first 20 elements. According to the Octet rule, the last electrons of the elements with atomic numbers 19 and 20 are placed in the fourth energy level as the third energy level is filled with eight electrons. Hydrogen 1

H

Hellium 2

He

electron arragment of first 20 elements 1 Lithium 3

2,1 Sodium 11

2,8,1 Potassium 19

2,8,8,1

2 Li Beryllium 4

Be Boron 5

2,2

B Carbon 6

2,3

Na Magnesium Mg Aluminum 12 13

2,8,2 K Calsiyum 20

2,8,8,2

2,8,3 Ca

2,4 Al Silicon 14

2,8,4

C Nitrogen 7

2,5 Si Phosphorus 15

2,8,5

N Oxygen 8

2,6 P Sulphur 16

2,8,6

O Fluorine 9

F Neon 10

Ne

Did You Know?

2,7 S Chlorine 17

2,8 Cl Argon 18

2,8,7

2,8,8

element symbol name atomic number arragament of electrons electron configuration

6

Ar

According the modern atomic theory it is impossible to determine the velocity and location of an atom at anytime. Orbital is the region in which probability of finding an electron is the greatest

The Structure and Properties of Matter

1.1 C - Identity of Atoms Atomic Number (or proton number) and Mass Number Each element has its own atomic (proton) number. If you look at a sodium atom you can see that it has got 11 protons. You can identify an atom by looking at its proton number. Atomic number means the number of protons. In this atomic number of sodium is 11. Atomic number = proton number Neutral atoms have equal numbers of protons and electrons.. The positive charges of protons are cancelled out by an equal number of negatively charged d r a C electrons. So the number of protons (+) in an atom must always be titiy Iden m iu d So equal to the number of electrons (-). Name 1 1 Proton number = Electron number r Numbe Proton 1 1 Mass number: The mass of an atom is determined by the mass of umber Atom N Na its protons and neutrons, since the electrons have a negligible l Symbo World mass. Adress Therefore: Mass number = the number of protons + the number of neutrons Sodium atom has 11 protons and 12 neutrons, therefore its mass number is 23. Mass number - Atomic number = Number of Neutrons The Charge on a Sodium atom You can work out the number of neutrons of sodium atom as: The number of neutrons of a sodium atom = (23 - 11) = 12 Representation of atomic and mass numbers using symbols: As the charge of each proton is +1 the total positive charge is +11

A Z

Mass number Atomic number

X

For sodium atom: Symbol: Na Proton number: 11 Mass number: 23 The atomic number and mass number can be shown using chemical symbols

Symbol of Element

23 11

Na

The charge of each electron is 1 the total negative charge is -11 The total charge : +11 -11 0 The total charge of an atom is zero

1. Lithium's atomic number is 3 and its mass number is 7 a) How many Protons, neutrons and electrons are there in a Lithium atom? b) Write down the symbolic representation of Lithium atom with its atomic and mass numbers. 2) Write down the names of the atoms below and work out the number of protons, neutrons and electrons for each one. 12

16

27

56

65

238

6 C 8 O 13Al 26Fe 30Zn 92U 3. Look at the Periodic table on page 9 and write down the names of the following atoms the Protons numbers of which are given. X=2 Y=16 Z=20

7

1

1.1 D - The Differences Between the Atoms of an Element Some elements are made up of atoms with different mass numbers. Atoms of the same element with same proton numbers, but different neutron numbers i.e. different mass numbers are called isotopes. Each oxygen atom has 8 protons in its nucleus. It has 8 electrons as it is a neutral atom, proton and electron numbers are the same. Most oxygen atoms have 8 electrons. So the mass number of oxygen is (8+8=16). Some oxygen atoms have 9 neutrons. Mass number is then (8+9=17). Are isotopes oxygen isotopes. A third isotope of oxygen is very rare. These isotopes are called oxygen -16, oxygen -17, oxygen -18 respectively. You can see the picture of an Egyptian mummy aged 3100 years. Its age was found by measuring the amount of carbon atoms that has a mass number 14 ( 14C) in its.

Radio carbon-14 dating places the age of this egyptian mummy at 3100 years.

Almost all elements have isotopes. Isotopes of oxygen and carbon are found naturally. However, some isotopes are formed in special labs. Most of the isotopes change into other isotopes radiating a form of energy. These radiations are harmful for living organisms. But they can be used in medicine after reducing their harmful effects. For example: Krypton 81 isotope is used to control lungs. That is why some Krypton-81 isotope is inhaled. The isotope Cobalt 60 is used in treatment of cancer. isotope 35 17 Cl 37 17 Cl 25 12 Mg 26 12 Mg

Element

Atom number Mass Number

P

e

N

Cobalt-60 been used isotope in the treatment of cancer

Did You Know? All living organisms certain a small amount of Carbon-14 isotope. This amount is always the same because it is continuously used up and replaced(as food and carbon dioxide). But when an organism dies the amount of carbon-14 it . Its body decreases as it is radioactive and has a half-life(5715 years 17 In nature 75% of chlorine is found as 35 Cl and the remaining 25% as 1737Cl Therefore the average atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5.

8

The Structure and Properties of Matter

1.2 A - The Periodic Table In 1869, the Russian Scientist Dimitri Mendeleev classified 63 elements known at that time. He placed the elements in its table in order of their atomic masses. He put the elements with similar properties in periods (rows from left to right in the periodic table). Mendeleev made a table of elements and called it the periodic table: He left spaces in his table for elements that had not been discovered yet. After a short time the elements Germanium, Scandium and Gallium were discovered and their properties matched Mendeleev's predictions. Therefore, his table was accepted at the end of the 19th century. Today's Periodic Table is quite different from Mendeleev's. In the modern periodic table the elements are arranged in order of their atomic numbers. Horizantal rows in the table are called periods and vertical columns are called groups.

8

3

1

2

Li

Be

litium

4

1

H

hydrogen

Na Mg

11

magnesium

K

Ca

alkali metals

20

Sc

21

Ti

22

calcium

scandium

titanium

Rb

Sr

Y

Z

38

39

40

rubidium

strontium

yttrium

zirconium

Cs

Ba

La

Hf

55

caesium

56

barium

5

6

7

B

C

N

O

F

57

72

lantanum

earth alkaline metals

hafnium

23

V

Cr

24

Mn

25

vanadium chromium manganese

Nb Mo

41

42

Tc

43

Fe

26

73

tantalum

W

74

tungsten

Re

75

rhenium

27

Ni

28

Cu

29

Zn

30

7

8

9

helium

Ne

10

carbon

nitrogen

oxygen

fluorine

neon

Al

Si

P

S

Cl

Ar

14

silicon

Ga Ge

31

32

15

16

17

phosphorus

sulphur

chlorine

As

Se

Br

33

34

35

18

argon

Kr

36

iron

cobalt

nickel

copper

zinc

gallium

germanium

arsenic

selenium

bromine

krypton

Ru

Rh

Pd

Ag

Cd

In

Sn

Sb

Te

I

Xe

44

niobium molybdenum tecnetium ruthenium

Ta

Co

6

2

boron

aluminium

potassium

37

4

13

12

sodium

19

5

The modern periodic table

beryllium

3

He

Os

76

osmium

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

rhodium

palladium

silver

cadmium

indium

tin

antimony

tellurium

iodine

xenon

Ir

Pt

Au

Hg

Tl

Pb

Bi

Po

At

Rn

77

iridium

78

platinum

79

gold

80

mercury

transition metals

81

thallium

82

lead

83

bismuth

84

polonium

85

astatine

noble gases

86

radon

halogens

Activity Look at the table and explain the relationship between the group number of the elements in the periodic table and the electron numbers in the outer most shell of their atoms. Look at the table and explain the relationship between the number of energy levels in their atoms and the period number of elements. 1-a) Find the group and the period of the element which has atomic number 11. b) Find the group and the period of the element with atomic number 17. 2- Find the number of electrons and protons of an element in Did You Know? the group II and 3rd period. Search 1- Name the metallic element which is liquid at room temperature and is used in thermometers. 2- Which element is used as graphite in a battery? 3- Write down the names of three elements which are magnetic.

9

Metallic elements are shiny when freshly cut. They conduct heat and electricity. Most of the non-metals are gasses at room temperature. Only Bromine is liquid and the rest are solids. Non-metals are poor conductors of heat and electricity. L. Mayer discovered a priodic table smilar to Mendeleev's periodic table at the same time.

1

1.2 B - Reactions of Elements When two or more elements are combined together they form a compound. The formula of the compound is written by using the symbols of the elements that make it up. The ratios by which the elements are combined to form the compound is always written in at the bottom right end of the symbol. A water molecule is formed when an oxygen atom reacts with two hydrogen atoms. The chemical formula of water is then H2O. Salt is formed when from the reaction of one sodium atoms react with chlorine atoms. The formula is NaCl

Sodium metal is kept Chlorine gas in a gas jar When sodium is heated and placed in a jar of chlorine, it burns with a bright flame. in oil

The result is white solid, which has to be scraped from the sides of the jar

Sodium + Chlorine Sodium Chloride In an equation + sign means 'reacts with', sign means to form. How compounds are formed? The electrons in the outermost shells of atoms are the are the ones that take part in chemical reactions. The group VIII elements don't react at all. They are unreactive. They are called noble gases. A Noble gas as an unreactive gas. Each have 8 electrons in its outer most shell except Helium. With full outermost shells, atoms are stable and therefore unreactive. Helium atom : Full outer shell stable

K

L K

Neon atom: Full outer shell stable

1- Why are the noble gases unreactive? 2- Explain the equation; Calcium + Fluorine Calcium Fluoride with a sentence. 3- When Iron reacts with Oxygen the Iron Oxide is formed : Write down a word equation representing the sentence above.

10

Argon atom : Full outer shell stable

M L K

Did You Know? Krypton, Xenon and Argon react with Fluorine under special conditions.

The Structure and Properties of Matter

1.2 C - Formation of lons The atoms of other elements try to achieve a full outer shell of electrons like the noble gases. Atoms can take in or give away electrons or share electrons with other atoms to get full outer shells. With a full outer shell, an atom is stable. Formation of lons (Ionic Bonding): Atoms of some elements lose or gain electrons from atoms of other elements in order to have a full outer shell. Losing Electrons: There is one electron in the outermost shell of a sodium atom. Sodium gives away this electron to another atom to empty its outermost M shell. The inner L shell is full now. As a result an ion with +1 charge is formed. Now Sodium ion has 11 protons and 10 electrons and has a charge of Sodium atom loses one electron. Sodium atom Sodium ion M L K

Sodium atom loses one electron

Charge on sodium ion: 11 protons: +11 10 electrons: -10 Net charge: +1 Positively charged ions are called cations. They are formed by losing electrons.

L K Na+

Na

Empties M-shell

L shell is full and the ion is stable.

Gaining Electrons: The chlorine atom has 17 electrons in its outermost shell. It gains an electron from another atom, like sodium, to fill its outermost energy level M. It is now stable and has a charge of -1. Chlorine atom Chloride ion M L K

M L K Cl

metal atoms give electrons to non-metal atoms

-

Cl

M-shell needs to gain One electron to be stable

Gains one electron

M-shell is full and the ion is stable.

Charge on chloride ion: 17 protons: +17 18 electrons: -18 Net charge: -1 Negatively charged ions are called anions. They are formed by gaining electrons.

3rd Period elements and ions they form Na 2,8,1 Na+ 2,8

Mg 2,8,2 Mg+2 2,8

Al 2,8,3 Al+3 2,8

Si 2,8,4 *

P 2,8,5 P-3 2,8,8

S 2,8,6 S-2 2,8,8

*Silicon does not usually form an ion. Ions are essential for all living organisms. We drink ions dissolved in water every day. All plants get the ions they need from substances dissolved in water and use them to make food. 1. Explain why Magnesium ion has a charge of +2. 2. Draw the structure of Aluminum atom and show how it forms an ion. 3-Arrange a table similar to the one above for the second period elements. 4- How many kinds of ions are there? Write their names and explain each.

11

Cl 2,8,7 Cl-1 2,8,8

Ar 2,8,8 Ar 2,8,8

Did You Know? There are polyatomic ions that are formed by the combination of more than one elements. For example carbonate(CO3), hydroxide (OH ) nitrate(NO3 ), and sulphate (SO4 )

1

1.3 A - Covalent Bonding (Covalent Compounds) Non-metal atoms tend to gain electrons to complete their outermost shells as in noble gases. When two non-metal atoms of the same or different elements react, they both need to gain electrons, So they share their outermost electrons. In this way , they both get full outermost shells. Hydrogen molecule: Hydrogen atom has one electron. It needs to gain 1 electron to achieve a noble gas structure. When two Hydrogen atoms come close together the electrons in their outermost shells are shared and a covalent bond is formed.

a covalent bond K

K

K

H

K

H

H

two hydrojen atom

H

The number of covalent bonds formed is equal to the number of electrons that it needs to gain or share to fill its outermost shell. Example: Cl= 2,8,7 as it needs to gain 1 electron it can form a single covalent bond in a molecule

a hydrojen molecule

A strong force of attraction formed by sharing of electrons between two non-metals is called a covalent bond. A molecule is a small group of atoms which are held together by covalent bonds. A molecule may be an element or a compound. Hydrogen gas is made up of Hydrogen molecules so it has a molecular structure. Oxygen molecule: An oxygen atom (2,6) needs to gain 2 electrons in order to achieve a noble gas structure. When oxygen atoms come close together they form a double covalent . bond, as they share 2 electrons. double covalent bond L

L

K

L

K

O

K

O

L

K O

O

an oxygen molecule

two oxygen atoms

a model of the oxygen molecule

Hydrogen Chloride Molecule: Hydrogen and chlorine atoms form a covalent compound because each needs one electron to achieve a noble gas structure so they share an electron. a covalent bond

M L

K H

hydrojen atom

M

K

K O

chlorine atom

L H

K O

a chlorine molecule

1-Classify the following as; ionic compounds, molecular elements and molecular compounds. NH3,MgBr2, N2 , CaCl2, H2O, NO2, CuSO4, 2- How many covalent bonds can group VII elements make in a molecule?

12

Did You Know? By measuring the electrical conductivity of a solid or a liquid dissolved in water, you can tell if they are ionic or covalent

The Structure and Properties of Matter

1.3 B - Physical and Chemical Charges A substances can be change by heating it adding water to it, mixing another substance with it, and so on. Changes can be in two ways. 1- Physical changes 2- Chemical Changes Chemical Change:

Mixture of iron fillings and sulphur

Iron fillings attracted by a magnet.

Sulphur dissolved in methylbenzene.

magnet Iron remains undissolved

1- Mix iron fillings with yellow sulphur powder.

2-Using a magnet attract out the iron powder...

methylbenzene

black solid the contents glow even after the bunsen is removed magnet

4- When you heat the mixture a red glow is observed, the yellow sulphur spots disappear and a black solid is formed.

3-...Or you can dissolve sulphur in methylbenzene (iron doesn't dissolve)

5-Black substance is not a mixture anymore, so it is not affected by a magnet...

the black solid remains undissolved

6-…and it doesn't dissolve in methylbenzene

The black solid is a new chemical substance formed by heating. If you get a new substance as a result of a change. It is called a chemical change. Differences between a mixture and a compound: In the mixture above, iron and sulphur are mixed randomly without forming a chemical bond, so their properties remain unchanged. Each substance in a mixture keeps its own properties. When iron and sulphur react they bond together in a certain ratio, and form a different compound. A solvent and a magnet have no effect on this compound (picture 5 and 6). Properties of compound are different from the properties of elements that make it up. Make a discussion on the bonding rate of mixture and compound.

Mixture

Did You Know? Compound

13

Iron and sulphur are present in the earth's crust as pyrite. Hydrogen is flammable and Oxygen supports burning. Water which is the compound formed from these elements is used to put out a fire.

1

1.3 C - Signs of Chemical Change Chemical changes are usually called chemical reactions. How do we understand that a chemical reaction is taking place? 1- At the end of a chemical reaction one or more new substances are formed. The new substances look quite different from the starting substances. For example: Iron + Sulphur iron sulphide (Metallic powder) (Yellow powder) (Black solid) 2- In a chemical reaction, energy is taken in or given out. In picture 4, to start the reaction a little heat energy is given by using a Bunsen burner. When the reaction starts much more heat is given out(released). If heat is given out during a reaction, it's exothermic If heat is absorbed or taken in the reaction is endothermic. Reaction between iron and Sulphur is exothermic but the reaction that occurs while frying an egg is endothermic. In some chemical reactions, light and sound energies are released as well as heat. When magnesium burns in air, you can hear a hissing sound as well as observing a bright white light. 3-The chemical reactions are usually difficult to reverse. It's difficult to get the iron and sulphur back from the iron sulphide formed . It requires many different reactions. Physical Change

The reactions that take place when you fry an egg are endothermic

Fireworks contain magnesium and other substances. When they burn, they give out energy in the form of light, heat and sound.

sugar Ice melting

Ice changes to water at 0oC , It is easy to change water back to ice

Sugar dissolves in alcohol. alcohol It is easy to separate the two by distillation

In physical changes no new substances are formed.. Example: Even though ice and water look different; they are both made up of water molecules. 1- Make up a table showing the differences between a mixture of iron and sulphur, and the compound iron sulphide formed from iron and sulphur. 2- Decide whether the changes below are chemical or Did You Know? physical changes. a) Freezing of water b) Rusting of iron When you are taking a c) Burning of oil d) Melting of a candle photograph the rays from the e) Burning of a candle f) Souring of milk sun strike the film and the light g) Evaporation of cologne sensitive chemicals such as silver h) Breaking of a stone into pieces bromide undergoes a chemical

change.

14

The Structure and Properties of Matter

TEST 1 1-Write down two similarities and two differences between a proton and a neutron. 2-Draw the atomic structures of the following . a) 126C, b) 4018Ar , c) 3115P, d) 2412Mg 3- Complete the table below by using the periodic table and copy it into your notebooks Element

Symbol

Atomic Number 5

Mass Number 11 40 28 20

14

Number of Neutrons

26 13

A Z

X

22 10 30 27

4-Atomic number of atom X is 19 and its mass number is 39 a) Find the number of protons, neutrons and electrons of atom X. b) How many electrons are found in the outermost shell of atom X? c) Write down the symbol of the ion that element X will form. d) What is the group and the period of element X in the periodic table? 5Element Atomic Mass Electron Number Number Configuration Q R S T X

3 20 18 8 9

7 40 40 18 19

2,1 2,8,8,2 2,8,8, 2,6 2,8,8,1

a) Which element has 22 neutrons in its atoms? b) Which element is a noble gas? c) Which two elements form ions in order to achieve a noble gas structure? d) Which 2 elements are in the same group of the periodic table? 6- Atomic number of barium is 56 and it is in group II of the periodic table a) How many electrons does barium have in its outer shell? b) What is the charge on its ion? Explain why. 7- Answer the following questions by looking at the list below.

Argon, Aluminium, Carbon dioxide, Magnesium oxide, Sodium chloride, Water, Hydrogen

a) Write down 2 substances which are monoatomic b) Write down 2 substances molecular compounds c) Write down 2 substances which are ionic d) Write down the substances which are covalent

35 15

1

Multiple Intelligence Activities There are some cards below that show the bonding strengths of the 1st 20 elements. Use these cards to find out the formulas of possible ionic and covalent components.

A carbon atom in our body might be one of the atoms in the body of a dinosaur that lived billion of years ago or an atom of an olive tree; use your imagination to write a story about the journey the carbon atom might have taken.

We can create a model of the covalently bonded nitrogen molecule by using playing dough and toothpicks or by using the electron arrangement of nitrogen atoms.

H

Li

Na

K

Cl

He

Ne

Ar

Be

Mg

S

Ca

O

B

Al

N

P

C

Si

F

Compose a rap song with a friend. You can use the following sentences in your song. Dalton resembles atoms as empty spheres. Thomson thought it was a fruit cake. Etc.

Nitrogen Molecule: By using the electron arrangement of some non-metallic atoms, you can create your own molecular models.

16

The Structure and Properties of Matter

Multiple Intelligence Activities The word CLASP can be spelt using the elemets chlorine, arsenic, and phosphorus. (ClAsP). What chemical elements are needed to spell the following words. CAP, PALS, HOOK, SHOCK, BRUSH, POLISH, CLOCK?

Make up a poster which shows atomic models.

Atomic models

Make up a poster with these words. (add some of your own)

Polish = Polonium + Litium + Sulphur + Hydrogen

Alfred Nobel, who found TNT the major component of dynamite, had provided a way of splitting mountains in building roads. However, he later felt guilty as TNT was used in wars. Make up a table showing the uses of splitting an atom such as atomic bomb nuclear planter, medicines made in laboratories etc.

Design a small periodic table by using the given elements. Si, H, P, He, Be, Al, B, C, Na, N, Ca, O, K, F, S, Cl, Ne, Ar, Li, Mg

Si

Invention Breaking down the atom

Uses Nuclear power stations, cancer treatment

We placed silicone as an example for 14Si = 2 8 4 3rd period as it has 3 shells(energy levels). It has 4 electrons in its outermost shell, so its in group IV.

Harm Atomic bomb

17

NOTES ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................................................

UNIT 2

FORCE AND MOVEMENT

Dynomometer

Upthrust is measured by

Electrical Force

Weight means

Magnetic Force

Gravity

Resultant

FORCE

Motion is opposite with

Frictional Force

in used for

Work

causes

is done by

Simple Machines

MOVEMENT

vectorial

Velocity

scalar

Speed

2

Entry Activities

Anything we throw upwards falls back down but none of the hunderds of satellites in space fall down. What is the reason for this? Discuss this with your friends and note your answers in your notebooks. Go over your answers after you finish the unit.

When historical buildings were constructed many years ago there were no working machines like excavators or cranes.Therefore how were the huge and heavy stones used in buildings moved or lifted up. Discuss this with your friends and note your answers in your notebooks. Go over your answers after you finish the unit.

20

Force and Movement

FORCE AND MOVEMENT We get up in the morning open the bedroom door, slice bread put the book on our desk into our schoolbag and so on. We live our lives by performing many actions of this kind. Have you noticed that these activities are all pushing or pulling actions.

We can see that a huge ship is pushed by its motors, or can observe how the wind moves the leaves around.In both cases, what we see is not the force, but it is the results brought about by force.In most general terms, force is the pushing or pulling action.We can understand the presence of force by seeing or feeling the results it brings about. There are two types of force;The one with a circular effect is the circular force and the one that forms a linear effect is the linear force. We open the lid of a jar by exerting circular force and we pull a weight by exerting linear force.

21

2

2.1 A - Forces in our Environment v v v v

The Stone we throw upwards falls back down. We open our bedroom window by pushing it. Magnets attract (pull) metals like iron and nickel. We carry weights from one place to another either by pulling or by pushing them.

If we let the stone in our hand go, it falls down. Is this caused by a force. Yes it is caused by the force of attraction . All the objects exert a force on one another, but the force exerted by small objects on one another is so small that it is negligible. However, the earth is so huge that, the force it exerts is large enongh to pull all the other objects to itself. This force is called the gravity. Water and air have the effect of lifting objects upwards, i.e. they have the buoyant force.

Upthrust of Water

Upthrust of Air ( Force of air resistance)

Gravity

Gravity

Magnets attract some metals. There is rejection (pushing) or attraction (pulling) between magnets as well. This is called the magnetic force. There is a similar attractions in an atom, this is called the electrical force.

Did You Know? The unit of force is named after Sir Isaac Newton, the scientist that found the Law of General Attaction.

22

Force and Movement

2.1 B - What is Force ? When playing football, we send the ball to different directions, to our teammates or to the nets to score a goal. The ball gains different speeds according to the force we exert on it. It stops when the goal keeper catches it. When playing the “rope pulling” game, the team which pulls with a greater force, wins. If both teams pull with the same force , none of the teams wins as there will be no movement. The force used here is the force in our muscles. Different forces act on an object in different directions. If the object is stationary, then, all the opposite forces acting on it are balanced. In order for the object to move, the force in one direction must be greater than the force acting on it in the opposite direction. Force can move stationary objects, can stop moving objects or can change the direction of movement.

100 Newton

100 Newton

Opposing forces are balanced, the object does not move.

20 Newton

100 Newton

100 Newton

100 Newton

20 Newton 100 Newton

100 Newton

The right hand force is greater; 100-20=80N . The object moves to right with a force of 80N.

The total force to the left is greater; (100+20) - 100 = 20N. The object moves to left with a force from of 20N Opposing forces (to the right and to the left) are balanced, but as there is another force from another direction, the object moves downwards.

Did You Know? 100 Newton

The billiard robot designed in Bristol University,England, can calculate the exact force that should be used to hit the balls.

23

2

2.1 C - How Do We Measure Force? We know that objects have mass and volume and that mass can be measured by using a scale.We now learned that one of the greatest forces acting on objects is the Granitational Force. Scientists prepared a scaled apparatus with a spring and decided that the amount of stretching of a 100gr object on this apparatus is equql to a force of 1 Newton.This apparatus is called a dynamometer. A dynomometer can be prepared in various forms.A manual scale with a spring is a dynomometer. The maximum amount of force that can be measured by laboratory dynomometers have a limited stretching capacity. Stretching capacity of the spring determines the amount of force that can be measured by that dynamometer.

Gravitational Force

The gravitational force acting on a 1 kg object on earth is approximately 9.81Newtons. Thus, we can calculate the weight of a 20 kg (mass) object is 20 x 9.81=196.2 Newtons.

As can be seen from the given example weight is the gravitational force exerted on objects by earth. An astraunot on the moon has a smaller weight than he has on earth as the gravitational force on the moon is smaller than that on earth .In space, the astraunot has no weight as there is no gravitational force in space. Therefore; it can be stated that each object has a constant mass but its weight changes according to the gravitational force in different environment.

Activity After studying the pictures above, draw the force(s) acting on objects, and state which one(s) are balanced.

Did You Know? The gravitational force on the moon is 1/6 th of that on earth.

24

Force and Movement

2.2 A - Forces in Action I spent the day moving a stone out of our garden. I tied a rope around the stone and dragged it out. Finally, I did it. I got rid of the stone but I had a tiring work day. I wish the stone was closer to the fence,then I could move it outside much easily and would have a less tiring workday . However, the stone was very far from the fence and I had to put a lot of effort in order to move it outside.

As given in the example above, scientists call “the force applied times the distance moved by the object” work. If the object does not move in the direction of force we apply, then we do not do any work.

Force: 100 Newton

WORK = FORCE x DISTANCE Joule

Newton

Meter

Distance: 15 meter WORK = 100 x 15 = 1500 Joule

If I was stronger, I could move the stone out much faster. Then I would not have to spend the whole day working.

Scientists call the speed of work done power .Power is the time taken to do the work.

WORK

Joule

POWER = ________ TIME

Did You Know?

Second Watt People evaluate the power spent for work. This is one of the fundamental principles of the Declaration of Human Rights

25

The unit of power which was previously stated as horse power is named after James Watt the creator of steam machine.

2

2.3 A - Simple Machines Kyrenia Castle and Salamis ancient city are the examples of architecture that have remained from ancient times. Pyramids in Egypt are other examples of architecture from old times. How were these ancient buildings constructed at that time? How were these ancient buildings constructed at times when there were no modern machinery?

Lenght of the slope is 800 meters

Height is 100 meters

100 1 Gained Force = ------- = --800 8

The largest pyramid is about 146 meters high. Large rocks used in building the pyramids were taken to a height of 146 meters by inclined planes or ramps. Lifting the rock directly upwards involves movement in a shorter distance, butit requires a much greater force. When it is carried by using an inclined plane, it has to be moved it is much smaller. A rock that would need thousands of men to be lifted can be brought to the same height by a few men. Using an inclined plane does not change the amount of work done, but the same weight is carried over a much longer distance. The larger distance in using an inclined plane, the smaller the force required. This is an example of a basic machine. Scientists name the basic machines that can change the type of force, the direction or the magnitude of force, as simple machines.

Did You Know? The Greek scientist Heron who lived in the 2nd century believed that even the most complex machines consists of 5 simple machines.

Scientific ideas make your life easier.

26

Force and Movement

2.3 B - Inclined Planes In Our Environment Inclined Plane Inclined planes are the simplest machines used for many puposes. The front part of a ship Works as an inclined plane. It is because of this inclined planet hat the ship uplits water and moves along easily.

An ax is a machine that has two incline planes brought together. The sharp edge of the ax hits the tree bark, and with its gradually wideniry structure the tree into two. Screw A screw, which has a wide variety of uses, holds two or more pieces together. Screws change the circular force into linear force. Altought a screw does not resemble an inclined plane, it Works like one. When a screw makes a complete turn, it moves a thead space. This is called a screw step.

Did You Know? Activity Find 5 different inclined planes in your environment and state the use of each one of them.

27

The ziper, invented in 1891 by an American called Whitcomb Judson, is a simple machine that Works with the help of three inclined planes.

2

2.3 C - We Are Lifting Heavy Weights With Small Forces Lever Levers are simple machines that consist of a rod and a support. According to the purpose of using the lever, the support can be placed any where below the rod. We use various levers in our everyday life. Fishing line, hammer scissors, balance(scale) are all examples of levers. Effort

Load

Effort Distance Pivot Load Distance

Pulley We can change the direction and magnitude of a force by using a pulley. Elavators and cranes that do the lifting actions use pulleys. Pulleys are divided into three: Fixed pulleys, movable pulleys and pulley systems.

Fixed pulley

Movable pulley

Pulley System

Force

Force Weight

Force

Weight

Activity: Show the place of pivot, force and load points on each of the following levers.

Weight

Did You Know? In sailing ships, pulleys are used in folding and unfolding the sails faster and easier.

28

Force and Movement

2.3 D - Let Us Use the Rotational Force Wheel and Axle Wheel is one of the most important inventions. Vehicles move by the movement of an axle that is turned by wheels. The circular movement of the axle is changed into a linear movement by the wheel. As the cirumference of the wheel is much greater than that of the axle, the force exerted by the axle on the wheel is much greater than the force exerted by the wheel on the ground.

Big area low force

Little are high force

The handle of a screwdriver is wider than its axle. Therefore, the screw can be rotated with a greater force. Screwdriver is a good example of a wheel and axle.

Gear and Wheels Wheels with teeth or with belts are simple machines that change the magnitude and direction of force. Wheels that rotate are connected to each other by teeth or by a belt.As a result, the rotation of one wheel causes the rotation of the other. When the larger wheel makes 1 complete turn, the smaller wheel makes 2 or more rotations.

Gear

Wheels with teeth or with belts are used in bicycles. Chains, instead of belts, increase the strength of the connection.

Wheel

Activity By looking at the diagram aside, make a wheel with teeth. For this, you need a 1 cm thick potatoe slice, a cardboard box and 16 toothpicks.

Did You Know? The smallest motor produced in the world was made by Toshiba and it is 1 mm in width.

29

2

2.4 A - If There was no Friction! v When we hit a ball, it moves, but it gradually slows down and stops. v If we push a book on the table, it slows down and stops after a while. Any object we apply a force on slows down and stops after moving for a while. Why is this so? Force can cause the movement of a stationary object, can stop moving objects or learned the direction of movement. We learned this statement before. Then, it is a type of force which stops a moving object. Which one? This force is the friction force, As the frictional force opposes the movement of the object, it stops the object.

Motion Frictional Force

Force Applied

Let us rub our hands together, what happens?Our hands get warmer.If we continue to rub our hands, friction causes wear and our hands are hurt. Friction leads to loss of power, because some of the energy we use changes into heat energy due to friction, and it is lost. The frictional force affects the moving vehicles. Scientists have been working on a new vehicle design called aerodynamics in order to reduce friction caused by air. There are various ways of reducing friciton. If the rubbing surfaces are smooth or lubricated by grease or water friction between them is reduced. Friciton can also be reduced by replacing sliding movement into rolling movement. Place several marbles underneath yours book. Does it move easier?

The frictional force affects the moving vehicles. Scientists have been working on a new vehicle design called aerodynamics in order to reduce friction caused by air. Soles are rough to prevent sweeping

Friction has some uses. If there was no friction between our feet and ground, we would not be able to walk, we would slide and fall. That is why shoes have processes underneath, so that friction with the ground is increased. There is friction between a pencil and notebook. If there was no friction, writing would be impossible. It is almost impossible to write with a pencil on very smooth surfaces like glass that have very little friction.

30

Force and Movement

2.5 A - Let's Move When we look around, we notice that everything moves. Cars, bicycles, planes are continuously moving from one place to another. We know that the earth turns around the Sun and the moon turns around the earth. Briefly, everything in universe moves. Since everything moves in universe, we have to find a reference point for our own movement. Scientists call the movement from one place to another or changing one's position displacement. Displacement = Final position - Initial position

Position

Meters

A

B

C

D

E

0

2

4

6

8

According to the reference points given on the left, the displacement of a car moving from point B to D can be found by: Displacemet = Final position-Initial position, Displacement = 6 - 2 = 4 meters.

In this example the car that moved from point B to point D had a displacement of 4 meters. Here, the car's displacement is equal to the distance it covered. But sometimes, this is not the case. We know that displacement is the different between the two positions. Displacement is related to initial position, distance and direction. The sizes that involve the intial point, magnitude and direction are said to be vectorial. The distance is the amount of movement made by the car. Distance does not involve any sense of direction, so it is said to be scalar.

School

On the diagram given, two different ways are given to go from home to school. If the given way is taken: Green Road Displacement = 100 meters, Distance = 100 meters

rs

e et

00

m

1

If the given way is taken: Red Road Displacement = 100 meters, Distance = 60 + 80 = 140 meters

80 meters

Home 60 meters

Did You Know?

Displacement is the same in both, because it means changing positions, However, the distance covered is different in each case.

The first car race took place in 1909 and the speed of the fastest car was 105 km/hour

31

2

2.5 B - Velocity and Speed The difference between velocity and speed is the fact that:velocity is vectorial , but speed is scalar. In other words, for finding the velocity of a moving object we use the vectorial displacement, but for finding its speed we use the scalar value of distance. Vectorial DISPLACEMENT _____________ VELOCITY = TIME

Scalar DISTANCE _____________ SPEED = TIME

Activity Straight Road : 200 metre A

B

Curving Road : 1500 metre

We can move from point A to point B in 10 seconds when we use the straight road, and in50 seconds when we use the curving road.Then, the velocity and speed for both roads can be calcualted as: Straight Road; Velocity = Displacement / Time Speed = Distance / Time

Velocity Speed

= 200 / 10 = 20 m/sec = 200 / 10 = 20 m / sec

Velocity Speed

= 200 / 50 = 4 m/sec = 1500 / 50 = 30 m / sec

Curving Road; Velocity = Displacement / Time Speed = Distance / Time

On a curving road displacement and distance covered are not the same, so velocity and speed are different.

32

Force and Movement

TEST - 2 1. Match each of the following activities with the type of force used in performing that activity. a)Carrying a table to another place by pulling it. b)Opening the lid of a jar. c)Cutting down a tree with an ax. d)Lifting a weight by using a pulley. e)Taking off a screw from a piece of wood by using a screwdriver. f)Turning the pedals of a bicycle.

Rotational Force

Linear Force

2. State the type of force used on each of the following.

3. Look at the dynamometers below, complete the table given and answer the questions.

I.

II.

III.

0N

0N

10 N

50 N

20 N

100 N

Object A

0N

B C

1N 2N 3N

B

a)Which object is the heaviest? b)Which dynamometer must be used in order to find the weight of an object of 1 Newton?

C

A

Dynamometer Weight

4. Which simple machines are found in each of the following objects?

5. According to the references points given above which car is the fastest? Position

A

(Meters)

-50

Ferrari Mercedes Honda

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

10

20

30

40

50

Moved from point D to J in 10 seconds Moved from point G to K in 20 seconds. Moved from point A to E in 50 seconds.

33

2

Multiple Intellegence Activities Add

5

more

questions

to

the

Draw the pictures of simple Machines below in the spaces provided.

following and make up a survey of 10 questions. Ask these questions to at least 2 people from your families and friends. Q.1 : What do you think force means? _____________________________________

Inclined Plane

Pulley

Gear

Lever

Wheel and Axle

Screw

Q.2 : In everyday life, for which activities do you use force? _____________________________________ Q.3 : Give 2 examples of activities that use rotational force? _____________________________________ Q.4 : What type of tools do you use to do work using less force? _____________________________________ Q.5 : Give examples of simple machines? _____________________________________

Write down problems that will need the use of the formula below to be solved.

· How would we live if there was no friction? · We can do work using less force. Write a composition with a theme that is based on one of the facts given above. ____________ ________________________________ ________________________________ ________________________________ ________________________________ ________________________________ ________________________________ ________________________________ ________________________________ ________________________________ ________________________________

Work = Force x Distance Problem:............................................. Solution:............................................ ...................................................... ......................................................

Power = Work / Time Problem:............................................. Solution:............................................ ...................................................... ......................................................

34

Force and Movement

Multiple Intellegence Activities Write down a brief report on the negative effects of speeding in our lives.

Symbolise each simple machine given below with a different colour and colour the boxes accordingly

( Title of the report ) --------------------

Screw

Pulley

Lever

Inclined Plane

Wheel and Axle

Gear

( Slogan) -----------------------------------------------------------------

State the type of simple machine in each of the following by using your colour symbols.

( Information on the subject ) -------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

a) Ax b) c) d) e)

Scissors Elevator Cart Screwdriver

Apply the words below to one of your favourite songs or make up your own song.

State the type of simple machine you used during each time period given below.

There are two types of force Rotational and Linear . Select and pick any simple machine you like.

07:00 to 10:00 : --------------------------------------------------------------------------10:00 to 13:00 : --------------------------------------------------------------------------13:00 to 15:00 : --------------------------------------------------------------------------15:00 to 18:00 : --------------------------------------------------------------------------18:00 to 21:00 : ---------------------------------------------------------------------------

Screw, inclined plan Lever, pulley Do your work using less force Don't forget the wheel. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

35

NOTES ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................................................

UNIT 3

LIGHT AND SOUND Luminous Sources of Light

Primary Colours

Colours sources is divided includes

Illıminated Sources of Light

Secondary Colours

LIGHT features

features

Illumination

Travels in Spaces

is form features

Shadow

Reflection ENERGY

is form

Reflection

features

features

SOUND

features

features

Intensity

Tone features

Loudnens

Can not Travel in Spaces

3

Entry Activities

For a while, think that sun doesn't exist. What kind of changes will be there in our lives. Discuss with your friends and teacher then write the result in your note book. Go over your answers after you finish the unit.

How do you stop voices coming from outside to get a silent study environment? Discuss with your friends and teacher then write the result in your note book. Evaluate your sentences again at the end of the unit.

38

Light and Sound

LIGHT AND SOUND LIGHT Human beings tried to figure out Light for ages. In spite of the many discoveries made by scientists, there is still a mysterious side about light. In the dark, even an eye with a perfect vision becomes blind. Light is a form of energy that we can detect with our eyes. The sun is the most important source of light energy. Luminous Sources of Light The sun, stars, light bulbs and candles are a few examples for this type of light source. These sources produce heat as well as light.

Illuminated Sources of Light For some objects temperature is not a reason for producing light. For example: neon lamp, fluorescent light, are examples of this type of light sources.

SOUND Applying force on a stretched spring or on a thin plate causes vibration. These vibrations form a type of energy. Sound which stimulated the sense of hearing is caused by mechanical vibration.

Did You Know? In order to use our voice or in other words, to be able to speak, we have to use our vocal cords which are found behind our tongue.

Sound Wave

39

3

3.1 A - Diffusion of Light Light rays from a source spread as waves in every direction, and in straight lines at a constant speed. Light has such a short wavelength that hundreds and thousands of light waves connected together can reach a wavelength shown in the picture below.

Wavelength

Light rays coming from the sun reach the earth by travelling through the space. This shows that light can also travel in space. For example: neon lamps and fluorescent light. Sunlight is a mixture of several colours. These colours are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. It also contains infrared and ultra violet rays. The different colours in sunlight have slightly differing wavelengths. A rainbow appears with the sun shining immediately after rain. Light rays are refracted by rain drops. As different colours with different wavelength are refracted at different angles, colours of the rainbow are formed.

1. What will happen if the light does not travel in space? Write a short composition. 2. How does the sunlight form the colours of the rainbow?

40

Did You Know? Light travels faster than anything in the universe. The light travels at 300.000 km/s Light takes only 8 minutes to travel from the sun to the earth.

Light and Sound

3.1 B - Colours We know that there are several colours in sun light. Red, green, and blue are the primary colours of light. All the colours are mixtures of two or more primary colours and are called the secondary colours. When the three primary colours are mixed together, they form colour white. Light waves are reflected by objects.

Cyan

When white light falls on a piece of green cloth, it appears green because it reflects only green light and absorbs all the others. As a result it appears green. Blue

All the colours in a piece of black cloth are absorbed and none is reflected. Therefore, cloth appears black. When white light falls on white cloth all the colours in the light are reflected so it appears white.

Green WHITE

Magenta

Red

Yellow

Substances appear in the colour they reflect; they absorb all the other colours. What colour is the sky? When light reaches the atmosphere, it is scattered by gas and dust particles in the atmosphere. As the colours blue and violet have the shortest wavelengths, they are scattered more than the other colours. That is why the sky appears blue.

At sunset and sunrise, light rays travel a longer distance in the atmosphere before reaching the earth. Most of its colours are scattered before the sun reaches the earth. Only orange and red which have the longest wavelengths reach the earth without being scattered. That's why the sky appears orange-red.

1. Which colours are the primary colours? 2. Which colours are needed to get yellow colour?

Did You Know?

Nature has all the colours. We have to protect nature for keeping our lives meaningful.

41

There are 1.5 million red light waves in 1 meter long red light. X-rays are high energetic rays. In 1 meter long X-ray there are 10 billions waves.

3

3.2 A - Lenses How to See? Our vision is formed when the light rays of surrounding objects reaching our eyes. In fact our eye lens focuses the light from object into our eye so that we can see them. Camera works in a similar way. A camera contains a convex lens which focuses the light from objects on the film at the other end. As a result a real image is formed on the film. Binoculars, telescope, microscope are instruments that work by using lenses.

We have learned that w needs light in order to see. As the sun is an enormous source of light, we can see objects clearly in daylight. In the absence of sunlight we use lamp, torches or candles in order to see.

The intensity of the light source and the distance between the object and the source affect the amount of illumination. Amount of illumination increases as the intensity of the light source increases. Amount of illumination decreases as the distance between the object and the source increases.

1. Why can't we see objects in the dark? 2. Write down the names of three instruments which use lenses and state for which purpose each one is used?

Let us pay attention for not leaving pieces of broken glass in the nature

42

Did You Know? The branch of physics which studies light is called Optics. Sometimes pieces of broken glass act as lenses converging light rays from the sun and leading to a fire.

Light and Sound

3.2 B - Directing the Light It' important to have a smooth surface to play tennis otherwise a tennis ball hitting the ground moves in different directions.

Like a bouncing ball, light waves are reflected by the surfaces they hit. On hitting a surface some light rays are absorbed but most of them are reflected back. This is called reflection.

Rules of Reflection When light hits on a smooth and shiny surface like a mirror at a right angel, it is reflected back at right same angel. Mirrors are the best reflectors of light. Rays of light cannot pass through a mirror as it is made by plating a smooth, shiny surface. Therefore, all of them are reflected back.

mirror

mirror

Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection

There are three kinds of mirrors. 1. Plain mirrors: Mirrors we use at home are plain mirrors. Images formed in plain mirrors are the same size as the object and are upright. 2. Convex mirrors: Convex mirrors diverge the parallel rays of light. Mirrors used in cars are convex mirrors. 3. Concave Mirrors: Concave mirrors converge the parallel rays of light. For example, make up mirrors.

Activities The inner face of a spoon is a concave mirror and the outer face is a convex mirror. Note down how your face looks when you look at the inner and outer surfaces of a spoon. Discuss this with your teacher.

Did You Know? Communication satellites receive messages and send them to the world or to other satellites by means of waves.

43

3

3.3 A - How Does Sound Travel? We cannot hear all the sounds. Some sounds have very high frequency vibrations which we cannot receive. Sound is a kind of energy which is caused by the vibrations formed by touching or rubbing against each other.

You get different sounds when you hit different substances like water a table or an armchair. This means that we need power to make a sound. As the power of the sound is directly proportional to the power we use to make the sound formed changes according to the hardness and density of the substances hit. It doesn't matter how hard you hit a piece of paper, you can't get the same sound you get by hitting a book.

Sound waves travel best in solids, then in liquids and gas respectively. They absolutely need a medium to travel in. They do not travel in space. This is the principle used for sound insulation. In double glazing windows, two glasses with a space in between are used so that the sound waves cannot pass through. This provides sound proof windows.

Reflection of Sound The sounds we hear in an empty room are different from those we hear in a furnished room. The sound waves hit the walls of the empty room and come back, but when there is furniture in the room, they hit the furniture before reaching the walls and are scattered. Sound is reflected back when it hits a surface. This is called echo. Sound waves reflected by the walls of an empty room form an echo

Did You Know? The branch of physics studies 'echo' is called acoustics. Radar, sonar and ultrasound are instruments which make use of the echoing property of sound. Bats find their ways by using natural radars found in their bodies.

1) If there is an explosion in the space can we hear it? Why? 2) What can we do for sound insulation at home? 3) What is an echo?

44

Light and Sound

3.3 B - Properties of Sound Human ear can only hear the sounds of frequencies between 2020,000. Frequency is the number of vibrations per second. As the frequency of sound increases, the higher. The sound gets lower when the frequency of sound decreases. Ultrasonic sounds are sounds with frequencies higher than 20,000. Human ear cannot hear ultrasonic sounds.

v We can guess the sex of a person on the phone v We can distinguish between the sounds of the drum, the piano, and the guitar when we are listening to music. We can distinguish between different sounds by:

1. Intensity of the sound: It is the pressure on eardrum. We can whisper to a person next to us, but in order to make someone at a distance hear us we have to shout. The unit of sound intensity is decibel (dB) Ina normal conversation our voice is 30-60 dB. 2. Loudness of the sound: It is the frequency of sound which determines the high-pitch and low-pitch sounds. Its unit is Hertz (Hz) 3. Tone (quality) of the sound: It is the sound property which shows the type of instrument used in playing a musical composition.

20 Hz

100 Hz

1000 Hz

10,000 Hz

20,000 Hz

Sound of the drum

Singing with a low pitch sound

Singing with a high pitch sound

Sound of a Whistle

The highest frequency a human being can hear

1. What does frequency mean? 2. What is the frequency interval heard by human ear? 3. Explain the intensity the loudness and the tone of sound giving one example for each.

45

Did You Know? The intensity of whispering is 30 decibels but the noise made by an aeroplane taking off is about 120 decibels.

3

TEST 3 1. Find the source of light and source of sound in the picture

Source of Sound ........................... ........................... ........................... ........................... ........................... ........................... Source of Light ........................... ........................... ........................... ........................... ........................... ...........................

2. What are the conditions for formation of a rainbow? Why?

3. Put the substances below in order of their speed at which they transmit sound waves. a) Air b) Copper Wire c) Water 4. Some properties of light and sound are given below. Read each of the following sentences on these properties and put a (Ö ) where appropriate. LIGHT SOUND a) b) c) d) e) f) g)

It is formed by vibration of substances It does not need a medium to travel in It may be formed by various sources It travels in straight lines in all directions It can travel through translucent substances like iron It is reflected back, when it hits a surface It is a form of energy

46

Light and Sound

Multiple Intelligence Activities Write an article which answers the questions below: ( Title of Article ) ---------------What are the sources of Light and sound? ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------What is light? What is sound ? ---------------- ( Picture 1 ) ------------------------------------------------------------- ( Picture 2 ) ---------------------------------------------What is the relationship between the properties of light and sound? ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------What can we do to prevent light and sound pollution? ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Carry out the experiment and write down the results on a piece of paper. Materials: a mechanical watch, a glass jar a tile Methods: Place the watch in the jar. Hold the tile at an angel; mouth the jar so that your friend can hear tic-tacks of the watch. Can your friend hear the tic-tack sound of the watch?

Mirror

Result :__________________________ Mechanical _____________________________________ watch _____________________________________ _____________________________________ Glass ____________________ Jar

Write a poem where the first letters of the lines make up the words 'light' and 'Sound'

Find the words below in the word-puzzle given. (Source, wavelength, primary colours, mirror, echo)

L________________ I________________ G________________ H________________ T________________

SLVWAVELENGTH OAHMIRRORIEWI UJKLFDJKLLFOWP RFKGMBXWUUEHX COUHKEBFCLAUHG ECHOAHELDUFIHE PRIMARYCOLOURS

S________________ O________________ U________________ N________________ D________________

Make-up a word-puzzler like the one above, hiding the words given below. Ask your friends to find these words in the puzzle.

Write a similar poem forming any words you wish by using the information that light travels in space Reflection, Ultrasonic, Frequency, Tone, Intensity, Lens, Concave mirror, convex mirror

47

3

Multiple Intelligence Activities Rewrite the words of a song by using the sentences from this unit like in the example below

Complete the speech bubbles below and prepare a similar cartoon about sound.

Sound cannot travel in space, light can. Plain, concave, convex are all mirrors.

In space light___________

We cannot hear ultrasonic sounds. We love vibrations. Writer Name :_____________________ Class :_____________________ Number :_____________________

Name of the Name Writer Composer

_____ is obtained by plating asmooth and shiny surface

__________is used in telescopes, microscopes.

song re-written :___________________ :___________________ :___________________

Classify the objects as a light source or a sound source and:

How can we avoid pollution of the environment while light and sound energies

a) prepare a picture of each object b) Make up a poster of a light and a sound source you have chosen.

Precaution 1: _____________________________________ _____________________________________ Why 1: _____________________________________ _____________________________________ Precaution 2: _____________________________________ _____________________________________ Why 2: _____________________________________ _____________________________________ Precaution 3: _____________________________________ _____________________________________ Why 3: _____________________________________ _____________________________________

A fluorescent lamp

A vibrating wire

A drum

The Sun

48

UNIT 4

SYSTEMS IN OUR BODY

example

Skeletal Smooth

Intercostal muscles

Blood

example

cleans

Diaphragm Heart Lungs

types

have a role in breathing

Muscle

Respiratory

Kidney transplant, dialysis

has a role

Excretion

Support and Movement

involves

examples for technology

Kidney

Mechanical

Systems

Digestion

types

is broken down

Food

Skeleton Chemical

involves

Joint

Bone

is broken down

help

Enzymes Cartilage Circulation

Regulatory

contains made up of

Lymph

Nervous

Endocrine Glands

contains pulmonary circulation

Heart

pumps

systemic circulation

Lungs

flows in

Blood

Blood Vessels

related with

produces

Hormones

Nerves

made up of

Organs Plasma

is divided into

Immunity Cells

protect against

Central made up of

Microbes

Brain

Peripheral made up of

Spinal cord

4

Entry Activities

The figure given beside shows two of the systems in our body. After examining it, try to find which two systems are shown and which organ is represented by each device. Discuss your answers with the class and take notes. Check your notes again after you finish the unit.

0

Read the ideas and observations of the scientists and philosopher given beside. At which points were they right or wrong? Discuss with your friends and note the results of your discussion. Check your notes after you finish the unit.

160 (around) Roman Philosopher Galen: ”The center of the circulatory system is liver. Heart regulates the flow of blood and cools it by chest movements. Blood passes from the right side to the left side of the heart through the wall which have little pores.” 1553 Spanish Physician Servetus: “For the blood to pass from the right side to the left side of the heart, it must pass through the lungs” 1628 English Scientist William Harvey: "Heart is a pump. When the heart is at rest the chambers are filled with blood. When the muscles of the heart work, blood leaves the heart." 1660 Marcello Malphigi: He was the first to observe the blood capillaries with a microscope.

50

Systems in our body

SYSTEMS IN OUR BODY

Skeletal system

Excretory system

How do all the life processes in our body, take place at the same time? The fact that we can carry out all the vital life processes means Nervous system that we have a complicated structure. Each life process (excretion, feeding, respiration…) occurs in a different part of our body. Imagine that all the students in your class do different activities from their favorite subject, at the same time in the same room. Respiratory While one is speaking English the other is system singing, and others are playing football while Circulatory you are performing a science experiment. None system of the activities, carried out in this way, will be efficient as the they will interrupt each other. That's why, your school has different rooms Digestive for different activities (music room, science system lab etc) and you are coordinated to use them. The activities in our body are also coordinated. There are different organs in our body which carry out different functions. Organs work together to form the systems. The systems in our body have different functions but they work in coordination according to the needs of the body. Digestive system helps the breakdown and absorption of the food. Respiratory system takes oxygen from the air and carries it to the blood. Circulatory system carries the nutrients and oxygen around the body and takes them to the cells. The waste products go out of the body through the excretory system. The skeletal system protects organs and helps movement. The nervous system and the endocrine system coordinate all the systems in our body. In this unit you will learn the functions of the organs in our systems and get more information about the organism (yourself!)

51

4

4.1 A - Digestive System All living organisms need food in order to stay alive. The food that we take is carried to the cells by blood. Food can only mix with blood when it is in the form of small molecules. The food that we eat is usually in the form of large molecules. For example, starch in bread is a big molecule. Even the little pieces of bread that we chew, have the large starch molecules and these can not get into the blood. Large molecules like starch must be broken down into small molecules.

The breakdown of large food molecules into smaller molecules is known as “digestion”. Digestion takes place in our digestive system. The digestion of food starts in the mouth. We chew the food with our teeth and the saliva from the salivary glands softens it. Swallowed food passes mouth through the gullet and goes to the stomach. Stomach salivary gland produces digestive juices which mix with the food and gullet help their breakdown. After staying for a while in the stomach, food passes to the small intestine. In the small intestine, digestive juices are added from liver liver and pancreas. Digestion continues and is completed in stomach this part. When the food has been completely broken down, it is absorbed into the blood at the last portion pancreas of the small intestine. The food that is not absorbed in the small intestine passes to the large intestine. Here the small intestine water is absorbed and the rest becomes solid waste which is called faeces. It is removed from the body large through anus. intestine

Did you know?

anus Human Digestive System

1. What is digestion? 2. What are the functions of stomach in digestion? 3. What happens after the digestion in the small intestine is completed? 4. What is the main aim of digestion?

52

The length of the digestive system of an adult is about 9 m and the length of the small intestine is around 7 m. The digestion time of food molecules may be different. Fat is digested in a longer time than carbohyrates. Foods rich in fiber (such as celery) help the movement of food in the digestive system and prevent constipation.

Systems in our body

4.1 B - Mechanical and Chemical Digestion The food that we eat is generally in big pieces. The big pieces need to be made smaller. Our teeth and the muscles in our digestive system do this job. By chewing the food with our teeth we break it into smaller pieces. The muscles move the walls of the stomach and intestine continuously. As a result, the food mixes with the digestive juices and the digestion speeds up. The muscles also help the food to move in the alimentary canal. The breakdown of the large pieces of food into smaller pieces with the help of the teeth and the muscles, is called “mechanical digestion”. Liver is another organ that helps digestion. It produces bile. The bile salts found in the bile, break down the large fat pieces into small fat droplets. This is an example of mechanical digestion. All small pieces that are formed after mechanical digestion are still not small enough to pass into the blood. Large molecules in these pieces need to be broken down into smaller molecules. This is done by enzymes. The breakdown of large food molecules into smaller molecules with the help of enzymes is called “chemical digestion”. The proteins are large molecules and their breakdown into amino acids is an example of chemical digestion. The digestive juice produced by the pancreas which is added to the small intestine contains various enzymes. These enzymes break down the large fat, protein and carbohydrate molecules into smaller molecules. By this way, they can pass through the intestine wall and mix up with blood.

amino acids protein molecules

Large food molecules are broken down into smaller pieces with the help of teeth.

Small pieces dissolve in digestive juices.

proteins are broken down into amino acids with the help of enzymes.

Mechanical Digestion

Chemical Digestion

The digestion of protein in fish.

Intestine wall

I am a big protein molecule, I can not mix with blood.

I am a small amino acid. I can pass through the wall and mix with blood.

Digestion

1) What is the role of muscles in digestion? 2) What is the difference between mechanical and chemical digestion? 3) Proteins are digested but amino acids are not. Why?

We should chew the food as much as possible to help our digestion. 53

Did you know? Enzymes are special. Enzymes that break down proteins cannot break down fats. Enzymes are added to some detergents so that fat and protein molecules in the stains can be broken down more easily.

4

4.2 A - Circulatory System We have learnt that the food taken must mix up with blood to be carried to the cells in the body. This is carried out by the circulatory system. The circulatory system consists of the heart, blood vessels and blood. The circulatory system has other functions besides carrying the food. · It removes the waste products and carbon dioxide from the cells · It carries oxygen to the cells · It fights with germs · It carries the heat around the body

heart

Do you notice the difference in your body when you run? An organ at the left side of your chest beats up fast to send oxygen and food to your cells. This organ is part of our circulatory system and it is called the heart. The heart is a muscular pump which sends blood blood vessels to the cells. There are four little chambers in the heart. The chambers at the upper part are called atria, and the ones below are called ventricles. There is always oxygenated (has too much oxygen) blood in the left side and deoxygenated (has little oxygen) blood in the right side of the heart. Blood from the body Oxygenated blood Deoxygenated and lungs enters the to body blood to lungs atria. When atria Oxygenated blood from lungs muscles contract, blood flows into the Right atrium Left atrium ventricles. When Human Circulatory System ventricles contract, the blood is squeezed out of the heart. Deoxygenated blood from body Left ventricle The valves found in the structure of the heart prevent the blood from flowing back. Valve Oxygenated blood Right ventricle Therefore, blood flows only in one direction.

Human heart

Deoxygenated blood

1. Name the structures which make up the circulatory system. 2. What is the function of the heart? 3. a) Which chamber of the heart receives blood coming from the body? b) Which chamber of the heart pumps blood to the body? 4. What are the functions of heart valves? 5. Get information about the by-pass surgery and heart battery.

We should take exercise for the health of our heart.

54

Did you know? Our heart beats 70-80 times in 1 minute. Cardiologysts are people who are specialized in the area of heart and blood vessels The damaged heart valves can be changed with artifical ones.

Systems in our body

4.2 B - Blood Vessels and Circulation Blood Vessels Blood needs to reach all the cells in our body from the tip of the foot up to the head. Blood is pumped by the heart but it is carried to the cells in special tubes called the blood vessels. The blood vessels are located between the heart and the other organs of the body. The blood vessels which carry blood away from the heart are called arteries. The blood vessels that bring blood back the heart are called veins. Capillaries are found between the arteries and veins. They are very thin vessels which carry blood to the cells.

HEART vein carries blood to the heart

artery carries blood away from the heart capillary carries blood to the cells

Systemic and Pulmonary Circulation

The Systemic and the Pulmonary Circulation A part of the blood that leaves the heart follows a long route to return to the heart. Another part follows a short route for return. This means that, there are two important ways that the blood flows through the blood vessels. One of these is the pulmonary circulation. The pulmonary circulation begins by pumping the blood from the right ventricle to the lungs where it becomes oxygenated and returns to the left atrium. The second route that the blood follows is the systemic circulation. In the systemic circulation the oxygenated blood leaves the left ventricle and flows around the body. It leaves the oxygen to the cells and collects the carbon dioxide from the them. The deoxygenated blood returns to the right atrium of the heart.

deoxygenated blood is carried to the lungs

Lung oxygenated blood returns to the heart

Pulmonary circulation

Deoxygenated blood is carried to the heart

1. What is the difference between the functions of arteries and veins? 2. Which blood vessels carry the substances in blood to the tissues? 3. What is the difference between systemic and pulmonary circulation?

55

right side of the heart

left side of the heart

Oxygenated blood is carried to the cells in the body

Systemic circulation

Body

Did you know? Eating too much animal fat leads to the blockage of blood vessels and heart problems. The circulation of blood around the whole body takes around one minute. On average, the total length of the blood vessels of an adult is 100.000 km.

4

4.2 C - Blood and Blood Groups Although the blood looks like a red liquid, in reality, the liquid part of it has a different colour. The diagram below shows how blood looks after it is kept in a tube for a while. The yellow liquid which remains at the top is called the plasma. Plasma is the liquid part of the blood. It is mainly water with chemicals dissolved in it. The rest that remains at the bottom is the blood cells. We can analyze the blood cells through the microscope.

The red coloured ones are called red blood cells. They carry mainly oxygen and some carbon dioxide. They do not have a nucleus and they are disc shaped.

The ones which have nuclei are white blood cells. They fight against the germs (microbes).

The tiny bits of cells that we can not see through the microscope are platelets. They help blood clotting.

The Blood Groups and the Blood Transfusions People who are wounded, ill or who went under an an operation may need a blood transfer. The blood that is preserved in a special plastic bag is given to the patient through his or her veins. Is it possible to give any kind of blood to anyone? Does everyone have exactly the same blood ? If you ask your friends in the class, you will see that there are 4 blood groups. These are A, B, AB and O. For a blood transfusion to be safe, the blood group of the donor and the recipient must be the same. In the case of necessity, the blood transfusion 0 can be done between the blood groups as shown in the figure beside. 0 In the blood transfusion, the Rh factor is also important. If the red blood A A B B cells of a person has Rh factor, the blood is said to be Rh+ (positive), if there is no Rh factor, it is called Rh- (negative). The Rh factor of the donor and AB recipient must be the same in blood transfusion. Blood Transfusion AB

1- When you cut your finger it starts bleeding, but bleeding stops after a while. Which blood cells stop bleeding? 2- What is the job of red blood cells? 3- Try to find what happens to a person if he/she is given blood from a donor with an unsuitable blood group?

Blood donation is important for a healthy life

56

Did you know? The oxygenated blood has a brighter red color than the deoxygenated blood. In one second, 5 million red blood cells are produced in the bone marrow.

Systems in our body

4.2 D - Lymph Circulation and Natural Defenses The blood circulation carries oxygen and food to the cells with the help of capillaries. While capillaries are passing near the cells, a part of the plasma moves out of them and flows around the cells. The exchange of substances is done by the help of this liquid. Part of the liquid returns to the capillaries. Some of it passes into the lymphatic system. Lymphatic system is made up of the lymph nodes and the lymph vessels. The liquid that passes to the lymph vessels circulates in the body. The white blood cells produced in the lymph node are added to this liquid and helps to protect the body from infection. This liquid which is called lymph is added to the blood system later on. Our tonsils which swell when they fight with the germs are lymph nodes.

lymph vessels

lymph nodes

Lymphatic System Natural Defenses How is our body protected from microbes? Our body has natural defenses to keep the microbes away. Tear: This is a liquid that kills the microbes. It spreads over the eye by blinking.

Sweat: Sweat is produced by the sweat glands in the skin. The acid in the sweat kills the microbes.

Respiratory tract: The cells in the nose and windpipe produce mucus. The hair-like structures (cilia) and mucus in these cells trap dust and germs from the air entering.

Stomach: Stomach produces acid which kills the germs entering the body with food

1) What is the importance of lymph circulation for our body? 2) How does our respiratory system prevent the entry of microbes into the body?

57

Skin: The dead outermost layer of the skin acts as an effective barrier for the microbes.

4

4.2 E - Immunity and Microbes Immunity What happens if the microbes overcome the natural defenses and enter the body? How does our body react to this? Why don't we catch some of the diseases for the second time? The microbes entering the body are destroyed by the white blood cells. Some of the white blood cells take the microbes inside and kill them. The other white blood cells produce antibodies against the microbes. The antibodies destroy the microbes. If the same microbe enters the body for a second time, the white blood cells recognize it and produce antibodies in a short time. Microbes die and we do not become ill. Our body gains immunity to this Microbes are destroyed and we recover. disease. White blood cell antibody

Microbe enters our body

While our body is producing antibodies, number of microbes increases and we become ill.

White blood cells start to produce antibodies against the microbe

When we have enough antibodies they attack microbes.

If the same microbe tries to enter the body for a second time, white blood cells produce antibodies in a very short time and antibodies kill microbes. Now we are immune to the disease

It is not necessary to be ill in order to be immune to a disease. We can have immunity by means of vaccination. By means of vaccination, weakened or dead microbes are injected to our bodies. As a result, our body is introduced with the microbe so it starts to make antibodies. The antibodies can also be injected to the body through serum. The microbes can be killed with antibiotics, but medicine does not develop immunity. . Microbes: There are several microbes that enter our body and make us ill. Bacteria cause diseases like cholera, diphtheria, tuberculosis and typhoid. Some of the diseases that are caused by viruses are influenza, common cold, mumps, measles, hepatitis and AIDS. AIDS is caused by a very dangerous virus called HIV. When HIV enters the body, it attacks the white blood cells. Therefore, the immune system collapses and the Did you know? body can not fight with the microbes effectively. AIDS can be transmitted by blood. Therefore, the blood Some vaccines may be repeated of the donors must be checked for the virus and the medical to maintain immunity. devices must always be clean. We mustn't share our tooth AIDS may also be passed on brushes or razors in order to protect ourselves from AIDS. during unprotected sex. It may also pass from the mother to the fetus during pregnancy. 1) Why is vaccination important? The first person to produce and 2) What is the job of antibodies? use a vaccine was Edward Jenner. 3) Give information about AIDS. The first antibiotic was produced in 1928, by Alexander For a healthy life, we should be Fleming. careful about hygiene and sterilization.

58

Systems in our body

4.3 A - Respiratory System Do respiration and breathing mean the same? In fact, they are interdependent. Our body cannot do one without the other. Oxygen Carbon dioxide Respiration is the breakdown of food to release energy. With the help of oxygen, the food is broken down slowly and energy is produced. Carbon dioxide and water are produced as side products. Energy Food Water Respiration takes place in the cells. For respiration, cells need to take oxygen and get rid of carbon dioxide. This is made possible by our breathing. When we breath in, we get clean air with oxygen and when we breath out, we get rid of carbon dioxide. The entry and exit of gases from the body occurs with the help of the respiratory system and the transport of them is done by the blood circulation. Nose: It filters dust and germs with the help of mucus and cilia.

Intercostal muscles: They move the ribs

Windpipe: It carries the air to the bronchi.

Rib: It protects the lungs.

Left lung

Alveolus: Gas exchange occurs here.

Bronchus: It carries the air to the bronchioles.

Bronchiole: It carries the air to the air sacs(alveoli).

Diaphragm

Respiratory System The air enters the nose and passes to the windpipe then to the bronchi and air in and out from here it goes to the thinner branches called bronchioles. The gas exchange Deoxygenated oxygenated blood leaves blood enters takes place at the alveoli which are found at the end of the bronchioles. There are many capillaries around the alveoli. The oxygen in the alveolus passes to blood and the carbon dioxide from the blood passes to the alveolus. The breathing is controlled by the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles O2 CO2 enters enters found between the ribs. When we are breathing in, the intercostal muscles alveolus blood contract and the ribcage moves outwards and upwards. The diaphragm moves downwards and the lungs are filled with air. While breathing out, the muscles are capillary Red blood cell relaxed. The ribcage move downwards and inwards and the diaphragm moves upwards. The air is exhaled from the lungs. Gas exchange at alveolus air in

air out ribs move outwards

Did you know ?

ribs move inwards

1- Explain the difference between breathing and respiration. 2. What is the function of the alveoli? diaphragm contracts

breathing in

diaphragm relaxes

breathing out

For our health, we should stay away from the cigarette smoke

59

The wall of an alveolus is only onecell thick. An adult breaths about 16 times in a minute. There are many chemical substances in the cigarette smoke which damages the respiratory system There is 1.5 litres of air in the lungs. The total volume (lung capacity) is between 3 and 5 litres.

4

4.4 A - The Skeleton, Joints, Muscles skull

It protects the important organs

It supports the body rib backbone pelvis

It gives shape to the body

Allows movement

Human Skeleton Joint

Type of movement

Location at the body

Movable a) Hinge joints: Allow movement only in one direction. Rotate. b) Ball and socket joints:

Slightly movable

Movement is limited.

Immovable

Do not move

A person who hits his head, or receives a major hit at the game is x-rayed immediately. At the x tray film, a major system of the body is seen. This is the skeletal system. What would happen if we had no skeletal system? Could we stay up? How would be our movements? Our skeleton is made up of bone and cartilage. The bones are tough structures. They can resist blows and pressures. The bones are also light and that makes movement easier. Joints are places where the bones meet. They make movement easier. The joints help us while we are moving our head upwards, using our chin, bending down, running and walking. At the xrays given below, a number of different joints are seen.

Knee, elbow Hip, shoulder Neck, Between the bones of vertebra. Between the bones at the skull

The tips of the bones that form the joints are covered with cartilage. The cartilage absorbs the shock and reduces the friction between the bones. Bones forming the joint are held together by ligaments. Muscle There are many muscles in our body. Most of these are connected to the bones and move them. The other muscles are mainly inside the body. Heart muscle is found in the structure of the heart and works continually. The smooth muscles are found in the structure of organs other than the heart (e.g stomach, blood vessels and intestine) and works very slow. The muscles attached to bones are known as skeletal muscles. These muscles work very fast. The movement of a bone depends on the contraction of a skeletal muscle. The contracting muscle pulls the bone, but it cannot push it. For this reason, the skeletal muscles work in pairs. A muscle moves the bone in one direction and the other moves it in the opposite direction. Did you know? Pairs of muscles like this, which have opposite effects are called antagonistic muscles. The antagonistic muscles of our arm are shown When we take a step, we use below.

around 100 muscles. The smallest bone in our body is the hammer in the ear. There are 206 bones in our skeleton.

relaxes contracts contracts relaxes

Antagonistic muscles of arm

60

Systems in our body

4.5 A - Excretory System The blood that circulates around our body contains many different substances. The amount of these substances must be at specific levels. Excess of these substances must be removed from the body. We must also get rid of the ones which are toxic (poisonous). How do you think this happens? The vessel that carries the blood to the kidney; Ureter : carries the urine to the bladder. Kidney : removes toxic substances and excess water from the blood.

Bladder : stores urine.

Human Excretory System

Urethra : the urine is expelled from the bladder through urethra.

The system that filters the blood is excretory system. The most important organ of the excretory system is the kidney. It filters the blood and removes waste substances and excess water. The liquid that is formed in the kidney is called urine. If our body does not have much water, we produce little amount of urine . When we drink too much water, we produce more urine. The urine collected at the kidney goes to the urinary bladder through the ureter. The urine stored in the urinary bladder is emptied at intervals through the urethra. Humans have two kidneys. If one of the kidneys does not function, the human can survive with only one kidney. If both of the kidneys do not function, the person is in great danger. For the filtration and the cleaning of the blood, the person must be connected to a dialysis machine. The patients in this situation need kidney transplantation. There are other organs that function in excretion. Liver produces bile which helps the removal of some waste substances. We excrete carbon dioxide with the help of our lungs and our skin helps the removal of some water and salts.

Did you know? Dialysis Machine

1) What is the job of kidney? 2) Which people need to connect to the dialysis machine? Why? 3) Why do we produce excess urine when we drink too much water?

61

In our kidneys, there are 1 000 000 tiny filters (nephrons) that clean the blood. We produce 2-3 litres of urine daily For kidney transplantation a suitable donor is necessary. Urologysts are people who are specialised in the area of excretory system.

4

4.6 A - Nervous System brain central nervous system

spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

The control center of our body is the brain. The brain is protected by the skull. There are nerves between the brain and the other parts of the body. The job of the nerves is to carry messages. The structure that starts at the base of the brain and continue down is called the spinal cord. The spinal cord is protected by the vertebra (back bone). The brain, the spinal cord and the nerves make up the nervous system. Brain and the spinal cord make up the central nervous system and all the other nerves make up the peripheral nervous system.

Human Nervous System

* Eye sends messages to the brain.: “There is a variety of biscuits” * Brain makes a decision : “The one with chocolate looks good” * Brain sends message to the muscles in the hands and the arms : “Get the one with chocolate”

Various biscuits for our choice.

Above we saw an example of how brain works. Messages are sent to the brain continually by means of nerves. Most of the messages are sent from the sense organs. The brain makes sense of the information in the message, decides what to do and sends messages mostly to the muscles. As a result the body does what is needed to be done. Some of the body actions take place without our brain being involved unlike the action of choosing a biscuit. These quick and automatic actions are called reflexes. When we touch a hot object, we pull our hand away immediately. This is done without thinking and it is a reflex. Likewise, coughing and sneezing are also examples of reflex actions. When something escapes into our nose, we sneeze.

Did you know? 1) Write down the parts of the nervous system. 2) What are the functions of the brain? 3) What is the importance of a reflex action? If our spinal cord is damaged, we may become paralysed. We should be careful when we are playing.

62

There are billions of nerve cells in our brain. The brain deals with around 50 million messages in a second. The people which are specialised in the field of nervous system are called neurologysts.

Systems in our body

4.6 B - Brain

Brain is a very complicated organ. The scientists are doing a lot of research to understand this complicated organ. They are getting results.

cerebrum

cerebellum medulla

Parts of the brain touch

The outer layer of the brain is called the cerebrum (cerebral cortex). This is the part concerned with intelligence, memory, thinking and learning. Vision, hearing and other sense centers are also located here. Cerebrum controls the voluntary actions (the actions that you control by thinking).

smell taste

thought and memory

movement

sight

hearing

Same areas of the cerebrum

Medulla, regulates the working of the internal organs. For instance, breathing and the heart beat rate are controlled by the medulla. Cerebellum controls the balance of the body. It helps us to be in balance while moving. Cerebellum of a surfer works hard when he/she is trying to keep balance on the surf-board.

1) Give the name, and function of each part of the brain. 2 Write which parts of the brain deal with the following activities. a) Control of the heart beat rate b) Learning the subject taught by the teacher. c) Standing in balance on a rope.

63

Did you know? The brain is split into two hemispheres. The left hemisphere controls the right side and the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body.

4

4.7 A - Endocrine Glands While we are watching a horror movie, or while a dog is chasing us, certain changes take place in our body. Our breathing becomes faster. Our heart beats like crazy. These are the results of the working of endocrine glands. Endocrine glands function together with the nervous system, and regulate the functions of our body. Endocrine glands produce chemical molecules called hormones. Hormones are given from the gland to the blood and are carried to the target organs in the circulatory system. When we are afraid of something, the adrenal gland which is one of our endocrine glands, produces the hormone adrenaline, and gives it to blood. As the adrenaline circulates in the blood it speeds up breathing and heart beat rates. As a result, it prepares the body for the fight against danger. The hormones act much slower than the nerve messages as they are carried by blood. Growth, the rate of the body functioning and sexual development are some of the functions controlled by the endocrine glands.

The pituitary gland produces the growth hormone.

The thyroid gland: It produces the hormone thyroxine that regulates the rate of body functioning.

Pancreas produces insulin and glucagon that regulate the blood sugar level.

Reproductive organs: They produce the hormones that bring about the secondary sexual characteristics of the males or females.

Adrenal glands: They produce adrenaline when we experience fear and excitement.

Endocrine Glands

Did you know? The other name of adrenaline is “fight or flight” hormone. In both cases, the body needs extra energy. The changes that are caused by adrenaline helps the body to produce more energy

1) What are hormones? 2) Write the names of two endocrine glands and give examples for the hormones each produces. 3) What are the functions of hormones in the body?

64

Systems in our body

TEST 4 1) The human digestive system is shown below. B C

a) Name the labeled parts. b) State which organs do the following jobs. i) Removes faeces from the body ii) Absorbs water iii) Produces bile iv) Absorbs most of the digested food

I

2) Match the following blood cells and vessels with their jobs. a) White blood cell b) Artery c) Capillary d) Platelet e) Vein f) Red blood cell

1) carries blood to the cells 2) carries oxygen and carbon dioxide 3) carries blood to the heart 4) helps body defense 5) carries blood away from the heart 6) helps blood clotting

3) a) What are the jobs of blood? b) The figure given beside shows the chambers of the human heart. i) Write the names of the chambers. ii) Colour the chambers which contain oxygenated blood with red and the ones which contain deoxygenated blood with blue.

4)

a) Why do we breath? Explain b) Bronchus Alveolus

Nose

Blood

A

B D

C

Bronchiole

Windpipe

State the way that an oxygen molecule would travel in the body by putting the structures given above in the right order. 5)

a) What are the jobs of skeleton? b) Name the bones which protect the following organs. Heart: ..................... Brain: ..................... Lungs: ..................... Spinal cord: ..................... c) What are the types of joints? Give one example for each type.

6) I- Switching off a boiling kettle.

II- Blinking your eye when dust escapes.

Which of the activities given above is a reflex action? Explain why. 7) Write the names of the hormones which are responsible for the following. a) Controlling the blood sugar level: b) Controlling the rate of body functioning:

65

4

Multiple Intelligence Activities Find songs which contain sentences about the systems in our body. Write the sentences and prepare a music collage.

Prepare a dictionary by using the concepts given below and also the ones that you have learned in this unit. Enzyme Chemical digestion Heart Vein Bronchiole Immunity White blood cell Brain Joint Alveolus Hormone

“My heart will go on and on.” “I scream from the top of my lungs what's going on”

............................... ............................... ............................... ...............................

A Alveolus: It is a small air sac which is found in the lungs

............................... ...............................

B Brain: …………………………

............................... ............................... ............................... ...............................

Bronchiole: …………………

Write down the similarities and differences between the following.

Prepare a puzzle by using the concepts you have learned in this unit. From left to right: 1) It is liquid part of the blood 2) It is responsible for chemical digestion From top to bottom: 1) It can be gained by vaccination 2) The liquid which is produced in the kidney.

1 I 1 P L A S M A M U 2 E N Z Y M I T Y

Refrain

Red Blood Cell

Artery

2 U R I N E

Atrium

White Blood Cell

Vein

Ventricle

Similarities: 1) ........................................ 2) ........................................ 3) ........................................ Differences: 1) ........................................ 2) ....................................... 3) .......................................

66

Systems in our body

Multiple Intelligence Activities Prepare a model for the respiratory system by using the following materials. Materials: 1 cork with a hole, a plastic bottle, 2 small balloons, 1 large balloon, 1 Y-shaped tube, scissors, a knife.

*Why do you think that you are taught digestion? Because: ...................................................................... ........................................................................................

How to make it? Cut the base of the plastic bottle carefully with a knife. Place the small balloons on the two tips of the Y-tube and pass the other tip through the hole of the cork. Close the mouth of the bottle with the cork. Tie the large balloon and cut 1-2 cm from the base. Place it over the base of the bottle.

*Why do you think that you are taught blood transfusion? Because: ...................................................................... ....................................................................................... *Why do you think that you are taught excretion? Because: ...................................................................... .......................................................................................

Observe what is happening to the small balloons when you are pulling the large balloon down.

*Why do you think that you are taught working of brain? Because: ................................................................ ......................................................................

State which organs of the respiratory system are represented by the bottle, large balloon and small balloons.

Make a group of four people with your friends. Ask the following questions to the students in your class and share the results with them.

Name

Can

Blood Group

A

Write some of the concepts you have learned in this unit on cards. Try to describe these concepts to your friends without talking.

Can receive Can give blood from: blood to:

A and O

VACCINATION

KIDNEY

LUNG

SPINAL CORD

SMOOTH MUSCLE

MECHANICAL DIGESTION

A and AB

67

NOTES ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................................................

UNIT 5

OUR SENSE ORGANS AND SENSES

Long Sight

Short Sight

Pupil The hole in its center

Iris Has

If light rays are not focused

Retina

Lens

Sclerotic

Choroid

Focuses light rays on it Layers It's part

EYE

Protects

Conjunctiva

Seeing

Pressure, touch, hot, cold, pain

SENSE ORGANS

SKIN

Hearing

Tasting

Smelling

Has taste sensors

Has

EAR

Sensors

NOSE Has smell sensors

Parts

Outer Ear

Middle Ear

Collects sound waves

Sound waves passes through

Vibrates

Ear Drum

Inner Ear Has sensory hairs

Increases the vibrations

Ear Flap (Pinna)

Ear Canal

TONGUE

Ear Cossicles Balances the pressure

Eustachion Tube

Cochlea Maintains the balance of the body

Semi-Circular Canals

Olfactory Area

Taste Buds

5

Entry Activities The chameleons sometimes move their eyes to the sides of their head, and sometimes move their eyes at the front of their head. When do you think the chameleons move their eyes at the sides and when do you think they move their eyes at the front? Discuss this with your friends and note your answers in your notebooks. Go over your answers after you finish the unit.

We can easily detect the taste of the fruit juice in the glass. However we can not detect the taste of the glass. Discuss the reason of this with your friends and note your answers in your notebooks. Go over your answers after you finish the unit.

In the pictures above which of the hunters has more suitable hunting suit both for hunting and for his safety. Discuss the reason of this with your friends and note your answers in your notebooks. Go over your answers after you finish the unit.

Close one of your eyes. Hold two pens at your eye level and try to bring together their tips. Can you easily do the above activity? Discuss the reason of this with your friends and note your answers in your notebooks. Go over your answers after you finish the unit.

70

Our Sense Organs and Senses

OUR SENSE ORGANS AND SENSES

All living things encounter internal and external changes. Usually their survival depends on the correct respond they give to such changes. The living things have evolved different ways in detecting these changes. Some of them have sensors, or sense organs, that can detect (are stimulated by) the changes in their environment. Each sense organ contains groups of sensors.

Animals need their sense organs to find food their food. They also need their sense organs to protect themselves from their enemies and find their way.

Animals perceive the world with their sense organs. Different species look through different sensory windows, so their views of the world are not the same. Dogs, for example cannot recognize the colors but they have stronger sense of smell and hearing than humans do. If you have a walk with your dog while the sun is rising, as you enjoy the amazing view, your dog probably will enjoy sniffing around the bushes, and listening for the sounds of small animals in the underbrush.

The ear The eye The nose

The tongue

The skin

In this chapter you're going to learn how we detect the changes around us and how we perceive the sense of touch, the sense of hearing etc. Humans have five sense organs. These are shown in the picture above.

71

5

5.1 A - Eyes

Photograph of the vertical section through the eye.

eyes

When you begin studying this chapter in class your ears will be hearing your teacher's voice and your eyes will be seeing pictures and sentences in this book. Have you ever thought how your eyes function and how you see? An eye is like a ball full of fluid. Light sensitive cells which detect light are found in the innermost layer of the eye. At the front of the eye there is a very thin layer of cells, that protects the eye . This layer is called conjunctiva. What do we do to keep windscreen clean and to see objects around us clearly as we travel in the car? We spray water and clean with wipers. We do a very similar activity for our eyes as well. The front of the eye is usually washed by tears and cleaned every time we blink. Blinking wipes away any dust that gets onto the eyes. Tear gland Pupil Iris

Tear duct

Sclera

Tear glands and tear duct

1) What is the importance of the conjunctiva in the eye? 2) Why are our eyes washed by tears and why do we blink when there is dust in our eyes?

For healthy eyes let's wash our eyes and face regularly at night and in the morning.

72

Did You Know? Insects and spiders have compound eyes which are formed by many optical units. In compound eyes each unit has its own optical system. The eyes of insects are 12 times more talented in spotting moving objects than human eyes. The eyes of a human can detect 40 55 vibrations in a second whereas the insects can detect 260 265 vibrations in a second

Our Sense Organs and Senses

5.1 B - Eyes; The Energy Changers and Their Structures Eyes have special nerve cells that change light energy into electrical energy and send electrical messages to the brain. The special cells that can be stimulated by changes in the environment (such as touch, light, hotness) are called receptor cells (sensors). Eyes have receptor cells that can be stimulated by light. Ciliary Muscles Iris It is the coloured part of the eye. It belongs to choroid layer. It controls the amount of light entering the eye ball.

They change the shape of the eye lens by their contraction and relaxation.

Retina It has the light sensitive cells (light sensors). It is the innermost layer of the eye.

Choroid It contains blood vessels for supplying nutrients to the eye.

Eye Lens It bends and focuses the light rays on the retina.

Sclera Itis a tough layer that protects and supports the eye.

Pupil It is a hole that lets light rays enter the eye. At the front of the eye, it is the part which looks black.

Yellow spot It is the most light sensitive region of the retina.

Optic Nerve It carries electrical messages from the eye to the brain.

Cornea It is the transparent region of the sclerotic layer at the front of the eye. It lets light to pass through it and enter the eye .

Both of the regions are filled with fluid. These fluids protects the shape of the eyeball.

The hunter animals have eyes The prey animals have eyes at the front of their face at the sides of their face

Blind Spot At the part of the retina where the optic nerve leaves the eye there are no light sensitive cells. An image cannot be formed on this region.

Seeing With Double Eyes Humans and animals can perceive depth and distance with two eyes easier, however they might be deceived with a single eye. Our field of vision enlarges with two eyes. In nature, the animals which are preys have their eyes at the sides of their head for a wider field of vision. They have more chance of survival if they recognize their enemies earlier. Animals which are hunters have their eyes at the front of their face this allows them to judge the distance of their prey well. Falcons and tigers for example have eyes at the front of their face.

1) Write down the parts found in the structure of the eye and their functions. 2) Rabbits have their eyes at the sides of their head. What is the advantage of this for them in nature?

Did You Know? The eyes of a blue whale are as large as a soccer ball.

73

5

5.1 C - Image Formation and Seeing Things While we are looking at an object, the light rays that are reflected from the object pass through the cornea, the pupil, the lens in order and are focused on the retina where the image is formed.

In which of the following figures do you think there will be more clear vision?

Formation of an Image on the Retina

The image on the retina is upside down (inverted) and two dimensional.

Light rays reflected from an object are bent first by the cornea, then by the lens and they are focused onto the retina. The image is formed on the retina. The image on the retina is upside down (inverted) and two - dimensional. Light sensitive cells on the retina turn the image into electrical messages (impulses). Optic nerve carries these electrical messages to the center of the brain which is associated with vision. The brain interprets the electrical messages and turns them into the right way up, three-dimensional pictures. Sense of vision occurs in the brain.

1) Explain the stages of an image formation on the retina. 2) How is the image of the following letter on the retina?

Did You Know?

For healthy eyes let us have adequate and balanced diet, especially include foods rich in vitamin A into our diet.

74

The image of an object lasts only for 0.1 seconds on the retina.

Our Sense Organs and Senses

5.1 D - Focusing of Objects at Different Distances on the Retina In order to be focused on the retina the light rays which are reflected from near objects must be bent more than the light rays which are reflected from distant objects. To do this the eye lens changes its shape. The light rays are bent more by a fatter lens. Do you think that the eye lens should be thin or thick in order to see a near object clearly? The shape of the eye lens is changed by the contraction and relaxation of the ciliary muscles. To focus a near object the lens becomes thicker (fatter), to focus a distant object the lens becomes thinner. The ability of the eye lens to focus objects at different distances is called 'accomodation'. Focusing a Near Object on the Retina

·Ciliary muscles contract. ·Eye lens becomes thicker. ·Near object is focused on the retina. Focusing a Distant Object on the Retina

·Ciliary muscles relax. ·Eye lens becomes thinner. ·Distant object is focused on the retina. 1- Why is the ability of lens to change its shape important? 2- After looking at a distant object what differences occur in the eye to focus on a near object? We should rest our eyes by frequently looking far away

75

Did You Know? As people get older the eye lens loses its flexibility and the power of accomodation decreases. Cataract occurs when the eye lens becomes opaque. It can be cured by a simple operation.

5

5.2 A - Controlling the Amount of Light Entering the Eye When you come out from a dark place into daylight, it's difficult to see clearly and it takes time to get used to the light and see clearly again. Such events remind us that the amount of light falling onto the retina is important and has to be adjusted. Light rays enter the eye by passing through a small hole called pupil. Iris enlarges or reduces the size of pupil by altering its own size. In poor light pupil gets larger to take in more light. In bright light pupil gets smaller.

Pupil is large in poor light

Pupil is small in bright light

Activity: Look at your eyes in the mirror. Notice the sizes of iris and pupil. Then, close one eye with your hand; look in the mirror with the other eye. Now, move your hand away and look at your eye that was closed before. What kind of changes can you see in the eye that was closed?

Colour Vision Some light sensitive cells on the retina are sensitive to coloured light. In the absence of any type of these light sensitive cells the colours cannot be discriminated. This is called 'colour blindness'. The most common colour blindness is the failure to discriminate between red, brown and green. In total inability to distinguish between the colours, the person sees all the colors as grey and shades of grey.

1- Under which conditions and how does the pupil gets larger or smaller? 2-Explain the possible reason of colour blindness? For healthy eyes, let us not look at very bright light with naked eyes.

76

·People with People with normal colour vision cannormal see a number '16'. People with one kind of colour blindness cannot see the number.

Did You Know? 8% of men and 0.4% of women are colour blind. Most of the animals are colour blind

colour

5

5.3 A - The Ear: Hearing and Balance Organ Sounds travel in air as waves; just like the waves that occur when we throw a stone in water. When the sound waves reach the sensors in air as vibrations, the sensors are stimulated and send electrical messages to the brain.

Outer Ear

Middle Ear

Inner Ear Semi-circular canals

ear ossicles

Auditory nerve

Ear Flap (Pinna)

Malleus

Ear canal

Ear drum

Stapes

Incus

Cochlea Eustachian (coiled tube) tube

Structures found in ear

As you can see in the figure above the ear has three parts: Outer ear, middle ear and inner ear. The Outer Ear: Ear flap (the pinna) ear canal and ear-drum are the structures found in the outer ear. The Middle Ear: Ear ossicles and eustachian tube are the structures found in the middle ear. Eustachion tube balances the pressure between the middle ear and the surrounding. It prevents the possible harm of the eardrum. The Inner Ear: Cochlea (coiled tube) and semicircular canals are the structures found in the inner ear. 1)Write down the parts of the ear and the structures found in them. 2)What is the function of the eustachian tube. 3)Try to find out: in which conditions a 'hearing device' is used and how does it work. Spending a lot of time in noisy places can lead to loss of hearing.

78

Ear protectors can protect our ears from loud noises

Did You Know? Humans can hear the sounds between 20 20000 Hz, dogs can hear the sounds upto 100000Hz,bats 98000 Hz,fishes between 3000 4000 Hz and frogs can hear the sounds upto 50000 Hz.. Ear-nose-throat-head and neck surgery specialists are specialized in health and curing the diseases of these structures.

Our Sense Organs and Senses

5.3 B - Hearing Hearing

2. Sound waves pass through the ear canal and reach the ear drum. They make the ear drum vibrate.

4. Ear ossicles also increase the vibrations and pass them to the oval window.

5. When the oval window starts to vibrate the fluid in cochlea also starts to vibrate. 7. Auditory nerve carries the electrical messages to the brain. Brain interprets these messages and hearing occurs in the brain

Sound Waves

1. Pinna collects the sound waves and funnels them into the ear

3. The ear drum increases the vibrations and passes the increased vibrations to the ear ossicles.

6. The vibration of the fluid stimulates the sensory hairs in cochlea and they send electrical messages to the brain.

Balance Semi circular canals in the inner ear are the structures that detect movement and help us to keep our balance. The semi circular canals are filled with a fluid. In the end of each canal there is a region with sensory hairs. When we move the fluid in the canals also move, the movement of the fluid bends the sensory hairs and bending stimulates the sensory hairs to send electrical messages to the brain. The brain interprets these messages and makes us keep our balance during movement.

Did You Know? 1) Explain how do the sound vibrations travel in the ear and reach to the sensory hairs. 2) Search for the possible causes of deafness. 3) Which structure in ear help us to keep our balance? 4) It is hard to keep our balance after revolving around for some time. Explain why?

79

Sound pollution is one of the environmental pollutions. While we are traveling in a car, our eyes tells the brain that we are moving but the semi circular canals tells the brain that we are stationary. This causes sickness

5

5.4 A - Skin The skin is like a blanket that covers the body. However, the only function of the skin is not to cover the body, it also keeps the organism aware of the changes in the surrounding by acting as a sense organ.The outermost layer of the skin is dead. Beneath this dead layer there are millions of sensors within the skin which sense heat, cold, pressure and pain.

Sensors that respond to coldness

Surface of the skin

Sensors that respond to hotness

Sensors that respond to touch and light pressure are found close to the surface of the skin. They make us sense the texture of the objects. E.g. roughness or smoothness.

There are touch sensors at the roots of hairs. They are stimulated by the movement of the hairs and send electrical messages to the brain.

The pacinian corpuscles respond to pressure. They make us sense the pressure that could harm or bruise us. They are found deeper than the other pressure detecting sensors.

Hair

Free nerve endings are found near the surface of the skin. They respond to pain.

Structure of the skin

In different parts of our body there are different kinds of skin sensors in different numbers. The greatest number and kind of sensors are found at our fingertips. That's why our fingertips is very sensitive to touch and other senses. The lowest number of skin sensors are found in the middle of the back. 1) What is the function of the skin? 2) Write down the sensors found in the skin and their functions? 3) Our clothes that we are wearing always touch us but mostly we do not feel them. Search for the reason of this.

80

Did You Know? The number of the pain sensors in any part of the human body are 30 times more than the cold sensors . The number of cold sensors are 10 times more than the number of hot sensors.

Our Sense Organs and Senses

5.5 A - The Tongue and the Sense of Taste Tongue is our sensory organ of taste. The tongue responds four kinds of tastes. These are sweet, salt, sour and bitter. The special structures that give us the sense of taste are called taste buds. On the tongue the taste buds are found in little grooves. Only the chemicals soluble in saliva can stimulate the taste buds. The stimulated taste buds then send impulses to the brain. The brain interprets these messages and the sensation of the taste sour occurs in the brain.

bitter sour

salty Little grooves on the surface of the tongue

Taste bud

salty sweety Particular taste areas of the tongue

Most taste buds respond to all four kinds of

Surface of the tongue taste but at a different rate. For example one taste

Surface of the tongue (Magnified)

bud may make its maximum response to sweet, a lesser response to salt and weak responses to sour and bitter. The different types of taste buds are found in particular areas on the tongue. Taste buds which make its maximum response to sweet are found at the tip of the tongue, the ones that make maximum response to salt and sour are at the sides of the tongue and the ones that make maximum response to bitter are at the back of the tongue.

Activity: Put a sugar cube on your tongue and notice how you taste it. Now dry your tongue with a clean tissue then put a sugar cube on it again. Can you easily taste it. 1) What are the tastes that can be detected by tongue? 2) Draw the tongue and show the particular taste areas on it. 3) What are the special structures that responds to taste on the tongue.

The smokers have weakened sensation of taste.

81

Did You Know? There are about 9000 taste buds on the tongue. Flies have their taste buds in their mouth and on their legs.

5

5.6 A - The Nose and the Sense of Smell In the nose there are sensors that can detect smell. Smells are chemicals in the air. The sensors in the nose just like the taste buds are stimulated by dissolved chemicals. When we breathe in we direct the chemicals in the air into our nose. The sensors in the nose are found in the olfactory area at the top of the nasal cavity. The chemicals that can dissolve in the liquid which moistens the inside of the nose stimulate the sensors in the olfactory area to send impulses to your brain. The brain interprets these electrical messages as different smells.

Smell sensors

Nosal cavity

Nosal cavity and olfactory area

When we taste food we decide if its flavour is good or not. If our nose is blocked, even though we taste the food with our tongue, we can not enjoy the subtle flavour of the food. Is there any relation between enjoying flavours of food and a blocked nose? While we are eating food both smell sensors and taste sensors work together to give us the flavour of the food.

Did You Know? Some insects have smell sensors on their antennas. A trained person can distinguish 10,000 different smells. This number is endless for dogs The skunk defends itself by producing an unpleasant smell. This smell makes skunks one of the smelliest animals in nature.

1. Explain how we smell. 2. Where are the smell sensors in the nose? 3. Try to find out the jobs that people do by using their sense of smell and taste. 4. Try to find out for what purposes the animals use their sense of smell. Give examples.

Foxes have glands on their feet that produce a special smell, by this way they can find their way back easily. Sharks can smell a drop of blood in the ocean.

82

Our Sense Organs and Senses

TEST 5 1) a) Label the parts of the eye in the diagram given below.

b) by using the structures mentioned in the diagram write down how seeing occur while you are looking at a picture in a book.

c) Write down which part of the eye performs the following functions.

! Controls the amount of light entering the eye. ___________________ ! Change its shape to focus light on to the retina _________________ ! Enables the lens to change its shape. _______________ ! Contains light sensitive cells. _________________ ! Carries electrical massages from the eye to the brain. ______________ 2) The figures below are the pictures of the same eye at different times. picture 1 picture 2

Which of the following probably happened between the first and the second picture? a) The eye blinked. b) The person went into a darker room. c) The eye is exposed to bright light. d) Eye focused on a distant object. 3) Answer the following questions a) Draw a diagram to show the outer ear, middle ear and inner ear. Show their structure. b) Which part of the ear collects sound waves? c) Which parts of the ear increase the vibrations? d) Which part has sense receptors that are activated by vibration? 4- Look at the graph and answer the questions.

160

160

140

140

120

120

100

100

80

80

60

60

40

40

20

20

0

0 back of hands

finger tips

arms

lips

tip of the nose

83

a) Which part of the body is the least sensitive to touch? Why? b) How many touch receptors are 2 there in 1 cm (a square centimeter) of a finger tip? c) There are 50 touch receptors in 1 2 cm of the forehead. Show this information on the diagram too.

5

Multiple Intelligence Activities Learn about the sense of taste and smell of two animals living in Cyprus. Write down the similarities and differences between their senses.

Add some more questions and make an interview on our ear health with an otologist. Share the information with your friends and make a poster for your science corner.

Sense of Taste Similarities 1) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 2) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 3) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Question 1: how and how often should we clean our ear? Answer 1: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Question 2: What should we do to protect our sense of hearing? Answer 2: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Differences 1) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 2) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 3) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Note: Do the same activity for the sense of smell.

Add some more words to the following concepts and make a concept map about the eye. Eye,

conjunctiva, Iris

cornea,

Dramatize the senses detected by skin to your friends.

sclera

............

eye

84

Our Sense Organs and Senses

Multiple Intelligence Activities Imagine you are a blind person. Write about your experiences that might take place during a day.

Think of the popular songs that you know and make a music collage by writing the sentences mentioned in them about the sense organs. “The eye of the tiger” “......................................”

Symbolize the sense organs and the senses that they detect. Make flash cards with these symbols.

Write what you have learned about sense organs and how did you feel in learning these.

The knowledge I learnt about the eye: ............................................................................................... The feelings that I had in learning these: ...............................................................................................

The knowledge I learnt about the ear: ............................................................................................... The feelings that I had in learning these: ...............................................................................................

Note: you can play games with your friends by using these cards.

85

NOTES ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................................................

UNIT 6

MATTER AND HEAT

Radiation

Convection Thermostat Conduction

Spread as Spread as

Spread as

Used in technology as

Bi-Metal Strips

HEAT Solid

In Solids

state causes

Liquid

state

state

Gas

Constriction

State Changes goes throught

Expansion

In Liquids

In Gases MATTER

The refined form is

Object

6

Entry Activities

When a railway is built, spaces are left in between the rails. Why do you think so? Discuss this with your friends and teachers and note your answers in your notebooks. Go over your answers at the end of the unit.

What is the main source of energy on earth? How does heat from this source reach us? Discuss this with your friends and teachers and write down your answers in your notebooks. Go over your answers at the end of the unit.

88

Matter and Heat

MATTER AND HEAT Mass, volume and temperature are the common properties of all matter, but density, freezing and boiling points change from matter to matter. Many substances resemble one another as they have many common properties. In order to distinguish between such similar substances, careful measurements must be made and some distinguishing properties like density must be calculated. In classifying substances, it is very important to know their properties. When classified, substances may be used Wood is a matter properly according to their properties: Objects to be used at very high temperatures are made from metals with high melting points. Objects made of glass are breakable, so must be handled carefully. It is important to be able to distingwish between object and matter. Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Object is a solid with a shape. Wood is a matter, but a wooden chair is an object. Glass is matter, but glass cup is an object. Heat Energy is one of the most important factors that cause physical changes of matter. Changes of matter, when it absorbs or loses heat energy, are state changes, exponsion or contraction. There are three states of matter; solid, liquid and gas. Melting of a solid, or evaporation of a liquid when it gains heat energy are state changes. We use all three states of water in our everyday lives. It is solid state is called ice, it is liquid state is called water and it is gas state is called steam. The temperature of a substance increases when it gains heat energy, and it is temperature decreases when it loses heat energy.

Chair is a object

1. Explain the terms “matter” and “object” by giving at least 2 examples for each. 2. How many states of matter are there? Give at least 1 example for each state of matter. 3. What changes does matter go through when it gains and loses heat energy? Use objects made of recycled matter in putting limitted sources to use.

89

Did You Know? Earthquakes, volcanoes and floods are all natural disasters that change the state of matter.

6

6.1 A- Heat or Temperature? The temperature of a lit match is higher than the temperature of a radiator, but a match cannot transmit as much heat as a radiator. As can be seen in the given example temperature and heat are terms with different meanings. Scientists call “the total kinetic energy of all the molecules of a substance, heat and the kinetic energy of only one molecule of a substance, temperature. The temperature of water in a cup and the temperature of sea water may be the same if their molecules move with the same speed. However, the heat of sea water is much greater than the heat of water in a cup. As the mass of sea water is huges i.e. it has a huge number of molecules, its total kinetic energy is very high. How is energy transmitted? Heat energy is transmitted from a hot object by conduction, convection and radiation. 1. Conduction: When a substance is heated, the kinetic energy gained by its molecules, is transmitted by vibrations from molecule to molecule. Heat transmission by conduction is best in solids, especially in metals. Heat cannot be transmitted in space-by conduction. When we are making Turkish coffee, our hand may be burnt by the hot metal spoon. This is an example of heat transmission by conduction. 2. Convection: The molecules of a hot substance spread heat by exchanging places with each other. Transmission by convection takes place only in liquids and gases. Suction in a chimney, warm currents in oceans and heating a room with a radiator are all examples of transmission of heat by convection. 3. Radiation: İt is the transmission of heat by light rays. İf the rays are absorbed by a substance, the substance becomes very hot. İf the rays are reflected by the substance, the substance warms up a little. Black objects absorb the light rays, whereas white objects reflect them. That is why we wear dark coloured clothes in winter, and lighter colours in summer. The sun warms up the world by radiation.

Did You Know? 1. Explain “heat” and “temperature” by giving examples. 2. How can heat be transmitted in space?

We measure temperature with a thermometer, but we measure heat by a calorimeter.

90

Matter and Heat

6.1 B- Exchange of Heat and State Changes When two substances with different temperatures touch each other, or mixed together, heat is transmitted from higher to lower temperature. The transmission of heat continues until the temperatures of the two substances become equal. At this point, the amount of heat gained or lost by each substance is the same.

steam (gas)

saucepan (solid)

water (liquid)

When the conditions change, the physical states of substances change. The most important condition is the temperature. As the temperature increases, the particles of the substance move faster. High temperature breaks the forces between the particles, so particles move away from each other. As the particles move apart, the state of a solid substance changes to liquid, and then, to gas. Scientists call “the change of state of matter when it gains or loses heat” the State changes. During state changes the temperature of a substance does not change, as the heat gained or lost is used for changing the state of the substance.

1. If two matters at different temperatures contact each other; a) How will the heat transmition occur? b) When will the heat transmition end? 2. Give two examples of solids, liquids and gases. 3. Try to find out: What are the conditions that change pyhsical states of matters apart from temperature?

91

Did You Know? Some solids like naphthalene change directly to gas without passing through the liquid state.

6

6.2 A- Expansion Glass bottles shown on the right are placed in two bowls filled with water. One bottle is placed in cold, the other one in hot water. The balloon attached to the bottle in hot water is inflated after a while. Why? We learned before that the volume of heated substances increases. That's what is happening in this experiment. Air in the bottle placed in hot water warms up, its volume increases and it inflates the balloon. Particles that make up solids, liquids of gases vibrate continuously. If an object is heated, heat energy is converted to kinetic energy, therefore, particles start vibrating vigorously and they spread over a larger area. So, when heated, objects expand. Expansion means widening. The increase in length, surface area or volume of a heated object is called expansion. The decrease in length, surface area or volume of a cooled object is called contraction

Expansion In Solids Great forces formed because of expansion or contraction of substances cause damage in structures like railways and bridges. That is why spaces are left in between rails, and bridges are placed on movable pulleys. We can find many examples of this if we look around.

92

Did You Know? If you cannot open the lid of a jar, hold it under hot water. As the metal lid expands, the lid will open easily.

Matter and Heat

6.2 B- Bi-Metallic Strip Alloys are made by rivertting rods of two different metals. As the two metals are rivetted, they cannot act independently when heated. As their expansion coefficients are different, one bends over the other. Alloys have many uses. The most important use of alloys is the electric thermostat. A thermostat is an instrument which controls the temperature and keeps it constant. Electrical flashheathers, irons, air conditioners and radiators are all instruments with thermostats. In instruments with thermostats, the alloy bends when the temperature increases and, thus, it stops the circuit. After a while, the alloy cools down and returns to its original shape . Then the circuit is completed and the heater starts working. In this way, the instrument remains at a constant temperature. In fire alarms, when the temperature increases, the alloy bends upwards, closes the electric circuit and the bell goes. Alloys are also used in metal thermometers and flashes.

copper iron before heading

copper longer after heading iron

copper iron contact

bell

battery

control knob

copper iron

in

heater out

Did You Know? 1-What is a 'thermostat?' Explain its uses by giving examples. 2-Activity:Make up an electric circuit that Works with the principle that'heated metals expand'. Ask for your teacher's help.

93

Iron, water boiler, flash heater, laundry machine, dish washer, electric oven use heat energy and all contain thermostats.

6

6.2 C- Expansion of Liquid and Gases v When a completely filled kettle is heated, water overflows. Why? v Why does mercury or alcohol level in thermometers move up or down with temperature changes? In order to answer the questions above, we have to observe the behaviour of liquids. We cannot observe the behavior of heated liquids as easily as we do with solids. Liquids do not have a shape.Therefore, liquids must be observed in a container. Expansion increase only in volume when heated. The expansion coefficient of liquids is greaterthan that of solids. When a container filled with a liquid is heated, both the container and the liquid inside expand, but as the liquid has a higher expansion coefficient, it overflows. Expansion of Water If a glass bottle is filled with water to the rim,closed tightly and placed in deep-freezer, we can later observe that the frozen water does not fit in the bottle and breaks it. This event seems to oppose the principle that 'substances contract when they lose heat'. Instead of contracting, the substance seems to expand when it loses heat. Water is different from all the other substances in terms of expansion. Water expands whether it gains or loses heat. On other words, the volume of water increases with an increase or decrease in temperature. The temperature at which the volume of water is minimum, is +40 C. Objectas can expand in solid, liquid or in gas state. The expansion coefficient of liquids is greater than that of solids, and the expansion coefficient of gases is greater than that of liquids.Expansion coefficient is a distinguishing factor for solids and liquids, but not for gases. All gases expand to the same extend under same conditions.

Did You Know? 1-What kind of physical changes do the objects go through? What changes do the objects go through with changes in temperature? 2-Research: What precautions are taken to overcome the problems of expansion and contraction long steel bridges?

94

A travelling balloon moves due to expansion. Air inside the balloon is heated for expansion or is cooled for contraction by a heat source placed underneath the balloon.

Matter and Heat

TEST 6 1. Write down two objects made of each of the following substances. Use the spaces provided.

Glass

__________ __________

Plastic

__________ __________

Wood

__________ __________

Silk

__________ __________

2-Which form of heat transmission does each of the following involve? a)Our hand is burned by a metal spoon while we are cooking. b)The sun heats the world. c) Radiator warms up the room. d)Frying in a pan. e)Warm currents in seas. f)A light bulb gives off heat when it is on. 3-Answer the following questions: a)What do 'expansion' and 'constrisction' mean? b)Put the expansion coefficients of solids, liquids and gases in an order. c)What is an 'alloy'? How are they used in technology? 4- The metals X, Y, Z are of the same length and width. They undergo the following procedures. Put the expansion coefficients of X, Y and Z in an order. a) When X and Y are heated to the same temperature, X becomes longer than Y. b) When X and Z are cooled down to the same temperature, Z becomes sharter than X. The decreasing order of expansion coefficients of same metals(of the same length and width.) is: steel, iron, copper, aluminium. Draw the shape of each of the following alloys when they go through the procedures below.

İron

Aluminium

Copper

Steel Temperature is decreased

Temperature is increased

95

6

Multiple Intelligence Activities Note all the instruments at home that give off heat energy for a week.

Make a report of how heat energy is transmitted.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

( Shape 1 )

Tuesday Wednesday

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Thursday

( Shape 2 )

Friday Saturday

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Sunday

( Shape 3 )

Write down a story using the place, date and characters given below. 1-Why do you think the subject on heat and matter is given to you? Because :_______________________________ __________________________________ __________________________________ __________________________________ 2- Why do you think you are informed about expansion and contraction? Because :_______________________________ __________________________________ __________________________________ __________________________________ 3- Why do you think you are informed about the uses of thermostat? Because :_______________________________ __________________________________ __________________________________ __________________________________

Place: Home Date: 2007 Characters: Water heater,iron,laundry machine, dish washer. (Name of the story) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

( Name of the Author ) -------------------------

96

Matter and Heat

Multiple Intelligence Activities Complete the diagram below and create a diagram of your own by using the information you obtained in this unit.

Create a dance figure for each of the following terms.

Expansion Contraction Radiation Thermostat

HEAT

causes

goes throught

MATTER

Symbolise each of the following terms with a colour. Then, colour each box accordingly.

Expansion

Constriction

Hot

Cold

Conduction

Radiation

Create a musical rhythm for each of the following terms. Then, play each rhythm for your friends and ask them to find out which term is represented by each rhythm.

Expansion Constriction Radiation Thermostat

97

NOTES ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................................................

UNIT 7

HYDROGEN, METALS, ACIDS AND ALKALIS

pH

pH meter

Alkali

determines determines

Universal indicator H+ k i n d s

Litmus

Acid

related to

Soluble in water related to

Base give out

Neutralization

determines

Indicator

o f Salt

Phenolphthalein

Alloy

Water

produces

mixture forms

Metal has

Reactivity Series

undergoes

Corrosion

Oxygen

Hydrogen

For iron

is used

Meteorology balloon

Rusting

prevents

Lubcating

Acid

Coating

Painting

can be used

Fuel

OH

7

Entry Activities

What will happen to the iron Platform in Gemikonağı if nothing is done to protect it in 100 years? What do you think? What shall be done to protect it? Discuss with your friends and write the result in your note book. At the end of the unit revise the answers.

Why do you think hydrangeas bloom in different colors (blue and pink) in different soils? Discuss with your friend and write the results in your note books. (Revise the answers at the end of the unit.

Zeppelins are balloons filled with hydrogen which were mostly used by Germans in 1930's. The biggest zeppelin Hindenburg caught in a strong storm after it passed the Atlantic Ocean and was about to land in New Jersey. The Hydrogen filled balloon caught fire and 36 out of 98 passengers died in the accident. If you were a scientist at that time what kind of changes would you do with the balloon to prevent that disaster. Discuss with your friends.

100

Hydrogen, Metals, Acids and Alkalis

HYDROGEN, METALS, ACIDS AND ALKALIS Hydrogen obtained from the reaction of an acid with a metal was used in the flight of the pioneer balloon. As the Hydrogen is a very light gas the balloon rose easily. In 27

th

August 1783 the 1st balloon designed by French Jacques Charles was the first transport balloon ever known. Thousands of people in Paris waited to see the first flight of the balloon, but they couldn't. The balloon had immediately disappeared because of the rain. The balloon landed 10 km away about 45 minutes later. Thinking that it is a monster, farmers attacked it with pitchforks and .

Hydrogen, metals and alkalis are also important in the flights of space rockets. Hydrogen is used as fuel for taking the rocket off. Metals such as Aluminum are used in the production of the body of the space shuttle. Alkalis are used to clear Carbon Dioxide gas in the air inside the shuttle and also in shuttle's batteries. Space shuttle is one of the most modern space vehicles. It's taken off in front of the eyes of many people, from Cape Kennedy base on 12 April 1981. Also millions of people watched on TV how it reached the height of 40 km in 2 minutes. After orbiting around the earth 36 times (1,729,318 Km.) it landed back 54 hours ands 30 minutes later in the presence of cheering people. Hydrogen, metals, acids and alkalis are very important chemicals that are used in other areas apart from flying vehicles. You will learn about these chemicals in Unit 7.

101

7

7.1 A - More About Hydrogen In this photograph, you can see a weather balloon. It's being filled with gas. Once it is filled, it will be released. The balloon's job is to carry instruments high into the atmosphere. The instruments make measurements of the weather. Then they send the information back to Earth. Not every gas is useful for fillng weather balloons. The gas must be much less dense than air, otherwise the balloon won't lift the heavy instruments off the ground. Weather balloon The gas normally used is hydrogen. It's ideal for this. It's much less dense than air, and quickly Hydrogen floats upwards when released. In fact, hydrogen has the smallest density of all substdances.

Hydrochloric acid

Water Zinc A test for hydrogen

Hydrogen can be produced easily in the laboratory from the reaction of dilute hydrochloric acid with zinc as shown in the diagram aside. As it is insoluble in water, it can be collected in a test tube above water. Water from Hydrogen

Hydrogen from water Hydrogen

Hydrogen

The water formed condenses on the cold surface

Burning hydrogen

You can't see hydrogen in the tube because it's colorless and has no smell. When you light a match and hold it to the mouth of the tube you can hear an explosion. This experiment proves the presence of hydrogen. This way we can separate hydrogen from oxygen, Nitrogen and Carbon dioxide.

Oxygen

Ice

When you burn hydrogen you get water. Hydrogen + oxygen Water. Chemical name of water is hydrogen monoxide. If you put a jet of burning hydrogen onta a cold surface, a colourless liquid collects. The collected liquid boils at 100°C. That liquid is water.

Electricty supply

water with a little acid in it Carbon (Graphite) rods

You can use this apparatus to pass an electric current throguh water. When the current is switched on bubbles of gas appear on the two rods. (If a little acid is added, the gases are made more quickly. The acid helps the current to flow.) Hydrogen is made at one rod, and exygen at the other. The electrical energy splits the water into hydrogen and oxygen.(electrolysis)

Did You Know? 1. What is Hydrogen? Explain 2. Explain why hydrogen is used in meteorology balloons. 3. How can you separate hydrogen from other gasses? 4. In nature hydrogen can only be found in outer atmosphere. What can be the reason?

102

Hydrogen is used to harden vegetable oils to make margarine. Pure hydrogen makes up less than 0,000001% of the atmosphere A mixture of hydrogen with oxygen will explode when lit.

Hydrogen, Metals, Acids and Alkalis

7.1 B - A Useful Fuel The mixture of hydrogen with air may explode when lit. If hydrogen mixes with the right amount of oxygen it burns with a blue flame which is very hot. In other words hydrogen is a very useful fuel. Hydrogen can be used heating. In Britain they once used coal in factories and in the homes for heating. But later because of air pollution they started using town gas containing 50% hydrogen gas. Today we use natural gas instead. Some welding torches burn hydrogen. When hydrogen is mixed with pure oxygen, it burns with a very hot flame. Hydrogen-oxygen welding torches can produce flames as hot as 4000°C, hot enough to join pieces of metal together. Hydrogen can be used as a fuel for transport: hydrogen is not a very common fuel in our lives. Although there are some cars and busses which were designed to work with hydrogen, only space rockets can use hydrogen as a fuel. The space rocket Discovery works with hydrogen. The rocket is placed between two fuel tanks. In the first tank there is hydrogen which burns in the engines and in the other tank there is oxygen which lights the hydrogen. The Space Shuttle and How it Works

A hydrogen-oxygen welding torch gives a flame hot enoguh for underwater welding

The fuel tank: carries the fuel to the engines. When the rocket reaches its orbit at 200 km high the tank is detached from the rocket and it burst into flames.

Booster rockets: help the Shuttle to get off the ground. When the Shuttle has reached a height of 50 km, the fuel in these rockets is completely used up. The rockets are ejected. They parachute back to Earth to be used again.

The shuttle: is designed to go into orbit, carry oft its mission and return to Earth, it carries a little fuel.

1. Why is hydrogen used in space rockets? 2. What is the reason of evaporation when the space rocket takes off? 3. Why is hydrogen used as a fuel? 4. What are the functions of the fuel tank? 5. Why is hydrogen a very good fuel?

Did You Know?

The cars that contain catalytic converters must be prefered as they are friendly to the evironment.

103

The electricity in the space rocket is obtained from the burning of hydrogen and oxygen and the water which comes out is used by the Astronauts.

7

7.1 C - The Fuel of the Future Hydrogen is the fuel for the future. Scientists believe that in the future hydrogen will replace the fuels we use today. Read the information below first, and then decide if the scientists are right or wrong. A good fuel gives out a lot of heat when burned. The heat energy is measured in kilojoules (kJ). Burning one gram of hydrogen produces 143 kilojoules (kJ) of heat which is enough to boil a glass of water. Burning 1g of petrol produces 48 kJ. Burning 1 gr of natural gas produces 58 kJ. A good fuel should be cheap and easy to produce There is a very small amount of hydrogen in the atmosphere and it is not easy to separate hydrogen from the other gases. Hydrogen can be obtained by passing electricity through water. Most of the hydrogen that is produced is obtained by heating the mixture of North Sea gas (natural gas) and steam. Unfortunately these matters are expensive. More energy is needed to make the hydrogen that could be produced by burning it. Recently it's been possible to decompose water by using sunlight and obtain hydrogen more cheaply. A good fuel should be easily transported and stored Hydrogen can be stroed as a liquid under pressure in strong tanks. It can be transported from one place to another by pipes. That makes hydrogen useful in hydrogen powered vehicles industry and for heating homes. But liquid hydrogen storage tanks are really too heavy to carry on vehicles. As a result, the designers of hydrogen-powered buses and cars have had to find other ways of storing the fuel. Most have fitted the vehicles with metal. These compounds give up hydrogen on heating. (Heating from the vehicle's engine can be used to do this.) But, again the compounds are expensive. A good fuel should be safe while using it. Like other liquid and gas fuels hydrogen dangerous and explodes when reacts with air. But the use of hydrogen is safer than the other gases because hydrogen escapes into the outer atmosphere and its burning temperature is higher than the other gases. 1. Explain why hydrogen is more usefull at present as a fuel for heating houses than as a fuel for cars 2. Does hydrogen pollute air? 3. 143 kJ heat can boil a glass of water. In that case; a) How many grams of hydrogen should be burned? b) How many grams of petrol should be burned? c) How many grams of natural gas (North Sea gas) should be burned? Compare petrol and hydrogen and write their advantages and disadvantage if they are used as fuels.

Fossil fuels should be consciously used as used as they will run out in the near future.

104

Did You Know? There are about 350 nuclear reactors on the earth and they produce about 20 % of the world's electricity. In USA a village called "Hydrogen Homestead", in the state of Utah, hydrogen is used as fuel in homes and in cars.

Hydrogen, Metals, Acids and Alkalis

7.2 A - Metals and Reactivity There are many metal objects around us. Some metals are very reactive and it is not possible to use them for making any tools or vehicles. Example; it won't be a very good idea to make a bike from Potassium since potassium reacts immediately with water and gets oxidized. Metals which reacts in water:

................ ................ ................

Metals which don't react in water but do react in hydrochloric acid

................ ................ ................ ................ ................ ................

Metals which don't react in water or in hydrochloric acid

................ ................ ................ ................

Make your own reactivity series

magnesium bubbles of hydrogen

dilute hydrocholoric acid

magnesium ribbon in acid When a piece of magnesium ribbon is placed into hydrochloric acid the hydrogen bubbles fill up the tube quickly. But when you put a piece of magnesium ribbon into a cup filled with water, only a few bubbles appear and it would take several days to fill the tube with water Metals in water hydrogen burning ishydrogen given off hydrogen. Therefore, we can say that Magnesium reacts very quickly with dilute acid, sodium magnesium iron copper gold but much slower with water. potassium

Only a few metals react with water, but many metals react with acids which is more reactive than water.

calcium

aluminium

tin

mercury Metals in hydrochloric acid

aluminium iron magnesium zinc

lead tin

copper

mercury silver

gold

The diagram shows the reactions of metals with water, and acids. Some metals react faster, some slower with Magnesium. The un-reactive metals don't react.

The list of table which puts to metals in order of reactivity is called reactivity series. Potassium is the most reactive metal. It reacts very fast with water and explodes with acid. Silver and gold are the least reactive metals. They don't react with water and not even with acids. Unreactive metals like silver and gold are called noble metals

Activity; Draw the given table into your notebooks and complete it.

Did You Know? 1-

a) What is reactivity series? b) What is an un-reactive metal? 2- Why don't we want potassium to react with acid? 3-a) Write 2 metals which react with water. b) Write two metals which don't react with water. c) Write two metals which have less density than water. 4- Can we make a water pipe from calcium? Why?

105

Although Aluminum is more reactive than iron, it seems to be less reactive, because it forms and unreactive oxide layer on it's surface. Platinum is less reactive than gold.

7

7.2 B - Rusting When some metals react with oxygen, water vapour and some gases in the air, a compound is formed on their surface, and they lose their shinyness. If any metal has a compound formed on its surface this is called corrosion. Metals like gold, silver, and platinum are noble metals and they don't corrode The corrosion of iron and steel is called rusting. The brown oxide formed is hydrated iron oxide. After rusting, iron loses its strength. Rusting occurs in a medium where air and water are present. In the experiment given below we have got the results shown after keeping the tubes in laboratory for a week. Do a similar experiment with your teacher. cork air (contains oxygen)

dry air

air

vaseline air

olive oil (it keeps out air in water)

salty water

iron cottonwool nail boiled anhydrous oil water water calcium no water chloride or air 3 4 2 1 oxygen only water only oxygen and water control only no water, oxygen and air

Test Tube

Conditions

Rusting

1

Water & air excluded

No

2

water & air

Yes

3

air

No

4

water

No

5

Salt, water and air

A lot of rust

5 water, air and oxygen

Rust Prevention:To prevent rusting water and the oxygen must be kept away from the surface of a metal. There are many methods to prevent rusting for example; car manifacturers applies some of these methods. Car bodies can be galvanized (coated with zinc) in addition the exhaust is made from stainless style and engine is lubricated with oil. Using unreactive metals: The unreactive metals are very useful. Gold is used for making jewellery. It is shiny and doesn't corrode. Copper: is used in the thermostats of heaters and stoves. It is used in coating steel cans or tins to protect food. Titanium: is an important metal nowadays because it is light, strong and does not corrode. Most of titanium is used in making planes.

1. Which gate of a house gets rusted earlier? The one near the Girne Harbour or the one in Nicosia? Why? 2. Why it is dangerous to use a rusted car?

106

Did You Know? 1/7 of the produced iron is used to replace the rusted iron.

Hydrogen, Metals, Acids and Alkalis

7.2 C - Alloys are Better We can't use un-reactive metals in order to solve every corrosion force problem because un-reactive metals are expensive and may not be appropriate for a specific problem. Even though it might be cheap you can't use gold to build up bridges force because it's very soft and it is not very strong. Mixture of metal with The atoms in an alloy act like a other metals or with non-metals is called an alloy. You can use alloy to pebble in the concrete end the corrosion problems. Alloys are usually made by solidifying the molten metal mixture. The main reason alloys are preferred rather than pure metals is that alloys have many useful properties than pure metals.

Pure iron is no good for building things, because it is too soft and stretches easily. Beside, it rusts easily too.

When a little carbon about 0.5% is mixed with pure iron mild steel is obtained. As steel is very strong it is used in buildings, bridges, ships and car bodies.

When nickel and chrome are mixed with iron, the result is stainless steel. This is hard and rustproof. It is used for car parts, kitchen sinks and cutlery.

Pure aluminum is light but it is not very strong. That's why it is not used for planes. When Copper and Magnesium are mixed with Aluminum a stronger alloy is obtained, which can't be bend and therefore can be used in aero planes. Name of Alloy

Metals in Alloy

Uses

Solder

Lead and Tin

Soldering

Amalcap

Mercury, silver & tin

Tooth filling

Brass

Copper & zinc

Making musical instruments

KTHY plane is produced from an alloy of iron, magnesium and copper.

Which of the alloys in the table has the following functions? a) Mixes at room temperature and gets hard in 24 hours. b) Has a low melting point and is food a conductor. c) is harder than copper and doesn't corrode. In some countries tins are colleted separately in containers called tin banks and recycled.

107

Did You Know? Bronze is an alloy which made from the mixture of copper and tin. Bronze is used to make statues and ornaments. The alloy produced from a mixture of iron and manganese is so hard that it can be used the crush rocks.

7

7.3 A - Acids Acids are mostly known as chemicals which are corrosive and burning when reacted with solid objects. There are signs on their bottles showing that they are burning and corrosive. But some acids are not corrosive and are found in some food. They give the sour taste to the food. The word acid comes from the Latin word Asidus which means sour. Corrosive

home made vinegar in Cyprus

Here are some corrosive acids. You have probably seen them in the laboratory. They are called strong acids.

You must be careful especially while using the concentrated acids because they are corrosive.

However, some acids are not so corrosive even when they are concentrated. They are called weak acids. For Example; Ethanoic acid is not corrosive and found in vinegar.

Acids found in animals

Acids found in plants Cidric acid

ETANOIC ACID (ASETIC ACID)

Orange and Lemon

Hidrochloric acid

In stomach

Tartaric acid

Grapes

Lactic acid

Muscles during vigorous exercise

Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C)

Citrus fruits

Uric acid

In urine

Methanoic acid

Nettle

Methanoic acid

ant sting

*The acid that are found in plants and animals are called organic acids except hydrochloric acid.

Stronges acid

Formula

Market name

muriatic acid HCl Look at the formulas of the acids above. They all have Hidrochloric acid an ion in common. Which ion is that? Discuss. H2SO4 Sulphuric acid Acids are the compounds which produce hydrogen Aqua fortis ions (H+) when dissolved in water. HNO3 Nitric acid Substances that are acids have hydrogen ions in their gaseous solutions. Did You Know? Some gases like carbon dioxide give out hydrogen ions when dissolved in water. For example; solution of Hydrofluoric acid can eat away glasses so it is used to shape the carbon dioxide in fizzy drinks such as coke, fanta, edges of glass. sprite…

We shouldn't consume fizzy drinks such as coke which are harmful to our health. 108

In the absence of folic acid, the body cannot produce red blood cells so anemia may result.

Hydrogen, Metals, Acids and Alkalis

7.3 B - Bases and Alkalis In some ways bases are the opposite of acids. Bases mostly have a slippery feel : sodium bicarbonate, soap and caustic soda which burn the skin are all bases. Bases which are soluble in water are called alkalis.

Set of bases

Alkali soluble bases in water

In ancient times, the Arabian scientists mixed the wood ashes with water. Then they drained the water and boiled the mixture with animal fat to make soap. In Arabic ash means “al kali” Some bases are corrosive like acids, so it is harmful to touch them. If you spill acid or alkali on your skin wash it away immediately. To avoid any harm to your eyes you should wear protective labaratory glasses while working with acids or alkalis. The alkalis which have burning wood and ash corrosive effect are called strong alkalis. Sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide are good examples of strong alkalis. Most of the kitchen cleaners contain alkaline substances so you must be very careful while using them.

Name of Alkali Sodium Hydroxide Potassium Hydroxide Calcium Hydroxide Ammonia Solution

Formula Common Name Sud-caustic NaOH Potas-caustic KOH Ca(OH)2 Slaked lime NH4OH

cleaning materials

When you look at the formulae of the alkalis you realise that they have a common ion. Which one is it? Discuss. -

A substance which produces OH ions when dissolved in water is called an alkali All alkaline solutions contain hydroxide ions OH

Acid + alkaline Hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide

-

salt + water sodium chloride + water

When an acid is mixed with an alkali they cancel out each other as a result salt and water is produced. These compounds are not acidic or basic. These compounds are called neutral compounds. Pure water is neutral because the water molecules contain equal number of hydrogen and hydroxide ions. Table salt and sugar are also examples of neutral compounds.

109

Did You Know? When bee stings, it injects an acidic solution into the skin. The first thing to be done is to put an alkali such as baking soda which is sodium hydrogen carbonate. When wasp stings you should rub the are with vinegar to reduce the pain. Both the nettle sting and ant contain formic acid so you will feel the same pain when you touch or got bitten by them.

7

7.3 C - Colour Selection and pH Components that give colour to plants are mostly sensitive to acids and alkalis. Hydrangeas grown in acidic soils produce blue flowers. The ones that grow in alkaline soils produce pink flowers. So we can understand the kind of soil roughly from the colors of the flowers. What is an indicator? Most flowers and fruits are colored and we can get various dye material from these colors. Some of the organic dyes change color when they react with some chemicals. Indicator is a substance that can change colour. You can understand if a substance is acidic, neutral or alkaline by using indicators. Litmus solution is purple. Litmus paper for testing acid is blue.

They will also turn blue litmus paper red

Acids will turn litmus solution red

blue

litmus turns red

red

acid

acid

Litmus is an indicator that is obtained from lichen and it is red in acid. When you add a base to acid, you neutralize it and the color of litmus turns to blue. Neutral violet color is because of the same amount of blue and red colour. Danish scientist Soren Peter Sorensen designed pH scale in 1909 to measure the degree of acidity of beer. This scale runs from 0 to 14. As the pH value increases acidity decreases and basicity increases. pH can be a solution or a paper like litmus indicator. When you put universal indicator in a solution, you can find the pH of solution by looking at the colour chart below.

strong acid

1

2

stomach acid

weak acid

3

4

6

7

skin

vinegar lemon juice

5

neutral

fizzy drinks

8

pure water milk

weak alkali

10

indigestion powders

blood

Our skin has a pH of 5.5. Normally pH of soap is 9 or 10. People who have sensitive skin use soap with the pH 5.5 otherwise their skin get dry.

110

9

strong alkali

11

washing powder

12

13

14

oven cleaner

toothpaste

Did You Know? pH is inversely proportional with hydrogen ion concentration. pH is the short form of puissance d'hydrogene in French which means power of hydrogen.

Hydrogen, Metals, Acids and Alkalis

7.4 A - Acids and Alkalis are Opposites Acid is added When acids and alkalis are mixed they Neutralising alkali with acid from a syringe cancel each other out. This experiment on the right shows what happens when acid is added to alkali with indicator in it. At the beginning before any acid has been added, the indicator is violet. Each time acid is added, it cancels out some of the 1 10cm 2 10cm 4 10cm 3 10cm alkali + indicator alkali + indicator alkali + indicator alkali. This makes the indicator colour alkali + indicator + 10 cm acid + 11 cm acid + 9 cm acid gradually change. Eventually the indicator goes green neutral (neither acid nor alkali). Exactly the right amount of acid has been added to cancel out or neutralise all the alkali. As you see in the picture 4 if the amount of acid is more, we get an acidic solution. Neutral materials are not acid or alkali. When an acid and alkali react together, they give salt and water. 3

3

3

+

-

Hydrochloric acid (H and Cl ) turns blue litmus into red.

When added into acid, sodium hydroxide (NaOH turns red litmus into blue.

Neutralization is useful!

3

3

3

3

...Sodium chloride doesn't change the color of litmus paper because it is neutral.

Some people have indigestion. The “burning” feeling comes from too much hydrochloric acid in the stomach. You can cure the pain quickly by taking an antiacid tablet. The tablet contains an alkali which gets rid of the acid.

Acid in our mouth causes tooth decay. Alkali in toothpaste neutralise acid and avoid tooth decay.

Take care to the health of our teeth 111

Did You Know? The acidic food coming from the stomach to the small intestine is neutralized by bile coming from the liver. Phenolphthalein indicator is colorless in acidic but red in alkaline solutions.

7

7.4 B - Salts As in the neutralization experiment, when we 3 3 react 10 cm of acid with 10 cm of alkali without using an indicator, we get sodium chloride a salt solution when we evaporate water from this solution we get table salt.

water is evaporated off

just enogh acid to neutralise the alkali

The table salt that we buy from the market is not produced by this method. It's obtained by refining the salt from salt lakes, the sea or salt mines. Why do you think producers prefer this

evaporating basin the salt

Alkali

Making a salt

Uses of salts

The insoluble salt calcium sulphate is used in hospitals to help set broken bones

The salt sodium fluoride is used in tootpastes to help prevent tooth decay

The insoluble salt barium sulphate is used to show up X-rays of the digestive system

Apart from neutralization you can prepare different salts in labaratory. Salt can be described as metal compounds that can be made from acids. For example: we can get sodium sulfate from sulfuric acid. 1. From which acids can we get the salts below in lab? a) Copper sulfate b) Calcium chloride c) Potassium nitrate

The salt copper sulphate is used as a pesticide in vineyards

Sodium chloride is used to prepare çakıstez (green olive)

Did You Know? In ancient Rome, salaries of some soldiers were paid as salt.

For a healty life you shouldn't add to much salt to your food 112

Hydrogen, Metals, Acids and Alkalis

TEST 7 1- Why modern air transport balloons use hydrogen gas instead of helium? 2- It is said that hydrogen is a better fuel than natural gas and petrol. Explain the reason. 3- What are the difficulties of using liquid hydrogen in cars as a fuel? Explain shortly. 4- Does hydrogen cause environmental pollution when burns? Explain. 5- Which metal catches fire when it reacts with water? Why? 6- Which metal seen to be less reactive than iron even though it is more reactive? Write the reason. 7- What must be done to prevent rusting in following iron objects? a) Gate

b) Bicycle chain

c) Water pipe

d) Can

8- How can you understand if an aspirin tablet dissolved in water is acid or alkali? Explain. 9- Complete the table below by using the pH scale in page… Name of Substance a- Acetic acid b- Blood c- Pure water d- Washing powder e- Fizzy drinks f- Milk g- Stomach acid h- Soap ı- Tooth paste i- Lemon juice

pH

*Acidity - base level

* Weak acid, strong acid, neutral, weak alkali, strong alkali. 10. Space explorers discovered four new metals in another planet. Reactions of these metals with water and acid are given in the table below. Metal W X Y Z

Water Very strong reaction No reaction Fast reaction No reaction

Diluted Acid Not tested Slow reaction Vigorous reaction No reaction

a) List metals according to their decreasing reactivity. b) Why the reaction of W metal with acid was not tested. Explain.

Tube A

Tube B oil

iron nail cotton wool

11. The experiment below is done to investigate the rusting of iron. There are no changes in tubes A and B but rusting is seen in tube C. a) Why do they put dry calcium fluoride in tube A? b) Why do they boil water in tube B?

113

boiled water Calcium chloride

7

Multiple Intelligence Activities a) Main reason of acid rain is human activities. b) Coal, petrol and natural gas contain sulphur. When these fuels burn they produce sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide released into the air. c) Gasses mentioned above dissolve in water droplets in the clouds and move with the clouds. In proper conditions they come back to us as acid rain. d) Acid rain is harmful for plants and animals living in water. Fish die when the pH balance is under 4.5 e) Acid rain is harmful for statues and buildings as well. f) Sulfur dioxide harms people's respiration system, increase the risk of being asthma and bronchitis. By using the information given above write an article about the observation of a person in an industrial area. Use internet to richen your article if you like.

Recently a person called Mr. Eliçabuk was arrested and accused for stealing gas oil from a farmer's tractor which was in the farmer's garage. According to the police, the white powder found under his shoes was very important evidence because that powder was lime from the basement of the garage. Mr. Eliçabuk claimed that he was innocent because he had been walking by the sea, and that the white powder was salt. If you were a detective how would you prove who is telling the truth? Report what you would do.

Put some lemon juice, vinegar, detergent water, soap solution, lime water, dissolved aspirin in water and washing soda separately. Group these materials according to color change by dropping red cabbage juice of phenolphthalein or putting a litmus paper. Try to figure out if these materials give the feeling of smoothness. Draw a table from your results and then discuss.

Write new lyrics to a song by using the words given below.

Matter

There is dissolved acetic acid in vinegar. If you were a nutrition inspector and had to classify vinegar's quality; 3 Known value: 10 cm sodium hydroxide solutions neutralize 1 g acetic acid. 3

Found value: 40 cm sodium hydroxide solutions neutralized 50 cm3 vinegar. 3

On the bottle of vinegar it is written that 1000cm vinegar has 100 g acetic acid. 3 a) How many grams of acetic acid is there in 50 cm vinegar? b) How many grams of acetic acid is there in 1 lt. vinegar? What would you say to the producers according to your results?

Acid, alkali, base, rusting, pH, litmus, metal, neutralization, fuel, hydrogen, mixture.

Slippery Acid or base

114

Hydrogen, Metals, Acids and Alkalis

Multiple Intelligence Activities Farmers grow crops according to the acidity of the soil. If soil is to acidic, most crops will not grow well. Farmers can spread powdered limestone or slaked lime on the soil to neutralize the soil. Search internet or encyclopedias and make a poster about in which pH valued soil plants will yield better in our country.

Needed materials Half red cabbage Knife A big pan Wooden spoon Closed big jar strainer

Boil the ingredients, turn off the oven, stir the mixture and leave for 30 minutes to be cooled.

Chop the cabbage into small pieces. Put the pieces into the pan and fill it with water.

Filter cabbage juice and pour it into the jar. Liquid in the jar is your indicator, keep it in the refrigerator. Strainer Red cabbage

indicator

Keep a piece of meat and a fizzy drink in a closed container for a few days. What happened to the meat? Do you still want to drink something acidic every day? Draw this experiment in on a poster and write the results.

Keep a diary to write the amount of fossil fuel that you and your family consume in a month. Then prepare a pie chart to show the total daily amount. 1st day _______________ 2nd day _______________ 3rd day _______________ 4th day _______________ 5th day _______________

Time of observation Result of observation

petrol diesel coal gasoline natural gas

115

NOTES ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................................................

REFERENCES Akalın,Ş.H.(2004).İlköğretim Okulları İçin İmla Kılavuzu.Ankara:Aydoğdu Ofset Alberts, B., Bray, D., Lewis, J., Raff, M., Roberts, K., Watson, J.D. (1994). Molecular Biology of the Cell (Third Edition). New York:Garland Publishing. Arms, K.,Camp P.(1998). Biology: A Journey Into Life.USA:W.B. Saunders Company. Batman,K.A.(2002) Çok Boyutlu Zeka Kuramı Etkinlikleriyle Destekli Öğretimin Erişi, Tutum ve Kalıcılığa Etkisi. (Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi). Ankara:Hacettepe Üniversitesi. Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Beasant P.,(2004).Türkiye Bilimsel ve Teknik Araştırma Kurumu(TÜBİTAK).İnsan Vücudu. Ankara:Semih Ofset Bilgin, A. (1992) Science 3. İstanbul: İnkılap Kitapevi. Bingham J.,(2001).Türkiye Bilimsel ve Teknik Araştırma Kurumu(TÜBİTAK).Bilimsel Deneyler (21.Baskı) İstanbul:Pro-Mat Basın Yayın A.Ş. Boyd J.,Whitelaw W.(1997).New Understanding Science I. United Kingdom:Jhon Murray Puplishers Ltd. Boyd J.,Whitelaw W.(1997).New Understanding Science II. United Kingdom:Jhon Murray Puplishers Ltd. Boyd J.,Whitelaw W.(1997).New Understanding Science III. United Kingdom:Jhon Murray Puplishers Ltd. Bozkurt,T.(2005) Altın İmla Kılavuzu:Yazım Kılavuzu.İstanbul:Altın Kitaplar Yayın Büyük,Ş., Salmaner, V., Baş, B., Görür, N. (2002) İlköğretim Fen Bilgisi 7 Ders Kitabı. Ankara: Basım Matbaacılık A.Ş. Campbell, L.(1996). Teaching & Learning Through Multiple İntelligence. Massachusetts: Allyn and Bacon, A Simon and Schuster Company.1996. Cann P.,Hughes P.(2002) Chemistry for advanced level. United Kingdom: John Murray Puplishers Ltd. Cronbach, L. J.(1970).Essential of Psychological Testing. Third Edition. New York:Harper & Row, Publishers. Cox,P.R.,Parsanage,M.(1998).Türkiye Bilimsel ve Teknik Araştırma Kurumu(TÜBİTAK).Atom ve Molekül Ankara: Nurol Matbaacılık. Çevre Koruma Dairesi.(2003).KKTC Orkideleri.Kuzey Kıbrıs Türk Cumhuriyeti Demirel, Ö.(1998). İlköğretimde Çoklu Zeka Kuramının Uygulanması: VII. Ulusal Bilimler Kongresi. Konya: Selçuk Üniversitesi Cilt I, 531-546 Demirel, Ö.(1998). Kuramdan Uygulamaya Eğitimde Program Geliştirme. Ankara: Pegem A Yayıncılık. Demirel, Ö.(1998). Planlamadan Değerlendirmeye Öğretme Sanatı. Ankara: Pegem A Yayıncılık. Earl B.,Wilford L.D.R.(2003) GCSE Chemistry.United Kingdom:Jhon Murray Puplishers Ltd. Eggen, P., Kauchak, D.(1992). Educational Psychology: Classroom Connection New York: Macmillan. Ercelasun,A.(1996) Türk Dil Kurumu(TDK) İmla Kılavuzu.Ankara:Türk Tarih Kurumu Basım Evi Fraser A.,Gilchrist I.(1997). Starting Scince : Book One. United Kingdom:Oxford University Press. Fraser A.,Gilchrist I.(1997). Starting Scince : Book Two. United Kingdom:Oxford University Press. Gallanger, M.R., Ingram, P. (2001) Complete Chemistry. United Kingdom:Oxford University Press. Gannon, P. (2004) Framework SCİENCE 9. United Kingdom:Oxford University Press. Gardner, H. (1983). Frames Of Mind: The Theory Of Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic Books. Gardner, H.(1982). Multiple Intelligences: The Theory İn Practice. A Reader. New York: Basic Books. Gardner, H.(1999). Çoklu Zeka Görüşmeler Ve Makaleler.( Çev; Meral Tüzel) İstanbul: Enka Okulları.1999. Gifford,C.(1998).Türkiye Bilimsel ve Teknik Araştırma Kurumu (TÜBİTAK).Makineler. İstanbul : Pro-Mat Basın Yayın A.Ş. Goodman, S., Sunley, C. (2004). IGCSE Chemistry for Edexcel. Collins. Gould ,J., Keeton W. (2002). Biological Science. USA: W. W Norton and Company Ltd. Hans,B.W.(2003)Kıbrıs Yılanları. UNOPS Aracılığıyla USAID ve UNDP Tarafından Desteklenen İki Toplumlu Kalkınma Programının Projesidir. Hindley J., King C. (2002).Türkiye Bilimsek Teknik ve Araştırma Kurumu(TÜBİTAK). Vücudunuz Nasıl Çalışır. Ankara: Nurol Matbaacılık. Joe,Boyd,Walter,Whitelaw (1996) New Understing Scince: Teacher's Resourse File. Revised National Curriculum Edition. London: John Murray Puplisher Ltd. Johnson K.,Adamson S.,Williams G.(1994).Spotlight Scince.United Kingdom:Stanley Thornes Puplisher Ltd. Johnson K.(1996).Physics For You.United Kingdom:Stanley Thornes Puplisher Ltd. Johnson K.,Geoff,J.(2002).International Edition For IGCSE And O Level Biology.United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. Kagan, S., Kagan, M .(1998). Multıple Intelligences: The Complete Mı Book. San Clemente:Kagan Cooperative Learning. Koyuncu A.Ç.,Kavas B.,Salmaner V.,Tiryaki N.(2002). Fen Bilgisi 8. Ankara:Feza Gazetecilik A.Ş.

Küçükahmet, L. ( Editör ) (2001). Konu Alan Ders Kitabı İnceleme Kılavuzu Fen Bilgisi 4-8. Ankara: Nobel Yaın Dağıtım. Lavesley M.,Baggley S., Clarke J.,gray S.,Johnson P.(2003).Exploring Science. United Kingdom:Pearson Education Ltd. Mackean D.G.(1998).GCSE Biology. United Kingdom:Jhon Murray Puplishers Ltd. Mackean, D., Jones, B (1996). Introduction to Human and Social Biology. Great Britain: John Murray Publishers Ltd Meydan Larousse Büyük Lugat Ve Ansiklopedi. (1992). Sabah Gazetesi Yayımları Temel Britannica. İstanbul: Ana Yayıncılık A.Ş. ISBN 975-7760-02-01 Morris, J.(1997)Collins GCSE sciences Chemistry. IGCSE Chemistry for Edexcel. United Kingdom. Collins. Newmark, A.(1999).Türkiye Bilimsel ve Teknik Araştırma Kurumu(TÜBİTAK).Kimyanın Öyküsü.İstanbul: Çali Grafik ve Matbaacılık. Özet,M., Arpacı,O.(2000).Biyoloji 2. İstanbul:Zambak Basın Yayın Eğitim ve Turizm İşletmeleri Sanayi Ticaret A.Ş. Parker, S. (1995). Touch, Taste and Smell. USA: Franklin Watts Inc. Parkin,T.,Simpkins,J.(1996). Longman Co-ordinated Science: Biology. United Kingdom :Addison Wesley Longman Ltd. Peterham, L., Routledge, P., Ryan, L. (2002) ASCENT 1. United Kingdom: Nelson Thornes Ltd Peterham, L., Routledge, P., Ryan, L. (2002) ASCENT 3. United Kingdom: Nelson Thornes Ltd Pople, S.(1994). Science To 14. United Kingdom:Oxford University Press Pople, S.(1997). Founding Science To GCSE. United Kingdom:Oxford University Press Porter,A.,Wood,M.,Wood,T.(1997).Science Companion. United Kingdom: Stanley Thornes Riley D.P., (2005)Checkpoint Chemistry. United Kingdom: Hodder Murray. Roberts, M., Mawby P. (1996). Biology. England: Addison Wesley Longman Ltd. Ryan,L.(2003).Chemistry For You. United Kingdom:Nelson Thornes Puplication. Seeley, R., Stephens T., Tate P. (1998). Anatomy and Physiology. USA: Mc Graw Hill Companies Spırgeon R.,Flood M.,(1999).Türkiye Bilimsel ve Teknik Araştırma Kurumu(TÜBİTAK).Enerji ve Güç ( 3.Baskı) İstanbul:Pro-Mat Basın Yayın A.Ş. Sucu, A., Bayar S., Küpeli M. (1998). Lise Biyoloji 2. İstanbul: Milli Eğitim Basımevi. Taylor, J., Harwood, A., Smith, R., Pritchard, I., Nicholls L. Science Connections 2.United Kingdom: Collins Educational. Treays, R. (2002).Türkiye Bilimsel Teknik ve Araştırma Kurumu.(TÜBİTAK). Beş Duyu.İstanbul:Pro-Mat Basın Yayın A.Ş. T.C. Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı Talim Terbiye Kurulu Başkanlığı. (2005). Fen Ve Teknoloji Dersi Programı 6. 7. 8. Sınıf.Ankara. T.C. Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı Talim Terbiye Kurulu Başkanlığı.(2004). Fen Ve Teknoloji Dersi Programı 4.-5. Sınıf.Ankara. Türkiye Bilimsel ve Teknik Araştırma Kurumu(TÜBİTAK).(1998).Bilim Çocuk ( Sayı 12) İstanbul:Pro-Mat Basın Yayın A.Ş. Türkiye Bilimsel ve Teknik Araştırma Kurumu(TÜBİTAK).(2002).Bilim Çocuk ( Sayı 50) İstanbul:Pro-Mat Basın Yayın A.Ş. Türkiye Bilimsel ve Teknik Araştırma Kurumu(TÜBİTAK).(2002).Bilim Çocuk ( Sayı 56) İstanbul:Pro-Mat Basın Yayın A.Ş. Türkiye Bilimsel ve Teknik Araştırma Kurumu(TÜBİTAK).(2002).Bilim Çocuk ( Sayı 57) İstanbul:Pro-Mat Basın Yayın A.Ş. Ülgen, G.(1995). Eğitim Psikolojisi Birey Ve Öğrenme. Ankara: Bilim Yayınları. Ülker N.,Polat.,Aruk.(2001).Kimya 1.İstanbul:Kaptan Ofset Wallace,R.A., Sanders, G.P., Ferl, R.J. (1990). Biology:The Science of Life (Third Edition). New York:HarperCollins Publishers. Weaver, R., Hedrick, P., (1989).Genetics. USA: Wm. C. Brown Publishers Williams, G.(1994).Biology for You:National Curriculum Edition For GCSE.United Kingdom:Stanley Thornes Puplisher Ltd. Williams, G. (2002). Biology For You. United Kingdom: Nelson Thornes Ltd. Williams, J.,Workman,C.(2002).Longman Biology.China. Peason Education.

http://ccdb.ucsd.edu/CCDB/index.shtml http://en.wikipedia.org http://www.animalinfo.org/country/cyprus.htm http://www.ed.psu.edu/~insys/esd/gardner/mitheory.html. http://www.panda.org/news_facts/education/middle_school/species/social_animals.cfm http://www.visembryo.com/baby/index.html www.animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/equus-asinur.html www.byronsmith.ca www.cyprus.cok.uk/ncyprus/green/marinelife/turtles www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp www.ktcetas.com.tr www.nasa.gov/education/wstart.html www.northcyprus.et/kktc/aboutkktc/dogal-hayat/caretta/genelt.html www.uzaybilim.net

NOTLAR ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................................................................