RSPB Handbook of British Birds: [5 ed.] 1472980263, 9781472980267

Citation preview

RSPB HANDBOOK OF

BRITISH

BIRDS Fifth Edition

PETER HOLDEN AND RICHARD GREGORY Illustrations by Hilary Burn, Martin Elliott, Alan Harris, Peter Hayman, David Nurney, Stephen Message, Laurel Tucker and Dan Zetterström

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BLOOMSBURY WILDLIFE Bloomsbury Publishing Plc 50 Bedford Square, London, WC1B 3DP, UK BLOOMSBURY, BLOOMSBURY WILDLIFE and the Diana logo are trademarks of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc First published in the United Kingdom, 2021

This electronic edition published in 2021 by Bloomsbury Publishing Plc Author copyright © 2002, 2006, 2010, 2014 text by Peter Holden and Tim Cleeves Author copyright © 2021 Peter Holden and Richard Gregory Contributor copyright © 2021 The Estate of Tim Cleeves Illustrations © Hilary Burn, Martin Elliot, Alan Harris, Peter Hayman, Stephen Message, David Nurney, Laurel Tucker and Dan Zetterström 2002, 2006, 2010, 2014, 2021 Copyright © 2021 photographs as credited in captions Cover and prelims artworks: front cover Puffin, Stephen Message; back cover from top, Yellowhammer (Laurel Tucker), Turtle Doves (Hilary Burn), Hen Harrier (Dan Zetterström) Peter Holden and Richard Gregory have asserted their rights under the Copyright, Design and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as Authors of this work All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication data has been applied for ISBN: PB: 978-1-4729-8026-7; ePDF: 978-1-4729-8011-3; ePub: 978-1-4729-8012-0 Design by Rod Teasdale

To find out more about our authors and books visit www.bloomsbury.com and sign up for our newsletters

Published under licence from RSPB Sales Limited to raise awareness of the RSPB (charity registration in England and Wales no 207076 and Scotland no SC037654). For all licensed products sold by Bloomsbury Publishing Limited, Bloomsbury Publishing Limited will donate a minimum of 2% from all sales to RSPB Sales Ltd, which gives all of its distributable profits through Gift Aid to the RSPB.

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Contents Acknowledgements

4

Population Trends of British Birds

5

Using this Book

11

Bird Topography

14

Species Accounts

15

Rarities

299

Further Reading and Resources

317

Index

317

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Acknowledgements This is the fifth edition of a book that was originally conceived 20 years ago. The idea was to create a new, accessible guide that would provide information about all the birds commonly seen in the British Isles.

has benefited from the ever-patient co-ordination and editing of Jenny Campbell and from our new designer Rod Teasdale. Thanks also to Mark Eaton, Mark Holling, and RSPB colleagues for their expert assistance.

Bringing the original idea of Peter Holden and Tim Cleeves to fruition required the help and goodwill of a great many talented people. Sadly, Tim is no longer with us and is greatly missed, but we have the same access to amazing information and outstanding artwork, originally published in the Handbook of Bird Identification and produced by a number of highly-skilled bird artists.

Much of the data for this book comes from a network of volunteer fieldworkers, past and present, whose observations and species counts have been made public through the publications of the Rare Breeding Birds Panel, the British Trust for Ornithology, the RSPB and BirdLife International. We hope this book will inspire more fieldworkers and conservationists in the future.

Our thanks go to Nigel Redman who commissioned the first edition of this handbook and to Julie Bailey for her continuing support and involvement as commissioner of the subsequent editions. Marianne Taylor produced the original detailed maps, and this edition

We thank the RSPB for, once again, endorsing this book and helping to ensure that it reaches the evergrowing audience who love nature and the countryside and want to discover more about birds and are concerned for their future. Peter Holden and Richard Gregory

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Population trends of British birds

A team of seabird survey staff and volunteers look for Manx Shearwater burrows on the Isles of Scilly (Ed Marshall/RSPB Images).

The UK is very fortunate to have an excellent set of bird monitoring programmes led primarily by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) and the British Trust for Ornithology (BTO) working with many partners. These programmes allow conservationists to assess and begin to understand population changes in many of our bird species. This monitoring, in part, stems from a rich tradition of amateur naturalists contributing to biological recording and enquiries in the UK, and that tradition is thriving today. Each year, thousands of dedicated and skilled volunteers give their time to biological surveys, and the bird monitoring schemes in the UK are arguably some of the best in the world. The BTO leads on the monitoring of the more common and widespread breeding and wintering species, namely through the Breeding Bird Survey and the Wetland Bird Survey. At the same time, the RSPB, with the assistance of the country conservation agencies and other groups, helps to organise regular national surveys of our rarer breeding birds. The Rare Breeding Birds Panel collates records of our rarest nesting birds annually. Each scheme is designed to capture vital information on different species at different times of the year. As a set, the surveys provide near-complete coverage of UK bird populations, although there remain gaps and the information could always be added to and improved. These

conservation organisations are always looking for new volunteers to help with monitoring and conservation efforts (see p317). Many birds set up breeding territories each year and advertise and defend them with distinctive songs and displays. This behaviour makes the breeding season a particularly good time to count birds because birdwatchers can detect them more easily and attempt to estimate numbers. The Breeding Bird Survey involves counting birds in a large sample of specially selected grid squares across the British Isles twice each year to give a complete picture of how our common breeding birds are faring. National surveys of our rarest breeding birds tend to focus on smaller and localised areas to count or estimate the total number of breeding pairs or territorial males. For some of the UK’s rarest birds living on nature reserves, skilled birdwatchers can count nearly every individual bird or nesting pair each year. The distribution of our breeding seabirds, however, demands a different approach to monitoring. Counting millions of seabirds on far-flung cliff colonies is a challenging task, particularly for hole-nesting petrels and shearwaters that only return to their burrows under cover of darkness. Therefore, occasional complete Seabird Censuses of important sites are conducted every 15 years or so and are 5

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Population trends of British birds supplemented by annual counts from a large sample of colonies as part of the JNCC*/RSPB Seabird Monitoring Programme. This approach means annual monitoring for seabirds is not as complete as it is for land birds; even so, it provides an invaluable picture of how populations are changing. Outside of the breeding season, this territoriality in bird behaviour tends to break down, and large numbers of wintering birds join our resident birds. Some are land birds, but many are waders and wildfowl coming primarily from above the Arctic Circle, attracted to our shorelines, estuaries and waterbodies each winter. Many of these sites are protected areas or nature reserves and they are specifically managed for these birds. The Wetland Bird Survey visits sites where wetland birds congregate in good numbers to census their populations in a systematic fashion in the non-breeding season. That involves making several counts through the course of the winter to gauge the size and health of these internationally important bird populations. In addition to these core programmes, there is a range of volunteer-based surveys and schemes, including Garden BirdWatch, Garden Bird Feeding Survey, Bird Ringing Scheme, Nest Record Scheme, Heronries Census, BirdTrack and the RSPB’s Big Garden Birdwatch. Each of

these is carefully designed for a particular purpose, and they involve different time commitments and levels of skill from volunteers (see p317 for further information).

Wild bird indicators

Together, these surveys provide the foundation of bird conservation in the UK, as they do in other countries. They provide a health check on our bird populations and show how they are changing. They help to shed light on the environment and point to the pressures acting on wildlife, and can highlight potential solutions when wildlife is in trouble. Conservationists bring this excellent information together to chart the fortunes of our bird populations overall and for particular groups. The data also allows scientists to assess the conservation status and extinction risk of bird species in the UK and to review and refresh conservation priorities regularly, which means conservation efforts can be directed towards the birds most in need of urgent help and to the most pressing conservation issues. This unique dataset allows us to look at the ups and downs of individual species in summer and winter, as well as groups living in different habitats, and build a picture of how our birds are faring. In the same way that miners kept caged Canaries as an early warning to alert them to the presence of poisonous gases, birds

* The JNCC is a public body that advises the UK Government and devolved administrations on UK-wide and international nature conservation.

Lapwings are declining on farmland and wet grassland (Kevin Sawford/RSPB Images).

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may signal and alert us to alarming environmental issues. Indeed, alongside other information, bird populations are increasingly used as official government indicators of environmental change. To do so, scientists combine population trends of individual species into a single measure. We exclude the very rarest birds because their numbers can change dramatically driven by local factors, like conservation actions, and by pure chance, which makes them less useful as indicators. In each case, the indicator describes the average trend in the relative abundance of the constituent bird species in the UK from 1970 (or sometimes later) to 2018, with the index set to 100 in the first year. Shading shows the possible margin of error, and the number of different bird species included in each index is given in parentheses. British breeding birds Taking all breeding bird species together from 1970, which was when comprehensive monitoring began, there is a modest fall in numbers; the index of these 130 bird species is down by 11% (see graph, right). It is, however, important to recognise that the average trend, combining all recorded species into one, hides lots of variation. Some birds are booming in numbers and flourishing, while others show worrying declines. Birds such as the Buzzard, Red Kite, Avocet, Cetti’s Warbler, Blackcap, Great Spotted Woodpecker, Collared Dove and Cirl Bunting have all prospered, expanding their ranges in Great Britain and increasing in number. For the birds of prey, increases in numbers are a direct result of conservation action to remove harmful chemicals in the countryside and to reduce illegal persecution. For the Avocet and Cirl Bunting, bespoke habitat management has been the key to success. For other species, their adaptable nature seems to have allowed them to take advantage of a changing environment and climate. Cetti’s Warbler and Collared Dove colonised Great Britain naturally, first appearing in the 1950s and 1960s, and spreading widely. Meanwhile, the Turtle Dove, Grey Partridge, Capercaillie, Willow Tit and Corn Bunting are increasingly threatened, and although conservation organisations and our government know much about the pressures on those populations and have many actions in place to help them, the scale of their efforts seems insufficient to turn their fortunes around.

Population index (1970 = 100)

Population trends of British birds

100

50

0 1970

1980

1990

Year

2000

2010

2020

Population trends of breeding birds (130 species).

Farmland breeding birds: Next, looking at

species that are dependent on farmland for nesting and foraging, we see a much larger fall in populations, particularly in the 1970s and 1980s. The farmland bird index, made up of 19 species, has fallen by 55% since 1970 and the trend continues downwards (see graph, below). Some of the birds most in trouble are the Grey Partridge, Lapwing, Turtle Dove, Starling, Skylark, Corn Bunting and Tree Sparrow. Curiously, however, not all birds living on farmland are in decline, since the average pattern again hides considerable variation. There is a trend for those birds with very particular habitat requirements to be declining and for more adaptable and generalist birds to be doing better. Some of the birds bucking the trend include Jackdaw, Woodpigeon, Stock Dove and Goldfinch, all of which have increased strongly. The Woodpigeon appears to have benefited from increased cereal and rape cultivation in winter, providing it with vital food at this time of year. The Goldfinch adapted rapidly to an increase in garden feeding and that may have provided a recent boost to its populations. For many farmland birds, there is a simple relationship between their fortunes and farming practices. As agriculture has modernised and changed to meet growing food demands, many birds have lost their preferred habitats for nesting and feeding, which has driven their numbers rapidly downwards. Farmed land covers around three-quarters of the UK, so the way farmers manage that land has a profound effect on our bird populations. The loss of mixed farming systems and of trees and hedgerows on farms, along with a move to autumn sowing of crops and an increase in potent pesticide and 7

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Population trends of British birds

Population index (1970 = 100)

Farmland breeding birds (19) 100

50

0 1970

1980

1990

Year

2000

2010

2020

Population trends of farmland breeding birds (19 species).

Woodland breeding birds: Forest covers a much smaller area in the UK – only 13% – compared to most European countries, where more than 30% (and generally growing) of land is forest. We have lost much of our native broadleaved managed woodlands, though forest area has increased recently and seems set to do so further. Taken overall, woodland bird populations have fallen and continue to decline. The woodland bird index, made up of 37 species, has fallen steadily by 29% since 1970 and dipped in recent times (see graph, right). The loss of mixed native forests and traditional forest management, combined with an ageing tree stock and changing tree composition (especially towards non-native commercial monocultures), as well as growing browsing pressure on understorey vegetation from deer have had a significant effect, in some cases for the better, but mostly for worse. A prominent example is the demise of the Nightingale from many parts of England, which is linked to loss of suitable habitat and a reduction in traditional rotational coppicing of woodland. Coppicing creates young shrubby vegetation upon which the Nightingale and other species depend for nesting and breeding. Again, there is a tendency for more specialist birds to be doing worse and more adaptable ones to be doing better. Birds in trouble include Capercaillie, Lesser Spotted Woodpecker, Nightingale, Marsh and Willow Tits, Wood Warbler, Tree Pipit, Spotted Flycatcher and Lesser Redpoll. In contrast, populations of Blackcap and Nuthatch have more

than doubled over the same period, and those of the Great Spotted Woodpecker have more than trebled. Although we can’t be sure, it seems that changes in woodland, combined with other factors like garden feeding and climate, have helped. Most farmland and woodland birds are residents, but others like Turtle Dove, Nightingale, Tree Pipit, Spotted Flycatcher and Wood Warbler are migrants travelling long distances to winter in West and Central Africa and return to breed in the British Isles. These journeys put an extra strain on populations as they navigate across continents vulnerable to severe weather and dependent on many stopover sites where they can feed and rest before moving on. So their fate might also be determined, in part at least, by factors along their migration routes. Woodland breeding birds (37) Population index (1970 = 100)

fertiliser use have all taken their toll on our wildlife. Agricultural expansion is the most widespread form of land-use change around the world, and it is recognised as the major factor driving the loss of nature here in the UK, in Europe and globally.

100

50

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Population trends of woodland breeding birds (37 species).

Water and wetland breeding birds: The

index of water and wetlands birds comprises 26 species and includes birds nesting on lakes and rivers, in reedbeds and wet grasslands. It is a diverse group of birds. Birds living and breeding in wetland sites in the UK show a shallow decline, the index down by 17% from 1975 when it began (see graph, opposite). Some of these 26 birds are on the up, benefiting it seems from the creation and better management of wetlands and perhaps a warming climate. They include Little Egret, Mallard, Tufted Duck, Cetti’s Warbler and Reed Warbler. The Little Egret is a prime example: a recent colonist that first bred in England in 1996, it has spread rapidly, as have other egret species. The Little Egret was once a great rarity but now, with luck, can be seen daily in many parts of Britain. One group of birds, however, stands out, and that is the group nesting in wet grasslands, whose

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Population trends of British birds

Avocets have not only increased, but colonised new areas (David J Slater/RSPB Images).

numbers have fallen by about half. Most are ground-nesting wading birds, such as Curlew, Lapwing, Redshank and Snipe, but the Yellow Wagtail is also dependent on this habitat. The steady loss of suitable wet grasslands through wetland drainage, conversion to arable cultivation and land abandonment have combined with more modern grassland management, a move from hay meadows to silage production and increased predation. These changes have put extra pressure on these iconic birds, and they are all redor amber-listed in the UK (see p13).

Population index (1976 = 100)

Water & wetland breeding birds (26) The number of breeding Goldfinches is increasing rapidly (Ray Kennedy/RSPB Images).

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50

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1980

1990

Year

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2010

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Population trends of water and wetland breeding birds (26 species).

Breeding seabirds: Moving from land to the sea, the UK is home to internationally important numbers of breeding seabirds, and for some, such as Manx Shearwater, Gannet and Great Skua, we hold most of the global population placing an extra responsibility on conservation organisations to protect the UK’s breeding colonies. Regular Seabird Censuses provide a stocktake of our seabirds every 15 years,

while annual surveys help to fill the gaps. Based on those sample surveys, we can index 13 seabirds. An index based on those trends has dropped 28% from 1986 when it began, and alarmingly so since 2000 (see graph, below). Arctic Skua, Kittiwake and Herring Gull have all declined sharply; Shag, Fulmar and Little Tern to a lesser extent. One seabird in the index has increased since 1986, the Razorbill, while most of our seabird populations are declining. While many seabirds are falling in number, other marine species are fluctuating or increasing in abundance in response to changes in the pressure of commercial fishing as well as sea surface temperature rises linked to climate change. The ocean systems close to us are changing rapidly, with knock-on effects on the food webs in our seas. For many seabirds, these shifts create real problems when their main prey, and the 9

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Population trends of British birds

The Kittiwake is a declining seabird (Ed Marshall/RSPB Images).

Turtle Doves are one of several declining African migrants (Steve Knell/RSPB Images).

food for their young, shifts its ranges, decrease in number or simply disappear. For example, the breeding success of Kittiwake can be linked to the health of sandeel populations, which are themselves connected to commercial fishing and sea surface temperatures. The situation is complex, and our internationally significant seabirds face an uncertain future.

declines. Similarly, while the indices for Avocet and Black-tailed Godwit populations have increased more than sevenfold, those for Ringed Plover and Dunlin have declined.

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Population trends of breeding seabirds (13 species).

Wintering waterbirds Waterbirds make up the bulk of the birds that come to our shores and lakes each winter, and the index of their populations has roughly doubled over the last 40 years (see graph, right). The wintering waterbird index was 82% higher in the winter of 2017/18 compared to the winter of 1975/76. Both wildfowl and waders have increased strongly, however the trend hides significant detail. Populations of Whooper Swan and most wintering geese, including Greylag, Barnacle, Brent and Pink-footed Geese, are generally flourishing. Numbers of wintering Gadwall are also increasing in line with a growing breeding population. In contrast, Bewick’s Swan, White-fronted Goose, Pochard, Scaup and Eider have shown

300

Population index (1975/76 = 100)

Population index (1986 = 100)

Breeding seabirds (13)

The number of wintering waterbirds is affected by a range of factors, such as breeding productivity above the Arctic Circle where most breed, the prevailing weather conditions, and the suitability of their stopover or wintering sites. Those of us studying bird populations believe the rise in numbers is the direct result of new site creation and better site protection and management, as well as changes in winter cropping that provide new food resources to which some species can switch. A warming climate may also have encouraged birds to overwinter in increasing numbers. However, we are losing other populations that are increasingly able to winter further north and east in Europe. As with other groups, it is a complex picture, but is very much a true conservation success story as improved protection of the birds and their sites across a flyway stretching from Africa and Europe to the high Arctic has allowed many populations to recover and grow.

Wildfowl (27)

200

All waterbirds (46) Waders (15)

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Population trends of wintering waterbirds.

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Using this book This book aims to help as many people as possible develop a greater understanding of the birds that share our towns, gardens and countryside, and other habitats that make up the rich mosaic of the British Isles. The accounts on the pages that follow describe 272 species that breed in Britain and Ireland or are seen here regularly, and we have included a further 46 rare migrants or vagrants that occur less frequently but might be encountered by a lucky observer. The birds are mostly arranged in the most recent scientific order, with closely related species appearing together. However, we have changed the order very slightly in a few places to allow certain similar-looking species to appear on facing pages. Each account begins with the species’ usual common English name followed by its scientific name, beneath which are species tables offering basic information in a readily accessible form, and then the following sections: Identification, Habits, Voice, Habitat, Food, Breeding, Movements and Migration, Conservation and Distribution.

SPECIES TABLES

The species tables indicate each species’ conservation status (see below) and detail recent data on population trends and numbers of breeding and wintering species, the breeding season, the average number of eggs laid per clutch, incubation and fledging periods of species that breed in the UK, and, where it is known, a species’ average lifespan and the maximum recorded age. We also include the length of the bird from bill tip to tail tip, and, to give an impression of size, the average body weight.

As we have learnt more about the distribution and abundance of bird populations, we have begun to understand that many species we once regarded as common and abundant are also potentially endangered and threatened. The familiar Song Thrush was one of the first to start to disappear and was soon followed by House Sparrow and Starling. Many characteristic and iconic birds of farmland and woodland have crashed in number. Although not in danger of imminent extinction in Britain, these declines represent an enormous loss of nature and raise concerns about the future of these species and the health of the natural environment. The first Red Data list of British birds was published in 1990, and since then scientists have regularly come together to update those species most at risk using the latest information. In the newest iteration of the red list, known as Birds of Conservation Concern 4: the population status of birds in the UK, Channel Islands and the Isle of Man, 67 species are red-listed. The list covers all regularly occurring British birds, excluding vagrants and introductions. In this handbook, we use the same ‘traffic light’ system for colour-coding each species green, amber or red to indicate increasing conservation concern according to a range of set criteria as defined by the Red Data list. Some birds are listed as ‘Not assessed’ because they are vagrants, rarities or recent colonists. The ‘red list’ includes those birds that are globally threatened, have declined historically, and those whose breeding or non-breeding populations or ranges have declined very strongly.

Species of conservation concern

Traditionally, conservation has focused on preserving our rarest species: those on the brink of extinction and nesting in Britain and Ireland in tiny numbers. The protection of the last of our native Red Kites in Wales in the early part of the 20th century, and nest guarding of the Ospreys in Scotland after their return, are examples of this vital work. But today, there is unprecedented pressure on our native wildlife from land use and climatic change.

The ‘amber list’ includes those birds that are threatened in Europe, where falling populations or contracting ranges are more moderate, those that have previously been included on the red list and are now recovering, those whose populations are highly localised or occur here in internationally important numbers.

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Using this book The ‘green list’ is for those birds that meet none of the above criteria – although their populations often show modest rises or falls from year to year and need to be monitored, alongside other species.

We describe all the common plumages – adult, juvenile, breeding and nonbreeding – as well as some flight poses and other aids to identification. Illustrations show adult plumage unless stated otherwise.

The ‘See also’ notes cross-refer to other species that appear similar. These may IDENTIFICATION be closely related, as in the case of ChiffThis book is an excellent introduction to chaff and Willow Warbler, or appear bird identification and provides the key superficially similar in the field such as features of each species with information Red-throated Diver and Cormorant. on their behaviour. Identification is only a beginning and not an end. We aim to help HABITS the reader discover more about the life of This text describes key characteristics each species and how it is faring in our that may aid identification but also tells modern world. you more about bird behaviour.

The Little Egret, once exploited for its plumage, is a new colonist that is increasing in Britain (Ernie Janes/RSPB Images).

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Using this book

VOICE

The section on sounds is also intended to aid identification. Descriptions of songs and calls are highly personal and challenging to describe in words. We advise you to take advantage of the many excellent websites, including the RSPB’s and others, as well as apps, to familiarise yourself with bird songs and calls.

HABITAT

It is essential to know where species usually live. We have looked beyond the main breeding habitat and included places where the bird may be found in other seasons. Readers should note, however, that many species can be seen away from their usual habitats – this is one of the joys and challenges of birdwatching!

FOOD

We have been specific by giving the common names of the most typical food items a species eats. For example, we list ‘Bullhead, loach, minnow, sticklebacks and small Chub’ as the food of Kingfisher, rather than the rather bland statement that the bird eats fish.

Key Map

BREEDING

A summary of each species breeding in Britain and Ireland includes a description of the nest site and the roles of males and females. We provide further breeding information within the Species Tables (see p11). Readers should note that the timings given can vary depending on local conditions and from year to year.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

The movements and migrations of birds are among the natural wonders of the world, and we briefly cover this topic for each species.

CONSERVATION

Here, we summarise some of the issues affecting British bird populations and some measures conservationists are taking to reverse downward trends. For some, we also describe their status in Europe and the main threats facing the species.

DISTRIBUTION

The distribution maps show the approximate distribution of a species in the British Isles and the Distribution text describes the world distribution.

KEY TO MAPS

The maps offer an approximate indication of the distribution of each species around the British Isles at different seasons: Green: resident, areas where species may be seen throughout the year and where they breed Yellow: summer visitor, areas where the species may be seen in summer and usually breeds Blue: winter visitor, areas where species spend the winter but do not breed Pink: passage migrant, areas that species may visit during migration – generally spring and autumn For distribution at sea, we have restricted colours to areas where birds can be seen from the coast or on pelagic trips, so mostly inshore waters have been mapped.

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Bird topography BIRD TOPOGRAPHY neck-side

earcoverts

nape

crown forehead

hindneck

HOUSE SPARROW

upper mandible

mantle

bill

scapulars back tertials

lower mandible chin throat (upper) breast (chest)

secondaries uppertailcoverts

rump

lesser coverts breast-side

tail

median coverts (lower) breast alula (bastard wing)

undertailcoverts primaries

greater coverts

vent

flank

primary coverts belly

claw toe

brace

terminal band

mantle

upper scapulars lower scapulars tertials secondaries secondaries lesser coverts greater coverts tibia tarsus

trailing edge

median coverts LITTLE STINT

leading leading edge edge

primaries primaries BLACK-HEADED GULL

hind toe

male worn, spring

Some passerines change their appearance radically through feather wear rather than moult.

male fresh, autumn

REDSTART

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Brent Goose Branta bernicla Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber – Strong increase – 103,000 – – – Average: 11; Oldest: 28 56–61cm; 1.3kg

darkbellied

IDENTIFICATION

Similar size to Mallard but more upright and with longer neck. Plump with rather short black legs and small black bill. Head, neck and upperparts of the body are dark, apart from a small white neck-patch. Underparts variable, but under the tail always white. Three races visit Britain and Ireland: dark-bellied from Siberia and Russia, and two races of palebellied from Greenland and Spitsbergen. Darkbellied race has breast and belly almost as dark as its back with some mottling. Pale-bellied races are similar except that the breast and belly are paler grey-brown. Juveniles are similar to adults but lack the white collar and have pale edges to folded wingcoverts. Geese become flightless for about 3 weeks in July and August, before migrating in autumn. See also: Barnacle Goose p17, Canada Goose p16.

HABITS

Swims frequently and rides high in the water. Often up-ends to reach food. In flight, wings look pointed and rather duck-like. Flies in lines that undulate, but less often in ‘V’s than other geese. Flocks containing families, pairs without young and individuals, often spread out across feeding grounds.

VOICE

The single waruk calls mix together in flocks to form a dog-like yelping or babbling that carries a long way, and the clamour grows louder as flocks take to the air.

HABITAT

Winter feeding grounds are along sea coasts and estuaries where there are mudflats and intertidal zones with sufficient plant food. In recent years flocks have frequently moved on to adjacent farmland. Breeds on the Arctic tundra, close to shallow pools or the sea.

FOOD

Grazes vegetation on land or finds food in water. Traditional food is eelgrass that grows in some estuaries, but birds are increasingly grazing on farmed land and recreational grassland. Birds on agricultural land graze the shoots of winter cereals, grass and oilseed rape. Also eats algae and saltmarsh plants such as glasswort, sea aster darkbellied and various juvenile grasses.

pale-bellied

BREEDING

Does not breed in Britain or Ireland. With only about 100 Arctic days in which to rear a family, severe weather or the early onset of winter significantly affects breeding success. Families migrate together and remain together until the following spring.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Breeding birds leave the Arctic by early September. They start to arrive at wintering sites in October and return in March or April. Greenland birds stop off in Iceland and Russian migrants feed around the Baltic.

CONSERVATION

All three populations that visit the British Isles have increased in recent years, which together represent nearly half the world population. Following a shortage of eelgrass in the 1930s, the wintering population dropped sharply. Conservation of the wintering areas, restrictions on hunting and their move onto farmland has helped recovery. Concerns remain: loss of sites to sea-level rise, disturbance by human recreation, conflicts with farming and a lobby to allow the species to be shot again are factors that need careful management.

DISTRIBUTION Breeds farther north than other geese. Dark-bellied race that breeds in Siberia and in northern Russia winters mainly in England and France. Pale-bellied race from Canada and Greenland winters in Ireland. Other pale-bellied birds breed in small numbers in Spitsbergen and winter in Denmark and north-east England – especially the Northumberland coast.

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Canada Goose Branta canadensis Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Introduction Strong increase Strong increase 54,000 160,000 March–June 5–7; 1 brood 29; 40–48 days Average: 6; Oldest: 31 56–110cm; 3.7kg

IDENTIFICATION

There is a wide variety of sizes of Canada Goose, depending on which race a bird belongs to, although most birds in Britain are among the largest. Male larger and heavier than female. A large brown goose with a black neck and head and broad white band from back of face joining under chin, pale brown breast and flanks and white under the tail. The bill and feet are black. Juvenile similar to adult. Flight feathers are moulted simultaneously and the bird is flightless for 3–4 weeks in June to July. See also: Barnacle Goose p17, Brent Goose p15.

HABITS

Gregarious outside the breeding season. Swims frequently and up-ends to reach food in deeper water. Grazes on land. Flies with powerful wingbeats, often in rather ragged flocks, but will form lines of ‘V’s on longer flights. Roosts in large flocks on water or mud banks. Flocks walk or fly to these roosts at dusk.

VOICE

reeds and grasses and lines it with down feathers from her body. Nests are usually near water and under the shelter of a bush or at the base of a tree – often on islands. Female generally starts laying in late March and incubates while the gander stands guard. Goslings leave the nest soon after hatching and are tended by both parents – the female brooding them at night while they are small. Young stay with their parents until the following breeding season and breed when 3 years old.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Deep, resonant, trumpet-like calls.

In its native homeland of North America, different races of Canada Geese vary from being longdistance migrants to sedentary. In Britain, a regular moult migration has gradually developed with young birds from the Midlands and Yorkshire flying to northern Scotland to moult. They leave their breeding areas in May and return in September. Cold winter weather means that some birds from Britain cross the English Channel and visit France. The Scandinavian population migrates south for the winter.

HABITAT

Considered a nuisance in some public parks.

Lives near lowland lakes, often in urban and city parks, and also around flooded sand and gravel pits, and reservoirs. Tolerates lakes surrounded by trees, but these geese also need short open grass areas for feeding. Some Yorkshire birds nest on moorland in heather and rushes well away from open water.

FOOD

Feeds on roots, tubers, stems, grass, leaves, fruits and seeds. Other plants include winter wheat and other cereals, grain, beans, clover, rushes and pondweeds. Also eats the leaves of crack willow and strips leaves from the common reed.

BREEDING

Often nests in loose colonies in which there are separate territories that are defended, especially by the male, until the young have left the nest. Female builds nest on the ground. She gathers twigs, leaves,

CONSERVATION

DISTRIBUTION A native of North America; breeding in the north and wintering in the south. Introduced to Britain in the 17th century and into northern Europe where it has flourished. Widespread in England, southern Scotland and parts of Ireland. Wild birds of the smaller northerly race (Richardson’s Goose) sometimes arrive in Britain or Ireland among flocks of Barnacle or White-fronted Geese.

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Barnacle Goose Branta leucopsis Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Moderate increase Strong increase 1,450 105,000 June–August 5–6; 1 brood 24–25; 44–45 days Average: 14; Oldest: 28 58–70cm; 1.8kg

BREEDING

Some colonies nest on islands but many are on tall, inaccessible cliffs. Goslings jump from their nests soon after hatching. Although many perish, the fact that cliff-nesting continues must mean it is far safer than losing eggs or small young to foxes and other predators on more accessible ground. After breeding the young geese stay with their parents until the following breeding season. Pairs stay together for life. British breeding birds occupy a range of wetland habitats.

juvenile

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Canada Goose. Black, white and grey goose with creamy-white face, dusky marks between eye and bill. Back of head, neck and breast are all black. Back blue-grey crossed with black-and-white bars. Flanks pale grey and lower belly gleaming white. Black legs are proportionally longer than most other geese. Black bill is small and rather delicate. Pale face of juvenile is more mottled and back is greyer with less distinct bars. Flanks are less clearly barred than adults. Moults flight feathers simultaneously and becomes flightless for 3–4 weeks before autumn migration. See also: Canada Goose p16, Brent Goose p15.

HABITS

Wings appear rather pointed in flight. The blackand-white head, and black neck and breast help to identify this goose, even at a distance. Usually seen in noisy flocks that contain family groups as well as single birds and pairs without young. It flies in ‘V’s and lines like other geese.

VOICE

Call is a single bark that is higher pitched than most other geese. Can resemble yapping of dogs, especially when heard from a distance.

HABITAT

Visits coastal lowlands in winter, sometimes feeding on estuaries or bogs, but more often on nearby farmland, with clover, grass and cereal crops and in fields with some shallow water nearby. In the Arctic, many nest on steep, sheer cliffs near the sea or overlooking fjords close to rich feeding areas.

FOOD

Grazes vegetation, especially leaves, stems and seeds. Also uses bill to pull up roots and crush harder matter. In winter, eats plants such as rushes, grasses, clover, plantains, thrift, samphire, buttercup, woodrush and daisies.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Three separate populations from the Arctic start to arrive in Britain and Ireland in October and stay until late March or early April. Greenland birds fly to Iceland before migrating to Ireland and the Western Isles of Scotland. Spitsbergen birds migrate via the Norwegian coast to winter on the Solway Firth. Those from Siberia that breed on Novaya Zemlya winter in western Europe. A few of these sometimes cross the North Sea to reach eastern Britain.

CONSERVATION

Protected at all times. More than 20% of the world population winters in the British Isles. Numbers have increased over the last 50 years. There are also more than 1,000 feral breeding pairs in Britain, which are increasing. Where the birds are numerous there have been conflicts with farmers. The enrichment of pasture created an ideal habitat and birds are now competing with livestock. A combination of bird scaring, provision of refuges and government payments to farmers have helped solve this problem in the short term.

DISTRIBUTION Breeds in Greenland, Spitsbergen and Arctic Russia. Birds from Greenland and Spitsbergen winter in Scotland and Ireland, and those from Russia winter in mainland Europe. Largest numbers are in Ireland, in western Scotland (especially Islay) and the Solway Firth. Smaller numbers visit eastern Britain.

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Greylag Goose Anser anser Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Strong increase Strong increase 47,000 230,000 April–July 5–7; 1 brood 28; 50–60 days Average: 8; Oldest: 24 75–90cm; 3.3kg

IDENTIFICATION

A large goose, but usually smaller than most Canada Geese. Grey-brown with a thick neck and large head. The neck has four or five dark lines down the side formed by ridges of feathers. Back has a barred appearance and the pale grey breast and belly are slightly mottled with darker marks. Forewing and underwing are noticeably pale. Feathers under the tail are white. The large bill is orange with a white tip and the legs and feet are flesh-pink. Juveniles have darker bills and legs and less noticeable pale barring on the back. Flight feathers are moulted simultaneously so birds are flightless for about 4 weeks between May and August. Non-breeding birds moult before breeding birds. See also: Whitefronted Goose p22, Pink-footed Goose p19, Taiga Bean Goose p20.

and reservoirs. Feeds on farmland during the day. Feral populations often inhabit urban areas, including parks.

FOOD

Eats roots, tubers, leaves, stems, flowers and seeds of plants such as grasses, sedges and rushes. Grazes on land or takes floating vegetation such as pondweed and duckweed. On farms it eats spilt grain, grass and root crops.

BREEDING

Breeds near fresh water and some nest close together in colonies. The nest is often under a tree or bush and comprises a mound of vegetation with sticks and lined with grass and feathers. In Scotland, the nest may be among heather. Female incubates while male guards a small territory around the nest. Young and adults stay together for the first year.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Icelandic Greylags migrate to Britain in September and October and return to their breeding grounds by April or May. Scandinavian birds travel through the Netherlands and France to winter in Spain. Others fly through eastern Europe to Turkey and North Africa.

CONSERVATION

Most domestic geese are descended from the Greylag. This species has a reduced European range because of habitat loss and drainage of its nest sites. Organised introductions into Britain in the 1930s and 1960s have successfully re-established breeding populations in many areas. Traditional wintering sites for migrant populations continue to require protection although conflicts with agricultural interests may need addressing in future.

DISTRIBUTION HABITS

Flocks fly in lines or ‘V’s, but are less organised over short distances. In the air, it looks powerful and flies fast on broad wings. It runs further than other geese when taking off.

VOICE

Loud cackling and honking calls – can sound rather like sheep at a distance.

HABITAT

In Britain, breeds near freshwater lakes, often on islands, and visits local farms and meadows to feed. Elsewhere in Europe, nests in marshes, reedbeds and tundra. Winter flocks roost on estuaries, marshes, river islands, freshwater lakes

Once it was widespread in Europe, but breeding sites are now scattered in the north and east. These birds winter as far south as the Mediterranean or North Africa. Migrant Greylags winter in northern England and Scotland. Native wild populations in northern Scotland and the Western Isles are now integrated with a growing naturalised population.

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Pink-footed Goose Anser brachyrhynchus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber – Strong increase – 510,000 – – – Average: 8; Oldest: 38 60–75cm; 2.8kg

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Greylag Goose. Pinkish-grey, dark head and neck, and short pink bill with variable dark marks. Appears compact and daintier than other geese with shorter neck, darker, rounder head and greyer body. Legs and feet are pink. Pale edges to the back feathers give a barred effect and the underparts are closely barred. White line on body below its wings. In flight, blue-grey forewing is not as pale as Greylag. Juvenile is darker with dull, yellowish legs, less distinct barring on back and mottled underparts. Adults are flightless for about 25 days before migration. See also: Taiga Bean Goose p20, White-fronted Goose p22, Greylag Goose p18.

HABITS

A sociable goose except when nesting. Winter flocks may be 40,000 birds that mainly consist of family groups. Flocks move from nighttime roosts to feeding areas at dawn and return at dusk. Feeding flocks travel up to 30km and roosts and feeding areas are used year after year. It also has ‘rest stations’ on grasslands or marshland pools. When landing, it frequently slide-slips and tumbles as it loses height.

BREEDING

Pair bond generally lasts for life. In Iceland, it nests in inaccessible river gorges where it is safe from ground predators. In Spitsbergen, where there are fewer predators, it nests in flatter habitats. Both parents tend their young and families remain together in the first winter and only break up in spring.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

When young are 10–20 days old, families come together to moult. They form large, flightless flocks and some travel considerable distances on foot. There is also a moult migration of non-breeding birds from Iceland to Greenland in June. Once new feathers are grown, birds from Greenland fly first to Iceland, and then the majority move on to Scotland or England, arriving in October and returning in April.

CONSERVATION

juvenile

VOICE

Call is higher pitched and less harsh than other geese – often an incessant and rather musical wink, wink.

HABITAT

Roosts on estuaries, mudflats, freshwater lakes, moorland pools and floodwater, and visits nearby farmland to feed. Winters in hilly areas, moors and mosses as well as lowland marshes. Prefers large fields, especially stubble in autumn, winter cereals, potatoes, sugar beet and other arable crops.

Around 80–90% of the European population winters in the British Isles. English numbers have increased, especially in Norfolk. The recent increase is probably due to favourable conditions – larger fields, easily found food on farmland in winter, and better protected winter roosts. Main threats are in its breeding areas in Iceland and Greenland where numbers are affected by hunting and by hydroelectricity schemes and potential mineral extraction.

DISTRIBUTION There are two European populations: one in Spitsbergen and another in Iceland and Greenland. Greenland and Iceland birds winter in Scotland and England. Birds from Spitsbergen winter in western Europe, especially Denmark and the Netherlands.

FOOD

Feeds on grain, winter cereals and root crops, including sugar beet, and also on grass. In summer, it eats leaves and shoots, roots and fruits, especially bistort, horsetails and cotton grass.

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Taiga Bean Goose Anser fabalis Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red – Moderate decline – 230 – – – Oldest: 25 66–84cm; 2.8–3.2kg

BREEDING

These species do not breed wild in Britain or Ireland. Both parents tend the young and in autumn families migrate together, and stay together until the following breeding season.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

On their breeding grounds some of the forest birds move north to the tundra after breeding and before migrating south or west for the winter. Family parties arrive in Britain during late September and early October and leave in March.

IDENTIFICATION

Larger than Pink-footed and slightly smaller and less bulky than Greylag Goose. Taiga Bean Goose forms a species-pair with Tundra Bean Goose and they were only recently recognised as separate species. Taiga has a long, slender, almost ‘swan-like’ neck, a long orange-andblack wedge-shaped bill and orange legs. The adult is brown with a very dark sooty-brown head and upper neck, uniform brown upperparts with neat pale barring and white under the tail. The brown breast has fine, pale barring and there is a white line at the edge of its folded wings. The juvenile is similar to the adult but duller and sometimes paler. Some birds have white feathers around the base of the bill but not enough to be confused with a White-fronted Goose. In flight, the upperwing is uniformly dark. It moults all its flight feathers simultaneously and is flightless for about a month before its autumn migration. See also: Tundra Bean Goose p21, Greylag Goose p18, Pink-footed Goose p19, Whitefronted Goose p22.

HABITS

Swims well but less often than most other geese. The dark brown upperwing and rather long, slender neck are obvious in flight. It is usually sociable, although the flocks tend to be smaller than those of other geese. In autumn, the flocks are first made up of families that are then joined by non-breeders. Flocks fly to their roosts at dusk and leave again at dawn. When airborne they generally fly in ‘V’ formation or in lines.

VOICE

Not as noisy as other geese – gives an ung-ank or an ow, ow, ow, ow call.

HABITAT

In Britain, it spends winter in open country. Winter roosts are on lakes or flooded fields close to the feeding grounds. The northern breeding grounds tend to be within pine ‘taiga’ forests or birch scrub, or in open areas of low wet tundra, on small offshore islands or near pools or streams.

FOOD

juvenile

CONSERVATION

Like other members of this family, these geese can be unpopular with farmers as they spend time on agricultural land during winter and graze grass and growing cereals. Research, however, has shown that this winter grazing does little economic damage to the crops. There are now fewer Taiga Bean Geese breeding in Sweden and Norway than there were 20 years ago, and this may have been caused by increased human disturbance, changes in agriculture and some direct persecution.

DISTRIBUTION Visits the eastern coast of Britain, especially East Anglia and central Scotland. Also sometimes seen in the Northern Isles. Small numbers are occasionally seen elsewhere, usually in the company of other geese. Taiga Bean Geese breed in Scandinavia and northern Russia. Many birds winter in southern Sweden, Germany and the Netherlands, and a few of these visit Britain.

Feeds by grazing grasses, clover, cereals, potatoes and other crops.

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Tundra Bean Goose Anser serrirostris Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (pairs) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber – Stable – 300 – – – Oldest: 25 66–89cm; 2.4–2.7kg

IDENTIFICATION

Slightly larger than Pink-footed Goose and has a shorter, thicker neck than Taiga Bean Goose, the dark bill is shorter than Taiga’s and deeper and stronger-looking, with a variable pattern with less orange. Legs are also orange. The male is generally a little larger than the female. The adult is brown, with a very dark sooty-brown head and upper neck, uniform brown upperparts with neat pale barring and white under the tail. The brown breast has fine, pale barring and there is a white line at the edge of its folded wings. The juvenile is similar to the adult but duller and sometimes paler. Some birds have white feathers around the base of the bill, but not enough to be confused with a White-fronted Goose. In flight, the upperwing is uniformly dark and underwing darker than Pink-footed. It moults all its flight feathers simultaneously and is flightless for about a month before its autumn migration. See also: Taiga Bean Goose p20, Greylag Goose p18, Pink-footed Goose p19, White-fronted Goose p22.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Sometimes a small number of families accompany other geese and arrive in Britain during autumn, while others fly to Denmark and visit Britain after midwinter. They leave again in March.

CONSERVATION

Like other members of this family, these geese can be unpopular with farmers as they spend time on agricultural land during winter and graze grass and growing cereals. Research, however, has shown that this winter grazing does little economic damage to the crops.

HABITS

It swims well but less often than most other geese. The dark brown upperwing and rather long, slender neck are obvious in flight. It is usually sociable, except when nesting, although the flocks tend to be smaller than those of other geese. In autumn, the flocks are first made up of families that are then joined by non-breeders. Flocks fly to their roosts at dusk and leave again at dawn. When airborne they generally fly in ‘V’ formation or in lines.

VOICE

Not as noisy as other geese – gives an ung-ank or an ow, ow, ow, ow call.

HABITAT

In Britain, it spends winter in open country. Winter roosts are on lakes or flooded fields close to the feeding grounds. The northern breeding grounds tend to be in open areas of low wet tundra and on small offshore islands or near pools or streams.

FOOD

It feeds by grazing grasses, clover, cereals, potatoes and other crops.

DISTRIBUTION Tundra Bean Geese breed in northern Russia and Siberia, and many winter in southern Sweden, Germany and the Netherlands, and a few of these visit eastern Britain in winter. Other races breed across northern Asia and winter in western China and Japan.

BREEDING

This species does not breed wild in Britain or Ireland. Both parents tend the young and in autumn families migrate together and stay together until the following breeding season.

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White-fronted Goose Anser albifrons Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (pairs) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red – Moderate decline – 13,500 – – – Average: 6; Oldest: 25 65–78cm; 2.5kg

IDENTIFICATION Smaller than Greylag and appears larger and longer necked than Pink-footed Goose, with deeper chest and rather grey-brown head and white forehead. Body and neck are grey-brown with variable black, blotchy bars on underparts. Back is brown and crossed with pale lines. Legs are orange and the bill of the Eurasian race is pink. Greenland race is generally larger and darker, with a longer, heavier orange bill. Juvenile lacks the white forehead and black breast bars. The white forehead is gained during the first winter but it is the second autumn before black bars appear on the belly. In flight, wings appear longer and narrower than other geese. It becomes flightless for 25 days after nesting. See also: Tundra Bean Goose p21, Pink-footed Goose p19, Greylag Goose p18.

Eurasian race

juvenile

HABITS

Rather agile, and can rise almost vertically from the ground. Flocks comprise many family groups and large flocks cross the sky in lines, ‘V’s and chevrons, especially at dawn and dusk and they fly to and from their roosts. Large roosts break up into smaller feeding groups during the day.

VOICE

Cackling calls that are higher pitched than Greylag and with a laughing sound to them.

HABITAT

Winters on low-lying, wet grassland close to coastal marshes, saltings, lakes and river valleys, including wet pastures and flood meadows. Feeds on agricultural land, including grass and cereal crops. In Ireland, visits raised blanket bogs. Breeds on the Arctic tundra, close to lakes, rivers and pools.

FOOD

juvenile

Vegetarian. Eats leaves, stems, roots and seeds of a variety of plants. In winter, feeds on grain, potatoes, sugar beet, horsetails, rhizomes of couch grass and roots of cotton grass. Feeds during the day, and sometimes at night.

Greenland race

BREEDING

Wild birds do not breed in Britain or Ireland. Pairs form after 2 years, but do not normally breed until 3 years old. Once formed, pairs generally stay together for life. Both parents tend the young and the family stays together until the adults start breeding the following year, and even then the previous year’s young may associate with their family group. On their breeding grounds, after the young have hatched, families join together. A few feral birds are free-flying in Britain and occasionally nest successfully.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

The race that breeds in Greenland (A. a. flavirostris) mostly winters in Scotland and Ireland. It crosses the Atlantic via Iceland and arrives in October. The race from northern Europe and Russia (A. a. albifrons) tends to visit southern England. Both races leave their wintering grounds in March or April.

CONSERVATION

Protected in Scotland. Both races are declining in Britain; the Greenland race is globally threatened. A ban on hunting in Iceland has probably helped stabilise numbers of migrants reaching the British Isles. In Ireland, the drainage of bogs has forced the species onto agricultural land where it has been doing well. However, disturbance at feeding and roosting sites, and the construction of windfarms in remote areas, are a cause for concern.

DISTRIBUTION The species breeds across northern Russia, Siberia and North America. Two races visit the British Isles. One comes from the west coast of Greenland and mostly winters in and around Wexford in Ireland and on Islay in the Inner Hebrides. The other race comes from northern Russia and winters mainly in southern England, especially the Severn and Swale estuaries.

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nland

Mute Swan Cygnus olor Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

female

Amber Moderate increase Moderate increase 6,500 50,500 March–May 4–7; 1 brood 34–45; 120–150 days Average: 10; Oldest: 29 125–155cm; 8.5–10.8kg

male

IDENTIFICATION

One of our largest birds. Rounded head, long, graceful, S-shaped neck and pointed tail. Adult is white with orange bill and black base. Male has larger black knob at the base of the bill. Head is sometimes stained rusty orange. Juvenile brown/grey, becoming whiter by first autumn. Immatures have washedout orange bill. Large black feet sometimes rest on the bird’s back. Unlike Whooper and Bewick’s Swans, the tail is pointed when up-ending. Moults June to November and becomes flightless for 6–8 weeks. See also: Bewick’s Swan p24, Whooper Swan p25.

HABITS

Waddling walk. Takes off from water by running along the surface. Flies with neck extended and regular, slow wingbeats. Flocks fly in diagonal lines. Aggressive posture has arched wings, neck drawn back and rapid jerky advance across the water. Courtship takes place in late winter with synchronised head dipping and necks and breasts pressed together. Normally strictly territorial, but there are also traditional nesting colonies. Feeds mainly during the day but continues after dark.

VOICE

Mostly silent, but makes a loud hiss when angry and other snorting sounds. Loud throbbing waou, waou noise made by wings in flight. Young birds make a high-pitched whistle.

HABITAT

Breeds close to lakes with shallow feeding areas, slow-flowing rivers, canals and occasionally beside salt and brackish water. Visits arable fields, areas of short grass and some sheltered coastal waters.

FOOD

Feeds by dipping its head into water and sometimes up-ending. Also picks up grit from river bottoms. Eats aquatic plants and other vegetation. Plant food includes stonewort, starwort, hornwort, water crowfoot, various pondweeds, soft grasses and algae. Other food includes insects and snails. Grazes on short grass. Where tame, takes food from humans.

female

bank, an island or in a reedbed. The nest may be 4m wide and built by both sexes, male passing material to female. Eggs are incubated by female and guarded by male. Young feed themselves. When small the young may be carried on their parents’ back, which helps to keep them warm and protect them from predatory pike. Young usually leave their parents’ territory during their first autumn.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Some stay on territory all year, others move short distances and form winter flocks. Juveniles join flocks of non-breeders and remain in these flocks until reaching breeding age. Some travel to traditional areas to moult. In cold weather, some from Europe arrive in eastern England.

CONSERVATION

Once prized as a food for banquets, these swans were introduced to many parts of Europe, so that the present population is a mixture of wild and semi-feral flocks. It was specifically protected by law in 1387. A recent population increase may be due to better protection in most of Europe. Discarded fishing nylon line remains a hazard and vandalism continues to be a significant cause of nest failure in some urban areas.

DISTRIBUTION This swan breeds wild in northern and eastern Europe and in parts of Asia. It has been introduced into North America, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand.

BREEDING

First breeds at 3–4 years. Once paired, ‘divorce’ is rare. The nest is built of reeds, rushes and other vegetation near water – on a

juvenile

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Bewick’s Swan Cygnus columbianus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber – Strong decline – 4,350 – – – Average: 9; Oldest: 28 115–117cm; 5.9kg

IDENTIFICATION

Our smallest swan. Rather goose-like, with a rounded head, smaller bill and shorter and proportionally thicker neck than Whooper Swan. Adult white with black-and-yellow bill. Yellow pattern at base of bill is highly variable, but generally rounder or squarer than the long pointed ‘wedge’ on a Whooper’s bill. Neck and underparts may be stained rusty orange. Juvenile is uniformly grey with a flesh-coloured bill that darkens and becomes partly yellow during the first winter. Immatures have some grey on their head and neck until their second winter. When up-ending has a blunt-ended tail. See also: Mute Swan p23, Whooper Swan p25.

HABITS

In flight, the neck and body are shorter, and wings beat faster than Whooper Swan. In winter, it feeds and roosts in flocks. Generally, it feeds in water less than 1m deep, and also on saltmarshes and arable fields. It roosts on water, where it may continue feeding after dark, or visit arable fields at night.

VOICE

Call is a soft, mellow, yelping oop, oop, or hoo, hoo.

HABITAT

Visits low-lying wet pastures, flooded grasslands, saltmarshes, lakes and reservoirs in winter. Sometimes feeds on arable fields close to wetland roosts. Breeds on the Russian tundra where there are low, swampy, grassy areas with pools, lakes and rivers.

FOOD

Leaves, shoots and roots of pondweeds, milfoil, floating sweet grass, marsh foxtail, marsh yellowcress and other aquatic plants, and rye grass and clover. Visits farmland to feed on waste potatoes, carrots and winter wheat.

juvenile

BREEDING

mate within a year. Young form pairs during their second or third year. Breeding starts at 4–6 years old. Families stay together for the winter and return to their breeding grounds as a group. Some young associate with their parents until paired.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Bewick’s Swans leave Siberia in the first half of September and arrive in Britain in mid-October. The Netherlands and Germany are other European wintering areas. Some migrants reach France and other European countries. Most British and Irish birds start their return migration before the end of March.

CONSERVATION

Almost half the European wintering population visits the British Isles. Until 1990 the population had been increasing but it is now falling in both Britain and western Europe. Many deaths are inflicted directly or indirectly by humans: flying into overhead cables being the most common. Lead poisoning from shotgun cartridges and illegal shooting on migration are other problems. The loss of traditional wetlands has resulted in 90% of the European winter population being concentrated at just ten sites. These critical sites require protection to ensure enough vegetation to sustain winter swans and good water quality. The relationship with farmers close to wintering sites will need careful management. In future, the effects of climate change and the growth in oil, gas and mineral exploration in Siberia may affect this species.

DISTRIBUTION Breeds in northern Russia and in North America. Migrants fly to a small number of traditional wintering areas. The Russian population reaches western Europe, especially the Netherlands, Britain and Ireland. There are only a small number of sites where the majority of birds congregate.

Does not breed in Britain or Ireland. Nests further north than any other swan and breeding cycle completed in 100–110 days, before the Arctic weather deteriorates. Pairs stay loyal and ‘divorce’ is rare. When one bird dies more than half will find a new

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Whooper Swan Cygnus cygnus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Moderate increase Moderate increase 28 16,000 May–July 3–8; 1 brood 35; 87 days Average: 9; Oldest: 28 145–160cm; 9kg

IDENTIFICATION

Slightly smaller than Mute Swan with long bill giving ‘Roman-nosed’ appearance. Long, thin neck usually straight, often with an obvious kink at the base, but sometimes forming a graceful curve. Adult white with a black-and-yellow bill. Yellow on bill extends beyond the nostril and ends in a point. Some have rust-coloured staining that is lost during winter moult. Immature has a grey body that becomes whiter during its first winter. Some grey feathers remain until its second winter. Its bill is reddish-grey until the black and yellow appears. Larger than Bewick’s Swan with longer body, longer wings, angular head, longer neck and triangular, not rounded, yellow patch on its bill. When up-ending it has a square-ended tail. Adults moult flight feathers after breeding and are flightless for several weeks. See also: Bewick’s Swan p24, Mute Swan p23.

BREEDING

A small number of wild birds remain in summer in northern Britain and Ireland, and there is a small but growing breeding population. There are also a few feral birds that occasionally breed. It does not nest until 4–5 years old. Courtship begins in winter and most pairs probably stay together until one dies. The nest is close to water, often on a small island, and is a large mound of reeds and sedges built by both sexes. Eggs are laid as soon as the ice melts and are incubated by the female. Both parents tend the young, which feed themselves and are brooded at night. They remain with their parents for the first autumn and winter and the start of the return migration.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Migrants from Iceland arrive in Britain and Ireland in October and leave before mid-April. Generally found further north in Britain than Bewick’s. Scandinavian and Siberian populations winter in eastern Europe and the Black Sea.

juvenile

CONSERVATION

HABITS

In flight, it looks heavier than Bewick’s, with larger head, slower wingbeats and longer neck and body. In winter, it is often seen in flocks that consist of family units and non-breeders. Often feeds by up-ending.

VOICE

Distinctive loud whooping or trumpeting call.

HABITAT

In winter, visits lowland farmland near the coast or inland, with waterways, flooded fields or inland lakes. Also visits sheltered coastal bays. Feeds in shallow water or on land during the day, and roosts on open water at night. Main breeding grounds are boggy areas with pools and upland lakes, often with reeds or other vegetation. Some Icelandic feeding areas are rich in iron compounds, which stain the birds’ feathers.

British and Irish populations have increased in the last 30 years. Threats are from collisions with overhead power lines, disturbance of the few nesting pairs and poisoning from lead from shotgun cartridges. The estuaries and wetlands visited during migration and for winter roosts need special protection.

DISTRIBUTION Breeds in Iceland and Scandinavia. Also breeds in northern Russia and northern Asia. Winters as far south as the Mediterranean. Most Icelandic birds migrate to Britain and Ireland while those from Scandinavia winter in Europe, and a few of these arrive in eastern England.

FOOD

Leaves, stems and roots of aquatic plants: pondweed, stonewort, marsh yellow-cress and horsetail. Also water snails. On farmland it eats potatoes, grain from stubble fields, grass, oilseed rape and winter cereals.

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Egyptian Goose Alopochen aegyptiaca Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Introduction Strong increase Strong increase 1,850 5,600 March–May 8–9; 1 brood 28–30; 70–75 days Oldest: 15 63–73cm; 2–2.5kg

IDENTIFICATION

Larger than Shelduck. A long-legged, sturdy-looking goose that stands erect when not feeding. When extended, the neck looks long and curved. It is buffcoloured with a reddish-brown back, pale grey underparts and a dark mark on breast. The neck and head are paler, mottled and with a brown patch around the eye and a narrow neck-band. Wings are dark with a green speculum and a conspicuous white wing-patch. The bill is small and pink. The legs and feet are also pink. Juveniles are paler and lack the eye- and breast-patches. It moults in winter and summer and may become flightless for a short time after breeding.

HABITAT

This goose breeds around lowland lakes, especially ornamental lakes. Also on reservoirs and flooded gravel workings. In its native Africa, it is found in a wide variety of wetland habitats.

FOOD

The food requirements in Britain are not well known. It is mainly vegetarian, feeding on seeds and leaves of grasses and other aquatic plants. In South Africa, it visits farmland to feed.

BREEDING

The nest site may be in a variety of locations: under a bush, in a hole in a bank, or in a hole in a tree. In Africa, it sometimes uses buildings or the old tree nests of large birds such as herons. Eggs are laid in late winter and incubation is by the female. The young feed themselves and are looked after by both parents. They are slow to grow adult feathers and fly. The family stays together for weeks, and it is sometimes months before young birds become independent. Young probably first breed at 2 years.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

In Britain, the non-native population appears to be mainly resident. In Africa, movements are complex and appear to be linked to summer rains. In South Africa, some undertake movements of 1,100km. grey variant

juvenile

CONSERVATION

The population appears to be growing rapidly in some places and colonising new areas in southern and eastern England. The first introductions were probably from South Africa in the late 1700s. By the 1960s there was a small population established in Norfolk and since then there has been considerable growth in the population and expansion westwards. In its native South Africa, the farming community sometimes considers it to be a pest.

DISTRIBUTION

HABITS

It swims with its tail held higher than its shoulders and it may occasionally dive to avoid predators. In flight, the large white wing-patches are distinctive. Usually it feeds in family groups or in larger loosely formed flocks.

VOICE

Native to Africa, south of the Sahara and also the Nile Valley. A feral population breeds in scattered locations in England and Wales but is most common in East Anglia and it is currently colonising the south and east of England. There are other feral populations in Germany and Holland.

Generally it is silent, but the male and female have different distinctive calls. The call of the male is a husky wheezing, and the female makes a highpitched hur, hur, hur, hur.

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Shelduck Tadorna tadorna Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Stable Moderate decline 7,600 47,000 April–June 8–10; 1 brood 30; 45–50 days Average: 10; Oldest: 24 58–67cm; 1.2kg

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

After breeding most migrate to traditional moulting areas. Thousands gather in the Heligoland Bight off the German coast. Other moulting areas have recently been discovered on some British estuaries. Shelducks return slowly and territories may not be reoccupied until spring. Additional birds from western Europe arrive in Britain in winter. juvenile

IDENTIFICATION

Larger than a Mallard. Large white duck with a bottlegreen head and neck, chestnut breast-band and black ‘shoulders’. The broad bill is blood-red and legs pink. Male larger and brighter than female with pronounced knob at the base of his bill in spring. The black-and-white wing, black-tipped tail and a dark streak down centre of belly show in flight. Juvenile less well marked with grey-brown back and head and whitish face and throat. Flight feathers moulted simultaneously, and adults are flightless for 25–31 days between July and October. See also: Shoveler p32.

female

male

HABITS

Swims high in water. Up-ends to reach submerged food. Also wades, sweeping bill from side to side to sift food out of mud. In flight, looks heavy, with slow wingbeats. Outside the breeding season forms loose flocks.

VOICE

Male usually silent or makes sweet-sounding whistles. The voice of the female is lower, giving a growling ark-ark-ark call.

HABITAT

Most numerous on sheltered coasts and estuaries with sandbars and mudflats. In recent years, it has adopted some inland sites, including gravel workings and reservoirs. Visits farmland near the coast. In western Europe, favours coastal habitats, but in central Asia lives around salt lakes and marshes, often in steppe and semidesert many kilometres inland.

FOOD

Eats invertebrates, including shellfish, crabs, shrimps, worms, sandhoppers and larvae of flies and other insects. Chief food on many estuaries is a tiny snail, Hydrobia. Small fish and some plant material are also eaten.

BREEDING

Nests among dense vegetation, in a hole, often an old rabbit burrow, or in other crevices or gaps under buildings, occasionally off the ground in a tree or building. Nests comprise straw, grass and down feathers from the female’s breast. Eggs are laid in April or May and incubated by the female. Young feed themselves within hours of hatching. Female leads young to a food-rich area where they often mix with other young Shelducks. A few non-breeding adults (‘aunties’) often tend the crèches while the parents migrate to their moulting areas.

juvenile

CONSERVATION

Numbers have increased recently and inland colonisation may have resulted from coastal breeding sites becoming overpopulated. Estuaries and coastal dunes have long been regarded as ripe for development and many feeding areas were destroyed in the 20th century. Port and marina developments, new harbours, increases in invasive plants such as Spartina, and recreational pressures all threaten the habitat on which it depends. Sea-level rise will reduce the intertidal zone on which Shelducks feed.

DISTRIBUTION Breeds mainly around the coasts of Britain and Ireland, also a few inland places in England, southern Scotland and Wales. In Europe, restricted to the north-west coast, from France to Norway and a few scattered breeding sites along the northern Mediterranean. Also lives around the northern shores of the Black Sea and across central Asia to China.

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Dabbling ducks in flight male

GADWALL p33 Fairly large with white underwing and obvious white speculum

female

female

MALLARD p35 Large and heavy duck with broad but pointed wings and rounded tail

male

male

TEAL p30 Pointed wings and rapid agile flight – often twisting and turning like waders

female

female

GARGANEY p31 Heavier and longer-necked than Teal

male

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juvenile SHELDUCK p27 Heavy and slow flight, often in pairs together

male

SHOVELER p32 Appears ‘front-heavy’ with fast flight

female

male

male

WIGEON p36 Narrow wings with head and neck moving up and down. Often in flocks

female

male

PINTAIL p34 Long neck and tail, and small head obvious in flight female

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Teal Anas crecca Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

female

Amber Moderate increase Moderate increase 5,000 430,000 April–June 8–11; 1 brood 21; 30 days Average: 3; Oldest: 21 34–38cm; 323g

juvenile

FOOD

Eats a variety of food that it finds in mostly shallow water, by pecking from the surface, filtering water through its bill, or up-ending. Chief food is seeds of rushes, grasses and other plants such as pondweed, dock, birch and buttercup. In summer, it eats animals such as water snails, fly larvae, water beetles and worms.

male

female

IDENTIFICATION

Much smaller than Mallard. A small, compact duck with a short neck. Male has chestnut head, dark green eye-patch that extends to back of head, grey body with white lateral stripe and spotted breast. Also has yellow patch on the side of its black tail. Female is like small, delicate, boldly marked female Mallard with small bill, dark crown and dark green speculum that is bordered by white stripes that show in flight. Wings are pointed and flight is very rapid. Moults during summer. Male in moult (eclipse) resembles female, but has darker upperparts and grey bill. Flight feathers are moulted simultaneously and birds are flightless for about 4 weeks. See also: Mallard p35, Wigeon p36, Garganey p31. male

BREEDING

Pairs form during winter before moving to their breeding sites. Teal nest closer to the water’s edge than most other duck species, which helps deter predators. A hollow is lined with leaves and grass, and down from the duck’s breast. The female incubates and the male often leaves as incubation begins. Young feed themselves soon after hatching and become independent when they can fly. They are able to breed at 1 year old.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Most Teal are migratory, with birds from Iceland, northern Europe and Russia reaching Britain and Ireland during October and November and leaving again in March. In cold winters, additional Teal from the Netherlands may cross the North Sea or fly to France or Spain. In mainland Europe, many undertake a summer moult-migration after breeding.

CONSERVATION

HABITS

Gregarious, usually in small flocks except when nesting. An agile duck that can rise vertically from the water if disturbed. In flight, will twist and turn and their rapid wingbeats and pointed wings can make them appear more like waders than wildfowl. Often inactive during the day and feeds mainly at night.

VOICE

Call of male is a piping, far-carrying whistle, pripprip. Female’s call is a rapid, high-pitched quacking.

HABITAT

Breeds mainly on wet moorland, bogs and marshes in upland areas. Some nest in lowland marshes or near the coast. Some breeding sites may be in, or close to, woodland. In autumn and winter, visits lakes, ponds, gravel pits, reservoirs and coastal lagoons. In Europe and Asia, ranges from the edge of Arctic tundra to the fringes of arid deserts.

About 30–40% of the European population winters in the UK and more in Ireland. The population appears to have increased since 1970. Planting commercial forests in traditional upland breeding areas may have caused some declines. Safeguarding remaining breeding areas and lowland wintering sites is essential.

DISTRIBUTION Breeds in scattered locations, especially northern England and northern and western Scotland. Found in winter in wetland locations throughout Britain and Ireland, although scarcer in upland and northern areas. Breeding range extends across northern Europe and Asia. Winters in central and southern Europe and parts of North Africa and Asia.

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Garganey Spatula querquedula Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (pairs) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Stable – 100 – April–June 8–9; 1 brood 22; 35–40 days Oldest: 14 37–41cm; 351–500g

male

female

IDENTIFICATION

Much smaller than Mallard but longer than a Teal. Slightly oblong head shape, with flat crown and straight grey bill. Male has distinctive broad white stripes over the eyes that curve down and meet on back of neck. Breast mottled brown, flanks finely barred with grey, belly white and back has blackand-white drooping feathers. In flight, shows bluegrey forewing. Female similar to female Teal but paler with whiter throat, pale white patch at base of grey bill, darker eye-stripe that contrasts with pale stripe over the eye and diffuse dark line across face and darker crown. In flight, forewing of female is grey. Juvenile like female with stripy head and lacks Teals’ pale line under tail. Moults between May and August, with the male starting first. Flight feathers are lost simultaneously and adults are flightless for 3–4 weeks. Male in moult (eclipse) resembles the female, but with the sides of the head heavily streaked. See also: Teal p30.

male

female

juvenile

FOOD

Mostly feeds while swimming, either from the surface or up-ending. Eats insects and their larvae, including water beetles, flies and midges. Also feeds on water snails, freshwater shrimps, worms and the spawn and young of frogs. Plants are also eaten, especially the stems, leaves or seeds of water weeds, reeds, sedges, grasses, rushes, docks and duckweed.

BREEDING

Pairs form in winter and arrive together on their breeding grounds where a small territory is established. Nest is in a depression lined with leaves, grasses and down. During incubation the male generally leaves the area. Young can feed themselves soon after hatching.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

This is our only summer migrant duck. It arrives in Europe in March and returns to its African winter quarters between July and October. Where Garganeys are numerous, large gatherings often form while the birds moult before migration. Western European Garganeys have two distinct autumn migration routes, one through Spain and the other through Italy. In spring, however, most birds return via Italy.

CONSERVATION

The European population has declined sharply due to wetland drainage and poor management of its breeding sites. The small British population appears to be stable in number. Sympathetic management of wetlands in Europe and Africa is essential for the future of this species. Protection in its winter quarters and reduced pressure from hunting in winter and on migration would also help.

DISTRIBUTION HABITS

In flight, looks a little heavier and longer necked than Teal. Outside the breeding season, it is usually seen in pairs or small groups.

VOICE

Calls of male include a dry rattle and a burping sound used in display. Female has a quiet quack like a Teal.

HABITAT

It breeds in water meadows, flooded grasslands, and in reedy and marshy pools or ditches where there is plenty of cover from grasses, rushes and other vegetation. It visits similar habitats on migration and in the non-breeding season in Africa.

The Garganey breeds in scattered locations in England and a few sites in Scotland, but it is much scarcer in Wales and Ireland. Small numbers of non-breeding birds visit British wetlands in spring and autumn. Garganeys also breed in France, northern and eastern Europe, Russia and in central and eastern Asia. Most winter in tropical Africa although a few remain around the Mediterranean, and occasionally in Britain.

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Shoveler Spatula clypeata Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Moderate increase Strong increase 1,000 19,000 April–August 9–11; 1 brood 22; 40–45 days Average: 3; Oldest: 22 44–52cm; 600–650g

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Mallard with long-looking body, flatter head and much longer, broader bill. Male has a white neck and breast, dark green head, orange flanks and belly, and white patch before black undertail. Dark back has long black, blue and white feathers. Female similar to slim female Mallard, but has white underwings and dark belly. In flight, both sexes show powder-blue forewings, males being brighter than females. Juvenile resembles female. Young males only gradually acquire adult plumage. Simultaneous moult of flight feathers results in birds being flightless for about 4 weeks. Male in moult (eclipse) resembles female with darker upperparts and redder underparts. See also: Shelduck p27, Garganey p31, Mallard p35. male

male

female

HABITAT

Breeds in marshes or lowland wet grassland that is close to shallow open water. In winter, found on inland marshes, small lakes and pools, and around the fringes of reservoirs and other larger waterbodies. Small numbers visit coastal marshes.

FOOD

Up-ends and occasionally dives for food, but usually filters surface water through serrations along edges of the bill. Feeds on tiny creatures, including crustaceans, small water snails, insects and their larvae. Also eats seeds and leaves of water plants. male eclipse

BREEDING

Establish a small territory that they defend vigorously in the early stages of nesting. Nest is on the ground, close to water, in a hollow lined with grasses and down. Incubation is by the female. The male abandons his mate during incubation. The female tends the ducklings until they become independent.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Shovelers are migratory. Most British and Irish breeding birds leave by October and fly to western Europe or North Africa. Others from Iceland, northern Europe and Russia winter in western Europe and Britain, and return between February and May.

CONSERVATION

female

Numbers breeding and overwintering appear to be increasing. Lowland wet grassland has been under pressure from drainage and changes in agricultural practice for many years. Many breeding sites are subject to flooding in spring due to changes in floodplain management. Best sites are usually protected and well managed; any increase would need more managed sites and new wetlands.

DISTRIBUTION HABITS

Swims with breast low and huge bill nearly touching the water. When up-ending, the long wings cross over at the tips. Sometimes a group swims in a line or circle, filtering the water disturbed by the bird in front. Agile in flight and their pointed wings appear set far back, due to the thin neck and big bill. Outside the breeding season usually in small groups but sometimes bigger flocks.

VOICE

Generally rather quiet. Male has a quiet took, took call as rival males chase each other. Female makes a soft quacking sound.

Breeds in eastern England, with smaller numbers in south-west England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland. More widespread in winter, frequenting any suitable habitat in lowland Britain or Ireland. Breeds in Europe from the Baltic almost to the Mediterranean and eastwards across Asia to Mongolia. Also found in North America. European birds winter as far south as tropical Africa.

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Gadwall Mareca strepera Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Moderate increase Moderate increase 2,800 31,000 May–August 7–9; 1 brood 24; 45 days Average: 4; Oldest: 22 46–56cm; 809g

male

female female

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than a Mallard. A rather undistinguished grey duck with a bold white speculum. At close quarters, male has finely barred or freckled plumage that appears grey at a distance. The rear of the body and tail are black. White speculum frequently shows clearly as a patch on sides of a swimming bird and is obvious in flight. Bill is grey. Female resembles a slim female Mallard, but with greyer mottled plumage, a whiter belly, white speculum and orange sides to bill. During their summer moult, Gadwalls become flightless for about 4 weeks and males resemble females but are greyer with plainer upperparts. See also: Mallard p35.

HABITS

Wings are rather pointed. Often follows other feeding waterbirds such as Coots and Mute Swans and forms small, loose flocks in winter. Gadwalls do not nest in colonies, but several females may sometimes nest within 5m of each other.

VOICE

Usually rather silent. Male has a deep, rasping croak, often given in flight. Call of female more like a higherpitched version of a Mallard’s quack.

male

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Present in all seasons, but more widespread in winter, with additional arrivals from Iceland and northern and eastern Europe. Some British and Irish birds appear to be sedentary while others move into Europe in autumn.

CONSERVATION

Wild birds may have colonised some Scottish sites in the early 1900s, but other populations were introduced in the 1800s, especially in East Anglia. Recently the population appears to have spread west and north. It is important wintering areas remain undisturbed. In Russia, where most European wintering birds breed, there has been a recent decline.

HABITAT

Breeds on lowland lakes or slow-flowing rivers with vegetated edges and islands. Recently in Britain it has colonised old gravel workings and shallow edges of reservoirs. In winter, it uses other, larger areas of water, including estuaries.

male eclipse

FOOD

Mainly vegetarian, feeding on plant material in water, either on the surface or by up-ending. Most common food includes stems, leaves and seeds of pondweeds, sedges, rushes, grasses and stonewort. Insects, water snails and small amphibians may also be eaten, probably incidentally.

BREEDING

Nests on the ground, often on small islands. The nest is usually among dense vegetation and quite close to water. In some places, nests in more open locations close to terns or gulls, which help by chasing away predators. The eggs are laid into a hollow lined with grass and the duck’s own down. Female alone incubates, and the male usually deserts her during this time. Young feed themselves after hatching and continue to be brooded by the female when small. They become independent when they can fly.

DISTRIBUTION Most numerous in the south and east of England, but has colonised many other places in Britain and Ireland in recent years. It is also found in widely scattered locations in central and southern Europe and also in Asia and North America. In winter, it is more widespread and migrants are found around the Mediterranean.

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Pintail Anas acuta Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Moderate decline Moderate decline 25 195,000 April–June 7–9; 1 brood 23; 40 days Average: 3; Oldest: 27 51–66cm; 819g–1kg

IDENTIFICATION

female male

include pondweeds, docks, sedges and grasses. Animals include water beetles, fly larvae, snails, leeches and, in salt water, shrimps and marine snails.

BREEDING

Nests on the ground among grasses or other cover within 200m of water. A hollow is lined with leaves and grass and always with down feathers from the female’s breast. Female incubates and male generally leaves. Young swim and feed themselves.

Slightly larger than Mallard. An elegant duck with a long, thin neck, long tail, rounded head, long delicate grey-and-black bill, and dark green speculum, edged white at the rear. Male has chocolatebrown head with broad white stripe running down MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS neck. Body finely barred grey with black line along Male Pintails leave their breeding sites in May or side often covered by the long cream and black, June and many fly to traditional moulting areas. drooping back feathers. Tail black and white, with Females also migrate to moulting sites after two greatly elongated black feathers. Female has a breeding. By September the southward migration is shorter tail and is mottled brown, but paler and underway. Pintails from Iceland, Scandinavia, the greyer than other female ducks, with slender grey Baltic States and Russia winter in Britain and Ireland. British breeding Pintails stay here. bill, pale brown head and neat scalloped brown and buff flanks. Juvenile is similar to the female CONSERVATION but with a darker back and more heavily streaked Always a rare breedand spotted. In moult (eclipse), males juvenile ing duck, numbers resemble females, but are greyer have fallen in recent and more uniformly marked. female years. In Russia and Both sexes are flightless for Finland, there have about 4 weeks. See also: been large declines. Mallard p35, Shoveler 40–50% of the European p32. population winter in the British Isles. The reason male eclipse for the recent decline in breeding male numbers is unclear, but protection and careful management of its breeding sites are essential. American Mink may HABITS limit breeding success. In flight, the long neck, small head, curved back, Reduced pressure from hunting in pointed wings and tapering tail distinguish it Europe and Russia would help. Protection of sanctufrom other ducks. Seen mainly in small flocks that ary sites on estuaries will boost winter survival. sometimes fly high, in a ‘V’ formation. Sexes form separate flocks in late summer.

DISTRIBUTION

VOICE

Generally less noisy than other ducks. Variety of calls similar to Mallard but quieter. Male has a drawn-out greee and female has a series of deep quacks.

HABITAT

Breeds in wetlands with shallow water, close to grassland and open habitats. In winter, moves to sheltered coasts and estuaries, and some Pintails visit large inland wetlands such as flooded grassland and reservoirs with shallow edges.

FOOD

Feeds on a variety of plant and animal material taken from the water – often by up-ending and using its long neck to reach into deeper water. Plants

Breeds at a smattering of suitable sites in Britain and, rarely, in Ireland. Winters on coastal marshes, large estuaries and large inland wetlands and moves from site to site. Elsewhere breeds in northern and eastern Europe, Russia and North America. Many Pintails from western Europe reach the African tropics for the winter.

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Mallard Anas platyrhynchos Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Moderate increase Stable 130,000 665,000 March–July 11–14; 1 brood 27; 50 days Average: 3; Oldest: 23 50–65cm; 1.2kg

female male

male juvenile male eclipse

IDENTIFICATION

Our most familiar duck. Large and heavy-looking, with a long body and long and broad bill. The speculum is iridescent purple/blue edged with white. Male has dark green head, yellow bill, male white neck-ring, purplebrown breast, mainly grey body and black, curly upper tail feathers. Female brown with darker mottling, dark crown, dark eye-stripe, pale breast, orange bill and orange legs. Juveniles resemble females but have more finely streaked flanks. Mallards have been domesticated for centuries and various plumages have evolved: from almost black to pure white. Mallards moult after breeding and are flightless for 4–5 weeks. Males resemble females during moult but have a blacker crown and yellowish bill. See also: Teal p30, Gadwall p33.

HABITS

Usually seen in small flocks. Can rise vertically out of water if disturbed. Mallards are often tame where they live close to humans, but are more timid in remote locations. Pairs sometimes form in autumn and stay together until spring. Some males are bigamous, and promiscuity and rape are not uncommon. Ducklings can dive to avoid danger and adults also dive occasionally.

VOICE

Calls of female are varied and include the familiar quack that is often repeated many times in quick succession. Call of male is a quieter, low, rasping crrrib.

HABITAT

Lives on large and small lakes and slow-flowing rivers that are fairly sheltered, and with shallow margins for feeding, including park lakes, reservoirs, small pools and coastal marshes. In winter, flocks visit larger waterbodies and may also be seen on the sea. Breeds in a variety of wetlands, from the Arctic tundra to the subtropics.

FOOD

Feeds day or night, on land or in water. Food is picked off the surface, found by submerging head and neck, or gathered from deeper water by up-ending. Plants include leaves, shoots and seeds of water plants, and cereals. Also, insects and their larvae, bread and other foods from humans and, rarely, small fish, mammals and birds.

female juvenile

female

BREEDING

Nesting starts in February if the weather is mild. Nest is a shallow depression ringed with grasses or small twigs, and lined with down. Usually hidden among vegetation such as nettles or brambles in a hedge bottom, or sometimes in woodland, in the crown of a small tree. Female incubates and male generally deserts and plays no part in tending the young. Young are able to swim, dive and feed themselves soon after hatching. Usually one brood, but female may re-lay if clutch is destroyed.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Mallards in Britain may be resident or migrant. Many that breed in Iceland and northern Europe spend winter in Britain and Ireland. Other populations from eastern Europe and Russia migrate in autumn and swell the numbers remaining in western Europe.

CONSERVATION

In recent years, the breeding population has increased while the wintering population has remained stable or fallen. The British and Irish population has been supplemented by captivebred birds released for sport. Hunting pressure and habitat destruction may be a problem in the future.

DISTRIBUTION Widespread in Britain and Ireland in summer and winter, wherever there are suitable wetland habitats, although scarce in upland areas. The most widespread duck in the world, breeding in Europe, Asia and North America, and it has also been introduced to Australia and New Zealand.

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Wigeon Mareca penelope Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Stable Stable 190 445,000 April–June 8–9; 1 brood 24; 40 days Average: 3; Oldest: 35 45–51cm; 748g

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Mallard. Medium-sized duck with round head and small bill. The head and neck of male are chestnut, forehead is yellow, breast pink and body grey with a white stripe on the wing. Tail is black and pointed. In flight, male shows white wing-patches. Female is a similar shape to the male but is mottled reddish or grey-brown, with pale pinkish flanks. Both sexes have a dull green speculum and a white belly in flight. Juveniles resemble females. Immature males resemble the adult male but lack white wing-patches. Complete moult between June and September and birds are flightless for several weeks. The moult (eclipse) male is a rich mottled chestnut. See also: Pochard p40.

female

male

FOOD

Grazes on land or finds food in the water. Sometimes follows other species such as Coots and swans and benefits from their waste food (commensal feeding). Eats mainly vegetation, especially stems, leaves and roots of plants such as grasses, buttercups, algae, pondweeds, and especially eelgrass, which grows on estuaries.

BREEDING

Nest is a hollow among thick cover. It is lined with grasses and leaves, and the female adds her own down feathers. Only the female incubates, and the male generally leaves the area during incubation. The young are able to feed themselves straight away but are brooded by the female while they are small and stay with her until they can fly. female

male

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

male eclipse

HABITS

In flight, neck appears short, wings narrow, and tail longer and more pointed than many other ducks. Flying birds often move their necks up and down in a conspicuous way. For most of the year Wigeon are found in large flocks but are generally solitary when nesting.

VOICE

Call of male is a far-carrying, musical, two-syllable whistle, wee-ooo. Call of female is a rather harsh growl.

HABITAT

Breeds near shallow freshwater lakes, pools and rivers where there is cover nearby for nesting. In northern Europe, breeds close to the tundra, but also nests in wooded areas, although not dense forests. Traditionally wintered on estuaries and coastal marshes, but many have moved inland and now winter around lowland lakes, including reservoirs and gravel pits.

Northerly populations are migratory. In Britain and Ireland, the largest numbers arrive in October. They return the following spring, eventually arriving back on their breeding grounds by May.

CONSERVATION

Largest numbers congregate on saltmarshes and other coastal marshes. Drainage and habitat loss have concentrated Wigeons at a number of important sites, some of which are nature reserves. They will seek out areas free from disturbance and wildfowling. Increased recreational use of coastal sites and the loss of wet grassland and saltmarshes remain the main threats.

DISTRIBUTION Wigeons nest in central and northern Scotland, also northern England. There are individuals that summer farther south but these do not usually breed. Wigeon also breed in Iceland, Scandinavia and northern Russia. Most of these winter around the icefree coasts of Europe, especially Britain and Ireland. Other European Wigeon reach the Mediterranean and the coast of North Africa.

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Mandarin Duck Aix galericulata Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years)

Introduction Strong increase Moderate increase 4,400 13,500 April–July 9–12; 1 brood 28; 40 days Oldest: 10

Size and weight

41–46cm; 616g

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Mallard. Plump duck with a thick neck, a large head and a small bill. For most of the year male is striking, with green and purple crest, chestnut-orange ruff, broad pale stripe from eye to nape, white eye-ring, purple breast, orange-brown flanks and dark back. The uniquely shaped inner wing feathers form ‘sails’ on the back. Bill is red. Female grey-brown with spotted flanks, a spectacle-like mark around and behind the eye and a tiny grey bill. In flight, shows dark wings with a white trailing edge and a pale belly. Moults between May and August and is flightless for about a month during that period. Male in moult (eclipse) resembles female but with less obvious face marks, a redder bill and glossier plumage.

HABITS

Swims with body high in the water, seldom up-ending. Frequently perches on fallen tree trunks and on tree branches overhanging the water. Takes off easily from water or land and flies rapidly, even among trees.

VOICE

Usually rather silent. Displaying males have a variety of calls including a soft whistle. Female has a soft croak, often given in flight.

HABITAT

Breeds around lowland lakes and rivers where there are trees and bushes, and branches overhanging the water. Lakes surrounded by rhododendron appear to be especially attractive. Also common in wildfowl collections and as an ‘ornamental duck’ in public and private parks.

FOOD

Omnivorous. Feeds on aquatic insects in spring and summer and mainly vegetarian at other times, eating seeds and nuts, especially acorns in autumn. Also eats snails.

BREEDING

In Britain, Mandarins begin breeding in mid-April. Usual nest site is in a hole in a tree, usually an oak, sometimes at ground level but more often off the ground – up to a height of 10m and sometimes more. Little nest material is used, but eggs are laid into a cup of down feathers and incubated by the female. Young leave the nest quickly and feed themselves. The female continues to care for them, the male sometimes roosts close by. Young can breed when 1 year old.

female

male

female

male eclipse

male

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

The introduced British population appears to be sedentary although individual birds may travel considerable distances. Mandarins in Asia are migratory with northern and western populations migrating while the population in Japan is mostly sedentary.

CONSERVATION

The species was present in Britain before 1745, but most of the current population is descended from birds that escaped or were released during the 20th century. Over the last 25 years the population has grown rapidly and colonised new areas. This increase contrasts with the Asian population, which appears to be declining for reasons that are unclear. The chief limit to further expansion may be competition with Jackdaws and squirrels for holes in trees.

DISTRIBUTION Mostly found in southern and central England but populations are established in Scotland and west into Wales with a small number in Ireland and Northern Ireland. Elsewhere feral populations have become established in California, Germany and the Netherlands. The species originated in Asia where it is native to eastern Siberia, China, Korea and Japan.

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Diving ducks in flight male

POCHARD p40 Dumpy appearance with short wings and heavy body

female

TUFTED DUCK p41 Rapid flight showing wing-bar

male female

male female SCAUP p42 White bars in the wings obvious – especially over the sea

female

male

EIDER p43 Appears heavy in flight with drooping head and neck

male

VELVET SCOTER p44 White patch shows well in flight

female male female COMMON SCOTER p45 Restless, and flocks sometimes fly in long lines

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female

male

SMEW p46 Rapid wingbeats and very manoeuvrable

female

male

GOLDENEYE p47 Wings produce distinctive whistling sound in flight

female male

RED-BREASTED MERGANSER p48 Long-bodied and longnecked in flight

female male

GOOSANDER p49 Long-bodied and often flies close to the water

female

male

LONG-TAILED DUCK p50 Often flies close to the water with body tipping from side to side

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Pochard Aythya ferina Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Moderate increase Strong decline 670 23,000 April–July 8–10; 1 brood 25; 50 days Average: 3; Oldest: 23 42–49cm; 1.1kg

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Mallard. This diving duck has a short neck and rounded head. Male pale grey with rustyred head and neck and black breast and tail. Female yellowish-brown with a dark crown and rather blotchy cheeks. Juvenile like female but is greybrown with pale cheeks and neck. In flight, both sexes show pale grey stripe on wing. Moult takes place between June and October with male beginning first. Flight feathers are moulted simultaneously; birds are flightless for 3–4 weeks. During moult male resembles female, but with more uniform brown head and greyer back. See also: Wigeon p36, Tufted Duck p41.

male

HABITAT

female

Breeds on lowland lakes, flooded gravel pits and reservoirs where there is plenty of vegetation growing in the water. Winters in similar habitats, but also on larger lakes and reservoirs. Visits estuaries, but rarely seen on open sea.

FOOD

Usually dives to feed. Dives are often preceded by an upward jump. Females tend to dive in shallower areas. Plant food includes leaves, stems and seeds of a variety of water plants including stonewort, pondweed, milfoil, sedges and grasses. Also eats water snails, small fish, tadpoles and insects and their larvae.

BREEDING

Pairs form in late winter while in flocks or at breeding sites. Female constructs a shallow cup of reed stems and other material close to water or among reeds. Nest is lined with down. Male generally leaves female during incubation. Female incubates. Young feed themselves soon after hatching and become independent before they can fly. Sometimes young from several families join together.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

male

Moulting flocks form in late summer and males make a moult migration to safe feeding areas. Males migrate before females. Many males migrate to Britain from northern and eastern Europe and central Russia, with some females wintering further south in France. Additional birds from the Netherlands arrive in Britain in cold winters.

CONSERVATION

male eclipse

HABITS

Appears to spend a lot of time asleep as it mostly feeds at night. Usually seen in small groups, or larger flocks outside the breeding season. There is often a higher proportion of males to females in flocks in the UK. Swims rather low in the water with the tail flat on the surface and patters along to take off. In flight, short wings and heavy body give dumpy appearance and rapid wingbeats make a whistling sound.

VOICE

Usually silent except during courtship when male makes a soft, wheezing wiwwierr. female winter

female summer

Breeding population has increased moderately in recent years, helped by the creation of reservoirs and flooded gravel pits. Breeding birds are susceptible to disturbance and need unpolluted waterbodies. Wintering numbers have declined drastically since the 1990s. The reasons are unclear but changing climate may mean birds are now choosing to winter further east in Europe. Pochard is listed as Vulnerable globally on account of severe decline due to habitat loss and water pollution on its breeding grounds.

DISTRIBUTION Most breed in eastern England and lowland Scotland, and only small numbers in Ireland. In winter, widespread on lowland waters throughout Britain and Ireland. Breeds around the Mediterranean, but the largest populations are in northern and eastern Europe and eastwards across Asia. In Europe, winters as far south as the Mediterranean and a few in tropical Africa.

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Tufted Duck Aythya fuligula Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (pairs) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Moderate increase Stable 17,000 130,000 May–August 8–11; 1 brood 25; 45 days Average: 4; Oldest: 45 40–47cm; 760g

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Mallard. Diving duck with a short neck, rounded head and relatively large, broad bill with broad black tip. Male glossy black with white flanks and belly and drooping black crest from back of head. Female brown with darker upperparts, paler, yellowish flanks and white belly. Some females show whitish patch at base of bill and pale feathering under the tail. Females often have a small tuft at the back of the head. Blue-grey bill and golden eyes. Rapid flight with obvious white stripe along the length of wing. Annual moult between June and October. Males moult first and both sexes are flightless for 3–4 weeks. In moult (eclipse), male resembles female but has darker upperparts and loses its crest. See also: Pochard p40, Scaup p42. male eclipse

male

female

FOOD

Sometimes upends, but usually dives to collect food from the bottom of a lake or river. It eats freshwater mussels (especially Zebra Mussel), freshwater shrimps, crustaceans and insects and their larvae, such as caddis fly. Plants include pondweed and sedges.

BREEDING

Pairs form in late winter or spring. Female builds a nest of grasses, rushes and reeds that she lines with down. Solitary nests are not uncommon, but Tufted Ducks often nest colonially, generally among cover and close to water. Female incubates, and during this time the male may leave the area. Young feed and fend for themselves soon after hatching and the female often leaves them once they can fly.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Many Tufted Ducks that breed in southern Britain are resident, but others migrate. Some British breeding birds reach Portugal, especially during cold weather. Most of those that nest in Iceland fly to Britain and Ireland during September and October. Others from northern Europe migrate south or west to winter in western Europe, including Britain. Winter migrants start to return to their breeding grounds in February.

CONSERVATION

female (pale base to bill variant)

female (white-vented variant)

HABITS

Looks buoyant on water and frequently dives with distinct jump. Often forms large flocks outside the breeding season. In parks and places where it lives close to people it sometimes becomes very tame. Winter flocks frequently contain more males than females.

VOICE

Male generally silent, except for a low whistle during courtship. Female makes a harsh karr, especially in flight.

HABITAT

During the 20th century, numbers both breeding and wintering increased in Britain. Construction of reservoirs and the increase in flooded gravel pits, together with the arrival of the Zebra Mussel, which has become an important food for this species, have contributed to its success, although this may be limited by predation from Brown Rats and American Mink. Freedom from recreational disturbance, especially from water sports during spring, is important to ensure breeding success. In Europe, the population is thought to be stable, although similar potential threats apply, foremost habitat degradation.

DISTRIBUTION Breeds widely in lowland England, Scotland and Wales, less common in Ireland. In winter, it is a little more widespread. Tufted Ducks breed in Iceland, central and northern Europe, and across Asia. Many move south in autumn to winter in southern Europe, parts of Africa and southern Asia.

Breeds around inland lakes, flooded gravel pits, reservoirs and slow-flowing rivers. Often lives close to built-up areas. Avoids deep water, unless there are also shallow bays and margins. In winter, gathers on larger waterbodies and occasionally on the sea.

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Scaup Aythya marila Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Stable Moderate decline 0–1 3,900 May–August 8–11; 1 brood 26–28; 40–45 days Average: 3; Oldest: 15 42–51cm; 1kg

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Mallard. Diving sea duck with a broad body, round head and large, wide bill with tiny black nail at tip. Male has black head and neck with greenish sheen. Sides of body and belly are white, back is finely barred dark grey and white, and the chest and tail are black. Female dark brown with variable white patch at base of bill and a pale buff crescent on edge of cheeks. Juvenile resembles female, but with a narrower white patch around the bill. Pale grey bill and golden eyes. In flight, it has broad white stripe running the length of the wings. It moults between September and November and is flightless for 3–4 weeks. In moult (eclipse), the male has a dull version of breeding plumage. A bulkier, heavier bird than Tufted Duck, with a round head and greyish female back. See also: Tufted Duck p41. summer

male female

FOOD

Chief food is shellfish, especially the Blue Mussel, which is obtained by diving. Other shellfish include cockles, periwinkles and the tiny marine snail called Hydrobia. Insects, crustaceans and plant material are also eaten.

BREEDING

Pairs form while in winter flocks or on breeding grounds. Nests singly or in colonies, and sometimes among colonies of gulls or terns for protection. Nest is on the ground near water and well concealed by low vegetation. Female incubates and male usually leaves at this time. Young sometimes mix with other families and remain with female until they can fly, sometimes longer.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Moult generally takes place on breeding grounds and the birds move south in August. A few males delay their moult until they reach their winter quarters. Moves to the coast for the winter and most undertake long-distance migrations. The largest numbers reach Britain and Ireland in late October and remain until February or March. Some immatures remain in their winter areas in summer.

male 1st-winter

female winter

CONSERVATION

male

HABITS

In Britain, usually seen in flocks. Ratio of males to females in flocks varies, from a preponderance of males in the north to a majority of females in the south. Some flocks can number hundreds or thousands. Generally swims rather low in water and dives frequently. Rarely on land.

VOICE

Generally silent. Male has a soft, dove-like call during courtship and female has a low growl.

HABITAT

Usually on the sea in winter. Visits sheltered coasts and bays, and may visit freshwater lakes near the sea. It occurs in smaller numbers on reservoirs and large freshwater lakes away from the coast, especially in winter. Elsewhere it is a species that breeds on or close to the Arctic tundra or in open northern forests.

The majority of Europe’s Scaup population is concentrated in relatively few areas in winter. This makes it susceptible to oil pollution, recreational disturbance and development, and there is a need for international cooperation to ensure important sites are protected. The European population is declining and is classified as Vulnerable. It faces a series of threats in winter from entanglement in fishing nets, over-harvesting of its shellfish prey, eutrophication and offshore windfarms to pollution.

DISTRIBUTION A few pairs spend summer in northern and western Britain and occasionally a pair will nest. Widespread in winter around the coasts of Britain and Ireland, with scattered records inland. It has a circumpolar range with breeding populations in Iceland, Fennoscandia, Russia and North America. In winter, it is found around the coast of north-west Europe, the northern shores of the Black Sea, the Caspian Sea, as well as off the coasts of North America and the Pacific coast of Asia.

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Eider Somateria mollissima Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

IDENTIFICATION

Amber Moderate decline Moderate decline 36,000 81,500 April–July 4–6; 1 brood 25–28; 65 days Average: 8; Oldest: 36 50–71cm; 2.1kg

male male 1stsummer female

male

female

Slightly larger than Mallard. Sea duck with a large body, short neck, large head and long wedgeshaped bill. Male white with black crown, flanks, belly and tail. Breast tinged pink and the sides of the head are lime green. Female brown with darker barring and mottling, distinctive long forehead. Juvenile resembles female. Young males take 4 years to acquire adult plumage; until then they have a variety of black-and-white patchy plumages. In flight, male shows large white wing-patches and female has a dark speculum bordered with thin white bars. Eiders moult between June and August. They are flightless for a few weeks from July to August. In moult, the male is blackish with white on the wing. See also: Shelduck p27, Long-tailed Duck p50.

HABITS

Sociable, often seen in groups in summer and forms larger flocks in winter. Looks heavy in flight, with drooping head and neck. Flocks frequently fly in lines low over the water. Dives with wings half open.

VOICE

Silent for most of the year but male throws its head back and makes a distinctive dove-like cooing, ar-oooo, when displaying.

HABITAT

A marine species that lives around rocky coasts. In spring, it requires suitable islands or low-lying land close to the sea for nesting. After breeding, birds often move to estuaries and other sheltered coasts rich in food.

FOOD

Eiders dive for food on the seabed. Chief prey is the Blue Mussel and other shellfish. It also eats periwinkles, crabs, starfish and sea urchins. Fish are sometimes eaten when they can be easily caught. Incubating females sometimes eat plant material, including berries.

BREEDING

Courtship starts in winter. Eider nests are often within colonies of Arctic Terns for protection. Nest is in a hollow near the sea, sheltered by rocks or vegetation, but may be in the open. It is lined with down from the female’s breast. Female seldom feeds during incubation. Male protects female prior

male eclipse

to egg-laying but generally leaves during incubation. Young swim and dive soon after hatching, and broods often join crèches tended by a few females. Young are usually independent before they can fly.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

British and Irish birds do not generally move far from their breeding grounds and there are several traditional gathering places for moulting birds. In autumn, migrants from the Baltic and the Netherlands arrive on the east coast of Britain.

CONSERVATION

It expanded its range during the 19th and 20th centuries and gradual expansion may continue. However, the UK winter population has fallen, and the breeding population is declining. Winter flocks are vulnerable to accidental and deliberate discharges of oil. Control of shipping in sensitive waters and rapid response in the case of accidents will safeguard this and other seabirds. Loss of feeding sites owing to commercial development of estuaries is also a concern, as is predation of nesting birds by animals such as foxes.

DISTRIBUTION Breeds in Scotland, parts of northern England and the north of Ireland. In winter, it spreads south as far as the south coast of England and is most numerous on the east coast. The species is found around the Arctic Circle with the nearest populations being in Iceland and Scandinavia. It winters as far south as northern France. Some young birds remain in their wintering sites for their first spring and summer.

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Velvet Scoter Melanitta fusca Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red – Uncertain – 3,350 – – – Oldest: 21 51–58cm; 1.5–1.7kg

female male

female (well marked)

female

IDENTIFICATION

Similar in size to Mallard and larger than Common Scoter. A sea duck, with a long bill rather like an Eider’s, a thick neck and pointed tail. Males have a small knob at the base of their bills. Both sexes have a white patch on the rear of the wing that shows in flight or when wing-flapping but is often hidden when swimming. The male is velvety black with small white patch under the eye. The female is brown with two pale patches on the head-sides. It moults during summer, with the male beginning before the female, and both sexes become flightless for 3–4 weeks. While moulting, the male is much duller. See also: Common Scoter p45, Eider p43. male

male 1st-winter

HABITS

The Velvet Scoter may be seen in small groups. Birds often cock their tails. They will often associate with flocks of Common Scoters. They sometimes feed in the rougher water close to rocks and islands, and dive without jumping and with wings partly opened.

VOICE

Generally rather quiet, but sometimes croaking or growling calls can be heard from flocks in winter.

HABITAT

In Britain and Ireland, it is found in marine habitats, either in rough seas on exposed coasts or more sheltered bays and inlets where there is a supply of food. It is very rarely found on inland waters. In the breeding season, it inhabits northern lakes, pools and rivers, often in wooded areas, sometimes near the coast.

FOOD

Dives to feed on shellfish, especially Blue Mussels, cockles and Dog Whelks. It also eats crabs, sea urchins, small fish, insect larvae and some plant material.

BREEDING

Although birds sometimes summer in British waters they have never been proved to breed in Britain or Ireland. Courtship takes place in flocks during winter. The female tends the young and the male leaves the nest site during incubation. Some females will look after young from a number of broods.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

There are some large gatherings of moulting birds in Russia and also off the Danish coast in September and October. Large numbers pass through the Baltic Sea in October and November, but the return migration is late, often peaking in Sweden in midMay. Most birds are present around British coasts between mid-September and May.

CONSERVATION

Listed as Vulnerable globally due to apparent population declines, the causes of which are unclear. The European population is thought to be stable, but it is a difficult species to census. Population declines in the Baltic Sea have coincided with heavy bycatch mortality in gillnet fisheries and there is hunting pressure too. The large concentrations of moulting birds in July and August, and in winter, also make birds susceptible to pollution incidents. Important moulting and wintering sites need to be protected from damaging pollution and intensive fishing.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain, mainly a winter visitor to the east coast – especially Scotland, Norfolk and north-east England. Smaller numbers are seen on migration on the south coast. Largest numbers concentrate in a few relatively small areas, especially off the Danish coast. In spring, most return to breed in northern Europe or northern Russia. A small number still breed in Turkey. Also found in North America and northern Asia. All move to coastal areas for the winter.

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Common Scoter Melanitta nigra Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Strong decline Strong decline 52 134,000 June–August 6–8; 1 brood 30; 45 days Oldest: 16 44–54cm; 945g–1kg

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Mallard. Deep-bellied all-dark sea duck with a pointed tail. Male all black with narrow yellow patch on top of the bill. Female dark brown with darker crown and pale patch on cheeks and upper neck. Juvenile and female are similar. In flight, wings are plain with no obvious marks, only flight feathers look a little paler. Moults between July and October with males beginning first and females later. Flightless for 3–4 weeks. In moult, male becomes a little duller with browner underparts. See also: Velvet Scoter p44.

male

female

BREEDING

Pairs start to form in winter flocks. They move to their breeding grounds where male defends female until incubation and then deserts. Nest is a hollow lined with grass, moss and down. The preferred site is concealed in vegetation on the margin of a lake or on an island. Young can swim and feed themselves soon after hatching and some broods merge together.

male

male 1st-winter

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

HABITS

A few Common Scoters overwinter in ice-free waters near where they breed. Most migrate. The first movement is away from the breeding grounds to traditional sites where flocks congregate to moult. Flocks gather around the British and Irish coast, and larger concentrations of northern European birds gather off the coast of Denmark. Some remain in the moulting area all winter, while other populations migrate further south or west.

VOICE

The small breeding population is in a precarious state. Ongoing research aims to understand what the species needs most and to test methods to improve habitat quality for nesting scoters. Like other marine species that winter in flocks, there is a real possibility that large numbers could be affected by an oil spillage, although these are rare. Disturbance at feeding grounds by boat traffic may be a problem.

female

Large flocks of moulting birds gather in late summer. Also seen in flocks in winter, and smaller groups may remain in their winter quarters during summer. Swims buoyantly, often with tail slightly cocked, and dives with a small forward jump. Flocks appear restless with birds often standing on their tails and exercising their wings. Flies frequently and often forms long, straggling dark lines low over the water. Limited range of calls can be heard while birds are in flocks, especially during courtship, the most frequent being whistling and piping.

HABITAT

Breeds close to small moorland lochs or on islands in larger lochs. Scoter prefer lakes with abundant shallow water and large freshwater invertebrates. Winters close inshore around Britain and Ireland. Infrequently seen inland on reservoirs and lakes outside the breeding season.

FOOD

Food in winter is molluscs, especially the Blue Mussel, which it finds by diving. Also eats cockles, clams and other shellfish, crabs, insects, small fish and plant material. Invertebrates form an important part of the diet in the breeding season with molluscs and seeds.

CONSERVATION

DISTRIBUTION Small numbers breed in Ireland and northern Scotland. Larger numbers winter around British and Irish coasts, especially in Wales and the north-east coast of Scotland. The Common Scoter also breeds in northern Europe and northern Russia. It winters along the west coast of Europe and North Africa.

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Smew Mergellus albellus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber – Stable – 125 – – – Oldest: 10 38–44cm; 557–708g

IDENTIFICATION

Little larger than a Teal. Small, compact diving duck with a steep forehead and a delicate toothed ‘sawbill’. Male is striking, white with a black mask, black back, fine black lines on the sides of the breast and faintly barred grey flanks. Crest on the crown is raised during display. Female is smaller, mottled grey, with a smart reddish-brown head and sharply contrasting white cheeks and throat. Both sexes have black-and-white wings in flight, more obvious on male. Juvenile resembles female, but with less obvious white wing-patches. See also: Goldeneye p47, Goosander p49.

male

female

FOOD

In winter, the staple food is small fish, taking a wide variety of freshwater and sea fish. In summer, it mainly feeds on insects and their larvae.

BREEDING

Does not breed in Britain or Ireland. Pairs sometimes display in winter, before they return further north to nest. Nests in holes in trees, especially in the nest-holes made by Black Woodpeckers. Like most other male ducks, Smew abandon their mates during incubation. female

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

male

Autumn migration begins in September when Smews start to leave their breeding grounds. They pass through the Baltic countries during October and November and the main arrival in the North Sea countries does not take place until December or January, following cold weather further east. Some continue across the North Sea to Britain to escape freezing weather. Females and juveniles travel further south-west than the males, many of which remain in northern Germany. Return migration gets underway in March and it reaches its breeding grounds in May or early June.

CONSERVATION

HABITS

Where common, it is sociable and may be seen in small, and occasionally large, flocks. In Britain and Ireland, generally arrives singly or in very small groups. Swims buoyantly and dives frequently and quickly. Tends to be rather shy and takes off easily from water, manoeuvring in limited space. In the air, it has rapid wingbeats. Tends not to mix with other ducks, except Goldeneyes on occasion, although when fishing often attracts a following of gulls, eager to steal a quick meal.

VOICE

Generally silent. The only calls are those associated with courtship or when alarmed. The most frequent calls have been variously described as creaking, grunting and rattling.

HABITAT

In winter, in Britain and Ireland it uses inland lakes, reservoirs and rivers, and sometimes quite small areas of water. It will also visit shallow, sheltered coastal waters and estuaries. Its breeding grounds are in northern wet forests.

Populations declined in Europe throughout the 19th and 20th centuries due, it seems, to habitat degradation and loss, among other factors, although the population is now thought to be increasing. Population trends and ecology are relatively poorly known. Conservation efforts need to focus on the breeding sites and protection during migration and in winter.

DISTRIBUTION Small numbers visit Britain and Ireland, mainly in central and south-east England. On occasion, larger influxes occur, driven by cold winter weather on the continent. Smew breed in small numbers in Norway and Sweden; but most nest in northern and eastern Siberia. A few spend winter as far south as the Mediterranean. The largest winter concentrations are along the coast and large rivers of the Netherlands, Denmark and Germany.

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Goldeneye Bucephala clangula Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Stable Strong decline 200 18,500 April–June 8–11; 1 brood 29; 57 days Average: 6; Oldest: 16 42–50cm; 710–990g

BREEDING

Pairs start to form in winter flocks. Nests in a hole in a tree several metres off the ground. There is little nesting material except for down from the female’s breast. At first male is territorial, but he deserts female during incubation. At a day old, the young jump from their nest and female takes them to a rearing area, often some way from the nest site, where they swim and dive and feed themselves. They are independent before they can fly. male

female

IDENTIFICATION

male Smaller than Mallard. female 1st-winter 1st-winter Medium-sized diving duck with large domed head and small triangular bill. Male appears black and white, with greenishblack head, and circular white patch in front of yellow eye. The back and tail are male black; breast, underparts and flanks are white. White stripes female along the sides of the back. In flight, male shows black wing-tips and large area of white on the inner wing. The smaller female is mottled grey, with a chocolate-brown head, square white wing-patch and white collar. MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS Immature female resembles adult but lacks a white Males move away from their breeding sites while collar. Young males develop their dark head during the females incubate. In autumn, additional birds their first winter. Moults between July and Septem- arrive from Scandinavia and northern Europe and ber and is flightless for 3–4 weeks. Male moults breeding birds move to the coast or lowland waters, 3 weeks before female. At this time, he resembles returning to breeding sites in February or March. female but has a darker head. See also: Smew p46, CONSERVATION Goosander p49. First nested in Scotland in 1970. Since then birds HABITS have been attracted to specially designed nest Usually in small groups and sometimes forms boxes erected close to lakes and rivers. It appears larger flocks in winter. Adult males may be in a there are limited natural nest-holes in Scottish minority in these flocks. Frequently dives. In flight, forests, perhaps because of the lack of mature fast wingbeats produce a loud, distinctive whistling trees, or perhaps the lack of nest-holes made by sound. Courtship displays are frequent in winter as Black Woodpeckers that are used by Goldeneyes males throw their glossy heads back and display elsewhere in Europe. Provision of more nest boxes their white breasts. could help this species.

VOICE

Usually silent unless displaying. Loud zeee-ZEEE and quieter rrrrrrrr usually accompany displays of male.

HABITAT

Breeds in forests close to lakes and rivers. Outside the breeding season, it visits inland lakes and reservoirs, and also the sea, especially sheltered bays and estuaries.

FOOD

Feeds on a variety of food, some of which it finds by turning over stones underwater, including freshwater mussels, insect larvae such as stonefly, caddis fly and mayfly, small fish and plant material such as pondweed. In marine habitats, it feeds on shrimps, small crabs, Blue Mussels, cockles, periwinkles, small fish and plants.

DISTRIBUTION Breeds in the Highlands of Scotland and a few non-breeding birds summer farther south in England, Wales and Ireland. In winter, it visits lakes, large rivers and sheltered coasts, and is most numerous in the north and east of Britain. Goldeneyes breed in northern Europe, across Asia and North America. All move south of their breeding areas for the winter.

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Red-breasted Merganser Mergus serrator Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Moderate increase Moderate decline 1,550 10,500 April–July 8–10; 1 brood 31; 60–65 days Oldest: 21 52–58cm; 941g–1.2kg

IDENTIFICATION

Size of Mallard. Long-bodied diving duck belonging to a group known as ‘sawbills’. Smaller and thinner necked than Goosander with a wispy crest and long, very thin, red bill. Male has dark green head, white collar, grey-and-white body and spotted chestnut breast. Female grey with reddish-brown head that merges with pale throat and grey neck. Juvenile resembles dark female with shorter crest. In flight, male shows white wing-patches with two dark bars. Female has smaller patch with one dark bar. Mergansers moult between mid-July and September, with males moulting a month before females. During moult, both sexes are flightless for a month, and male resembles female, but retains more white on wings. See also: Goosander p49, Great Crested Grebe p68, Smew p46. male 1st-summer

male female

FOOD

Feeds on a wide variety of small freshwater and coastal fish. It also eats small crabs, shrimps, prawns and aquatic insects and plant materials. Newly hatched ducklings feed mainly on insects.

BREEDING

In winter, makes bowing and stretching courtship displays as pairs begin to form. Nests on the ground close to water, usually among tree roots or bushes, or in a crevice in a bank, or between rocks. Nest is a depression with some local material and lined with down. Male deserts female during incubation and she incubates alone. Young are covered with down and leave the nest soon after hatching. They feed themselves and are cared for by female, some broods joining together. Female frequently leaves before young are full-grown and a single female or ‘auntie’ often cares for a crèche of young. They then leave the area, moving to feed in shallow tidal waters.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

British breeding birds are mainly resident. Some Red-breasted Mergansers from further north migrate and reach Britain and Ireland in late autumn, male remaining until March. Some immature birds remain for longer.

CONSERVATION

female

Breeding increased in Scotland between 1885 and 1930. In the 1950s, it started to colonise northern England and first nested in Wales in 1953. Its diet of fish has brought the species into conflict with angling and sport fishing. Many birds are killed, both legally and illegally, to protect fish stocks, although there is no evidence that the species has seriously reduced fish populations. It is also vulnerable to oil pollution and to the siting of windfarms in shallow coastal waters.

DISTRIBUTION HABITS

Swims low in the water and regularly dips its head below the surface when looking for food. Dives frequently. Often seen in small, single-sex groups, but larger flocks may form in winter. Elegant in flight, looks long-bodied and long-necked.

VOICE

Breeds in Scotland, especially western and central Scotland and the Highlands and islands, north-west England, northwest Wales and the west of Ireland. It also breeds in northern Europe, Asia and North America.

Usually silent, but makes rough croaking or rasping sounds, especially when displaying and nesting.

HABITAT

Breeds near lakes, slow-flowing rivers and sheltered bays and inlets on the coast. Favours areas with woodlands or other cover. Usually seen on the sea in winter, but occasionally on inland lakes and rivers.

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Goosander Mergus merganser Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Moderate increase Stable 4,800 14,500 May–July 8–11; 1 brood 30–32; 60 days Average: 7; Oldest: 14 58–66cm; 1.7kg

IDENTIFICATION

Larger than Mallard and larger than similar Redbreasted Merganser. Large-headed, long-bodied, thick-necked diving duck with a long, slender, hooktipped red bill. Male has a white body, flushed pink in winter, black back and dark green head. Female has grey body, reddish-brown head (darker than female Red-breasted Merganser) with bulbous, drooping crest, an obvious white throat, brown neck and grey breast. Juvenile resembles dull male female. In flight, male looks black and white, with black-and-white wings, while female has smaller, squarer white wing-patches. Moult takes place between July and September and both sexes are flightless for about a month. In moult, male male resembles 1st-summer female with larger white wing-patches. See also: Redbreasted Merganser p48, Great Crested Grebe p68, Smew p46.

HABITS

Swims low in the water. When searching for food repeatedly dips its head underwater as it swims and dives frequently. Outside the breeding season often found in small groups; larger flocks form in winter. In flight, it looks long-bodied and often flies close to the water. Sometimes a pair, or group, of Goosanders fish cooperatively by swimming in line to drive fish forward.

VOICE

Mostly silent. Some soft calls during courtship and occasional ‘growls’ when disturbed.

HABITAT

Breeds in upland and hilly areas with lakes and slower-flowing rivers, usually close to forest. Outside the breeding season mostly seen on freshwater lakes, old gravel workings, reservoirs and, less frequently, estuaries and sheltered sea inlets.

FOOD

Feeds on a wide range of small freshwater and coastal fishes. Also eats small mammals and insects. When small, Goosander ducklings feed mainly on insects.

male

female

BREEDING

Courtship starts in winter when males may be seen bowing and stretching. Nests in holes in trees, broken-off tree stumps and also suitable nest boxes. Will also nest on the ground, in rock crevices or under buildings. Nest is mainly made with duck down. Female alone incubates. Young leave the nest after a day or two and those in trees jump to the ground. Newly hatched ducklings are covered in down and feed themselves. Some ducklings ride on their mother’s back. Sometimes several families join together.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Apart from a moult migration to Norway by some males, British breeding Goosanders live year-round in Britain. Others from north-east Europe and Russia reach Britain in November or December and remain for the winter. They return northwards in March. female

CONSERVATION

First nested in Scotland in 1871 and England in 1941. It has since continued its southward colonisation. Its diet of fish and its recent population increase has brought it into conflict with angling and sport fishing interests. Numbers of licences allowing the killing of Goosanders to protect fish stocks have increased, although there is no evidence that the species has seriously reduced fish populations.

DISTRIBUTION Breeds in Scotland, northern England, Wales and a few farther south. In winter, found on large inland lakes and reservoirs and some lowland rivers in Britain especially in the north. Rare in Ireland. The species breeds around the Arctic Circle – in Europe, Asia and North America – and some winter as far south as the Black and Adriatic Seas.

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Long-tailed Duck Clangula hyemalis Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red – Strong decline – 13,500 – – – Oldest: 22 40–47cm; 685–798g

female

male

female winter

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Mallard, but 13cm tail on some males. Small, neat sea duck with a small, round head, steep forehead, all-dark wings in flight and white belly. In winter, male is mainly white with brown ‘Y’ mark on its back in flight, brown breast-band and a large dark cheekpatch. In summer, has a streaked brown back, dark head and neck and a pale greyish-white cheek-patch. Female in winter shows a white collar, white face, dark lower cheeks and dark crown. She has a warmer brown breast-band. In summer, female’s face is darker. Females have short tails. Juvenile is like summer female, but with a less contrasting face pattern. Moults between July and September, and birds are flightless for a few weeks. It has a unique moult as some back feathers are moulted four times a year and some head and neck feathers three times. See also: Pintail p34, Eider p43.

male winter

BREEDING

Long-tailed Ducks begin to display in their winter flocks and some pairs form. It does not breed in the British Isles. In spring, the birds wait along the northern coasts of Scandinavia until there is a thaw and they can move to their nesting areas in the tundra. Nests in colonies often spread out over a large area.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

In parts of its range, males travel up to 1,000km to moult. Elsewhere, it moults closer to the breeding areas. After moulting, some move south while others remain in ice-free waters close to breeding grounds.

HABITS

male 1st-autumn

Swims high in the water and dives easily with a small jump and wings partly open. Usually in flocks, except in the breeding season. Flocks may comprise several hundred birds, often in rough water. Birds chase each other in small parties and splash-land after a short flight. Flies frequently and often travels close to the water, tipping its body from side to side.

VOICE

Compared with other sea ducks the Long-tailed is quite noisy, with the yodelling calls of the males being made throughout the year and at any time of day or night. Female makes a low quacking.

HABITAT

Winters on the sea, some distance from the shore, and only occasionally visits inland lakes and reservoirs. Breeds on freshwater pools, lakes and rivers mainly within the Arctic Circle.

CONSERVATION

This species has been listed as Vulnerable globally because of an apparently severe decline in the wintering population in the Baltic Sea between the early 1990s and late 2000s. This is linked to heavy accidental bycatch mortality in gillnet fisheries. Protection of large concentrations of these ducks at their major wintering sites is a conservation priority.

DISTRIBUTION Mostly a winter visitor to British and Irish coasts, especially northern Scotland, Shetland and Orkney. A few non-breeding individuals remain in British waters for the summer. Breeds in northern Europe, Asia and North America, mostly north of the Arctic Circle.

FOOD

Dives for crustaceans and molluscs, especially Blue Mussels, cockles, clams and crabs. Also eats sandhoppers, small fish and some plant material.

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Pheasant Phasianus colchicus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Introduction Strong increase – 2,300,000 – March–June 10–14; 1 brood 23–28; 12 days Oldest: 7 53–89cm; 0.5–2kg

female

male juvenile female

IDENTIFICATION

Large gamebird with a rather long neck, small head and long tail. Male brilliantly coloured, with iridescent, copper-coloured body marked with dark scallops on breast and flanks, metallic green head and neck, red face and small ear-tufts. The very long ginger tail is crossed with dark bars. Interbreeding of different races has produced a variety of plumage colours. Some have an obvious white neck-ring, others are dark bottle green. Smaller female is brownish-yellow with dark flecks on upperparts and flanks and long tail. Juvenile is similar to female with less regular patterned plumage and shorter tail. Pheasants start their annual moult in June and males appear rather scruffy for about 3 months. See also: Grey Partridge p56.

male

HABITS

At home on the ground but often roosts in trees or bushes at night. If disturbed runs from danger or sits tight before suddenly bursting out of cover and rising steeply with a whirr of wings. In flight, beats its wings rapidly and then glides with wings bowed. In places where it is not hunted may become rather tame, but elsewhere skulking and secretive. Pheasants spend much of the year in flocks or small groups.

VOICE

Most usual crowing call is a far-carrying, resonant kor-ork, -ok -ok often accompanied by energetic and noisy wing-flapping. This call is often heard at dusk, or in response to sudden loud noises, such as gunshots or thunder.

HABITAT

Found in woodland edges, copses, close to thick hedges, also in more open country where there are reed-filled ditches and scrub.

FOOD

Takes a wide variety of foods including grain and other seeds such as acorns, and also berries and fruits of blackberry, hawthorn and many other shrubs. Eats leaves and roots of daisies and other related plants, and insects in summer, especially ants and beetles.

BREEDING

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Introduced resident in Britain and Ireland and nonmigratory throughout its range.

CONSERVATION

A non-native species in western Europe, it was introduced to Britain by the Normans and was introduced into Scotland and Ireland in the 16th century. The current population is supported and supplemented artificially in many areas. Birds are reared by gamekeepers and released for shooting. Grain put out for pheasants often benefits wild birds, and the retention of woodland for pheasant shooting may also benefit other bird species. However, large populations may also encourage foxes and crows, as well as some birds of prey, and negatively impact scarce invertebrates and plants.

DISTRIBUTION Found in suitable habitat throughout Britain and Ireland, except the north-west of Scotland. Truly wild Pheasants breed in southeast Russia and Asia. They have been introduced to Europe, North America and New Zealand.

The cock Pheasant often has a harem of two or more females. Usual nest site is on the ground among vegetation, but some are off the ground on, for example, a straw bale. Incubation is by the female. Male has little to do with the young. Chicks are brooded by the female and can feed themselves. They are not fully independent until 70–80 days old but can lift themselves off the ground in flight before this if danger threatens.

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Black Grouse Lyrurus tetrix Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (males) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Strong decline – 4,850 – April–June 6–11; 1 brood 25; 10+ days Oldest: 12 40–55cm; 954g–1.3kg

male

female

male displaying

IDENTIFICATION

Larger than Red Grouse. Male is glossy black with a red wattle above the eye, white wing-bar and a black, lyre-shaped tail with white undertail feathers used in display. Female is smaller, grey-brown with darker freckles and bars, pale wing-bar and a slightly forked tail. Male and female show white under the wings in flight. Females show a thin, pale wing-bar on the upperwing. Juvenile looks like a small and pale female. Black Grouse moult in late summer when males become duller for a short time. See also: Red Grouse p54, Capercaillie p53.

HABITS

BREEDING

Nesting begins in April. After displaying and mating, male has nothing to do with the family. Female makes shallow scrape on the ground that she lines with grass and moss. Female incubates alone. Newly hatched young are mostly able to feed themselves while being tended by the female. Young are not fully independent for about 3 months.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

In Britain, highly resident, with birds spending entire lifetimes in just 1 or 2 square kilometres. Elsewhere, some Black Grouse move considerable distances. This appears to be triggered by population increases rather than cold weather.

Feeds mainly on the ground. Spectacular communal displays at dawn and dusk take place at traditional sites known as ‘leks’, used throughout the year, but especially in spring and also autumn mornings. Males strut and posture to each other at leks, trying to establish dominance, female all the time making a farcarrying bubbling song and harsh, scolding sounds. Females are attracted to leks and mating takes place close by. In winter, gathers in flocks male during the day and roosts in groups at night, often in long heather. In some areas, may roost in trees.

VOICE

Mostly silent except around the lek. Male has loud far-carrying pigeon-like cook-roo. Female has loud cackle or kok, kok flight call.

HABITAT

Its home is the uplands, around the edges of moors and hill farms. In some areas, found in young forestry plantations. Also found around the edges of pine forests.

CONSERVATION

There has been a huge decline in the number of Black Grouse in Britain over the last 100 years. It has declined throughout Europe, due to ploughing or draining traditional meadows, overgrazing by sheep and deer, and as a result of changes in agriculture and in forest management. Wire fences, erected to keep deer out of plantations, have caused casualties and increasing numbers of crows and foxes may be adding to the decline. Removing or marking fences, reducing numbers of deer and sheep, improving forest management and more sympathetic farmland management may all help them to recover.

DISTRIBUTION Lives in the uplands of the north and west: in Wales, the north Pennines and in Scotland. The species is also found from the Arctic to the Alps and east across Asia.

FOOD

Mainly vegetarian, feeding on bilberry, heather shoots, cotton grass buds, annual meadow plants, birch catkins and buds and juniper berries. Females eat flowering tips of cotton grass prior to egg-laying. Will also feed on spilt oat grains and search for seeds in hay fields. In winter, often feeds in trees and shrubs, eating berries, leaves and shoots. Chicks eat insects for the first 2 weeks, especially sawfly larvae and caterpillars.

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Capercaillie Tetrao urogallus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red – Strong decline – 1,100 April–July 7–11; 1 brood 25; 14+ days Oldest: 9 60–87cm; 1.8–3.9kg

IDENTIFICATION

A huge magnificent grouse with broad wings and tail. The male is turkey-like, glossy black with dark brown wings, white marks on the belly and under the tail and bold white shoulder-patches. Red wattle over the eye and large, pale decurved bill. Long, broad tail raised and fanned when bird is displaying to intruders, including humans. Female is smaller, brown, heavily barred black, with a reddish patch on the breast and paler underparts. Juvenile resembles female. See also: Black Grouse p52.

HABITS

Seen singly and in groups. Despite its size it can be elusive, often perching quietly in pine trees or on the forest floor. Males gather in displaying groups called ‘leks’ at dawn in spring to attract females. They are aggressive towards rivals and sparring and fighting is common. Many females may be attracted to a lek, at which larger males are generally dominant and mate with the most females. Flight is like other gamebirds, but large size immediately apparent, a succession of rapid flaps followed by a glide on downcurved wings. Long neck is stretched out in flight.

with the family. Female incubates. Young quickly leave the nest and are able to feed themselves. They are capable of flight to escape danger when still small. At 2–3 months they are fully grown and become independent of their mother.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Not a migrant in Britain, although some young birds may wander from their breeding sites.

CONSERVATION

Extinct in Britain and Ireland by 1785, the Capercaillie was reintroduced into Scotland in the 19th century. For a time it prospered, but since 1970 its range and numbers have fallen. It survives only in well-managed woodlands where there is reduced grazing from deer and mixed-age Scots pines. Declines linked to several factors. Prolonged cool weather in spring prevents females from getting into breeding condition, while increasingly wet summers chill the vulnerable chicks as they struggle to find enough food. In addition, they suffer from collisions with deer fencing in forestry, from human disturbance, and predation. Concerted and urgent effort is needed to protect and restore their male habitat if we are to prevent another extinction.

female male

VOICE

At the lek the males have a remarkable mesmerising song that is a series of double ‘clicks’ and ends in a loud ‘pop’, likened to a cork coming out of a bottle!

female

HABITAT

Found in the remaining tracts of ancient Caledonian pine forest and a few other Scottish forests that are well managed, where there are mature trees and open clearings, resulting in the pine regenerating naturally and a rich and varied ground cover. In Europe, some live in deciduous or mixed woods.

FOOD

Mainly vegetarian. Usually feeds on the ground, but also in trees, especially in winter. Eats needles, buds and small cones from the Scots pine, other conifers and from juniper. Also eats berries such as bilberry. Chicks feed on insects when small.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain, found only in the Highlands of Scotland, particularly in the eastern Highlands. In mainland Europe, breeds in northern and eastern forests and in mountain ranges farther south. Also found in Russia.

BREEDING

Makes a shallow scrape on the ground, lined with grass and pine needles, usually among dense cover and often at the foot of a tree. Mating takes place at the lek and males have nothing further to do

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Red Grouse Lagopus lagopus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Stable – 265,000 – April–June 6–9; 1 brood 19+; 12 days Oldest: 8 37–42cm; 586–680g

IDENTIFICATION

Larger than Grey Partridge. Plump with a small head, slightly hook-tipped bill and short black tail. Often appears hunched up, but neck is extended when the bird is alert. Adult has reddish-brown, mottled plumage with a white stripe on underwing. Male has a bright red wattle above the eye and redder plumage than female, although it becomes paler in summer. The legs and feet are covered in short off-white feathers. Moult begins in June with the primary flight feathers. Most of the other feathers are moulted between August and November. See also: Black Grouse p52, Ptarmigan p55.

male

BREEDING

Male displays by calling, puffing out feathers, drooping wings, holding tail stiffly above his back and moving with a stiff walk. He also rises almost vertically and then, calling, drifts down on deeply curved wings. Eggs are laid in a hollow that is scraped by the female among thick heather or soft rush. Female incubates, but male is never far away. Young are active soon after hatching and feed themselves. They are capable of flight before they are fully grown. They remain with their family for 6–8 weeks.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Resident in Britain and Ireland. In their lifetime, males may travel no further than 1.5km and females up to 8km. Snowy weather can force it from the hills and down to nearby farmland to feed.

CONSERVATION

female

HABITS

Alternates between fast whirring wingbeats and glides on bowed, square-ended wings. Territorial when nesting, but forms family parties from July, and families may join larger packs in autumn.

VOICE

Crowing call is a loud, gruff ‘go-back, back, back’. When disturbed, makes a sharp kwok, kok-ok, ok.

HABITAT

Requires extensive heather moorland away from trees, but also inhabits areas of upland bog, rough grazing and even some coastal heaths. In other parts of Europe, lives among dwarf willow and other low-growing plants.

male

During the 20th century the population fell and there may be only half the number of Red Grouse as in the 1920s. In some areas, populations fluctuate in cycles caused by a parasitic worm and by competition as densities increase. In others, louping ill, a viral disease is a major cause of chick mortality. Much of the heather moorland on which the species was dependent has been lost through habitat conversion, overgrazing and afforestation. The highest densities of Red Grouse are now found where labour-intensive gamekeeping occurs, often associated with heather burning, medication of birds and predator control.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain, lives in the uplands of the north and west, with a smaller fragmented population in Ireland. The closely related race, the Willow Grouse, occurs across northern Europe, Asia and North America.

FOOD

Feeds mainly on the ground but also in trees in winter. Food is mostly vegetable matter, especially heather shoots, but also eats invertebrates, such as crane flies. Small young feed on insects, including click beetles, crane flies, sawfly larvae and other small flies, as well as heather and other moorland plants.

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Ptarmigan Lagopus muta Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Uncertain – 8,500 – May–August 5–8; 1 brood 21; 10+ days Oldest: 6 34–36cm; 449g

female autumn

male autumn

male summer

female summer

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Red Grouse but similar in shape. Beautifully camouflaged and rather dove-like on the ground. In summer, male is closely barred grey, brown and black with a white belly and wings. In autumn, dark parts become grey and in winter it becomes totally white, except for the tail and eyepatch, which remain black throughout the year. A red wattle above the eye is enlarged when breeding. Female has similar plumage to male, but is generally browner in summer, darker in autumn and lacks a black eye-patch in winter. Juvenile has grey-brown tail and brown wings. See also: Red Grouse p54.

HABITS

More likely to be heard than seen, but often very tame. When disturbed, more inclined to crouch and rely on camouflage than to fly away. Usually in pairs during the breeding season. Family parties form in summer and it lives in flocks until March when territories are established with a songflight. Chooses hollows in snow for roosting at night, even in summer.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Ptarmigan are highly sedentary. Severe winter weather sometimes forces the birds down from the highest ground, but they will also move to higher ridges where the wind blows the snow away.

CONSERVATION

In the last 100 years, Ptarmigan have disappeared from hills in southern Scotland and the Western Isles, but the numbers in the remaining core areas appear stable but are poorly known. Sheep have grazed out areas of bilberry and heather leaving Ptarmigan with less food. There are also deaths from birds hitting wires associated with ski developments. Finally, climate warming threatens the relatively few areas of montane habitat in Britain and numbers are predicted to shrink in size. male summer female winter

VOICE

Call of female is a high-pitched cooing. Male has series of loud and rapid clicks. Call is a harsh croak and rasping noises, and its alarm is a grating sound.

HABITAT

Found in the highest mountains in Scotland, rarely below 1,000m, where there is little vegetation, scattered boulders and bare rock, and where the snow lies longest in summer. Often to be found among the boulders, crags and scree that break up this barren landscape. Outside Scotland it is associated with Arctic or Alpine conditions, and in the far north it lives at lower altitudes, even at sea level.

FOOD

Plant shoots, berries, leaves and seeds, including heather, bilberry and crowberry. Uses its feet to dig in the snow to find food. Young eat insects.

male winter male winter

DISTRIBUTION In Britain, found only in the highest mountains in the Highlands of Scotland. Found widely in Arctic regions of Europe, Asia and North America and also in the Alps and Pyrenees.

BREEDING

Both birds make several shallow scrapes before one is lined with a small amount of vegetation. A bush or boulder usually shelters the nest. Female incubates. Newly hatched young leave the nest quickly and are able to feed themselves. They are tended by both adults and brooded by the female. Flight feathers grow quickly, young can take to the air before they become independent at 10–12 weeks.

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Grey Partridge Perdix perdix Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Strong decline – 37,000 – April–June 13–16; 1 brood 24; 15 days Average: 3; Oldest: 5 29–31cm; 310–600g

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Pheasant and slightly smaller than Red-legged Partridge. Plump with a small head and short legs. Camouflaged, with brown and grey streaked plumage, chestnut bars on flanks and grey breast. Face is orange and has dark brown horseshoe mark on belly. Female smaller with less obvious horseshoe mark. In flight, shows a reddish tail. Juvenile lacks the marks of the adult and is streaked like a young Pheasant. Moults between June and October, with the female beginning when the eggs hatch. See also: Red-legged Partridge p57, Quail p58, Pheasant p51.

male

juvenile

FOOD

Mainly leaves and seeds of plants such as knotgrass, and chickweed. Also, insects, especially caterpillars and other larvae. Young Grey Partridges feed on a range of invertebrates, including aphids, sawflies, ant larvae, weevils and beetles.

BREEDING

Nests on the ground, under cover of a thick hedge or among dense vegetation. Female makes shallow depression lined with grass and leaves. Occasionally two females use the same nest. It has been known for an individual to lay up to 29 eggs. Incubation is by the female. The young leave the nest quickly and mostly feed themselves. Young are fully grown by about 100 days but can fly to escape danger before this. Juveniles stay with parents for first winter.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

male female

Resident and seldom moves more than a few kilometres from where it hatched. In parts of eastern Europe, some populations are migratory.

CONSERVATION

HABITS

For most of the year 6–15 individuals form flocks called ‘coveys’ and split into pairs in late winter. Most active at dawn and dusk. When feeding or resting appears hunched up. If disturbed, it is reluctant to fly and will often crouch, protected by camouflage. In flight, wingbeats are rapid and whirring, followed by a glide on bowed wings, but it seldom flies far.

VOICE

Grating mechanical kerr-ick given during day or night, and especially around dawn and dusk. Kip-ip-ip flight call if disturbed.

HABITAT

A bird of steppe with open grassland that has adapted to live on farmland. Prefers open areas of low tussock grass with dense cover for nesting and dry areas for dust bathing. Most numerous where there is both pasture and cereal fields with thick hedges. Benefits from uncultivated areas, wide (unsprayed) field margins, spring cropping and stubble fields in winter. Mostly in lowland areas but also on hill farms in the Pennines and Scotland.

Once widespread in Britain, the decline during the 20th century has been remarkable. The cause is linked to changes in farm management and policy. Loss of wide field margins and sheltering hedgerows giving cover for nests, autumn cereal sowing that eliminates winter stubble, insecticides that reduce food and herbicides that control weeds, are all affecting its survival. The increase in generalist ground predators, such as foxes, probably exacerbates the problem. Possible solutions include support for farmers who make special efforts to retain partridges, including leaving wider unsprayed field margins, creating beetle banks, and conservation headlands and careful hedgerow management.

DISTRIBUTION Breeds in lowland Britain and at only a few sites in Ireland. Most numerous in central and eastern England and south-east Scotland. Also found in central and southern Europe, parts of Russia and has been introduced into North America.

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Red-legged Partridge Alectoris rufa Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Introduction Moderate decline – 72,500 – April–July 10–16; 1–2 broods 23; 10+ days Oldest: 6 32–34cm; 391–547g

IDENTIFICATION

Slightly larger than Grey Partridge and smaller than Pheasant. This boldly marked gamebird has plain grey-brown upperparts and striped black, white and chestnut flanks and a white chin and throat bordered with black, with black spotting spreading like a necklace on bluish breast. Feet and bill are red. Female is smaller than male. Juvenile lacks bold head markings of the adult but has more stripes on face and spots on neck than Grey Partridge. It flies with a whirr of wings followed by a glide on downcurved wings, when the red tail is usually obvious. See also: Quail p58, Grey Partridge p56.

juvenile

BREEDING

The male makes several shallow scrapes on the ground and the female chooses one. Many pairs produce a second clutch that is incubated simultaneously by the male. Young are able to fly from danger before fully grown at 50–60 days. If one clutch is laid both parents tend the family and if there are two clutches each parent leads their own brood, although eventually families will join to form a covey. Young stay with their family throughout their first winter.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

The introduced British population is resident. Most individuals seldom move more than a few kilometres from where they hatched.

HABITS

Often more obvious and approachable than the Grey Partridge. More active during the day and tends to walk away or scatter when disturbed. Males frequently perch on vantage points in their territories, such as straw bales, posts or even a barn roof. Like Grey Partridge, generally seen in groups or ‘coveys’. Some of these coveys can be quite large – up to 40 or more – where the species is common.

VOICE

Can be quite noisy, with the adults giving a loud chuffing chuck-chukka-chuff.

HABITAT

This species does well on large modern open fields, especially on sandy, or light soils, in eastern Britain, and may sometimes be found in open woodland near fields, or on newly dug sand and gravel workings, sometimes close to habitation.

CONSERVATION

Deliberately introduced into Britain as a gamebird in 1673 and the species is still commonly reared in captivity and released for shooting. Since the 1930s it has increased, as the Grey Partridge has declined, and there is new evidence that the introduction of the Red-legged on some shooting estates has led to the local extinction of the Grey Partridge.

DISTRIBUTION It is mainly found in eastern England but also breeds farther west, with small numbers in Scotland, Wales and a few in Ireland. Its traditional home is southern France, the Iberian Peninsula, northern Italy and some Mediterranean islands.

FOOD

It feeds on seeds, leaves and roots of a wide variety of plants that grow in and around agricultural land, also larger seeds such as beechmast. A few insects are also eaten, especially by chicks.

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Quail Coturnix coturnix Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (males) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

VOICE

Amber Moderate decline – 375 – May–August 8–13; 1–2 broods 17–21; 18 days Oldest: 14 16–18cm; 106g

Whip, whip-whip (said to sound like ‘Wet my lips’) is the most commonly heard call. It is repeated up to eight times at a burst, repeated at intervals. The song may be heard at any time of day or night in spring, but especially around dawn and dusk, even in flight. Males also have a curious little growling noise – like a cat.

HABITAT

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Grey Partridge. Tiny gamebird with yellowish-brown streaked upperparts, paler underparts and yellow stripe through dark crown. Male has a plain reddish-brown breast and variable head markings that consist of dark bands round throat and through eye. Female has a spotted breast and less distinctive head markings. Juvenile resembles female. It has a different wing shape from a young Grey Partridge: wings are broader at base but distinctly narrow at tip – like a Snipe. Quails moult between June and September, but they sometimes suspend moult and migrate with old and worn flight feathers, and then resume moult in their winter quarters. See also: Grey Partridge p56. male

Lives in open country where there are few trees and bushes, especially grasslands and large cereal fields (often barley) where the vegetation is dense and usually dry, such as chalk downlands. On migration it can appear in almost any habitat, but on wintering grounds lives in grasslands and other low vegetation.

FOOD

Seeds of plants, such as poppy, fat hen, hemp-nettle and dock, also insects and their larvae, including beetles, ants and grasshoppers.

BREEDING

Males arrive first and call to attract females. The nest is on the ground in dense cover and incubation is by female. Young feed themselves soon after hatching and are cared for by female. Males may mate with more than one female and generally do not stay with their families. Young flutter off the ground at about 11 days. They stay together for 30–50 days, before becoming independent and can breed at 3 months old.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

male

The Quail is the only member of this family that migrates to Britain and Ireland each summer. Arrives in late April and May and returns in late summer to central Africa, south of the Sahara Desert. Migrations are complex and not fully understood. In some years, a second wave of Quail appears later in summer and may breed in August and September. It to

juvenile

HABITS

A secretive bird that is very reluctant to leave cover and is more easily heard in song than seen, even where numerous. If disturbed, it often drops back into cover after a short, direct flight. On longer flights, its action is freer and more like a compact Starling.

CONSERVATION

Declining over most of Europe owing to agricultural intensification in its breeding areas, hunting during its migration and drought in its wintering grounds. Sympathetic farming in its major breeding areas is needed, as is a reduction in hunting around the Mediterranean and in North Africa.

DISTRIBUTION In some years, can be found in scattered locations across England, Wales and southern Scotland – with a few reaching Ireland. The highest numbers are usually in Dorset and Wiltshire. Also in East Anglia, the Welsh Marches and south-east Scotland. In other years, the species is found mainly in southern England. Also breeds across Europe, Asia and parts of southern Africa.

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Red-throated Diver Gavia stellata Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Moderate increase – 12,500 21,500 May–July 2; 1 brood 26–29; 50 days Average: 9; Oldest: 35 53–69cm; 1.68kg

IDENTIFICATION

Size of Mallard. More rounded head and slimmer neck than other divers and rather delicate, up-swept bill. In summer, adult has a grey body, velvety grey head, streaks on the hindneck and dull red throatpatch that appears dark in poor light. In winter, it is grey-brown and white, with fine white spots on its back. Neck is white and dark at the back. The white on the face extends around the dark eye. Immatures look browner and less well marked. Moults after breeding when it becomes flightless. Moults into breeding plumage between February and April. See also: Black-throated Diver p60, Great Northern Diver p61, Cormorant p85.

summer

FOOD

It feeds mainly on marine fish such as cod, herring, sand eel and sprat but also takes some freshwater fish including small salmon, trout and roach. Also eats some crustaceans and insects.

BREEDING

The nest is a heap of moss or aquatic vegetation built close to water’s edge or in water among vegetation. Incubation is mostly by the female. The young leave the nest within 24 hours and are fed by their parents. They first breed at 3 years.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Breeding birds move to the coast in autumn. Some travel to the French coast and may reach the Mediterranean in cold winters. Migrants from northern Europe and Iceland winter around British and Irish coasts, and there are noticeable movements in spring and autumn.

summer

1st-winter

HABITS

Swims low in the water with bill pointing slightly upwards. Often remains partly submerged when alarmed. Frequently rolls on its side in the water as it preens its white belly. In flight, looks thin-necked and hump-backed, and the head and neck move up and down. Wingbeats rapid, with wings lifted higher above back than other divers. Small flocks, sometimes of 100 or more, gather on the sea in winter. Flies high when commuting between breeding pools and feeding areas. Takes off easily and, when landing, planes down and strikes the water with considerable force. Performs noisy displays in the air during the breeding season.

VOICE

Usually silent. At breeding sites, it can be noisy, giving excited crescendo of calls like a high-pitched, wailing ya-roo, ya-roo, ya-roo.

winter

winter

CONSERVATION

The species increased after persecution ceased during the 19th century, with the largest expansion taking place on Shetland, which now has more than 30% of the UK population. Threatened by oil spills, being caught in fishing nets, changes in fish populations, drainage of moorland breeding sites, offshore windfarms, and disturbance when breeding. Some young are eaten by otters. Re-routing tankers away from sensitive wintering areas, avoiding tree planting close to lochans, careful siting of wind turbines on land and sea, fisheries conservation and care by birdwatchers and tourists will all help. Artificial floating islands have benefited Red-throated Divers.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain, breeds only in north-west Scotland, especially in Orkney and Shetland, with a few in Ireland. It winters all around the coast. Also found in northern Europe, Russia and North America.

HABITAT

Breeds around shallow pools (lochans) on moors and bogs. Occasionally nests around larger lakes (lochs) and flies to coastal waters or larger waterbodies to feed. Outside the breeding season it is found around the coast, especially in shallow, sandy bays, and is only rarely seen on inland waters.

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Black-throated Diver Gavia arctica Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Stable Stable 215 550 May–July 2; 1 brood 28–30; 60 days Average: 12; Oldest: 27 58–73cm; 2.3–2.5kg

summer

VOICE

winter

Mostly silent except on breeding grounds where it has a loud, drawn-out wail.

HABITAT

summer

Mostly breeds on large inland lakes with small islands and will fly to other lakes where food is plentiful. After breeding, it moves to sheltered bays and coastal waters, occasionally visiting inland lakes and reservoirs in winter.

FOOD

Dives down to 6m to chase prey underwater. Feeds mainly on fish, such as Arctic Charr, small brown trout, herring, sprats, sand eels, minnows, also insects and crustaceans.

BREEDING

winter

juvenile

IDENTIFICATION

Larger than Mallard and Red-throated Diver, with thicker neck, long body, and heavier, straighter bill. Head appears rounded with steep forehead. In summer, body is dark with block of white marks on the back. The head is grey with black throat, blackand-white stripes on side of the neck and a small single white chin-strap mark. On water, in winter it has contrasting dark and white plumage, prominent white thigh-patches and less white on the sides of neck and cheeks than the Red-throated Diver. The dark cap comes down to level of eye and the bill looks pale. First-winter birds are less clearly marked. Breeding plumage is moulted between September and December, and flight feathers are moulted in spring. See also: Red-throated Diver p59, Great Northern Diver p61, Cormorant p85.

HABITS

Swims low in the water. Bill usually held horizontal but may sometimes point slightly upwards, resembling Red-throated Diver. Can look slim and elegant or chunky, depending on how the neck is held. Like other divers, it frequently rolls on its side to preen its belly feathers. In flight, looks black and white and heavier than Red-throated, with the neck held straighter and wings more central on the body. More solitary than Red-throated Diver but small flocks form outside the breeding season and groups often gather at fishing sites in the early morning.

Pairs usually remain faithful for life. Male builds the nest of moss and water weed, with help from the female, in shallow water close to the shore, often on a small island. Female incubates with help from the male. Young leave the nest within 24 hours and are fed by their parents. Chicks are often left alone by parents and are aggressive to each other.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Most move to the coast after breeding. Other Blackthroated Divers from northern Europe are thought to arrive around British and Irish coasts in autumn and winter. Larger numbers appear if the Baltic wintering areas start to freeze over.

CONSERVATION

At sea, it is threatened by pollution and changing fish populations. Breeding birds are affected by changes in water level, introductions of predatory fish, like pike, which compete for food, development of fish farms and disturbance at nest sites. Some use artificial floating islands specially developed to help nesting birds survive changing water levels. In future, the development of fish farms and hydroelectric schemes away from sensitive conservation areas, effective fisheries conservation and more care by birdwatchers, anglers and tourists, will all help.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain, this species breeds only in north-west Scotland. It also breeds on the Arctic tundra in Europe, Russia and North America. Northern populations move south in autumn, with some birds reaching the Mediterranean.

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Great Northern Diver Gavia immer Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

summer

Amber – Stable – 4,350 – – – Oldest: 23 70–90cm; 2.8–4.5kg

1st-winter

winter

IDENTIFICATION

Substantially larger than Mallard and the other two divers. Large, heavy-looking diver with a dagger-like bill, large head, thick neck and steep forehead. In summer, strikingly black and white with chequered back, black head and neck that can appear iridescent green, and a white, barred collar. In winter, it is dark grey and white. Dark crown descends below the eye and is broken by a pale eye-ring. Head and neck generally darker than the back, with a suggestion of a dark half-collar at the base of the neck. Black and white areas are less clear-cut than on Blackthroated Diver. First-winter birds have brown backs barred with paler feather edges. This diver moults its black-and-white feathers after breeding and has a full moult in late winter when it becomes flightless. See also: Red-throated Diver p59, Black-throated Diver p60, Cormorant p85. winter summer

HABITS

Swims low in the water and dives smoothly and powerfully. Often searches for food with head partially submerged. If alarmed, will swim with only its head and neck above water. Frequently preens underparts while rolling on its side. Needs large areas of water to launch into the air with paddling feet. In flight, it is heavy-looking with slower, shallower wingbeats than other divers, and large feet that project behind tail. Usually solitary in winter, but small groups may form, especially in the north. Dives regularly for a minute or more.

VOICE

It makes a variety of eerie far-carrying yodelling calls in the breeding areas but is mostly silent at other times.

HABITAT

In winter, many Great Northern Divers visit coastal waters, and a few arrive on large inland lakes and reservoirs. On the sea, this species tends to feed further from the shore than Red- or Black-throated Divers. Breeding areas (not in Britain or Ireland) are around medium or large lakes, where there are plenty of fish.

FOOD

Mainly fish, especially Haddock, herring and sand eel. Also, insects and their larvae, and crustaceans, including crabs and shellfish.

BREEDING

Despite frequent sightings in summer in western Scotland, this species is known only to have nested here successfully on one occasion – in 1970 when two adults were seen with two young. The following year a single bird paired with a Black-throated Diver and produced one hybrid young. Age of first breeding around 6 years.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Some young migrate with their parents. Migrants start to arrive on the Scottish coast from Iceland in August and more follow during autumn, including birds from Greenland and North America. A few winter as far south as the Mediterranean. By early May most have returned to their northern breeding grounds

CONSERVATION

The main threats are from oil pollution in winter, declining fish stocks and fishing nets that inadvertently trap and kill feeding birds. Tight controls and enforcement of measures to reduce oil pollution, both deliberate and accidental, and the sympathetic management of inshore fisheries will help protect this species.

DISTRIBUTION Great Northern Divers breed in Iceland, Greenland or northern North America. Winters further south: visiting the British Isles and western Europe, with a few birds reaching the Mediterranean. A few non-breeding birds summer around the coast of Scotland.

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Storm Petrel Hydrobates pelagicus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Uncertain – 25,500 – May–July 1; 1 brood 40; 56–73 days Average: 11; Oldest: 38 14–18cm; 25.5g

HABITAT

A bird of the open ocean, except when nesting. Rarely seen close to the coast, except when approaching nests or in autumn when strong winds may drive migrating birds closer to the shore.

FOOD

Feeds on and beyond the edge of the continental shelf where the water may be 100m deep or more. Mainly small fish, such as sprats and herring, plankton, jellyfish and small crustaceans and squid. It also feeds on offal and other waste from ships at sea.

BREEDING

IDENTIFICATION

Slightly larger than a sparrow. Sooty-black plumage with vivid white band on rump and spreading round the sides. Black underwing has thick white stripe down the middle. Compared with other petrels the wings are rather short. Tail short and square-ended. Juvenile is similar to adult. Moult starts while the adults have young and continues into autumn. See also: Leach’s Petrel p63, House Martin p223.

Nests in crevices between boulders, in stone walls, in abandoned buildings, in rabbit burrows, and will sometimes share a burrow with a Manx Shearwater. Incubation is by both adults, which take equal turns lasting about 3 days each. Young are brooded continuously for a week and then left as their parents forage at sea during the day, returning at night to feed the chick on regurgitated food. They are independent almost immediately on leaving their burrow and quickly disperse into the open ocean. They return to their original colony after 2 or 3 years but do not breed until at least 4 years old.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Most British and Irish breeding birds leave coastal waters in September and October. Migrants arrive at the wintering grounds off South Africa from midNovember and leave again in March. Breeding birds are present at breeding colonies from early May.

CONSERVATION

Storm Petrels are difficult to census and we lack repeat counts for many colonies. There has been a decline on some islands owing to predation pressure from rats and cats. Several projects to eliminate rats from their islands have proven successful and seen breeding birds rapidly return. Protection of internationally important breeding colonies is essential to safeguard this species for the future.

DISTRIBUTION HABITS

Fluttering flight and short glides close to the water are rather bat-like. Feeds with wings raised in V-shape and feet pattering on water surface. Sometimes follows ships or keeps company with other feeding seabirds. Swims duck-like, sitting high in the water, and normally only approaches land after dark to avoid avian predators. Sometimes solitary, but often in loose flocks and sometimes in larger numbers.

VOICE

Usually silent except at breeding colonies where males make a far-carrying, purring a-rrrrrrr call from their burrows.

In Britain and Ireland, it mainly breeds on the west coast on islands facing the Atlantic. Also breeds in Iceland, the Faroes and Norway, with smaller colonies on islands in the Mediterranean, Atlantic islands such as Madeira and the Canary Islands, and perhaps Morocco. Winters in the western Atlantic as far south as South Africa.

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Leach’s Petrel Oceanodroma leucorhoa Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Uncertain – 48,000 – May–August 1; 1 brood 40; 63–70 days Average: 13; Oldest: 29 19–22cm; 38–54g

IDENTIFICATION

Size of Starling. Plumage brownish-black with narrow white, horseshoe-shaped rump. Tail is forked. A dark line running down the centre of the white rump is only seen at close range. Wings are longer, narrower and more pointed than Storm Petrel’s and have prominent pale diagonal bar on the upper surface. Underwing is dark. Body appears long and more slender owing to longer tail. Moults in its winter quarters during November to February. See also: Storm Petrel p62, Black Tern p164, House Martin p223.

HABITS

Generally seen alone or in small groups. Flight light and buoyant, rather like a tern, as it banks and turns. Wings are angled strongly at the carpal joint and, head on, they look kinked. When feeding it frequently patters the surface with its feet, as if walking on the water, especially when the wind is strong, but it seldom alights on the water. Leach’s Petrels often approach ships at sea after dark.

BREEDING

Nests in large colonies and approaches land only after dark. Pairs remain faithful to a nest site from year to year. Uses its feet to dig nesting tunnels in soft soil, but also nests in rock crevices and other holes. Sometimes several will use side tunnels off a single main entrance. Male may build a nest of grass stems. Both adults take equal turns of several days to incubate eggs. Young are brooded by an adult for about 5 days and then left while adults forage far out to sea, returning to feed the chick only after dark. Young desert their burrows at around 65 days and quickly leave the breeding colonies. They reach breeding maturity at about 5 years.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Birds return to breeding colonies from late April and leave again in September or October. In autumn, gales sometimes force them close to land, particularly in north-west England. After breeding, British and Irish birds move into the Atlantic and most migrate southwards to winter in the tropics. Some individuals reach South Africa and the Southern Ocean. A few may remain in the North Atlantic for the winter.

CONSERVATION

Listed as Vulnerable globally on account of suspected declines. Threats include predation from rats, cats and predatory seabirds. It is a difficult species to census and we lack repeat colony counts. Protecting the few colonies from mammalian predators, especially rats and cats, is a high priority.

VOICE

Usually silent at sea. Loud calls at breeding colonies variously described as ‘musical’, ‘crooning’, ‘churring’ and ‘purring’ or a crowing her-kitti-werke.

HABITAT

Lives on the open ocean for most of the year. Breeds on remote offshore islands among rocks and boulders, and sometimes in stone walls or ruined buildings. Autumn storms and high winds push birds towards our shores. Occasionally after rough weather, it becomes stranded on reservoirs or lakes, well away from the sea.

FOOD

These petrels feed far out to sea, usually beyond the edge of the continental shelf of Europe. It takes food from the water surface by feeding on microscopic sea creatures such as tiny shrimps, crustaceans known as copepods and plankton. It will also follow feeding whales and take waste material.

DISTRIBUTION One of the most numerous seabirds. Only a few colonies have been found in Britain and Ireland, all of these are on remote offshore islands. Other colonies are on both the east and west coasts of North America, on some North Pacific Islands and an island off the coast of South Africa.

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Fulmar Fulmarus glacialis Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Stable – 350,000 – May–July 1; 1 brood 52; 46 days Average: 44; Oldest: 50 45–50cm; 772g

VOICE

Pairs cackle to each other on their nests and feeding flocks cackle raucously – otherwise silent.

HABITAT

A true seabird that is often seen many kilometres from land. Breeds on suitable cliffs all around British and Irish coasts. Also nests on buildings near the sea.

FOOD

Crustaceans, sand eels and other fish and waste from fishing trawlers. Also eats carrion.

BREEDING

dark morph

Fulmars keep the same mate for life, unless one dies. Colonies vary from a few nests to several hundred and the same birds use the same site year after year. Nests on narrow ledges with no extra material, or sometimes on soft soil. Female incubates first and then disappears for about 7 days before returning to share the incubation with her mate. Both parents feed the young, with one or the other adult staying on the nest for the first 2 weeks. Young are independent as soon as they leave the cliffs. For the first 4 years they live at sea, often hundreds of kilometres from land.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Herring Gull. Stiff-winged flight with a thick neck and strong stubby bill with pronounced nostrils. Body usually white with a greyish back and tail; grey wings with a pale patch at base of primaries. The white head has a dark smudge in front of the eye. The Arctic form, which is rare in British and Irish waters, is darker with a duskier body and more uniform dark grey upperwing. Adult Fulmars have a complete body moult while at sea between August and October. Primary feathers regrow rapidly. See also: Herring Gull p156, Kittiwake p145, Gannet p83.

HABITS

Flight is distinctive with rapid, shallow wingbeats followed by a glide on stiff, straight wings. Often glides low over the sea with wing-tips almost touching the water, or riding the air currents along cliff edges, flapping its wings only when losing height. Gathers in flocks on the sea or around a source of food. Pairs perform a noisy greeting ceremony when they meet at their nest. Feeds by picking food from the water’s surface or sometimes making a clumsy dive.

After breeding most fly out to sea, but colonies are seldom completely deserted. Young fledge in September and by October many adults are back on their breeding ledges. By January, breeding sites are usually occupied. Many juveniles reach the coast of Newfoundland. They may return to their breeding colony after 4 or 5 years but will not breed until 9 years old.

CONSERVATION

Fulmars started breeding in Shetland in 1878. They went on to colonise cliffs all round British and Irish coasts. After a period of expansion, it appears that some populations have declined, although overall its population is now stable. Local declines may be caused by food shortages due to changes in the fishing industry and climate change. Other threats include predators such as rats, cats and foxes, and from plastic waste material floating on the sea, which the birds ingest. Thousands are also killed by long-line fishing in the north-east Atlantic, as well as in gillnet fisheries.

DISTRIBUTION Most numerous in the north and west but breeds all round British and Irish coasts where there are suitable cliffs. In winter, lives in the North Atlantic. Also breeds in Greenland and North America. There is another race of Fulmar in the North Pacific.

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Cory’s Shearwater Calonectris borealis Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Passage pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Not assessed – – – 1,000 – – – Oldest: 24 45cm; 605g–1.1kg

Non-breeders and breeding birds outside the breeding season range across the North Atlantic and follow the coast of Africa as far south as South Africa. Some birds travel north after breeding and reach the Bay of Biscay and the south-west coasts of Britain and Ireland. Smaller numbers are seen off the east coast of England between April and early October and a few reach Scotland.

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Herring Gull. A large, heavily built shearwater, with a large head, pale bill and long wings. It has mid-brown upperparts, with paleedged feathers giving a scaly effect. The underwing is very white with a neat dark rim around the edge and tip. At close range the pale yellow bill with dark tip is visible. The brown head merges with the brown of the neck and there is no suggestion of a dark cap or a pale collar. Some individuals have a darker tail with a faint white crescent at the base, but this is not as obvious as in Great Shearwater. See also: Great Shearwater p302, Manx Shearwater p67, Sooty Shearwater p66, Fulmar p64, juvenile Gannet p83.

HABITS

Flight can appear lazy, with relaxed, rather loose downward wingbeats followed by a long, low glide on bowed wings. Wings look more angled than other similar species. In calm conditions, its flapping is more gull-like, but in rougher, windier conditions, it may bank and tower. Frequently follows ships and may often be seen in small loafing flocks on the water. Most feeding takes place after dark. It takes food from the surface, but also plunge-dives to slightly greater depths. Feeding birds will associate with whales, dolphins and sometimes other large seabirds, such as Gannets.

VOICE

It is mostly silent away from its breeding colonies.

HABITAT

A bird of the open oceans, travelling great distances out of sight of land. Breeds among rocks and scree on islands.

FOOD

It feeds on fish such as herring and other sea creatures such as squid and crab, also offal discharged from fishing vessels.

BREEDING

This shearwater does not breed in Britain or Ireland. It nests in colonies on the ground, in tunnels or small caves among rocks and boulders, and it lays only 1 egg. The chick is tended by both parents but is eventually deserted and then makes its own way to the sea.

CONSERVATION

The main threat to this species comes from predation of young birds by rats and cats in their island colonies. Conservation projects now focus on removing these predators from important seabird islands. Fledgling birds are also attracted to artificial lights so reducing light pollution near colonies is a priority.

DISTRIBUTION The species breeds on Mediterranean islands and on Atlantic islands such as the Azores and Madeira. Outside the breeding season it visits both the northern and southern Atlantic.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Passage migrant, visiting Britain and Ireland in variable numbers in late summer. Present around its breeding colonies from February to October.

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Sooty Shearwater Ardenna grisea Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Passage pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green – – – Variable and uncertain – – – Max age c. 20 40–51cm; 650–978g

VOICE

Mostly silent while at sea, but raucous calls and screams have been reported.

HABITAT

It lives most of the year on the open ocean and is seldom close to land while in the North Atlantic. Breeds on remote islands in the Southern Ocean.

FOOD

It eats fish such as Caplins and sand eels, also squid, crustaceans and offal from fishing vessels. It scavenges around whales, taking damaged and disoriented fish, and probably also feeds on whale faeces.

BREEDING

Does not breed in Britain or Ireland.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Passage migrant. After breeding, during the southern summer, it starts to move northwards through the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans in April and May. Atlantic birds follow the east coast of South and then North America and then gather in considerable numbers off the coast of New England and Newfoundland. In July, many cross the North Atlantic and pass through British and Irish coastal waters between August and October en route back to their southern breeding grounds – a journey that has taken them clockwise around the Atlantic Ocean.

CONSERVATION

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Herring Gull. This is a large, dark shearwater with a dark brown cigar-shaped body and long, narrow wings. The bill is dark and slender, the all-dark plumage is broken by the silvery underwing-coverts that appear, from a distance, to form a white stripe. The complete moult takes place between May and August while the species is in the North Atlantic. See also: Great Shearwater p302, Manx Shearwater p67, Balearic Shearwater p302.

HABITS

In flight, its wings appear to be set relatively far back on the body and often look swept back. Usually it flies close to the waves with several strong wingbeats followed by a long glide. Sometimes it will bank steeply before gliding down and resuming its direct line of flight. When swimming it sits high in the water, looking quite buoyant. It often associates with feeding whales and it will scavenge around fishing vessels.

One of the world’s most numerous seabirds. It is classified as Near Threatened because it is thought to have undergone a rapid decline in North America and New Zealand due to the impact of fisheries, the harvesting of its young, and possibly climate change. Sustainable fisheries and protection of island nesting colonies from introduced ground predators and habitat destruction are needed to conserve this species.

DISTRIBUTION It is usually seen in small numbers from British and Irish coasts, numbers unclear. It breeds on islands close to Antarctica and spends the northern summer in the North Atlantic. This shearwater also roams the Southern Ocean and the Pacific.

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Manx Shearwater Puffinus puffinus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Uncertain – 295,000 – May–July 1; 1 brood 47–55; 62–76 days Average: 15; Oldest: 50 31–36cm; 383g

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Herring Gull. Black-and-white plumage. Long, straight, slim wings and a slim bill, blackish upperparts, white underparts and black cap extending below the eye. The white underwing has a dark border. See also: Cory’s Shearwater p65, Great Shearwater p302, Balearic Shearwater p302.

HABITS

The most common shearwater seen around the coasts of Britain and Ireland. Flies with a series of rapid, stiff wingbeats followed by a long glide as it banks and turns low over the waves or, in strong winds, rises and falls. Often, several will fly in a line, rising and falling as they ride the waves – they can look alternately black and white, as they change the angle of their bodies. Food is taken from the surface of the water or by plunge-diving, and flocks gather where food is plentiful. Nests in colonies and some have hundreds or thousands of pairs close together. It swims ‘duck-like’. Rafts of hundreds of swimming birds form on the sea close to colonies as dusk approaches, but they will only venture to land after dark.

BREEDING

Nests in burrows on flat or sloping land close to the sea. Burrows are excavated in the soil by both sexes, and old rabbit burrows also used. The pair takes turns to incubate, with each turn averaging almost 6 days. Young are fed only at night, on regurgitated fish. Parents may miss one, two or even three nights owing to bright moonlight, bad weather or difficulty in finding food. Parents desert young at about 60 days old. The chick then leaves the nest-burrow 8–9 days later.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

A long-distance migrant that returns to its breeding areas in late February to April. Migration south begins in July as it heads for the coast of South America. It is possible that it returns by a different route, by crossing the Atlantic and returning along the coast of Africa. It does not breed until 5 or 6 years old.

CONSERVATION

VOICE

At sea it is generally silent. At the nest it has a variety of weird calls, including crowing, cooing, howls and screams.

HABITAT

A bird of the open ocean except when nesting. Nests on offshore islands with soft soil for tunnelling.

FOOD

Fish, especially herring, sardines and sprats. Also feeds on other sea creatures, such as squid.

The UK has responsibility for around 80% of the global breeding population. Although the population of the largest colonies appears stable, smaller colonies may be declining but the trend is uncertain. The largest threat to this species comes from alien mammals, especially rats and cats, introduced to islands where there are colonies. Eradication of rats from Lundy Island resulted in a rapid boost to breeding birds. Elsewhere, human exploitation is thought to limit populations.

DISTRIBUTION The Manx Shearwater breeds on a few islands off the west coast of Britain and Ireland. It also nests on a few other islands off the coast of Europe and Africa. Outside the breeding season it ranges widely in the northwest Atlantic and winters as far south as coastal waters of northern Argentina.

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Great Crested Grebe Podiceps cristatus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Stable Stable 4,300 16,500 April–July 3–4; 1–2 broods 28; 71–79 days Oldest: 19 46–51cm; 596g–1.5kg

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Mallard. Long, elegant white neck and dagger-like bill. In summer, chestnut-and-black frill around head. Blackish head plumes raised during courtship. In winter, it is grey and white with a dark back and black crown, and a black line from the bill to the eye. Small young are striped black and white like humbugs. Juveniles have dark stripes across their faces. Flight feathers are moulted simultaneously, and the birds become flightless for 3–4 weeks. See also: Red-necked Grebe p69. winter

winter juvenile

FOOD

Feeds mainly on fish, including roach, Rudd, minnows and eels. Also takes aquatic insects and amphibians.

BREEDING

Pairs often form in winter. Nest is built among vegetation or branches growing in the water, or sometimes in the open. Nest is often a floating heap of water weed and other plants. Both adults build the nest and take turns to incubate. Eggs are covered when the adults leave as a defence against crows and other predators. Incubation begins with the first egg, so that the young hatch over a period of several days. Both adults feed the young. Diet includes feathers that may help in the formation of pellets. The brood is split between the parents and the two groups live largely independently. After about 8 weeks the young feed themselves, but the parents may continue to feed them for several weeks.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS summer

Many move to large lakes, reservoirs and the sea in autumn. Northern populations are migratory and British birds are joined by migrants from north-west Europe in winter.

CONSERVATION

Once hunted almost to extinction in Britain for ‘grebe-fur’, the fine breast feathers used in the Victorian juvenile riding fashion industry. It made a on parent remarkable recovery during HABITS the 20th century helped In flight, long neck is extended, feet trail and by protection and the large white patches on front and back of construction of reserwings are visible. If disturbed, will usually voirs and flooded dive rather than fly. Often swims with gravel pits. The head and neck resting on back, main threats are revealing obvious white breast. Dives fluctuating water frequently to hunt for food. Elaborate levels and disturcourtship displays involve a pair facing bance by water sports. each other and head-shaking. Courting pairs also make synchronised dives and emerge holding water DISTRIBUTION weed and engaging in a short ‘weed-dance’ as they Found in lowland Britain and Ireland. rise out of the water. Small young regularly ride on Also breeds in mainland Europe, their parents’ backs to protect them from predators, the Middle East and Asia. There such as pike. The young of first broods sometimes are other populations in Africa help to rear small young of second broods. and Australia.

VOICE

Occasional growling gorr, gorr, especially during courtship and when nesting.

HABITAT

Breeds on large, shallow inland lakes with vegetation around the margins. Sometimes nests on slow-flowing rivers. In winter, many move to large lakes and reservoirs; also seen on the sea. Readily adopts flooded gravel workings and ornamental lakes in urban areas.

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Red-necked Grebe Podiceps grisegena Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Stable Strong decline 1 60 April–July 4–5; 1–2 broods 20–23; 72 days Unknown 40–50cm; 550g–1kg

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Mallard. Has a thick neck and a stout, dark bill with yellow base. Less elegant than Great Crested Grebe, with a wedge-shaped, sometimes rounded head, making it look front-heavy and stocky. In summer, striking with whitish cheeks and reddish-brown neck and breast. Crown is black and body dark brown. Juveniles have dark marks across their pale faces and paler chestnut on the neck. In winter, it is duller with dusky sides to the face and neck, a white collar and a white breast. Black cap comes down to the level of the eye. Sides of body can look whiter than Great Crested Grebe. Moults from its breeding plumage between July and September. See also: Great Crested Grebe p68, Black-necked Grebe p70, Slavonian Grebe p71.

HABITS

Flies strongly with rapid wingbeats. Two white wingpatches show in flight, but has a much smaller area of white on the forewing than on Great Crested. When swimming it looks rather buoyant – more like the smaller grebes – and it jump-dives very energetically. Usually seen singly or in pairs. Catches fish underwater. Most dives last less than 30 seconds.

VOICE

Mostly silent. Surprisingly loud hooting or wailing song given in courtship and territorial encounters during the breeding season.

HABITAT

In Britain and Ireland, it is mostly seen in winter, either on the open sea or in sheltered estuaries. Some individuals occasionally visit large inland lakes. In summer, a few live on inland lakes where there is usually cover from reeds and other plants.

FOOD

In winter, it feeds mainly on fish, such as herring, gobies and sand eels, also shrimps and prawns. In summer, feeds on insects and their larvae and fish, such as sticklebacks.

winter

summer

winter

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Leaves its breeding sites after nesting and moves to coastal waters or to large inland lakes. Birds from north-east Europe move south or west in late summer. Many arrive in the North Sea and some winter along British coasts between October and March. More arrive in Britain if their northern European wintering areas become iced over.

CONSERVATION

Nested successfully for the first time in Scotland in 2001. Occasional breeding in recent times. Potential sites are kept secret and pairs thought to be nesting are given special protection. In winter, there is some danger from fishing nets and inappropriately sited windfarms. Both breeding and wintering sites may be affected by human recreational activity.

DISTRIBUTION Mostly seen around the east coast of Britain in winter. Summering birds mainly in the east of England. Found in mainland Europe, parts of Russia and North America, close to the Arctic Circle. Most populations migrate for the winter.

BREEDING

Nest site is usually among reeds or other plants growing in the water. It sometimes associates with gulls when breeding. The nest is a floating heap of aquatic vegetation built by both the male and female. The brood is split between the adults.

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Black-necked Grebe Podiceps nigricollis Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Stable Stable 55 115 May–June 3–4; 1–2 broods 21 days Oldest: 13 28–34cm; 266–450g

winter

FOOD

Mostly eats insects, such as water beetles, dragonfly larvae, caddis flies and mayflies. It also eats small fish and water snails.

BREEDING

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Moorhen. Small head and steep forehead, peaked crown and delicate up-swept bill. Often shows fluffy white feathers under its tail. In summer, has a scruffy tuft of yellow feathers behind the eye; the rest of head and neck is black. Reddishbrown on sides sometimes extends onto neck. In winter, black and white with a black cap to below the level of the eye, dusky cheeks and a pale vertical crescent to the rear of the cheeks. The breast generally looks very white. A dark band on the nape is thicker than Slavonian’s when viewed from behind. Flight is strong with rapid wingbeats and shows a white triangle on the rear of wing (Slavonian shows white on front and rear of the wing). See also: Red-necked Grebe p69, Slavonian Grebe p71, Great Crested Grebe p68. summer

The first breeding record for Britain and Ireland was in Wales in 1904, and in 1930 the first Scottish breeding pair was found. It often gains protection by breeding among colonies of Black-headed Gulls. Both sexes work together to build a floating nest of waterweed among emergent vegetation. Several nests may be built before one is selected. Incubation is by both adults. Young are covered in down and quickly leave the nest. They frequently ride on their parents’ backs when small and may be independent by 21 days.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

In August, it starts to leave its breeding areas. Birds from central and northern Europe move south-east or south-west, and some reach Britain by November. Return migration starts during March when small groups may arrive on inland lakes. Occasionally, and sometimes unexpectedly, colonises new breeding sites.

CONSERVATION

HABITS

This is the most social of the small grebes, with pairs nesting in colonies and small flocks form outside the breeding season. It dives to find food and is often reluctant to fly. Dives last around 30 seconds, but it can stay underwater for a minute or more. Displays involve head-shaking, a pair rising out of the water with their breasts pressed together, and then rushing across the water side by side. Secretive on its breeding grounds.

VOICE

A chittering trill and a plaintive wheeooo wheeooo are heard at breeding sites. It is mostly silent at other times.

HABITAT

Disturbance from boats and water sports can threaten some nests. Predation from pike, rats and escaped mink and terrawinter pins may be a problem too. The loss of habitat and drainage of temporary shallow lakes reduces the opportunities for colonisation, but juvenile increasing restoration and improved management of wetland sites, often nature 008 BN Grebe reserves, has created new breeding habitat.

DISTRIBUTION Breeds in Scotland and at sites in northern and north-west England and the East Midlands, with a few pairs occasionally nesting elsewhere. The species is found from Denmark eastwards into eastern Europe, Russia, South East Asia, North America and parts of Africa.

This grebe breeds on shallow inland lakes fringed with water plants and with plenty of insects and small fish. The species will take advantage of newly flooded areas. In winter, it visits larger inland lakes, sheltered estuaries and is sometimes seen in shallow coastal waters.

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Slavonian Grebe Podiceps auritus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Strong decline Stable 30 920 April–August 4–5; 1–2 broods 24; 55 days Oldest: 7 31–38cm; 300–470g

summer

winter

IDENTIFICATION

Similar size to Moorhen. Long neck, stubby bill and flat crown. In summer, has large yellow tufts (horns) on the sides of head, black cheek feathers, chestnut neck and flanks, and dark back. Black and white in winter, flat crown, almost wedge-shaped head and clean white cheeks that almost meet on the back of the head. Breast and front of neck are pure white, and the well-defined black cap comes down to eye level, often with a pale patch between eye and bill. In flight, shows one and sometimes two white patches on wings. Juvenile dusky, less well marked and with traces of dark stripes across cheeks. Male moults August to September, female probably a month later. See also: Little Grebe p72, Black-necked Grebe p70, Red-necked Grebe p69, Great Crested Grebe p68.

winter

juvenile

BREEDING

Pairs form in winter or on migration. Nest made from waterweed by both adults and anchored to water vegetation. Incubation is by both parents. Young are covered with down and swim soon after hatching. They regularly ride on parents’ backs when small. They are fed by adults and independent at 45 days.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Most leave their breeding lakes in late summer and move to coastal waters or larger inland lakes. Scottish, Icelandic and Scandinavian birds winter around North Sea coasts, as far south as the Bay of Biscay. Scottish breeding birds return in March or early April.

CONSERVATION

HABITS

Usually singly or in small numbers on the sea in winter, but small groups form during migration. When nesting, has courtship displays that include pairs rearing up and facing each other in a penguinlike position and head-shaking. There is also a ‘weedrush’, where the birds dive, surface with water weed, meet face to face, turn and rush side by side for 5–10m across the water. In summer, snaps insects from the air or off plant leaves or catches them by skimming the water surface with bill or by diving. Dives last less than 30 seconds, but it can stay underwater for a minute or more.

VOICE

Mostly silent. It has a hard, guttural trill during courtship. Also has various threat and contact calls while breeding.

HABITAT

Breeds on large or small inland lakes that usually have vegetation, such as sedges or horsetails growing out into the water. In winter, found on larger lakes, estuaries and sheltered coastal areas.

First nested in Scotland in 1908 and increased to around 80 pairs in the 1970s but declined subsequently. Prefers moderately sized lochs with an abundance of small fish (sticklebacks and minnows), clear water to hunt fish, and plenty of fringing vegetation for nesting. Wave action and flooding are natural threats, as are predators. Many breeding sites are secret to protect birds from egg collectors and disturbance by birdwatchers. The wintering populations in Orkney and the east coast firths are internationally important and threatened by changes to fish populations and pollution.

DISTRIBUTION The most northerly and most coastal of the grebes. Breeds at a few sites in the Scottish Highlands; also in Iceland, Scandinavia, Russia and North America. Found in coastal waters south of its breeding areas in winter.

FOOD

Mainly insects in summer, including stoneflies, other flies and their larvae, and beetles. Fish include sticklebacks, trout and eels. Adults and young eat a lot of feathers.

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Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Uncertain Moderate increase 5,000 150,000 April–August 4–6; 2–3 broods 20; 45 days Oldest: 17 25–29cm; 225g summer

VOICE

The most common call is a loud trilling, or whinny, that is used during courtship or territorial disputes. Sometimes given by a pair of birds as a duet.

HABITAT

Breeds on lakes, slow-flowing rivers and canals. Some lakes are small and may be in open or in wooded areas. On large lakes it prefers sheltered bays. In autumn and winter, many move to larger lakes, reservoirs and sheltered coasts.

FOOD

Mainly feeds on insects and their larvae, water snails and small fish, such as minnows and young carp.

BREEDING

winter

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Moorhen. Small, dumpy bird with a pale ‘powder-puff’ below its tail. Head is rounded, and the neck shorter than other grebes. The small bill has pale patches at its base that become yellow in summer. Breeding plumage is dark brown with chestnut neck and cheeks. Winter plumage is brown with a darker crown and paler cheeks and neck. Juvenile resembles adult in winter, but has two short dark stripes behind eye, and first-winter birds are paler and sandier than an adult. In flight, the wings are plain. Completes moult after the breeding season. Flight feathers are moulted simultaneously, resulting in a flightless period of 3–4 weeks. See also: Black-necked Grebe p70, Slavonian Grebe p71.

HABITS

Secretive and more likely to dive than to fly. Sometimes scuttles across the water. Dives frequently and hunts food underwater. If disturbed it may dive and emerge out of sight among waterside vegetation. If seriously alarmed, remains submerged with only its head above water. Frequently swims with undertail feathers fluffed up. Usually solitary outside the breeding season, but small groups may form in sheltered waters and sometimes roost together. A small territory is defended fiercely. These territories may be occupied all year, but some only for the breeding season and others only in winter.

The male and female build a floating nest of water weed among plants growing in shallow water or attach it to branches that are touching the water. The white eggs become brown through staining. Both sexes incubate. The young are covered with down and quickly leave the nest. They may ride on the adults’ back or, more often, return to the nest platform to rest safely. Both parents feed them. They are also fed feathers that might help in the formation of pellets. They become independent at 30–40 days.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Mainly resident, but in winter often leaves smaller lakes and congregates on larger waters and on the coast. Birds breeding in the north of Britain and Ireland tend to move south in autumn – a few may reach France. Little Grebes from mainland Europe migrate south-west and some arrive in Britain in autumn with more arriving in colder winters.

CONSERVATION

Little Grebes breed more successfully on lakes than on rivers because the changes of water level are less acute. Although it has disappeared from some rivers, it has also spread into new areas. Sympathetic management of lowland rivers, monitoring and safe guarding water quality, reducing the feral American Mink population, and preventing disturbance by anglers and powerboats would help this species.

DISTRIBUTION Found in most parts of Britain and Ireland. It is also widespread in Europe, parts of the Middle East, Asia and central and southern Africa.

juvenile

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White Stork Ciconia ciconia Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Not assessed – – 0–1 – February–June 3–4; 1 brood 33–34; 58–64 days Oldest: 39 100–102cm; 2.3–4.4kg

IDENTIFICATION

Larger than Grey Heron. Huge white bird with long neck, long bubble gum-pink legs and long, red, pointed bill. All-white with black flight feathers and very long wings. In some individuals, the plumage may become soiled and discoloured. The juvenile resembles the adult, but with a dull dark-tipped bill and the wings appear browner. See also: Grey Heron p79, Little Egret p80, Crane p106.

HABITS

Flies with extended neck and red legs projecting far beyond its tail. Wingbeats are slow and deliberate and it frequently glides, especially in thermals when it rises to a great height before peeling off and slowly descending again on rigid wings. On migration around the Mediterranean, thousands travel together, using thermals to gain height, and converge at sea-crossings. On the ground, it walks sedately or chases prey on foot, with some wing-waving. Perches on trees and buildings.

added to and may be used for many years. Both parents feed and care for the young. Young are independent 7–20 days after fledging.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Some White Storks remain in southern Europe for the winter, but most migrate to tropical Africa. They leave their breeding grounds in August, and European birds head either south-west or south-east. Large migrating flocks form near seacrossings. Migrants return to their breeding sites between February and April, when a few overshoot mainland Europe and arrive in Britain.

CONSERVATION

Wild White Storks last nested in Scotland in 1416. Habitat loss, drainage and intensive farming reduced the European population. However, reintroduction programmes in parts of Europe have helped some populations increase, and a rewilding project in southern England has released birds, with the first young raised in 2020 and prospects for reintroduction looking good. On migration, collision with power lines and hunting pressure remain threats, along with climate change and loss of wet meadows, and degradation of floodplains. Insecticides in Africa have removed food, and drought conditions also affect prey availability. juvenile

VOICE

Generally it is silent. Breeding birds make a loud bill-clattering display while at their nesting platforms, often as a greeting as one bird joins its mate.

HABITAT

It feeds in open wetlands or damp meadows or pastures. Also found beside lakes, pools, ditches and slow-flowing streams.

FOOD

It eats a wide variety of small animals, catching insects such as crickets and grasshoppers, and small mammals when the weather is dry, and aquatic insects and frogs in wet conditions. Other food includes lizards, earthworms and other small animals, such as small mice and birds, and carrion. In eastern Europe, it will occasionally eat small tortoises. It follows locust swarms in Africa.

DISTRIBUTION This is a rare visitor to Britain each year. The species breeds in mainland Europe, from the Baltic to the Mediterranean. It also breeds in north-west Africa, the Middle East and western Asia. It winters in tropical Africa as far south as South Africa.

BREEDING

Not yet breeding regularly in Britain. May nest in colonies with many nests close together. In mainland Europe, nests are in tall trees, and on the tops of old buildings, telegraph poles, pylons and specially built platforms. The huge nest built by both birds from sticks is lined with turf or dung. Successful nests are

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Spoonbill Platalea leucorodia Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Strong increase Strong increase 31 105 April–July 3–4; 1 brood 24–25; 45 days Oldest: 28 80–90cm; 1.1–2kg

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Grey Heron, but larger than Little Egret. Large, white and heron-like with long black legs and long black spoon-shaped bill with a yellow tip. In spring and summer, adult has yellow breastband and shaggy white crest. Broad rounded white wings in flight, with outstretched neck and bill prominent, long legs project beyond the tail, quite unlike any heron. Juvenile has black tips to its wings and a pale yellow bill. See also: Grey Heron p79, Little Egret p80, Great White Egret p81.

HABITS

Wades in shallow freshwater marshes and lakes and sweeps its bill from side to side. Also perches in trees and bushes. Nests in colonies and feeds in small groups cooperatively, or singly, but seldom mixes with other species. Tends to fly low and directly, sometimes soars at a greater height. Often feeds after dark and roosts during the day.

VOICE

Generally silent; even when nesting. Main sounds are an occasional deep grunting and bill snapping.

HABITAT

Breeds in coastal marshes and river valleys with open water with reeds and other vegetation. Sometimes nests on islands. At other times of the year it frequently visits estuaries and coastal inlets.

FOOD

Mainly insects and their larvae, especially water beetles, dragonflies and caddis flies. Also eats small fish, small amphibians, aquatic snails and some vegetation.

BREEDING

Spoonbills ceased breeding regularly in Britain in the 17th century. In recent years, more have visited and attempted to nest, and in 1998 a pair reared young in England. Since then, a small breeding population has become established at several sites, most regularly in North Norfolk. Colonies are

juvenile

very sociable, with nests even touching. Nests on the ground, usually a large pile of reeds, twigs and grasses, or in bushes or deciduous trees above the ground. Egg-laying may be synchronised in the colony so both laying and hatching dates are similar, and most young are a similar age. Young are also sociable and may move from nest to nest. They are cared for by both parents and continue to be fed for up to 10 weeks.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Most Spoonbills arrive at nesting sites in April and May. More arrive in July and August, as juveniles from mainland Europe disperse from their breeding colonies. Migration starts in August as birds begin to head south. Some winter in western Europe, including a growing population in Britain and Ireland, others remain around the Mediterranean, or West Africa. juvenile Colour rings show that British birds have come from the Netherlands, Germany and Spain.

CONSERVATION

Marked increase in both breeding populations in northern Europe and wintering ones in southern Europe. Breeding colonies and feeding sites require careful management and protection. In Britain, most occupied areas are protected sites, managed as nature reserves. In addition, the wetlands they use on migration and the wintering grounds in Europe and Africa need to be conserved. Drainage and loss of wetlands for agriculture and tourist developments, pollution of waterways, overfishing and disturbance may all affect Spoonbills.

DISTRIBUTION A resident and summer visitor to southern and eastern England, less common elsewhere, rare in Scotland. More widespread and abundant in winter, in southern and eastern England, Wales and southern Ireland. This species is also found in central and southern Europe, and other races breed in Africa and Asia.

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Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (pairs) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Not assessed Uncertain – 1 – April–July 3–5; 1–2 broods 21–22; 40–50 days Oldest: 17 58–65cm; 515–780g

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Grey Heron with short, thick neck, large head and stout crow-like bill. Head and body appear to merge when resting. Adult is striking with black back and crown, grey wings and body and three long white head plumes. Large eye is dark red and legs yellow. Juvenile is brown with large white spots on its back and wings and pale grey underparts with large brown streaks. The first-summer bird has a brown crown, grey-brown back, less streaking on the underparts and spotted wings. Direct flight on broad, rounded wings. See also: Grey Heron p79, Bittern p76.

HABITS

It is most active at dawn and dusk, roosting by day in thick cover, usually high up in trees and large bushes. It flies from its daytime roosts to favourite feeding areas at dusk and continues feeding after dark. It is sociable when breeding and at roosts, but is usually seen singly in Britain and Ireland. It perches freely in trees and clambers easily among branches. It stalks prey and occasionally hovers, swims or even dives to catch fish.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

After breeding, Night Herons disperse from their colonies and travel in all directions. By September and October most start to head south and cross the Mediterranean and the Sahara Desert to winter in Africa. A few overwinter in Europe. In Britain, Night Herons have been seen in every month of the year, especially in spring and early autumn, with an average of 14 in recent years.

CONSERVATION

An increasing number of Night Herons have been recorded in Britain and it seems set to colonise as a breeding species. Many of the sites they choose to visit are nature reserves that are well managed for wetland birds. A pair established a territory in Somerset in 1997; since then there have been nesting attempts with the first successful breeding in 2017, when juveniles were seen. Breeding was suspected here in the two previous years. Adults seen in suitable habitat in spring require privacy in case they attempt to breed. The European population is in moderate decline. It is threatened by wetland drainage and destruction, and by pesticide use. Climate change might bring improving conditions in northern parts of their range yet the increasing severity of weather and droughts would affect them badly.

VOICE

The call is a hoarse croak, often given in flight. Otherwise usually silent except at breeding colonies.

juvenile

HABITAT

It favours areas of fresh water for feeding and dense trees and bushes for roosting. It feeds in shallow water at the edge of reedbeds, alongside rivers, canals and ditches. Elsewhere in the world, where the species is common, it may feed in brackish or salt water.

FOOD

It feeds on fish, including carp and eels. It also takes frogs, small mammals and birds.

DISTRIBUTION Individuals arriving in Britain in spring are generally found in central and southern England. It breeds in central and southern Europe, and then widely across Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and North and South America.

BREEDING

Where common it may nest in large colonies in trees and bushes, often with other herons, cormorants or ibises. The male provides sticks, rushes and reeds and the female constructs the nest. Incubation is also mainly by the female although both adults bring food for the young, which become independent soon after fledging.

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Bittern Botaurus stellaris Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (males) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

FOOD

Amber Strong increase Strong increase 198 800 April–July 4–6; 1 brood 25; 50–55 days Oldest: 16 70–80cm; 750g–2.1kg

Mainly feeds on fish, especially Rudd and eels, but also frogs and other amphibians, insects, mammals, such as Water Voles, and small birds. It feeds by day but is particularly active at dawn and dusk.

BREEDING

juvenile

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Grey Heron. Medium-sized, heavy-looking brown heron with a dagger-like bill and longish green legs. The golden-brown feathers are mottled with black, it has a black crown and long black moustachial stripe. See also: juvenile Night Heron p75, Grey Heron p79.

HABITS

Secretive and hard to observe. Beautifully camouflaged among reeds. Moves slowly and stealthily through reedbeds by grasping stems in its long toes. May appear tall, thin and upright, elongated as it carefully stalks food, or hunched up. Freezes when nervous. Flies on broad rounded wings, with head drawn back and legs trailing. Neck may be extended during short flights. Flight usually slow, low over reedbeds and leisurely, appearing rather owl-like, but it may take longer flights and soar at considerable heights.

VOICE

The loud and low ‘boom’ of the male is heard January to April, especially at dawn and dusk. The sound is rather like the noise that comes from blowing across the top of a glass bottle. It is resonant, and travels up to 5km. Also gives a harsh aark, aark call.

HABITAT

The male defends a large territory from other males during late winter and spring. He ‘booms’ from a regularly used calling place within the territory and attracts one or more females with which he mates, but thereafter has very little to do with rearing the young. The nest is a platform of reeds and other water plants with a lining of finer material. Incubation is by the female. Young are fed by the female for the next 7 weeks or so. Males with a single female may help by bringing food. After the young are able to fly, they move to other reedbeds for the autumn.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Bitterns disperse from their breeding grounds in late summer. By midwinter, they are joined by other birds from northern and eastern Europe. They return to their traditional reedbeds in late winter.

CONSERVATION

Bitterns became extinct as a breeding species in Britain and Ireland by 1900, but recolonised and reached 80 males in the 1950s, only to decline to 11 by 1997. RSPB research showed the population was limited by the availability of large wet reedbeds and lack of management to maintain nesting and feeding conditions. Subsequently, conservation efforts have proved effective, and with a bold plan to create extensive new reedbeds and rehabilitate older ones, numbers are recovering. Yet the breeding population remains small, sea-level rise threatens some traditional coastal sites and it is particularly vulnerable to cold winters.

DISTRIBUTION Now restricted in summer mainly to nature reserves in England. More widespread in winter, especially in southern and eastern England. This species is found in suitable habitats across Europe, North Africa and central and eastern Asia.

The Bittern lives in large freshwater swamps and marshes and spends most of the time among thick vegetation, particularly the common reed or Phragmites. Occasionally feeds in open water, especially in winter. Sometimes nests in smaller reed-fringed ponds, lakes, ditches and drains. In winter, visits smaller reedbeds, marshes and riverside habitat.

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Little Bittern Ixobrychus minutus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (males) Wintering pop. (pairs) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Not assessed Uncertain – 4 – May–July 5–6; 1 brood 17–19; 30 days Oldest: 6 33–38cm; 59–150g

IDENTIFICATION

Size of Moorhen, a tiny yellowish heron with a pointed bill. Males are black above with conspicuous buff patches on the wing-coverts and buff below. Females are similar but have a browner back and wing-patches, and brown streaking on their underparts, which blends in with reed stems. Juveniles resemble females but are streakier, especially on the wing-coverts and underparts. In flight, keeps low over reeds or water and has quick, shallow wingbeats. At rest, the neck is often retracted and head and body merge into one rounded shape. Large feet project beyond tail in flight. Adults moult after breeding, probably in wintering areas after migration. See also: Night Heron p75, Bittern p76.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Most Little Bitterns are seen in spring in Britain and Ireland. These are birds which, when travelling north or north-west from wintering areas in Africa, overshoot their usual summering sites in southern Europe and end up in Britain.

CONSERVATION

First bred in Britain in Yorkshire in 1984 and in Somerset in 2010. Since then, a small number of birds have summered and nested. Such unobtrusive birds are difficult to find and their trend is uncertain. Their increasing appearance may reflect changing climatic conditions or a change in migratory behaviour. Large tracts of undisturbed well-managed wetlands, particularly reedbeds, are needed to sustain the tiny breeding population. Nature reserves have provided the ideal habitat. The European population is stable, though habitat destruction and pollution remain threats, and high mortality during migration and in wintering areas in Africa may limit populations.

male

female

juvenile

HABITS

Very secretive. Agile on landing, often clutches female reed stems for balance and moves through dense vegetation. Also climbs shrubs. Spends a lot of time hidden in cover and is more likely to be seen in flight. When hunting, the bird is quick and agile, weaving through reeds with ease. Will sit over a pool for long periods waiting to stab or grab its prey. Most active juvenile at dusk and before dawn.

male

VOICE

In spring, males call in early morning or late evening with a low, dog-like bark hogh. This note may be repeated 25 times a minute for up to 30 minutes. A soft quer, quer is heard from adults approaching young, and young make a crow-like kraar - kraar.

HABITAT

A freshwater wetland species of extensive reedbeds with pools and flowing and still water, as well as in smaller ponds, reedy ditches and areas of willows with pools. Sometimes found in reed or shrub cover along canal and riverbanks.

FOOD

Feeds on amphibians, especially frogs, and a variety of freshwater fish including small dace, perch, pike and gudgeon. Also eats water boatmen, water beetles, dragonflies, other insects, small mammals, worms and other invertebrates.

DISTRIBUTION Breeds in eastern and southern Europe and Russia. Winters south of the Sahara in East Africa, the Congo and parts of South Africa.

BREEDING

Nests in reedbeds. Nest is made with bent reed leaves and stems and is usually on a platform above the water. Incubation is by both parents. Young develop quickly and stand in the nest after a week. They leave the nest after 18 days and hide themselves in surrounding vegetation. Both parents feed the young on regurgitated food.

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Purple Heron Ardea purpurea Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Passage pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Not assessed – – – 20 April–July 4–5; 1 brood 26; 45–50 days Oldest: 25 78–90cm; 617g–1.2kg

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller, darker and more slender than a Grey Heron with a very long, thin neck, narrow head and long, pointed bill, giving the bird a snake-like appearance. The body is slim and legs are long with noticeably long toes. The adult has a ginger head and neck with black crown, bold black lines running across the face and down the neck with long black plumes. The breast and flanks are chestnut with long plumes hanging down the lower breast. The back is grey and may appear purplish at close range. Juveniles are browner with head, neck and back warm brown and upperwings mottled brown. First-summer birds are like adults but keep the brown wing-coverts. See also: Grey Heron p79, Bittern p76.

juvenile

FOOD

Feeds on fish, including carp, perch, sticklebacks and eels. Also takes insects and their larvae, including water beetles and dragonflies. Will catch and kill small mammals, such as shrews and Water Voles, and eats amphibians, including frogs and newts.

BREEDING

Continental breeding colonies are either on the ground, in reedbeds or in trees. Nest is made by both sexes from reed stems, twigs and small branches. Platforms of reeds are also built for off-duty birds and later used by the young. Incubation mainly by female but helped by the male. Both parents feed the young, who leave the nest before they can fly and use the feeding platform.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

A rare spring visitor, adults are mostly seen in southern Britain in April and May, rarely in Scotland. Usually the few that reach Britain are nomadic for the rest of summer. Juveniles fledging in mainland Europe disperse widely and occasionally reach our shores in late summer and autumn. Most of the European population migrates south-east or south-west in autumn and crosses the Sahara Desert to winter in central and southern Africa. A few remain around the Mediterranean for the winter. Breeding birds return to their colonies between March and May.

CONSERVATION

A scarce migrant and very rare breeding bird in southern Britain. First successful nesting was in Kent in 2010 with one pair raising two young. While adults are seen each year, there is little sign of subsequent breeding or colonisation. The European population of Purple Heron is thought to be declining. Main threats are the loss of reedbeds through destruction and drainage, agricultural encroachment and reed harvesting. Habitat degradation and loss on its migration route and at wintering sites, coupled with climate change, may be further factors that limit numbers.

HABITS

Noticeably active around dusk and dawn. Sometimes wades in deep water. Secretive behaviour, skulks among waterside vegetation and fishes with neck either coiled or outstretched at an angle of about 60 degrees over the water. Usually solitary. In flight, it has shorter wings and a greater neck bulge than the Grey Heron, and its feet look large as they project beyond the tail.

VOICE

Usually silent but does have a hoarse croak, rather like Grey Heron.

DISTRIBUTION A rare visitor to Britain and Ireland, most often seen in southern, south-west and eastern England, but rarely occurs elsewhere. It breeds in suitable areas in central, southern and eastern Europe. The species is also found in southern and eastern Asia and in Africa.

HABITAT

Feeds in fresh or saline marshes, reedbeds and other wetlands. Migrants visit reedbeds, riverbanks, estuaries and sometimes the seashore.

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Grey Heron Ardea cinerea Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Stable – 9,950 45,000 February–June 3–4; 1–2 broods 25–27; 50 days Average 5; Oldest: 37 90–98cm; 1–2.1kg

IDENTIFICATION

Very large, with long neck, long legs and dagger-like bill. Adult is grey, black and white. Head white with white centre to the black crown that ends in a long, black wispy crest. Whitish neck has rows of black marks. Back is blue-grey and the large flight feathers are dull black. Adult’s bill changes from yellow to partly reddish in the breeding season. Juvenile appears sleeker and greyer than adult and lacks the long plumes. Adults moult after the breeding season and complete this by November. See also: Purple Heron p78, Night Heron p75, Bittern p76.

HABITS

Usually solitary, but also in groups. Often stands hunched up with head resting between shoulders. When hunting the neck is elongated. In flight, head is drawn back, neck bulges and legs and feet extend well beyond the tail. When hunting, walks with great stealth and stands motionless for long periods with neck curved, ready to strike. Sometimes wades in deep water. Crown feathers raised in display.

juvenile

BREEDING

Breeds early in the year in colonies, called heronries, although single nests are not uncommon. The large nest of sticks is usually at the top of a deciduous or coniferous tree, 25–40m off the ground and generally in the same tree as several other nests. Nests built by both adults, males bringing the materials and females undertaking construction. Incubation is by both sexes. Young brooded for about 18 days and for the next week or so an adult remains at the nest. At around 20–30 days the young leave and start to clamber around the nearby branches. Some will continue to return to their nests for a further 10–20 days and then begin to disperse.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Mainly resident. A few from Britain reach Ireland and others reach the Netherlands, France and Spain. Some Grey Herons from northern Europe arrive in eastern Britain for the winter. Elsewhere they are long-distance migrants; some European birds are known to cross the Sahara Desert.

CONSERVATION

VOICE

Usually silent, apart from loud distinctive frank or kaark call, often given in flight. At nesting colony there are a variety of croaking calls.

HABITAT

Usually seen on the ground, near shallow edges of lakes, slow-flowing rivers, marshes or estuaries, but also stands in fields away from water or perches in trees. Generally, it nests in tall trees, often in large conspicuous colonies, but sometimes on the ground in reedbeds or on a cliff ledge.

FOOD

Feeds mainly on fish. Freshwater species include roach, perch, sticklebacks and also goldfish from garden ponds. In coastal areas, it catches eels, flounders, wrasse and crabs. Small mammals, birds, amphibians and insect larvae are also eaten opportunistically.

It has been persecuted in the past but less so now. Herons require unpolluted water with a good, sustainable supply of food and safe places to nest. Heronries should not be visited during the breeding season for fear of disturbance and nest abandonment.

DISTRIBUTION Found throughout Britain and Ireland except in mountainous areas. Most numerous in lowland areas where there are lakes, rivers or streams. Also breeds in central and northern Europe with a few scattered locations farther south. Some birds from northern Europe winter around the Mediterranean. Also found in Africa and Asia.

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Little Egret Egretta garzetta Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Strong increase Strong increase 970 11,500 April–June 4–5; 1 brood 21; 40–45 days Average: 5; Oldest: 22 55–65cm; 280–710g

winter summer

FOOD

Feeds on small fish, especially sticklebacks, loaches, Tench and small carp, also amphibians and aquatic insects. Coastal birds take a variety of small fish and crustaceans, including shrimps.

BREEDING

It breeds in trees, bushes and elsewhere in Europe in reedbeds. Nests may be within a few metres of each other in loose colonies. Both adults build a platform of sticks or reeds. winter Incubation is by both sexes. Young are fed by both parents on regurgitated food. After about 30 days, they leave the nest and clamber around the branches of nearby trees until they fly. juvenile

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

In autumn, many European birds migrate south-west to their wintering areas in central Africa. Juveniles disperse widely, many moving north before also migrating southwards. Some overwinter around the Mediterranean. In recent years, increasing numbers have spent winter in Britain and Ireland, and have formed the nucleus of a rapidly growing resident breeding population.

CONSERVATION

IDENTIFICATION

Much smaller than Grey Heron. Elegant small white heron with long, slender neck, fine black bill, black legs and greenish-yellow feet. In spring, has fine plumes on its breast and back, and two very long plumes on its hindneck. Immatures lack the plumes and yellow feet. Bare skin at the base of the bill varies in colour but is usually grey, yellow when breeding. See also: Cattle Egret p82, Great White Egret p81.

HABITS

Feeds singly and breeds in colonies. Stands motionless or sometimes feeds energetically by dashing after prey. It can feed in deep water and sometimes waves its wings to maintain balance. It stirs up water and mud with its feet to disturb its prey. Flight is light, leisurely with occasional glides. Legs trail and the head is drawn back into the body. Wings are rounded and look bowed. It generally roosts in groups in trees and bushes where it is an agile climber. The fine plumes are used in display at the nest.

Decimated by the plume trade in the 19th century, this species has gradually recovered during the 20th century and expanded its range northwards. It was a great rarity in Britain until 1989 when there was an autumn influx. That pattern continued and the first pair nested in Britain in 1996 and Ireland in 1997. British and Irish breeding populations are the most northerly in the world. The colonisation of Britain and Ireland continues apace, although this expansion could be knocked back by a succession of cold winters. The natural colonisation of Little Egrets appears to have been related to climate warming and improving weather conditions. Egrets may also have benefited from wetland creation and management, as well as the careful protection of their nesting colonies.

DISTRIBUTION Present all year in Britain and Ireland. The species is found in Europe, Africa, Asia and Australasia. Most breeding populations move south for the winter, including some individuals from Britain.

VOICE

Usually silent except at breeding colonies when it makes a variety of croaking and quacking calls.

HABITAT

Freshwater or saltwater marshes with shallow water, reservoir and lake edges, rivers and streams, estuaries and tidal inlets. In Britain, the breeding sites are in trees close to nesting Grey Herons.

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Great White Egret Ardea alba Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (pairs) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Not assessed Strong increase Strong increase 10 – April–June 3–5; 1 brood 25–26; 38–58 days Oldest: 13 85–102cm; 700g–1.7kg

IDENTIFICATION

White egret, the size of Grey Heron. Much larger and taller than Little Egret with longer wings and neck. Neck often shows snake-like forward kink. Plumage is all white with a yellow bill in winter and a darker bill when breeding, when the bird also has long fine plumes on the back and the base of the neck. It does not have any head plumes, unlike Little Egret. Neck is held back in flight, dark legs stick out conspicuously beyond the tail, and wings appear long in relaxed flight. Elegant when walking. Size often difficult to judge without accompanying species. See also: Grey Heron p79, Little Egret p80, Cattle Egret p82.

HABITS

winter

Feeds in freshwater wetlands, lakes, marshes and reedbeds, either by waiting and striking at passing prey or wading slowly in water and stabbing at prey. Feeds mainly in early morning and before dusk. Roosts in reedbeds, sometimes with other Great White Egrets. When taking off, it flies quite slowly with deep wingbeats and long trailing legs. It will perch on treetops, especially dead trees in marshes.

VOICE

Generally silent. When breeding it may make lowpitched grunts or croaks and some deep cawing sounds.

HABITAT

In Britain, it has nested in reedbeds and in waterside bushes, such as Willows and Sallows, but in mainland Europe it also nests on larger trees near wetlands. It forages in wet meadows, freshwater marshes, river and lakesides, also saltmarshes and estuaries.

winter

BREEDING

Stick carrying is often an indication of breeding. Sticks and twigs, as well as reeds, are used to build the nest. Eggs are pale blue and incubated by both parents; both will stay around the nest and feed the young until they fledge.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Birds from traditional breeding areas in central and south-eastern Europe originally wintered in the Mediterranean and further south, and only very occasionally reached Britain. In recent times, however, the species has expanded its range rapidly across Europe, with increasing numbers of breeding and wintering birds in France, the Netherlands, Germany, and now Britain and Ireland.

CONSERVATION

In just three months in London in 1886, 750,000 egret skins were supplied to the millinery trade. The long plumes of the Great White Egret were particularly prized. Thankfully that trade has ceased and since 2000 more of these wonderful birds have been seen in Britain. The first pair bred in Somerset in 2012. Since then numbers have grown with several nesting sites in England. Egrets need extensive food-rich habitat, such as reedbeds, shallow lakes and ditches. Nest sites, often in nature reserves, need to be managed and protected carefully to maintain feeding habitat and minimise disturbance in the breeding season. As with other herons and egrets, the species is threatened by wetland habitat degradation and loss.

spring

summer

DISTRIBUTION Migrants are mainly seen in southern Britain. The species is found widely in North and South America, Africa, Europe, Asia, Australia and New Zealand.

FOOD

Varied diet that includes fish, small mammals, such as voles, Field Mice and Water Shrews, as well as frogs, young birds, molluscs, crustaceans, insects and insect larvae.

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Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Not assessed Strong increase Strong increase 11 65 May–July 4–5; 1 brood 24; 30 days Oldest: 18 48–53cm; 250–510g winter

summer

IDENTIFICATION

Much smaller than Grey Heron. Compact white heron with shorter bill, neck and legs than Little Egret. Legs are greyish-yellow. In breeding plumage, top of head, lower back and breast orange-buff. Bill is yellow and the feathers under it are longer than those above, giving a distinctive ‘jowl’. Walks strongly and often sways as it moves. In flight, legs do not project as far as Little Egret’s, and it lacks the bright yellow feet. See also: Little Egret p80.

HABITS

Spends more time away from water than other egrets, often following cattle and other livestock. Eats insects that are disturbed by grazing animals and will perch on the backs of cattle. A sociable bird often seen in small groups. Roosts communally, usually in trees or tall scrub. Will follow tractors ploughing and, in Africa, will treat wild game animals in the same way as it interacts with cattle.

VOICE

Away from breeding colonies and roosts it is often silent. Adults make a harsh croaking rick-rack call and a short harsh raa call when defending nesting areas from predators and rivals.

HABITAT

Where common in Europe it can be seen in a wide range of habitats, including pasture fields, ploughed land, rubbish tips, golf courses, airfields, rice fields, marshes and

winter

riverbanks. Favours areas with pastoral farming and follows a range of grazing animals in tropical grasslands. In Britain, it prefers marshy habitats alongside grasslands grazed by cattle and sheep. Breeds in small trees, thorn thickets, shrubby areas in marshland and reedbeds.

FOOD

Eats a wide range of insects – especially grasshoppers, crickets, flies and butterfly and moth larvae. Other food includes earthworms, frogs, toads and their tadpoles, lizards and fish.

BREEDING

Nests loosely in mixed colonies with other herons. Cattle Egrets make a stick nest, sometimes lined with grass, in a tree or bush, above or close to water. Both sexes incubate. Young are fed on regurgitated food and leave the nest when 20 days old, but they stay on nearby branches until ready to fly.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Most populations are partially migratory, making long-distance dispersive movements related to rainfall and food. European-bred birds disperse after breeding and often wander during autumn and winter. Once a great rarity in Britain and Ireland, but now a resident breeding bird in the south. Our Cattle Egrets may have come from France or Iberia. Birds from Africa crossed the Atlantic and colonised South America in the late 1800s and have now spread to North America.

CONSERVATION

The European population has declined moderately in the last 25 years, especially in its heartland in Iberia, but this adaptable species has been able to spread north and east and has increased in numbers elsewhere. First bred in Britain in 2008 in Somerset, following an influx of more than 100 birds into south-west England and Ireland in the winter of 2007/2008. Since then, several pairs have bred successfully, following a further influx. Breeding is surprisingly difficult to prove and is often suspected. Management and protection of wetlands with nest colonies and adjacent pasture remains a priority. Wetland drainage, intensive farming methods and climate threaten the species across its range.

DISTRIBUTION Distributed very widely across the globe, in North and South America, Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia and New Zealand. Seen widely across England and southern Ireland but scarce further north. Notable influxes appear from time to time in both spring and autumn/ winter, especially in the south-west of England and Ireland.

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Gannet Morus bassanus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (pairs) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Moderate increase – 295,000 – April–July 1; 1 brood 44; 84–97 days Average: 17; Oldest: 37 87–100cm; 1.3–3.6kg

about 10 days, it leaves the nest and enters the sea, where it swims on the surface for 2–3 weeks, before starting to fish for itself.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Many are present in British and Irish waters throughout the year. Young leave their colonies in August and September and head for the African coast. Some adults also migrate to West Africa but most winter further north. Breeding birds start returning to their nesting colonies in January.

IDENTIFICATION

immature

Larger and longer necked than any gull, with a long body, long pointed wings, pointed tail and large dagger-like bill. Adult pure brilliant white with black wingtips and a yellowish-orange head in spring that becomes paler in winter. Juvenile greybrown with white flecks. Immatures have a white belly and various intermediate plumages with increasing amounts of white before growing the adult plumage after 4 years. Gradual moult generally starts after the breeding season and continues into autumn. See also: Herring Gull p156, Fulmar p64, Cory’s Shearwater p65.

juvenile

HABITS

Flies with powerful wingbeats followed by effortless long glides. When feeding it will fly up, steady itself and then drop, folding the wings to plunge-dive, bill first, into the sea. Often large numbers congregate where food is plentiful in a feeding frenzy. Nests are in huge colonies.

VOICE

Dry, cackling calls from feeding groups. Noisy cacophony at colonies with growls, especially when greeting mates at the nest.

HABITAT

Lives on the open ocean far from land for most of the year and most feeding takes place in cold waters over the continental shelf. Colonies are on inaccessible exposed islands or remote, precipitous sea cliffs.

FOOD

Feeds on fish, chiefly herring and mackerel in the breeding season, but also Caplin, sprat, sand eel and many other species. Individuals will sometimes steal fish from other Gannets and occasionally from other seabirds.

BREEDING

Nest is a substantial pile of seaweed and other material found floating on the sea surface, sometimes mixed with earth and grass pulled from nearby. Nest material is mixed with the bird’s own droppings and added to year after year, mostly by the male. Gannets have no brood patches and parents take turns to incubate the egg under their webbed feet. At first the single chick is brooded between the parent’s webs and both adults feed it. At about 90 days, after being left without food for

CONSERVATION

The British Isles is home to nearly 70% of the world’s Gannet population. Although the population appears stable or slightly increasing overall, Gannets are regularly recorded as killed during fishing operations in the Atlantic. The use of fishing methods that reduce or remove this threat is a conservation priority. Gannets are also thought to be at risk of collision with offshore windfarms, but to date at least, impacts are limited.

DISTRIBUTION Most Gannet colonies are in the north and west of Britain and Ireland. It also breeds in northern France, Norway, Iceland, the Faroe Islands and on the north-east coast of North America. It is widespread in the North Atlantic. Many young fly south to African waters and both adults and young feed along the European and North African coasts outside the breeding season.

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Shag Phalacrocorax aristotelis Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Moderate decline Uncertain 17,500 110,000 April–June 3; 1 brood 30; 48 days Average: 12; Oldest: 30 65–80cm; 1.9kg winter summer

juvenile

IDENTIFICATION

Larger than Mallard. Smaller and slimmer than Cormorant with a smaller head and thinner bill. Head shape different from Cormorant, with steeper forehead and peak to the crown above the eyes. Breeding adult is oily greenish-black with yellow at base of the dark bill and curly crest on the front of the head. At close range, it has a scaly back and purplish sheen. Non-breeding adults are browner with pale throat and lack crest. Juveniles are brown, and lack whitish underparts of juvenile Cormorant. Immatures are also brown with less blotchy underparts than Cormorant and pale edges to the wing feathers, creating a scaly pale panel. Flight feathers are moulted gradually from July to November then delayed until February when moult resumes until all have been replaced and the process begins again. See also: Red-throated Diver p59, Cormorant p85.

HABITS

Frequently stands with wings partly outstretched to dry. Usually makes a distinctive forward jump before diving and these dives may last for 40 seconds. Often flies close to the water surface. Wings are shorter and their tips more rounded than Cormorant’s, and flight is more rapid, with wings raised higher above the back. Less gregarious than Cormorant.

VOICE

Mostly silent. At nest it makes a series of grunts and clicks. winter

winter

juvenile

HABITAT

Found on inshore waters close to rocky coasts and islands. More at home on rough seas than Cormorant. Rare on freshwater wetlands.

FOOD

Mostly feeds on fish, especially sand eels, herring, cod and other fish found in inshore waters. Feeds singly or in flocks where there is an abundance of fish.

BREEDING

Nests in colonies. May keep the same mate from year to year, but some change mates and some males are bigamous. Small territory defended around a conspicuous nest on a cliff ledge, either just above highwater mark, or much higher. Male selects site for the nest that is built by both sexes from seaweed, vegetation and material found floating on the sea. Incubation is by both adults. Chicks are fed by both parents on regurgitated food. After young can fly, they continue to be fed by their parents for several weeks before becoming independent. Young breed after 3–4 years.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Present throughout the year. After breeding, seldom moves far from nesting areas, although there appears to be a southern movement by some individuals. After severe storms there may be ‘wrecks’ that result in Shags being seen at other wetland sites, sometimes far inland.

CONSERVATION

There are fluctuations at some colonies that are not fully understood, but probably linked to food availability (especially the lack of young herring or sand eels). Predators, such as feral cats and mink, can decimate colonies. Its future depends on a sustainable supply of fish. Ocean and sea temperature changes and the loss of sand eels present the biggest current threats. Shags also suffer from oil discharged into the sea. Legislation to prevent pollution and stricter controls over shipping routes will help.

DISTRIBUTION Breeds around the rocky coasts of northern and western Britain and along the south coast to the Isle of Wight. In Ireland, the largest colonies are in the north. Also found around the Atlantic coast of Scandinavia, Iceland, the Faroe Islands, France, Spain, Portugal, North Africa and parts of the Mediterranean.

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Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Stable Moderate increase 8,200 62,000 March–July 3–4; 1 brood 30; 50 days Average: 11; Oldest: 27 80–100cm; 1.8–2.8kg

juvenile

winter

IDENTIFICATION

Size of a large goose. Large body, long, thick neck, long powerful hooked bill and long sloping forehead and crown. Adult black with white on its face and thighs in spring. Juvenile dark brown, usually with pale, almost white, underparts. Some immatures also have white underparts, while others resemble adults, but without white thighs or faces. Some birds of the race ‘sinensis’ from Europe now breed in eastern Britain. The wing and body feathers are moulted between June and December. Head and neck feathers moulted before breeding. See also: Great Northern Diver p61, Red-throated Diver p59, Shag p85.

HABITS

Frequently stands with wings extended to dry flight feathers, or swims goose-like, with the bill raised upwards. It dives with a little leap upwards before submerging underwater. Often seen singly, but larger numbers gather at roosts and at feeding sites. Nests in colonies, sometimes numbering 100 nests or more. Flies with neck outstretched, rather like a goose, and sometimes soars over land. Groups may fly in lines or ‘V’s. Perches on the ground, on posts, on tree branches and on power lines and pylons.

VOICE

Noisy at breeding sites and in roosts. Loud guttural agock-agock-agock call made by adults, but mostly silent at other times.

European race, sinensis

summer juvenile

BREEDING

Male builds nest with some help from female. Materials include twigs, reeds and, at the coast, seaweed. Both adults incubate. Young are brooded when small and fed by both parents. After fledging, young continue to return to the nest to be fed for a further 40–50 days before becoming fully independent. They first breed when 3 years old.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Resident. Birds move away from breeding colonies after the young fledge. Some reach France, Spain or Portugal, and others from northern Europe arrive in south-east England in winter.

CONSERVATION

Some coastal colonies declining but many inland colonies are increasing. The chief threat to the Cormorant comes from human persecution. Conflict, both real and perceived, with angling interests continues and Cormorants are legally shot under licence.

DISTRIBUTION HABITAT

Traditionally associated with rocky coasts and estuaries but has spread inland to lakes, reservoirs and rivers many kilometres from the sea, especially in winter. Coastal breeding sites are on cliffs, stacks and rocky islets. Growing inland breeding colonies are in trees close to food-rich waterbodies and rivers.

FOOD

Feeds on fish, especially flatfish living on the seabed such as plaice and flounder, but it also catches cod, sprats and blennies. An opportunistic feeder, on inland waters and rivers it catches a wide variety of fish.

Breeds on rocky coasts and islands in the south, west and north of Britain and Ireland, as well as on a few inland lakes. Found around the coast in winter, also on inland lakes, reservoirs and rivers. Non-breeders frequent the main wintering areas all year. Elsewhere Cormorants breed across Scandinavia, Europe, Russia, China, India and parts of Africa, New Zealand and Australia, as well as Iceland and small numbers in North America.

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Birds of prey in flight BUZZARD p99

GOSHAWK p92 RED KITE p97

male

juvenile juvenile

SPARROWHAWK p93

female

HEN HARRIER p94

HONEY-BUZZARD p89

dark juvenile

female

MARSH HARRIER p96

female female

ROUGH-LEGGED BUZZARD p98

female

MONTAGU’S HARRIER p95

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R

GOLDEN EAGLE p90 WHITE-TAILED EAGLE p91

juvenile

PEREGRINE p197

HOBBY p196 juvenile

MERLIN p195 female

female

KESTREL p194

OSPREY p88

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Osprey Pandion haliaetus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Strong increase – 230 – April–June 2–3; 1 brood 37; 50 days Average: 9; Oldest: 26 55–58cm; 1–2kg

HABITAT

Lives near inland lakes, large rivers, coastal lagoons and estuaries. In Britain, associated with places that have both lakes for feeding and mature trees for nesting. In winter, inhabits coastal areas of West Africa.

FOOD

Although a few small mammals, reptiles and amphibians are taken, most food is fish, both freshwater and marine, including perch, pike, trout, carp, bream, mullet, garfish and bass.

BREEDING

juvenile

Male generally returns to the nest site first early in the year. When the female arrives, he performs an aerial switchbacking display. In Britain, the nest of sticks is usually built in a tree, but in other parts of its range it will nest on cliffs and artificial structures, such as pylons. Eggs are laid in April. Female incubates, with male taking occasional turns. Incubation begins with first egg. Young are fed by both adults and depend on their parents for a further month or two before beginning their migration south.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Ospreys leave breeding grounds in mid-August and head south on a broad front. They will stop and linger at good feeding areas, some cross the Sahara Desert before reaching their African winter quarters in late September. Adults return the following March; young may remain in Africa or follow more slowly.

CONSERVATION

IDENTIFICATION

Slightly longer in the body than Buzzard but has much longer wings, looking white and almost gull-like at times. Light brown breast-band, clean white underparts and wing-linings and a dark patch at the wing bend. Tail is short, dark above and barred below. The adult has uniform brown upperparts and a white head with a thick black stripe through and behind its yellow eye. Juveniles have buff tips to their brown feathers, giving a scaly appearance. Annual moult begins in June but is suspended for migration and then continued in Africa. See also: Buzzard p99.

HABITS

Generally seen singly except at nest. Often perches near feeding areas, favouring dead branches or a post in the water. In flight, the long wings often appear kinked at the joint. When hunting for fish it half folds the wings and plunges into the water, stretching its legs out in front to grasp a fish. It can also take fish quickly from the water’s surface. It carries its prey head first to limit air resistance and aid flight.

Once relatively common, it was exterminated from Britain by 1916. It returned and, despite robbery by egg thieves, it eventually re-established itself in Speyside, thanks to round-the-clock protection by the RSPB. Dedicated site protection, the provision of artificial nests and reintroduction schemes in England have all contributed to recolonisation and range expansion in Scotland, and now England and Wales.

DISTRIBUTION Migrating Ospreys stop and feed at suitable habitats almost anywhere in Britain, especially reservoirs and large lakes. They breed in Scotland with a few in England and Wales. The species breeds from Scandinavia south to the Mediterranean, across Asia, in Australia and in North and Central America. Many European Ospreys winter in tropical Africa.

VOICE

Usually silent but near the nest a shrill pieu-pieu-pieu.

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Honey-buzzard Pernis apivorus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Moderate increase – 51 – May–July 2; 1 brood 30–35; 42 days Oldest: 29 52–60cm; 440g–1kg

male

IDENTIFICATION

Longer-tailed than Buzzard with a slender, pigeonlike head. Varies widely in colour from pale to dark. Tail has distinctive dark band at tip and two thin bands near base. Trailing edge of underwing has dark band curving into the body. Paler birds show dark patch on bend of underwing. Male has grey head, grey-brown upperparts and variable underparts. Female is darker, browner and more obviously barred on body. Juvenile is also variable, with darker brown plumage, often a white forehead, almost black tips to wings and dark secondary feathers. Juveniles with pale heads often have a dark eye-patch. See also: Buzzard p99, Rough-legged Buzzard p98.

HABITS

Different flight profile from Buzzard; wings held either flat or drooped slightly, deep and lazy, ‘elastic’ wingbeats; wings held straight and flat and tail fanned when soaring. When displaying or advertising its territory, male carries out an undulating sky-dance where the wings are raised above body. Shy and usually seen singly except when flocks are concentrated at sea-crossings on migration.

VOICE

Makes a piping pi-aa in the breeding season.

HABITAT

Breeds in woodlands. In Britain, most nest in broadleaf, followed by mixed and coniferous woodlands. It favours woodland with open structures with rides and glades. Winters in equatorial and other African forests.

FOOD

Feeds on the larvae of insects, especially wasps and bees that it digs up with its rather blunt claws and from which it is protected by the scaly head feathers. Also eats lizards, frogs, some mammals and birds.

BREEDING

Nesting begins in late May. Both sexes build the nest in a large tree, often using an old nest of a large species such as a crow. Nest is made of twigs and branches with some live, green material. Both birds share the incubation. At first, young are mainly brooded by the female. Male provides most of the food for female and chicks for about 18 days, after which both parents share the hunting and food provision. The young reach independence at 75–100 days.

male (pale morph)

juvenile female

sea-crossings, such as the southern tip of Sweden, Gibraltar, southern Italy and Istanbul. Occasionally, larger numbers pass through eastern and southern Britain in autumn, displaced by poor weather.

CONSERVATION

British breeding birds usually kept secret to protect them from egg thieves or disturbance. Numbers have increased recently as knowledge of their populations and behaviour has improved but nests may be under-recorded. The growing population may reflect the maturation of forest stock and a warming climate. Poor weather, nest robbery and persecution remain threats to Honey-buzzards in Britain, and poorly sited wind farms may pose a new threat.

DISTRIBUTION Seen as a passage migrant in eastern Britain in late spring and autumn, a few also nest in southern and eastern England, Wales, northern England and northern Scotland. The species also breeds in most of Europe and Russia. It winters in tropical and southern Africa.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Arrives in Europe in May and leaves again in late summer. Large numbers converge at major

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Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Stable – 520 – March–June 2; 1 brood 43–45; 65 days Average: 23; Oldest: 32 75–88cm; 3.7–5.3kg

HABITAT

In Britain and Ireland, lives in wild, open countryside, high moorlands, rugged mountains and remote islands. Outside the British Isles, it breeds in mountain ranges, except those covered with dense forests, and in flatter habitats with trees for nesting.

FOOD

Includes Mountain Hares, rabbits, foxes, crows, grouse and Ptarmigan, and in coastal birds, gulls and other seabirds. Larger items, such as deer and sheep, are eaten as carrion.

BREEDING

The nest, known as an ‘eyrie’, is built of sticks and small branches on a cliff ledge or in a mature tree. Nests are reused and new material added each year. Incubation mostly by female and generally starts with first egg, leading to a noticeable size difference between chicks. While two chicks frequently hatch, it is common for the older and larger chick to kill the younger. The second chick is a ‘spare’. Both adults provide food and the young depend on their parents for about 90 days after fledging.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Young eagles leaving their nest sites range more widely than adults. Adults in Britain seldom move far from their territories, but other more northerly populations leave their breeding grounds in autumn and return the following spring. juvenile

IDENTIFICATION

Huge 2m wingspan is almost twice that of Buzzard. Adult uniform dark brown with golden-yellow feathers on back of head and powerful bill. Sexes look similar, but female slightly larger. Wings are long and broad, and trailing edges bulge outwards. Tail longer than that of a Buzzard and head protrudes prominently in front of the wings. Juvenile is darker with white base to the tail, black terminal band and white wing-patches. Immature shows whitish tail with dark band and varying amounts of white at base of the flight feathers. Moults slowly, and some feathers are retained for two years. It takes 7 years to attain full adult plumage. In flight, size can be difficult to judge without other birds for comparison. See also: Buzzard p99, White-tailed Eagle p91.

HABITS

Usually alone or in pairs. On take-off, when carrying prey and in display, flight is slow and laboured with deep wingbeats. Mostly it soars and glides effortlessly using air currents when the wings form a shallow ‘V’ and ‘fingered’ wing-tips are obvious. Displaying birds circle high, almost touching, fold wings and plunge dramatically before repeating this in a series of aerial loops.

CONSERVATION

Historically, it was more widespread, breeding in England, Wales and Ireland. Decline caused largely by persecution. Current problems include lack of natural food due to overgrazing by sheep and deer, afforestation of its upland hunting grounds, and continued illegal killing. A reintroduction project in Ireland began in 2001, and since then a small breeding population has become established. The European population is increasing as, in general, persecution has decreased. Collision with power lines and windfarms pose a risk, along with a reduction in livestock carrion through changing practices, and possibly climate change.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain, the Golden Eagle breeds mainly in the Scottish Highlands and Islands, with a small number in Ireland. In Europe, it breeds from Fennoscandia south to Iberia and Turkey, with some in North Africa. Elsewhere widely distributed across North America and Asia.

VOICE

Generally silent, but sometimes makes a ‘yelping’ call.

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White-tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (pairs) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Strong increase – 110 – March–July 1–3; 1 brood 40; 70 days Oldest: 29 70–90cm; 4.3–5.5kg

juvenile

3rd/4thyear

IDENTIFICATION

Heavier and more bulky than Golden Eagle. The wings are broad, rectangular in shape with obvious ‘fingered’ tips. Tail relatively short and wedge-shaped. Neck long and strong, with large head and huge powerful bill that is usually obvious. Adults are dark brown with pale heads and white tails. Males are smaller, lighter and with smaller bills than females. Young lack the pale head and white tail. Juvenile is dark with streaked underparts and a darker head and tail. Second-year birds have paler bellies, third- and fourth-years are darker, gradually acquiring a white tail. See also: Golden Eagle p90, Osprey p88.

juvenile

HABITS

Flight similar to huge heron, with shallow flaps and glides at low levels; at higher levels it soars with wings held flat. Usually seen singly or in pairs. Spends a lot of time patiently perched, standing on the ground, or even in shallow water. In late winter and early spring, pairs display in a ‘sky-dance’ with gentle undulations, rolling and sometimes touching talons in flight.

VOICE

Makes dog-like yapping, high-pitched woodpeckerlike kew, kew, kew, kew and a quieter ko-ko ko. Most calls are made near the nest or during courtship.

HABITAT

Lives around rocky sea coasts and islands, also visits large lakes. Nests on undisturbed cliffs or open stands of large, old-growth trees. Immatures wander and sometimes appear in other habitats in winter, such as marshes and open farmland.

FOOD

Hunts singly or in pairs and often steals food from other birds. Will grab food from the surface of the water and sometimes dives. Eats cod, herring, trout and eels. Also kills other birds, especially waterbirds such as ducks, gulls and auks, and takes rabbits, hares and other mammals. Also eats carrion and takes advantage of food supplies at abattoirs and discarded fish from fishing boats.

BREEDING

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Mainly resident in Britain and Ireland. Birds from northern Europe winter in central Europe, with a few ranging more widely and occasionally arriving as vagrants in eastern Britain.

CONSERVATION

The species became extinct in British Isles early in the 20th century due to pollution and persecution. Recent introductions to Scotland and Ireland have been successful, and a further reintroduction is underway in southern England. Most nest sites are secret for fear of attracting egg thieves or disturbance, but some protected sites allow special viewing. Persecution and deliberate or accidental poisoning remain a threat. In Europe, numbers are increasing strongly, owing to the protection of nests, providing safe food and reintroduction schemes. Windfarms pose a threat from collisions, along with pollution and habitat loss.

DISTRIBUTION A small number now breed on the coast of Scotland and in Ireland. The species breeds from Greenland across Europe and Asia to Japan. The largest populations are in Norway and Russia.

A pair selects one of several traditional nest sites, known as ‘eyries’, within a home range. Breeds in trees, on cliff ledges or sometimes on the ground. Nests are built from large sticks and driftwood, and lined with grass, seaweed and sometimes wool. Some nests reach a huge size as material is added each year. Female incubates but young are fed by both parents. Once independent, immatures roam widely and may join other youngsters at good feeding areas.

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Goshawk Accipiter gentilis Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (pairs) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Strong increase – 580 – March–June 3–4; 1 brood 35–38; 35–42 days Average: 7; Oldest: 22 48–62cm; 850g–1.5kg

juvenile

female

FOOD

IDENTIFICATION

Female almost the size of Buzzard; male is smaller. Looks like a huge Sparrowhawk, having rounded wings, but tail is relatively shorter and rounded at edges, not square-cut across tip. Adult is greybrown above with dark patch behind eye giving hooded appearance. Close to, yellow eyes and white eye-stripe create fierce expression. In flight, appears deep-chested, heavy and powerful, with proportionally short wings. When soaring, the wings are held flat with three or four feathers visible at the wing-tip. Secondary flight feathers are long and bulge, giving a curve to rear wing. It can also point its wing-tips and look remarkably Peregrine-like. Underparts pale and closely barred and undertail barred. White undertail feathers often prominent. Female is browner than male. Juvenile has a buff, streaked breast. See also: Sparrowhawk p93, Buzzard p99, Hen Harrier p94. juvenile female male

HABITS

Except when nesting, it is generally solitary. An elusive species for most of the year, it soars and displays over its nest site in early spring. Displaying birds have a ‘sky-dance’ that involves spreading the white undertail feathers, flapping very slowly on straight wings, and rising and falling in dramatic loops. Female does the majority of ‘sky-dancing’. It is remarkably agile when hunting and weaves low through stands of trees to strike its prey. It makes a rapid chase over a short distance to grasp its quarry in its talons. Will also plunge-dive to catch food Peregrine-like.

VOICE

Feeds opportunistically on range of birds, such as Jay, Woodpigeon, Pheasant, Starling, feral doves, crows, grouse, partridges and thrushes. It also kills mammals, such as rabbits and squirrels.

BREEDING

A nest of twigs and branches, lined with bark and pine needles, is built in the fork of a large tree, and often reused. Female incubates and broods the young for their first 8–10 days. She will fiercely attack any potential predators, including humans and even male Goshawks. Young stay in the nest for about 35 days before moving onto nearby branches for a further 10 days, fed by the adults.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Most British Goshawks do not move far from their breeding sites. Young birds disperse in all directions in late summer. Some northern populations in Europe move south in autumn.

CONSERVATION

The Goshawk became extinct as a breeding species in Britain and Ireland at the end of the 1800s as a result of human persecution and forest loss. The currently growing population probably originates from birds that escaped from captivity or were deliberately released in the 1960s and 1970s. Colonisation has been slowed by the theft of eggs and young, and by other illegal killing, but the establishment of coniferous forests and their careful management with nest protection has helped this species bounce back. In Europe, the population is decreasing. Main threats are persecution and control in some countries, nest robbery for falconry, and collision with windfarms.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain, the Goshawk is widely though thinly distributed through suitable forests, especially in Wales, Scotland and parts of England. A few pairs also nest in Ireland. It breeds widely across Europe, Asia and North America.

Most calls are made close to the nest or when displaying. The most frequent is gek-gek-gek, which is also given when birds are alarmed.

HABITAT

Lives and nests in large mature woodlands, coniferous, mixed and deciduous, but also hunts in open countryside, heath and farmland.

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Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (pairs) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Stable – 28,500 – April–July 4–5; 1 brood 32–36; 27–31 days Average: 4; Oldest: 20 28–38cm; 150–260g

IDENTIFICATION

The male is smaller than a Kestrel. Sparrowhawks are small, fast-flying birds of prey with long, squareended tails and broad rounded wings. The male has a slate-grey back and reddish, barred underparts that can appear orange at a distance. Grey tail crossed with 4–5 dark bars. Female may be 25% larger than male, heavier-looking, with brown upperparts, paler barred underparts, white stripe over the eye and a fierce expression. Juvenile has reddish-brown upperparts and ragged bars on breast. See also: Goshawk p92, Kestrel p194.

male

female

juvenile male

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

In Britain and Ireland largely resident. Although young will leave native woods, they do not generally travel more than 20km. In northern female and eastern Europe, the species moves to winter in central and southern Europe, and some reach eastern Britain. male

HABITS

Secretive and usually solitary. Displays over its nest site in spring as it soars on broad, outstretched wings. Displaying birds often flap their wings slowly and deliberately as they undulate across the sky. Also closes its tail feathers and sticks out the pale undertail-coverts. These soaring displays may culminate in a spectacular dive with closed wings. In level flight, it alternates rapid, flappy wingbeats with a long glide. Ambushes its quarry, by watching, waiting and attacking swiftly in dashing low flight, grasping prey with its feet. Often uses the same flight path, sometimes dashes along a hedgerow, silently slipping over the top, to surprise prey on the other side.

VOICE

Silent for most of the year. When nesting, most common call is a shrill ke-ke-ke-ke.

HABITAT

Woodland hunter living mainly in the lowlands. Also found in upland forest and urban areas. Nests in conifer, mixed and deciduous woodland, where it hunts along woodland edges, rides and clearings. Will visit nearby farmland and often hunts in gardens.

FOOD

Mainly birds. Male takes smaller species such as finches, sparrows, larks, pipits and tits. Female takes larger species such as Blackbird and Starling. Birds up to the size of Woodpigeon may be caught.

juvenile male

CONSERVATION

Once common throughout Britain and Ireland, it was severely affected by agricultural chemicals during the 20th century, and numbers declined rapidly, especially in England. Reducing harmful pesticides allowed rapid recovery, but this has now slowed. Sparrowhawks have also moved into cities, towns and suburbs, where there is an abundance of prey and nesting is relatively safe. The European population is stable. Environmental pollution, in the form of pesticides, remains a threat, as does collision with wind turbines.

DISTRIBUTION Throughout Britain and Ireland, except in the most mountainous areas. Breeds in Europe from the far north of Fennoscandia to the Mediterranean, and in North Africa. Found widely across Asia.

BREEDING

Nests of twigs and sticks are built each year in the fork of a deciduous tree, or near the trunk of a conifer. Incubation is by female, who is supplied with food by the male. As young grow, the female also provides food. At 28 days they sit in nearby branches and fed by adults until they fly. They depend on parents for a further 20 days until they can hunt for themselves.

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Hen Harrier Circus cyaneus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight juvenile

Red Stable – 500 – April–June 4–5; 1 brood 34; 37–42 days Average: 7; Oldest: 17 44–52cm; 350–500g female

HABITAT

A bird of open upland heather moors, but it also nests in young conifer plantations. More widespread in winter, visiting lowland farmland, fens, heathland, river valleys and coastal marshes. Occupies a wider variety of nesting habitats in mainland Europe.

FOOD

Feeds predominantly on small mammals, but will eat other birds, including song-birds such as Meadow Pipits, shorebirds, waterfowl and gamebirds.

BREEDING

Nests are usually spaced out, but where a male is mated to more than one female, several nests may be in close proximity. Nest is a pile of local vegetation, generally heather, built among low, dense vegetation at a site that may be damp or dry. Female incubates eggs, laid at 1–3-day intervals. Asynchronous egg-laying results in noticeable age and size difference between young. For the first 10–15 days the female tends the chicks and the male provides food. Later, the female helps with hunting. Young males fly before females and they remain with the mother for several weeks after fledging.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

male female

In parts of its range, this bird may be resident, but in Britain and Ireland it is a partial migrant, moving south in winter, some to mainland Europe, with additional birds from the north arriving in autumn.

CONSERVATION

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller and slimmer than Buzzard with a long tail and long wings with ‘fingered’ tips. Male has silver-grey upperparts, white underparts, white rump, black wing-tips and slight blackish trailing edge to wings that sometimes shows in flight, especially on underwing. The slightly larger female is dark brown with buff marks on wing, grey-brown tail with darker bands, and obvious white rump band. Underparts are paler and the breast is heavily streaked. Disc of stiffer feathers gives an owl-like appearance to face. Juvenile similar to female, but with wing-linings and underparts a warmer bright rufous-brown. See also: Marsh Harrier p96, Montagu’s Harrier p95, Buzzard p99.

HABITS

Seen singly during the day but often gathers in small communal winter roosts. Buoyant flight when hunting, highly mobile with wings forming a shallow ‘V’ when gliding. In spring, male has a spectacular aerial display flying up and down, twisting on to its back in a ‘sky-dance’. He also makes food passes to the female by calling to her and either passing food in the air or dropping it for her to catch.

Persecution associated with driven grouse shooting in the 19th century led to near-extermination from Britain, but a few remained in Orkney and other remote Scottish sites and in Ireland. It made a gradual comeback and a few nest in northern England, under special protection. Frequent and ongoing illegal killing and disturbance on grouse moors threatens the British population, and windfarms might pose a new threat. The European population is thought to be declining due to habitat loss and persecution in some areas. The main threat in Europe is habitat change linked to agriculture.

DISTRIBUTION Present all year. Breeds in upland areas of Scotland, parts of northern England, the Isle of Man, North Wales and Ireland. In winter, it moves south to occupy lowland habitats. It also breeds from Fennoscandia, south to Portugal and across much of Asia.

VOICE

Mainly silent. Scolding calls when nesting and rapid yikkering call during sky-dance display.

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Montagu’s Harrier Circus pygargus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (pairs) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Moderate decline – 8 – May–June 4–5; 1 brood 28–29; 35–40 days Average: 6; Oldest: 13 43–47cm; 270–380g

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Buzzard and Hen Harrier. Has long wings and tail, a slimmer body, and narrower and more pointed wings. At rest, wing-tips reach tail-tip. Male is blue-grey above with a grey rump. Grey head and breast look rather ‘dirty’ compared with Hen Harrier. Belly is white with some long rusty streaks. In flight, underwing has two black bars, and some rufous flecking. Grey upperwing has one distinct black bar and black wing-tips. Female is very slightly larger, streaky brown with dark crescent mark on cheeks and narrower and more U-shaped white rump than Hen Harrier. Underwing often shows two distinct black bars. Juvenile has rufous unstreaked underparts, dark brown upperparts that have a scaly look and a narrow white rump. A smaller and more delicate bird than the very similar Hen Harrier. See also: Hen Harrier p94, Marsh Harrier p96.

juvenile

female

male

before migrating south. A few winter in Europe, but the majority migrate to sub-Saharan Africa between July and September.

CONSERVATION

Declined from 50 territories in the 1950s to none in 1974. A few have since nested but its future is precarious and almost every nest requires protection. A recent switch from nesting in marshes to cereal fields is fortunate, as productivity is higher provided there is cooperation with the farmer and little disturbance. The European population may be decreasing due to intensive farming, loss of small-mammal and bird prey, and the destruction of nests by farm machinery. Pesticides, agriculture and climate change in Africa are further threats.

HABITS

Hunts with wings held in a shallow ‘V’. Flight light and buoyant. Generally seen singly or in pairs. Like Hen Harrier, has a ‘sky-dance’ as a courtship display and male uses aerial food passes as part of courtship and to provision female during incubation.

female juvenile

VOICE

Generally silent. At nest it has a chattering yick-yickyick call that is higher-pitched than Hen Harrier.

HABITAT

Traditionally nested in fens, wet fields, heaths, moors and dunes. In recent years, has nested in agricultural fields. Outside the breeding season it visits grasslands and inland marshes in its African winter quarters.

FOOD

It is light and agile and suited to catching fastermoving prey. Pounces on small birds, such as larks and pipits, and small mammals, including voles, shrews and rabbits. It also eats the eggs of other birds, as well as lizards and insects.

BREEDING

Female builds a nest of reeds, grasses, heather or other local material on the ground. Female incubates. Eggs are laid at 2–3-day intervals. Incubation begins with the first egg, resulting in an age difference between the young. Young remain with female for 10–14 days after fledging.

DISTRIBUTION The few Montagu’s Harriers that breed in Britain are mainly in the south and east of England. The species nests from southern Sweden to North Africa and east into Russia. It winters in tropical central, eastern and southern Africa.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Summer visitor to southern and eastern Britain with a few on passage in spring and autumn. After nesting, young birds head off in random directions

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Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (pairs) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Strong increase Strong increase 640 – April–June 4–5; 1 brood 31–38; 35–40 days Average: 6; Oldest: 20 48–56cm; 540–670g

3rd-year female

IDENTIFICATION

Size of Buzzard but less bulky. Largest harrier with long, rather broad wings and long tail. Slim body and long legs. Plumage is variable. Striking male has pale head streaked finely with dark brown, tricoloured wings, brown with large grey patches and black wing-tips, and a grey tail. Larger female is chocolatebrown with a straw-coloured head and similarcoloured leading edges to the wings. Juvenile resembles chocolate-brown female but often lacks pale marks on wings and sometimes lacks pale head. Soars, glides and hunts with wings in a shallow ‘V’. See also: Red Kite p97, Hen Harrier p94, Montagu’s Harrier p95, Buzzard p99. female

male

juvenile male

BREEDING

Female builds nest of grass, reeds and small sticks, on the ground among thick marshy vegetation or in a crop, while male, which may be bigamous, constructs one or more ‘false nests’ platforms nearby. Eggs laid at 2–3-day intervals. Female incubates and male brings food. Incubation starts with first egg, and brood comprises young of varying ages. Male provides food until the young have grown and scattered into surrounding vegetation. Female stays with young for 15–25 days after fledging.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

After breeding, most head south or south-west towards North and West Africa. Migrants that travel to Africa return again by April. An increasing number remain in Britain all winter, congregating in large winter roosts.

CONSERVATION

HABITS

Courtship incorporates a ‘sky-dance’ as male makes deep undulations and dives at the female. Male provisions female with aerial food pass which she catches in flight.

VOICE

Mostly silent, but during courtship displays the adults have wailing kweooo call.

HABITAT

Traditional breeding sites are in large reedbeds, but in recent years as the population has grown it has colonised smaller reedbeds and arable fields, especially winter-sown wheat and oilseed rape close to feeding areas. Some migrants visit tropical marshes and swamps in winter.

FOOD

Feeds mainly on animals that live in or near reedbeds, marshes and other wetlands. Drops onto its prey from the air. Chief food is small mammals, birds, insects, reptiles, frogs and even fish.

Wetland drainage and persecution reduced the range and numbers to only two or three females in the 1970s; since then it has increased dramatically. Wintering numbers are also increasing strongly. Protection, along with the management and creation of wetlands, has aided recovery. Some have adopted arable fields as nest sites and, with cooperation of farmers, have been proven successful.

DISTRIBUTION Most breed in eastern Britain, from Kent to Yorkshire, a few in western England, Wales, and southern and eastern Scotland. An increasing number are seen in Britain and Ireland in winter. It also breeds in Europe, from the Baltic south to Portugal and east into Russia and Asia. Many of the migrants from Europe winter in central and southern Africa.

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Red Kite Milvus milvus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Strong increase – 4,400 – March–June 1–3; 1 brood 31; 50–60 days Average: 4; Oldest: 25 60–66cm; 1–1.2kg

juvenile

IDENTIFICATION

Larger than Buzzard. Elegant and graceful bird of prey with long wings and distinct long forked tail. Reddish-brown body with dark streaks, an orangered tail and pale streaked head. In flight, underwing is distinctive with pale patch near the wing-end, dark mark at the bend of the wing and black, fingered tips. Female is slightly larger than male. Juvenile has less distinct streaking on the body, pale brown undertailcoverts (reddish in adults) and a thin white line along the upperwing. Moulting birds may have noticeably shorter flight feathers or gaps. See also: Buzzard p99, Marsh Harrier p96.

HABITS

Soars with easy, buoyant flight, constantly changing the angle of its tail to steer, while hardly moving its wings. Often the long wings are angled and are generally flat when gliding. Usually seen singly or in pairs but larger gatherings occur at food supplies and roosts in winter.

juvenile

VOICE

The call is a shrill, mewing peeee-ooow.

HABITAT

Breeds in mature but open woodland, usually in deciduous woods but sometimes pine. Hunts in farmland, moorland and other open areas, and may scavenge at roadside verges. Roosts communally in woodland in winter. In Europe, it visits edges of marshes, farms, forests and rubbish tips.

FOOD

Eats carrion and scavenges at rubbish tips. Also catches live prey by diving or dropping from a post, feet first. Hunts invertebrates, including earthworms, and mammals, such as rats, mice, voles and small rabbits, a variety of birds, including young crows, pigeons and, in southern Europe, reptiles.

old nest of another species, such as Carrion Crow, Raven or Buzzard. Nest may be used for several years. Female incubates with male taking short shifts, often sitting quietly nearby, and young are cared for by both adults. They leave the nest and sit in nearby trees, fed by their parents after they can fly.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Northern and eastern European populations are migratory, while those in Britain and southern Europe are mainly resident. European migrants sometimes reach Britain.

CONSERVATION

Once common and even scavenged London’s streets, but persecution drove them close to extinction in Britain, with only a few in Wales at the beginning of the 20th century. Protection and reintroduction have helped recovery. Since 1989, young from Europe have been released at several locations in England, Scotland and Ireland, and numbers are increasing. Both native Welsh and released birds have been nesting successfully. However, illegal poisoning remains a threat, notably in Scotland where population growth has been slow. Classified as Near Threatened in Europe, it has declined in its core range of Spain, France and Germany due to illegal poisoning from baits and indirect poisoning from rodenticides. Declines have also been linked to a reduction in the number of refuse sites.

DISTRIBUTION Breeds in Wales, England, Scotland, and in the east of Ireland. Breeds across Europe, from southern Sweden to the Mediterranean coast and east to Ukraine. It is a little more widespread in southern Europe in winter.

BREEDING

Nest of large twigs is usually in the fork of a deciduous tree and sometimes ‘decorated’ with rags, plastic bags and other ‘rubbish’. Sometimes uses the

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Rough-legged Buzzard Buteo lagopus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (pairs) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Not assessed – Stable – 30 – – – Oldest: 18 50–60cm; 900g–1.3kg

juvenile

juvenile

IDENTIFICATION

Slightly larger than Buzzard with longer wings and tail. Female is slightly larger than male. Upperparts are grey-brown and the tail is juvenile white with a black band at the end. Juvenile, most often seen here, has a thicker dark terminal band to the tail and paler bases to the primary flight feathers. Head is often whitish. Juveniles and adult females show white underparts with a dark belly, dark patches at the bend of the wings in flight, and dark wing-tips. male Adult males show a dark head and duller underparts without the dark belly-patch and at least two narjuvenile rower dark bands at the tail-tip. It can be difficult to separate this species from pale Buzzards, although the flight and tail pattern are distinctive. See also: MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS Buzzard p99, juvenile Golden Eagle p90. These birds leave their northern breeding grounds HABITS and migrate south for the winter. Southbound Frequently hovers with wings flapping energetically migration begins in August and some from Fennosor hangs almost motionless as it searches for its candia reach eastern Britain. Very occasionally, there prey. It also watches for prey from a perch. Like Buz- have been larger influxes, with more than 250 seen zard, it soars with wings held in a shallow ‘V’, but in in a single winter. They start to return in February. level flight the action is freer and more fluid. When CONSERVATION gliding the wings appear to have a slight kink. Population fluctuations of this species are linked VOICE to the availability of small mammals that form a The most frequent call is a far-carrying and rather substantial proportion of its diet. In the past, mournful peeeeooo. pesticides posed a threat; now illegal hunting and persecution, and collision with power lines are risks.

HABITAT

In Britain, it mostly visits open coastal and marshland sites, but also needs a small wood or plantation as an evening roost. In summer, this is a species of the European tundra, but when the population is expanding it will also breed in more wooded taiga areas.

FOOD

Feeds mainly on mammals such as rabbits and voles. In Fennoscandia, in summer, voles and lemmings are the main prey items, but it also feeds on small birds, fish, some insects and carrion.

DISTRIBUTION This species is a regular winter visitor and vagrant in eastern England and Scotland. It breeds in Fennoscandia and across northern Asia and North America. In winter, birds from Fennoscandia and Russia are found in the Low Countries and in eastern Europe.

BREEDING

Does not breed in Britain and Ireland. It makes a stick nest on a rock ledge or sometimes in a tree. Larger clutches are laid in years when food is abundant. Both adults feed the young.

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Buzzard Buteo buteo Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

juvenile

Green Strong increase Strong increase 73,000 – April–June 2–3; 1 brood 34; 50 days Average: 12; Oldest: 30 51–57cm; 828g

IDENTIFICATION

Large, thickset bird of prey with wide rounded head, short neck, broad rounded, stiff wings with ‘fingered’ tips and a rather short, broad tail with dark band. Female slightly larger than male. Colour is very variable but never has the dark bands in the wings or tail of Honey-buzzard. Common plumage medium-brown with a pale crescent on breast, browner wing-linings and paler flight feathers. Upperwing is darker, more uniform brown. Buzzards hold their wings in a shallow ‘V’ when soaring and gliding. Juveniles are usually dark and streaky. Moults between March and November. Moulting Buzzards show obvious gaps in their wings. See also: Honey-buzzard p89, Rough-legged Buzzard p98, Golden Eagle p90.

HABITS

juveniles

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Soars and glides with head hardly extending in front of wings. Frequently hangs in the air almost motionless looking for prey, and will also hover, with slower deeper wingbeats than Kestrel. Spends a lot of time perched, from where it can easily swoop on prey. Also hunts for worms on the ground. Usually seen singly or in pairs, although migrating birds in Europe may gather in larger numbers.

British and Irish Buzzards seldom move more than 50km from their nests. Some migrants from Europe reach eastern Britain in autumn, and winter here. Migration of the eastern race, known as Steppe Buzzard, through the Middle East is spectacular, with thousands gathering at narrow sea-crossings as they migrate into Africa.

VOICE

Buzzards were once widespread in Britain but were exterminated in much of the east. Myxomatosis, which reduced the rabbit population, pesticides and unlawful persecution reduced Buzzard numbers during the 20th century. More recently young birds have recolonised eastern England and Scotland, and eastern and central Ireland. However, persecution, especially poisoning, continues to kill in some areas.

Call a drawn out mewing peee-uu, which may be heard at any time of year.

HABITAT

Breeds where there are trees or crags for nesting. Pastoral farms with trees in hilly areas and some moorland is still the stronghold, but expansion into eastern Britain has brought it into arable lowland areas with scattered woodlands. Also lives where there are coniferous forests and rocky coasts.

FOOD

Small mammals, especially voles and rabbits, birds such as young pigeons and crows, also insects, reptiles, earthworms, and carrion.

BREEDING

CONSERVATION

DISTRIBUTION Buzzards breed widely across mainland Britain and central and eastern Ireland. They breed from the Arctic Circle south to the Mediterranean and across Asia. Some eastern races migrate to winter in Africa.

Nest made of sticks and lined with bracken, moss and other softer materials. Often the same nest is added to year after year. Both adults incubate, but the female has the longest shifts, while the male provides most of the food. Incubation starts with first egg laid, thus hatching is spread over about a week and the smallest young may not survive. Young are dependent on their parents for about 40 days after fledging.

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Great Bustard Otis tarda Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Former breeder Uncertain – 4 – April–June 2–3; 1 brood 25; 30–35 days Oldest: 9 75–105cm; 3.3–5.3kg

male

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

IDENTIFICATION

Huge turkey-sized bird, male much larger than female. Grey head and neck, golden sandy upperparts with fine black barring, chestnut on breast and side of neck and white underparts. Males have tuft of feathers at base of bill when breeding. Smaller and slimmer females lack the ‘moustache’ and chestnut markings. Juveniles lack most of the barring on back and are more chestnut. Unmistakeable in flight, with large, bulky body, prominent breast and large white and pale grey wings, with black flight feathers all obvious. Male in winter is duller, without ‘moustache’. Stout grey bill and sturdy grey legs.

BREEDING

Males first breed at 5–6 years old. Nest is a scrape on the ground made by the female. Female also incubates the eggs. Female feeds and cares for the young that soon feed themselves. Not fully grown until 50–95 days, and young remain with parents until the next breeding season.

Some populations are sedentary and others migratory. In Spain and Portugal, in one population there are some that move and some that stay. Adult males often move from their breeding grounds as females care for the young. They migrate to favoured summering areas. Young males disperse further than young females in search of their own territories. Populations in eastern Europe and Russia, where winters are harsher, mostly move to escape the worst weather.

CONSERVATION

female

HABITS

Shy and wary and can be secretive despite its size. Gregarious – groups often feed together. Walks sedately and evenly with neck erect and tail often cocked. Male has flamboyant courtship display as it cocks its tail over its back, lays its head on its back, inflates its neck and chest, spreads its wing feathers, and shivers, shakes and struts as it displays to males and females in a lek. If disturbed, or approached too closely, it will fly off rapidly.

VOICE

Mostly silent, but sometimes a hoarse bark or grunt.

HABITAT

A bird of open countryside, grassy plains, pastures, steppe, low-intensity agricultural land, and stubble fields, usually without trees and few bushes.

Great Bustard was last recorded breeding around 1833 in Britain, the population reduced through agricultural changes and hunting. A reintroduction programme is underway in southern England, with eggs from Russia and Spain. Regular breeding is reported, although the location is protected to minimise disturbance. Elsewhere, declines are reported from eastern Europe and Russia, while numbers have increased in the European Union. Threats include collision with power lines and wind turbines, predation and hunting, habitat fragmentation due to development, ploughing of grasslands, intensive grazing, afforestation and irrigation schemes.

DISTRIBUTION Apart from the reintroduction programme in southern England the species is a very rare vagrant. It breeds in Iberia, Morocco, central and eastern Europe and into Russia, the Middle East and central Asia.

FOOD

Feeds on shoots, leaves and flowers of plants such as dandelion, clover, pea family, grasses and plantains. Animal matter includes many insects, such as grasshoppers, crickets, beetles and caterpillars of moths and butterflies, occasionally reptiles, amphibians, and young ground-nesting birds.

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Water Rail Rallus aquaticus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Uncertain – 1,400 – March–August 6–11; 1–2 broods 19–22; 20–30 days Oldest: 8 23–28cm; 110–140g

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Moorhen. Upperparts streaky brown, underparts blue-grey, grey-and-white barring on flanks and white under tail. Bill is long and red. Long legs and toes trail in flight. Juvenile has a browner face with a pale stripe over the eye, paler, more mottled underparts with no blue-grey, pale throat and dark bill. After nesting, adults undergo their annual moult. Flight feathers are lost simultaneously and the birds are flightless for about 3 weeks. See also: Moorhen p104, Spotted Crake p103.

HABITS

Usually very shy and skulking, and more often heard than seen, but sometimes in winter, or where it becomes used to people, it can be surprisingly confiding. Usually solitary outside the breeding season and defends a winter territory. Its slim body allows it to slip through dense reedbed vegetation. Walks cautiously, flicking its tail. When alarmed will run, head down, for cover. Frequently swims over short distances. Flight appears weak and fluttering on rather long wings.

VOICE

Variety of strange grunts and squeals during the day and night. Most obvious call is a drawn-out, squealing shriek rather like a piglet.

They become independent after about 55 days. A second brood is normal, with breeding often continuing into August.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

British and Irish Water Rails are mainly resident, but northern populations are migratory and in October and November Britain receives birds from northern and eastern Europe. These birds return in March and April.

CONSERVATION

downy young

HABITAT

Breeds in reedbeds and marshes with thick, low cover and some open muddy areas. Also, alongside rivers, around lakes and ponds and, in winter, in ditches and other wet places. Usually associated with fresh water but visits brackish lagoons and saltmarshes.

FOOD

Feeds in water and on land. Catches small fish, freshwater shrimps, frogs, small snails, insects and their larvae. Eats berries and other fruit, and shoots and roots of plants such as watercress. Will catch and eat small birds and may also eat carrion in winter.

BREEDING

juvenile

Nest is on the ground among dense vegetation close to water. Incubation is by both parents, although female takes the largest share. Young are brooded in the nest for a few days and fed by both parents. Once out of the nest they soon feed themselves.

Once common, but drainage of marshes and fens and loss of vegetation along waterways have reduced its numbers. It is adversely affected by severe winters that freeze shallow water, and dry summers may also present problems. Recent initiatives by conservation bodies to recreate and better manage large reedbeds should help this species. Population sizes and trends in Britain and Ireland, and in Europe, are uncertain because this elusive bird is difficult to census. Numbers may be underestimated.

DISTRIBUTION Thinly scattered over much of lowland Britain and Ireland in suitable wetland habitat. Ireland has higher densities of Water Rails than Britain. Winter distribution is similar, but with rather more individuals being seen in southern Britain. Breeds in Europe from the Mediterranean to Scandinavia and east into Russia. Also found in Asia and North Africa.

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Corncrake Crex crex Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Moderate decline – 1,150 – May–Aug 8–12; 1–2 broods 16–19; 34 days Unknown 27–30cm; 140–170g

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Moorhen. Rather chicken-like, with short, pointed bill and thick neck. Mainly yellowbrown with dark streaks on the upperparts, reddishbrown underparts, with pale barring on its flanks and a grey face and breast. The rusty-red wing feathers show at rest and in flight. Wings are quite rounded at the tips, but in full flight look longer and sleeker. Adults moult in July and August. Flight feathers are lost together and it becomes flightless for a short time. See also: Quail p58, Grey Partridge p56, Spotted Crake p103.

BREEDING

Nest is a shallow cup lined with leaves and built on the ground among dense vegetation, sometimes with longer stems pulled over the top to form a loose canopy. Incubation is by the female. Young are fed by the female for the first few days after hatching until they are able to feed themselves.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

A summer visitor to Europe, arriving in mid-April to breed and leaving again in August or September. Capable of sustained long-distance flights, for example, across the Sahara Desert. It winters in eastern and southern Africa.

CONSERVATION

juvenile

HABITS

Generally solitary except when nesting. Very secretive and much more likely to be heard than seen. On the ground walks with high steps and runs swiftly. Able to thread its way through dense vegetation. Usual flight is fluttering, with legs dangling, but over longer distances the flight is more direct and the legs are drawn up under the body.

VOICE

The distinctive song, a repeated crex-crex, is mostly heard at dusk and during the night. It has been likened to drawing a comb across a matchbox. It is the origin of the Corncrake’s scientific name.

HABITAT

Prefers thick low vegetation, such as grasslands, including hay meadows, rough pastures and the dry fringes of marshes and fens, but generally avoids wet places. Grasslands cropped for hay are ideal unless they are cut too early. In Europe and Russia, breeds in wide river floodplains among grasslands, iris beds and drier reedbeds. In winter, in Africa inhabits dry grasslands and savannah, and grassy areas close to rivers and marshes.

Once common in the British Isles, the decline started as late cut-hay meadows were first mown mechanically and then switched to early-cut silage fields. Mechanical and earlier grass-cutting destroyed nests, adults and young, and led to increased predation. At this time, suitable habitat was also being lost to drainage and conversion to arable crops. By the end of the 20th century Corncrake was virtually extinct in England and Wales, and declines were noted across Europe. Conservation measures in core areas brought a halt to these declines in the 1990s in Britain and Ireland, and numbers have slowly increased. Conservationists have worked with farmers to ensure that fields with nettle and iris are available in spring, and grass fields are mown from the centre outwards after 1 August. There has been a recent attempt to reintroduce Corncrake into eastern England. The population in Europe is stable, but it faces similar threats in terms of habitat loss and changes in grassland management.

DISTRIBUTION It is now confined to coastal and island strongholds in Scotland and Ireland, especially in the Western Isles. The species is found across mainland Europe, from the Pyrenees to the Arctic and into eastern Asia. Winters in southern and eastern Africa.

FOOD

Feeds on insects, including beetles, flies, grasshoppers and ants. It also eats spiders, snails and worms, as well as seeds, leaves and stems of plants.

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Spotted Crake Porzana porzana Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

IDENTIFICATION

Amber Stable – 31 – April–July 10–12; 1–2 broods 18–19; 25 days Oldest: 7 22–24cm; 90g

BREEDING

Nest is on the ground near water. Both adults incubate. male Young remain in the nest until all the eggs have hatched. After a few days they leave the nest and feed themselves.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Most Spotted Crakes are summer migrants to western Europe, arriving from March to May to breed and returning in September and October.

female

Smaller than Moorhen, size of Starling. A small marsh bird with a greenbrown back with dark streaks and white flecks and spots, and blue-grey face and throat. Olive-brown breast covered in pearl-like white spots. The flanks are barred black and white, with orange feathers under tail; fine white lines near the tips of the folded wings and the leading edge of outer flight feather is white. Bill is dull yellow with red spot at base. Long green legs. Female resembles male, but slightly smaller. Juvenile has pale stripe over the eye, lacks any blue-grey, has pale throat and browner breast. Adults moult completely after breeding and lose all flight feathers. Juveniles start by moulting the head and body but can suspend this moult when they migrate. See also: Moorhen p104, Water Rail p101.

HABITS

Secretive and skulks in dense marshes, but some can be confiding, emerging from waterside vegetation, especially juveniles in autumn. It is most active at dawn and dusk. If surprised in the open, it will run for cover or spring up and fly with dangling legs, and fluttering flight before dropping quickly into cover. Usually seen singly. It walks with legs bent, body close to the ground and tail flicking nervously. Swims with similar action to Moorhen and Water Rail.

VOICE

Usually silent during the day, but adults call at dusk and throughout the night in spring. The call is a rapid insistent whit, whit, repeated at approximately 1-second intervals and likened to a whip cutting through the air.

HABITAT

Breeds in large freshwater marshes and other wetlands with shallow water and dense vegetation. On migration and in winter, it visits similar scattered habitats where it feeds along muddy wetland margins.

FOOD

male

juvenile

The majority seen in Britain are juveniles, arriving from August to October, presumably from the continent. A few overwinter in Europe, especially around the Mediterranean. Many European birds cross the Sahara to winter in eastern and southern Africa.

CONSERVATION

Historically, it was more numerous, but for most of the 20th century it has only nested sporadically. Most of the known breeding sites are nature reserves and the plans by the RSPB and other conservation bodies to recreate large reedbeds and wetlands may help this species in future. While knowledge of this secretive species has improved in Britain, it is easily overlooked as a breeding bird. The European population is thought to have fallen considerably in the past due to extensive wetland drainage and changing farming practices, and it is also threatened by the loss of wetlands in Africa. It is vulnerable to changes in water levels, so climate change is a concern. The European population trend in uncertain.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain, it nests in a few scattered locations, across England and Scotland, notably in East Anglia. Migrants are scattered widely in autumn, but mostly in eastern Scotland and south-eastern England. It breeds from northern and eastern Europe to the Mediterranean, and across Russia into Asia.

Among the wide variety of small prey items are insects such as caddis flies, beetles (including water beetles) and moth larvae. It also eats small water snails, fish and worms. Plant material, such as seeds, shoots and roots of rushes, are also eaten.

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Moorhen Gallinula chloropus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Stable – 200,000 – March–August 5–7; 2–3 broods 21; 45 days Average: 3; Oldest: 18 32–35cm; 350g

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Coot. From a distance it appears black with a ragged white line along its body. Seen closer, the back is olive-brown and head and underparts very dark blue-grey. Bill is red with a yellow tip and red ‘shield’ on forehead. Long legs and toes are yellowish-green. Undertail has white feathers divided by black line. Chicks are black with pink and blue on their heads and red-and-yellow beaks. Juvenile is dark brown with pale throat and chin, and less obvious line along its body. Body feathers are moulted between May and November. Flight feathers are lost in one go and birds are flightless for a short time between June and August. See also: Coot p105, Water Rail p101, Corncrake p102.

HABITS

Constantly flicks tail as it walks or swims, revealing white undertail feathers. When taking off it runs across the water, trailing its legs as it takes to the air. Once airborne, the legs protrude beyond the tail. It uses its long toes to clamber around vegetation and often roosts in trees and bushes. Swims with a distinctive pumping motion and sometimes dives to escape danger. Seen singly or in family groups in summer, but larger groups sometimes form in winter. Often quite bold and unconcerned by the presence of people.

VOICE

Wide range of calls: most familiar being a loud, abrupt kurr-uk that seems to echo across the water. It makes other harsh, croaking calls.

HABITAT

Breeds around freshwater lakes, rivers, ditches and small ponds. Also found on wetlands in parks in towns and cities and sometimes feeds on farmland adjacent to ponds or marshland. 1st-winter

FOOD

Eats plant and animal material, feeding on land and in water. Plant food includes duckweed, pondweed, seeds from sedges, docks and buttercup, also berries from blackberry, rose and elder. Animal food includes worms, snails, spiders, insects, small fish and eggs of other birds.

BREEDING

Both parents build a nest among aquatic plants in or near water. It consists of dead reeds and other vegetation. Occasionally nests in bushes. Both parents incubate. It is not uncommon for two to four females to lay in one nest. Young are fed by the parents and by young of earlier broods. By 25 days they can feed themselves but continue to be fed by their parents until they fly. They become independent at 52–99 days.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Birds in Britain and Ireland are mostly resident. Those from northern and eastern Europe migrate south-west. Some reach Britain in autumn and stay until spring.

CONSERVATION

Threats come from the methods of managing waterways that often remove bankside vegetation, and perhaps climate change. Maintenance of channels and banks needs to be on a rotation, where some vegetated areas are left uncut, to allow Moorhens and other wildlife feeding and breeding sites. Invasive introduced American Mink may pose a threat to local populations. The European population is thought to be stable.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain, found in lowland areas, especially in central and eastern England, but scarce in northern Scotland, central Wales and northern England. Found across most of Ireland. Elsewhere, found very widely across most of Europe, except the far north, and in Africa, Asia, North and South America.

juvenile

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Coot Fulica atra Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Stable – 25,500 – March–July 5–7; 2–3 broods 2–24; 55 days Average: 5; Oldest: 20 36–38cm; 690–810g

FOOD

Eats both plant and animal material. Plants include algae, pondweeds, duckweed, bulrush, hornwort and young grasses. Animals include freshwater mussels, water snails, larvae of flies, moths and beetles.

BREEDING juvenile

1st-winter

IDENTIFICATION

Larger than Moorhen. Dumpy waterbird, swims strongly with nodding head motion. Adult is slateblack with white bill and forehead shield. In flight, shows pale bar along the trailing edge of inner wings. Legs are grey with long, partly webbed toes. In flight, feet protrude well beyond tail. Chicks are black with pink and blue on their heads and red-and-yellow beaks. Juvenile is greybrown with pale face and white throat. Adults begin to moult in May. Flight feathers are moulted in one go and birds are flightless for a short time between June and September. Juveniles start to moult their body feathers after fledging and finish by late October. See also: Moorhen p104.

HABITS

Frequently seen in flocks and often accompanies swans and other waterbirds, picking up food disturbed or discarded by larger species. Spends most of its day on water and dives frequently when feeding. Also grazes short grass where it walks rather awkwardly and runs with wings flapping when disturbed. It makes a long, pattering run across the water as it takes off. It can be noisy and quarrelsome and engages in territorial fights during the breeding season.

VOICE

Most usual call is a loud single note, kowk, which may be heard day or night.

HABITAT

Generally found on larger waters than Moorhen, but often together. Breeds on lakes, reservoirs, flooded gravel pits and large, slow-flowing rivers. Also breeds on park ponds and lakes in towns and cities. In winter, it congregates on larger bodies of water and, sometimes, on the sea in cold weather.

Most nests are among reeds and other aquatic vegetation and close to other Coots’ nests. Some nest out in the open with little surrounding cover. The large nest is made of plant leaves and stems and lined with smaller material. Incubation is by both parents. Female broods newly hatched young on the nest for the first 3–4 days and the male feeds them. The parents divide the brood between them and continue to feed the young for about 30 days.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Present in Britain and Ireland throughout the year. Birds move to larger lakes in autumn and some leave the country. In mainland Europe, Coots in the north and east are migrants and many of these reach Britain and increase local populations each winter, especially in the south and east.

CONSERVATION

The British population is stable and this species has been helped by the creation and better management of wetlands for wildlife, such as gravel pits and nature reserves, and by the construction of large reservoirs. These have provided new breeding sites and places where large flocks can gather in winter. The European population seems to be falling owing to habitat loss, hunting pressure, and predation by American Mink among other factors.

DISTRIBUTION Widely distributed breeding species in Britain and Ireland, with largest numbers in the English lowlands. Winter distribution is similar, with more birds concentrated on larger sized waterbodies. The species breeds throughout Europe as far north as Fennoscandia. It is also found in North Africa, and right across Asia, including in India, with another race in Australasia.

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Crane Grus grus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Strong increase – 56 – April–June 2; 1 brood 30; 65–70 days Oldest: 20 110–120cm; 5.6kg

IDENTIFICATION

Larger than Grey Heron. Britain’s tallest bird, graceful, with long legs, long neck, sloping body with obvious ‘bustle-like’ drooping, curved feathers at rear and pointed pale bill. Mainly grey with black flight feathers, black-and-white head and neck, and a red band at the back of the crown. Juvenile has paler, reddish-brown head and neck. Moults in summer. Flight feathers are lost rapidly in May or June and birds are flightless for about 5 weeks. Takes 3 years for young to acquire full adult plumage through a series of partial moults. See also: Grey Heron p79.

HABITS

Walks gracefully with its neck slightly curved. Flies with neck straight, unlike herons, and long legs protruding well beyond tail. Wings are straight and broad with ‘fingered’ ends. Huge size apparent in steady flight. On migration, and in winter, forms large flocks that fly in ‘V’ formation, but is usually seen in pairs or small non-breeding flocks during spring and summer. A shy bird, especially on breeding grounds, but has elaborate dancing displays with loud trumpeting call. Family parties remain together for the autumn and winter, often forming larger flocks.

VOICE

A loud clanging and far-carrying trumpeting note is given in flight and on the ground.

HABITAT

Requires an undisturbed site that is safe from predators. Traditionally, uses clearings in forests, in fens or other wetlands. Recently some have adapted to live on cultivated land and breed near ponds in fields and meadows. In winter, lives in more open country that is often arable or grassland with scattered trees.

FOOD

Feeds on a variety of plant material, such as shoots of grass, seeds such as acorns, and berries. Also eats the leaves of growing crops, including potatoes,

juvenile

wheat, oats and barley. Animal food includes insects such as flies, beetles and caterpillars. Snails, worms, small mammals and birds are sometimes also eaten.

BREEDING

Nest is sometimes on a small hill or ridge in a wetland. It is a large pile of vegetation on the ground, added to throughout the breeding season, on which the eggs are laid. Both parents share incubation. Young are fed by both parents.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

British breeding birds are resident. Other European Cranes leave their northern breeding grounds in autumn to winter in a few traditional sites in southern Europe, especially France and Spain, and a few in North Africa. Cranes are increasingly wintering further juvenile north. A few migrants are seen annually, mainly in eastern Britain.

CONSERVATION

Ceased to breed in Britain in the 17th century. A few returned to East Anglia in 1979 and Scotland in 2012. A reintroduction programme in south-west England has also been successful. With careful protection, Cranes now breed at several sites in England, Scotland and Wales. Most are protected and managed as reserves. In Europe, numbers are also increasing. Main threats are habitat loss, shooting and disturbance, and collision with power lines. Cranes need large undisturbed areas and in Europe they need effective protection of migration stopover sites and wintering areas.

DISTRIBUTION The small breeding population is found in East Anglia, south-west England, Wales and Scotland. In addition, migrants from mainland Europe regularly pass through in spring or autumn, and may turn up almost anywhere, but mostly in the south and east. The main breeding grounds are in Fennoscandia, north-east Europe, across most of Russia and parts of Asia.

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Stone-curlew Burhinus oedicnemus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Strong increase – 385 – April–July 2; 1–2 broods 24–26; 36–42 days Average: 6; Oldest: 22 40–44cm; 470g

IDENTIFICATION

Large wader with long yellow legs, large head, large yellow staring eye with black pupil, and short yellow bill with black tip. Upperparts, head and breast are sandy brown with heavy brown streaks. Pale stripes above and below eye and pale bar across the folded wings, which is bordered above and below with blackish-brown. Wing pattern of male has more contrast than that of female. In flight, wings are boldly marked with white bars. Moult takes places slowly from May until November. See also: Golden Plover p116.

HABITS

Groups will sometimes gather to feed at dusk in the breeding season and flocks are frequent on its wintering grounds. Most active at night. During the day, whether standing or sitting, it blends with its surroundings. It often stands upright, but when suspicious, or walking or running, it appears ‘hunchbacked’ as it holds its head level with its wings.

VOICE

Wailing coo-leee call is reminiscent of a rather shrill Curlew. Vocal at night and especially at dusk.

HABITAT

Breeds on bare stony ground with sparse vegetation, especially in areas with chalk soils. It prefers very short natural or semi-natural grasslands, but may breed on arable farmland, especially if it is sparsely covered with some bare ground. Also found on some heathlands and even on old airfields. In mainland Europe, the breeding areas are similar but include poor stony pastures, sand dunes and margins of deserts. In winter, tends to live in similar habitats.

FOOD

Feeds mainly at night but also during the day when rearing young. Eats a wide variety of small creatures that it picks off the ground, including earthworms, beetles, earwigs, spiders and woodlice.

BREEDING

The birds scrape a hollow on the ground that they line with small stones, rabbit droppings, shells and a little vegetation. Incubation is by both sexes. Newly hatched young are covered in down and able to leave the nest, but they are fed by their parents until they are at least half-grown.

juvenile

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Migration begins in August and continues through the early autumn. Birds return to their breeding grounds in late March and April. British Stonecurlews winter in southern Spain, south-west France and north-west Africa.

CONSERVATION

Declined in Britain from 1,000 pairs in the 1930s, to only 160 in southern England by 1985. Similar decline throughout Europe owing to habitat loss to agriculture, forestry and farming changes. Predation by foxes was also a problem, as was egg-collecting. Recovery in England is due to the RSPB working with farmers, the Ministry of Defence, Forestry Commission and other landowners to protect and manage sites by providing bare ground and safeguarding eggs and chicks from farming operations. However, the population remains localised. The European population is thought to be increasing, but is threatened by forestry, changes in farming, a reduction in sheep rearing, disturbance and shooting.

DISTRIBUTION The British population is localised, being mainly confined to the Brecklands of Norfolk and Suffolk, and around Salisbury Plain in Wiltshire. Breeds in central and southern Europe, south to the Mediterranean, and in southern Asia and North Africa. It winters in southern Europe and North Africa.

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Large waders in flight

summer

OYSTERCATCHER p112 Wide white wing-bar

STONE-CURLEW p107 Boldly marked with black and white

LAPWING p113 Broad, rounded and dark

winter

GOLDEN PLOVER p116 Fine pale wing-bar

AVOCET p114 Pied, with more white than black

winter winter

GREY PLOVER p117 White wing-bar and black ‘arm-pit’

CURLEW p122 Outer flight feathers darker than rest of wing

DOTTEREL p120 Plain and dainty

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winter

BLACK-TAILED GODWIT p124 Big white wing-bar, black tail, white rump

WHIMBREL p123 Smaller and lighter than Curlew

winter

winter

BAR-TAILED GODWIT p125 Plain wings, pale rump extends as ‘V’ between wings

SNIPE p142 Zig-zag flight, white trailing edge

RUFF p129 Narrow wing-bar and white ovals at sides of tail

JACK SNIPE p143 Short direct flight WOODCOCK p144 Dark rounded and owl-like

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Small waders in flight

RINGED PLOVER p118 Bold wing-bar

LITTLE RINGED PLOVER p119 No wing-bar

TURNSTONE p121 Looks black and white

DUNLIN p127 Wing-bar, white sides to dark rump

KNOT p126 Pale rump, dull wing-bar CURLEW SANDPIPER p128 Wing-bar, white rump

TEMMINCK’S STINT p130 White sides to spread tail

LITTLE STINT p131 Grey sides to spread tail

PURPLE SANDPIPER p132 Narrow wing-bar, dark tail with pale sides

SANDERLING p133 White wing-bar, white sides to tail

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RED-NECKED PHALAROPE p135 Dark upperparts, white wing-bar

GREY PHALAROPE p134 Wing base wider than Sanderling

GREEN SANDPIPER p136 White rump contrasts with dark upper and underwings

COMMON SANDPIPER p138 Stiff bowed wings flick below body WOOD SANDPIPER p137 Pale rump, barred tail, dark wings

GREENSHANK p139 Grey wings, long white ‘V’ on back

SPOTTED REDSHANK p141 White lozenge on back, plain wings

REDSHANK p140 White trailing edge, white on back

PECTORAL SANDPIPER p305 Faint wing-bar, black tail bordered with white ovals

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Oystercatcher Haematopus ostralegus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Stable Moderate decline 92,500 285,000 April–July 2–3; 1 brood 24–27; 43 days Average: 12; Oldest: 43 40–45cm; 540g

IDENTIFICATION

summer

summer

summer

juvenile

Large, stocky, blackand-white wader, with long orange-red bill and reddish-pink legs. Head, breast and back are black and underparts white. In flight, has wide, white wing-bar, black tail and white rump that extends as a ‘V’ between wings. In winter, many have wide white chin-strap. Juvenile has brown fringes to feathers on its back and grey legs. Adults moult in July, after breeding. Flight feathers are moulted symmetrically and never more than two at a time. See also: Avocet p114, Black-winged Stilt p115.

HABITS

Noisy and excitable, both in winter flocks and on breeding territory. Piping displays are important when establishing a territory, and sometimes 5–30 will come together in ‘piping parties’ as they run side by side calling loudly. In spring, it has a display flight and flies with shallow wingbeats, calling above its territory. Outside the breeding season gathers in flocks. Sometimes thousands roost together at high tide.

VOICE

Usual call is a loud, shrill, piping kleep, kleep.

HABITAT

Breeds on shingle and rocky beaches, dunes, saltmarshes and on the grassy tops of small islands. Inland it nests on shingle banks of rivers and lakes and on agricultural land. Recently some have colonised heathland and gravel pits. In winter, Oystercatchers gather on coasts, especially estuaries.

FOOD

In coastal areas, chief food is shellfish, such as mussels and cockles, which it either prises open or stabs with its strong bill. Inland the main food is earthworms. Also eats crabs and Lugworms.

BREEDING

Nests on the ground, in the open or among low vegetation. Occasionally nests off the ground on a tree stump or a flat roof. Incubation is by both sexes. Unusually for waders, the young don’t feed themselves, but depend on their parents until they fly and may not be independent until 26 weeks.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Some are resident, but others migrate. Most British birds leave inland breeding sites between July and

winter

September. Adults generally winter around our shores while juveniles may reach France, Spain and Portugal. Scottish and Icelandic birds winter in western Britain and Ireland, Norwegian birds winter on the British east coast and others from Estonia and Russia visit The Wash. Breeding birds return to their territories between March and May.

CONSERVATION

Once culled in South Wales to protect the cockle industry, conservationists stopped this practice, but Oystercatchers remain vulnerable to overexploitation of cockle beds. During the last 50 years, inland populations in northern and central England and Wales have been growing, though in Scotland they have declined. Coastal breeding is now largely restricted to nature reserves and areas free of recreational disturbance. European breeding and wintering populations are thought to be decreasing due to overfishing of shellfish, the disappearance of intertidal mussel and cockle beds, habitat loss, pollution and human recreational disturbance.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain and Ireland, it breeds on almost all coasts. Inland it is most numerous in Scotland and the north of England, but has spread to inland areas in the Midlands, Wales and East Anglia. In winter, present around the coasts of Britain and Ireland, but largest numbers gather on major estuaries. Also breeds in Iceland, Scandinavia, Estonia and Russia. Others breed farther east in Siberia and parts of Asia. Some European birds reach West Africa in winter.

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Lapwing Vanellus vanellus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Strong decline Moderate decline 96,500 620,000 March–June 4; 1 brood 28; 35–40 days Average: 4; Oldest: 24 28–31cm; 230g

summer

summer

male summer

IDENTIFICATION

Medium-large wader with broad, rounded blackand-white wings. Dark metallic green back, purple shoulder, black breast, white face and underparts, and orange undertail. Adults have long upsweeping black crest on back of head, the male’s being longest. Males have whiter faces and blacker breasts. In winter, neat buff edges to back feathers give scaly pattern. Juvenile has shorter crest, more scaly back, and face is less well marked. Adults moult between June and October. Wings look narrower when moulting. See also: Golden Plover p116, Oystercatcher p112.

HABITS

Forms large flocks in autumn and winter that are highly mobile. Flight appears lazy with relaxed floppy wingbeats, and flocks flicker, black and white, as they fly. In courtship, tumbles in aerobatic display during which the stiff flight feathers make a bizarre humming sound. Has ‘stop-start’ feeding action; running a short distance before pausing to pick prey.

VOICE

Call, from which it gets its alternative name of Peewit, is a rather wheezy, drawn-out pee-wit. The call or song that accompanies its display is an electronic-sounding pee-wit, wit, wit-eeze wit.

HABITAT

Breeds mainly on farmland, especially among crops cultivated in spring where there is bare soil and low cover. Also on pastures, wet grassland, fens, bogs, marshes and occasionally industrial sites, where there is bare ground and damp areas for chicks to feed.

FOOD

Eats a variety of invertebrates living on or in the ground, including earthworms, leatherjackets, beetles, flies, moth caterpillars and ants. Also eats spiders, small frogs, snails, and some plant material.

BREEDING

Male makes several scrapes on bare ground from which female chooses one. Scrape is lined with grass or leaves. Incubation is mostly by female. Young are covered with down and feed themselves soon after hatching. They are cared for by both adults and become independent soon after they can fly.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Lapwings are seen in Britain and Ireland throughout the year. After breeding some move only 100km or so, others go west from Britain to Ireland, while yet others fly south to France or Spain, especially in colder weather. Lapwings from Russia and eastern Europe

juvenile

female winter

arrive in Britain from June to November. Winter flocks react to very severe weather by flying southwards, known as cold weather movements.

CONSERVATION

The breeding population has declined, with a fall of over 50% in the last 25 years. Decline is linked to agricultural changes, especially a move from spring to autumn sowing of cereal that has resulted in crops being too for breeding. Also a reduction in mixed farming, with the loss of damp grasslands through drainage, ploughing, fertiliser use and reseeding has resulted in poor nesting habitat. Also, an upsurge in predators has increased pressure on ground-nesting birds. Climate warming may alter the wetlands upon which they depend. It is vulnerable to severe winter weather. The European population is decreasing due to changing agriculture, especially management of grasslands, and hunting pressure.

DISTRIBUTION Widespread breeding species across Britain and Ireland. In winter, may be seen on lowland farmland and estuaries, and during cold weather more flocks visit coastal areas. Breeds from Fennoscandia south to the Mediterranean, and across eastern Europe into Asia, including northern Russia, Kazakhstan, Mongolia and China. European birds winter in western Europe and some reach North Africa.

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Avocet Recurvirostra avosetta Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Strong increase Strong increase 1,900 8,700 April–June 3–4; 1 brood 23–25; 35–42 days Oldest: 27 42–45cm; 280g

IDENTIFICATION

Medium-sized, elegant black-and-white wader with unique long, fine, upcurved black bill, long blue-grey legs and webbed feet. Body white with black crown and back of neck and white oval patches on folded wings. In flight, shows black wing-tips, black bar across the wings and a thick black line down either side of the back. Juvenile plumage is less clear-cut and browner. See also: Black-winged Stilt p115.

juvenile

HABITS

Social species, usually breeding in loose colonies and forming flocks outside the breeding season. Walks briskly, but also swims and up-ends like a duck. Agile in flight and long legs protrude beyond tail. When feeding, sweeps its head and bill from side to side in shallow water to catch prey. Quite bold and when breeding will attempt to chase away larger species. Will also fly above an intruder calling loudly.

VOICE

Usually silent away from nest. Most common call is a pleasant clute, clute, which becomes more urgent and strident if the bird is seriously alarmed.

HABITAT

Most nest near shallow, brackish coastal lagoons with small islands and very little vegetation. In recent years, a few pairs have started nesting inland where some colonies are becoming established.

FOOD

Feeds on insects, crustaceans and worms. Common food includes shrimps, ragworms, sandhoppers, the larvae of midges and other flies and beetles.

BREEDING

Nest of roots and leaves of aquatic plants is built in or close to shallow water. Nests in water may be built up to 13cm high, and more material added if the water level rises. Incubation is by both sexes. Newly hatched young accompany their parents. Chicks feed themselves and are brooded by both parents while small. Young remain with their family for a time.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

British birds leave nest sites after breeding and moult on nearby estuaries, or cross to the Netherlands and join flocks there. After moulting many move to southern and south-west England for the winter, but some may fly on to Spain, Portugal or even Morocco.

CONSERVATION

Once nested from the Humber to Sussex, but by about 1840 became extinct as a breeding species. Flooding of the East Anglian coastal marshes during the Second World War provided perfect breeding habitat for birds to return. Early protection by the RSPB at Havergate Island and Minsmere in Suffolk helped numbers rise and it has subsequently colonised other coastal and, increasingly, inland sites in England. Particular feeding and nesting requirements mean that most breeding birds are on nature reserves and other protected sites. Sea-level rise, may represent the largest threat to breeding, and possibly wintering birds. The European population appears stable. Threats are habitat loss from development and land reclamation, plus pollution and disturbance.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain, breeding Avocets are concentrated in eastern, southern and north-west England, although the species is gradually colonising north and westwards. Most Avocets winter in East Anglia or in south-west Britain, particularly on the Exe and Tamar estuaries. In Europe, it breeds from southern Scandinavia to the Mediterranean. Also found in Africa and Asia.

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Black-winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Not assessed Moderate increase – 3 – May–July 3–5; 1 brood 22–25; 28–32 days Oldest: 12 35–40cm; 166–205g

male

female

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Avocet. Extremely long-legged wader with long, straight, delicate black bill. Has white body and glossy black wings. Male has variable black or grey markings on back of head in breeding season, but this becomes whiter at other times. Female usually has all-white head and less glossy black wings. Juvenile is browner with brown on head, back of neck and back, and thin white trailing edge to the inner rear wing. Pointed wings, long white ‘V’ up the back and long reddish-pink legs protruding beyond the tail are obvious in flight. See also: Avocet p114.

male

HABITS

An elegant species that walks and runs through shallow water. It picks quickly at the water surface for food, first one way then the other. It often stands very upright and bobs its head when nervous, like a Greenshank. In flight, the legs stick out like red streamers and in the breeding season it frequently flies above an intruder in its territory, calling loudly. It breeds in loose colonies and forms small flocks outside the breeding season. Larger flocks sometimes form when migrating.

VOICE

Usually silent except during courtship and when mobbing an intruder in its territory. Calls vary from kiu or kek and a rather bleating kyepp.

HABITAT

Found on shallow coastal lagoons and around shallow margins of lakes and pools. It feeds in both fresh and brackish water and has adapted to rice fields, small reservoirs and sewage treatment works. While most of its nest sites are coastal in western Europe, in the east, some breed around upland lakes miles inland from the sea.

FOOD

Feeds on aquatic insects and other small creatures such as water snails. Eats the adults and larvae of water beetles, dragonflies, moths and other flying insects and sometimes eats the seeds of plants growing in or near the water.

BREEDING

Nests on the ground, usually close to water. Where common, it may be colonial. Nest may be a shallow scrape or more substantial nest built from local vegetation. Incubation is by both parents. Young feed themselves soon after hatching and are independent when they can fly.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Northern populations are migratory and in mainland Europe most breeding sites are abandoned in winter as birds fly south to sub-Saharan Africa. Autumn migration begins in July and birds return in March and April.

CONSERVATION

A scarce migrant and occasional breeder in Britain. The frequency of breeding attempts has increased in recent years, and there is a possibility it will colonise in the future. There were six pairs nesting in 2017, raising 13 young, although subsequent years have not been so good. Careful management for the species on nature reserves, by the RSPB and others, to provide ideal habitat has helped. Nest protection against ground predators may also be needed if breeding occurs. Its reliance on ephemeral waterbodies across the life-cycle makes it sensitive to climate change. The European population is stable.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain and Ireland, it is mostly a rare visitor. Birds are found mainly in the south and east of England. Black-winged Stilts usually occur as overshooting spring migrants between March and May, but a few arrive in autumn or winter. It has a wide global range, with five races (sometimes treated as full species) that breed in Europe, Africa, Asia, Australasia and the Americas.

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Golden Plover Pluvialis apricaria Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Stable Stable 41,600 400,000 April–June 2–4; 1 brood 28–31; 25–33 days Average: 4; Oldest: 12 26–29cm; 220g

summer (northern)

juvenile

FOOD

Eats small creatures, especially beetles and earthworms. Also caterpillars of moths, larvae of craneflies (leatherjackets), ants, earwigs, spiders, snails and plant material including berries, leaves and seeds.

BREEDING

Both male and female prepare a shallow scrape. Incubation is by both adults, although summer often the (northern) male spends most time on the nest. Females sometimes take a second mate, even leaving the first male with the eggs and moving to a new partner. Young are cared for by both parents and become summer (southern) independent soon after fledging.

winter

IDENTIFICATION

Medium-sized, upright wader with small rounded head, plump body, medium-long legs and short bill. In summer, brown and gold spangled back is separated from black face, neck and belly by white line that gets wider towards belly. Males are generally blacker below than females. Northern populations are even blacker on face and belly, but similar birds are found at some British breeding sites. In winter, yellow is duller, breast is lined with buff golden streaks and the belly white. In flight, has a white line in the centre of wings and white underwing. Breeding plumage is acquired between March and May. See also: Grey Plover p117, Dotterel p120.

HABITS

Typical plover that runs, stops and tilts forward to pick food. Often feeds at night. Flight usually rapid but has butterfly-like display flight. Forms flocks throughout the year, but especially in autumn and winter, when thousands gather at traditional sites, often with Lapwings. Some on their breeding grounds live alongside Dunlin which benefits from early warning given by alarm-calling Golden Plover.

VOICE

Most usual call is lonely-sounding and far-carrying pu-wee. Songflight has a longer, far-carrying per-we-oo-, per-wee-oo.

HABITAT

In winter, gathers at traditional inland sites on lowland grassland or arable fields. Often roosts on ploughed fields, coastal marshes and estuaries.

Breeds on short vegetation or bare areas on upland heaths, blanket bogs, extensive fells and tundra in northern Fennoscandia and Russia. In Britain, breeds on blanket bog, heather moorland and limestone grassland, and feeds in surrounding pastures.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Most British breeding birds remain in Britain, moving to lowland agricultural land or the coast after nesting. In very cold conditions however they will move south or west and may leave the country, a few reaching Portugal and Spain. The majority that winter in Ireland and western Britain are from Iceland, others from northern Europe also visit Britain.

CONSERVATION

The British population is stable but with marked range losses. Habitat loss, due to moorland drainage, cultivation and afforestation in the uplands, and drainage and ploughing of old pastures, have all reduced nesting areas and food supplies. Golden Plover are also susceptible to severe cold winter weather. Climate warming may also limit their insect food (craneflies) in summer. However, the European population is thought to be increasing. Similar threats apply and it is also hunted in wintering areas.

DISTRIBUTION Breeds in the uplands of Scotland, northern and south-west England, Wales and the west of Ireland. In winter, it is found in lowland habitats below 200m. It also breeds in the Faroes, Greenland, Iceland, across northern Europe and into Siberia. In winter, some northern birds reach the Mediterranean and North Africa.

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Grey Plover Pluvialis squatarola Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber – Moderate decline – 33,500 – – – Average: 9; Oldest: 25 27–30cm; 240g

winter

winter

summer

IDENTIFICATION

Medium-large wader that appears larger and stouter than Golden Plover, with larger head and heavier bill. Legs are dark grey. In spring, has silver and black spotted upperparts, black face, neck and belly and broad white line running from forehead and down the sides of breast. In winter, loses the black feathers and has a more uniform grey-brown back than Golden Plover. Juvenile has neatly spotted yellow-brown upperparts that are retained through first winter. In all plumages, shows a white wing-bar in flight, white rump and has an obvious black patch under the wing, where it joins the body. Moult takes place between July and December. Birds starting in July may suspend their moult during their migration and continue on their wintering grounds. See also: Golden Plover p116.

HABITS

Feeding birds tend to be solitary and individuals defend their own area of shore. Flocks sometimes form when birds are driven off their feeding grounds by high tides, but generally it is seen in much smaller numbers than Golden Plovers. Feeding action similar to that of other plovers, and also feeds at night.

winter

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Impressive long-distance migrant with the adults leaving their Arctic breeding grounds in July and August. The first to migrate are the females followed later by the males and finally by the young of the year that arrive in Britain a month or so later. There are favourite stopping places such as the German Waddenzee and The Wash in England, and in these areas the adults start their protracted moult. Males tend to winter further north than females, and a high proportion of those wintering in Britain and Ireland may be males. These birds are capable of nonstop flights of 6,500km and arrive back on their breeding grounds in May.

CONSERVATION

VOICE

Most usual call is a lonely-sounding and far-carrying plu-oo-wee, often given in flight.

summer

juvenile

HABITAT

Breeds in low tundra and has not nested in Britain or Ireland. Here, it is found mainly in coastal areas, especially estuaries and sandy beaches, but may also appear on inland wetland sites. Sometimes roosting flocks form on farmland adjacent to the coast.

FOOD

Feeds on cockles, other small shellfish, marine snails, Lugworms, ragworms and bristle worms.

BREEDING

Does not breed in Britain or Ireland. On its northern breeding grounds, nests on the ground in a scrape made by both adults. Female normally leaves the family when young are about 12 days old.

The main threat to Grey Plovers is the loss of habitat along their staging grounds on both European and North American coasts. As with other wading birds, climate change may affect their preferred breeding and wintering areas and their prey.

DISTRIBUTION May be found almost all round the coasts of Britain and Ireland. The largest numbers arrive in autumn and some stay until they depart in spring, but a few non-breeding birds may be seen in summer. This species breeds in Arctic Russia, Siberia and North America and it winters on the coasts of Europe, Africa, southern Asia, North and South America and Australia.

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Ringed Plover Charadrius hiaticula Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Moderate decline Strong decline 5,300 41,400 April–July 3–4; 2–3 broods 23–25; 24 days Average: 5; Oldest: 21 18–20cm; 64g

summer

summer

IDENTIFICATION

Similar to Little Ringed Plover but larger and bigger chested. Adults in summer have white foreheads with a black band above, black mask through eyes, white collar and complete black breast-band. Upperparts are brown, underparts white. Bill is orange with black tip and legs are orange. In flight, there is an obvious white wing-bar and tail has a brown centre with white sides. Juvenile lacks bold black-and-white head pattern, has smaller, browner breast-band (often broken in the middle) and back and crown have a scaly appearance. Bill and legs are dark. Adults moult between July and November, and some flight feathers may be moulted before migration. Juveniles start moulting their tails, body and some wing feathers between August and January. See also: Little Ringed Plover p119, Kentish Plover p304.

juvenile

winter

BREEDING

Male prepares nest-scrape in the open or sometimes sheltered by short vegetation. Beautifully camouflaged eggs are incubated by both sexes. Young are covered in down and can feed themselves. They become independent soon after flying.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Most Ringed Plovers are long-distance migrants, but many of the British and Irish populations are resident or move only comparatively short distances. This is known as a ‘leapfrog’ migrant with birds breeding furthest north wintering furthest south. Canadian and Greenland birds cross the North Atlantic, pass through the British Isles and winter in West Africa. In May, there is a strong return movement through Britain, especially along western coasts. Some birds from Fennoscandia winter in Britain.

CONSERVATION

HABITS

Feeding actions are typical of plovers: a short run before suddenly pausing and quickly tilting the whole body forward as it picks prey from the ground. When disturbed it bobs its head. Usually seen singly or in pairs, but also forms small flocks and associates with other small waders. Flight rapid, generally low. In spring, it has ‘butterfly-like’ flight display on stiff wings.

VOICE

Call a distinctive two-part, low whistle, toolip. Song during its display flight is a yodelling t’lew, t’lew, t’lew.

HABITAT

Traditional breeding habitat is sandy or shingle beaches along the coast, but it has colonised a variety of inland sites, including sand and gravel pits, and former industrial sites. Outside Britain and Ireland, is found in similar habitats but also on Arctic tundra. In winter in Africa, it feeds on beaches around lakes and rivers and in areas of short grass.

FOOD

Feeds on small insects, worms, crustaceans and other creatures, including shrimps, marine snails, beetles, spiders and small fish.

Breeding birds are threatened by inadvertent disturbance to nests by holidaymakers, dog-walkers and other recreational activities, also from sea-level rise. In south-east England, most breeding birds are now restricted to nature reserves or other protected sites. The European breeding population seems to be falling and winter numbers vary. Breeding habitat and stopover sites may be threatened by development and pollution, as well as climate change.

DISTRIBUTION Found on suitable beaches around the coasts of Britain and Ireland but scarce in the south-west of England and Wales. Increasingly nests inland in England and Scotland, with a small population also in Ireland. Winters on most coasts and is scarce inland. Breeds from northern France north to Scandinavia and on the Arctic tundra of Asia. Also breeds in Iceland, Greenland and Arctic Canada.

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Little Ringed Plover Charadrius dubius Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Moderate increase – 1,250 – April–July 4; 1–2 broods 24; 25–27 days Average: 4; Oldest: 17 14–15cm; 40g

IDENTIFICATION

Small wader with round head, short and dark bill and rather short slender pinkish legs. Adult has brown back and crown, white collar and black breast-band. Slimmer wader than Ringed Plover with a distinct yellow eye-ring, white forehead bordered above with black and thin white stripe above the back band. In flight, wings are plain with no wing-bar unlike Ringed Plover. The juvenile has an incomplete brown breast-band and lacks black markings and pale stripe over the eye. Adults moult between July and November, some starting before migration and completing it on the winter grounds. Juveniles start to moult their body feathers and some tail and wing feathers in autumn. See also: Ringed Plover p118, Kentish Plover p304.

flies, larvae of mayflies and dragonflies, freshwater shrimps, worms, small water snails, and seeds.

BREEDING

Nests on bare ground or among low vegetation. Simple scrape is one of several made by male and chosen by female. Both birds share the incubation. Young feed themselves, although they continue to be brooded by their parents while small and during wet and cold weather. They remain dependent on their parents for 8–25 days after flying.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Birds begin to leave their winter quarters in February and the first generally arrive back in Britain in March. Most Little Ringed Plovers leave their breeding grounds in late June and early July with young birds dispersing in all directions. Between July and September most start a southbound migration. juvenile

summer

summer

HABITS

Generally seen alone or in pairs, and only in flocks or groups during migration. Feeding action more rapid than larger Ringed Plover. Often noisy and aggressive towards rivals at start of breeding season but can be secretive once it has eggs or young. When displaying, has a stiff-winged ‘butterfly-like’ flight at a low level over its territory.

VOICE

Most usual call heard from breeding birds is a loud pee-u that is often given in flight. It also makes a rapidly repeated pip-pip-pip and a repeated gree-a call during its songflight.

HABITAT

Summer visitor, most Little Ringed Plovers breed inland in artificial habitats, usually close to fresh water. Sand and gravel quarries, mining areas, reservoirs and sewage treatment works are regular breeding sites. It also nests on natural riverine sand and gravel banks and on those that border lakes. Many of these are transient and it frequently deserts old sites in favour of new ones. Unlike Ringed Plover, it rarely breeds near the sea, but may visit coasts during migration. In winter in Africa, it visits muddy or sandy shores of lakes and rivers, flooded ground and short grass near fresh water.

CONSERVATION

There has been a gradual colonisation of England, and now Wales and Scotland, since the species first nested in 1938. The Little Ringed Plover has been gradually spreading north and west, finding suitable artificial and natural habitats in which to rear its young. The European population is thought to be decreasing. The main threat is the loss and change to its preferred breeding habitat and human disturbance. Climate change might also lead to a loss of suitable wet habitat in summer and winter.

DISTRIBUTION Found mainly in England, especially in northern, central and south-east England, with smaller numbers colonising Wales and Scotland. A rare visitor in Ireland. Also breeds from the Arctic Circle to North Africa and east across Asia, to Japan and Indonesia. European birds spend winter in a broad band across central Africa from west to east.

FOOD

Feeds on insects, spiders and other small creatures found in or close to shallow water. Includes beetles,

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Dotterel Charadrius morinellus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Strong decline – 425 – May–July 2–3; 1 brood 24–28; 25–30 days Oldest: 11 20–22cm; 110g

female summer

VOICE

Not generally a noisy species, but if disturbed it makes a wet-e-wee call. Migrants make contact calls, which carry a long way, pilk, pilk, pilk or a soft kwip.

HABITAT

Summer visitor that breeds on the Arctic tundra and on mountain tops. In Britain, inhabits alpine areas, wide plateaus on largely barren mountain tops, with scattered areas of moss, short grass, sedges, bilberry, heather and lichens below the snow line. In Austria and Russia, breeds at more than 2,000m, but in northern Europe it may be found only 100m above sea level. On migration, may visit traditional lowland arable farmland, hill tops and areas of short grass, such as golf courses. In the Netherlands, it has bred on arable sites reclaimed from the sea.

FOOD

Eats spiders, worms, beetles, weevils, sawflies and craneflies, including their larvae (leatherjackets).

winter

BREEDING

juvenile

male summer

Both sexes make a shallow scrape lined with moss, lichens or leaves on bare ground or among short vegetation. Male incubates. Female may share the incubation of a later clutch. Young are covered in down and feed themselves. They are tended mainly by the male and are independent soon after they can fly.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Small flocks known as ‘trips’ regularly pause their migration at traditional stopover sites in the Low Countries, the fenlands of East Anglia and a few other sites further north and west during April and May. Breeding birds arrive back on territory as the snow thaws in spring and leave in July or early August.

CONSERVATION

summer

IDENTIFICATION

Medium-sized wader with, unusually, female more colourful and more clearly marked than male. Adult has pale face, dark crown and broad white stripes above eyes that meet at back of head. Upperparts grey-brown and has a black belly. Chestnut underparts are separated from grey breast by distinctive white band. Throat is white. In autumn and winter less colourful, with scaly-looking brown upperparts, and less obvious eye-stripe and breast-band. In flight, apart from a white streak on the leading flight feather, the wings are plain. Juvenile is like a small Golden Plover, with well-marked upperparts, an indistinct breast-band, a finely striped buff breast, dark crown and long, creamy stripe over the eye. See also: Golden Plover p116.

HABITS

Many Dotterels are confiding and ignore humans on the breeding grounds. One of only 22 species worldwide where male does almost all the incubating. Female leads in display and has a butterfly-like display flight. She generally leaves male to rear young. After breeding, some females leave their territories in Scotland and fly on to other hills, or even to Norway, where they may help to rear a second brood.

In 1860 there were some 50–75 breeding males in England, but numbers declined rapidly so that today very few exist outside the Highlands of Scotland and numbers are falling. The main threat to the Scottish population is climate change, which will lead to an increase in summer temperatures, the loss of insect food and montane breeding habitat. Disturbance from hill walkers, birdwatchers and ski developments may also pose problems. The European population is thought to be decreasing. Climate change and persecution in North Africa are major concerns.

DISTRIBUTION Stronghold in Britain is the Scottish Highlands but it is also found on a few hills farther south. In Europe, strongholds are in Scandinavia and northern Russia. Breeds across northern Asia and in a few mountain ranges farther south. European birds mostly winter in Spain or North Africa and British Dotterels winter in Morocco.

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Turnstone Arenaria interpres Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber – Moderate decline – 40,000 May–June 4; 1 brood 23; 19–21 days Average: 9; Oldest: 21 22–24cm; 120g

winter summer

winter

IDENTIFICATION

Chunky-looking small wader, with black, white and orange plumage. Smaller than Redshank with large head, short bill and short orange legs. In spring, adult has black-and-white head, black breast and bright orange and brown mottled pattern on back. In winter, all the upperparts, including the head, become mottled grey-brown. Underparts are white. In flight, looks black and white with white wing-bars, white back and shoulder stripes and black-and-white tail. Adults start to moult between July and November; partial moult back into breeding plumage between March and May. See also: Oystercatcher p112, Redshank p140, Ringed Plover p118.

HABITS

Generally in small groups that can be rather tame. When feeding, busily searches shoreline, dodging waves and surf, and often flicking aside seaweed and small pebbles to reach food. Seldom still, running over rocks, but frequently perches on posts and other objects in water. Often flies close to water and can also swim.

VOICE

Usual call in flight is a rather metallic, twittering kit-it-it. It also has a rippling song on breeding grounds that ends in a rattling quitta, quitta, quitta.

summer

HABITAT

Visits almost all types of coast, especially where rocks are covered with seaweed, but also feeds on softer sandy and muddy shores, often close to mussel beds. Nests on small islands and near the sea on bare ground. Also, on Arctic tundra, among dwarf willows or on barren, rocky ground.

FOOD

Feeds on mussels, barnacles, sandhoppers, periwinkles, crabs and insects. An opportunist feeder: a wide variety of food has been recorded, from household scraps to a human corpse washed up on a beach.

BREEDING

Does not normally breed in Britain or Ireland but there is one possible breeding record in Scotland in 1976. Birds arrive back on their breeding grounds already in pairs. Nests are a scrape on bare ground or among low-growing vegetation. Incubation is by both sexes. Females leaves before the young become independent.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Turnstones that visit Britain breed in northern Europe, Greenland or north-east Canada. Northern European birds pass through Britain in July and August en route to winter in Africa. Those from Canada and Greenland arrive along the coast of western Europe, including Britain and Ireland, between August and October. They moult here and remain until May, some returning birds stop to feed in Iceland, but others probably fly direct to eastern Greenland. A few first-year birds remain in Britain and Ireland in summer.

CONSERVATION

Comprehensive counts are difficult to undertake given that many birds winter on remote offshore islands, at the foot of cliffs and on long stretches of rocky coasts, but wintering numbers are down. The European breeding population seems to be falling, but the wintering population is increasing. Nest predation from invasive American Mink is a conservation issue in parts of Europe and climate change might affect their breeding grounds in the high Arctic and might already influence their winter distributions.

DISTRIBUTION Seen around the coasts of Britain and Ireland in all seasons. Turnstone has an extremely large range right round the Arctic Circle, in northern Canada, Greenland, Spitsbergen, Scandinavia, northern Russia, Siberia and Alaska. Winters very widely, as far south as Chile, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand, with some birds from North America wintering in western Europe.

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Curlew Numenius arquata Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Moderate decline Moderate decline 58,000 120,000 April–June 4; 1 brood 27–29; 32–38 days Average: 5; Oldest: 32 50–60cm; 770g–1kg

marshes. Some nest on farmland, heathland and grasslands in lowland areas. In Europe and Russia, nests in river valleys and steppe. In winter, found mainly around coasts, especially estuaries. There are some traditional inland wetland wintering sites.

FOOD

In winter, it probes into soft mud for crabs, Lugworms, ragworms, small shellfish, cockles, marine snails and shrimps, and in pastures for earthworms. In summer, eats insects, especially the larvae of beetles and flies, spiders and worms.

BREEDING

female summer

Nests on the ground. Male makes several scrapes and one is selected and lined by female. Site usually in the open, on a mound or tussock, but sometimes protected by vegetation. The eggs are incubated by both adults. Young are covered with down and feed themselves. They are cared for by both parents at first, but female often leaves before they can fly.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

male summer

IDENTIFICATION

Our largest breeding wader with a very long, deeply downcurved bill and long legs. It is grey-brown with long, fine dark lines down neck and breast, arrow-shaped barring on flanks and brown barred back. Head is rather plain, lacking the bold stripes on the crown of Whimbrel. In flight, outer flight feathers are darker than the rest of the wing, and white rump extends up the back in a shallow ‘V’. Female has a noticeably longer bill than male. See also: Whimbrel p123, Bar-tailed Godwit p125.

Some Irish birds may be resident, but most British Curlews migrate south-west, with some reaching France and Spain. However, adults from Fennoscandia and western Europe arrive in Britain and Ireland from late June and juveniles follow in September. Some from Russia also winter in Britain.

CONSERVATION

Declining in Britain and Ireland. Threats include loss of breeding habitat such as peat bogs to forestry and changing grassland management, with land drainage, a switch from hay meadows to silage, increased use of fertilisers and reseeding. A rise in predators in the uplands and climate change are further pressures. Farmers adopting stewardship schemes may help to conserve breeding sites. The European population is falling and listed as Vulnerable due to the loss of moorland and grassland habitats, as well as increased predation and disturbance. Wintering populations are susceptible to disturbance and development, and hunting may be an issue in some areas.

HABITS

Feeding birds at the coast usually spread out, but will congregate in flocks at high tide, and often roost or feed on nearby grassy fields. May wade in deep water and sometimes swim over short distances. A relatively shy and wary bird. Flight is fast and rather gull-like. On breeding grounds, sometimes perches on trees and bushes. Male marks territory with undulating display flight on shimmering wings and a parachuting downward glide.

VOICE

Call is a distinctive cour-eee from which it gets its common name. In spring, songflight is accompanied by lonely-sounding, descending bubbling trill.

HABITAT

DISTRIBUTION Breeds in the uplands of England, Scotland and Wales and across Ireland. Common on Orkney, Shetland and the Hebrides. Also breeds in smaller numbers in parts of lowland England. Winters around the coast and some inland sites. Breeds in central and northern Europe and Russia, and winters around European and African coasts as far south as South Africa.

Breeds in the uplands on boggy, grassy and heather moorland, hill pastures, hay meadows and coastal

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Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Strong decline – 310 38 May–July 4; 1 brood 27; 35 days Average: 11; Oldest: 24 40–42cm; 430g

FOOD

On the coast it eats periwinkles, Dog Whelks, crabs, sandhoppers and shrimps. Inland it feeds on small snails, slugs, worms, spiders and insects such as beetles and flies.

BREEDING

Breeds in Scotland. Nests on the ground and in the open among short vegetation. Many are found breeding near small colonies of Arctic Skua and benefit from the skuas chasing away predators, such as gulls. Nest is probably built mainly by the female and is a shallow scrape lined with plant material.

juvenile

IDENTIFICATION

Large wader, but smaller than Curlew by about a third, with slightly shorter legs and a shorter, straighter bill that curves steeply near tip. Has darkcentred back, each feather neatly edged buff, with barred flight feathers and finely lined underparts. Unlike Curlew, its crown has two broad dark bands separated by narrow pale stripe down the centre. Face pattern is also different, with a more obvious buff stripe over the eye, a dark line through the eye and paler cheeks and throat. Flight is lighter than Curlew, it has a noticeably darker chest, and like Curlew an obvious white rump that extends up between the wings in a ‘V’. Adults moult their body feathers after nesting but delay moult of their flight feathers until they reach their wintering areas. See also: Curlew p122.

HABITS

Often picks food from the surface as well as probing like Curlew. Usually in small groups when not breeding, often flying in ‘V’ formation. Larger congregations form at migration stopping places, where they feed and rest.

VOICE

Most commonly heard and distinct call is a rippling whistle pe,pe,​pe,​pe,pe,pe,pe. Sometimes known as the ‘Seven Whistler’ due to the number of notes. On its breeding grounds, it also has a bubbling call, rather like Curlew.

HABITAT

Passage birds chiefly occur on or near the coast, especially estuaries, coastal grasslands and saltmarshes. Notable numbers also recorded occasionally at reservoir sites in the Pennines. Breeding grounds are on blanket bogs, old peat cuttings, and short heather and grassland on northern moors.

Incubation is by both sexes. The young feed themselves and are cared for by both adults. They quickly become independent once they can fly.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

In July, Whimbrels begin to leave their northern breeding grounds and move rapidly through Britain and Ireland and western Europe, mainly following coastal routes, but many cross large areas of land, including the western Sahara. The first migrants arrive in South Africa during September but most winter on the coast of West Africa. Return passage through Europe is in mid-April and early May.

CONSERVATION

Causes of decline are unclear but suggestions include afforestation, peat extraction, changes in farming practices and climate change. The European population is thought to be stable in number.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain, Whimbrels breed mostly in Shetland. It visits areas farther south during spring and autumn migrations. European breeding birds winter mainly in and around the coast of Africa, some as far south as South Africa. The North American form, Hudsonian Whimbrel, is treated as a separate species and occurs here as a very rare vagrant.

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Black-tailed Godwit Limosa limosa Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Moderate decline Strong increase 55 39,000 April–June 4; 1 brood 22–24; 25–30 days Average: 18; Oldest: 23 40–44cm; 290g

male summer

winter

IDENTIFICATION

female summer Smaller than Curlew. Large wader with long, straight bill, long black legs and long neck. In winter flight, has broad white wing-bar and white tail terminating in broad black band. In spring, head, neck and breast are chestnut-red (birds of the Icelandic race being the brightest), belly white with dark bars and back mottled greyMOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS brown. After breeding it becomes This summer migrant leaves its breeding areas as pale grey-brown above and soon as the young can fly, usually in July. Icelandic paler below. There is always a noticeable amount of leg showing above the joint. breeding birds gradually arrive in western Europe Juvenile is like winter adult, but with warm reddish between June and September. Largest numbers are tinge to neck and breast and coarsely spotted seen in Britain and Ireland in August and September. back. Adults moult between June and October. Most European breeding birds move south, crossing the Sahara Desert during September. They arrive See also: Bar-tailed Godwit p125. back on their territories between March and May.

HABITS

Graceful wader that often feeds in deep water. On breeding grounds, will sometimes perch on fence posts or trees. Usually in small groups and sometimes forms larger flocks of several hundred in winter. In spring, performs aerial displays over its territory as it rises and tumbles several times in rapid succession.

VOICE

Most common call is loud, repetitive and clear weeka-weeka-weeka.

HABITAT

Breeds in marshes, damp meadows and bogs near lakes. The few pairs that breed in Britain mainly use lowland wet grassland. Outside the breeding season, main concentrations are on the muddy estuaries and coastal grasslands of the north-west, south and east coasts of England, and east coast of Ireland.

FOOD

In spring and summer, feeds on insects, especially beetles and flies. Also worms and small snails.

BREEDING

As a rule, the less colourful nominate race (limosa) nests in England and the more colourful Icelandic race (islandica) in Scotland. Male makes several scrapes on the ground and female chooses one or helps to construct another nest. Nest is well hidden in a tussock. Incubation is by both sexes. Young feed themselves. They are cared for by both adults and are brooded during the day while small. They become independent at about the time they can first fly.

CONSERVATION

Extinct as a British breeding bird by 1855 owing to loss of habitat and hunting. It returned in the 1930s and has since nested at a few sites in England and Scotland, including the Ouse Washes from 1952. Most nest on nature reserves. Increased summer flooding and predation in East Anglia have caused recent declines, and artificial incubation has been used to rear chicks to help kick-start a recovery. The European breeding population has declined owing to changes in agricultural practices, wetland drainage and predator pressure, and is classified as Vulnerable. In contrast, the wintering population in Europe is increasing.

DISTRIBUTION Seen in summer at several sites in Britain and Ireland, but breeds regularly at only a few, mainly in East Anglia. The Icelandic race occurs in Britain and Ireland in winter, with a few nesting in Scotland. The European race breeds here and winters in Africa.

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Bar-tailed Godwit Limosa lapponica Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber – Stable – 50,500 – – – Average: 5; Oldest: 33 37–39cm; 335g

winter

male summer

IDENTIFICATION

Larger than Redshank but smaller than Curlew. This large wader has a long, tapering, slightly upturned bill and long legs. Unlike Black-tailed Godwit, often little leg shows above the joint and it lacks a white wing-bar. Back is more Curlew-like, with a pale ‘V’ between wings, white rump and brown barred tail. Short pale stripe above eye, but this is less obvious than on Black-tailed Godwit. In spring, male has brick-red face, neck and underparts, and mottled grey-brown back. Female is larger than male with a longer bill and is less colourful. After moult, adult loses bright colours, but has boldly streaked back. Juveniles resemble non-breeding adults with scattered streaks on their buff breasts. Adults moult from the breeding plumage between August and November. Juveniles have a partial moult between September and January. See also: Black-tailed Godwit p124.

HABITS

Often wades in deep water. Flies with neck withdrawn, making it appear smaller and more compact than Black-tailed Godwit. Forms large flocks outside the breeding season and sometimes performs spectacular aerial manoeuvres.

VOICE

Flight note in flocks is a low, nasal kirruc, kirruc.

HABITAT

In Britain and Ireland, this is a coastal species spending most of its time feeding in the intertidal zone, or in a high-tide roost close to the coast. Favours sandy or muddy shores, estuaries and sheltered bays. Breeds mainly in subarctic on peat mosses, swamps and low tundra near the coast.

FOOD

Feeds mainly on shellfish, Lugworms, ragworms and other worms found in coastal sand, also shrimps and small marine snails. On breeding grounds, chief food is insects, especially beetles, flies and moth caterpillars, and also snails, crustaceans, worms and occasionally seeds and berries.

BREEDING

Does not breed in Britain or Ireland. Ground nest with 4 eggs that are incubated by both sexes. Young feed themselves and become independent at about the time that they learn to fly.

female summer

winter

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

The Bar-tailed Godwit is a migrant that leaves its Arctic breeding grounds after nesting and migrates through Europe between July and October. Some adults moult on British estuaries and then fly south, others stay for the winter. Some juveniles stay only to feed before flying on to Africa. Most wintering birds leave Britain and Ireland in March and April.

CONSERVATION

These long-distance migrants depend heavily on a few coastal wetlands while they are migrating and for their winter quarters. While some of these sites are protected, others are damaged by land reclamation, construction of marinas and barrages, commercial exploitation of shellfish stocks and tourism. Many of their stopover sites in France, Portugal and North Africa are unprotected.

DISTRIBUTION In winter, found around the coasts of Britain and Ireland, but less numerous along the south coast. A few non-breeding birds remain in coastal areas all summer. Breeds from Fennoscandia to Siberia and winters around the North Sea and on the Atlantic coasts of Europe and Africa. Another race breeds from eastern Siberia into western Alaska and winters in South East Asia as far south as New Zealand.

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Knot Calidris canutus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber – Moderate decline – 265,000 – – – Average: 7; Oldest: 27 23–25cm; 140g

inland, although single birds, often juveniles, occasionally appear on the fringes of large lakes and reservoirs. Its breeding grounds are on peninsulas, islands and barren plateaus in the high Arctic.

FOOD

In winter in Britain, it probes in the mud for small shellfish, notably bivalve molluscs, and for small cockles, mussels and snails. In summer, in the high Arctic, it feeds on a wide range of flies, beetles, worms and plant material including seeds, shoots, buds, leaves and flower heads.

BREEDING

summer (worn)

summer

Knots do not breed in Britain and Ireland. There is a short breeding season in the Arctic summer. It lays 3 or 4 eggs. Incubation is by both parents and takes only 21–22 days. The young quickly become independent.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

juvenile winter

IDENTIFICATION

Medium-sized stocky wader, larger than Dunlin with relatively short grey-green legs and a short straight bill. Breeding plumage brick-red with mottled orange, black-and-grey back. For the rest of the year, when it is most numerous in Britain and Ireland, it is dull grey with grey marks on breast and flanks, a short pale stripe over the eye and white belly. In flight, shows pale rump and dull white wing-bar. Juvenile a little browner than non-breeding adult; back and wings grey with each feather neatly edged black and off-white, giving a scaly look. There is an obvious pale stripe over the eye. Adults moult completely between July and November; the flight feathers are moulted over a long period of 90–100 days. See also: Dunlin p127, Sanderling p133.

HABITS

In Britain and Ireland, Knots are generally seen in large flocks, sometimes of 10,000 or more. They fly in close formation and perform breathtaking aerial manoeuvres over their feeding grounds as they twist and turn in unison, looking alternately grey and white. At high tide they roost in tight, but fidgety, packs close to the water’s edge, on saltmarshes, rocky islands, shingle banks or in a nearby field. When feeding, they spread out to search, head down, for food.

VOICE

Most frequent call is a low-pitched knut and a higherpitched quick-ick, usually given when it takes flight.

A long-distance migrant. Most leave their breeding grounds in August. Females depart first, winter followed by males and then the young. All make long, non-stop flights and visit traditional sites, usually estuaries, to moult and feed before the next leg of their journey. Most of those that visit British and Irish estuaries breed in Arctic Canada and Greenland before flying to western Europe. They arrive from August and stay until May. A small number of non-breeding birds may remain for the summer.

CONSERVATION

A large proportion of Knots depends on a small number of European estuaries to feed and moult. They are therefore very vulnerable to any changes to these sites, such as barrages, reclamation, human recreational disturbance, and sea-level rise. The wintering population in Europe is thought to be increasing, but here too, land reclamation projects at staging and wintering areas, overexploitation of shellfish and disturbance are concerns.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain and Ireland, the Knot is found on most major estuaries, although it is scarce in western Scotland and the south-west of England. It breeds in Alaska, Canada, Greenland and northern Siberia. Different populations winter in Europe, South America, Australia and New Zealand.

HABITAT

In western Europe, this is a bird of the seashore, predominantly estuaries and mudflats. It is rare

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Dunlin Calidris alpina Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Moderate decline Moderate decline 9,500 345,000 April–June 4; 1–2 broods 21; 20 days Average: 5; Oldest: 28 16–20cm; 48g

IDENTIFICATION

A small common wader with medium-length black legs and gently downcurved medium-sized black bill. Adult in summer has reddish-brown back, white underparts with a distinct black patch on belly. In winter, has grey-brown back, grey breast and white underparts. In flight, has white wing-bar and white sides to dark rump. Juvenile in autumn has dark spotting on lower breast and flanks and neat buff edges to back feathers. Different races moult at different times. Adults moult between July and September and have a partial moult into summer plumage between March and June. See also: Sanderling p133, Curlew Sandpiper p128, Little Stint p131.

HABITS

summer

winter

juvenile

can fly. After nesting, adults and young quickly move to nearby coasts and estuaries.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Some are present throughout the year. British breeding birds migrate south for the winter. Dunlins from Greenland pass through on migration. Others from Iceland, northern Europe and Russia arrive in autumn to winter on British and Irish estuaries.

CONSERVATION

Breeding numbers have declined in recent years. This decline is due to increased forestry and changing agricultural practices in the uplands and introduced hedgehogs on some islands. Dunlins depend on the preservation of wet upland moorland and the Machair for nesting. Conservation of estuaries is also essential for wintering populations and passage migrants. Development and recreational activities on the coast can disturb roosts, especially in winter. Breeding and wintering populations in Europe are decreasing.

Gathers in flocks outside the breeding season. Some flocks number thousands at important feeding sites where they fly in compact formation, showing alternately white and grey as they bank and turn. When feeding they spread out, but at high tides they form tightly packed roosts on the shore or on nearby fields. Feeds intently, hunched up with head down. On breeding grounds, may associate with Golden Plover, which helps warn of danger. Breeding male has an aerial display over his territory: climbing steeply, he hovers against the wind and switchbacks, alternately fluttering and gliding until drifting down summer and settling with wings held above his back in a ‘V’.

VOICE

Usual flight call is a rough treep. Display song on breeding grounds is a piping trill.

juvenile summer winter

HABITAT

Breeds on wet upland moors but also in saltmarshes and among pools in wet grassland, known as ‘Machair’ in the Western Isles. At other times, Dunlins frequent estuaries, mudflats, coastal pools and shallow water inland.

FOOD

Feeds by probing mud or wading in water. Eats insects such as beetles and fly larvae, also molluscs, microscopic crustaceans and worms.

BREEDING

Nests on the ground, on a tussock or under low vegetation. Incubation usually by male during the day and female at night. Some females lay a second clutch and leave male to incubate and look after the first. Young run about and feed themselves. They may be abandoned by their parents before they

DISTRIBUTION Breeds in Scotland, the uplands of England and Wales, with a few on Dartmoor. Also breeds in the west of Ireland. There are six races worldwide and one breeds in Britain and Ireland, while two others migrate here on a regular basis. It also nests in Greenland, Iceland, northern Europe, northern Asia and North America. European birds winter as far south as the coast of West Africa and some inland sites.

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Curlew Sandpiper Calidris ferruginea Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber – – – – – – – Oldest: 19 18–19cm; 69g

HABITS

Can resemble an elegant Dunlin, but more often wades in water when feeding. It will often associate with other feeding waders, especially Dunlin, and occurs singly or in small groups.

VOICE

The most common flight call is a rippling, dry chirrup.

HABITAT

On migration, Curlew Sandpipers are found in similar places to Dunlins, including saltmarshes, brackish pools and the fringes of freshwater lakes and pools, often near the coast. It breeds in the coastal lowlands of the high Arctic where there are bogs and pools.

FOOD

Probes in mud or wades in water to find prey such as flies, beetles, shrimps, small marine snails called Hydrobia and worms.

winter juvenile

BREEDING

Does not breed in Britain or Ireland. It nests on the ground in the high Arctic, on south-facing slopes that are free of snow. Both parents share the incubation of the eggs. The chicks fledge quickly, but adults migrate ahead of the young, males leaving before the females.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

winter

IDENTIFICATION

Similar size to Dunlin, but with a longer neck, longer black legs and longer, finer and slightly more downcurved bill. In all plumages, the white rump is distinctive, although this is best seen in flight. In spring, it resembles a small Knot with brick-red underparts and mottled back, although underparts of the female appear scaly. In autumn and winter, it is dusky-grey above and white below, like a Dunlin in winter, but cleaner, whiter, with a long white stripe over the eye and fine grey streaking on its breast. The juvenile is paler and cleaner looking than a Dunlin, with a stripe over the eye and the breast and belly are unspotted, often with a pink flush. In flight, it shows a thin white wing-bar. Adults begin to moult their small body feathers on their breeding grounds in July. See also: Dunlin p127, Knot p126.

Curlew Sandpipers that cross Europe follow three routes: around the west coast and on to West Africa, through eastern Europe to the Mediterranean and on into West Africa, and via the Black and Caspian Seas to the Middle East and on to East Africa. Britain and Ireland are on the edge of the western migration route and varying numbers are seen each year. Migrating adults arrive mainly on the east coast from mid-July to August. Juveniles arrive between midAugust and October and are spread more widely across Britain and Ireland. In some years, large influxes occur.

CONSERVATION

Long-distance migrants require safe, food-rich places to ‘refuel’ after their long migratory flights. Many wetland sites have been drained for agriculture or are disturbed by recreational pursuits. Many of the best sites for these birds are now specially protected sites, such as nature reserves.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain, most are seen on the coasts bordering the North Sea, although they do appear farther west, including regular sightings in Ireland. The birds breed in Arctic Siberia and winter from Africa, around the Indian Ocean, to Australia and New Zealand.

summer

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Ruff Calidris pugnax Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

male summer (both)

Red Stable Moderate increase 13 895 April–June 4; 1 brood 20–23; 25 days Average: 4; Oldest: 13 20–30cm; 110–180g

female juvenile female summer

male winter

male winter

BREEDING

IDENTIFICATION

Male is size of Redshank. Female (reeve) considerably smaller. Long-necked, elegant with small head, rather short, slightly droopy bill and medium-long legs that are reddish, orange or yellow-green. Male in spring is unmistakable, with an exotic ruff and ear-tufts. The ruff can be black, white or orange, but the marks and colours vary on each bird. Females in spring are also variable, some appearing very dark. At other times both are grey-brown, with male sometimes retaining white patch on the neck and pale face. Juvenile is buff with dark feathers on upper-parts bordered bright buff and giving a scaly look. In flight, shows narrow white wing-bar and oval patches on either side of rump. After breeding, birds moult completely, often over a long period. See also: Redshank p140.

HABITS

May look ‘hunch-backed’ but when alert stands very erect. Feeds singly or in small groups. Picks delicately for food at surface. In flight, looks lazy, with relaxed wingbeats and quite long wings. On breeding grounds in spring, it has a ritualised display known as ‘lekking’. Males dance and display as females choose which to mate with.

VOICE

Generally silent, even when lekking, but it can make a low tu-wit especially when disturbed.

HABITAT

Main breeding habitat is lowland wet meadows that are grazed in summer and flooded in winter. At other times, visits muddy fringes of rivers, pools and lakes, and brackish coastal lagoons.

The first leks become active in April. Female makes a shallow scrape on the ground. Eggs are incubated by female alone. Newly hatched young are covered in down. They leave the nest quickly and are fed by female for first few days, thereafter they feed themselves.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

A migrant, but some are present all year. Birds arrive on their breeding grounds in March or April and males leave in late June. Females and juveniles leave in July. Females tend to winter further south than males. In late summer, many juveniles from Fennoscandia visit Britain, and many of these migrate on into Africa.

CONSERVATION

Became extinct as a breeding bird in Britain in about 1850, owing to changing grassland management and hunting. There were breeding attempts after this time and in 1963 it became re-established for a time at the Ouse Washes in East Anglia, which has since become an RSPB reserve. Management of water levels and grazing animals is essential to provide ideal breeding conditions. It remains a very rare breeding bird in Britain, occurring at a handful of sites each year. Following some decline, the tiny breeding population appears stable. Decreasing in Europe due to habitat loss, as well as climate change.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain, it occasionally breeds at a few lowland sites and is much more widely distributed during its autumn migration and in winter. The species nests from Fennoscandia south to the Netherlands and east into Siberia, across Russia and in parts of Asia. European birds winter in Africa.

FOOD

Insects and their larvae, especially midges, craneflies and caddis flies. On migration, and in winter, they take other flies, beetles, plant material, small fish, shellfish and worms.

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Temminck’s Stint Calidris temminckii Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Former breeder – – 0 – May–June 4; 1 –3 broods 21; 15–18 days Oldest: 12 13–15cm; 24g

IDENTIFICATION

Tiny wader, often keeping a horizontal stance, creeping close to the ground. Only marginally longer-winged than Little Stint, with rather short greenish or dull yellow legs. Looks a little like a miniature Common Sandpiper. Head, breast and back of adults in spring are grey-brown, less rusty than Little Stint, with scattering of dark black marks on back. Non-breeding plumage is duller and more uniform, with an indistinct head pattern and grey breast. Juvenile also grey above with delicate, scaly pattern. In flight, has white wing-bar and white outer tail feathers. Adults have a partial moult between July and September, which is then suspended until completion between February and April. Juveniles moult between August and the following April or May. See also: Little Stint p131, Dunlin p127, Common Sandpiper p138.

FOOD

Feeds mainly on insects, including beetles, flies, midges, and some plant material.

BREEDING

Nests on the ground among vegetation. Some females visit the territories of several males and lay 1–3 clutches. Young can feed themselves, tended by whichever parent incubated the eggs. Parents migrate ahead of their young, even before they can fly.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Many waders migrate by following sea coasts, but Temminck’s Stint migrates on a broad front that crosses most of Europe to reach its winter quarters. Adults leave the Arctic in July, while juveniles remain until the first half of August. Most are seen in Europe between July and October. They begin to return in March, with most being seen in Britain during May.

CONSERVATION

First recorded nesting in Scotland in 1934, and nesting has taken place very sporadically since that time. The last recorded breeding was in Scotland in 1993. Any new sites found are protected and kept secret to allow the birds every opportunity to breed successfully. The European population is stable, but breeding birds are vulnerable to avian and mammalian predators, habitat alteration and recreational disturbance.

juvenile

summer

HABITS

If disturbed it is likely to rise steeply and fly erratically like Snipe, and unlike Little Stint, which flies lower. On the ground, it has a flat back profile and tends to move more slowly than Little Stint and peck more deliberately, rather like Dunlin. Generally seen singly.

VOICE

When disturbed, takes off with a loud, dry trilling tirr-tirrr-tirr.

HABITAT

In Britain and Ireland, it may visit the edges of freshwater lakes, pools and marshes, often close to vegetation. Sometimes visits creeks and brackish lagoons near the sea. Breeds mainly in the Arctic, on flat ground with short grass and crowberry. Most sites are near fjords, deltas, rivers or streams, and sometimes on higher land.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain, birds are seen mainly in central and eastern England. The only known breeding sites are in Scotland. Temminck’s Stints breed in northern Fennoscandia and Siberia, some winter around the Mediterranean, but most fly on to winter as far south as central Africa. Others from the east winter in southern and South East Asia.

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Little Stint Calidris minuta Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

summer (worn)

Green – Stable – 8 – – – Oldest: 14 12–14cm; 24g

juvenile

juvenile

summer

IDENTIFICATION

Tiny wader that is smaller than House Sparrow and much smaller than Dunlin. Has short straight bill and rather short black legs. Adult in spring has reddish head and upper breast, finely streaked dark brown back with some delicate mottling and the suggestion of a yellow backward-facing ‘V’ along its back. Bright spring plumage becomes worn and duller during summer. After moult adult becomes plainer and greyer with paler face. Juvenile is brown like adult in late summer but has prominent white ‘V’ on its back. Has pale stripe over the eye that splits on the forehead to form a second, thinner white stripe. In flight, has white wing-bar, dark centre to rump and grey outer tail feathers. Adults moult completely between August and March and have a partial moult in spring. See also: Dunlin p127, Sanderling p133.

HABITS

Feeds very rapidly with a shuffling movement, pecking quickly at the surface and hardly ever, apparently, looking up. Feeding birds are often well spaced as some individuals appear to defend small feeding territories. Although it will flock on migration, those visiting Britain are usually solitary or in small numbers.

VOICE

When disturbed it gives a chit or tit call that is repeated about three times.

HABITAT

In Britain and Ireland, may visit the sandy or muddy edges of lakes and reservoirs, sheltered estuaries and brackish pools near the coast. Its Arctic breeding grounds are tundra and large islands, or in areas of shallow freshwater pools, lakes and river deltas.

FOOD

Feeds by picking food from the surface or from water, but rarely probes in mud. Eats insects, especially flies and beetles, small worms, tiny shellfish, shrimps and plant material including seeds.

BREEDING

Does not breed in Britain or Ireland. In the Arctic, it nests on the ground, making a shallow nest cup lined with leaves and grass. Some females lay one clutch of eggs and leave its care to the male while she incubates a second clutch. Breeding is quick, with incubation taking only about 20 days and young flying at about 17 days old. May have two clutches and parents look after a brood each.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

A long-distance migrant, leaving the Arctic in August. Juveniles migrate along the Atlantic seaboard, while adults take a more easterly route to Africa via the Mediterranean basin. As few are seen in Britain in spring, it is possible that the birds use a different route for their return migration, and they arrive back on their Arctic breeding grounds in May or June.

CONSERVATION

There are no specific conservation measures for this wide-ranging species, although carefully managed and protected wetlands help the survival of this and other waders as they migrate through Europe and into Africa after the breeding season. The European population is estimated to be stable.

DISTRIBUTION Passes through Britain and Ireland on migration between its wintering and breeding grounds in spring and returning in late summer. A small number may overwinter in Britain and Ireland. The largest numbers are juveniles in August and September, mainly on the east or west coasts of Britain, with just a few inland. It breeds in northern Norway and across Arctic Siberia. Winters in Africa, the Arabian peninsula and in India.

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Purple Sandpiper Calidris maritima Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Strong decline Strong decline 1 9,700 May–July 3–4; 1 brood 21–22; 15–28 days Average: 6; Oldest: 20 20–22cm; 65g winter

summer

low tide. Breeds on tundra and, in Scotland, on ArcticAlpine heath where there are sedges, mosses and lichens interspersed with rocks, scree and gravel.

FOOD

Picks up food left stranded by the tide or pecks among mussels or seaweed. In winter, eats small winkles, mussels, dog-whelks, shrimps, small crabs, insects and other tiny creatures washed up by the tide or living among the seaweed. In summer, feeds on insects and spiders, and plant material such as seeds.

winter

BREEDING

Male makes several scrapes on the ground and female chooses one. Male performs most incubation duties. Female helps, but sometimes leaves before the eggs hatch. Young feed themselves and are tended by the male for 3–4 weeks.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

juvenile

IDENTIFICATION

Medium-sized plump wader. Larger, stockier and darker than Dunlin. Bill is downcurved and short legs are bright orange or yellow. In spring, head, back and sides of breast are dark purplish-brown with white streaks around head and neck, and back scaly with white and rusty marks. In winter, it is darker with more uniform upperparts and yellowish base to bill. It has dark streaks along its flanks. Female is slightly larger with longer bill. Juvenile is greyer with pale edges to feathers on its back and some chestnut on the crown. In flight, shows a dark tail with white sides and pale, narrow wing-bar. Adults moult completely between July and September, while they are still close to their breeding grounds, and have a partial moult in spring. See also: Dunlin p127, Turnstone p121.

HABITS

In flight, the appearance is of a very dark, rather small wader. Small groups fly swiftly, low over the sea, and often land with a flutter on rocks close to the water, where they actively search for food among the rocks and seaweed and avoid the breaking waves and surf by jumping, fluttering and sometimes swimming. Frequently associates with Turnstones. Can be quite tame.

VOICE

Although usually silent, flocks sometimes make a Swallow-like twittering wee-wit as they take off.

HABITAT

Outside the breeding season this is a coastal species that feeds on rocky beaches and islets, around piers and groynes, also stony beaches or on mussel beds at

Some birds from Canada, Greenland and Norway winter in Britain with some crossing directly from Greenland to Ireland without stopping. Females leave the breeding grounds first, from late June, and males follow with juveniles even later. Adults then stop to moult. The first to reach Britain and Ireland are juveniles, followed by adults in September or October. Return migration is between February and May.

CONSERVATION

First discovered nesting in Scotland in 1978. Breeding areas are kept secret to protect it from egg thieves and other disturbance. Beyond nest protection, there are no other practical conservation measures, as the habitat it requires appears to be widespread in northern Scotland. We know little about how the European population is faring in summer or winter. This species is likely to be affected by climate change and is vulnerable to human disturbance.

DISTRIBUTION Winter visitor to almost any rocky coast in Britain or Ireland, but most are found in Orkney, Shetland and along the east coast of Scotland and the north-east coast of England; scarce south of Yorkshire. In Ireland, the north and west coasts are favoured, with few in the east. A tiny number nest in Scotland. Elsewhere breeds from Canada, Greenland and Iceland to Fennoscandia and Siberia. Winters in eastern North America and in western Europe as far south as Portugal and Spain.

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Sanderling Calidris alba Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber – Moderate increase – 20,000 – – – Average: 7; Oldest: 18 20–21cm; 59g

IDENTIFICATION

Small, plump, energetic wader slightly larger than Dunlin with short, straight black bill and mediumlong black legs. For most of the year has pale grey upperparts; underparts and most of head are white and there is a black mark at shoulder of folded wing. Breeding plumage reddish-brown above with mottled back, rather like Knot. Juvenile grey, sometimes with buff head and breast and scalylooking back. In flight, it has a prominent white wingbar and white on either side of a dark rump. Adults have partial moult between March and May, and then start moulting completely between July and November. See also: Knot p126, Dunlin p127. winter

summer

FOOD

winter Takes food from the surface or probes mud. Eats small crabs, shrimps, summer shellfish, sandhoppers and marine worms that live in mud and sand or are washed in by the waves. On its Arctic breeding grounds, eats insects and some plant material, including buds, seeds and shoots.

BREEDING

Does not breed in Britain or Ireland. On Arctic breeding grounds female makes nest-scrape. Once the clutch of 4 eggs is complete, some females make a second nest and produce a second clutch that they incubate themselves, leaving the male to incubate and look after the first clutch and family. Breeding is fast. Incubation takes 23–27 days and young fly after about 17 days and quickly become independent.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

A long-distance migrant. Adults leave their breeding grounds by mid-August and the young by September. Body weight increases by up to 60% to provide energy to fly non-stop for up to 5,000km. Breeding birds return to their territories in May or June, but a few non-breeding birds remain on British and Irish beaches each summer. Peak numbers occur in Britain in May or August. Numbers in Ireland peak in winter.

CONSERVATION

juvenile

HABITS

Runs with head hunched in. Extremely active and restless wader that often runs rapidly like a clockwork toy, following retreating waves in the search for food. Feeds in scattered groups and sometimes forms small flocks. Larger flocks form at high-tide roosts and when on migration.

VOICE

Call given in flight or when flushed is a liquid twick, twick.

HABITAT

In Britain and Ireland, it is usually a coastal species, especially liking sandy shores and estuaries. Infrequently on migration it may visit the edges of large inland lakes and reservoirs. Breeds on high-Arctic tundra near freshwater lakes with usually some low-growing Arctic plants, such as saxifrage.

Like other waders, Sanderlings need to feed undisturbed to obtain enough food to sustain their long flights and survive the winter. Disturbing feeding birds in winter should therefore be avoided. Developments and artificial coastal defences are a threat, as is the mechanical cleaning of sandy beaches where seaweed is frequently removed. Climate change might cause a problem through sea-level rise and habitat changes to breeding and wintering sites. The European wintering population is increasing.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain and Ireland, found where there are long sandy beaches. Scarce in south-west England and along the rocky coasts of mainland Scotland. A few pairs breed in Spitsbergen, but the majority breed very high in the Arctic, in Siberia, North America and Greenland. Winters far to the south in South America, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand.

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Grey Phalarope Phalaropus fulicarius Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Not assessed – Unknown – – – – – – 20–22cm; 50–63g

IDENTIFICATION

Dunlin-sized wader. Larger and chunkier than Red-necked Phalarope with a shorter, thicker bill and longer, broader wings. Adults in breeding plumage are rare in Britain and Ireland. Most of the year it is pale grey above and white below, with a dark mark behind the eye and an almost plain grey back. Breeding plumage has dark brown back streaked brightly with buff, white face-patch, yellow bill with dark tip, and varying amount of red on underparts. Female brighter than male in summer. Most common plumages in Britain and Ireland are juvenile and first-winter – these birds are brown above with all back feathers neatly edged buff, and varying amounts of grey moulting through. Juvenile has thin buff stripes on dark back and pale buff wash to breast. Adults moult between July and November. Partial moult back into breeding plumage during March to May. See also: Red-necked Phalarope p135, Knot p126, Sanderling p133.

juvenile

female summer

BREEDING

Does not breed in Britain or Ireland. Sociable, with birds nesting close together in some places. Nests on the ground, near water. Pair make scrapes and female selects one that is then lined by the male. Male incubates the 4 eggs for 18–20 days, female may go off to mate with another male if there is an excess of males. Young feed themselves and are cared for by the male until they fly at 16–18 days.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Staggered departure from breeding grounds. Non-breeding birds leave in June, females in July and then males with, or followed by, young birds. Visitors to Britain and Ireland are most often seen after gales. ‘Storm-wrecked’ birds are mostly seen between September and November, but a few may be seen through winter. Winters far out at sea off the coasts of South Africa and South America. Most arrive in winter quarters by November and leave again during March.

CONSERVATION

Too few occur in Britain and Ireland for any special protection, but birds that winter in discrete areas of the oceans need plankton-rich seas and are potentially at risk from pollution. European trends are largely unknown. An increase in the number of winter records in Britain might reflect more observers. Climate change is likely to impact breeding habitat in the Arctic and subarctic and seems likely to affect ocean conditions in winter.

HABITS

Very tame. Commonly seen swimming and spinning as it feeds. Frequently ‘bobs’ its head. The pale nonbreeding plumage and buoyant swimming action is reminiscent of a small gull. Will also feed on land near water. Generally solitary, but larger groups may gather while migrating.

VOICE

Common call is a low wit. Also a zhit call given when a bird is disturbed.

HABITAT

Breeds near the coast in the Arctic, close to brackish lagoons, pools, and boggy meadows on marshy tundra. Most often seen on the sea around Britain and Ireland, close to the coast near rocky headlands and breakwaters. May visit inland or coastal marshes and pools. Winters on the open oceans.

FOOD

Feeds on land, or while swimming. Eats mainly invertebrates and some plant material. Food includes flies and their larvae, beetles, bugs, springtails, shrimps, worms and spiders. In winter, feeds on marine plankton.

juvenile moulting to 1st-winter

DISTRIBUTION Small numbers of migrating birds may occur almost anywhere in Britain or Ireland after storms, especially the south-west. Breeds in Iceland, Spitsbergen, Siberia, North America and Greenland. European breeding birds winter out at sea, in the Atlantic Ocean, off the coast of Africa or the coast of southern USA or South America. Other populations winter in the Pacific off the South American coast.

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Red-necked Phalarope Phalaropus lobatus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Strong increase – 56 – June–July 4; 1 brood 17–21; 20 days Oldest: 12 18–19cm; 36g

female summer

BREEDING

Nests on the ground, close to water, usually in a grassy tussock with grass pulled over the top of the nest. Both sexes make nest-scrapes and female selects one. Eggs are laid in late May or early June. Incubation is by male. Young quickly move to emergent vegetation where they feed themselves and remain well hidden. They are cared for by male until independent at about 14 days. Once fledged, young leave their breeding site within about 5 days.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Starts to leave its breeding grounds from the end of June. Females leave first followed by males in July and juveniles in August. Its migration is still little understood, but Scandinavian birds tend to migrate south-east across Europe and gather in large concentrations on the Arabian Sea by late October, although some Shetland birds cross the Atlantic and winter in the Pacific, off the coast of Peru.

CONSERVATION

winter

IDENTIFICATION

Delicate Dunlin-sized wader, more likely to be seen swimming than wading. Small head, slender neck and fine, straight bill. In spring, female has grey head and upperparts, white throat and underparts, an orange patch on the sides of neck and buff lines on its dark back. Male much duller with more buff streaking on upperparts. Juvenile has dark crown and obvious buff lines on back and shows a pale oval near the shoulder. First-winter birds start to show grey lines along the back, but retains neat dark flight feathers, edged buff. In flight, shows white wing-bar on dark wings. See also: Grey Phalarope p134, Sanderling p133.

The population suffered a major decline in the 19th century and is now reduced to a few breeding sites in Scotland and Ireland. It has been a target for egg thieves and suffered from the drainage of suitable nesting pools. Current breeding sites require protection and careful management to maintain perfect feeding and nesting conditions. Conservation action means numbers are currently on the up. Nevertheless, British birds are at the southern edge of the species’ range and climate juvenile warming poses a very real threat. In Europe, the population size is thought to be stable.

juvenile

HABITS

A remarkably tame wader usually seen in Britain on migration, but occurs in small groups on its breeding grounds. In winter, large flocks gather on the open sea. Swims duck-like and floats buoyantly with neck held straight as it spins and turns on the water, or bobs its head like a Moorhen.

VOICE

Most common call is a sharp twit, or whit given in flight or on the water.

HABITAT

In Britain, breeds near small freshwater marshy pools where there is open water and emergent vegetation, such as in flooded peat cuttings, but also in small pools in hay fields and rough pasture. Sometimes visits freshwater and brackish pools on migration. Winters on the open sea.

FOOD

Feeds while swimming, wading or walking. Chief food is insects, especially flies and their larvae. Also eats springtails, beetles, butterflies, moths, spiders and small worms.

juvenile moulting to 1st-winter

DISTRIBUTION Breeds at only a small number of sites in northern Britain and in Ireland. Also breeds widely in Fennoscandia, the Faroes, Iceland, North America and Siberia. Most European breeding birds winter in the Arabian Sea and a few visit the British east coast in autumn. Remarkably, recent research shows that Scottish Rednecked Phalaropes winter in the Pacific Ocean off the coast of South America. North American birds also winter in this part of the Pacific Ocean.

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Green Sandpiper Tringa ochropus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Moderate decline Strong increase 2 290 April–June 3–4; 1 brood 20–23; 28 days Oldest: 11 21–24cm; 75g

FOOD

In winter, feeds on insects and their larvae, including mayflies, stoneflies, caddis flies and other flies and beetles. Also takes freshwater shrimps, worms, small snails and small fish.

BREEDING

Does not usually breed in Britain or Ireland. Unusually for a wader, it nests in trees in the old nests of other species, including Woodpigeons, thrushes, crows and jays. Both adults incubate, but mostly the female. Both parents tend the young at first, but female may leave before they fly.

summer

winter juvenile

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than a Redshank. Shorter-legged than Wood Sandpiper with dumpier-looking shape and body, making it less elegant. Straight bill, longer than Wood Sandpiper’s. Back and head are dark greenbrown. Prominent dark-streaked breast contrasting abruptly with white underparts. White above and in front of the eye but, unlike Wood Sandpiper, this does not extend behind the eye. In summer, has fine white speckling on dark back. In flight, the upper and underwing are dark with contrasting white rump – reminiscent of a House Martin. Juvenile is neatly speckled and spotted with off-white marks on back and wings. The dark underwing is characteristic. Adults moult from late July. See also: Wood Sandpiper p137, Common Sandpiper p138.

HABITS

A rather shy, nervous and secretive wader that frequently bobs its rear end. When flushed will take off rapidly with a zigzag flight that resembles Snipe. Can be seen singly or in small groups.

VOICE

When disturbed it frequently makes a distinctive tweet, weet, weet call in flight – the last two notes being higher-pitched.

HABITAT

Outside the breeding season visits marshes and muddy fringes of lakes, reservoirs, floodwaters, freshwater marshes and rivers, sometimes at the coast, but more often inland. Regular visitor to gravel pit complexes. Overwintering birds are found in ditches on lowland farmland, near streams, freshwater marshes, sewage works and watercress beds. Breeds in wet woods and open forests.

winter

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Migration begins in June with females moving south before the males and juveniles. Migration takes place across a broad front and many not only cross Europe but also North Africa and the Sahara. They start to return from March and are back on their breeding grounds by mid-May.

CONSERVATION

Small numbers regularly summer in northern Scotland. Up to three pairs have attempted to nest in some years. Nest sites are kept secret to protect birds from disturbance. This is such a secretive bird on its breeding grounds that organised protection is almost impossible. It is important that the mixed-age forests and wet woodlands in the Scottish Highlands are conserved for this and other specialised breeding birds. The European population is stable.

DISTRIBUTION Widespread on migration and a small population overwinters in Britain and Ireland, mostly in south-east and central England. Breeds in Europe from the Arctic Circle south to Denmark, in eastern Europe, and east across Russia to Siberia and China. Some winter in western Europe and North Africa, but most move south to central Africa, and east to winter in southern and South East Asia.

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Wood Sandpiper Tringa glareola Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Strong increase – 31 0 May–June 4; 1 brood 22–23; 30 days Oldest: 11 19–21cm; 65g

summer

IDENTIFICATION

Much smaller than Redshank with straight bill and conspicuous long creamy-white stripe from the bill, over the eye to back of neck. Adult has chequered brown-and-white back. Slender neck and fine bill give it an elegant look. Legs are yellowish. In flight, has no wing-bars and lacks the black-and-white appearance of the similar-sized Green Sandpiper. Has square white rump, barred tail, pale greyish-brown underwing and feet that project beyond tail. In autumn and winter, back is more uniform grey-brown. Juvenile resembles adult in summer but with dense, buff-coloured spots on back and mottled breast. Adult moult begins on the breeding grounds in July. See also: Green Sandpiper p136, Redshank p140.

HABITS

Like Green Sandpiper but less shy, and can be noisy when migrating. Bobs its body when curious. Agile in flight and climbs steeply. Has an undulating display flight high over its breeding grounds in spring. Often seen singly, but small groups of three or four may be seen.

VOICE

Most common call is a rather dry chiff-iff-iff, usually given in flight.

HABITAT

Breeds around marshes and swamps in lightly wooded country in the far north, often on the fringes of forests or in flooded birch woods. Outside the breeding season, visits temporary pools, edges of lakes, reservoirs, flooded grasslands and brackish pools near the coast.

FOOD

Feeds on beetles, flies and the larvae of dragonflies, caddis flies, mayflies and moths. Also worms, spiders, shellfish and small fish.

BREEDING

Nest usually on the ground among dense vegetation, but sometimes in a tree – in an old nest of another bird such as thrush. Incubation is by both sexes. Young feed themselves and both adults care for them at first, but the female generally leaves a few days after the eggs hatch.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

winter

in September. Congregations form at traditional sites, juvenile such as the Camargue in the south of France where birds moult and feed ready for the transMediterranean/ Saharan crossing. Leaves Africa in March and makes only brief stops before returning to the breeding grounds in late April and May.

CONSERVATION

Wood Sandpiper nested in England in the 19th century but was lost. In 1959, nesting was proven in northern Scotland and breeding has continued, but numbers hit a low of just six pairs, before bouncing back. Nest sites are kept secret to protect birds from disturbance. Populations in Europe are relatively stable. Across its range, loss of boggy habitat to afforestation and agriculture, hunting and climate change are all critical issues.

DISTRIBUTION A small population breeds in northern Scotland. On migration, visits many freshwater and brackish habitats in Britain and Ireland. Breeds widely from Fennoscandia eastwards across Russia and Siberia to the Pacific Ocean. Winters in central and southern Africa, India and South East Asia, and Australia.

Adults start to leave breeding territories in June and move south or south-west on a broad front across Europe, with peak number of adults passing through Britain and Ireland in August and juveniles

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Common Sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Moderate decline Moderate increase 130,000 52 April–June 3–5; 1 brood 21; 27 days Average: 8; Oldest: 15 19–21cm; 50–60g summer

winter

juvenile

FOOD

Usually picks food from the surface rather than probing into sand or mud. Feeds on insects, especially flies and their larvae, beetles, earwigs and grasshoppers. Also eats spiders, worms, freshwater shrimps and small fish.

BREEDING

IDENTIFICATION

Much smaller than Redshank, this medium-sized wader has a horizontal posture and constantly wags its rear end up and down. Grey-brown above with neat division between a grey-brown breast and pure white underparts. White from underparts extends up towards neck. Rather small head, short neck, short greenish legs, medium-length straight bill and quite a long tail that extends beyond its folded wings. Adults in summer have short blackish marks across the back feathers. Wings have white bar, and rump has white sides and dark centre. Juvenile has paler buff tips to the wing feathers giving a pattern of scaly bands across the shoulders. Adults begin moult in August and September and continue until March. See also: Green Sandpiper p136, Wood Sandpiper p137.

HABITS

Flight very distinctive, usually close to the water, on stiff, bowed wings that never seem to rise above the level of the bird’s body and alternate between a flickering flight and a glide. Has a rather crouching feeding action and habitually bobs, especially when feeding, after landing or when curious. Usually seen singly outside the breeding season but flocks of a thousand or more sometimes gather on their African wintering grounds. Both adults and young will occasionally dive underwater to escape danger.

VOICE

Call is a shrill tee wee wee, usually given in flight as an alarm call. Song is a twittering version of the flight call.

HABITAT

Breeds close to fast-flowing hill streams and rivers, also around upland lakes, lochs and reservoirs. On migration and in winter, visits freshwater sites in lowland areas, such as gravel pits, sewage treatment works, the banks of lakes and rivers and small sheltered estuaries.

Nests on the ground, usually concealed in vegetation and often close to the water’s edge. Both sexes make suitable scrapes for the nest and female selects and then lines the chosen one. Both adults share incubation. Young are covered with down and tended by their parents until they fly.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Most breeding birds move south-south-west to Africa after they finish breeding. Most adults pass through Britain and Ireland during July and August and by September most passage birds are juveniles. They begin to return in March, and British breeding grounds are reoccupied in the second half of April.

CONSERVATION

Once bred commonly in lowland Britain and Ireland, but gradually it has retreated into upland areas and is still declining, perhaps owing to the acidification of streams and rivers, which reduces available food. New footpaths close to rivers and disturbance from anglers, walkers and others may affect breeding in some popular upland areas. Numbers in Europe have also declined in recent years.

DISTRIBUTION Breeds in the north and west of Britain and Ireland. Many more visit other wetland sites on migration and a small number overwinter, mostly in south-west England and Ireland. Breeds from northern Europe to Spain and east across Asia to Japan. A few spend winter in western Europe, but most winter in central and southern Africa. Other populations migrate south to winter in India, South East Asia, and as far south as Australia.

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Greenshank Tringa nebularia Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Stable Moderate increase 1,100 810 April–June 4; 1 brood 25–27; 25–31 days Oldest: 24 30–33cm; 190g

such as newts and some plant material. At the coast it eats shrimps, crabs, ragworms and small fish.

BREEDING

Male makes several nest-scrapes on the ground in the open and female chooses one. Incubation is by both adults. Young are covered with down and feed themselves. At first both adults tend the chicks, but often the female leaves and begins her migration ahead of the family. Male often accompanies juveniles on migration.

summer

winter

IDENTIFICATION

Medium-large wader with long, slightly upturned bill and long greenish legs. Taller and greyer than Redshank. Grey above and white below, with head, neck and sides of breast pale grey. In flight, wings are uniform grey; long white ‘V’ up the back and conspicuous pale tail. In spring, back is darker with irregular black spots and streaks and dark ‘arrowhead’ markings on neck and breast. Juveniles have darker backs with every feather on upperparts thinly edged with buff. Adults begin moult in June and July. Partial moult between January and May to acquire breeding plumage. See also: Redshank p140, Spotted Redshank p141, Green Sandpiper p136.

HABITS

When feeding, probes into wet mud, pecks delicately from the surface, or sweeps bill from side to side. Generally seen singly but may travel in small flocks. Flight rapid and it sometimes twists erratically. On breeding territories, may perch on a post or small tree. Male proclaims territory with a songflight of deep undulations, sometimes reaching a great height, before ‘tumbling’ back to the ground.

VOICE

Loud, ringing distinct tew, tew, tew call is often given in flight. Also rich ru-tu, ru-tu, ru-tu song in spring.

HABITAT

In most of its breeding range, inhabits open forest or partially tree-grown areas in the subarctic. In Scotland, found on lower moors that may be either dry or boggy, but usually near small pools or peat bogs. At other times, visits margins of lakes, rivers and reservoirs as well as estuaries and coastal marshes.

winter

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

One parent, usually female, migrates in June or July and young follow with the remaining adult before end of August. Most Scottish Greenshank winter in south-west Britain and Ireland, but some go on to the Mediterranean or North Africa. Others from northern Europe may winter in Britain but most move on to winter in central and southern Africa.

CONSERVATION

Scottish breeding range seems to have increased slightly over the last 50 years and numbers may have risen, though there is some range loss in eastern Scotland. Planting forests on the flow country of Caithness and Sutherland, the drying out of traditional bogs and marshes, and human disturbance, all threaten this species. Climate change may also affect the distribution in summer and winter. Restoration of flow country by RSPB and others may help restore breeding habitat. The European breeding population appears stable.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain, it breeds in the north-west Highlands and Hebrides. It occurs widely both inland and along the coast during migration, and some overwinter, particularly around Irish coasts and western Scotland. It breeds across northern Europe, Russia and Asia, and winters south to South Africa and Australasia.

FOOD

In summer, it feeds on beetles, worms, snails, dragonfly nymphs and small fish. It also eats amphibians

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Redshank Tringa totanus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Moderate decline Moderate decline 22,000 94,500 April–June 4; 1 brood 24; 25–35 days Average: 4; Oldest: 26 27–29cm; 120g

HABITAT

Many of Britain’s breeding Redshanks nest on saltmarshes. Others nest in freshwater marshes, wet grasslands, upland pastures and low moorland areas, often far from the coast. After nesting, most visit coastal areas, especially saltmarshes.

FOOD

In coastal areas, feeds on shrimps, small fish, shellfish such as cockles, marine snails, small crabs, and marine worms. Inland, feeds on earthworms, cranefly larvae, beetles, flies and spiders.

BREEDING

juvenile winter

Most eggs are laid in May in a nest made by female in a scrape within rushes or other vegetation, normally well concealed. Incubation is by both sexes. Young are self-feeding and at first both parents care for the family, but often the female leaves before the young can fly.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Northern populations migrate, while southerly ones are more sedentary. Young travel further than older birds, some reaching France and Spain. As many as half of those wintering in Britain may come from Iceland. Some from Fennoscandia reach Britain, but most go to southern Europe and North Africa. winter

summer

IDENTIFICATION

Medium-sized wader with orange-​ red base to medium-length bill and longish red legs – hence red-shank. In spring, adult has dark brown back with irregular dark markings, heavily lined breast and streaked flanks. In winter, becomes grey-brown with more uniform appearance; plain grey-brown breast and mottled flanks. Juvenile brown like summer adult but has neat buff edges to back and wing feathers and legs are more orange-red. In flight, has obvious white rear edges to wings and white ‘V’ up the back. See also: Spotted Redshank p141, Ruff p129.

HABITS

Walks and runs when feeding and will wade and swim. Often solitary but not uncommon to form small flocks at high tide. Flight sometimes appears a little erratic and often glides. In spring, has a noisy display as it undulates over territory, calling loudly and gliding to the ground, where it pauses with wings raised, displaying white feathers. When nesting, frequently perches on fences or posts.

VOICE

Noisy and nervous wader that alerts other birds to approaching danger with ringing tew, tew call. In spring, has a yodelling tu-udle, tu-udle that accompanies display flight.

CONSERVATION

Breeding population has fallen, with inland sites the worst affected. Cold winters increase mortality, as do dry summers, when young find it difficult to feed. Drainage of agricultural land has resulted in Redshanks disappearing from many inland sites. Overgrazing of coastal marshes has also removed breeding habitat and reduced productivity. Breeding birds are increasingly dependent on nature reserves and other protected sites. Future threats come from inland breeding sites becoming too dry and coastal marshes disappearing through sea-level rise. Grazing agreements on coastal sites and creation of new marshes may help, as will the re-wetting of farmland and better stock management.

DISTRIBUTION The greatest concentrations of breeding Redshanks occur in parts of Scotland and north-west England. In Ireland, the largest concentrations are found in the west. Others are on the coastal marshes of eastern and southern England. It winters on coasts where there is suitable feeding habitat. Breeds in Iceland, and from Fennoscandia to Spain and east into Asia.

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Spotted Redshank Tringa erythropus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber – Stable – 67 – – – Oldest: 8 29–31cm; 170g

juvenile

winter

IDENTIFICATION

Slightly larger than Redshank. Medium-large wader with long legs and straight bill with suggestion of downward kink near tip. Briefly in spring, adult has black plumage spotted with white on the back. At other times it resembles Redshank but with a longer bill and longer legs. The back is pale grey with some spotting and the pale head has a black line through the eye with white above. Underparts are white. Legs are red and the lower part of bill is red at base. In flight, it has a white lozenge-shape on its back and no wing-bar. Juvenile is brown above with dusky belly and barring on flanks. Immature in first summer is darker with heavily barred underparts. Adults moult completely between July and October. In spring, body plumage is moulted between March and May. See also: Redshank p140, Ruff p129.

FOOD

Searches mud or water and sometimes chases after prey. Eats adults and larvae of water beetles and flies. Also takes moth caterpillars, shrimps, shellfish, worms and small fish.

BREEDING

Does not breed in Britain or Ireland. It makes a shallow scrape and lines it with leaves and stems. The eggs, usually 4, are incubated mostly by the male. Female may leave the breeding site before the eggs hatch or when the chicks are young. Male looks after young.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Females form flocks and leave their breeding grounds before the males. Migration starts in mid-June and juveniles follow in July and August with peak migration through Britain and Ireland during September. Return migration is during April and May, therefore females are only on their breeding grounds for 4–5 weeks. A few non-breeding birds remain around British coasts in summer.

summer

CONSERVATION

winter

HABITS

Elegant wading bird. In flight, often looks long and slim with trailing legs. An energetic feeder that frequently wades in deep water, submerging its whole head in its search for food or delicately skims the surface. Swims readily. Often solitary or in small groups.

VOICE

Usual flight call is a loud and distinctive chu-it.

HABITAT

Breeds in the subarctic tundra on bogs and marshes with some woodland. Outside the breeding season it visits coastal marshes, sheltered estuaries and brackish lagoons. It especially favours creeks and channels. It may also visit freshwater sites – shallow pools, floodwaters, reservoir margins and inland lakes.

Western Europe sees relatively few of the large number of Spotted Redshanks that move to and from the Arctic each year. Conservation of estuaries and lowland freshwater wetlands, as well as the management of the brackish lagoons found near the coast, are all important. Many of these sites are specially protected sites and nature reserves.

DISTRIBUTION Breeds in Fennoscandia and east across northern Russia and Siberia. It is widely distributed along English coasts on migration and winters mainly in the south. Elsewhere, winters in a very wide range of countries from south-west Europe and West Africa eastwards across India and South East Asia to Vietnam. Migration takes place overland on a broad front.

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Snipe Gallinago gallinago Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Strong decline Uncertain 64,500 1,000,000 April–July 4; 1 brood 18–20; 18–19 days Average: 3; Oldest: 16 25–27cm; 110g

HABITAT

Breeds on moorland bogs and wet pastures in upland areas and in fenland and marshes in the lowlands. In winter, is widespread and feeds in almost any lowland marshy place, both coastal and inland.

FOOD

Probes in wet ground and mud to find food and sometimes feeds in shallow water. Eats worms, and insects such as beetles, flies and ants. Also larvae and adults of craneflies, caddis flies and damselflies.

BREEDING

Male builds a nest on the ground, usually well concealed by vegetation. Female incubates. Both parents feed young. Once out of the nest the brood is split between the pair, with the male usually taking charge of the first chicks to hatch. Young become independent at about the time they can fly.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

juvenile

British and Irish breeding birds tend to move south or west in autumn, with many of those from northern England and Scotland reaching Ireland, and some from southern England and Wales reaching France or Spain. Winter migrants from Iceland, the Faroes and northern Europe overwinter in Britain and Ireland, arriving between September and November and leaving between March and May.

CONSERVATION

IDENTIFICATION

Medium-sized stocky wader, with extremely long, straight bill and rather short green legs. Back is dark brown and delicately barred and streaked with paler brown and four straw-coloured stripes, less obvious than on Jack Snipe. Crown is blackish with a thin buff line down centre and long buff stripe over the eye and one across the cheek. Breast is buff with darker arrow marks, belly is clean white. In flight, has a white trailing edge to pointed wings and rather short tail. Adults moult between June and October with no obvious change in appearance. See also: Jack Snipe p143, Woodcock p144.

HABITS

Secretive and elusive. If disturbed, flies with a zigzag flight, but often crouches and relies on its cryptic camouflage for protection. Does not form large flocks like other waders, but small groups may feed close together and fly in loose flocks called ‘wisps’. In spring, it has an undulating display flight over its breeding territory, and on the downward path it makes a bleating, whirring sound, called drumming, as air is forced through its stiff outer tail feathers.

VOICE

In addition to drumming, it has a rapid chip-er, chiper alarm call in spring used in flight and when perched. Also a loud rasping scaap when disturbed.

Breeding habitat for Snipe has reduced over the last century, as wet grasslands, fens and bogs have been drained, and rivers deepened. Decline in many parts of Britain has been linked to changes in agriculture, such as improved drainage and ploughing traditional grasslands. Also newly planted upland forests have reduced areas available for nesting. A high proportion of Snipe now breed on nature reserves, where water levels and vegetation are carefully managed. The European population is falling. Habitat change, especially drainage and modern grassland management, are major threats.

DISTRIBUTION Breeds throughout Britain and Ireland, but largest populations are in the uplands of northern England and in Ireland. There are two races of Snipe: one in Iceland and the Faroes, Orkney and Shetland, one across the rest of Britain and Ireland, and across central and northern Europe and Asia. Winters in western and southern Europe, around the Mediterranean, across central and eastern Africa, and in South and South East Asia.

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Jack Snipe Lymnocryptes minimus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Uncertain Uncertain – 100,000 – – – Oldest: 12 17–19cm; 55g

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller and more compact than Snipe, with a much shorter and slightly thicker bill. Has a more metallic green and purple back, and dark crown with bold buff stripes down the side of the head and above the eye. It lacks the central crown stripe on the head of Snipe. Dark back has four bright straw-coloured stripes running down it. Moults between July and October, before it migrates, and has a second, partial moult starting in January. See also: Snipe p142.

HABITS

Secretive wader that is most active at dawn and dusk and is more likely to crouch and freeze than fly if disturbed during the day. When it does fly, it often takes off from very close to an observer, lacks the zigzag flight of Snipe, and generally lands close by. When feeding or resting it has a characteristic bobbing body movement, so the body looks as if it is on a spring as it bounces up and down. It does not form flocks, although several birds sometimes feed close together.

VOICE

Usually silent outside the breeding season. At nesting time, it produces a range of display-flight calls including some sounding like a cantering horse: kollarap, kollarap, kollarap….

BREEDING

It does not breed in Britain and Ireland. Information on its breeding habits is limited but a nest cup is constructed on the ground, often on a small ridge close to water. Four eggs are laid in early May and the female incubates for up to 24 days. Possibly has two broods.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Passage and winter visitor. Relatively little is known about the migrations and movements of this secretive wader. It leaves its northern breeding grounds in August and European birds appear to move on a broad front south-west across Europe between September and November. They start to return in February, although their northern nesting sites are not reoccupied until either April or May.

CONSERVATION

This species is very difficult to census and its population trends are uncertain. The large Russian population is reported to have declined during the 20th century and so may numbers wintering in Britain and Ireland. In Europe, the population size is thought to be stable. Jack Snipe is threatened by the loss and degradation of its wetland habitats through afforestation, peat extraction and drainage for agriculture, as well as by hunting.

DISTRIBUTION

HABITAT

In Britain and Ireland, the Jack Snipe feeds in shallow wet and muddy areas in winter, often where there is dense low vegetation, such as coastal fringe, freshwater marshes, reedbeds, fens, flooded grassland and the banks of rivers and streams. In summer, it breeds in wet, open boggy areas within taiga and birch forests of the subarctic.

FOOD

Feeds on adults and larvae of a variety of insects such as beetles and flies, also small snails, worms and some plant material, especially seeds.

Winters broadly across England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland, generally avoiding upland areas. Passage migrants may visit coastal islands and headlands. Occasionally recorded in summer, possibly latedeparting wintering birds. Breeds in Fennoscandia and across into eastern Russia, and winters in western Europe, North and central Africa, and southern Asia.

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Woodcock Scolopax rusticola Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Strong decline Moderate increase 55,500 1,400,000 March–July 4; 1 brood 21–24; 20 days Average: 4; Oldest: 15 33–35cm; 280g

IDENTIFICATION

Larger than Snipe. Large, plump, pigeonsized wader with short legs, very long, straight, tapering bill and large eyes. Reddish-brown upperparts have delicate buff mottling and underparts are buff with dark barring. Broad blackish crown is crossed with several paler brown lines, not striped as in Snipe. Tail has a silver tip that is most obvious from below. In flight, wings appear broad-based and rounded, and lack any prominent marks. See also: Snipe p142, Jack Snipe p143.

BREEDING

Males may mate with up to four females in a season. Female builds nest on the ground among bracken, dead leaves or brambles, often close to a tree trunk or dead branch on the woodland floor. Incubation is by female. Young are covered in down and leave the nest quickly. They remain associated with female and become independent at 5–6 weeks. There are reports of females carrying small young, usually between their thighs, to move them from danger or to a new feeding area.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

HABITS

Beautifully camouflaged plumage, nocturnal habits and secretive behaviour make Woodcock difficult to spot. Generally solitary and most active at dawn and dusk. In spring, males have aerial displays as they fly over their breeding habitats with slow, flickering wingbeats, calling frequently, in what is known as ‘roding’. Woodcock are much more obvious at that time. The most dominant males rode the longest and attract and mate with more females. At other times, it flies strongly, or if disturbed zigzags between trees with agility before dropping to hide in cover. When probing for food on the ground, it has a curious rocking action.

VOICE

When roding it utters distinct frog-like croaks, followed by a thin but far-carrying tsiwick, tsiwick.

HABITAT

Nests in deciduous or mixed woodland, young conifer plantations and sometimes on heather moors. Remains in woodland in winter, although in cold weather may feed in more open places, such as wet ditches. Rare on the coast except when migrating.

FOOD

Probes moist soil and feels prey with the sensitive nerve endings at the tip of its bill. Feeds on a range of invertebrates, such as worms, beetles and their larvae, spiders, caterpillars, fly larvae and small snails.

Most British and Irish Woodcocks are resident, but a small proportion is migratory, with a few British birds moving to Ireland for the winter and others moving to France. Very large and variable numbers of Woodcock from Russia, Latvia and Finland arrive in Britain in October and November. Many move south-west, remaining until mid-April.

CONSERVATION

While the wintering population seems to be increasing, our breeding population is declining, for reasons that are unclear. The cause has been linked to increased deer browsing, the drying of woodlands, forest maturation, and recreational disturbance. The European population is stable. In its breeding range, forest fragmentation is a concern and in the nonbreeding season it is threatened by the loss of wet grasslands and possibly by hunting pressure.

DISTRIBUTION Found in suitable woodland habitat in summer patchily throughout Britain and Ireland, except in the south-west of England. Very widespread in Britain and Ireland in winter. The Woodcock has a very large range, breeding from northern Fennoscandia south to the Azores, and east across Asia to Japan. In winter, may reach the Mediterranean area and North Africa.

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Kittiwake Rissa tridactyla Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

summer

Red Strong decline Moderate decline 205,000 Not known May–July 1–3; 1 brood 25–32; 33–54 days Average: 12; Oldest: 28 38–40cm; 410g

IDENTIFICATION

Slightly larger than Black-headed Gull. This is a neat, gentle-looking, medium-sized gull with a small yellow bill and dark eye. It resembles Common Gull, but has a slightly forked tail, short black legs and distinctive triangular black wing-tips with no white spots. The grey back is slightly darker than the grey of the upperwings. In winter, the crown and back of head are pale grey. Juvenile plumage is striking. It has a bold black ‘W’ pattern on its upperwings in flight, black half-collar, grey back, black tail-band and small grey mark behind eye. Juveniles lose their black collars during their first winter. See also: Common Gull summer p158, Sabine’s Gull p148, Little Gull p149.

juvenile

are on the ledges of buildings, bridges and disused offshore rigs. Both parents share the incubation. The chicks are brooded while small and fed by both adults. Pairs that lay three eggs are usually unable to find enough food to feed all three chicks. Young quickly become independent after their first flight.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Birds disperse from their colonies after breeding in July and August. Some remain around the British Isles, but many juveniles reach the North American coast, and immatures may remain in the western Atlantic for several years before returning to their natal colonies to breed. Adults flying out to sea tend to move south-west, but some cross the Atlantic, returning to their colonies from February onwards.

CONSERVATION

1st-summer

HABITS

Breeds in large, noisy colonies, mainly on cliffs, but also seen singly or in small groups outside the breeding season. Sometimes large numbers gather where food is plentiful. Approaches boats and picks food from the surface of the sea and plunge-dives. Buoyant flight with stiff wingbeats sometimes resembling a tern. Breeding birds visit freshwater pools near their colonies to collect mud for nests and to bathe.

VOICE

Around its breeding cliffs it shouts its kitti-waaark call, from which it gets its name. Otherwise, it is rather silent.

HABITAT

Breeds mostly around rocky coasts where it nests on precipitous sea cliffs or buildings near the sea. At other times it lives out at sea, often beyond the continental shelf. A truly marine gull, unusual inland, except occasionally after gales.

FOOD

Feeds on fish such as Caplin, herring, sprats and sand eels, and other marine creatures, including shrimps. Also worms, insects and carrion.

BREEDING

Nest made of compacted mud, grass and seaweed, built by both sexes on a cliff ledge. Occasionally nests

Following persecution in the 19th century, the Kittiwake population increased for most of the 20th century. Indications are that numbers are now in decline. This has been linked to shortage of food, especially the collapse of sand eel populations in the Northern Isles, which is associated with ocean and climate change, exacerbated by fishing pressure. Increasing predation by Great Skua may be an important factor at some colonies. The European population is falling rapidly and listed as Vulnerable due to overfishing and warming and shifting ocean systems, linked to climate change. They may also be at risk from collision with offshore windfarms in European waters. RSPB research aims to understand the risks and find ways to avoid them.

DISTRIBUTION Breeds around British and Irish coasts, though scarce in south-east England. Most abundant around Ireland, northern Scotland and along North Sea coasts south to the Humber estuary. It also breeds in North America, Asia and northern Europe, with a few colonies on the Atlantic coast of Spain and Portugal. In winter, it is widespread in the North Atlantic.

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Gulls in flight

juvenile

summer winter

summer

KITTIWAKE p145 Grey wings, jet-black tips, black legs

SABINE’S GULL p148 Black and grey wings with triangle of white

summer

LITTLE GULL p149 Grey upperwing, black underwing

BLACK-HEADED GULL p150 Grey wings with white leading edge

summer

summer

winter

winter

MEDITERRANEAN GULL p151 Wings appear white with pale tips

summer

LESSER BLACK-BACKED GULL p152 Dark grey upperwings, yellow legs

summer

GREATER BLACKBACKED GULL p153 Black upperwings, flesh-coloured legs

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winter GLAUCOUS GULL p154 Very pale wings, white tips, fierce ‘expression’ winter

ICELAND GULL p155 Very pale wings, white tips, more gentle ‘expression’

HERRING GULL p156 Grey wings, black tips with white spots, fleshcoloured legs

summer

summer

summer

COMMON GULL p158 Grey wings, black tips, white spots, greenish legs

YELLOW-LEGGED GULL p157 Darker grey wings, black tips, white spots, yellow legs

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Sabine’s Gull Xema sabini Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Passage pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Not assessed – – – Variable and uncertain – – – Unknown 27–32cm; 135–225g

VOICE

It has a single harsh note, kee-aar, rather like an Arctic Tern’s call.

HABITAT

In Britain and Ireland, this is predominantly a coastal species, most likely to be seen off south-west headlands, but it may come into inshore waters blown by storms at sea, and sometimes further inland where it may visit large lakes and reservoirs. It breeds in the high-Arctic tundra and spends most of the rest of the year at sea.

FOOD juvenile winter

For most of the year it feeds on small marine creatures and fish. On its breeding grounds, it feeds on insects, other invertebrates and fish.

BREEDING juvenile

This species does not breed in Britain or Ireland. It nests in the high Arctic, often among colonies of Arctic Terns. The clutch of 2 or 3 eggs is incubated for 23–25 days by both parents. Both parents help to rear the young.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS summer

juvenile

winter

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Black-headed Gull with long wings, a slightly forked tail and a contrasting wing pattern at all ages. The adult has a black hood, grey back, black outer flight feathers and a white triangle on each upperwing. Small black bill has yellow tip. The juvenile is greyish-brown on the back of head and sides of breast, and has paler buff fringes to the back and wings, giving a scaly appearance. Wings also show a large white triangle. The bold greywhite-black upperwing pattern of adults and juveniles makes them stand out from other gulls and terns. Sabine’s Gull is exceptional in having a complete moult in early spring before it migrates north-west, and a partial moult in autumn. See also: Black-headed Gull p150, Little Gull p149, Kittiwake p145.

HABITS

Its flight is buoyant, rather like a tern, and it frequently feeds in flight by dipping and picking food from the surface of the water – although it will also feed on the ground, rather like a wader. It nests in colonies and may gather in large flocks at rich feeding areas, but in Britain and Ireland it is most often seen singly or in small groups.

Outside the breeding season this species spends most of its life at sea far from land. It leaves the Arctic and migrates south-east across the open Atlantic. There are late summer and autumn gatherings off the French coast in the Bay of Biscay before the birds move south as far as South Africa.

CONSERVATION

Those birds that reach Britain or Ireland each year make up only a minute proportion of the population moving through the Atlantic and there are no special conservation measures specifically designed for this species. The small population breeding in Europe is estimated to be increasing.

DISTRIBUTION Sabine’s Gull has a very large circumpolar distribution, breeding in Spitsbergen, Greenland, North America and north-east Siberia. Birds that breed in Greenland and Canada winter in waters of the Benguela current off south-west Africa. Those breeding in Alaska and Siberia winter in the cold waters of the Humboldt current, off the coast of Peru and Ecuador. Some migrating birds pass near the coasts of Britain and Ireland each year.

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Little Gull Hydrocoloeus minutus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Passage pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green – Uncertain – Variable and uncertain May–June 2–3; 1 brood 23–25; 21–24 days Oldest: 20 25–27cm; 120g

IDENTIFICATION

This delicate bird is the smallest gull, noticeably smaller and more dainty than Black-headed, with a small dark bill and red legs. Adult in spring has black (not brown) hood, grey back, blunt-ended pale grey upperwings and a thin white trailing edge. Underwings are very dark charcoal. In winter, the black hood is replaced by a black spot behind the eye and dark shading on back of the head. Juvenile is blackish-brown and white, with a dark crown, and an obvious dark ‘W’ wing pattern on upperwings in flight (as in Kittiwake). First-winter birds have grey backs, a bold dark ‘W’ wing pattern, a black tail-band and dusky marks on the head. First-summer birds resemble first-winter birds but have a smudgy dark hood and are in rather worn plumage. Secondwinter birds retain some dark marks on their wingtips. Adults gain their full black hood from February. See also: Black-headed Gull p150, Mediterranean Gull p151, Kittiwake p145.

HABITS

April and May there is a strong migration from Merseyside east across the Pennines and Yorkshire towards Finland and the Baltic.

1st-winter 1st-winter

CONSERVATION

Sightings of Little Gulls in Britain and Ireland have increased significantly since the 1950s, as their breeding range expanded north and west in Europe. There have been a few breeding attempts but, to date, not successfully. Nesting attempts have often been on nature reserves, where the habitat is carefully managed and the birds protected. Numbers reported each year vary from often hundreds to winter occasionally thousands. The European breeding population is declining, especially in Russia.

summer

summer

Quick wingbeats and rather erratic, buoyant zigzag flight, reminiscent of a tern. Frequently feeds in flight: delicately picking food from the water.

VOICE

Not normally very vocal but has a kek, kek, kek call.

HABITAT

In Britain and Ireland, visits sea coasts and estuaries but also lakes and reservoirs some distance inland. Breeds in freshwater marshes, beside rivers and lakes, where there is lush vegetation.

winter

FOOD

Much of its food is insects, such as dragonflies, mayflies, midges and their larvae, water bugs, such as water boatmen, ants and beetles. It also eats spiders, worms and fish.

BREEDING

Not yet breeding in Britain or Ireland, but there have been several nesting attempts. Nests on the ground on tussock of grasses or rushes in a marsh. Both adults incubate, starting with first egg, with the result that the young hatch at different times. Young wander from the nest when a few days old but continue to be fed by both parents.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Movements are poorly understood but after breeding they appear to disperse to sheltered bays and coastal waters, start to moult and then move further out to sea. Many spend winter in the Irish Sea and in

DISTRIBUTION May appear in Britain or Ireland at almost any time, especially along the east coast of England and Scotland and around the Irish Sea. There are three distinct breeding populations: in western Siberia and Russia west to the Baltic Sea, eastern Siberia, and eastern North America. Birds from the western populations winter around the west coast of Europe, in the Black Sea and in the Mediterranean, particularly in Egypt in the Nile delta.

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Black-headed Gull Chroicocephalus ridibundus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Moderate increase Moderate decline 130,000 2,200,000 April–July 2–3; 1 brood 23–26; 35 days Average: 11; Oldest: 32 34–37cm; 250–330g

IDENTIFICATION

FOOD

Aquatic and terrestrial insects, earthworms and marine invertebrates, and small fish. Will eat insects, such as beetles and swarming ants, spiders, slugs, small crabs, carrion, and bread thrown by humans.

BREEDING

Breeding begins with birds displaying often in large colonies. Male may select a site and start building the nest, which is then completed by the pair working together. Nest is a pile of vegetation on the ground, sometimes in water and rarely off the ground in trees, bushes or on buildings. Incubation is by both sexes. Young are covered with down and leave the nest after about 10 days. They remain nearby until they fly and become independent soon afterwards.

The smallest of our abundant gulls. Has slim, pointed wings with obvious white stripes along the front edges. In late winter and spring, it has a dark chocolate-brown hood that in autumn and winter is reduced to a dark spot behind the eye. Brown head often appears black (hence its name). In spring, the bill and legs are wax-red, but duller at other times. Juvenile has ginger-brown blotches on its head, back and sides of its breast. First-winter birds have head markings of adult in winter, a brown bar across the wings and narrow black tailband. First-summer birds start to get dark hoods but keep the brown across the wings and the tail-band. Adult moult is completed by September or October. Partial moult into breeding plumage is between January and April. See also: Little Gull p149, Mediterranean Gull p151, Sabine’s Gull p148. 1st-summer 1st-winter

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS Breeding

birds leave their colonies during July and return in March and April. Northern and eastern populations are summer long-distance migrants, while winter those in Britain and Ireland mostly stay in the British Isles. Birds from Iceland winter in Scotland and Ireland and many from Europe and Russia cross the North Sea to winter here.

CONSERVATION

summer

juvenile

winter

The British population is thought to be stable in number, although there has been a small decline in winter, for reasons that are unclear. The European population is roughly stable too.

HABITS

Quick wingbeats and buoyant flight resemble a tern and it is agile enough to catch insects in the air. It sometimes paddles the ground with its feet to attract worms to the soil surface and it often attempts to rob birds, such as Great Crested Grebes or Lapwings, of their food.

VOICE

The common call is a rather harsh kree-aaa.

HABITAT

Breeds at artificial and natural sites both inland and near the sea. Breeding sites vary from coastal marshes and sand dunes to freshwater marshes, lakes, flooded gravel pits, reservoirs and moorland pools. It forages for food on areas of short grass, farmland and refuse tips, as well as estuaries, marshes and beaches.

DISTRIBUTION The largest breeding colonies in Britain and Ireland are in north-west England, Scotland, north-west Ireland and Wales. After breeding, these birds may be seen almost anywhere, especially inland. It also breeds in Iceland, many parts of Europe, especially the north and east, and right across Russia and into Asia. Birds from Europe winter in western Europe, the Mediterranean, and around the coast of North Africa.

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Mediterranean Gull Ichthyaetus melanocephalus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

BREEDING

Amber Strong increase Strong increase 1,100 4,000 May–June 3; 1 brood 24; 35–40 days Oldest: 22 36–38cm; 320g

Frequently nests in Black-headed Gull colonies. Nest is a shallow depression lined with grass and feathers on bare ground or among low vegetation. Incubation and feeding of young is by both parents. Chicks leave their nest after a few days and hide nearby. They become independent at about the time they can fly.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Leaves breeding colonies in June or July and those from eastern Europe head for the Mediterranean, where they stay until March. Young from the Black Sea reach the Baltic Sea in winter and this may account for the growing population in western Europe.

IDENTIFICATION

Slightly larger and more robust than Black-headed CONSERVATION Gull, with a larger head, and thicker blood-red bill, Breeding in Britain first took place in Hampshire in which is parallel-sided and drooped at the tip. Legs 1968 and in Ireland in 1995. Many breeding sites are are dark red and longer than Black-headed Gull. In now on nature reserves and so benefit from added spring, adults appear white with a distinct black protection. Globally, this is a rare gull with a restricted hood (brown in Black-headed Gull), as back and distribution. While populations in western Europe are folded wings are pale grey and appear pure white in increasing, those in the east are falling. Mediterraflight. In winter, head looks flattened and hood is nean colonies are threatened by development reduced to a black mask and grey nape. Juveniles for tourism and sensitive to human have scaly brown wings. First-winter birds have the disturbance. Eggs are also dark mask, mottled brown wings with a pale grey collected for food. panel in the middle and dark, blackish-brown wing2nd-winter tips. Secondary flight feathers have dark bar 1st-summer across them, and tail has dark band near the tip. First-summer birds have a dark hood. Second-winter birds are pale, like adults, but have variable amounts of thin black marks near the wing-tip. A striking gull summer in all plumages. Adults moult between June and September and winter have a partial moult to acquire their black hood between February and April. 1st-winter See also: Black-headed Gull p150.

HABITS

Often stands or struts with head hunched between its shoulders. In flight, looks heavy-bodied and thicknecked, and wing-tips look fuller, more rounded than Black-headed Gull. Breeds in colonies and flocks may form during migration. In Britain and Ireland, it often associates with Black-headed Gull colonies and sometimes hybridises with them.

1st-summer 1st-winter

VOICE

Most common call is a distinctive kow-ah, deeper than that of Black-headed Gull.

HABITAT

Breeds in marshes or around lagoons or islands on the coast, elsewhere it nests in fields and grasslands near inland wetlands. In winter, all move to coastal areas where they feed on beaches and roost on nearby fields often with other gulls.

FOOD

In spring, feeds mainly on insects such as beetles and caterpillars. Also eats spiders, worms and fish. At other times, feeds on fish and shellfish, and scavenges for offal. Sometimes follows ploughing tractors and takes bread and other scraps from humans.

summer

2nd-winter

DISTRIBUTION Breeds mainly on the south and east coast of England, from Dorset to Norfolk, with a few in Scotland and Ireland. The major breeding colonies are in southern and eastern Europe and Hungary, but numbers are increasing rapidly in western Europe. In winter, a growing population occurs around the coasts of Britain and Ireland, with many inland records. In winter, it ranges from the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, to the coast of western Europe.

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Lesser Black-backed Gull Larus fuscus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Moderate increase Moderate increase 110,000 120,000 April–June 2–4; 1 brood 24–27; 30–40 days Average: 15; Oldest: 34 52–67cm; 830g

IDENTIFICATION

A little smaller and slimmer than Herring Gull with slightly longer yellow (not pink) legs and much darker slate-grey back. In winter, the head and neck become streaked with grey. Wings are longer and narrower than Herring Gull, giving it a long-winged appearance. Juvenile is uniformly streaked greybrown with scaly pattern on back and uniformly barred wings. Very like juvenile Herring Gull but has more uniform flight feathers with no pale ‘window’ on outer upperwing as in Herring Gull. By second winter adult colouring of back starts to appear. Those breeding in Scandinavia have blackish backs, but not quite as black as their wing-tips. British race is the palest, with two other races getting progressively blacker on the back. Dark-backed races are separated from Great Black-backed by much smaller size, slimmer bill, smaller head and yellow legs. Adult moult begins between May and August and is not complete on some birds until November. See also: Great Black-backed Gull p153, summer Herring Gull p156.

winter winter Scandinavian

HABITAT

juvenile

It breeds around the coast on sand dunes and shingle islands, inland on upland moors and in some towns on rooftops. Outside the breeding season it ranges widely, both inland and near the coast, although mainly inshore waters except when migrating.

winter

FOOD

Eats wide range of food, including small mammals, especially voles, and birds, including young Puffins and terns. Will take eggs, fish, insects, shrimps, shellfish, worms and plant material, including seaweed and berries, as well as carrion and scavenges on refuse tips.

BREEDING

Nest is on the ground, sometimes in the open, but often near long vegetation where chicks can hide. Some nest on roofs of buildings. Both sexes build the nest from seaweed, grasses and other local materials. Both birds incubate the eggs. Young hatch over a period of 1–6 days and leave the nest a few days later but do not generally wander far. Both parents feed young.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Some British birds migrate as far as North Africa, especially to Morocco. Autumn departure is staggered and some travel further than others.

CONSERVATION

Population increased during the 20th century and both the breeding and wintering distributions have expanded. Breeding numbers in Britain and Ireland have increased strongly, but some have subsequently fallen. Population trends are currently rather uncertain. Larger breeding numbers, with milder winters and more immigrants from mainland Europe, may account for increasing numbers in winter. Breeding birds may have benefited from protection and increasing food availability. Their changing fortunes might stem from a recent reduction in feeding opportunities and growing predation. In Europe, the population size is increasing.

DISTRIBUTION 1st-winter

2nd-summer

HABITS

Breeds in colonies, often with other gulls, and is also gregarious at other times of the year, usually joining large evening roosts of other gulls. It migrates singly or in small groups.

VOICE

A rather gruff kaw and rough laughing cries, ga ga gag.

Breeds in northern and western Europe and northern Russia. Winters as far south as the Mediterranean and North Africa. There are three distinct races that are seen in Britain and Ireland. The pale-backed race that breeds in Britain and Ireland also nests in Iceland, France and north-west Spain. Two darker-backed races breed in Fennoscandia and western Russia and some visit Britain, but also move further south for the winter.

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Great Black-backed Gull Larus marinus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

summer

Amber Moderate decline Moderate decline 15,000 76,000 April–June 2–3; 1 brood 27; 49–56 days Oldest: 29 64–78cm; 1.7kg

IDENTIFICATION

1st-winter

2nd-summer

1st-summer

Our largest gull. Larger head, heavier bill, thicker neck, and proportionally thicker wings and legs than Lesser Black-backed Gull. Appears heavy and powerful on the ground and in flight. Back and wings are black, legs flesh-coloured. In winter, head and neck are lightly streaked with grey. Juvenile has typical brown plumage of young gulls. Bill is black, the head and breast are paler than the rest of the underparts and has bold chequered pattern on its back. Immatures have paler heads than Lesser Black-backed Gull, but size and bulky shape is usually a better identification feature until its third year when it starts to acquire its black back. It takes 4–5 years to reach adult plumage. Adults start their moult between June and August and may not finish until November. See also: Lesser Black-backed Gull p152.

HABITS

Flight looks heavy and ponderous. Frequently seen singly or in pairs, although small groups may congregate outside the breeding season. Often aggressive towards other bird species and will attack and rob them of their food.

VOICE

Call is a rather gruff bark, uk, uk, uk.

HABITAT

Breeds mostly around rocky coasts and islands but sometimes on freshwater lakes or moorland. Also visits sandy coasts and estuaries and joins concentrations of gulls at roosts and feeding sites, such as refuse tips.

FOOD

Hunts in a variety of ways and takes a wide range of food. Kills and eats young seabirds, such as Puffins and Kittiwakes, robs others of their food, and will catch fish or feed on carrion, either in the water or washed up on the shore. Sometimes drops shellfish to break their shells and has been observed scavenging roadkills. It will kill and eat mammals, such as rabbits.

BREEDING

winter

Nests are built singly or in colonies on rocky outcrops and islands, or sometimes on moorland, or even on buildings. Nest is a mound of seaweed built by both sexes. Incubation is by both parents. Young wander from the nest after hatching, but they seldom go far. They become independent soon after they can fly.

1st-winter

summer

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Both resident and migratory. Many in Britain and Ireland stay near their breeding grounds, while others arrive from further north to winter here. Many adults in eastern England between July and February are from Norway. Juveniles travel further than adults. Direction of their first movement away from their nests is usually random, but soon most move south and many remain south of their breeding grounds until they reach maturity.

CONSERVATION

This gull was close to extinction in the 19th century, largely due to persecution. From about 1880, however, it started to recover, probably helped by the new food resources provided as a by-product of the fishing industry and opening of landfill sites. The breeding population in Britain and Ireland seems to be stable with some range losses in the west. Wintering numbers seem to be down. The European population is falling. It is vulnerable to marine pollution and collision with offshore windfarms, is hunted in some areas, and can be caught up in fishing gear.

DISTRIBUTION Breeds mainly on the western coast of Britain and Ireland but absent from the North Sea coast of eastern England. Outside the breeding season, it can be found all around our coasts and in many inland areas as well. It breeds in northern and western Europe, Iceland, Greenland and eastern North America. In winter, it ranges as far south as the Bay of Biscay and the coast of Spain and Portugal.

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Glaucous Gull Larus hyperboreus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber – Stable – 155 – – – Oldest: 22 62–68cm; 1.4–1.8kg

1st-winter 1st-winter

VOICE

Generally silent in winter. Call like Herring Gull.

HABITAT

IDENTIFICATION

Larger than Herring and approaching size of Great Black-backed Gull. This is the largest ‘white-winged gull’. It is bulky and powerful-looking, with a long, robust bill and rather flat forehead and crown that creates an aggressive appearance. The back of the adult is pale blue-grey, and the tips of the wings are white. In winter, its head and neck are heavily streaked with grey-brown. In flight, the long bill, long protruding head and neck, and long, broad wings give an impression of large size and strength. Mottled plumage of juveniles is fawn and the wingtips are pale. Tail lacks any obvious dark marks. Its powerful bill has a distinct dark tip, but this is less extensive than that of a juvenile Iceland Gull. Plumage becomes whiter in second- and third-year birds, then adult plumage is gradually acquired. See also: Iceland Gull p155, Herring Gull p156.

HABITS

This is a social species and sometimes forms large flocks in the north of its range, but around British and Irish coasts is seen singly or in small numbers. It frequently swims but lacks the tapered profile of the Iceland Gull owing to the exposed wing-tips being proportionally shorter. It is an aggressive bird and will rob other species, notably Eiders, of their food.

In Britain and Ireland, this gull is chiefly found on our sea coasts, both in inshore waters and around fishing boats. Inland, it may sometimes visit refuse tips and roosts on lakes and reservoirs. In the breeding season, it nests on Arctic coasts where there are rocks and cliffs, and inland crags and rock pinnacles.

FOOD

It eats a wide range of foods, especially animal material. It is a predator, a scavenger and a pirate. It eats fish, eggs, young birds, shellfish, insects and carrion. It also appears to associate with marine mammals, including walrus, seals and whales and probably feeds on their faeces.

BREEDING

Both adults build a nest of seaweed on rocks or grass or sometimes on snow. The usual clutch is of 3 eggs, which are incubated by both sexes. The young are cared for by both parents and fly after 45 days.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

winter

Present in Britain and Ireland mostly between November and March, some late birds in April, with immature birds occasionally remaining for the summer. Winters as far north as ice-free water allows. Birds from the far north move south while many of those that nest in Iceland are resident.

CONSERVATION

Numbers visiting Britain and Ireland increased during the 20th century. Large influxes occur in some years, likely driven by severe northerly gales. Numbers visiting our shores appear relatively stable. Glaucous Gulls seem to have benefited from the availability of landfill sites and fishing practices. Breeding and wintering numbers in Europe are stable.

DISTRIBUTION

winter

This gull is seen around the coasts of Britain and Ireland in winter, especially in the far north. It also visits a few inland lakes and reservoirs. It breeds extensively across the Arctic, including Iceland, northern Russia, Asia, Greenland and North America.

1st-summer

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Iceland Gull Larus glaucoides Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

summer

Amber – Moderate increase – 330 – – – Oldest: 33 52–60cm; 750g

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller, less bulky and with longer wings than Herring Gull. This is the smaller of the two species known as ‘white-winged gulls’ that visit Britain and Ireland; the other is the larger Glaucous Gull. Adults have a grey back, very pale wings and white wing-tips. Its head is rounder than Glaucous Gull, it has a smaller, less robust-looking bill, a thin red ring round the eye and a more gentle facial expression. The long wingtips project well beyond the tail when perched. In winter, the head and neck may be streaked greybrown. Female is slightly smaller than male. Juveniles are very pale buff, finely mottled and barred darker brown with pale or greyish-buff flight feathers. First-winter birds have blackish bills with black tips. Plumage becomes whiter in second- and thirdyear birds, then adult plumage is gradually acquired. See also: Glaucous Gull p154, Herring Gull p156.

HABITS

In Britain and Ireland, this species is generally seen singly and can be rather tame. Its flight is light and graceful, as it hovers, turns and glides more freely than other large gulls. It is also more agile when feeding, and will take food from the ground, when flying or when swimming. It sometimes plunge-dives in shallow water to reach its prey.

VOICE

The call is similar to that of a Herring Gull, but shrill.

1st-winter

HABITAT

This gull is seen mostly on the coast where it visits harbours and nearby refuse tips. It also occurs inland, on open farmland and ploughed fields, often roosting on large reservoirs where it mixes with flocks of other gulls.

FOOD

It feeds mainly on fish, either alive or as carrion. On its breeding grounds, it will take eggs and young birds. Outside the breeding season it frequently scavenges on refuse tips, takes fishing waste around harbours, and invertebrates when inland.

BREEDING

It does not breed in Britain or Ireland. Its breeding grounds are on rocky Arctic coasts, mostly on tall cliffs where it may nest among Kittiwakes. In places where the Glaucous Gull also nests, the Iceland Gull will nest lower down the cliff, at some distance from the larger, more aggressive species.

winter 1st-winter

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Breeding birds leave their nest sites in August and return the following April or May. Some move south down the coast of North America while others cross to Iceland with a few travelling further south to western Europe. Arrives in Britain and Ireland from October to November and reaches peak numbers from January to March.

CONSERVATION

In some years there are large influxes but, even so, the number of wintering birds seems to be increasing. More birds have been recorded in western Ireland and inland in parts of England, which may reflect observer effort. Iceland Gulls that reach our shores benefit from human activity, whether it is the byproducts of the fishing industry, domestic refuse or farming practices. The European population is stable. It is subject to hunting pressure in Greenland and may be affected by non-native predators.

DISTRIBUTION In winter, Iceland Gull may be seen almost anywhere around the coasts of Britain and Ireland. It also frequents inland sites, especially in central England. Despite its name, the species does not breed in Iceland but in Greenland and Arctic Canada. It winters as far south as New York in the United States, and in Iceland, Scandinavia and the British Isles in western Europe.

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Herring Gull Larus argentatus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Strong decline Strong decline 130,000 730,000 April–July 2–4; 1 brood 28–30; 32–40 days Average: 12; Oldest: 34 55–67cm; 950g–1.2kg

VOICE

Includes the ‘long call’, throwing its head back in a series of cries, and a short kyow, kyow, kyow.

HABITAT

Found in inshore waters and offshore fishing grounds. Most nest near the sea, but inland colonies are increasing. Breeds on cliffs, beaches, shingle islands, moorland and buildings. Widespread outside the breeding season, but concentrations at or near the coast. Feeds on refuse tips, visits town parks and rests during the day on playing fields, and at night roosts on estuaries and large reservoirs.

FOOD

summer

Omnivorous and opportunistic, it will eat a range of food from offal and carrion to invertebrates, seeds and fruits. Robs other birds of their food, eats the eggs and young of other species, catches small mammals, scavenges at shorelines and refuse tips, catches flying ants, and plunges into the water to catch fish.

winter

BREEDING

winter

IDENTIFICATION

Large gull, between Lesser and Great Black-backed in size, but with a grey-blue back and wings. Fiercelooking, with powerful, slightly hooked yellow bill with red spot near tip. Legs and feet are flesh-coloured. Broad wings give rather heavy appearance in flight and the wing-tips are black with white spots. In winter, head and neck are heavily streaked with dark grey. Juvenile is mottled brown and very similar to juvenile Lesser Black-backed Gull. It is not until its second winter that the adult grey colour of the upperparts becomes obvious. It takes 4 years to reach adult plumage. Adult moult starts in mid-May, while nesting. Moult and regrowth of flight feathers takes 3–6 months. Second partial moult between January and March. See also: Yellow-legged Gull p157, Lesser Black-backed Gull p152, Common Gull p158, Kittiwake p145. juvenile

Pairs defend small territory inside a colony. Nest is a large mound of vegetation, built by both sexes on the ground, on a cliff ledge or even on a roof. Eggs are incubated by both adults. Young are covered with down and well camouflaged. They leave the nest after 2–3 days but remain within the territory and become independent soon after flying.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Breeding colonies mostly deserted after nesting. Juveniles disperse and travel further than adults. In winter, British birds are joined by a large number of birds from Fennoscandia.

CONSERVATION

Increased during the 20th century, profiting from new food supplies provided by refuse tips and discards from fishing boats. In the last 50 years, however, numbers have fallen steadily, as feeding opportunities at refuse sites have diminished, discards from the fishing industry have lessened, and mammalian predators increased. Added to which, Herring Gulls are susceptible to botulism and disease, and might be affected by offshore windfarms. The European population is decreasing and the global range of this species is restricted to Europe.

DISTRIBUTION

1st-winter

HABITS

Individuals may feed singly but generally found in flocks, sometimes large. Nests in noisy colonies and joins large communal roosts. At the coast, follows fishing boats to scavenge for discarded fish. Feeds in ploughed fields and forms large feeding groups at and around refuse tips. Adaptable, dropping shellfish onto rocks to break their shells, or hunting like a bird of prey in search of small mammals.

Found all around the British and Irish coasts with some inland too, although scarce along the sandy coasts of eastern England. In winter, can be seen in lowland and coastal habitats around the British Isles. Breeds in Iceland, and across northern and western Europe, as well as in western Russia. Winters as far south as Spain and Portugal.

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Yellow-legged Gull Larus michahellis Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Moderate increase Moderate increase 3 840 April–July 2–3; 1 brood 26–30; 42–49 days Oldest: 19 55–67cm; 420g–1.6kg

juvenile

summer

IDENTIFICATION

Size of Herring Gull and looks very similar but is slightly darker grey on the back and wings, but not as dark as Lesser Black-backed Gull and has more extensive black on the wing-tips with smaller white spots. The legs are yellow. Red spot on the yellow bill is larger and brighter. A narrow ring around the eye is orange-red. In winter, it has a whiter head than Herring Gull. It is bulkier and stronger-looking, with stronger bill and larger head. The juvenile has a whiter head than juvenile Herring Gull, more like Lesser Black-backed Gull in pattern and colour. Takes 4 years to reach adult plumage. Moults earlier than Herring Gull and in autumn, plumage is pristine while Herring Gulls are still in moult. See also: Herring Gull p156, Common Gull p158.

HABITS

In Britain, often stands apart from the large gull flocks and is more likely to associate with Lesser Black-backed Gulls. Tends to feed on the tideline away from the other large gulls.

VOICE

The kyow call is more nasal and deeper than Herring Gull, similar to Lesser Black-​backed Gull. 1st-winter

HABITAT

Usually seen at or near coast and more restricted to this habitat than Herring Gull. Feeds in inshore waters but will also visit harbours and refuse tips with other gulls. Nests in coastal locations. In late summer and winter, many occur inland on farmland, refuse and landfill sites, and in wetlands.

FOOD

Feeds on a wide variety of animal and plant material, including fish, shellfish, small mammals and carrion.

BREEDING

A rare breeding bird in Britain. The nest comprises a mound of vegetation on the ground, on a cliff ledge or even on the roof of a building. Both adults incubate the eggs. Young leave the nest after 2–3 days but remain within territory until they can fly.

summer

winter

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Movements are not fully understood, but it appears that juveniles and immatures disperse from their breeding colonies, some flying north along the coast of Europe while others move south along the coast towards Africa. Adults are mostly resident, but a number appear to disperse north and west after breeding.

CONSERVATION

The number of Yellow-legged Gulls seen in Britain has increased during the last 25 years, partly as identification was better understood, and breeding was first recorded in 1992 when an individual hybridised with a Lesser Black-backed Gull. In Britain and Ireland, one pair nested in 1995 and two in 1997; since then an increasing number of pairs or mixed pairs have bred, or attempted to breed. At present, there are no special measures to protect it as it expands its range northwards. Globally, this species has quite a restricted range.

DISTRIBUTION Originally nested only in north-west Africa, around the Mediterranean and along the coast of southwest Europe, but it has recently spread north to western Europe. After breeding, some disperse north-west and increasing numbers visit Britain and Ireland, especially between July and August. Breeds in the Mediterranean, North Africa, on the Atlantic Islands and in western Europe.

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Common Gull Larus canus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Moderate decline Moderate decline 48,000 700,000 May–July 2–4; 1 brood 22–28; 35 days Average: 10; Oldest: 33 40–42cm; 400g

farmland, around upland lakes, urban playing fields and reservoirs, often roosting on larger reservoirs with other gulls. Also winters at the coast where many will roost on estuaries.

FOOD

Takes live prey and carrion and sometimes robs other species. In summer, feeds on worms, cranefly larvae and other flies, moths, beetles, eggs, berries, small mammals, young birds and fish. In winter, feeds on invertebrates, fish, crustaceans and scavenges refuse tips.

BREEDING

1st-summer

summer summer

Nests on the ground, in low vegetation or sometimes on cliff tops or on roofs. Nest is made of seaweed and is built by both sexes. Both adults incubate. Young are fed by both parents and leave the nest within 3–5 days. They stay in the vicinity of the nest until they can fly, and they become independent soon afterwards.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

1st-winter 2ndwinter

juvenile winter

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller, but superficially like a Herring Gull, with bluegrey back and black wing-tips with white spots. Legs and bill are greenish-yellow and dark eyes give the bird a gentle appearance. Wings are less pointed than a Black-headed Gull, with no white on leading edge. In winter, has dusky marks on head and neck. Juvenile has mottled brown back and dusky marks on head and underparts. First-winter bird is also mottled on head and underparts, with grey back and thick dark tail-band. Takes 3 years to become fully adult. Small size and delicate features are useful pointers for identification. See also: Herring Gull p156, Kittiwake p145.

HABITS

Breeds among colonies of other gulls or terns but sometimes in its own colonies. Sociable outside the breeding season, often feeding and roosting with other gulls.

VOICE

Call is higher-pitched than other gulls, an almost mewing keee-ya. Hence the alternate common name ‘Mew Gull’.

HABITAT

Breeding colonies may be near the coast or kilometres inland in marshes, on islands in lakes, on moorland, and sometimes on roofs of buildings. Outside the breeding season, found inland on

Breeding birds from northern Europe reach the North Sea in late summer while many of the young birds remain around the Baltic Sea. Breeding birds start to return to colonies in March, but immature birds remain around the Baltic and the North Sea for the summer. Many of the Common Gulls that winter in Britain are birds that nested in Fennoscandia or Iceland. In March, there is a large movement through the North Sea of breeding birds returning, especially to Norway. Birds that pass through the Irish Sea are probably returning to Scottish breeding colonies.

CONSERVATION

The first half of the 20th century saw the species expanding its range in Britain and Ireland. In recent years, the numbers have declined modestly. Common Gulls nesting inland are likely to be adversely affected by drainage of marshes, agricultural changes and afforestation, where it replaces wet moorland habitat. In Europe, the population size is estimated to be decreasing. Nesting birds are vulnerable to predation by nonnative American Mink, to human disturbance, to habitat loss due to land drainage and reclamation, and eggs are harvested in some countries.

DISTRIBUTION Common Gulls breed widely, and at higher densities, in northern and western Scotland and in the west of Ireland. There are breeding colonies in the north of England and a few coastal locations farther south and east. It breeds in northern Europe, Russia, northern Asia and North America. European birds mainly winter in western Europe and around the Black Sea.

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Sandwich Tern Thalasseus sandvicensis Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Stable Strong increase 14,000 53 April–July 1–2; 1 brood 21–29; 28–30 days Average: 12; Oldest: 30 36–41cm; 250g

IDENTIFICATION

HABITS

Often flies higher than other terns and can look very angular and less buoyant with a shorter tail and bill pointing down. Seldom hovers, but frequently dives with quite a large splash and usually stays underwater for longer than other terns. Colonies are fickle and often move location for no apparent reason.

VOICE

Noisy, the most common call being a loud, grating keer-ick.

HABITAT

Breeds exclusively in coastal locations, using shingle, sandy and sometimes rocky beaches and on islands close to the shore. Outside the breeding season inhabits inshore waters and is only occasionally seen inland.

FOOD

Feeds mainly on fish near the surface of the sea, such as sand eels, sprats and whiting.

BREEDING

Nests in large, noisy colonies. Nest is a simple scrape on the ground made by both adults with little or no lining. Both adults incubate the eggs. Some young stay in the nest, others form crèches, while others are mobile and roam around the colony. Both adults feed the young even after they can fly. Juveniles remain dependent on their parents for 4 months or so. Quickly disperses after nesting. Within days juveniles may be many kilometres from breeding colonies. They

winter

winter

summer

Slightly larger but slimmer than Black-headed Gull. Largest of the terns that breed in Britain and Ireland. A white-looking tern, with pale grey back and wings that are long and pointed, and a short, forked tail. Heavy-looking body with yellow tip to long black bill, and short black legs. Forewings show grey wedges on outer flight feathers. Smart black cap with ragged crest at the back of the crown at start of breeding season, but soon shows white speckling above eyes, and by late summer the whole forehead is white. By winter, both the forehead and crown are white, Juvenile has brownish-black spotting on crown and forehead, sandy back with dark tips to feathers, and an all-black bill. Breeding plumage acquired between February and April. See also: Common Tern p162, Little Tern p160.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

summer

juvenile

may travel north or south, but in time all move south, and by October most have left the British Isles. They move mainly along the coasts of Europe and Africa, and first-year birds remain in Africa for their first summer. Adults generally winter further north than immatures. A small number are reported around British and Irish coasts each winter. Return migration begins in February – these are one of the earliest summer migrants to reach Europe.

CONSERVATION

Driven close to extinction in the 19th century by eggcollecting for food and hunting for the millinery trade, but legal protection has seen numbers increase steadily. Numbers fluctuate now but are thought to be stable. Breeding colonies on beaches are sensitive to recreational disturbance by tourists, nests on beaches are vulnerable to tidal inundation, and eggs and chicks to predators, including foxes, American Mink and Brown Rats. Climate change adds an extra threat, creating sea-level rise and extreme weather, and changing seas and fish stocks. In Britain and Ireland, most colonies are restricted to nature reserves. The European breeding population shows a fluctuating pattern.

DISTRIBUTION Nesting colonies are scattered around the coasts of Britain and Ireland. Breeds in mainland Europe, Russia and North America. Birds breeding in Europe winter along the African coast, as far as South Africa and extending into the Indian Ocean, and as far north as Mozambique. A small but growing number winter around British coasts, as far north as the Firth of Forth in Scotland.

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Little Tern Sternula albifrons Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Moderate decline – 1,500 – May–July 2–3; 1 brood 18–22; 19–20 days Average: 12; Oldest: 23 22–24cm; 56g

IDENTIFICATION

Our smallest tern. A third smaller than Common Tern, and wings and tail are proportionally shorter. Tail is forked, lacking any tail-streamers, and head and bill are noticeably large. Bill is yellow with small black tip, and legs are yellow or orange. A white bird with pale grey back and wings, black cap and forehead that is always white. By late summer the white forehead becomes larger, the bill darker and the legs paler. Juvenile is noticeably smaller with dark bill, pale buff, streaked crown, dark patch through eye to the back of head and sandy-grey back with darker marks. Adults start to moult when still feeding young in June to August and then moult is suspended until migration is completed. See also: Common Tern p162, Arctic Tern p163, Roseate Tern p162.

summer

summer

BREEDING

Both adults make a nest-scrape in the shingle or sand that is often unlined. Both adults incubate eggs. Young are covered in down and mobile soon after hatching. After a few days they leave the nest and hide among the shingle or nearby vegetation, being fed by the adults. Some family groups stay together on migration.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

European breeding birds leave their colonies in July and August and soon start their southward migration along the coasts of Europe and Africa. Some of the European birds that breed inland migrate across land and along rivers, but they do not appear to cross the Sahara like some of the larger terns.

CONSERVATION

winter

HABITS

Wingbeats are noticeably very hurried and fast. Frequently hovers before diving into water. It does not normally form communal flocks like the larger terns and tends to breed in smaller colonies.

VOICE

The most frequent call is a loud, shrill kik-kik.

HABITAT

In Britain and Ireland, almost exclusively a marine species, nesting on shingle or sandy beaches. In mainland Europe, is found nesting on suitable rivers and around inland lakes. Outside the breeding season, it mainly feeds close inshore.

FOOD

Feeds on mainly small fish, especially sand eels. Also takes shrimps and insect larvae. juvenile

Little Terns rely on open sandy or shingle beaches for nesting, which can bring them into conflict with humans and make them vulnerable to predators, high tides and poor summer weather. Pressure on the coast both from recreation and development has reduced the number of safe beaches for breeding. Many colonies are located on protected areas and a coordinated project is working to create ideal nesting habitat across these important sites. Most are now fenced off and wardens are on hand to protect nests from inadvertent disturbance. Predation by foxes, and at some sites by individual Kestrels, can be a considerable problem. The RSPB has successfully trialled diversionary feeding of Kestrels in East Anglia to reduce losses when Little Terns are feeding their chicks. Population trends across mainland Europe have fluctuated.

DISTRIBUTION Colonies are distributed around Britain and Ireland, with the majority in England on the coast between the Humber and the Solent. Other colonies are found in England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland. Little Terns also breed from the Baltic to the Mediterranean and there are other races in Africa and Asia. European birds spend winter along the coast of West Africa with some reaching as far as South Africa.

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Roseate Tern Sterna dougallii Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Strong increase – 94 – June–July 1–2; 1 brood 21–26; 30 days Average: 8; Oldest: 23 33–38cm; 110g

summer

summer

1st-winter

winter

IDENTIFICATION

Similar size to Common Tern but much whiter with pale grey back and wings, jet-black cap, white body that in spring has a soft pink flush and long tailstreamers. Flight elegant and buoyant. It differs from Common Tern by having faster, shallower wingbeats (almost Kestrel-like) but looks shorter-winged and longer-tailed. Bill is predominantly black with a little red at the base (only visible at close range). By late summer, the upperwing has a narrow dark wedge along the leading edge of the longest flight feathers. The underwings look very pale. Juvenile has dark forehead and neat blackish scaly edges on its back feathers, and black legs. In flight, shows whiter underwing than juvenile Common or Arctic Terns. See also: Common Tern p162, Arctic Tern p163.

HABITS

In flight, it has a stiffer wing action than Common or Arctic Tern. When fishing, it looks more confident as it turns and dives into the water from a greater height than Common Tern. It sometimes hovers. It may be seen alone or with other terns, and in small groups near breeding sites. It nests in colonies of other terns and sometimes chases and robs them of their food.

VOICE

The calls include a loud chew-ik and a rasping kraak.

HABITAT

Nests on small marine islands close to the shore. Colonies usually near shallow, sandy fishing grounds and the islands may be rocky or sandy. Outside the breeding season, it visits inshore waters and winters off warm tropical coasts.

summer

summer when most return to Europe, but do not generally breed until their third year.

CONSERVATION

Numbers fluctuated in the 19th and 20th centuries. From near extinction due to exploitation, the population has recovered with legal protection and better management of breeding sites. Numbers peaked in the 1960s, but reached a new low in the 1990s, from which there has been a partial recovery. Causes include hunting and food shortage in West Africa, cold and wet summers and predation on their breeding grounds. Conservation efforts involving education programmes in Africa and management of breeding colonies, including specially designed nest boxes for shelter and protection from avian predators, alongside habitat man1st-winter agement, have seen productivity increase. The European population is increasing.

juvenile

FOOD

The chief food is small fish, such as sand eels, herring and sprats.

BREEDING

Nest is a shallow scrape that is made by both birds, usually in the shelter of a rock or vegetation. Incubation is by both parents but with female taking largest share. The young stay by their nest for up to 20 days and then move around the colony. They remain dependent on their parents for at least 8 weeks.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

A marine tern, rarely away from coasts. Birds disperse from breeding colonies in August and some first move north, before moving rapidly south to West Africa, especially Ghana, where they arrive by November and stay for the winter. First-year birds remain in tropical waters until their second

DISTRIBUTION There are a small number of colonies around the British Isles, the largest numbers being in Ireland. The species also breeds in the Azores, Madeira, Canary Islands, in Africa and North and Central America. Other races breed in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, and in Australia.

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Common Tern Sterna hirundo Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Stable – 11,000 – May–July 2–3; 1 brood 21–22; 22–28 days Average: 12; Oldest: 33 31–35cm; 130g

winter

summer

of the nest before and during incubation. Incubation is by both sexes. Young leave the nest after 3–4 days and hide in nearby vegetation or in hollows in the sand, while waiting to be fed by parents. They are 2 or 3 months old before they are fully independent.

juvenile

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

1st-winter

1st-winter summer

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Black-headed Gull. Back and wings are silver-grey and underparts pale grey. Bill is orangered with a dark tip and short legs are red. Longest flight feathers of the upperwing become progressively darker during summer giving the appearance of a blackish ‘wedge’. Tips of flight feathers on the underwing are dusky and there is a translucent patch that appears semi-transparent against a bright sky. Juvenile is grey, white and black with a ginger back, pale forehead and flesh-pink or yellowish bill with a dark tip that becomes darker during summer. Moults while in British and Irish waters. See also: Arctic Tern p163, Roseate Tern p161.

HABITS

Flight more direct than other smaller terns. When fishing, flies with bill pointing down and often rises gently before hovering and diving head first. Social, breeding in colonies and often in flocks. In spring, often carries fish sideways in its bill. This may be to feed young or for the female as part of courtship.

VOICE

Most common call is a loud and distinct rasping keee-yaah.

HABITAT

Breeds inland and on shingle and sandy beaches or on rocky seashores. Feeds in lakes, reservoirs, rivers and inshore waters. Outside the breeding season, lives mainly in warm coastal waters.

FOOD

Feeds mainly on fish, chiefly small herring, sprats and sand eels. In freshwater catches roach, perch and minnows. Also eats shrimps and insects.

After nesting, some of the British and Irish birds may travel north before the whole population flies south to arrive in its winter quarters, during November and December. A few European birds remain in waters off southern Spain and Portugal in winter, but most migrate to West Africa, with the northern population travelling farthest and wintering south of the equator. Most first-year birds remain in West African waters. In their second summer, they may travel north again, but slowly, arriving midway through the breeding season. They first breed at 3 or 4 years old.

CONSERVATION

Severely affected by the millinery trade in the 19th century, populations recovered during the 20th century. Losses in Ireland and Scotland have been balanced by a strong increase in central and eastern England. Legal protection, the creation of artificial waterbodies inland, such as gravel workings, reservoirs and nature reserves, with the provision of breeding islands and nesting platforms, have all boosted productivity. The large European population is increasing. Breeding colonies are, however, vulnerable to human disturbance, tidal inundation and flooding, and predation by mammals and gulls, and coastal sites have a history of development.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain and Ireland, breeds from south coast to Shetland, both near the sea and increasingly inland. Scarce in south-west of England and Wales, except for Anglesey. In Ireland, most abundant in the north and west, with other scattered colonies. Breeds very widely from the Arctic Circle to North Africa, and east right across Asia, and in North America.

BREEDING

Both adults construct a scrape in the sand. Sometimes pebbles and vegetation are added to the rim

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Arctic Tern Sterna paradisaea Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Stable – 52,500 – May–July 1–2; 1 brood 20–24; 21–24 days Average: 13; Oldest: 31 33–35cm; 110g

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller, lighter and more delicate than Common Tern, with narrower wings, shorter neck and longer tail-streamers. Upperparts pale grey and rump white. Underparts smoky grey, a shade darker than Common Tern, with contrasting white cheeks. Short bill and short legs are deep red. Upperwing is uniformly grey, becoming paler towards tip (no dark ‘wedge’ of Common Tern). From below and against the light the primary and secondary feathers appear translucent, with a fine black trailing edge to outer wing. Juvenile is grey and white with fine scalloped back seen at close range. Has white forehead, black bill, and short orange-red legs. Adults moult in their winter quarters and return in spring with neat new flight feathers. See also: Common Tern p162, Roseate Tern p161.

HABITS

Flight lighter and more buoyant than Common Tern. When fishing, appears hesitant as it hovers, dips down and hovers again, before plunging into the water. Breeds in large colonies and will fish in large groups close together. Also flocks during migrations. On breeding grounds, it is aggressive towards and will dive-bomb intruders, including humans.

VOICE

Call a slightly higher-pitched version of Common Tern call, a harsh, scolding kee-aar.

HABITAT

Breeds in similar habitat to the Common Tern, mostly on the coast or on offshore islands, but also along large rivers, where there are shingle islands and stone beaches. Some colonies are on heath and rough pasture, and most nests are in or close to vegetation. Outside the breeding season it is a marine species, seldom crossing land and sometimes perching on floating objects, including ice floes. 1st-winter

summer

winter

1st-winter

summer

FOOD

Feeds mainly on fish including sand eels, sprats, herring, Caplin and sticklebacks. It also takes insects, crustaceans and even worms from flooded fields.

BREEDING

Nest is shallow scrape made by both parents which share incubation. Newly hatched young stay in the nest for a few days before leaving to shelter among stones or vegetation nearby. They depend on their parents for a further month or two. juvenile

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Migrates further than any other bird. Leaves breeding grounds between July and early October and migrates southwards, mostly out at sea, and eventually reaches Antarctic waters between October and December. Returns to its breeding grounds by May or June and some are seen on inland waters in Britain or Ireland. Immatures remain in the southern hemisphere until nearly 2 years old.

CONSERVATION

Breeding population appears stable. In the past, food shortages linked to overfishing of sand eels in the Northern Isles have resulted in some colonies producing no young in some years. In parts of Scotland, predation by American Mink has also been a problem. A bigger threat in the longer term may be climate change for a species that lives in the high Arctic in our summer and Antarctic waters in our winter. The European population is falling moderately.

DISTRIBUTION Most nest in Scotland and Ireland, with some in North Wales and England, but the densest populations are in Orkney and Shetland. Predominantly an Arctic species; also breeds very widely in northern Europe, Asia and North America. Winters at the other end of the world in the Southern Ocean off the pack ice of Antarctica, and some British birds even reach Australia.

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Black Tern Chlidonias niger Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Passage pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green – – – Variable and uncertain May–July 2–4; 1 brood 21–22; 19–25 days Oldest: 21 22–24cm; 73g

BREEDING

Rarely attempts to breed in Britain. Nests on floating vegetation, in shallow water or among marsh plants. Nest is a mound of waterweed that is added to by both birds. Both parents take turns incubating eggs. Young are brooded by a parent for the first few days, but they soon move into nearby vegetation. They are quickly independent after fledging. 1st-winter

summer

winter

juvenile

summer

1st-winter

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Common Tern with shorter, broader wings, less deeply forked tail and black bill. In spring, has an almost black head and body, slate-grey back, wings and tail, and white under its tail. Underside of wing almost white. Female slightly paler than male. After breeding, head and body become white with black marks behind eye and back of head, also prominent dark smudge on shoulder and white collar. Juvenile resembles adult in winter but with brown feathers creating a mottled effect on its back. Adult moult starts in May or June and dark plumage quickly becomes blotchy, and dark grey feathers are replaced by white ones by September. See also: Common Tern p162, Little Gull p149.

HABITS

Typical flight is rather lazy as it banks from side to side. Often travels singly, but flocks may gather, especially on migration. Has characteristic feeding action as it dips down to pick food delicately from the surface of the water. Hovers less frequently than other terns, preferring to fly up and down on regular ‘beats’, dipping to feed from time to time. Regularly perches on rocks and posts in the water.

VOICE

Usually silent, only very occasionally calling a sharp kik, kik.

HABITAT

Breeds in marshes, fens and lagoons near the coast or inland. In Britain and Ireland, it is more frequently seen at reservoirs and larger waterbodies. In winter, it mainly lives along tropical coasts.

FOOD

Food is mainly insects and their larvae in summer and fish in winter. Insects include water beetles, flies, dragonflies and grasshoppers. Fish include sticklebacks and roach. It also eats frogs and tadpoles.

Autumn migration begins in June with non-breeding birds moving first, followed by adults and then juveniles. Some juveniles move north before migrating south. Peak passage through western Europe is in July to September and probably by night and day. At peak times huge numbers gather on some European and African estuaries. Common along the African coast from September, and birds remain until their return the following March. A few birds pass through Britain in May, but most return to their breeding grounds by a more easterly route.

CONSERVATION

A few are seen most summers, and larger and variable numbers are seen in spring and autumn. Once nested regularly in England but was lost in the mid19th century due to trophy hunting, egg-collecting and habitat changes. Last nested in England in 1978 and possibly 1983, and last nested in Ireland in 1975. The re-creation of extensive fens and wetlands in East Anglia and south-west England, with careful management of water levels in early summer, may encourage this beautiful species to return. The European population is decreasing.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain and Ireland, mainly seen over lakes in spring and autumn. Most recent breeding attempts have been in Cambridgeshire, Nottinghamshire, Tayside and Fermanagh. Breeds from Denmark to Spain and east to Russia and Asia. Another race breeds in North America. Birds breeding in Europe winter along the coast of West Africa.

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Great Skua Stercorarius skua Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Moderate increase – 9,650 – May–July 2; 1 brood 26–32; 44 days Average: 15; Oldest: 38 53–58cm; 1.3–1.5kg

fledging. Young can breed when 4 or 5 years old, but more often they are 7 years old.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Migration begins in July. It peaks along British and Irish coasts in September and October, with more seen when there are storms or northerly winds.

IDENTIFICATION

Our largest skua. Size of a Herring Gull, but bulky and heavierlooking, with broader, slightly rounded wings and heavy juvenile bill. Has proportionally shorter tail than other skuas and no tail-streamers. juvenile Plumage usually blackish-brown (dark with straw-coloured streaks and morph) obvious white flashes in the wings, above and below. Adult in summer may be paler and more yellowbrown, especially on the head and Birds from Iceland may head back. Juvenile tends to be uniformly darker brown, but there is variation and a few are south-west towards North noticeably paler. See also: Juvenile Herring Gull America or south-east towards Europe. Scottish p156, Pomarine Skua p168, Arctic Skua p167. birds move south to winter HABITS off the coast of southern In flight, resembles a large gull, but more compact Europe, with some juveniles with strong downbeats and a big belly. Accelerates reaching African waters. with powerful wingbeats and surprisingly agile when pursuing other birds. Aggressive and chases CONSERVATION large seabirds such as Gannets. On breeding Colonised Scotland around 1750 grounds, it fiercely attacks intruders, including and remained a rare breeding bird until the 20th century, but since then numbers have risen steadily domestic animals and humans. and range has increased. Today, Britain holds VOICE around 60% of the global population of Great Skua Usually silent away from breeding grounds. Main so we have a special responsibility to protect its calls are a loud gek-gek during attacks on intruders breeding populations. Great Skua numbers are and a rolling hah-hah-hah. intricately linked to fish stocks and fisheries. Declines in Shetland have been linked to reduction in sand eel HABITAT stocks, themselves connected to fishing pressure Breeds on rocky islands and moorland near the and climate change. The European population coast and winters at sea. shows signs of increase.

FOOD

Specialises in robbing other species of their prey, usually of fish, but also hunts by taking food from the surface of the sea. Main food is sand eels, Haddock and whiting. Also eats carrion and fish waste discharged from fishing boats. Will prey on other birds such as Puffins and takes seabird chicks, including Arctic Skua, and even species as large as Brent Goose.

BREEDING

Within a colony the Great Skua defends a territory. Nest is a hollow on the ground. Incubation is mainly by female. Young leave the nest soon after hatching and remain separately within their territory. Female guards young while male obtains most of the food, which he regurgitates for his family. Young are dependent on their parents for up to 20 days after

DISTRIBUTION Nests in western Ireland and northern Scotland, mainly in Shetland and Orkney. Elsewhere, it breeds in Iceland and the Faroe Islands, with other smaller populations on Bear Island, Spitsbergen and Norway. Seen around British and Irish coasts in autumn and spends the winter in the east Atlantic between the Bay of Biscay and Senegal, and in the west Atlantic off Brazil.

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Long-tailed Skua Stercorarius longicaudus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Passage pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Not assessed – – – Variable and uncertain – – – Oldest: 11 48–53cm; 230–350g

juvenile (very pale)

juvenile (dark morph) juvenile (intermediate)

FOOD

IDENTIFICATION

Small slim skua the size of a Black-headed Gull, with long wings. Adult resembles a small, pale Arctic Skua with slimmer wings and very long, delicate tail feathers (up to 22cm). Dusky belly with pale upper breast and dark cap. Lacks white on the underside of the wings and has only one or two pale feather shafts on upperwing in flight. Upperparts are grey with contrasting dark trailing edge to the wing and dark flight feathers. Adult plumage is almost always pale, juvenile has dark or light plumage morph. Juveniles are grey, barred below and have all feathers of their upperparts tipped pale greyish-white. Folded primaries are solid dark, unlike Arctic Skua. In flight, blunt projecting central tail feathers are just visible. Some juveniles are very dark chocolatebrown but still have barring under the tail and pale edges to their back feathers. Some pale juveniles have almost white heads. Slim and fine structure distinguishes Long-tailed Skua from other skuas. See also: Arctic Skua p163, Pomarine Skua p168. summer

summer

juvenile (intermediate)

HABITS

Elegant seabird that has buoyant, graceful, almost tern-like flight. It chases terns and Kittiwakes but also, on migration, swims a lot and picks food from the sea’s surface.

VOICE

Generally silent when not nesting.

HABITAT

A marine species that sometimes passes through British and Irish inshore waters on migration and after gales. It breeds in the far north on Arctic tundra and on fells above the treeline, and it winters at sea. In Scotland, second-year and adult Long-tailed Skuas are sometimes present at colonies of Arctic Skuas in summer.

On its breeding grounds, its main food is small mammals, especially lemmings and voles. It also eats eggs of other birds, insects, worms and berries. At sea, it feeds on small fish, offal and carrion.

BREEDING

Does not breed in Britain or Ireland. Elsewhere, it nests on the ground in loose colonies. Both adults take turns to incubate the 2 eggs for about 24 days, and the young fly at about 25 days.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Migration starts in July and is earlier in years when their main food, lemmings, are scarce, when fewer birds breed successfully. Migration is rapid and most birds go out into the Atlantic well to the north and then west of Scotland, although some pass along the east coast of Britain and in some years exceptional numbers are seen. The winter quarters are not well known, but there are good numbers in the Atlantic off the coasts of West Africa, Brazil and Argentina from September until May. Migrating birds are regularly observed off the west coasts of Ireland and the Outer Hebrides in late May, as breeding birds return northwards.

CONSERVATION

A few birds sometimes summer in northern Scotland and breeding was suspected in 1980. There are no specific conservation measures for this seabird, although it would help to know more about its winter quarters. The population breeding in Europe appears to be stable. Climate change seems likely to pose the greatest threat to breeding birds by disrupting lemming cycles, and changing Arctic habitats and perhaps predator numbers.

DISTRIBUTION Nests in northern Fennoscandia, Arctic Russia, Siberia across to Asia, the north of North America and parts of Greenland, with the largest numbers in Russia, Alaska and Canada. In winter, it reaches the South Atlantic and the Southern Ocean, with other populations in the Pacific and Indian Oceans.

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Arctic Skua Stercorarius parasiticus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Strong decline – 785 – May–July 2; 1 brood 25–28; 25–30 days Average: 12; Oldest: 31 41–46cm; 450g

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller and slimmer than Herring Gull. Resembles a dark gull but with long, pointed central tail feathers and long, rather narrow and pointed wings with white flashes. There are dark and pale colour forms of plumage, but many adults are intermediate. Dark morph is uniform dark brown below. Intermediate birds are warmer, more golden-brown below, with paler yellow-brown on the side of face and neck. Pale morph has a dark cap, white neck, cheeks and underparts and, sometimes, a pale grey-brown breastband. Juveniles have buff edges to all feathers on their upperparts and central tail feathers have small points. Intermediate juveniles are warm gingerybrown. Juveniles are always warmer in colour than the colder grey-brown juvenile Long-tailed Skua. At rest, they have pale edges to primary flight feathers, unlike the other skuas. Adults moult completely after breeding. See also: Pomarine Skua p168, Long-tailed Skua p166, Great Skua p165.

juvenile (dark morph)

juvenile (pale morph)

summer (dark morph)

summer (pale morph)

FOOD

Eats mainly fish, especially sand eels and sprats, which it obtains by harassing other seabirds. Also scavenges on dead animals. Takes eggs and kills and eats young birds and small mammals, such as voles and lemmings. Also feeds on insects and berries.

BREEDING

Nests on the ground in the open. Both sexes incubate. Incubation starts with the first egg, which hatches ahead of the second. Young are cared for and fed by both parents. Young are independent after 2–5 weeks. They do not start to breed until at least 3 years old.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Migration begins in July when birds that failed to breed and immatures start moving south. Breeding birds leave in August and juveniles in September. Migration around the coasts of Britain and Ireland peaks in September. Some cross the Atlantic, but most follow the coast of Europe and Africa to their wintering area.

CONSERVATION

juvenile (intermediate)

HABITS

Fast and falcon-like flight when chasing other seabirds to steal their food. Twists, turns and harasses them until they drop their catch or disgorge food. On the breeding territory, it is very aggressive, fearlessly attacking any intruders, including cattle and humans. Breeds in loose colonies and migrates singly or in small groups. Swims like a gull.

VOICE

Generally silent. When breeding, most common call is a mewing ka-aaow.

HABITAT

In Britain, breeds on coastal moorland and islands. Elsewhere nests on coastal tundra among moss, grass or other vegetation. There are usually freshwater pools nearby for bathing. Outside the breeding season, spends most of the time at sea in warm coastal waters.

Population has increased over the last 100 years but is now declining strongly. Its conservation is linked to the health of the local seabird populations, which in turn depend on healthy fish stocks. The decline in sand eels has had a disastrous effect on local seabirds, including the Arctic Skua. The spread of Great Skuas has also impacted on their populations, as the larger species may predate their young. Some other European populations are declining but the overall trend is unclear.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain, this species is at the southern limit of its range. Breeds in northern Scotland, especially on Shetland, Orkney and the Outer Hebrides. Also breeds in Iceland and around the northern coast of Fennoscandia, Greenland, North America and Siberia. The European population mainly winters off the west coast of Africa, down to South Africa.

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Pomarine Skua Stercorarius pomarinus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Passage pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green – – – Variable and uncertain – – – Average: ~12; Oldest: ~31 46–51cm; 550–850g

summer (pale morph)

1st-summer (pale morph)

IDENTIFICATION

Approaching size of Herring Gull. Larger and heavier than Arctic and Long-tailed Skuas, with a deep chest, bulkier body, and a longer, heavier gull-like bill, which is pale with dark tip. Adults have long spoonshaped central tail-streamers (up to 11cm), although these are sometimes damaged. Two colour morphs: the rarer (less than 10%) all-dark morph with smaller wing-flashes, and commoner pale birds with dark caps, variable white underparts, sometimes a dark breast-band and often barred flanks. Wings are long, broad at the base and with a pale crescent shape on the underwing. Juvenile is pale or dark grey-brown and closely barred, with strong barring under the tail and pale legs. Juveniles at rest show all-dark flight feathers; Arctic Skuas show conspicuous pale tips. The underwing of juvenile Pomarine has two pale crescents, Arctic has only one. Adults start to moult in August but do not complete it until well away from Britain and Ireland. Size and bulk are important identification features. See also: Arctic Skua p163, Great Skua p165, Long-tailed Skua p166.

summer female (pale morph)

summer (dark morph)

FOOD

Outside the breeding season it feeds mainly on fish that it catches itself by diving or by robbing other seabirds. It also kills and eats other birds and takes carrion. On its breeding grounds, it feeds on lemmings and the young of other birds.

BREEDING

Does not breed in Britain or Ireland. It nests on the ground in the Arctic tundra and usually lays 2 eggs in late June. Incubation is by both adults and lasts about 28 days. Both parents tend the chicks until the young fly at about 32 days.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Leaves its breeding grounds in August and moves south-west into the North Atlantic and then south to the west coast of Africa. Strong gales may displace birds into the North Sea: adults in September and juveniles in October and November. In May, adults may be seen off the English south coast, south-west Ireland, the Hebrides and the Northern Isles.

CONSERVATION

juvenile (intermediate)

As the species does not breed or winter in Britain or Ireland, there are no special protection measures. In future, it might be affected by declining fish stocks, which would reduce its food supply while passing over the British Isles.

DISTRIBUTION HABITS

Large aggressive skua that sometimes attacks other birds to rob them of their prey. When hunting, it occasionally forces victims into the sea to drown them. Normal flight is steady with measured downbeats and very brief glides resembling a large gull. On migration, it may be in groups of 7–20, and more rarely 70 or more especially in spring.

VOICE

Generally silent away from its breeding grounds.

HABITAT

Breeds on the Arctic tundra and lives for the rest of the year in offshore waters, coming closer to land mainly as a result of rough and stormy weather.

The species breeds in the far north of North America, and from western Russia eastwards across northern Asia. It normally passes well to the west of Scotland and Ireland when migrating and it winters off the coasts of West Africa. Those breeding in North America winter off South American coasts and Siberian breeders winter in the Arabian Sea. It is widely distributed across the Atlantic during peak migration times.

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Little Auk Alle alle Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

summer

Green – Uncertain – Variable and uncertain – – – Oldest: 7 17–19cm; 140–192g

winter

FOOD

It feeds on zooplankton, most of which is the larval stage of crustaceans and other marine creatures, such as amphipods, krill and fish larvae. It also eats fish and some shellfish.

IDENTIFICATION

Our smallest auk, only the size of a Starling. A dumpy bird with black stubby bill, short neck and tail, and small head. Upperparts are black with some fine white lines on its back, a white wing-bar on closed wings and underparts are white. In winter plumage, its neck and lower face become white while it retains a blackish crown that extends lower than the eye. In flight, it has dark underwings and rocks from side to side, with fast whirring wingbeats low over the sea. Juvenile has the same pattern as a summer adult, but paler. Moult has been little studied, but adults moult body feathers between May and September. See also: Guillemot p170, Razorbill p171, Puffin p173.

summer

BREEDING

Only when snow has thawed from the breeding colonies can they start to nest. Eggs are laid in late June or July in a rock crevice or a space under boulders. Adults take turns to incubate the single egg. At first, the chick is brooded under the wing of an adult. It leaves after about 17 days and for a time it stays with one of its parents.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Adults and juveniles leave their colonies in August and slowly move to their wintering areas. Some remain as close to their colonies as the winter ice floes allow. Others spread across the North Atlantic Ocean with some entering the North Sea in early autumn and winter, especially following northern gales.

CONSERVATION

Its remote high-Arctic habitat is relatively free from development, but like other seabirds its future could be affected by commercial fisheries that exploit fish stocks in the North Atlantic, and growing energy production for oil and gas might displace birds and lead to oil pollution. It is at risk from being caught accidentally in gillnets and driftnets and may be affected by overfishing. Climate change might also affect sea temperatures and ocean conditions and thus food supplies. Population trends in Europe are unknown, but the global population is thought to be decreasing.

winter

HABITS

Winters on the open ocean, but is affected by the occurrence of zooplankton, its main food. It moves further south into the North Sea when food is scarce and then may be driven close to our shores by autumn or winter storms. At these times, large numbers sometimes appear in inshore waters and occasionally individuals are blown inland. It takes to the air without running across the surface of the water. In flight, it can sometimes appear rather like a small black-and-white wading bird. On its highArctic breeding grounds, it nests in vast colonies.

VOICE

It is usually silent away from its breeding grounds. At colonies it makes noisy chattering calls.

HABITAT

Breeding sites are in the Arctic, on islands or the massive sea cliffs of Spitsbergen and Greenland, where it nests among the boulder scree. Outside the breeding season this species lives far out to sea.

DISTRIBUTION Britain is at the southern limit of its normal wintering range. Some Little Auks enter the North Sea in autumn and may be seen, especially following gales, in the Northern Isles and along the east coast of Scotland and England. Smaller numbers may be seen elsewhere, rarely in Ireland. The species breeds from western Greenland to Spitsbergen and east to Arctic Russia, and in Canada.

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Guillemot Uria aalge Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Stable Uncertain 885,000 Uncertain April–July 1; 1 brood 28–37; 18–25 days Average: 23; Oldest: 42 38–41cm; 690g

IDENTIFICATION

Larger than Puffin with short wings, long, dark tapering bill and longer neck than other members of this family. Swims well. Head, neck and back are chocolate-brown, breast and belly are white with some dark streaks. Some northern birds have white ‘spectacle-like’ marks on their faces. Brown plumage of northern birds is darker too, almost black. In winter, neck and side of face, behind the eye, become white. Juvenile is smaller, pale-headed, with shorter bill. Moult begins while adults are feeding young. The flight feathers are lost simultaneously in July and August and birds are flightless for about 7 weeks. See also: Black Guillemot p172, Razorbill p171, Puffin p173.

summer

summer

1st-winter

winter

BREEDING

Males and females usually winter separately and come together at the nest site, with males generally arriving first. They make no nest but lay a pear-shaped egg on bare rock, and both sexes share incubation. Young is covered in down when it hatches. It is fed by both parents and usually leaves its cliff within 3 weeks of hatching. At this time, it is not fully grown and unable to fly, so it flutters clumsily down to the sea. Male attends chick when it leaves the colony and continues to feed it at sea. Adult continues to feed juvenile for up to 12 weeks.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Some Guillemots do not move far from their colonies; others move north, following food supplies. Juveniles stay with the male for the autumn and most of the first winter, before splitting into separate flocks of adults and immatures. Many birds winter in the North Sea. Birds from Scottish colonies may cross to the Norwegian coast or move south along the continental shelf of Europe. Some return to their colonies on calm days in autumn, but it is not until April that their noisy colonies are fully reoccupied.

CONSERVATION

winter

HABITS

Stands upright on cliffs or swims like a duck in the sea and dives frequently to find food. Breeds in large colonies and lives in loose flocks outside the breeding season. Sometimes sits, rather than stands, on cliff ledges. In flight, wings beat rapidly, appearing blurred at a distance.

VOICE

Usual call is a growling arrrr.

HABITAT

Lives most of the year on open sea, coming to land only to breed. Nest sites are on narrow cliff ledges or the exposed flat tops of tall stacks and offshore islands.

FOOD

Feeds chiefly on fish, especially cod, herring, whiting, sand eels and sprats. Also eats some crustaceans such as crabs.

British and Irish populations appear stable, with notable increases in many colonies. Guillemots may be threatened by overfishing, may be caught up in gillnet fisheries, and are also susceptible to oil and other marine pollution. European populations show mixed fortunes, with a recent decline in breeding numbers in Iceland, which holds by far the largest population. Guillemots have been killed for food and sport in the past, and unregulated hunting continues in some countries. As is the case for many seabirds, climate change poses a threat, as the seas are set to warm and prey populations may crash and disappear.

DISTRIBUTION Breeds on inaccessible sea cliffs mostly in the north and west of Britain and Ireland. Most winter in loose flocks around British coasts or go farther south, with many from western colonies reaching the Bay of Biscay and a few travelling as far as Portugal. Breeds in western Europe, with small colonies as far south as Portugal, and in Iceland, Greenland and North America. Other races live in the Bering Sea and North Pacific.

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Razorbill Alca torda Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Moderate increase Uncertain 165,000 Uncertain May–July 1; 1 brood 36; 14–24 days Average: 13; Oldest: 42 37–39cm; 710g

IDENTIFICATION

Slightly smaller than Guillemot with black-and-white plumage, proportionally thicker neck, larger head and broad bill, smaller wings and longer tail. In flight, looks blacker than a Guillemot with blunt-bill, not a pointed bill. Black bill is laterally flattened, deep and blunt, with one thin white line on the top of the beak to the eye, and one down the beak near the tip. Underparts are white. In winter, the head becomes mostly off-white with a dark crown and hindneck. Juvenile is smaller and browner than adult with dark head. Moult begins in July and flight feathers are lost simultaneously between August and October and for a few weeks the birds are flightless. See also: Guillemot p170, Puffin p173.

HABITS

It breeds on cliffs, but nesting birds are more difficult to see in its less dense colonies compared with Guillemot. It may form flocks in winter, but these tend to be smaller than in Guillemot. It swims and dives; once recorded at 140m below sea surface. When feeding young, the Razorbill carries 2–3 fish in its bill at a time.

VOICE

The call is a growling caarrrrr and the juvenile has a plaintive whistle.

together and both are flightless until September. Juveniles may travel further from their colonies than adults, which return to the breeding cliffs as early as March. Some young birds from around the Irish Sea reach the Mediterranean during their first winter. Young will not return to their colonies until they are 2–3 years old.

summer

CONSERVATION

This species shares many characteristics with the Guillemot and faces similar threats, though Razorbill numbers are going up slightly. It can become entangled in gillnet fisheries, suffer food shortages due to commercial fishing, suffer from oiling at sea, and from losses due to predatory mammals (cats, rats and American Mink). Climate change impacts are unclear. This species has undergone moderate declines elsewhere in Europe, including a collapse in numbers breeding in Iceland since 2005. As Europe is thought to hold more than 90% of the global population, this decline is of considerable concern. In Britain, the downturn coincided with a crash in sand eel stocks, suggesting that food shortage was the main cause for decline, although fishing and substantial hunting pressure might also have played a role.

winter summer 1st-winter winter

HABITAT

A seabird that comes to shore only to breed and for the rest of the year it lives at sea, remaining within the continental shelf of Europe. Its nest sites are rocky cliffs and among boulder scree close to the sea.

FOOD

Feeds chiefly on fish, especially sand eels, sprats and small herring, and a few marine crustaceans.

BREEDING

Most eggs are laid during May. A single egg is generally laid in a crevice in rock, either high on inaccessible cliffs or among scattered boulders. Occasionally an open ledge may be used. Incubation is by both sexes. The young Razorbill is cared for by both parents and leaves the cliff at about 18 days old by jumping or scrambling into the sea. At this stage, it is about two-thirds fully grown. At sea, the male continues to care for the chick.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

In July, Razorbills leave their colonies and disperse out to sea. Males and juveniles start by travelling

DISTRIBUTION Razorbills breed around the north and west coasts of Britain and Ireland. The largest colonies are in northern Scotland and there are none between the Humber and the Isle of Wight. Breeds in north-west Europe, Iceland, Greenland and northeast North America. It winters in the North Atlantic, mostly scattered over the continental shelf of Europe and is rather scarce in inshore waters.

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Black Guillemot Cepphus grylle Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Stable Stable 19,000 – May–July 1–2; 1 brood 30; 31–51 days Average: 11; Oldest: 29 30–32cm; 420g

IDENTIFICATION

Pigeon-sized. Smaller than Guillemot, with long neck and bright-red legs. Breeding plumage is sooty black with an oval white wing-patch. In autumn and winter, becomes off-white with dark, scaly marks, darker back and dark flight feathers. The distinctive oval wing-patch is still obvious in winter. Juvenile is like adult in winter plumage but more heavily barred. After nesting in July, adults begin to moult and small groups form on the sea. Between August and October they become flightless as flight feathers are growing. Between January and March there is a second, partial moult into their smart-looking breeding plumage. See also: Guillemot p170, Razorbill p171, Puffin p173, Little Auk p169.

1st-winter

summer

HABITAT

Found around rocky coasts where there are large, loose boulders and other potential nest sites. A marine species that is generally seen closer to the shore than other auks and does not nest on cliff ledges.

FOOD

Feeds on fish such as sand eels, blennies, Butterfish, small cod and sole. Also catches small crabs, shrimps and other animals.

BREEDING

On spring mornings, groups gather to display, first on sea and then on land, their red mouths contrasting with their striking plumage. They nest in holes and crevices under boulders and in caves. Sometimes they use artificial structures such as jetties and harbour walls. Incubation is by male and female. Young leave their nests and swim on the sea before they can fly. They are independent on leaving the colony but may be 4 years old when they first breed.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

summer

Birds from further north may need to move south to avoid winter ice, and young may wander further than adults. In Britain and Ireland, few Black Guillemot travel more than 50km from where they were hatched and no breeding colony is totally deserted in winter.

CONSERVATION

HABITS

Often sits upright on land. Flight is usually low, but when searching for good feeding areas it may rise to 100m or more. When swimming or flying in winter, it resembles a duck or grebe from a distance, but the whirring wings, white oval patch and direct flight are characteristic. Commonly swims and dives very close to the shore. Usually seen in ones or twos, and although nesting birds do come together to form colonies, these are not large colonies like other auks. Black Guillemots sometimes hunt together, swimming in straight lines, or semicircles, as they close in on a shoal of fish.

VOICE

Mostly silent, but makes a weak, high-pitched whistle, peeeeeh, at breeding sites. juvenile

Black Guillemot populations in Britain and Ireland have varied but are stable in numbers. The European population is falling. Their nest sites make them vulnerable to mammalian predators, such as rats, cats and American Mink. They are at risk from oil spills and other marine pollution, although probably less so than other auks because their colonies are small and widely dispersed. Black Guillemot may be susceptible to the impacts of climate change, such as sea temperature rises and shifts in prey populations, and may be accidently caught in gillnet and other fisheries.

DISTRIBUTION Nests in Scotland and Ireland with good numbers on the Isle of Man, but only a few pairs breed in the north of England and Wales. Found all round the Arctic Circle and winters in the far north right up to the pack ice. Winters at sea but usually close to breeding colonies. Extremely rare inland.

winter

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Puffin Fratercula arctica Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Uncertain Uncertain 580,000 Uncertain April–July 1; 1 brood 38–44; 34–44 days Average: 18; Oldest: 40 26–29cm; 400g

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than a pigeon. Upright on land with black back, white underparts, pale grey face-patches that almost meet on the back of the head, huge laterally flattened, colourful bill, and colourful skin around the eye giving a clown-like appearance. Male has a larger bill than female. Legs and feet are bright orange. In winter, cheeks become dusky and bill is smaller and less colourful. In flight, underwing is grey. Juvenile resembles an adult in winter but is smaller with a smaller bill and a sooty-black patch in front of eye. Adults begin to moult in August and September. Flight feathers are lost simultaneously and birds are flightless for a time. Colourful bill plates are shed after breeding and regrown in spring. See also: Guillemot p170, Razorbill p171, Little Auk p169.

summer

BREEDING

Returns to nesting colonies in March and April. Nests in a burrow in turf and sometimes in a crevice between rocks. Either digs a burrow or uses an old rabbit burrow. Nest is usually 70–110cm from the entrance and lined with grass, roots and any dry material that can be found. Incubation is by both parents. Newly hatched chick, a ‘puffling’, is covered in down and remains in its burrow for 38–44 days until it scrambles down to the sea where it fends for itself.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Puffins disperse from their colonies after breeding. Those from east-coast colonies may remain in the North Sea or move to the eastern Atlantic. Some from northern and western colonies reach Norway, but others cross the Atlantic to the Grand Banks off Newfoundland, while some move south as far as the Mediterranean or Canary Islands.

CONSERVATION

Britain and Ireland are home to a sizeable Puffin population but summer current trends are unknown. Many important colonies have special protection and are managed as nature reserves. Puffin is listed as Vulnerable to possible global extinction. Europe holds more than 90% of the world population winter and numbers have fallen, notably in Iceland and Norway, which hold most of the juvenile population; trends elsewhere are poorly known. Numbers may be declining due to mammal predation (rats, cats and American HABITS Mink), marine pollution, food shortages caused by Wings are usually flapped rapidly with whirring the depletion of fisheries, and adult mortality in action, unless landing on the cliff top or caught in fishing nets. Puffins are also susceptible to extreme up-draught. It swims and dives, using flapping wings weather and large ‘wrecks’ are recorded after to propel itself underwater. There are many ritualised severe winter storms. Conservation measures in breeding displays, including males tossing their Britain, focusing on the eradication of rats from heads up and down and pairs knocking bills together several islands, have proven remarkably successful. noisily. When feeding young, it carries several fish in its bill at a time. Although it frequently stands upright, DISTRIBUTION it also rests with its breast on the ground. Sociable Breeds in northern and western when nesting but at other times seen in ones or Scotland and there are colonies in twos. Large rafts of Puffins gather on the sea near Ireland, Wales, and south-west breeding colonies in late winter and in summer.

VOICE

Mostly silent, but at colonies makes a low, growling, repeated arrrh, rather like hoarse laughter.

HABITAT

Breeds on offshore islands and on tall grassy sea cliffs. Outside the breeding season it lives at sea.

and north-east England. Breeds in northern and western Europe, from Norway as far south as northern France, also in Iceland, Greenland, the Faroe Islands and north-east Russia and north-eastern North America.

FOOD

Catches small fish. Most common species are sand eel, sprat, herring and Caplin, although it also eats many other species depending on availability.

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Woodpigeon Columba palumbus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Moderate increase – 5,050,000 – March–October 2; 1–4 broods 17; 33–34 days Average: 3; Oldest: 17 40–42cm; 450g

FOOD

Eats mainly plant material, especially buds, leaves and seeds. Most commonly eaten plants include clover, cabbage and other brassicas, ash, ivy berries and peas; also eats cereal crops, such as wheat and barley. Animal food includes insects, such as beetles.

BREEDING

Woodpigeons have been observed breeding in every month of the year. The twig nest is so flimsy that the eggs can sometimes be seen from below. Incubation is by both adults. The young are brooded for the first 7–8 days. The parents feed their young ‘squabs’ on ‘crop milk’. Young may fly as early as 16–21 days if their nest is disturbed. Young are fed by their parents for about a week after their first flight.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

In Britain, largely resident, although big communal roosts form, and flocks can be seen as they move between roosts and feeding areas. In Europe, northern and eastern populations are migratory. Those from Scandinavia fly south in October and a few may arrive along the British east coast, but most fly on through France to Spain.

CONSERVATION

juvenile

IDENTIFICATION

Our largest pigeon. Has a small head, bulky body with bulging chest, broad wings and longish tail. Adult is blue-grey with white crescent on wings, black band on tail-tip, and white patch on neck. Neck has green to purple sheen and breast has a pink flush. Bill has reddish base and yellow tip. Juvenile is similar to adult but lacks white on neck. Flight is strong and direct. Annual moult may last for 8–10 months. It begins in April, is suspended while the bird breeds and continues in autumn. See also: Stock Dove p175, Rock Dove p178.

HABITS

When disturbed, it clatters noisily out of trees and bushes. In aerial territorial display, it flies up steeply, and claps its wings together above its back with a sharp slap before gliding down steeply. Often repeats this manoeuvre several times as it rises and falls. May be seen singly, but more often forms medium to large flocks on farmland and in woodland, particularly in winter. Drinks without lifting its head from water. Woodpigeons are increasingly found in gardens, town and cities, where they can be approachable and tame.

Woodpigeons have been expanding their range and numbers for the last 150 years. They suffered a decline in the 1950s and 1960s, thought to be caused by agricultural chemicals, but their numbers have recovered, and they have colonised western Ireland and the Scottish islands. The spread of intensive arable cultivation, especially the growing of oilseed rape, has provided a reliable food resource through winter and may in part explain rising numbers. Its adaptable nature has also allowed it to invade new habitats and thrive. Considered a crop pest by farmers, large numbers are shot each winter, but this seems to have little effect on the total population. The European population is increasing.

DISTRIBUTION Found throughout Britain and Ireland except in the uplands of north-west Scotland. Also breeds in Europe, from the Mediterranean to the Arctic Circle and east into Russia and Asia, and in North Africa.

VOICE

Call is a soft, restful orr-oo-cooo, orr-oo-oo-coo.

HABITAT

Breeds in farmland where there are hedges, trees or shelter belts, and also in woods, copses and, increasingly, in towns, gardens and city centres. In winter, largely dependent on farmland.

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Stock Dove Columba oenas Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Strong increase – 320,000 – April–September 2; 1–4 broods 16–18; 20–30 days Average: 3; Oldest: 12 32–34cm; 300g

IDENTIFICATION

Similar in size and shape to Feral Pigeon and smaller than Woodpigeon. Blue-grey with iridescent green sheen on neck, two black wing-bars with a pale grey rump and yellow bill with red base (no white on neck or wings as in Woodpigeon). In flight, has dark edges to plain grey wings and two small but distinct bars near body. The underwing is grey. Juvenile is duller and browner and lacks iridescence on neck. Moult takes place between July and November with primary feathers being some of the first to be lost. See also: Woodpigeon p174, Rock Dove p178.

HABITS

Flight is compact, direct and with a more flickering wing action than Woodpigeon. In display, it flies up high with slow, deliberate wingbeats and glides down in a wide arc with wings held in a shallow ‘V’. When breeding, pairs may nest close to each other or on their own. It sometimes joins flocks of Woodpigeons or feeds in small flocks with its own species.

BREEDING

Nests in holes in trees, in nest boxes, in buildings, cliffs or, very occasionally, holes in the ground. Uses very little nest material and the same site may be used year after year. Incubation is by both sexes. Both male and female care for the young, ‘squabs’, which are fed on ‘crop milk’. Incubation may start with the first egg and results in young being different ages and sizes. Young birds become independent soon after they are able to fly.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

High proportion of British and Irish breeding birds are resident and seldom move far from their breeding sites. In mainland Europe, there are large migratory movements, and some may sometimes arrive in eastern Britain.

CONSERVATION

Stock Dove has expanded its range during the last 150 years, then declined in the 1950s and 1960s, but has recovered strongly and is still increasing. The historic expansion has been linked to the expansion in arable farming, though the downturn in the 1950s and early 1960s coincided with widespread use of new herbicides. Since a ban on these chemicals, the population has largely recovered in Britain and Ireland. The species readily takes to and uses suitably designed nest boxes. The European population is increasing. Stock Dove remains at risk from harmful pesticides and herbicides used in modern farming.

DISTRIBUTION

VOICE

The song is a soft, deep ooo-woo, ooo-woo.

HABITAT

Breeds in parkland with old large trees, in wooded farmland, edges of larger woods and open forests. Also found where there are cliffs or quarries, or old buildings. Frequently feeds on arable farmland.

Breeds throughout Britain and Ireland, with the exception of north-west Scotland and western Ireland. Winters in similar areas. In mainland Europe, it breeds from southern Fennoscandia to the Mediterranean and east into central Asia, and in North Africa.

FOOD

Eats mainly plant material. Feeds on seeds of cereal crops, such as wheat and barley, and plants such as rape, goosefoot, dock and buttercup.

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Collared Dove Streptopelia decaocto Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Strong increase – 795,000 – March–November 2; 3–6 broods 14–18; 17–19 days Average: 3; Oldest: 18 31–33cm; 200g

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Woodpigeon, with longish tail. Pale pinkish-buff dove with dark flight feathers and, from below, a broad white band at tail-tip. Back is plain and unmarked and there is a thin black collar on the side of neck. Moult begins in spring, after March, and continues into autumn, with some suspending moult of flight feathers during winter and not completing the growth of all new feathers until the following February, so moult can last 10 months. See also: Turtle Dove p177.

HABITS

Seen singly or in close pairs in the breeding season but may form flocks at other times of the year. Feeds on the ground and frequently perches in the open. It sings from roofs and overhead wires. In its aerial display flight, it rises steeply and glides down on fanned wings, often calling as it lands. It can become used to humans and can be relatively tame.

VOICE

from below. Both parents incubate and care for the young. They are fed on ‘crop milk’ for the first 10 days after hatching. They become independent about a week out of the nest.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Mainly resident, but young disperse after leaving the nest and many show a tendency to move north and west. Although some return to their original breeding areas, this habit has led to the rapid expansion of their range westwards and northwards.

CONSERVATION

The expansion of its natural range is quite remarkable, spreading west from Asia Minor during the 20th century and colonising much of Europe in the 1930s, and eventually reaching Britain. First nested in Norfolk in 1955 and the colonisation of Ireland began in 1959. Since then it has colonised the entire British Isles. There are no special conservation measures associated with such a successful species. Collared Dove populations in Europe are increasing.

Has a harsh, excited kwurr call. The song is a loud and repetitive coocooo-cuk, coo-cooo-cuk.

juvenile

HABITAT

Collared Dove is associated mainly with human activity, such as farms, especially in arable areas where there is spilt grain for food, and is also found in gardens with bird tables. Many now live in towns and cities, where there are patches of habitat in the form of gardens, parks and churchyards, but it tends to avoid city centres. Although it is widespread it avoids the uplands, especially moorland and mountainous areas.

FOOD

Mainly vegetarian, feeding on grain and other seeds and fruits. Wheat, barley and oats are all eaten when available, as are seeds from knotgrass, bindweed and various grasses. Berries, such as elder are eaten in autumn. Sometimes feeds on aphids and caterpillars.

BREEDING

Long nesting season. In Britain and Ireland, egglaying peaks in May. Nest is delicate platform of rather thin twigs, and the eggs are sometimes visible

DISTRIBUTION Found throughout Britain and Ireland except for upland areas. Most numerous in central and eastern England and in the east of Ireland. It originated in southern and eastern Asia and the Middle East, and is now found across Europe, north into southern Fennoscandia and into western Russia, and in north-west Africa. It has begun to spread to the Caribbean and parts of North America due to accidental introduction.

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Turtle Dove Streptopelia turtur Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Strong decline – 3,500 – May–August 2; 2–3 broods 13–14; 20 days Average: 2; Oldest: 13 26–28cm; 140g

juvenile

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Collared Dove. Small, lightweight pigeon with small head and diamond-shaped tail. Back has reddish-brown feathers with dark centres that give tortoiseshell effect and it has a black-and-white striped neck-patch. Head is blue-grey, breast pale pink with pale grey panels in its wings. Tail is mostly black with obvious broad white edge near the tip, distinctive in flight. Has ring of bare orange skin around the eye that is visible only at close range. See also: Collared Dove p176, Rock Dove p178, Woodpigeon p174.

HABITS

Swift, compact flight is noticeable, wings flickering more than other pigeons. Aerial display flight is obvious in spring when a male takes off with tail fanned, climbs steeply, claps its wings and then glides up and down again with wings and tail spread until it lands on a perch. Generally in small numbers, although larger groups may migrate together.

VOICE

Song is a loud, lazy, cat-like purring turrrrr turrrrr turrrrr that is given from a perch between May and July, often from within dense vegetation but sometimes from an open perch.

HABITAT

Breeds where there are open woods, copses and tall, thick hedges on farmland, commons and parkland. Feeds on the ground in fields or other cultivated areas. In winter, in Africa, it lives in grasslands, shrubby areas and savannah woodlands close to cultivated areas, often along major river systems.

FOOD

Feeds mainly on seeds of wild plants and flowers, especially fumitory, chickweed, buttercups, goosefoot, spurges and docks. It will also sometimes eat snails and caterpillars.

BREEDING

Nesting begins in May. Mainly the female builds the nest, a flimsy structure of small twigs, or sometimes adapts the old nest of another bird. Both adults take turns to incubate. For the first 5 days after hatching the young are fed on ‘crop milk’. They become independent soon after flying.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

A long-distance migrant that leaves Britain between July and September, moving on a broad front by day and night. It passes through Iberia and North Africa in large numbers in September and October. Also moves through central and eastern parts of the Mediterranean into Africa. Return migration starts in February and March, and it reoccupies its breeding territories in Britain in May.

CONSERVATION

Numbers have crashed by more than 90% in the last 50 years, due to large and probably unsustainable numbers being shot in the Mediterranean each year, periodic droughts in the Sahel zone of Africa, and, importantly, to sweeping changes in farm practices that have reduced their food supplies and nesting habitats. The loss of hedgerows and semi-natural habitats on farmland may have contributed to its decline. The recent discovery of a protozoan parasite in Turtle Doves only adds to the concern. Rapid and undergoing population declines in Europe have led to the species being listed as Vulnerable. Concerted effort by the RSPB and others aims to provide goodquality habitat and to reduce hunting pressure right across the flyway from Europe to Africa.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain, largely restricted to southern and eastern England, with a few reaching Wales. It has bred in Ireland but probably does not do so now. British range is shrinking rapidly south and eastwards. Outside Britain it breeds across central and southern Europe, in North Africa and western Asia. In winter, occurs in a band from West to East Africa, in semi-arid and savannah habitats, and often close to major river systems.

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Rock Dove/Feral Pigeon Columba livia Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Moderate decline – 460,000 – February–December 2; 5 broods 17; 35–37 days Average: 3; Oldest: 8 31–34cm; 300g

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Woodpigeon. This species includes the familiar city-centre pigeon. In its wild form, it is bluegrey with a pale grey back, dark bars on wings and white rump. Head and breast are darker with iridescent green/purple sheen on side of neck. The feral form varies from pure white to almost black and includes plumages that are various shades of grey or brown. Some birds in Feral Pigeon populations closely resemble their pure Rock Dove ancestors and are indistinguishable. In flight, it shows white on the underside of the wing and white rump. Adults moult between June and November with the flight feathers being replaced gradually. Feral birds may moult at any time of year. See also: Stock Dove p175, Woodpigeon p174.

feral variants

HABITS

Flight fast, and it also glides and wheels. Sociable and becomes tame. Domesticated for centuries and may have exotic plumages or be used in pigeon racing. In the past, they have also been a source of food and have been used for carrying messages in times of war.

VOICE

Call during display is a gentle orr-roo-cooo.

HABITAT

Its traditional home is remote rock faces and cliffs, usually with caves and near the sea. In other parts of its range, it uses suitable inland cliffs. Feral form is usually associated with towns and cities where it lives around buildings that provide nest sites and accessible supplies of food. Some previously domesticated birds, or their descendants, now mix and breed in the habitat used by pure Rock Doves.

FOOD

Feeds on the seeds of cereal crops such as wheat, barley and oats. Also eats peas and seeds of plants, including wild radish, shepherd’s purse, dock and

buttercup. Feral birds eat grain, but will take a wide range of other, mainly vegetarian, foods available by scavenging in towns.

BREEDING

Rock Doves nest colonially in semi-darkness in holes on rock faces or on ledges in caves. Urban Feral Pigeons use cavities in buildings and ledges. The loosely constructed nest is made from grasses, seaweed and other local material. Eggs may be laid at any time of year, but peak nesting is spring and autumn. Incubation is by both parents. Young, known as ‘squabs’, are fed on ‘crop milk’, a substance that forms in the crop that the young take by reaching inside the parent’s mouth. Squabs may be fed by their parents for up to 10 days after fledging.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Pure Rock Dove is mainly resident, seldom moving far from its nest site. Domesticated birds have remarkable powers of navigation, hence their use in racing or homing pigeons, and as message carriers.

CONSERVATION

The conservation status of the Rock Dove is confused by the success and spread of the Feral Pigeon across much of lowland Britain and Ireland. Rock Doves are threatened by interbreeding with Feral Pigeons in many areas, and ‘pure’ populations are confined to remote cliffs and islands, where even here they are likely to be joined by feral birds. Often the two are indistinguishable. Population trends in Britain probably tell us more about the more abundant Feral Pigeon than about Rock Doves. Population trends in Europe are not known.

DISTRIBUTION Interbreeding between wild and domesticated forms confuse the distribution, but those breeding in isolated colonies in the far northwest of Scotland, and those in southern and western Ireland, are thought to be pure Rock Doves. Feral birds are in all parts of lowland Britain and eastern Ireland. Pure Rock Doves breed in Europe, North Africa and south-west Asia. The domesticated form is ubiquitous and now found on all continents, except Antarctica.

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Cuckoo Cuculus canorus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Strong decline – 17,000 – April–June 1; 1–25 broods 12; 19 days Oldest: 12 32–34cm; 110–130g

IDENTIFICATION

Size of Collared Dove. Superficially resembles small grey bird of prey, with slim body, long tail, small head and pointed wings. Short, slightly curved bill; short legs. Upperparts, head and breast plain blue-grey and underparts white with black barring. Tail rounded with white tip. At rest it droops its wings well below the level of the long tail. Female is slightly browner than male, especially on its breast. Juvenile is grey- or reddish-brown with black barring and white patch on back of head. Rare form of adult female is reddish-brown, like female Kestrel. See also: Sparrowhawk p93, Kestrel p194.

HABITS

Distinctive in flight; wingbeats are rapid and pointed wings move below the level of the body. Perches in the open on wires or at top of trees or on bare branches, often with tail cocked and spread, and wings drooped down. Male adopts this pose as he swivels his body during courtship. Generally seen singly. Those present in Britain or Ireland in late summer are mostly juveniles.

juvenile female

VOICE

Call of the male is the famous onomatopoeic cuc-oo. It also makes a harsh laughing gwork-gwork-gwork. Female makes a bubbling call.

HABITAT

Found in most open, particularly semi-natural habitat, except built-up areas. Favours upland heath, reedbeds, open woodland and agricultural land. In Africa in winter, found in savannah and forests.

female (rufous variant)

male

BREEDING

Some maintain territories, others gather where their host species are most common. Individuals parasitise the nests of specific species: Meadow Pipit, Reed Warbler and Dunnock are most frequent, although more than a hundred species have been recorded. Female makes no nest. She watches over a suitable area to find the nest of another species. When she is ready to lay, she selects a nest, takes an egg out in her bill and lays her own. She may lay 25 eggs in a season and their colour closely resembles that of the preferred host. Incubation is by the host. Blind and naked, the chick instinctively pushes other eggs or young out of the nest. Young Cuckoos are fed for 3 weeks after leaving the nest by its adopted parents and sometimes by other small birds.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Most breeding birds arrive in April and leave again in August. Juveniles follow several weeks later. Some birds travel to Africa via Italy and others via the Iberian Peninsula.

CONSERVATION

Declined by more than 70% in England and also in Wales in recent years, but has increased in Scotland. Declines have been linked to agricultural changes leading to the loss of semi-natural habitat, a fall in the number of host species, and a big reduction in their insect food supplies. The abundance of their favoured moth prey has declined rapidly and faster than other moth species. Cuckoos are moving from farmed areas into heathlands and uplands. As a long-distance migrant, it is susceptible to changing conditions along the migration route and in Africa. The European population is stable.

DISTRIBUTION Breeds throughout Britain and Ireland, but is most numerous in southern and central England, in Wales, and in western Scotland and Ireland. Breeds throughout Europe and across Asia. Birds from Europe winter in central Africa.

FOOD

Feeds mainly on insects, especially caterpillars, including hairy ones or those with warning colours that are avoided by other birds. Other insects include beetles, flies, sawflies and ants. Will also eat eggs and small nestlings of other birds, sometimes from the nests that it parasitises as a brood parasite.

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Tawny Owl Strix aluco Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Moderate decline – 50,000 – February–May 2–3; 2 broods 28–30; 32–37 days Average: 4; Oldest: 23 37–39cm; 420–520g

IDENTIFICATION

As large as Woodpigeon. A brown owl with a large body, large round head and rounded wings. Its face is surrounded by ring of dark feathers and eyes are dark and create a friendly expression. Upperparts are usually reddish-brown with white marks forming a broken line on its closed wings and a white ‘V’ on the crown of the head. Underparts are pale buff with dark streaks. A few are paler with grey plumage rather than warm brown. Flight is fast, direct and silent, and often higher than other owls. See also: Long-eared Owl p183, Short-eared Owl p182. grey type

rufous type

colonised town and city centres where there are parks, squares and churchyards with large trees. In some places, especially outside Britain, it inhabits more open countryside and nests among cliffs.

FOOD

Most common food is small mammals, especially voles, mice and shrews. Also eats insects such as beetles, birds such as Starlings, finches, thrushes and sparrows, and also frogs and earthworms.

BREEDING

Nest is in a natural or artificial hole, including specially designed nest boxes. Female incubates. At first, young are brooded by the female while the male hunts. After about 15 days both parents hunt. Owlets often leave their nest after 25–30 days and hide among nearby branches. They remain dependent on their parents for about 3 months.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Mainly resident with established pairs probably never leaving their territories. Young birds disperse in autumn to find suitable new habitat. British juveniles seldom travel further than a few kilometres, but those breeding in northern Europe often travel much further.

CONSERVATION

HABITS

Strictly nocturnal and only seen during the day if disturbed. Roosts in hollow trees or close up against a tree trunk or among ivy, and is very well camouflaged. If it emerges during the day, it often attracts small birds that mob it. At night, may hunt from a perch or hover in flight. It relies on intimate knowledge of its hunting territory to search for and find prey. Some females defend their nests aggressively and attack human intruders.

VOICE

Song is the familiar hoot, huhuhuhooo, of the male used to proclaim his territory and during courtship. Heard mainly in late winter and again in autumn. Female also has a hoarse version of the hoot. Another common call is a sharp kee-wick, made by both sexes. Occasionally calls during daylight.

This owl, like other birds of prey, was persecuted in the 19th century, but numbers have subsequently recovered. It is often a victim of road traffic collisions. It is sensitive to changes in woodland management and agricultural practices that affect its hunting areas and prey populations. In common with other owls, Tawny Owls are hard to census, not only because of their nocturnal habits but also because they are most vocal and territorial in autumn, meaning that they can be missed in standard counts. The causes of the recent decline are unclear. Population trends are not well known in mainland Europe.

DISTRIBUTION Widespread in England, Scotland and Wales, absent only from the far north of Scotland and the Northern Isles. Does not occur in Ireland. Breeds widely across Europe, from southern Fennoscandia and western Russia, to north-west Africa and eastwards to Turkey, the Middle East and into Asia.

HABITAT

Deciduous and coniferous woodland. An adaptable species that also lives in farmland where there are large trees and suitable nest sites. It has

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Little Owl Athene noctua Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Introduction Strong decline – 3,600 – April–June 3–4; 1–2 broods 29–31; 37 days Average: 3; Oldest: 13 21–23cm; 180g

IDENTIFICATION

Britain’s smallest owl, size of Starling. Small and plump with rather flat head and short tail. Brown or greyish-brown upperparts and wings are heavily spotted with white and pale breast heavily streaked. The black eyes with yellow irises stare from under white ‘eyebrows’, giving a fierce expression. Juvenile is duller and lacks white spots on its crown. In flight, wings are quite long and rounded. See also: Tawny Owl p180.

BREEDING

Usual nest site is a hole in a tree, about 3m off the ground. It also uses clefts in rock faces, holes in buildings, and sometimes holes between tree roots or rabbit burrows. Incubation is by the female. For the first 2 weeks young are almost constantly brooded by the female, later both parents hunt for food. Young may leave the nest chamber and clamber about around the nest site before they can fly. Second broods are rare.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

The species does not migrate and is largely sedentary. Young disperse from their nest sites in late summer but seldom travel far.

CONSERVATION

HABITS

May be seen in daylight as it perches erect in the open on a telegraph pole, branch, rock or building. Mainly hunts from dusk to midnight and again before dawn. It bobs its head curiously when alarmed. It frequently hunts on the ground, where it hops or runs on its rather long legs. Flight is often deeply undulating, rising with rapid wingbeats and dipping down with closed wings, but can also be direct and ‘bat-like’.

VOICE

Most frequent call is a sharp, mewing kiew, kiew that is most common in March and April during courtship, when the male also gives a pure, single hoot woop.

HABITAT

Occupies a wide variety of habitats in Britain, but most nest on agricultural land. Lowland farmland with woods, copses, hedges and old trees is the ideal. It also breeds in mature parkland, orchards, quarries and water meadows with old pollard willows.

The Little Owl was introduced from Europe into Britain in the 1870s. From that time, the population grew and expanded, first breeding in Wales in 1916 and in Scotland in 1958, only for the population to falter and numbers dwindle. Numbers have fallen by more than 50% in the last 25 years. Changes in farming are thought to have driven the decline with the loss of favoured hunting habitat and falling prey populations lowering their survival. There is also concern over the use of pesticides and other pollutants. Little Owls favour warm, semi-arid climates and are vulnerable to cold temperatures and snow, but the climate has warmed recently, and this should have helped the species rather than harmed it. The European population is estimated to be stable.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain, the species is most abundant in central, eastern and northern England, and is scarce elsewhere. Vagrant birds are very rare in Ireland. It breeds in central and southern Europe, North Africa, the Middle East and parts of Asia.

FOOD

Feeds on small mammals, birds, insects and invertebrates. Mammals include shrews and voles. Insects include beetles, caterpillars and adult moths, especially common species that hatch in large numbers. It also regularly feeds on earthworms.

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Short-eared Owl Asio flammeus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Moderate decline – 1,400 – March–June 4–7; 1–2 broods 24–29; 24–27 days Oldest: 20 37–39cm; 330g

HABITAT

Open country: moorland, upland heaths, rough grasslands, bogs, coastal marshes and dunes. Has also benefited from enclosed grasslands created when conifers are planted.

FOOD

Main food is small mammals, especially Short-tailed Voles, rats and mice. It eats birds up to the size of thrushes, and occasionally catches insects.

BREEDING

Nest is a shallow scrape made on the ground by the female and lined with local vegetation. Site is usually in grass, rushes or heather. Female incubates and starts with first egg. Young hatch over a period of a week or more and both adults feed the young. At about 15 days, the owlets leave their nest and hide in the surrounding vegetation until they can fly. Two broods can be reared if food is plentiful.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

A migratory species in north of range and some from mainland Europe cross the Sahara to winter in central Africa. A variable number from northern Europe cross the North Sea each autumn to winter in Britain. Breeding densities here fluctuate with changing abundance of their main prey and in some years there are larger movements than others. British juveniles may travel as far as Spain and Malta. Some populations are thought to be nomadic and breed or winter where their prey is most plentiful.

CONSERVATION

IDENTIFICATION

Medium-sized owl. Mottled brown owl with piercing yellow eyes surrounded by black patches within a pale face. Tiny ear-tufts are hard to see. Has long wings, which are very pale below with a black tip and a black curved bar at the base of flight feathers. Upperwings are mottled brown and buff and have white trailing edges. Tail shows four strong bars. Upper breast is heavily marked with dark streaks, but rest of underparts are pale without streaks. In flight, often keeps low with deep wingbeats followed by a glide, with wings in a shallow ‘V’. See also: Longeared Owl p183, Tawny Owl p180.

HABITS

Nocturnal, but commonly hunts in daylight, especially at dawn and dusk. Emerges from winter roosts just as the light fades. It has an aerial display in spring, as it flies high above its territory and claps its wings below its body. Often solitary, but sometimes gathers in groups to roost. Regularly perches on the ground, on a post, in bushes or trees. On the ground, it is less upright than other owls.

VOICE

Usually silent, but has low, hollow boo-boo-boo-boo. Also a hoarse bark.

Over the last 70 years this species has increased in Britain, but recently appears to have declined as the range has shrunk back towards the northern uplands. Populations fluctuate according to food supplies and with habitat availability, and trends are difficult to judge. It has benefited from establishment of new conifer plantations in the uplands, and the habitat created, but as the trees grow, those conditions are lost. A more worrying concern is persecution in the uplands, especially in areas managed by gamekeepers for Red Grouse shooting. Numbers in Europe fluctuate strongly but appear stable.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain, breeds mainly in upland areas, especially in northern England and in Scotland. It is a rare bird in Ireland. In winter, it is much more widespread and may be seen across Britain and occasionally in eastern Ireland. Breeds in Iceland and in mainland Europe, from the Arctic to northern France, east into Asia and in North and southern South America. Some European breeding birds winter in Africa.

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Long-eared Owl Asio otus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Stable – 3,500 – February–June 3–4; 1–2 broods 25–30; 30 days Average: 4; Oldest: 17 35–37cm; 290g

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Woodpigeon. Often looks rather long and thin, with long ear-tufts that may be raised and lowered (and are not ears). Cat-like face can change from rounded to long and narrow when the bird is stretched out at roost. Facial disc is rusty brown with a white ‘X’ across the face and dark around the deep orange eyes. Plumage is rich buff-brown with darker brown streaks, and underparts are streaked boldly to below belly. In flight, long wings have more uniform pattern than Short-eared Owl and do not have pale buff edges. Base of flight feathers on the upperwing is orange-brown. Short tail is finely barred. Ear-tufts are held flat in flight. See also: Short-eared Owl p182, Tawny Owl p180.

HABITS

Nocturnal; only occasionally hunts by day. Roosts in hedges, bushes and trees during the day, and is reluctant to fly, unless disturbed. Not a colonial breeding species, but groups may migrate together, and small communal roosts often form in winter. Flight is slow and wavering.

nearby branches. They remain dependent on their parents until they are 60 days old. Two broods may be reared when food is very plentiful.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Northern populations are migratory whereas southern birds are resident or may move relatively short distances to find food in winter. Some appear to be nomadic and breed only where food is plentiful. In years when numbers are high or food is scarce, there may be influxes into eastern Britain from Europe.

CONSERVATION

Difficult to detect and census and so likely to be under-recorded, and population trends are not well known. Local declines in Britain have been linked to competition with Tawny Owls for space, food and nest sites. Changes in farming practices might also affect vole populations and therefore owl numbers. Other threats include pesticide use, human persecution and road traffic collisions. Long-eared Owls take readily to nest boxes, and local study groups make a valuable contribution to their conservation. Population trends in Europe are unknown.

VOICE

Wide variety of sounds. Song is a quiet but penetrating low hoo-hoo-hoo-hoo. Small young have jingling calls, but later make a soft drawn-out squeak, said to sound like a squeaky gate.

HABITAT

Inhabits both conifer and deciduous woods and mixed forests. Breeds in conifer plantations, copses, edges of large woodlands, thorn thickets and shelter belts, but always with open country nearby, including coastal marshes, farmland or moorland. In winter, seeks similar habitats, roosting in dense conifer plantations, patches of deciduous woodland and large hedges, but is more common near the coast where it gathers in scrub or dense woodland.

FOOD

Staple diet is small mammals, especially voles and mice, also small birds caught at their roosts.

BREEDING

Nest is usually in a tree, in a sturdy old nest of another bird, such as a Magpie or Carrion Crow, or in a squirrel’s drey. Occasionally, in areas with few trees, they will nest on the ground. Nesting may begin in late February. Female incubates. Male feeds female and provides most of the food for young. At about 21 days young leave the nest and live among the

DISTRIBUTION Thinly distributed across Britain, especially in eastern and northern England and in Scotland. This is the most abundant owl in Ireland. Inhabits a distribution band around the northern hemisphere, including North America, Europe and Asia, with some isolated populations in Africa.

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Barn Owl Tyto alba Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

FOOD

Green Strong increase – 9,000 – March–September 4–6; 2 broods 30; 55 days Average: 4; Oldest: 17 33–35cm; 300g

Feeds mainly on small mammals, such as mice, voles and shrews. It also eats larger mammals, including small rats. Birds such as finches and thrushes are sometimes taken at their roosts and some owls also catch and eat bats and frogs. Fluctuating vole populations affect their breeding productivity from year to year.

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Tawny Owl. Has heart-shaped face, long and rather narrow wings and long legs. The honey-coloured upperparts are flecked with darker marks with some grey on the back. The underparts, including under the wings, are snowy white with only light spotting. Female has a little more spotting on breast and more streaking and spotting on back. Body feathers moulted gradually throughout the year. Flight feathers are moulted between July and December. See also: Short-eared Owl p182, Tawny Owl p180.

BREEDING

Nest is in an enclosed space in a barn, ruined building, hollow tree, cliff face, or a specially made nest box. Some nests are among hay or straw bales in modern barns. Male feeds the female during courtship. There is no nest, with eggs laid on a pile of old pellets. Incubation is by female and starts with the first egg, so the young hatch at intervals of 2 or 3 days, and the oldest may be 2 weeks older than youngest, and considerably larger. Young depend on their parents for 3–5 weeks after they can fly.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Most adults are resident and seldom move far. Juveniles disperse randomly once they are fully independent and may travel up to 50km, with a few going further. After good breeding seasons in mainland Europe, some of these dark-breasted birds may disperse, with a few reaching eastern Britain.

CONSERVATION

HABITS

Buoyant, ghostly flight is typically slow, low over the ground and wavering, and it frequently hovers when hunting. Mainly a nocturnal hunter, it may hunt during the day. Territories are occupied for the whole year and birds hunt singly.

VOICE

A strange piercing shriek or scream, especially during courtship. Call for food is a loud snore or hiss made mainly by the young, but also by adults during courtship. Will hiss at intruders but does not hoot as other owls do.

HABITAT

Open country, usually below 300m, especially farmland, but also coastal marshes and forest edges. Nests and roosts in buildings, hollow trees or cliffs. Hunts over areas of rank grassland, along field edges, ditches, riverbanks, railway embankments and roadside verges.

Once widespread in Britain, it has suffered declines during the 20th century owing, it seems, to the loss of nest locations and places to feed in the countryside, the use of toxic pesticides, increased collisions with road traffic, and harsh winters. The widespread use of modern rodenticides causes mortality through secondary poisoning. Nocturnal habits make Barn Owls challenging to census and numbers fluctuate with their main prey. A recent upturn has been linked to conservation measures on farms, such as grassland strips along watercourses, field margins and woodland edges, and the erection of nest boxes. The European population is fluctuating.

DISTRIBUTION Widely distributed in lowland Britain and Ireland but scarce in northwest Ireland and upland Scotland, and absent from the Scottish islands. Breeds throughout western and central Europe and in North Africa. Other races are found in Africa, southern Asia, Australasia and North and South America.

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Nightjar Caprimulgus europaeus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Stable – 4,600 – May–August 2; 1–2 broods 17–18; 18–19 days Average: 4; Oldest: 12 26–28cm; 83g

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Kestrel. Long, pointed wings, a long tail and a rather large, flat head. Owl-like appearance. Eyes are large and dark, bill is short, and large, wide mouth, designed for catching flying insects. Plumage is grey-brown with beautiful intricate camouflage markings. Adult male has striking white marks near the wing-tips and on the outer tips of tail. Females and juveniles lack white marks. Adults begin moult in July and some inner flight feathers may be moulted before migration, but rest of moult takes place in Africa. See also: Kestrel p194, Cuckoo p179, Grasshopper Warbler (song) p236.

male

female

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

All are long-distance migrants wintering in central and southern Africa. Juveniles from first broods are thought to leave Europe in late July with adults and other juveniles following later. They reach their African wintering grounds between October and November. British and Irish birds return in late April and early May, with the males returning a few days before females. male

HABITS

Males are territorial and it is unusual to see more than one or two birds at a time. Small groups may gather at rich feeding sites. In flight, twists and turns nimbly and flies silently like an owl – sometimes almost seems to float on the air. In display flight, it claps its wings together above the back making a clapping sound. Most active around dusk and dawn when it feeds. Roosts during the day, relying on incredible camouflage to stay invisible, perching motionless along a branch (instead of across it), or on the ground.

VOICE

Song is a long, insect-like churring that rises and falls as the bird turns its head. Flight call is a loud, liquidsounding coo-lik, often repeated.

HABITAT

Breeds in open woodlands, heaths, commons and moors, where there are scattered trees, and in young or recently felled forestry plantations. In Africa in winter, found in clearings in forests and savannah.

FOOD

Feeds on insects. Catches prey in flight and takes a variety of moths, beetles and flies.

BREEDING

Nest is a shallow scrape on bare ground, usually among dead branches and broken sticks, either in a clearing in a wood or in a more open habitat. Incubation mostly by female, with male taking over at dawn and dusk. Young become independent about 16 days after their first flight. A pair may lay a second clutch when young of first brood are about 14 days old.

CONSERVATION

Nightjar numbers and range decreased from the 1950s due to the loss of heathlands to agriculture, afforestation and development. An upturn in the population is linked to increasing availability and use of clear-felled or young conifers in commercial forestry plantations. It is also a direct result of conservation action in terms of habitat protection, management and restoration of heathland habitat in southern and eastern England. Maintenance of a mosaic of woodland habitat, with open areas among woodlands and uncultivated land nearby, is important, as is reducing recreational disturbance of different kinds. As insectivores, Nightjars are threatened by falling insect populations due to pesticide use. The European population is stable.

DISTRIBUTION Relatively small numbers breed in Scotland and northern England, more in Wales, with the majority in southern England and East Anglia. Rare in Ireland. Breeds from southern Fennoscandia to North Africa and east into central Asia. It winters in central and southern Africa, as far south as South Africa.

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Swift Apus apus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Strong decline – 59,000 – May–July 2–3; 1 brood 19; 37–56 days Average: 9; Oldest: 21 16–17cm; 44g

IDENTIFICATION

Shorter dark body and longer wings than Swallow. Wings are long and scythe-like and tail is short and forked. Body, wings and tail are plain sooty-brown, chin is pale. In bright sunlight, plumage may appear lighter brown, but more often it appears black against the sky. Juvenile resembles adult, but with more obvious pale throat and pale fringes to its wing feathers that create a scaly appearance. Moult begins in August and some begin to moult their flight feathers before migrating. Moult continues in Africa and may not be completed until February or March. See also: Swallow p222, House Martin p223.

HABITS

Flight is rapid and flickering, followed by long glides on sickle-shaped wings. Flies high in the sky. Small parties often chase each other at high speed around nest sites, screaming noisily at rooftop height. Spends more time in flight than any other species and regularly sleeps on the wing at night when not nesting. Also feeds, drinks, gathers nest material and sometimes mates in flight. Grounded Swifts find it difficult, and sometimes impossible, to take off again.

VOICE

Usual call is a harsh scream, screee.

HABITAT

An aerial species that ranges widely in its search for food and to avoid weather fronts. May be seen over most habitats, but in Britain and Ireland most breed in urban or rural buildings, especially older ones that provide suitable access to roof space. A few still breed in traditional sites in rock crevices and in Scotland in Caledonian forests where it uses tree holes for nesting.

BREEDING

Both sexes build the nest, which is a shallow cup of straw and other material gathered on the wing and cemented together with saliva. Site may be under eaves of a house, in a church tower, or any other suitable cavity. In Scotland and elsewhere in its range, it may sometimes use tree holes and will use specially designed nest boxes. Incubation is by both sexes and may be prolonged if weather is cold. Young are brooded continuously for the first week. First flight is determined by the weather and they are independent as soon as they leave the nest. Young Swifts do not breed until their fourth year. juvenile

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Summer migrant. Arrives late April or early May and leaves again in August with only a few birds left in Britain by September. In the breeding season, birds respond to changes in weather and food availability by moving large distances to feed. Migratory journeys are rapid (one bird travelled 5,000km in 5 days) with autumn migrants travelling via West Africa to central Africa by August, and then on to winter in Mozambique by December.

CONSERVATION

Swifts remain widespread and common in Britain and Ireland, yet numbers appear to be falling rapidly. The main cause is thought to be the loss of nest sites in buildings due to renovation, re-roofing and demolition, and in new buildings due to their design and construction. They might also be affected by lower numbers of insects due to pesticides and, as long-distant migrants, they may encounter poor weather or feeding conditions along their migratory route and in wintering areas. Conservation measures, such as the provision of nest boxes, or nest bricks in new and old buildings, and sympathetic renovation, may help boost local populations. The European population is declining in numbers.

DISTRIBUTION Most abundant in the east of Britain and Ireland, and least common in the west and north-west. It breeds from the Arctic Circle south to North Africa and east into Asia. Winters in central and south-eastern Africa.

FOOD

Feeds almost exclusively on flying insects, with some birds catching up to 10,000 a day when feeding young. Prey includes beetles, aphids, flies, hoverflies, craneflies, moths, butterflies, thrips, leafhoppers, ants and lacewings. Also catches airborne spiders.

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Hoopoe Upupa epops Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Not assessed – – – – May–July 7–8; 1–2 broods 15–16; 26–29 days Unknown 26–28cm; 68g

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Feral Pigeon. An exotic-looking colourful species, slim with long neck, long, decurved bill, long tail and gaudy crest that may be raised or lowered. Body pink-buff with bold black-and-white bars on wings, tail and back. Long pinkish crest is tipped with black and is laid flat on the head most of the time. Juvenile is duller than adult and the white wing-bars are tinged cream. In flight, the broad and rounded black-and-white wings and tail pattern are striking. Reminiscent of a huge butterfly. Adults may begin their moult after the breeding season and continue after they have migrated for the winter. See also: Jay p202.

HABITS

Very distinctive. Spends a lot of time feeding on the ground where its bold plumage breaks up its outline and makes it surprisingly inconspicuous. Once in the air its butterfly-like flapping flight attracts attention. Flight undulates as the bird almost closes its wings between each beat. Crest is raised when the bird is excited, also on landing. In southern Europe, it is usually seen singly or in pairs. In Britain, single birds are generally seen.

VOICE

Call is a soft, low, resonant hoop, hoop, hoop that carries a surprising distance.

HABITAT

Feeds on areas of bare soil or short grass. In southern Europe, breeds in open country with a scattering of old trees. Often nests in olive groves, orchards or the edges of woods, and sometimes near rivers or streams. In Africa, in winter it inhabits a variety of wooded savannahs.

FOOD

Feeds on the ground and takes its prey either from the surface or by probing into sand or soil with its long bill. Mainly eats large insects and their larvae such as crickets, beetles, ants and flies. Non-insect food includes spiders, centipedes, millipedes, slugs, snails, and occasionally small reptiles such as lizards.

BREEDING

Has very occasionally nested in Britain. Nests in a tree hole, a building, or in a hole in the ground or a bank. Male and female both help to clear out and, if necessary, enlarge the nest-hole. Incubation is by the female and starts with the first egg, so young hatch over several days. At first the female cares for young and the male provides the food, but later both hunt and help feed them. Young continue to be fed by their parents for some time after they can fly. One brood, occasionally two.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Northern populations are migratory and winter in Africa, south of the Sahara, while those breeding further south are only partial migrants, and many that breed in southern Spain and Portugal are resident. Autumn migration lasts from July to November, and birds return between February and May. A few reach Britain, mainly in April and May or again in September. Birds are occasionally seen in winter.

CONSERVATION

Hoopoes have nested about 20 times in Britain in the last 200 years. The last recorded successful breeding was in Wales in 1996. On the northern edge of its range in Britain and Ireland, there are no specific conservation measures for this species, beyond careful protection if birds are suspected or found to be breeding.

DISTRIBUTION Breeds in central and southern Europe, North Africa and east through Russia and Asia. Birds from Europe winter in Africa south of the Sahara. Birds that visit Britain or Ireland in spring have usually overshot their normal breeding range and arrive in the south of England, although some have reached Shetland. Arrivals in autumn are more widespread, often on Britain’s southern and eastern coasts.

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Bee-eater Merops apiaster Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Not assessed Uncertain – 1 – May–June 4–7; 1 brood 20; 30 days Oldest: 5 27–29cm; 61g

HABITAT

Generally associated with warm climates. Breeds in valleys and lowland areas with low-intensity agricultural land, open fields, pastures, grasslands and steppe with scattered trees and sometimes near open water. In Britain, it is mainly a rare passage migrant occurring in similar habitats, often near the coast. In Africa in winter, it is found in savannah, plains and cultivated areas.

FOOD

Feeds on a wide variety of medium-sized flying insects, including bees and wasps, which it takes back to a perch to remove the sting before devouring. Also eats ants, flies, beetles, butterflies and moths.

BREEDING

Very rarely breeds in Britain. Male selects a nest site and both birds excavate a tunnel and nest chamber in a cliff or steep bank. Tunnel is 0.7–1.5m long. Nestbuilding takes 10–20 days and there is no nest material. Incubation is by both adults begins with the first egg. The young are fed by their parents for a few days after leaving their nest chamber. The family appears to stay together at least until they migrate.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

IDENTIFICATION

Size of Mistle Thrush. Slim, exotic and colourful species with long, pointed wings and a long tail with pointed feathers projecting from the centre. Upperparts graduate from chestnut-red on the crown to gold back and upper rump. Throat is yellow, underparts and tail are blue-green, and cheeks blackish with yellow above bill. In flight, wings are blue-green with golden patches on shoulders. Female tends to have green rather than gold feathers on shoulders. Non-breeding plumage is much duller with a bluegreen back, and lacks the elongated central tail feathers. Juvenile resembles a non-breeding adult but with less variation in the feather colours. Adults begin to moult in June or July and complete the process by August or September. There is a further moult into breeding plumage in winter in Africa. See also: Kingfisher p189.

HABITS

Aerial feeder with undulating flight that also twists, turns and glides as it hunts flying insects. Frequently hunts from elevated perches, such as wires and bare branches. When perched it appears upright, with pairs and family groups often sitting close together. A sociable species that nests in colonies and feeds in groups. Larger flocks gather when migrating. Often flies at some height.

Bee-eaters migrate by day. They leave their breeding grounds soon after the young fledge and depart Europe during August and September. They move south on a broad front with some skirting around the Mediterranean and finding the shortest sea-crossings, also crossing the Sahara. They return to their breeding sites in April and May.

CONSERVATION

The few pairs to breed in Britain benefit from special protection from egg thieves, vandals and accidental disturbance by the public or commerce, though natural predators and poor summer weather can intervene. Nesting attempts with successful breeding have increased in frequency in the last few years. The latest nesting attempt in 2017 involved three pairs at one site but was unsuccessful even though young were hatched. In this case, the RSPB organised protection and viewing, but cold and wet weather seems to have caused the nests to be abandoned. A warming climate might encourage more of these wonderful birds to move north and nest in Britain and Ireland. The population size in Europe is stable.

DISTRIBUTION It breeds in southern Europe, North Africa and east into Russia and Asia, also South Africa. It winters in Africa, south of the Sahara.

VOICE

Vocal species that has a distinctive, far-carrying rather liquid pruuk-pruuk or prruip-prruip, which may have a trill-like quality when several birds are calling at once. Birds often heard long before they can be seen.

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Kingfisher Alcedo atthis Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Stable – 4,900 – April–July 5–7; 1–3 broods 19–21; 23–26 days Average: 2; Oldest: 21 16–17cm; 40g

male

female

IDENTIFICATION

Size of sparrow with large head and long, daggerlike bill. Blue tail is short and blue wings broad and rounded. Underparts and cheeks are bright orange and upperparts electric blue or oily green, depending on the light, with lighter speckling on the crown and wings. Back, rump and uppertail are turquoise blue. Has white throat and neck-patches. Male has an allblack bill, female has red base to lower part of the bill. Juvenile is duller and greener. Feathers are moulted gradually between July and November with the main flight feathers taking 90–100 days to moult and regrow. Moult may be suspended during cold winter weather.

HABITS

Flight fast and straight, and often low over water, although will fly higher when taking shortcuts across land. Perches motionless when fishing or sometimes hovers before plunging into the water. Once prey has been caught it is taken to a perch and the bird may hit the fish until stunned before turning it in its bill and swallowing it head first. Courtship involves highspeed chases. Despite the bright colours, its small size and rapid flight make it hard to observe. It also often sits quietly over water, scanning for prey. The distinctive call is usually the best clue to its presence.

VOICE

Call is a shrill chreee or a double note chee-kee.

HABITAT

Breeds near water in lowland areas. Usually lives on large to small slow-flowing rivers and their tributaries, canals and lakes, especially with banks for nesting and shallow edges for fishing. Visits other smaller waters, including ornamental lakes and, sometimes, garden ponds. May visit estuaries in summer, but particularly winter.

FOOD

Feeds on fish and some aquatic insects. The most common fish are Bullhead, loach, minnow, stickleback and small Chub. Insects include mayflies, stoneflies, dragonfly nymphs and water beetles.

BREEDING

Birds pair in February or March. Breeding territory is usually 1–1.5km long. Nest is in a chamber at the end of a tunnel that both birds dig. Tunnel is in a vertical bank, usually, but not always, close to water. Eggs are incubated by both sexes. Both parents feed the young until they leave the nest. Young become independent a few days after leaving the nest.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

British and Irish Kingfishers do not usually move very far, unless forced out of their territories by hard weather. Juveniles disperse after becoming independent but seldom travel more than 12km from their original nest site. Northern and eastern European populations are more migratory and many winter around the Mediterranean.

CONSERVATION

Population tends to be higher after mild winters and reduced after severe winter weather. Until about 1985 the Kingfisher was declining in Britain and its range shrinking, but since then there has been partial recovery and numbers are stable. In mainland Europe, while still widely distributed, Kingfishers have fallen in number and it is classified as Vulnerable. This decline has been attributed to river pollution coming from both industrial sources and chemical runoff from agricultural land. Straightening and clearance of rivers and streams to improve drainage and increased water abstraction might lead to the loss of nesting and feeding habitat. Measures to prevent pollution need to be strengthened; water abstraction and river corridors carefully managed.

DISTRIBUTION Found in lowland England, Wales, Ireland and southern Scotland. Most numerous in England and Ireland, it is gradually spreading north in Scotland. This race is also found in mainland Europe east to the Caspian Sea and south to Spain. Other races are found in south-east Europe, North Africa and parts of Asia.

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Great Spotted Woodpecker Dendrocopos major Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Strong increase – 130,000 – April–June 4–6; 1 brood 15; 20 days Oldest: 12 22–23cm; 85g

male

male female

IDENTIFICATION

Similar size to Blackbird. Medium-sized blackand-white woodpecker with dirty white underparts and crimson feathers under short, stiff tail. Two large white patches on shoulders and small white spots on the folded wings. Shoulder marks show as oval patches in flight. Male has crimson patch on the back of head, female does not. Juvenile has duller white plumage and a red centre to its crown. Flight is bounding with wings closing after several flaps. Adults undergo complete moult between June and November. See also: Lesser Spotted Woodpecker p191.

HABITS

Rarely on the ground. Generally solitary outside the breeding season. When danger threatens, it spirals up a tree trunk or branch and often ‘freezes’ on the side facing away from danger. When attacking food with tough shells, it wedges it in a crevice in a tree trunk or branch and hammers it open with its powerful bill. During courtship, pairs engage in noisy chases among the trees.

containing chicks to reach the young birds inside, which it eats or feeds to its own young. Readily visits hanging peanut feeders in gardens.

BREEDING

Both sexes excavate a nest chamber in a tree trunk or large branch. A variety of trees are used, but birches and oaks are most often selected. Hole is 5–6cm in diameter and the average nest chamber is 28cm deep. Both parents incubate and feed their young. After fledging, adults continue to feed their young for a week or more.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Young birds may travel a few kilometres from their nest sites, but generally the species is resident. Young of the northern European population irrupts in years when food is in short supply, and some of these regularly reach Britain in autumn.

CONSERVATION

This woodpecker has been remarkably successful while its close relative, the Lesser Spotted Woodpecker, has crashed in number. Undoubtedly it benefited from the dead wood resulting from Dutch elm disease, and more recently from the provision of food in garden feeders. It is also thought to have benefited from reduced nest-site competition with juvenile VOICE Starlings, as their numbers have fallen severely, Sharp and loud tchick tchick may be heard through- and the maturation of tree stocks across Britain out the year and is often the best indication of the has increased nesting and feeding opportunities. bird’s presence. ‘Song’ is an instrumental sound The European population is increasing strongly. made by drumming with its bill on a specially chosen branch. Short bursts last around 5 seconds DISTRIBUTION and accelerate before fading away at the end. Found throughout Britain, Drumming usually heard January to April.

HABITAT

Found almost anywhere with trees, both coniferous and deciduous woods, provided the trees are large enough to support nest-holes and provide food. Often found in parks and large mature gardens in urban areas, but relatively shy and wary of people.

FOOD

Feeds mainly on insects in summer and seeds and nuts in winter. Eats a wide variety of insects, including adults and larvae of wood-boring beetles, which it reaches by chipping away at dead wood and using its long tongue to reach into the insects’ chambers. Will also create a hole in a nest box

most numerous in the woodlands of the south, its range is expanding north and west. It began breeding regularly in Ireland in 2008; its range is restricted to the east. Widespread across Europe, from the Arctic to the Mediterranean. Also breeds in North Africa and Asia.

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Lesser Spotted Woodpecker Dendrocopos minor Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Strong decline – 800 – April–June 4–6; 1 brood 14–15; 18–22 days Oldest: 9 14–15cm; 21g

female

male

IDENTIFICATION

Our smallest woodpecker, just the size of House Sparrow. Back and wings barred black and white; lacks the large white wing-patches of Great Spotted Woodpecker. Underparts off-white with fine dark streaks and has no crimson feathers on undertail. Male has red crown while the female crown is white. Tiny, pointed bill. Juvenile has some red on crown and browner, more streaked underparts. Flight is undulating with wings closing after several flaps. Complete annual moult takes place between June and September in adults. See also: Great Spotted Woodpecker p190.

HABITS

Difficult to observe as it spends much time among dense foliage in the treetops, often feeding on outer branches or twigs and rarely feeding on the ground. Tends to creep along branches, unlike jerky movements of the larger species. Flight is more fluttering than other woodpeckers, especially among the branches. Most obvious in early spring as territories are established. When displaying at this time, the male has a moth-like display flight. Can be difficult to find at other times of the year. Mainly solitary outside the breeding season, but individuals sometimes join tit flocks and other small woodland birds in autumn and winter.

VOICE

Call is a shrill pee, pee, pee rather like the weak call of a Kestrel. Drumming and calling are heard from February to April and occasionally in autumn. Compared to Great Spotted it is longer but more rattling, softer and does not drop in pitch or fade away. Alarm call is a quiet, soft kick.

HABITAT

Breeds in lowland areas, in deciduous woodlands, parklands, orchards, shelter belts, isolated trees in hedgerows and riverside alders.

FOOD

Feeds mainly on insects including both adults and larvae of beetles, especially those that live in dead wood, which it reaches by chipping away and reaching into their chambers with its long tongue. Other insects include aphids, moths, ants, sawflies and the grubs of gall wasps. In autumn, will also eat some soft fruit.

3–3.5cm and the average nest chamber is 10–18cm deep. Eggs are incubated by both sexes with the male generally taking the night shift. Both adults feed the young.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Resident. British birds seldom wander far from their nest sites, but in autumn and winter they may disperse a relatively short distance in their search for food. Northern populations also tend to be nomadic in their search for winter food and some may be migratory.

CONSERVATION

Peaked in numbers at the time of Dutch elm disease in the 1970s, and has been falling in number and shrinking in range in Britain since around 1980. The causes of decline remain unclear but the loss of forest cover in the landscape, growing competition with Great Spotted Woodpecker, increased predation pressure, and shortage of food for the young all seem to play a role. Sensitive to forest fragmentation, a reduction in hedgerow trees such as elms, quantities of dead wood in forest, and diversity provided by traditional management might have driven these changes. The European population is stable.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain, found only in England and Wales and is most numerous in the Midlands and south. It breeds from Fennoscandia to the Mediterranean, with a few in North Africa. Widely distributed from the Middle East across Asia to Japan.

BREEDING

Nest-hole is excavated by both sexes and may be in the branches of almost any deciduous tree, but especially birch and alder. The entrance hole is

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Green Woodpecker Picus viridis Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Moderate increase – 45,500 – March–June 4–6; 1 brood 19; 21 days Oldest: 15 31–33cm; 190g

coniferous woods. Feeds habitually on the ground away from trees in open grassy areas, such as forest edges and glades, on pastures, heathland, and increasingly in gardens where there are ants’ nests.

FOOD

Diet consists chiefly of ants, as eggs, larvae, pupae and adults. Extracts insects from their nest chambers with its extremely long and sticky tongue. Also eats beetles, flies and caterpillars.

BREEDING

male

female male

IDENTIFICATION

Size of town pigeon. Largest of the British woodpeckers with a heavy-looking body, short tail and strong, rather long bill. Green-grey upperparts, duller greyish underparts, vivid yellowgreen rump and red crown. It has black around the eye. The ‘moustache’ mark of the male is dull red, black in the female. Juvenile is heavily spotted and barred. Flight is heavy, deeply undulating as the bird closes its wings after 3–4 flaps. Moults between June and juvenile November with the first flight feathers being lost around the time the young fledge. Juveniles moult quickly after fledging and gain their adult plumage between August and November. See also: Golden Oriole p201.

HABITS

Spends more time feeding on the ground than in trees, where it moves in a series of hops, looking for ants. On the ground, it often looks hunchbacked as it feeds but adopts an upright posture when alert. On a tree trunk, it will climb in a series of jerks with stiff tail feathers pressed against the trunk for support. Often hides from an observer by moving behind the trunk or limb. Outside the breeding season it is generally solitary, although several individuals have been observed roosting together. Call is given from a regular songpost near the nest.

VOICE

Call is a loud ringing, laughing queu, queu, queu, known as a ‘yaffle’. It also makes a feeble drumming.

Nests in mature trees, especially oak, ash and birch. Nest is at the bottom of a specially excavated chamber in a tree trunk or large limb, generally about 4m from the ground. Diameter of hole is 6cm and the nest chamber is on average 28cm deep. Incubation is by both adults, and both parents feed the young, which become independent 3–7 weeks after leaving the nest.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Resident, with individuals seldom moving far from their original nest site. Young birds may disperse in autumn and winter, and exploit feeding areas away from woods and trees.

CONSERVATION

Most common in southern and eastern England, becomes scarce in western Wales, northern England and south-eastern Scotland, where, in places, the range is shrinking. Numbers however have generally increased, especially in core parts of the range in the east. The main threat to the species comes from the intensive way forests and farmland can be managed, and from the associated loss of grassland habitats and ant populations, upon which they depend for feeding. The population in Europe is increasing.

DISTRIBUTION Breeds widely in England, Wales and southern Scotland, and it is most numerous in the south and east of Britain. It is an extreme rarity in Ireland and does not breed. Breeds from southern Scandinavia south to the Mediterranean and east throughout Europe and into Russia and southwest Asia.

HABITAT

Mainly a lowland species that breeds in open habitats, such as deciduous woods, parkland, orchards, farmland, heaths and, less often,

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Wryneck Jynx torquilla Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Former breeder – – 0 – May–July 7–10; 1–2 broods 11–14; 18–22 days Average: 2; Oldest: 6 16–17cm; 38g

IDENTIFICATION

Slightly larger than House Sparrow. Slim bird with short legs and a conical bill, small head with brown mask and rather long tail. A small brown woodpecker. It is grey-brown with a dark brown arrowshaped mark running from its crown and down its back. The plumage is delicately camouflaged with mottled upperparts and pale underparts that are finely barred. It has a warm-buff throat that is barred with fine dark lines. Adults moult rapidly between July and September, although some moult continues in its winter quarters. See also: Nightjar p185.

BREEDING

It usually nests in a tree hole, but may use a hole in a wall, a bank or even a nest box. No nest material is used and both sexes incubate the eggs. Both parents feed the young. They continue to feed them for about a week after they leave the nest.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

A passage migrant in Britain and Ireland. Most European birds are migrants, while some around the Mediterranean are resident. It migrates on a broad front across Europe with most moving south between August and October and returning to the breeding areas between March and May. Those occurring in Britain are usually displaced breeding birds from Fennoscandia.

CONSERVATION

HABITS

A shy woodpecker, but much more like a small thrush in the way it behaves. It spends a lot of time feeding on the ground but is a bird of woodlands. Flight is generally low and undulating. On the ground it moves with jerky hops.

VOICE

The most usual call that is heard in spring at its breeding sites, and occasionally on migration, is a falcon-like quee, quee, quee, which is far-carrying and often the only indication that a pair is present.

HABITAT

The traditional breeding habitat in Britain was parkland, orchards and large mature gardens. More recently it colonised open pine and birch woods. In mainland Europe, the habitat varies from dry pine woods, temperate and boreal forests, clearings in woods, and south-facing woodland margins.

FOOD

Population has waned in Britain during the 20th century and now only one or two birds are seen in breeding habitat each year. Numbers of passage birds vary due to weather patterns and wind direction. The traditional population that nested in south-east England has long been extinct. A small breeding population was discovered in Scotland in 1969 but that has dwindled. The last confirmed breeding in Britain was in the Highlands of Scotland in 2002. Declines reported in Europe have been attributed to the loss of feeding habitats and nest sites, such as orchards and old pastures, and to changes in forest management. Land conversion to agriculture with increased pesticide use might also have contributed to food shortages. The European population is, however, increasing, particularly in the north-east of its range.

DISTRIBUTION Passage migrants visit Britain and Ireland in spring in April to May and in autumn in August to October, particularly on the south and east coast. A very rare bird in Ireland. The species breeds from Fennoscandia south to North Africa and east right across Asia. Most European Wrynecks winter in a band south of the Sahel region of Africa.

Ants form a large part of the diet of most Wrynecks, but they also eat beetles, grasshoppers, flies, butterflies, moths and spiders.

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Kestrel Falco tinnunculus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

male

Amber Moderate decline – 30,000 – March–June 4–5; 1 brood 28–29; 32–37 days Average: 4; Oldest: 20 32–35cm; 205g male hovering

female soaring

male

FOOD

Mainly small mammals, especially Field Voles. Other mammals include shrews, mice and occasionally larger prey, such as moles and rabbits. Larks, pipits and Starling are commonly caught and larger birds such as Blackbird are also hunted. Kestrels regularly eat beetles, other insects and worms.

BREEDING

female

Does not build a nest but scrapes a depression for its eggs. Uses cliff ledges or buildings, holes in trees and disused nests of large birds. Courtship begins in February with aerial territorial displays. Female incubates and male sometimes takes a turn. For the first 10–14 days they are brooded by the female and then both parents feed them. The young rely on their parents for a month after fledging.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

IDENTIFICATION

Small falcon with short neck, long angular wings and long tail. Habitually hovers when hunting or perches intently scanning for prey. Male has spotted reddishbrown back, grey head and tail, and buff underparts with dark spots. Has a black band at the end of its tail. Female slightly larger and browner with variable pattern of black bars on upperparts and pale breast with dark streaks. Juvenile resembles female but more boldly streaked below and with broader dark bars on back. Moult lasts almost all year. Main flight feathers are lost gradually between May and September. Feathers are moulted in sequence, but noticeable gaps appear in August and September. See also: Sparrowhawk p93, Hobby p196, Merlin p195.

HABITS

Usually seen singly, often close to roads. Hunts in daylight, also during and after dusk. When hunting it will either hover effortlessly, with tail fanned and wings beating rapidly, or hang motionless, supported by the wind, hence the local name ‘Windhover’. Also hunts from a prominent perch such as a telegraph pole or small trees, and sometimes chases small birds. When soaring, wings appear more rounded at the tips and tail is fanned.

Once independent, young Kestrels often travel up to 150km from nest sites as they disperse. In northern Europe and Fennoscandia, Kestrels that breed in areas covered by snow in winter are migratory and may reach central Africa to winter. Some from upland areas of Britain are partial migrants to lower ground. Migrants from the Low Countries and further east can be found in winter in south-east England. Kestrels in central and southern Britain and Ireland are largely resident.

CONSERVATION

The decline of the Kestrel has been linked to similar declines in farmland species. Changes in farming have led to loss of habitat and more intensive management of grassland, both reducing small-mammal populations, and pesticides continue to pose a threat. Schemes aimed at restoring semi-natural habitat into farmland, such as beetle-banks, field margins and hedgerows may be helping. The European population is decreasing. Again, changes in farming practices are thought to be largely responsible.

DISTRIBUTION Found throughout most of Britain and Ireland although scarce in north-west Scotland and less numerous in Ireland. Also found in most of Europe, Africa and Asia.

VOICE

Usually silent. Most common call is a shrill kee-keekee that is most usually heard near the nest.

HABITAT

Lives in a variety of habitats, including towns and cities, but most numerous in farmland areas with rough grassland. Has exploited the food found in grassland within young conifer forests, beside busy roads, motorway verges and on railway embankments.

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Merlin Falco columbarius Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (pairs) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Uncertain – 1,150 – April–June 3–5; 1 brood 28–32; 32 days Average: 3; Oldest: 12 25–30cm; 180–230g male

FOOD

Mainly small birds such as Meadow Pipit, Skylark, Chaffinch and Wheatear. Also takes larger birds, such as Mistle Thrush. Other food includes voles, bats, moths and beetles.

BREEDING

Traditionally nests on the ground among heather but in recent years increasing numbers of tree nests have been found, usually in an old crow’s nest on the edge of conifer plantations. Incubation is by both male and female. At first, the female tends young and the male provides food. At about 18 days the young leave the ground nests and crouch in the surrounding heather. They depend on their parents for food for about a month after male leaving the nest.

female female

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Kestrel. Our smallest falcon with short, broad-based, pointed wings and shorter tail than Kestrel. When perched, wing-tips reach about threequarters along the tail length. Male has blue-grey back, rusty breast with dark streaks and very dark primary flight feathers. Cheeks and nape are rufous. Female slightly larger and browner with pale buff breast streaked heavily with brown and barred tail. Juvenile resembles dark female and has white flecks on nape. Moults between June and September. Female moults earlier than male. See also: Kestrel p194, Sparrowhawk p93.

HABITS

A solitary species, although occasionally two birds will hunt cooperatively. Small, compact-looking predator, male not much bigger than Mistle Thrush, but with direct and dashing flight. Rapid wingbeats are followed by short glides, often low to ground. Chases small birds with agile twists and turns. Regularly perches on posts, gates, walls and boulders. Occasionally has been seen to surprise its prey by approaching on foot.

VOICE

Usually silent, but near a nest the shrill kek-kek-kekkek call may be heard when the bird is excited or chasing off intruders, such as crows.

HABITAT

Mainly a short-distance migrant but some birds remain on their breeding grounds for most of the year. Migrants from Iceland have been recorded in winter in Ireland and north-west Britain. Some British birds have been found in western France in winter. Most Merlins leave their breeding grounds between August and October. Return migration takes place during April and May.

CONSERVATION

There has been a historical decline in its population, largely caused by pesticides and human persecution. The population has partially recovered with the removal of these harmful chemicals and reduced persecution, but current trends are uncertain, and local declines reported. Threats include the loss of suitable habitat through overgrazing, planting with commercial forests, insensitive heather burning, disturbance and persecution. The European population is stable.

DISTRIBUTION Breeds in the uplands in the north and west of Britain and parts of Ireland. In winter, it has a wider distribution and visits a variety of lowland habitats. The species also breeds in northern Europe, Asia and North America. In Europe, it winters in central and southern Europe and North Africa.

Breeds mainly on the ground in heather moorland in uplands and some coastal areas. Increasingly nests in the fringes of maturing conifer plantations. In winter, moves to lowland areas, particularly coastal saltmarshes, fens and farmland.

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Hobby Falco subbuteo Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Moderate increase – 2,050 – May–July 2–3; 1 brood 28–32; 30 days Average: 5; Oldest: 14 30–35cm; 180–240g

appear stationary, as it flies into the wind, but does not usually hover like a Kestrel. Seen singly or in small groups where food is abundant.

VOICE

Usually silent except for shrill kyew, kew, kew, kew, kew calls made in the vicinity of a nest.

HABITAT

Breeds in mature trees on heathlands of southern Britain and on farmland, in woodland edges, small copses and isolated trees. It hunts over open countryside, marshes and over water. In its African winter quarters, it inhabits open landscapes with scattered trees, damp woodlands and wetlands.

FOOD

Catches most of its prey in the air. Young Swallows, martins and Meadow Pipits are frequently caught, but the list includes fast-flying species such as Swift, and large birds such as Woodpigeon. Insect food includes dragonflies, grasshoppers and crickets, moths and beetles. Swarms of summer chafers occasionally attract groups of hunting Hobbies. Bats are also caught. The Hobby will also rob other predators, such as Kestrel, of their prey.

BREEDING

juvenile

IDENTIFICATION

Slightly smaller than Kestrel but more rakish, with long, pointed wings and shorter tail. At rest, long wing-tips reach to or beyond the juvenile tail-tip. Adults have slate-grey upperparts, a conspicuous white half-collar, white cheeks with a black ‘moustache’ and pale underparts with lines of black streaking. Undertail and thighs are conspicuously orange-red. Sexes are similar but female is marginally larger. Juvenile has brown upperparts with pale edges to the feathers, buff underparts with dark streaks and lacks the red ‘trousers’ of adult. First-summer immatures resemble washed-out juveniles. Moult, including some flight feathers, begins in August and completed in winter quarters. See also: Kestrel p194, Peregrine p197, Merlin p195.

HABITS

Looks like giant Swift in flight, as the wings appear crescent-shaped and the tail is shorter than Kestrel. Deep wingbeats, and attitude in flight is one of power and speed. When hunting, capable of rapid bursts of speed and agility with breathtaking turns. Catches dragonflies and other insects in flight with its talons and eats them as it flies. It can sometimes

Courtship takes place in May and June, with dramatic aerobatics that involve soaring and diving over breeding territory. Nests in trees, in the old nest of a large bird such as a crow. Incubation is mainly by female, with male relieving her for short periods. Male provides most of the food. Young continue to be fed by their parents for at least a month after fledging.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

A summer migrant to Europe, arriving in late April and early May and returning between August and October.

CONSERVATION

Remains a target for egg thieves and persecution in past has caused local extinctions. Hobby has undergone an upsurge in numbers and expanded its range in southern Britain. Expansion is thought to be due to an increase in insects, especially dragonflies, associated with gravel pits, reservoirs and nature reserves, and this may be linked to climate warming. The European population is stable.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain, it is mainly found in the lowlands of the south and east, but it is spreading north and is now breeding in the Scottish Highlands. An increasing number are being recorded in Ireland each summer. In mainland Europe, it breeds from the Arctic Circle to the Mediterranean and east into Russia, and then widely across Asia. European Hobbies winter in central and southern Africa.

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Peregrine Falco peregrinus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Moderate increase – 1,650 – March–June 3–4; 1 brood 28–33; 39 days Average: 6; Oldest: 21 36–48cm; 670g–1.1kg

IDENTIFICATION

Large and powerful juvenile falcon with long, broad-based, bluntly pointed wings and relatively short tail. Adult has blue-grey upperparts and dark blue wings and head. The crown is blackish and it has a conspicuous black ‘moustache’ contrasting with white face, giving a hooded look. Pale breast finely spotted, and underwing barred. Female is noticeably larger and bulkier in flight. Juvenile has dark brown upperparts with pale tips to feathers, streaks on underparts and broad buff tip to tail. See also: Kestrel p194, Hobby p196.

HABITS

Away from nest it is usually solitary. Swift and powerful in agile flight with fast wingbeats and long glides. Chases prey and attacks it from below or will spot prey a long way off, rise very high and fly fast towards it, dropping with wings folded to increase momentum. Often soars with wing-tips slightly splayed.

VOICE

Usually silent but may be noisy to protect nest and young. If female is disturbed, she produces a grating, scraa, scraa, scraa, often building to a crescendo. Male’s call is higher.

HABITAT

Mostly a bird of open country but will hunt in a wide variety of habitats, including moorland, marshes, estuaries, farmland and urban areas. Nests on crags or other rock faces, sea cliffs, offshore islands, quarries but, also increasingly, on high buildings in towns.

FOOD

Feeds mainly on birds captured in flight, either by out-flying them, or stooping on them. Feral Pigeon, Woodpigeon, Lapwing, Skylark, Blackbird and Starling are among the more common prey, but mammals, such as rabbits, are occasionally taken and carrion is eaten during extreme weather conditions.

BREEDING

Some nest sites have been used for hundreds of years. In Britain, nests are usually on ledges of cliffs, although old crow’s nests in trees and

juvenile

buildings may be used. Pairs return in February and perform breathtaking aerobatics as they plunge, dive, roll and stoop. Male supplies female with food, sometimes dropping prey that she catches in flight. Incubation is mostly by female. At first young are tended by female while male provides food, but as they grow both adults provide food. Young gradually become independent after fledging.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

In Britain and Ireland, present all year although some, especially females and juveniles, move from uplands to lowland areas in autumn. More northerly populations in Europe migrate and some winter in Africa.

CONSERVATION

Historically, the Peregrine was prized by falconers, controlled to protect messenger pigeons, during the Second World War, and it suffered severely from agricultural pesticides in the 1960s–1970s. Following the population crash of the 20th century, and with the removal of these harmful chemicals and legal protection, there has been a strong recovery. There remains the threat of illegal persecution on some sporting estates and from racing pigeon interests, and disturbance of nesting birds is a concern. The European population is increasing.

DISTRIBUTION The stronghold in Britain is the uplands and rocky coasts of the north and west, but populations have spread strongly east and south to reoccupy former range and have invaded cities. There has been a similar expansion in Ireland. In winter, it may be seen in many lowland habitats across Britain and Ireland, Elsewhere, it has a huge range with different races living in many habitats in mainland Europe, Africa, Asia, America and Australia.

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Great Grey Shrike Lanius excubitor Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Not assessed – Moderate decline – 98 – – – Oldest: 8 24–25cm; 68g

FOOD

Hunts a variety of prey, including beetles and other insects, small mammals up to the size of stoat, birds and, in summer, reptiles. Birds include Swallows and even Fieldfares, but generally it catches smaller species such as Redpolls and Siskins. It impales captured prey on thorns for storage in a ‘larder’.

BREEDING

Does not breed in Britain or Ireland, although very occasionally single birds are seen in late spring and in summer. Male generally gathers nest material and female builds a nest in a fork of a tree or bush. Clutch of 4–7 eggs and both adults care for the young.

juvenile

IDENTIFICATION

Similar size to Blackbird. Our largest shrike, with striking clean-cut black, grey and white plumage. Has thin white line over a broad black mask through eye, large black hooked bill, black wings with a white spot, grey crown and back, and white or slightly pink underparts. Long graduated tail is black with white outer feathers. Female is like male with some barring on breast in winter. Juveniles are browner with some barring, and in their first winter they are like females but may retain some juvenile plumage. Legs black. Adult moult begins in July or August, soon after rearing young, or even while feeding young. See also: Red-backed Shrike p199.

HABITS

Regularly perches on exposed branches, tops of bushes and trees or on posts or wires, where it scans for prey, such as voles or beetles, and then swoops down, sometimes hovering, before pouncing. Can look thrush-like when perched but frequently waves and spreads its tail. Flight powerful and bounding, ending in an upward swoop with tail spread. When hunting, will also fly along a hedge and surprise and catch small birds. In Britain, single birds will set up a winter territory and stay faithful to one largish area.

VOICE

Although often silent, its calls include a harsh sheck, sheck or a Magpie-like chatter. Some calls resemble a Starling’s wheezing call or the shriek of a Jay.

HABITAT

A rare visitor to almost any open countryside, especially lowland heaths, peat bogs, young conifer plantations, clear-fell areas in older conifer forests and coastal dune systems. In northern and eastern Europe, it inhabits the edges of forests and peat bogs. In winter, territories can be large, more than 50ha, and birds range widely within them.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

In northern parts of the range, this is a summer migrant, but more southerly populations are resident. In Britain, passage migrants arrive between late September and November, and again in March and April. Some birds remain for the winter, some holding territories and departing in March or April.

CONSERVATION

In Britain, Great Grey Shrike is a rare winter visitor from Fennoscandia. Numbers seen are variable but seem to be falling. Maintaining and restoring their preferred open heath-like habitat would help the species. In mainland Europe, a widespread decline has been attributed to the loss and degradation of habitat and the widespread use of herbicides and pesticides reducing prey availability. The removal of hedges, trees and scrubby habitats has also reduced the number of hunting perches, nest sites and food supplies. The European population is decreasing rapidly and as a result, Great Grey Shrike is listed as Vulnerable to extinction in Europe.

DISTRIBUTION In autumn, most are seen along the east coast of Britain. In winter, smaller numbers are spread widely. Very rare in Ireland. Large range, breeding across northern and central Europe, eastwards into Asia, the Middle East and in northern Africa. Several races are recognised; the form in Spain and Portugal is treated as a separate species, Iberian Grey Shrike L. meridionalis.

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Red-backed Shrike Lanius collurio Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Strong decline – 3 – May–July 4–6; 1–2 broods 12–16; 14–15 days Oldest: 10 17cm; 30g

IDENTIFICATION

Slightly smaller than Starling. Rather like small bird of prey with black hooked bill, pointed wings and rather long tail. Male has powder-blue crown and rump, reddish-brown back, pink breast, broad black mask, and white throat. Tail is black with white sides, especially towards base. Female is duller, with rich brown, less obvious face markings and crescentshaped marks on pale breast and flanks. Juvenile is brown or grey-brown with barred upperparts and crescent-shaped barred underparts. See also: Great Grey Shrike p198.

HABITS

Frequently perches in open on a bush, fence post or some other prominent lookout. When perched, its tail is often fanned, flicked up and down or moved side to side. Flight over a long distance is undulating, with a final swoop up to land. Direct flight between perches is often low down. Also hovers or makes sudden dashes to pounce on prey. Like other shrikes, it sometimes stores surplus prey in ‘larders’ by impaling prey on thorny vegetation or barbed wire.

female

VOICE

female

Call is a harsh chack, chack. Song is a scratchy warbling, now hardly ever heard in Britain.

HABITAT

Traditional breeding habitat in Britain was old hedges, thorn thickets and open places with widely spaced bushes. Also birch and pine plantations, peat bogs and lowland heaths. Migrants generally seen in coastal areas with bushes for cover.

FOOD

Eats mainly insects, especially beetles. Also captures small birds, small mammals, and reptiles such as lizards. Sometimes catches insects in flight.

BREEDING

Nest is usually built low down in dense cover, but some are in more open positions. Male and female make the main structure from local materials such as plant stems, leaves and roots, and often incorporate

male

male

paper, string and other artificial materials. Nest has a lining of softer materials. Female incubates. Both adults feed the young.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

A scarce summer migrant seen mainly in May and June and again in September and October. Spring birds are migrants heading north from Africa to their breeding grounds. Many of the autumn birds are juveniles migrating south.

CONSERVATION

1st-winter

The species has been declining for about 100 years and was lost as a regular breeding bird in England in the 1980s. Now, occasionally, males or pairs remain for the summer and sometimes breed, most recently in south-west England. The last recorded breeding was in 2018. Their demise as a regular breeder is not properly understood, although egg thieves took some of the last clutches. Declines most probably reflect the loss and fragmentation of their preferred habitats, as a result of afforestation, urbanisation and changes in farming, including pesticides. Red-backed Shrikes need extensive areas of scrub-grassland with good populations of invertebrates, but that habitat is in short supply. Beyond protection of potential breeding pairs, restoration of suitable habitat might help the species. As a longdistance migrant, it also faces challenges on its migration route. The European population is stable.

DISTRIBUTION Now virtually extinct as a breeding species in Britain. Spring and autumn migrants are sometimes seen along the south and east coast of England and the east coast of Scotland, as far north as the Northern Isles. In Europe, it breeds from Fennoscandia to northern Spain and around the Mediterranean, east into the Middle East, and into central Russia. It winters in eastern and southern Africa.

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Ring-necked Parakeet Psittacula krameri Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Introduction Strong increase – 12,000 – January–June 3–4; 1 brood 22–24; 40–50 days Oldest: 8 38–42cm; 110–130g

HABITAT

In Britain, it is generally found in towns and cities, in parks and gardens with large trees and in orchards. In its natural range, it can be found in semi-desert, scrub, forests and agricultural land. They will also inhabit gardens, orchards, towns and cities.

FOOD

It feeds on buds, fruit, cereals, grains and seeds. In Britain, it also eats apples, pears, cherries and hawthorn berries, and readily visits bird tables for peanuts and sunflower seeds.

BREEDING

female

Nest may be in a hole in a tree or sometimes in a building. Pairs may be solitary or in colonies. They do not make their own holes, but adopt an existing woodpecker hole, or a natural hole that the female may enlarge, helped by the male. Incubation is by the female. Young are brooded while small and fed by both parents. They remain with their parents for several weeks after they can fly.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

In their native habitat, this is a resident species and colonists in western Europe have shown no tendency to migrate, though they have been able to disperse.

CONSERVATION

female male

IDENTIFICATION

Bright green body is the size of Starling but with very long (25cm) pointed tail. Pale green with round head and deeply hooked large crimson bill. Nape and tail have bluish sheen. Male has delicate black-and-pink ring encircling its face with black under chin. Female lacks any blue on the nape and no ring round its face. Juvenile is like female but more yellow and has shorter tail. Flight feathers are dark. By far the most likely parrot species to be encountered in Britain. See also: Bee-eater p188.

HABITS

Silhouette is distinctive when perched, with pointed wings and long, pointed tail. Flight is rapid with flickering wings. On the ground, it waddles on short legs. Often seen in small groups, sometimes in larger flocks. Communal flocks are very noisy but roosting birds are difficult to see high among the branches of tall mature trees. During courtship the male preens the female’s head or wings, known as ‘allopreening’.

VOICE

Call is a loud, explosive screech, kee-ak, that may be given from a perch, but is often made by flying birds, and draws your attention.

The origin of British birds has been a matter of colourful debate, from birds escaping from the film set of the The African Queen (1951) in West London, to birds being released by Jimi Hendrix in Carnaby Street. It seems that their establishment comes from repeated releases and introductions. Some may have escaped from captivity and others may have been deliberately released. It was first recorded breeding wild in 1969 and the population has grown rapidly since. In their traditional habitats in Asia, these birds are considered pests for the damage they do to cultivated crops. Fruit growers in Britain have similar concerns. There is evidence from mainland Europe to show that they compete with native birds and bats for tree-hole nest sites. Research in Britain also shows competition for food at feeding sites. Perhaps surprisingly, given their native range, they are well adapted to cold weather and do not appear to suffer in harsh winters.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain, this species is found mainly in south-east England, centred on London, but is spreading rapidly northwards, with populations in several other large cities. It has colonised other parts of Europe, the Middle East, South Africa, Australia and North America. Breeds naturally in arid tropical habitats stretching from West Africa across lowland India, south of the Himalayas. Most British birds appear to belong to the Asian race, but some originated in Africa.

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Golden Oriole Oriolus oriolus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Passage pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

branch and situated 12–18m above the ground and 6–7m from the top of the tree. Incubation is by both adults, but with female taking the longest shifts. Both adults feed young.

Red Strong decline – 0 80 May–July 3–4; 1 brood 16–17; 16–17 days Oldest: 10 24cm; 68g

male

IDENTIFICATION

Similar size to Blackbird. Stunning male has goldenyellow body, black wings with yellow wing-spot, black tail with yellow corners, a black mark in front of eye, and reddish bill. Has rather long wings and tail. Female is pale below with long, fine dark streaks, yellowish-green above with blacker wings with small yellow wing-spot, black tail with yellow corners, and yellowish rump. Some females are yellower than others. Juvenile is like a dull-coloured female but with pale edges to back and wings, giving a scaly look. Immature males may be quite yellow by their first summer, but not as bright as older males. Legs black. See also: Green Woodpecker (female) p192. female

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

female

Rare summer visitor that arrives in April and May and leaves during August. Chiefly a nocturnal migrant. Little is known about the migrations of those that breed in Britain, but some other European breeding populations appear to have a loop migration, by which they travel south along one route and return in spring by a different one. A few seen in Britain, mostly during spring migration when they overshoot their normal continental breeding areas.

CONSERVATION

male

HABITS

Secretive. Spends much of its time among the upper branches of tall trees where, despite its bright colours, it can be hard to see among the foliage and in dappled light. Flight is slightly undulating, more like a large thrush than a woodpecker, and a characteristic upward sweep as it lands on a branch. Generally seen singly or in pairs.

VOICE

Song is a loud, clear, flute-like whistle, wee-la-weeo, sounding tropical in nature. Also makes various harsher calls, including chattering rather like a Jay, and a cat-like squawk.

HABITAT

Visits open deciduous woodland, forest edges, copses, spinneys and in Britain most likely to be in poplar plantations. Sometimes uses other woodland, including conifer woods, but is not really a forest bird. Nest sites are generally near rivers. Migrants may arrive on offshore islands, plantations and overgrown stream valleys.

FOOD

Feeds mainly on insects, especially caterpillars and beetle larvae, and it also eats berries and other fruits in autumn. It sometimes catches insects in flight and will forage on the ground.

From 42 pairs of Golden Oriole in 1990, there are no regular breeding sites now in Britain. Most recent nest sites were in mature commercial poplar plantations but felling patterns have seen this habitat shrink. They also attracted the unwelcome attention of egg collectors. Successful breeding was last reported in eastern England in 2009. This habitat choice is odd for the species and the British population was thought to have been linked to birds from the Low Countries. As a long-distance migrant it faces challenges away from the breeding sites and on its migration route, particularly hunting pressure in some areas. It is difficult to know how to attract this species back to nest, but the provision of wellmanaged deciduous woodlands might help, and spring migrants in suitable habitat should be left undisturbed. Predicted climate warming should favour this species. The European population is largely stable, with an increase in recent decades.

DISTRIBUTION A rare spring visitor to mainly southern and eastern England and Scotland. Breeds from southern Fennoscandia to the Mediterranean, in North Africa, the Middle East and east into central Asia. Winters in central and southern Africa.

BREEDING

Males generally return to their breeding sites in midMay, a week before females. Male mainly builds the nest, which is slung like a hammock in the fork of a

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Jay Garrulus glandarius Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Stable – 16,500 – April–June 4–5; 1 brood 18; 21–22 days Average: 4; Oldest: 17 34–35cm; 170g

HABITAT

A woodland bird that lives in both coniferous and deciduous woods, especially those with oak trees. Also found in copses and spinneys. Has recently moved into suburban areas in many parts of southern Britain and is frequently seen in parks, gardens, cemeteries and other places with mature trees.

FOOD

Acorns are eaten all year round, and sometimes fed to the young. This is possible because Jays habitually hide or cache food and recover it later, when it is needed. Food may be hidden in crevices in trees but is most often buried in the ground. They have great spatial awareness and memory to recover their hidden food. Also eats insects, especially caterpillars, cockchafers and other beetles, fruits, nuts, eggs, nestlings of other birds and small mammals.

BREEDING

Both adults build a nest of twigs lined with fine roots and hair, on a branch or in a fork of a tree. Female incubates. Both adults feed the young and continue to feed them until they are 6–8 weeks old.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Mainly sedentary, with British birds seldom moving more than 50km. It is more irruptive on the continent, and in years when there is a large population and shortage of acorns or other food, large numbers of Jays may move considerable distances, generally in a westerly direction, and in some years some of these birds reach Britain.

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Woodpigeon. Small, colourful and active crow. Has pinkish-fawn body with white undertail, rounded head with small, pale, streaked crest that can be raised in display or when the bird is excited, and a thick black ‘moustache’. Has a blue patch on its wing that is delicately barred with black, otherwise wings are black with a white bar. Longish black tail and white rump. Broad black bill is short and powerful. Legs are pink, eyes are yellow. In flight, wings appear broad and rounded. From behind, as birds fly away, the white rump and black tail are distinctive. Adult has a complete moult that begins in June or July and is finished by October.

HABITS

For most of the year, it is a secretive woodland bird that is more likely to be heard than seen. Often shy and wary of people. However, individual birds or small groups become more obvious as they travel more widely in late summer and autumn, and search out new food supplies, especially acorns. On the ground, it moves with a series of pronounced hops. Flight can appear laboured with floppy wings, but very manoeuvrable in woodland. Territorial when breeding, but in spring, gatherings of 3–30 Jays may take place.

VOICE

Call is a harsh screech, kercha, that travels a considerable distance through the woods. It also has other, less obvious calls, including a mewing sound. It is also able to mimic other birds.

CONSERVATION

Numbers in Britain have fluctuated with some recent population gains and range expansion. Populations are limited by woodland cover, winter severity and, especially in the past, human persecution. The bird’s habit of stealing eggs and taking young birds led to persecution by gamekeepers and managers of shooting estates. Some of the growth has been linked to there being fewer gamekeepers and an increase in plantation forests. A recent move into towns by this adaptable and intelligent bird may have helped the species. The European population of Jay is increasing moderately.

DISTRIBUTION Widespread in Britain, where it appears to be gradually spreading northwards. More thinly distributed in Ireland, where it is expanding its range. Most abundant in southern Britain. Outside Britain, there are several different races and the species breeds from Fennoscandia to North Africa and east across Europe, the Middle East, and across Asia to Japan.

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Magpie Pica pica Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Stable – 550,000 – March–June 5–6; 1 brood 20; 26 days Average: 5; Oldest: 21 44–46cm; 200–240g

IDENTIFICATION

Size of Woodpigeon. Medium-sized crow that appears black and white with a very long, wedgeshaped tail. Crown is rather flat and black bill medium-sized and powerful. Body is black with an iridescent blue-green sheen to the black wings and tail. Belly and outer half of the wings are white. Wings are short, broad and rounded. Black bill and legs. Flight action is direct, but not fast. Male slightly larger than female. Juvenile duller, shorter tailed, less iridescent, and white feathers appear dirty. Moult begins in June or July and ends in September or October.

HABITS

May be seen singly, perched on top of a bush or tree, but frequently travels in pairs or larger groups – some numbering 100 or more. Territorial when nesting, but territories may be visited by a flock of nonbreeding, mainly young birds. Stores food when it is plentiful by hiding it in scattered locations within a territory. On the ground, it walks or hops deliberately, usually with its tail lifted above the level of its back.

BREEDING

Nest-building may begin in midwinter. Both birds build a substantial structure of twigs, small branches and mud with a softer lining. The nest is usually high in a tree or tall shrub, often in a hedgerow and sometimes in an isolated tree. Generally, the nest is domed with an entrance at the side. Incubation is by the female. Young stay with their parents for about 6 weeks after fledging.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Sedentary over most of its range, with many individuals seldom moving more than 1km from where they hatched. In northern populations, some birds disperse after nesting and in some autumns, there appears to be local movements southwards.

CONSERVATION

Magpie populations rose rapidly in the 1970s after many decades of persecution and have remained relatively stable in Britain since the 1990s. The upturn was fuelled by improved nest success. Numbers were and are controlled by gamekeepers and landowners because of their reputation for taking chicks and eggs. Their fortunes reversed with a reduction in gamekeeping, and their adaptable nature seems to have allowed them to profit from changes in the countryside, such as in farming and plantation forests. At the same time, they have successfully moved into urban and suburban areas in towns and cities. Magpie still has a reputation as an egg thief, but there is little evidence for it causing the demise of small-bird populations, despite thorough research. The European population is stable.

VOICE

Frequently noisy with a chacker, chacker, chacker call that is both fast and scolding. It also has a commonly heard cha-ka call and a rarely heard, quiet, bubbling, repetitive song.

HABITAT

Widespread, being found in open farmland, forest, heaths, upland moors, and in parks and gardens. There has been a spread into towns and cities, often close to city centres, wherever there are suitable large trees, and they sometimes use pylons and other artificial structures for nesting.

DISTRIBUTION Widespread in Britain and Ireland, missing only from northern Scotland and the Outer Isles. It is most abundant in southern Britain and in Ireland. Breeds throughout Europe, the Middle East and across most of Asia, to the Far East.

FOOD

Eats almost anything from fruit and berries to carrion, and from beetles to bird eggs. Will catch and kill live prey, such as small mammals and young birds, and will often raid song-bird nests, taking chicks and eggs. In general though, the diet in summer is mostly insects and other invertebrates, and in winter it is vegetable material, eating fruits, berries and grains.

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Chough Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Stable – 330 1,250 April–June 3–5; 1 brood 17–18; 36–41 days Average: 7; Oldest: 17 39–40cm; 310g

IDENTIFICATION

Larger than Jackdaw, but with a smaller head, a distinct long, red, downcurved bill and pink legs. Plumage is black but appears iridescent blue and purple at close range. In flight, wings are rounded, broader than those of a Jackdaw and have more obviously finger-like square ends. Juvenile is browner with less gloss on its feathers and a shorter, less curved, yellowish-pink bill that gradually becomes red with age. Adults moult completely between June and October. See also: Jackdaw p205, Rook p206.

juvenile

HABITS

A master of flight as it dives and swoops with agility and ease in the updraughts around coastal cliffs and rock faces. Noisy. Pairs and larger groups often fly and feed together in mobile flocks, with the largest flocks forming in September and October. Individuals or groups frequently feed among short grass on tops of sea cliffs.

VOICE

Usual calls have some of the qualities of a Jackdaw, but are less abrupt, higher pitched and slightly more musical, a drawn-out kyaa and kyeow being the most common, and from which it gets its name.

HABITAT

In Britain and Ireland, mostly found on rocky coasts in the west and the mountains of North Wales. Elsewhere in Europe, it is more numerous in inland mountain ranges and other areas of high land where there are crags and rocky river valleys. Feeds on areas of short grass such as pasture and sometimes on arable fields, sand dunes and on beaches. When feeding it habitually probes, digs and turns over stones, seaweed and mammal droppings.

FOOD

Insects and other invertebrates and their larvae that live in the soil and in dung, especially beetles, caterpillars, craneflies, ants, spiders and flies. It also eats worms, berries, grain, small mammals and birds.

BREEDING

Nests in sea caves, other crevices in rock faces and sometimes in mineshafts and old buildings. The nest of sticks and plant stems is often mixed with some mud and lined with hair or wool. Female incubates. Both adults feed the young. Other Choughs may visit the nest and help feed; these birds may be immature, reared by the same pair in previous years. Young remain in family group for 50 days after fledging.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Seldom moves far from its original nest sites, although there is a tendency for young females to move further than young males. The main movements in Britain are to and from feeding sites, with occasional dispersive movements into new areas, or formerly occupied range.

CONSERVATION

A decline in Britain in the 19th century continued into the 20th and it was lost from England by 1973. Historic declines have been attributed to persecution, as well as land-use change, especially in grassland management, abandonment and conversion to other uses. They are also at the edge of their northern range in Britain and are susceptible to wet and cold weather. As specialist feeders, Chough need abundant soil invertebrates. A fall in livestock grazing would be a threat to their population. Worryingly, RSPB research shows that veterinary livestock treatments may be reducing the abundance of soil and dung invertebrates, and hence food supplies. Repeat surveys tell us that the population is stable overall; increases in the Isle of Man, Cornwall and South Wales are balanced by losses in Scotland and other parts of Wales. Cornwall was recolonised in 2001 and has a small but growing population. The European population is decreasing.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain, breeds along the Welsh coast and on offshore islands, mainly Anglesey, Bardsey, Isle of Man, Islay, Colonsay and Jura. In Ireland, it is found along the west and south coasts and a few in the north, including on Rathlin Island. Other races occur in the Alps, the Pyrenees, the Iberian Peninsula, North Africa, the Middle East, and widely across central Asia.

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Jackdaw Corvus monedula Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Strong increase – 1,450,000 – April–May 4–5; 1 brood 18–20; 30–33 days Average: 5; Oldest: 20 33–34cm; 220g

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Carrion Crow. Neat, stocky, small crow. Mainly black, but with a slight purple sheen on the back and head, and a silver-grey neck with black crown. Eye is a piercing pale grey, and the short, stout bill and legs are black. Male and female are alike, but silver nape of the male tends to be more prominent. Juvenile is more sooty-brown with less contrasting grey neck and a darker eye. Wings are rounded, underwing is uniform dark grey. Annual moult starts between May and July and is completed sometime between August and October. See also: Chough p204, Carrion Crow p207, Rook p206.

BREEDING

Nests in loose colonies, either close together or spaced out, depending on the sites available. Nest sites are holes in trees, crevices in cliffs or in buildings, including chimneys. Also uses large nest boxes. Nest of sticks is lined with wool, hair or other soft materials and is built by both sexes. Female incubates. Both adults feed the young and it may take a week out of the nest before they are able to fly strongly.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

juvenile

HABITS

Usually in pairs or flocks. Even in flocks, pairs remain together and often join flocks of Rooks or Starlings. Flight is light and agile, but sometimes flaps vigorously. Very aerobatic, and individuals often tumble and free fall, especially around cliff faces. Like other members of the family, it frequently hides or caches food. On the ground it has a rapid walk and sometimes runs or hops. Forms large communal roosts that may be in use throughout the year.

VOICE

Call is a familiar hard tchack from which it gets its name. Also makes a loud ky-ow. When mobbing a predator its cawing kaarr calls sound rather like Rooks and Carrion Crows.

HABITAT

Lives in a variety of habitats, including open woodland, farmland, parkland, towns, villages and rocky sea cliffs. Usually feeds on grassland or pasture alongside sheep and cattle, or scavenges on the seashore.

FOOD

Feeds mainly on the ground but also in trees. Eats insects and other invertebrates, grain, seeds, fruits and berries, eggs and young birds. Scavenges at refuse sites and takes a wide range of human scraps. Also cautiously visits gardens for scraps of food.

Jackdaw is both resident and a migrant. However, in Britain they tend not to move far, perhaps no more than 40km in the south and 100km in the north, as they move away from bleak upland areas between September and November. Other visitors from mainland Europe sometimes arrive in Britain in autumn, but these migrants are hard to distinguish, and their movements poorly understood.

CONSERVATION

At a time when many species are declining, the Jackdaw appears to be one of the survivors and its population has grown since 1970. Population growth has been fuelled by increasing nest success and productivity. This crow probably benefits from its generalist feeding habits and has been able to take advantage of changes in farming practices and cultivation patterns. Its adaptable nature has allowed it to invade rural, suburban and even urban habitats, though its productivity may be lower in towns and cities. The European population is stable.

DISTRIBUTION Widespread across Britain and Ireland; scarce in the far north and northwest of Scotland. Most abundant in southern Britain and Ireland. Also breeds from southern Scandinavia south to the Mediterranean, in a few places in North Africa, east across Europe, the Middle East and into western and central Asia.

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Rook Corvus frugilegus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Moderate decline – 885,000 – March–June 3–4; 1 brood 16–18; 32–34 days Average: 6; Oldest: 22 44–46cm; 430g

juvenile

farmland, but some are in towns and villages and others on the edge of moorland. Away from the nest, Rooks feed mainly on farmland, both pasture and arable land, but also road verges and refuse sites.

FOOD

Earthworms and grain are important foods, but it takes a variety of other food, including nuts, beetles, caterpillars, flies, craneflies and their larvae, small mammals, birds, especially eggs and nestlings, and carrion. Food is carried to nestlings in an extendable pouch in the base of the bird’s mouth.

BREEDING

Nests are in colonies at the tops of tall trees. Rookeries are gradually recolonised in late winter and vary from one or two nests to 1,000 or more. Male selects nest site and begins building before female joins in. Nest comprises large and small sticks and is solidified with earth and tufts of grass with a lining of moss, leaves and other softer material. Female incubates. Young are fed by both parents and continue to be fed for about 6 weeks after leaving the nest.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

IDENTIFICATION

Slightly smaller than Carrion Crow, with purplish-black plumage and noticeable bare greyish skin at base of bill, flattened forehead and rather peaked crown. Long, dark bill has pale base and is slenderer and more pointed than the similar Carrion Crow. Also, wingbeats are deeper, more elastic, tips of wings narrower and finger-like, base of the wings is narrower where they join the body, and the tail is more wedge-shaped. Feathers appear looser, especially at the top of the legs, giving it a ‘baggy trouser’ look. Juvenile has black feathers at base of bill and resembles Carrion Crow but has a different bill shape and a more peaked crown. Legs are blackish. See also: Carrion Crow p207.

HABITS

Crown feathers are raised when the bird is excited. Highly gregarious, always in flocks, both large and small, with large autumn roosts forming at traditional sites. Nests communally in ‘rookeries’ in large trees that may be occupied throughout the year or vacated in autumn and early winter. While flight is usually direct and purposeful, individuals in flocks sometimes tumble and free fall, especially in autumn.

VOICE

Most common call is a raucous kaah. ‘Song’ consists of not very tuneful caws, croaks and squeaks.

Most British and Irish birds are resident, although some immatures move up to 100km, and those in northern Scotland may leave uplands for the winter. Others in northern and eastern Europe are migratory, and those from Scandinavia and the Netherlands sometimes cross the North Sea to winter in eastern Britain.

CONSERVATION

Traditionally, Rooks were shot as agricultural pests and that threat remains, although any possible damage they might cause is likely offset by their consumption of invertebrate pests. Omnivorous and adaptable, they can adjust to new opportunities, even feeding alongside busy roads and nesting in towns and cities. Rook populations increased in Britain for a time but have declined moderately over the last 20 years for reasons that remain unclear. An increasing use of pesticides on farmland has been suggested as a likely cause. Rook populations grew rapidly in Europe from 1980 but have since declined.

DISTRIBUTION Widespread in Britain and Ireland; missing from treeless upland areas and the centres of large towns. Breeds from western and central Europe eastwards to the Middle East, into Russia and across central Asia to the Far East. European birds winter as far south as the Mediterranean.

HABITAT

Once many nested in elm trees, but since most were lost to disease, they have switched to oak and ash as well as other trees. Most rookeries are on lowland

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Carrion Crow Corvus corone Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Moderate increase – 1,050,000 – April–May 3–4; 1 brood 18–20; 30 days Average: 4; Oldest: 19 45–47cm; 510g

BREEDING

Until recently, Carrion and Hooded Crows were treated as the same species, and the two hybridise where their ranges overlap. Nest is usually in a tree, but sometimes on a cliff ledge, a building or on a pylon. Both sexes build a nest of sticks and other tough vegetation and line it with smaller plant material. Incubation is by the female. Young are fed by both adults and become independent after 3–5 weeks.

juvenile

IDENTIFICATION

Slightly larger than Rook, much smaller than Raven. A large all-black bird with a very slightly bluish sheen to its feathers. Deep all-black bill, black legs and feet. In flight, closed tail is squarer than Rook’s, but more evenly rounded when spread, and the wings are proportionally shorter, broader and less obviously finger-like at the ends. Juvenile is duller and browner than adult. Sometimes interbreeds with the closely related Hooded Crow and produces young with mixed characteristics of the two species. See also: Hooded Crow p208, Rook p206, Raven p209.

HABITS

Often seen singly or in small groups. Not as gregarious as Rook, but immatures and non-breeding adults may form small, and occasionally larger flocks, especially at roosts in winter. Feeds on the ground where it moves with a walk or hop. Flight is quite slow and deliberate and less aerobatic than Rook, although it is surprisingly successful at robbing other birds, such as gulls, of their food while in flight. Pairs will occasionally mutually preen, known as ‘allopreening’.

VOICE

Variety of calls including the deep and resonant kaarr and a hard konk, konk, but not as deep or resonant as Raven.

HABITAT

Occurs in a wide variety of habitats: the centre of cities, arable farmland, pasture, upland hills, moors, woodland and sea cliffs. Frequently visits the seashore and estuaries to feed and is a regular visitor to refuse sites.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Most of the British and Irish birds seldom move more than a few kilometres from the nests they were hatched in, but some birds in the eastern part of its range migrate for the winter.

CONSERVATION

Historically, Carrion Crow was persecuted by gamekeepers and farmers because of its habit of taking birds’ eggs and chicks, and its upturn might reflect falling numbers of keepers. Crow densities are higher in Britain than in other European countries, for reasons that are unclear. There is little evidence that crows limit prey species, although they can be a local problem for ground-nesting birds. Higher nest success has boosted numbers. This omnivorous and adaptable crow has been able to exploit agricultural landscapes with high food availability in improved grasslands, nearby woods and copses for nesting, and an increasing food supply in the form of roadkills. It has also moved into towns and cities by using a variety of new food sources. The European population of Carrion and Hooded Crow combined is increasing moderately.

DISTRIBUTION Carrion Crows breed widely in England, Wales and Scotland, and are absent only in the far north and west of Scotland. Rare in eastern Ireland. Breeds very widely across Europe, on into the Middle East, and across most of central Asia to eastern Russia. There is a separate race in Asia.

FOOD

Food is varied, including carrion, injured and young birds, mammals, eggs, insects and other invertebrates, especially worms and beetles, also vegetable matter, such as grain, fruit and seeds.

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Hooded Crow Corvus cornix Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Stable – 185,000 – April–May 3–6; 1 brood 18–19; 28–30 days Insufficient data 45–47cm; 510g

FOOD

It has a varied diet, including carrion, injured and young birds, mammals, eggs, insects and other invertebrates, especially worms and beetles, also vegetable matter such as grain, fruit and seeds. Adaptable and has been observed dropping shellfish, such as mussels, onto rocks in order to open and eat them.

BREEDING

The nest is usually in a tree, but sometimes on a cliff ledge or building. Both sexes build the nest of sticks and other tough vegetation and line it with wool. Incubation is by the female. Young are fed by both adults and become independent after 3–5 weeks.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

British and Irish birds seldom move more than a few kilometres, although some flocks form communal roosts in winter. Some continental birds migrate in winter and a few from continental Europe visit eastern Britain, but in much smaller numbers than 100 years ago. hybrid Carrion × Hooded

IDENTIFICATION

Larger than Jackdaw. Black head, wings and tail and pinkish-grey body with a black throat. Juvenile has similar markings to adult but is browner with a mottled back. Those nesting close to Carrion Crows will sometimes hybridise with them and produce young that have the characteristics of both species. In flight, the tail appears square when closed but rounded when fanned, and the wings are shorter, broader and less obviously finger-like at the ends than Rook. Moult begins between May and July, with second-year birds moulting first. All birds complete their moult between August and October. See also: Jackdaw p205, Carrion Crow p207.

HABITS

Not as gregarious as the Jackdaw, but immatures and non-breeding adults may form flocks. Mostly feeds on the ground where it hops or walks. Flight is quite slow and deliberate although it is surprisingly successful at robbing gulls and other birds in flight. It will also frequently mob larger birds of prey.

VOICE

Has a variety of calls, including the deep and resonant kaarr and a hard konk, konk, which may be harder and more rolling than that of a Carrion Crow, but it is difficult to distinguish between the two species.

HABITAT

In different parts of its range, it occurs in a wide variety of habitats: arable farmland, pasture, upland hills, moors, woodland, sea cliffs and sometimes in towns and cities. Will frequently visit the seashore and estuaries to feed and is also a regular visitor to refuse sites.

CONSERVATION

Its numbers are still controlled on some sporting estates by gamekeepers for the same reasons as for Carrion Crow. Hooded Crows may be affected by the northward expansion of Carrion Crows, with increasing hybridisation as its own range declines. Population appears mostly stable, although numbers in Scotland are declining, and the wintering range is falling, especially along the east side of Scotland and England. Carrion and Hooded Crows were considered to belong to the same species until recently. The European population of Carrion and Hooded Crows combined is increasing moderately.

DISTRIBUTION Hooded Crows breed across north-west Scotland and in Ireland. They are most abundant in Ireland where they effectively replace Carrion Crow. They are also found in central and south-eastern Europe, from Fennoscandia to Italy, eastwards into the Middle East, and in western Russia. A few birds from mainland Europe visit eastern Britain in winter.

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Raven Corvus corax Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Moderate increase – 9,500 – February–May 4–6; 1 brood 21–22; 39–41 days Average: 3; Oldest: 23 64cm; 1.1–1.3kg

IDENTIFICATION

Largest crow, bigger than Buzzard. Massive all-black bird with very large, powerful, thick bill that is feathered at it base, rather flat head, shaggy throat feathers, and long wings with finger-like tips in flight. When soaring it has a rather long, thick neck, distinct diamond-shaped tail and broad wings resembling a large bird of prey. At close quarters, the black feathers have a purplish or reddish oily sheen. Juveniles are similar but duller, with paler eyes. Legs are black. Wingspan is like that of a Buzzard, but size can be hard to judge if seen alone and without another species for comparison. Wedge-shaped tail is a good feature as is the distinctive ‘cronking’ call. See also: Carrion Crow p207.

HABITS

years, and a pair tends to alternate between two traditional sites. Huge nest is made from large sticks, lumps of grass and moss with an inner lining of softer material. Female incubates. Both adults feed and tend the young, which remain with their parents until 4–6 months after fledging.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

The British and Irish population is sedentary. Young disperse from breeding areas in their first autumn, but generally do not travel further than about 50km. Juveniles in northern Europe and Asia are likely to make longer journeys.

CONSERVATION

Once widespread in Britain, it was persecuted historically because of concerns over damage to livestock, and was lost from lowland Britain by the end of the 19th century. There was a partial recovery in the 20th century with a reduction in legal and illegal control and other land-use change, and there has been a remarkable comeback in the last 50 years in Britain and Ireland. Numbers have grown and its range has expanded hugely to reoccupy southern, central and even eastern England, eastern Scotland and central Ireland. It can now be seen over lowland farmlands and woodlands across England, as well as more traditional upland and coastal habitats in the north and west. The European population is increasing.

Usually found in pairs throughout the year, but larger numbers may gather at feeding sites and evening roosts. Flight powerful, majestic and slower than other crows. Frequently glides and soars, but also flips over on its back and tumbles and dives, especially around cliffs and rock faces. On the ground it moves with a walk or an occasional hop. Breeding territories are usually defended all year, even during severe winter weather.

VOICE

Voice is suitably powerful for such a large bird. Usual flight call is a hollow-sounding low kronk, kronk or an echoing toc, toc, toc.

HABITAT

In Britain and Ireland, traditionally a bird of western mountains and rugged coastal cliffs, also breeds on moorland, and increasingly in pastoral or mixed lowland farmlands with nearby woodlands for nesting. Sometimes present in towns and cities, where it nests on suitable buildings.

FOOD

Feeds chiefly on the ground where it takes carrion, mammals, birds and eggs, insects and other invertebrates. Sometimes at a carcass it feeds on the blowfly maggots rather than rotting meat. Like other crows, known to habitually store food when it is plentiful.

DISTRIBUTION Breeds widely in England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland. Abundance is highest in the west of its range. Has a very large global range, breeding across most of Europe, in North Africa, the Middle East, across most of Asia, North and Central America, and southern and western Greenland.

BREEDING

Nest is often on a cliff ledge, in a quarry, but also in tall trees or on artificial structures. Nest sites are often reused, some have been in use for many

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Waxwing Bombycilla garrulus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green – Strong increase – 9,750 – – – Oldest: 13 18cm; 63g

VOICE

Call is a very distinctive, high-pitched, trilling sirrrrr, like a bell.

HABITAT

Its winter arrival in Britain during irruptions is sporadic and it visits any habitat that provides food. It may be seen in parks and gardens, even in busy public places with berry-bearing trees and bushes. First sightings in autumn are often in the far north and along the east coast, but groups rapidly travel inland in their search for food. It breeds in dense northern forests where there are old lichen-covered conifers.

FOOD

Chief winter food is berries – eating two or three times its own body weight a day! Favourites are rowan, whitebeam and hawthorn, but in Britain it also eats cotoneaster, rose, privet and other winter fruits, apples and seeds. Insects, especially mosquitoes and midges, and other invertebrates form a large part of its diet on its breeding grounds.

BREEDING

Does not breed in Britain or Ireland. It starts to breed on its northern breeding grounds in midJune. Cup-shaped nest of twigs, grass and moss is built by both sexes. Female incubates the clutch of 5 or 6 eggs for 14–15 days. Both parents care for the young, which eventually fly after 14–17 days.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

1st-winter

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Starling. Stocky, warm buff bird with prominent crest and soft-looking plumage. Reddishbrown body with grey rump, black bib, small black mask, intricate yellow-and-white pattern on the wings, and a yellow-tipped tail. Tips of its secondary flight feathers have a series of spikes, which look like bright red wax. Undertail feathers are a rich chestnut. In direct flight, wings are triangular, rather like a Starling. First-winter birds usually have a single pale yellow stripe down the folded wing, adults have a bold yellow strip, white borders to the wingtips and the red-wax tips. See also: Starling p249.

HABITS

Gregarious. Numbers vary from small groups to large gatherings outside of the breeding season. Usually perches in the tops of trees, but comes lower to find food, often sitting immobile among the branches, and coming to the ground to find fallen fruit. Relatively tame and with care can often be approached to within a few metres. Acrobatic when feeding; almost tit-like as it adopts a variety of feeding positions. Flight is strong and direct with gentle undulations as birds periodically close their wings; flight action recalls Starling. Will also catch flying insects in the air, flycatcher-like.

Partial migrant and some birds overwinter in their northern breeding areas. Some regularly migrate south, but the species also irrupts when the population becomes too large for the available food. These irruptions have become more frequent in the last 20 years. Waxwings first arrive in Britain in October and November and normally stay until April.

CONSERVATION

There are no specific conservation measures for this species, but the planting of berry-bearing shrubs and trees in public places and in gardens can help their survival in winter. The European population is fluctuating.

DISTRIBUTION In winter, the first arrivals are usually seen on the east coast, from Scotland to East Anglia. They move inland and may be seen across Britain, but become scarcer to the south and west, and fewer reach Ireland. It has a huge range, breeding from northern Fennoscandia, across to eastern Russia, with another race breeding in North America. European and Siberian birds move south and west, reaching northern and eastern Europe in autumn.

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Bearded Tit Panurus biarmicus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Stable – 695 – April–July 4–8; 2–4 broods 10–14; 12–13 days Average: 3; Oldest: 6 16.5cm; 15g

male

female

IDENTIFICATION

Larger than Long-tailed Tit. Small, dumpy, gingerbrown bird with long tail. Male has lavender-grey head, black ‘moustache’ and black under the tail. Long brown tail with white outer tail feathers and strongly marked white, black and orange-brown wings. Female is duller and lacks the ‘moustache’ and the black undertail. Juvenile like female, with shorter tail, dark centre to the back and dark edges to tail. Wings are short and rounded. Tit-like yellow bill and black legs. See also: Long-tailed Tit p225.

HABITS

Clambers up reed stems or hops on the ground, usually close to cover. Flight is often loose and jerky with characteristic fanning and twisting of tail as it flies low over the tops of the reeds, but it goes higher at times of irruption. Can be hard to see in dense reeds and it is often located by the distinctive call. Sociable, small flocks travel together for much of the year.

VOICE

Call is a metallic ringing ping, ping that may be given from cover, but also frequently by groups in flight. Song is a rather quiet twittering.

HABITAT

Found almost exclusively in extensive dense Phragmites reedbeds or rank vegetation around the edge of a reedbed. At times of irruptions and migrations, it sometimes visits small reedbeds, ditch sides and other habitat such as rank grass.

FOOD

Feeds mainly on invertebrates and seeds. In summer, the invertebrates include beetles, caterpillars, flies, especially midges, spiders and snails. In winter, feeds on the seeds of common reed.

BREEDING

Nest is built among reeds where the plants grow thickly. It is a deep cup made from reed leaves and other marsh vegetation and lined with fluffy down from the reed heads. Both sexes help to build the nest and more material may be added during egglaying and incubation. Incubation is by both sexes. Young can feed themselves a week after leaving the nest and become independent after another week.

juvenile

set up new winter territories, provided they find the appropriate reedbed habitat.

CONSERVATION

This species has been affected by the historic loss of many large reedbeds and wetlands, which has resulted in a fragmented habitat and a smaller range. It is susceptible to the cold and periods of prolonged ice and snow in winter. Better protection of the remaining reedbeds and recent schemes by the RSPB and others to recreate extensive new reedbeds is helping this species and its range is increasing. Also, the provision of artificial nest sites within reedbeds may aid this species. Bearded Tits are also vulnerable to habitat loss or alteration due to commercial reed cutting, to saltwater inundation at coastal sites, and water abstraction. Its habitat makes it difficult to monitor and European trends are uncertain.

DISTRIBUTION Most colonies in Britain are in East Anglia, with others in the north and south-west and on the south coast of England, in Wales and there is an isolated colony in eastern Scotland. It is slightly more widespread in winter as birds disperse and explore new habitats.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Most birds in Britain are sedentary, but in autumn there is sometimes mass dispersal. Birds from the Netherlands and further east disperse as far as Britain in irruption years. At these times, pairs or groups may set off in any direction and will

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Willow Tit Poecile montanus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Strong decline – 2,750 – April–June 6–8; 1 brood 13–16; 17–20 days Average: 2; Oldest: 11 11.5cm; 12g

IDENTIFICATION

Size of Blue Tit. Plain brown with rather large head and thick, bullish neck, dull black cap, white cheeks and triangular bib. Stubby dark but fine bill and grey legs. Differs from the Marsh Tit by having an all-black bill, no contrast between the pale cheeks and the pale neck feathers, and pale margins to flight feathers that form a pale panel on the closed wing. Juvenile is like adult, but with fresher plumage in late summer is almost inseparable from juvenile Marsh Tit. The race breeding in parts of northern and eastern Europe has whiter cheeks, paler underparts and a more grey-brown back than other races. Best separated from Marsh Tit by different call – otherwise quite difficult to tell apart by sight without some experience. See also: Marsh Tit p213, Blackcap p238.

HABITS

Outside the breeding season will often join with flocks of other small birds as they move through its territory but will not normally follow the flock beyond its boundaries.

VOICE

Call is a nasal si, si, taah, taah, taah, very different from the call of Marsh Tit. The sweet warbling song of slow descending whistling notes is rarely heard.

HABITAT

Breeds in conifer woodlands, northern birch woods and in mixed woodlands. Prefers damp woods, woods close to rivers and streams, alder carr and trees, and bushes surrounding gravel pits and reservoirs. Less likely to visit garden bird tables than the more abundant Marsh Tit.

FOOD

Its bill is not quite as strong as that of the Marsh Tit and the food is slightly different. Like the Marsh Tit, it eats invertebrates in summer and mostly plant

material in autumn and winter, but the seeds (e.g. alder and birch) are smaller or softer. It frequently hoards or caches food if it has the opportunity.

BREEDING

It excavates a new nest-hole every year. Nests are in rotten wood and usually quite close to the ground. Female excavates the nest, carries away the wood chippings and lines the hollow with wood chips and a little plant material. Incubation is by the female. The young are fed by both adults and remain in the vicinity of the nest for about a week and are fed by parents for up to 12 juvenile days after leaving the nest.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

British Willow Tits are highly sedentary. In mainland Europe, they may wander considerable distances and may even irrupt into new areas if food becomes scarce.

CONSERVATION

Declining for 40 years, its range is shrinking away from the south-east. Drier woods, the loss of the lower shrub layer caused by changing management and increased deer grazing, and a lack of dead wood are all likely causes for the decline, but the picture is unclear. Certainly, the northwards shift in range with a drying of woodlands are signals of climate change, but habitat fragmentation and degradation are also important. Incentives for landowners to introduce management such as reducing the canopy, leaving dead wood, thinning of woods to create open rides and glades, and retaining water in spring and summer would benefit the species. Increased tree planting, especially in early stages, might also help. The European population is declining.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain, this species is most abundant in northern and central England and in Wales, and is also found in southern Scotland. There has been a large range contraction in south-east and central Britain. Absent from Ireland. Willow Tits breed widely from Fennoscandia to central and southeastern Europe, and east through Russia to the Far East, including Japan.

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Marsh Tit Poecile palustris Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Strong decline – 28,500 – April–June 6–8; 1 brood 14–16; 16–17 days Average: 2; Oldest: 11 11.5cm; 12g

IDENTIFICATION

Size of Blue Tit. Plain brown bird with a rather sleek, glossy black cap and white cheeks, and small black bib. Cheeks appear whiter and contrast more with the greybrown neck than those of Willow Tit, and the paler edges to the flight feathers seldom produce any form of pale panel on the closed wings, as seen in Willow Tit. Stubby dark bill and grey legs. Also, has a pale mark near the base of bill, just below the nostril. The safest way of separating this species from the very similarlooking Willow Tit is by call. See also: Willow Tit p212, Blackcap p238.

group for about 2 weeks after nesting and then the young join mixed flocks of tits and other species as they travel around local woods and hedges in search of food.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

A resident species that roams a territory of about 5–6ha. It appears that once settled, neither male nor female leave the territory again. They may join groups of itinerant small birds passing through their territories, but they leave the flock as it reaches their territory boundary.

juvenile

HABITS

Usually feeds in shrubs and low vegetation and less likely to be seen in the canopy of trees. Restless feeder, always on the move. Can be difficult to see in dense vegetation, but not usually shy. Outside the nesting season it sometimes joins flocks of other small birds, including other tits. When it discovers a supply of food, such as sunflower seeds at a bird feeder, it methodically stores (known as ‘caching’) large numbers in nooks and crevices for future use.

VOICE

Call is a loud and clear pit-chu, quite unlike the call of Willow Tit, which is followed by dee, dee. Song is a rapid series of single or double chip notes that run into each other to become a rattle.

HABITAT

Breeds in open deciduous woodland, parks and farmland with woods, copses and shrubs, especially with a dense understorey and dead wood. May visit large mature rural gardens near woodlands, especially in winter.

FOOD

Feeds on insects, especially scale insects, and other invertebrates in summer. Eats seeds in autumn and winter. Often extracts the seeds from small berries, such as honeysuckle. It has a strong bill and can tackle small nuts and quite hard seeds.

BREEDING

Nests in natural holes and does not often use nest boxes. It may enlarge an existing hole or cavity but does not excavate its own hole, unlike the Willow Tit. Nest is usually low down. Female lines the nest with a cup of moss, hair and other soft materials. Female incubates. Young are fed by their parents for a week after leaving their nest. Families stay together as a

CONSERVATION

Historically, habitat loss and fragmentation through changes in farm policies, urbanisation, a reduction in traditional woodland management and the replacement of deciduous forests with conifers may have affected the species. Recent decline may be a result of lower survival caused by these changes, because Marsh Tits need a proportion of mature trees with natural holes, plentiful dead wood and a flourishing shrub layer. Evidence suggests that change in habitat quality, particularly the shading out of the understorey, has been an important factor. Incentives for landowners to improve woodland by reducing the canopy, removing conifers, and thinning to create open rides and glades, would benefit the species. Trials led by the RSPB have shown that these interventions help many woodland birds. The European population is stable.

DISTRIBUTION Most abundant in southern England and South Wales, with a few in southern Scotland. Absent from Ireland. Breeds from southern Scandinavia to the Mediterranean and east into western Russia. Then oddly there is a break in the distribution, and there is another separate large population in eastern Asia.

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Great Tit Parus major Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Moderate increase – 2,200,000 – April–June 7–9; 1–2 broods 13–15; 18–21 days Average: 3; Oldest: 15 14cm; 18g

IDENTIFICATION

Size of House Sparrow. Largest member of the tit family. Black cap, collar and throat, and a black line running down the centre of the yellow breast and belly. The cheeks are white, back is green and wings are blue-grey with one white wing-bar. Longish bluegrey tail has white outer feathers. Male is brighter than female with wider black breast-stripe that becomes broader between the legs. Small pointed black bill and grey-blue legs. Juvenile is duller than adult, more washed-out in appearance with yellowish cheeks. Adults moult between late May and October and may start before the young leave the nest. See also: Blue Tit p215, Coal Tit p216.

male

HABITAT

Breeds in broadleaved woodland, parks, farmland, hedgerows with trees, and conifer plantations where there are some suitable nest sites and gardens. In winter, it may spread to other neighbouring habitats in search of food.

FOOD

Mainly insects, especially caterpillars, in summer and fruits, seeds and nuts in autumn and winter. It is capable of opening hazelnuts, and beechmast provides a popular food supply in years when it is abundant. In gardens, it feeds on peanuts, sunflower seeds and other bird food.

BREEDING

Nests in a hole or cavity in a tree or building and frequently uses nest boxes. Nest is of moss and is lined with hair, fur or feathers. Female incubates. Young are fed by both parents and continue to be cared for out of the nest for 4–6 days after fledging for first broods and longer for second broods.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

In Britain and Ireland, mostly a resident that seldom travels far although some nesting in upland areas move to lower areas in winter, especially in northern Scotland. In central and northern Europe, it moves or irrupts at times when the population is high and a few of these continental Great Tits, which are slightly smaller, visit Britain in winter. female

CONSERVATION

HABITS

Although it sometimes lives in small flocks and mixes with other species, it is less social than some other tits. Often feeds low down and on the ground, but it also feeds in trees and bushes and is a little less acrobatic than the smaller tits. Can be a skulking species, although in gardens it may become quite tame. Often seen as a male and female pair.

In the last 100 years, Great Tit has gradually expanded its range northwards, perhaps aided by milder winters. A successful and adaptable species that may have benefited from the increased provision of bird food in gardens in summer and winter. Providing suitable nest boxes in areas where there is a shortage of natural nest-holes and where food is plentiful can further assist Great Tits. In Europe, the population is estimated to be increasing.

DISTRIBUTION

VOICE

Has a wide variety of different songs and calls. Distinct song is a rhythmical variation on teacherteacher - teacher-teacher, repeated over and over, which has been likened to a squeaky bicycle pump and is heard between January and June, and sometimes in autumn. Most familiar call is a sharp chink, rather like a Chaffinch, and a scolding cha-cha-cha when alarmed. In flocks, makes a softer tsee. juvenile

In Britain and Ireland, it occurs wherever there are suitable trees. It is therefore widespread, but not found on the Northern Isles and is rare on the Hebrides. Most abundant in central and southern England. It breeds widely throughout Europe and across Asia, including South East Asia and Indonesia, and into the Far East. Here the eastern form, Eastern Great Tit P. minor, is often treated as a separate species.

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Blue Tit Cyanistes caeruleus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Stable – 3,250,000 – April–June 8–10; 1 brood 13–15; 18–21 days Average: 3; Oldest: 11 11.5cm; 11g

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Great Tit with blue cap, wings and tail. Has green back and yellow underparts, white cheeks bordered by a dark blue collar, black line through the eye to the back of the head, and white stripe from forehead over the eye. Has short, stubby bill, blue-grey legs and one small white wing-bar. Blue cap is sometimes raised to form a small crest. Males tend to be brighter than females. Juvenile is a washed-out yellow-green version of adult with greenish cap and yellow cheeks. Adults moult between late May and September. Moult usually begins a few days before the young leave the nest. Adults in the north start later and moult quicker than those in the south. Juveniles have a partial moult between July and October. See also: Great Tit p214.

HABITS

Much of its food is found on outer twigs and branches where it frequently hangs upside-down to feed. Outside the breeding season groups will join mobile foraging parties of other small birds, such as Long-tailed Tits and Goldcrests. Some do not move far from their territories, but others are more nomadic in their search for food.

VOICE

Call is a thin see, see, see and it has a churring alarm call that rises at the end. Song can be heard at any time of year, but particularly from late winter into summer. It is a see, see, see-chu -chu -chu and ends with a short trill.

HABITAT

Lives in a variety of habitats but mostly deciduous woodland, especially oak woods. Populations in conifer woods tend to be at lower densities. Also breeds in parks and gardens, and even in the centres of towns and cities. It regularly feeds in hedgerows and other places with trees and bushes.

FOOD

Feeds mainly on insects and spiders in summer, especially caterpillars. In autumn, feeds on insects but also eats berries and nuts. Regularly visits bird tables to feed on peanuts, sunflower seeds and other bird food.

juvenile

BREEDING

Male feeds female in courtship display. Nests in a natural hole or other crevice, usually in a tree, but may be in a building. Nest boxes are frequently used. Female builds a nest of moss and grass. Pairs in gardens tend to have smaller clutches than in woodlands. Incubation is by the female. Both adults feed the young.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Largely resident in Britain and Ireland, and only a small proportion ever move more than 10km, but it will make regular trips to feeding sites. On the continent, it will often travel further, and large movements may be triggered by food shortages – some of these birds arrive in Britain.

CONSERVATION

The British population has increased strongly but has now stabilised. Provision of nest boxes helps this species both in gardens and in younger woodlands where there is a shortage of suitable natural nest-cavities. Cold winter weather can significantly reduce the population, as can cold, wet springs when young are being fed, especially if this coincides with the emergence of woodland caterpillars upon which they depend. Nest success, particularly in gardens, is often surprisingly low due to food shortages. Competition with Great Tit is suggested as a factor, but the evidence is slim. Increased provision of bird food in gardens, supply of nest boxes, along with a series of warmer winters, probably explains their upturn. The European population is increasing.

DISTRIBUTION Very widespread and common in most of Britain and Ireland; scarce in north-west and northern Scotland. Breeds very sparingly on the Hebrides and is a rare vagrant to the Northern Isles. Most abundant in southern Britain. Breeds from central Fennoscandia south to the Mediterranean, and across Europe eastwards to the Middle East and western Russia.

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Coal Tit Periparus ater Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Stable – 590,000 – April–June 9–10; 1–2 broods 14–16; 16 days Average: 2; Oldest: 9 11.5cm; 9g

HABITAT

Chief breeding habitat is conifer woods and plantations, but also in sessile oak woods of northern and western England and birch woods of northwest Scotland. Outside the breeding season it visits a wider variety of mixed and deciduous woodlands, parks and gardens. Elsewhere in Europe, it is associated with conifer woods in the north and more varied woodland in the south.

FOOD

Main food is adults and larvae of insects, including caterpillars. Also feeds on other invertebrates, especially spiders, and many seeds are eaten in autumn and winter. Much of the food is found among the leaves and needles of its favourite trees, but it will feed on the ground at sites where there is food, such as beechmast. When food is plentiful, the Coal Tit will hide or cache some of it and retrieve it later. It will also visit bird tables in gardens in winter where it feeds on seeds, peanuts and other bird food.

BREEDING

Nests in a hole in a tree or other crevice and sometimes in the ground. Female makes a cup-shaped nest of roots, moss and other soft material. Female incubates and the young are fed by both adults. Second broods are more common in pine woods.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

juvenile

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Great Tit. Small olive and buff-brown tit with short tail and large head with white patch at the rear. Head is black with dull white cheeks, like Great Tit, but also has the white stripe on back of head. Back, wings and tail are dull olive-grey. Underparts are plain with buff sides and two small white bars on closed wings. Coal Tits in Ireland have a yellow tinge to their cheeks and neck-patch. Continental birds tend to have greyer backs. Juvenile looks like a duller version of an adult with yellow (not white) wing-bars. Fine, dark bill and grey legs. Adults moult between late May and early September. Juveniles mostly moult before winter, but the yellow wing-bars may be retained until the following spring. See also: Great Tit p214, Crested Tit p217.

HABITS

An active and agile bird that often feeds high in the canopy of trees and searches tree trunks for food, rather like a Treecreeper. Hangs upside-down and hovers to reach food on the underside of branches and leaves. Outside the breeding season, it frequently accompanies roving flocks of other small birds, such as Long-tailed Tits and Goldcrests, as they move through woodlands and hedgerows.

VOICE

In Britain and Ireland, mostly sedentary with some local movements after the breeding season. In mainland Europe, many northern and eastern populations travel further in winter and may irrupt at times of food shortages. Some continental birds regularly reach Britain, especially the south-east.

CONSERVATION

Availability of coniferous forest with an abundance of food and the severity of winter weather are the biggest influences on the population size of this small resident species. The Coal Tit has, therefore, benefited from the planting of commercial conifer forests and from a run of recent mild winters. It may have also benefited from increased provision of bird food in gardens and will readily come to bird tables and feeders. The European population appears stable, with signs of a recent increase.

DISTRIBUTION Very widespread species that is especially abundant in Wales, Scotland and Ireland, also in parts of England where there are extensive conifer forests. Large range, breeding from Fennoscandia south to the Mediterranean and North Africa, across Europe eastwards into the Middle East and across eastern Asia.

Many calls sound like a high-pitched Great Tit. Makes a thin see, see, see call and has a loud song that is a repetitive double note pea-chew, pea-chew, but there is variety in these songs.

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Crested Tit Lophophanes cristatus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Stable – 1,500 – April–June 4–6; 1–2 broods 13–16; 20–25 days Average: 2; Oldest: 11 11.5cm; 12g

IDENTIFICATION

Size of Blue Tit. A striking bird with brown back and pale, warm buff underparts, rather like Marsh or Willow Tit, but its face is off-white with a black bib, speckled forehead and crown and prominent pointed crest. Has blackish mark through the eye and curving round its cheeks. Also has thin black collar extending from the bib. Juvenile has slightly less distinct head markings and slightly shorter crest, but is otherwise like adult. See also: Blue Tit p215. juvenile

moths, caterpillars, aphids and beetles, and other invertebrates, especially spiders. Also feeds on seeds, particularly in winter, and sometimes, where it is common, it visits bird tables in gardens. In Norway, it is known to store food, including the larvae of insects.

BREEDING

In Scotland, selects rotten tree stumps or dead trees in which the female excavates a nest chamber and lines it with moss and other soft material. Female incubates. Young are fed by both parents and are usually dependent on their parents for about 23 days before becoming independent.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

HABITS

Active and restless feeder, constantly moving as it searches for food by hanging on tree trunks or upsidedown as it inspects the underside of branches. After nesting it forms small social groups that join with other mobile species such as Coal Tits and Goldcrests. They travel together, but Crested Tits seldom go beyond the boundaries of their winter territories. Social flocks start to break down in February and March.

VOICE

Call is a distinct thin and high-pitched trill, often repeated rhythmically. It is similar in quality to the call of a Long-tailed Tit, but sharper. It also makes a high-pitched see, see, see call. Song is a combination of the various calls run together.

HABITAT

In Scotland, it is closely associated with Scots pine although it may sometimes be seen in other conifers and even in rowan, alder and birch in winter. When breeding, it prefers old native Scots pine forest, especially where there are stands of older trees, often with heather nearby. Elsewhere in its range it is associated with pine forests, but also some mixed woodland and even beech forests in the Pyrenees.

Highly resident and very few have been seen away from the normal breeding areas. In the east of its range, it may exceptionally wander further in winter.

CONSERVATION

Protecting the remaining native Scots pine forest, the retention of dead and decaying timber and the planting of new Scots pine woods (rather than nonnative species) will help, as will the provision of nest boxes – especially if filled with wood shavings and sawdust. The European population has declined, but stabilised. The modernisation of forestry and the impact of atmospheric pollution on forests in central Europe have been associated with these declines. More sympathetic management of forests would benefit the species.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain, restricted mainly to the remnants of the old native Scots pine forest and some mature plantation pine forests in the Highlands between the Spey valley and the Moray Firth. Breeds from central Fennoscandia south to Iberia, south-east and eastern Europe and into western Russia.

FOOD

Spends most of its feeding time foraging in pines, often in the larger trees in summer, and sometimes in smaller trees in winter. May feed in the crowns and on the ground. Feeds mainly on insects such as

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Woodlark Lullula arborea Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Moderate increase – 2,300 – March–August 3–5; 2–3 broods 12–15; 10–13 days Average: 3; Oldest: 5 15cm; 30g

juvenile

HABITAT

Breeds in open woodlands, young and recently felled plantations, and heaths with scattered trees and scrub. Requires short-grass areas for feeding. In winter, may feed on open farmland, often with Skylarks.

FOOD

In spring and summer, mainly feeds on insects, including grasshoppers, thrips, moths, beetles and flies. At other times, eats seeds from Scots pine, grasses and a variety of other plants. Young are fed on medium-sized insects.

BREEDING

Nest is a cup on the ground lined with grasses and often hair. Both adults spend 1–2 days constructing 2–4 hollows, and female then lines one of these with vegetation. Female incubates eggs. Both adults feed young, although they cannot fly strongly at first. Families stay together for the summer and into autumn.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

British birds leave their breeding sites during September and October and return very early in the year, between late January and March. In autumn, some apparently move to arable land in southern Britain, while others probably fly to the continent. Some Woodlarks seen in eastern Britain in winter may be migrants from northern Europe.

CONSERVATION

fresh, autumn

IDENTIFICATION

Slightly smaller than Skylark with noticeably short tail that is most obvious in flight. Has short crest that may sometimes be raised, prominent white stripes above eyes that meet at the back of its head and rusty-coloured cheeks. Upperparts are mottled brown and underparts white with streaks on upper breast. When perched, shows a small but distinctive black mark with white border on edge of closed wing. Tail is square-ended with small white corners, whereas Skylark has obvious white sides. In flight, wings appear rounded and broad, but without Skylark’s pale whitish edge. See also: Skylark p219, Tree Pipit p275.

HABITS

Flight rather slow and jerky, with undulations as it alternately flaps and glides. Feeds on the ground and perches on trees and bushes. Outside the breeding season it is found in family parties or larger flocks. Songflight of male consists of wide circles at considerable height before dropping to the ground. Sometimes sings from a perch or the ground.

VOICE

Song may be heard by day or night from January until August, and especially between March and June. It also sings in autumn. Song is attractive, sweeter and more musical than Skylark’s song and includes fluty lu-lu-lu notes, warbling and descending. Also, gives a distinct titloo-eet flight or alarm call.

In Britain, it has been badly affected by cold winters in the past, but a period of mild winters and concerted conservation action has seen the population bounce back. Sympathetic management of commercial forestry, along with extensive restoration and recreation of heathlands has helped this species. Main threats are habitat loss and degradation, with recreational human disturbance and increased predation pressure. The wintering population in Britain has grown dramatically as more birds chose to stay to winter rather than travel to the continent. In Europe, the population size is increasing.

DISTRIBUTION British population has spread into parts of English Midlands and north-east, breeding as far north as Yorkshire, but has lost range in the west and southwest. In mainland Europe, breeds from southern Fennoscandia to the Mediterranean and in North Africa, and east into western Russia and Asia. Northern and eastern populations are migratory, wintering in southern Europe and North Africa.

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Skylark Alauda arvensis Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Strong decline – 1,500,000 – March–July 3–4; 1–4 broods 10–14; 16 days Average: 2; Oldest: 10 18–19cm; 35–42g

fresh, autumn

IDENTIFICATION

Larger than sparrow, but smaller than Starling. Has short crest that may be raised or lowered. Back is brown with darker streaks, breast streaked, underparts off-white. Medium-length brown tail has white outer feathers. In flight, broad wings have obvious pale trailing edge. Crest and tail are both longer than those of Woodlark, but white stripe over the eye is less prominent. Juvenile plumage is more scaly. See also: Woodlark p218, Meadow Pipit p274. juvenile

HABITS

Spends most of its time on the ground and crouches when nervous. Also lands on posts and other low perches. Often vocal. On taking off its flight is fluttering. Direct flight is slightly floppy and undulating, with rapid flaps followed by a glide. Songflight begins as it rises steeply from the ground and hangs in the air over its territory, gradually getting higher and higher until sometimes lost from view. Parachutes down with an extra rapid descent for the last few metres. Forms flocks outside the breeding season, and in winter these may attract tens to hundreds of birds.

VOICE

Chief call is a loud chirrup, often given frequently in flight or when it is alarmed. Song is a long, pleasant liquid warbling, usually given in flight, but sometimes from a perch or from the ground.

HABITAT

Breeds in open grassland in uplands, on heaths and on coastal marshes. Also strongly associated with open cultivated land, especially set-aside, grasslands and large cereal fields, often without hedges and tree cover. In winter, gathers on arable fields, unploughed stubbles, fallows and saltmarshes.

FOOD

Feeds on both plant and animal material. Invertebrates include springtails, flies, bugs, beetles, moths, spiders, slugs and snails. Plant food includes grain, also seeds and leaves of a wide variety of plants, including nettles and docks.

BREEDING

Site is usually among short vegetation and nest is in a shallow depression lined with grass. Incubation is

by the female. Both parents feed young. Young leave the nest after about 8 days, before they can fly, and are cared for by parents for 10 days after fledging.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Northern populations are migratory while those in the south are mainly resident. British and Irish birds move down from upland areas to lowlands but do not move far. Others are resident. Skylarks from northern and eastern Europe arrive in Britain in October to winter and begin to return to their breeding areas in January.

CONSERVATION

Large and continuing decline from 1970s caused mainly by changes in farming and specifically the move to autumn-sown cereals, which results in spring growth being too dense for nesting, fewer winter stubble fields, increased insecticide and herbicide use, and loss and intensive management of grasslands, which remove both food supplies and nesting habitat. Solutions involve incentives for farmers to plant spring-sown crops and special support for nature-friendly farming practices, such as small bare ‘skylark patches’ left in cereal fields and reduced pesticide use. The population in Europe is decreasing and farming policy is the main threat, as well as high pressure from hunting in some countries.

DISTRIBUTION Breeds throughout Britain and Ireland. In winter, largest numbers are in the south and east. There has been considerable recent range loss in Ireland. In mainland Europe, breeds from northern Fennoscandia to the Mediterranean and North Africa, and east into Russia and eastwards across central Asia, including Japan. Other races occur in southern Europe, North Africa and Asia. Introduced populations are found in Australia and New Zealand.

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Shore Lark Eremophila alpestris Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber – Uncertain – 110 May–July 3–4; 1–3 broods 10–11; 16–18 days Oldest: 7 14–17cm; 37g

FOOD

In summer, feeds on insects and some seeds. In winter, feeds mainly on seeds. Insect food includes springtails, flies and beetles. Plant food includes grain and seeds from sedges, grasses and docks.

BREEDING

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller and slimmer than Skylark. Has pinkishbrown streaked back, pale white underparts, boldly patterned yellow-and-black face and black throat-band. Adult male has smart black mask, through and under the eye, and black band on forehead ending with two small ‘horns’ on top of rear crown. Face markings of female have less contrast and both sexes are more poorly marked in autumn and early winter. Juvenile is more spotted on its back, streaked on its underparts and has a less distinct face pattern. Adults moult between June and September. After moult the face pattern is obscured as new feathers have yellow fringes. These fringes wear off during winter revealing bold black-and-yellow breeding plumage. See also: Skylark p219, Reed Bunting p298.

male

Nest is on the ground, often in the open among short vegetation, in a depression built by the female. Female incubates. Young are cared for and fed by both adults. They leave the nest at 9–12 days, several days before they can fly.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Northern races are migratory while southern birds are largely resident. In Britain, most birds arrive from Fennoscandia in October and November, returning to the breeding areas in March. Northern birds fly south through Sweden, Denmark and Germany, and then cross the North Sea in variable numbers, which accounts for main arrival being in East Anglia.

CONSERVATION

Regular wintering was unknown before 1870. Single pairs are occasionally seen in suitable breeding habitats in summer; the last recorded breeding was in the Cairngorms of Scotland in 2003. Nest protection from robbery or inadvertent disturbance is the key conservation measure if nesting is suspected. Wintering populations may be at threat from recreational disturbance, including from dog walkers and birdwatchers, and conservation measures, such as signage and exclosures are recommended. The European population is stable.

HABITS

Feeds on the ground in open, head down, slightly hunched or crouched and either shuffles along or makes small hops. Feeding flocks are constantly on the move in winter. Although it will often allow a close approach, it can be difficult to observe, owing to excellent camouflage. In winter, sometimes solitary but usually in small flocks, mixing with Snow or Lapland Buntings. Has more bounding flight than Skylark.

VOICE

Voice in its winter flocks is a shrill tsee-tsi. On breeding grounds, has a warbling Skylark-like song usually given in flight.

HABITAT

In Britain, mainly seen near the coast, often feeding along the strand line on shingle, or on low coastal grazing marsh, dune systems or stubble fields near the sea. Breeding grounds are in mountains above the tree line on the Arctic tundra. Other races, suggested by some to be full species, have adapted to living on prairies, deserts and ploughed fields. In Britain, a few pairs have attempted to breed on the stony tops of northern mountains.

female fresh, autumn

DISTRIBUTION Rare winter visitor to the east coast of Britain and very rare inland. Only breeding attempts have been in Scotland. In mainland Europe, breeds in the mountains of Fennoscandia and on Arctic tundra. Other races are found in south-east Europe, Asia and in North and South America. Some of the winter records, especially in the west, are of one of the North American races.

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Sand Martin Riparia riparia Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Stable – 137,000 – April–July 4–5; 1–2 broods 14–15; 22 days Average: 2; Oldest: 10 12cm; 14g

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Swallow and slimmer than House Martin. Tail is only slightly forked. Upperparts uniform brown and underparts white with distinct brown band across breast. Wings are pointed and often appear narrower than those of House Martin. Juvenile has pale edges to back feathers, giving less uniform appearance, and breast-band is less distinct. Adults start moulting between July and September, as they finish nesting, and continue during the early stages of migration, but moult may be suspended until the bird reaches Africa. See also: Swallow p222, House Martin p223.

the young for the male to feed. She may pair with a new mate and start a second family. Males, too, may change mates after young become independent.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

One of the earliest migrants to return to Britain and Ireland each spring. Young from first broods leave their colonies after fledging in June and generally spend several weeks exploring a wide area, often visiting other colonies, and gathering at communal roosts. In August, adults and juveniles head southeast to make the shortest sea-crossing across the Channel and then fly on to Africa, crossing the Sahara. In winter, they may be nomadic, moving eastwards before returning north in February and March.

HABITS

Breeds in small or large colonies and many will feed together at suitable sites. Often migrates in small flocks and gathers in large evening roosts. Flight is fast and agile, looking weaker and less graceful than Swallow and glides less often. Feeds by catching insects in the air. Often perches on wires.

VOICE

Song is a harsh rattling or twittering, given frequently in flight and when perched. Song is usually associated with courtship but is also heard at other times.

HABITAT

Depends on vertical sandy banks for nesting. These sites are usually close to rivers or in sand or gravel quarries. Feeds over open country and especially over water, tending to avoid built-up areas, woods and mountains. On migration, large flocks form and roost in reedbeds.

FOOD

Feeds on insects that it catches in flight, especially midges, flies and aphids, but a wide variety of other insects are eaten. When feeding nestlings, many insects are caught in a single foraging flight and the mass is brought back and fed to the young.

BREEDING

Older birds return to colonies first. Nest is in a hole in a bank and occasionally in an artificial site such as a drainpipe. Both adults excavate 35–120cm tunnel, with a chamber at the end that contains a nest of grass and feathers, and incubate the eggs. The young are cared for by both adults. In years with good weather, a second brood is reared. If the survival of first brood is poor, the female may leave

CONSERVATION

The population appears to fluctuate from year to year. Population crashes in 1969 and 1984 were caused by drought conditions in its wintering areas of Africa and lower survival. Subsequently, there was a partial recovery and numbers are now increasing. The management of existing nest cliffs is recommended to avoid them becoming overgrown with vegetation or nests being vulnerable to ground predators, as is the provision of new nesting cliffs and banks. In mainland Europe, the protection of breeding colonies and management of river systems to provide nest sites helps this species. The European population appears to be stable, but trends are not well known in some countries.

DISTRIBUTION Colonies are found throughout Britain and Ireland, where there are suitable banks. Densities are highest in the north and west, and noticeably lower in the south and east of England where there have been range losses too. Found throughout most of Europe, Asia and North America. Winters in Africa.

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Swallow Hirundo rustica Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Stable – 625,000 – April–August 4–5; 2 broods 18; 18–23 days Average: 2; Oldest: 11 17–19cm; 19g

and it breeds in upland and lowland areas, but seldom ventures into towns. It feeds wherever insect food is plentiful, over water, around cattle, over manure heaps and along hedgerows. In Africa in winter, it is nomadic as it searches out food supplies. Migrants roost in reedbeds often in huge numbers.

FOOD

Feeds almost exclusively on flying insects. The large range includes bluebottles, houseflies, bees, hoverflies, mayflies, aphids and flying ants. Even moth caterpillars hanging from trees are snapped up. A brood of Swallows consumes 6,000 flies a day to survive.

BREEDING

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Swift. Upperparts are iridescent blue-black, underparts are off-white, face is reddish brown and it has a blue-black chest-band, a small broad bill, long, pointed wings, long tail-streamers and white spots on underside of deeply forked tail. In spring, tail-streamers of male are noticeably longer than those of female. Juvenile has much shorter tail-streamers and browner, less shiny feathers. Flight is strong and agile with frequent swoops and glides when feeding, wings appear relatively broad. Moult is slow so as not to interfere with ability to hunt. Moult starts in September and most birds moult while in Africa. See also: House Martin p223, Sand Martin p221, Swift p186. juvenile

HABITS

Although much time is spent on the wing, it frequently perches on wires and other prominent perches. Also lands on the ground, especially when gathering mud as nest material. Flight usually low as it catches prey on the wing or snatches food from the surface of water. Feeds on the wing over open habitat and along hedgerows and woodland edges in inclement weather. Often nest in small groups and flocks gather from July onwards.

VOICE

Alarm call is a loud tswit, which is often given in flight. The song is a hurried dry twittering trill.

HABITAT

Older birds return first, males before females. Nests in barns and other buildings and not under eaves like House Martins. Nest cup is built by both sexes from mud and lined with feathers and grass. Nests are frequently reused. Female incubates. Young are fed for a further week after they learn to fly.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

A migrant that arrives mainly in April. After breeding, juveniles disperse in various directions during July. In September they move south, with most having left Britain by early November. Migrates by day, feeds as it flies, and roosts at traditional stopover sites. Autumn migration to South Africa takes about 6 weeks and is on a broad front, including crossing the Sahara Desert. The return journey takes about 4 weeks.

CONSERVATION

In Britain and Ireland, threats include the loss of traditional nest sites, such as old barns and farm buildings, and food availability owing to changes in farming. Intensive livestock rearing in pastoral regions, with improved hygiene standards and the use of pesticides and herbicides is likely to have reduced available insect prey. Marked population fluctuations, however, are not well correlated with agricultural changes and this suggests that conditions on migration and in wintering areas of Africa are also affecting this long-distance migrant. The European population is decreasing.

DISTRIBUTION Found throughout Britain and Ireland, but scarcer in the far north of Scotland. Breeds in Europe, North Africa, Asia and North America. Swallows from Europe winter in Africa, and British and Irish birds travel to South Africa. Birds from North America winter in South America, and those from Asia in southern and eastern Asia.

Breeds in open country where there is abundant food, safe nest sites and usually some water. In Britain and Ireland, it is a bird of open rural countryside

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House Martin Delichon urbicum Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Moderate decline – 470,000 – May–October 4–5; 2 broods 14–16; 19–25 days Average: 2; Oldest: 15 12.5cm; 19g

juvenile

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Swallow. Blue-black above, pure white below with obvious white rump. Small, plump, aerial feeder with broad, rather short, pointed wings and forked tail. Lacks the brown breast-band of Sand Martin and the long tail-streamers of Swallow. Tiny legs and feet are covered with short white feathering. Juvenile is browner than adult. Flight is less agile than Swallow. It is fast and direct but with fewer twists and turns, and is rather more fluttery. The prolonged adult moult takes places mostly in Africa, all the feathers being replaced between late October and March. See also: Swallow p222, Sand Martin p221.

by the sea. Old nests are reused and if necessary repaired. Nesting tends to be in colonies and sometimes several nests are built side by side, even on top of each other. Both adults incubate and care for the young. From about 15 days the parents attempt to lure the young from the nest. Young continue to roost in the nest and are fed by their parents after their initial flight. In some years, late broods are still in the nest in October.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Summer migrant to Britain and Ireland that returns in April and May and leaves between August and October. It migrates on a broad front, but the whereabouts of the main wintering grounds in Africa are uncertain and it may spend most of the time on the wing, like Swifts.

CONSERVATION

HABITS

Spends most of its time in the air and it often feeds at higher levels than the Swallow. Seldom lands on the ground except to gather mud as nesting material, but frequently perches on wires, roofs and other prominent objects. It is a sociable species, inclined to nest in loose colonies and feed and migrate in small flocks. Large numbers sometimes gather at migration times. Outside the breeding season it roosts in trees and is also suspected to sleep on the wing at high altitudes.

VOICE

The main call is a hard prrit and the song is a soft bubbling twitter that is heard in summer.

HABITAT

Found in towns and villages throughout Britain and Ireland, and in some places it nests on cliffs. Tends to avoid city centres and is most abundant in lowland rural areas.

FOOD

As most House Martins have adapted to nesting on houses, their nest sites depend on the cooperation of the property owner. Although nests and eggs are protected, ignorance and prejudice can result in nests being knocked down. Birds that rebuild are less likely to rear two broods in a summer and produce fewer young. Poor weather conditions can have a negative impact on populations during the breeding season and on migration. House Martins are thought to winter in humid West Africa and their survival from year to year varies with the level of winter rainfall. More rainfall means higher survival, presumably because of higher insect abundance, so conditions in Africa might well explain numbers here. The European population of House Martins is falling.

DISTRIBUTION Found in most parts of Britain and Ireland, although much scarcer in northern Scotland and western Ireland. The species breeds throughout Europe across into central Asia, and in North Africa. The bulk of the population winters in central and southern Africa.

Feeds almost entirely on flying insects. Its prey includes aphids, gnats, flies, beetles and ants.

BREEDING

Both adults build the cup-shaped mud nest on the outer walls of buildings, especially under the eaves of houses. A few use traditional cliffs, either inland or

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Long-tailed Tit Aegithalos caudatus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Moderate increase – 370,000 – March–June 6–8; 1 brood 15; 16 days Average: 2; Oldest: 11 14cm; 9g

IDENTIFICATION

Tiny round bird with a 9cm-long narrow tail, short rounded wings and stubby bill. Pinkish-brown above, pinkish-white below, with dark marks on sides of head and white face and crown. Wings are blackish with pale lines caused by pale edges to the major flight feathers. Tail has white outer feathers. Black legs. Northern and eastern European birds have pure white heads, but they are very rare visitors in the British Isles. Flight appears weak and undulating, with long tail the most obvious feature. Juvenile is like adult but with smoky-grey head. See also: Pied Wagtail p271.

HABITS

BREEDING

juvenile

Nesting begins early, in late March and early April. Male and female build the nest in bramble, gorse or other thick shrubs. It is a delicate round or oval dome structure made from moss, bound with cobwebs and lined with feathers. The outside is covered in lichens. Entrance hole is at the side. Female incubates. Young are fed by both parents and continue to be fed by both adults for 2 weeks after fledging. Adults that fail to rear their own young frequently help to feed a neighbouring family.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Highly sociable, producing large broods of young and travelling through woods and along hedges in family flocks for much of the year. Roosts in groups, and on cold nights will huddle together in a ball to conserve body heat. Restless and acrobatic as they feed actively among branches of trees and bushes, often hanging upside-down to reach food. In spring, it has a butterfly-like display flight.

Most are sedentary but some make local movements after nesting. Wintering birds have a feeding territory and move around this area in mobile flocks that are made up of families from the previous breeding season plus additional helpers. Sometimes family flocks join and frequently attract other small birds such as tits to travel and feed with them.

VOICE

The greatest influence on this species is the winter weather. Severe frost can in a few days reduce the population significantly but, like other small birds, their populations can recover quickly from such natural events. Habitat changes have not adversely affected this species and it is breeding more successfully, and possibly benefiting from recent climate warming and a run of mild winters. It may also be benefiting from the increasing provision of bird food in gardens. The European population is stable, although climate, woodland management and increased predation are potential threats.

Common call is a thin, high-pitched see, see, see often interspersed with a short, rolling thrup. Song rarely heard – an elaborate version of the calls.

CONSERVATION

DISTRIBUTION flock in flight

HABITAT

Breeds along deciduous woodland fringes, in scrub, hedgerows, parks and in other bushy places. Outside the breeding season, travels more widely and visits gardens where there are bushes and trees.

FOOD

Feeds on invertebrates, including flies, beetles and spiders, also on eggs, larvae, pupae and adults of moths and butterflies. Also eats seeds and has adapted to feeding at bird tables and on hanging food. This behaviour has become more widespread in recent years.

Widespread in Britain and Ireland but more abundant in the south than the north, and extremely rare on Shetland, Orkney and the Outer Hebrides, although it may wander to offshore islands in autumn. Huge range, breeding from Fennoscandia to southern Europe, across eastern Europe, the Middle East, and across Asia to eastern Russia.

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Cetti’s Warbler Cettia cetti Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Strong increase – 3,450 – May–June 4–5; 2 broods 16–17; 14–16 days Average: 2; Oldest: 7 13.5cm; 12–15g

BREEDING

The social life of Cetti’s Warblers is complex. There are conventional male and female pairs, but some males hold larger territories and breed with several females. Female builds an untidy cup-shaped nest of leaves and plant stems low down in thick vegetation. The female incubates, and looks after and mostly feeds young. Brood remains together after leaving the nest and the male may help to feed them, especially if female begins a second brood. Young become independent at 15–30 days.

juvenile

IDENTIFICATION

Only slightly smaller than House Sparrow. Stocky chestnut-and-grey warbler with long, rather broad and rounded tail, short rounded wings and rather rounded head. Plain upperparts are a rich chestnut, the throat is pale, and underparts are pale grey with a rusty wash to the flanks and undertail. There is a narrow grey-white stripe above the eye. Bill is pale and legs pink. It has a complete moult between July and September and some birds have another partial moult before breeding. See also: Reed Warbler p232, Nightingale p256.

HABITS

Secretive and skulking species that would be overlooked if it were not for loud outbursts of distinctive song. Flight is rapid as it dashes from bush to bush. It often feeds on the ground where it moves in a series of short hops. Tail is frequently cocked. It moves quickly through bushes and reeds, flicking its tail up and down nervously. Territories are defended from year to year, and some are maintained through winter.

VOICE

Song is a powerful, far-carrying, almost explosive series of liquid notes pwit, pity-chewit, chewit, chewit. Song is heard throughout the year, during the day and at night during the breeding season. Call is an abrupt chup or chip.

HABITAT

Breeds in dense scrub in damp low-lying wetlands where there is bramble, willow and blackthorn, and with reedbeds close by. Elsewhere in Europe it breeds in marshes and riverside scrub. Outside the breeding season, the female especially tends to move into reedbeds.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

British breeding birds are mainly sedentary, although some breeding territories are vacated after the breeding season, with birds leaving in September and returning in April. It is possible that some of these birds move to continental Europe for the winter. Elsewhere in its range this species may be a regular migrant.

CONSERVATION

Breeding was first proved in Kent in 1972 and colonisation of other suitable sites followed quickly. The small sedentary population has suffered during cold weather, and severe winter weather in 1985 reduced numbers in Kent and Suffolk by 75%. Mild winters saw numbers increase again but the species remains vulnerable to prolonged cold and icy conditions. Extensive drainage of wetlands over many decades means most of the prime sites for this species are on nature reserves and protected sites, where they are helped by active management. The European population is stable. They remain susceptible to severe winter weather, particularly in the north-west of their range, but are likely to benefit from climate warming.

DISTRIBUTION The British population occurs widely from northern England southwards, being most abundant in the south and east, and in Wales. It breeds from northern France to North Africa, around the Mediterranean, in the Middle East and east into Asia.

FOOD

Feeds chiefly on insects and other invertebrates, many of which it captures on the ground. Prey includes moths and their caterpillars, flies, beetles and snails.

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Pallas’s Warbler Phylloscopus proregulus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Passage pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Not assessed – – – Variable and uncertain – – – – 9cm; 4.5–7.5g

HABITAT

On migration, it will feed in whatever cover is available, usually near the coast. It often feeds in sycamore trees, but is also seen lower down in shrubs and bushes, sometimes even in gardens. Its native habitat is the forests of Asia, often at high altitudes, including the foothills of the Himalayas.

fresh, autumn

FOOD

It feeds mainly on insects.

BREEDING

It does not breed in Britain or Ireland.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

IDENTIFICATION

A tiny warbler that is only the size of a Goldcrest. It has a large head, no obvious neck, a small, fine bill and a short tail. Stripy head: has a dark stripe through the eye, a wide yellow stripe over the eye, and another yellow stripe along the top of its head. It is compact, with bright olive-green upperparts, one large and one small wing-bar, off-white underparts, and a distinctive square pale yellow patch above the rump, often hidden by the wings. Bright yellow-green secondary flight feathers form a bright panel on the closed wing. It tends to be brighter than the similar Yellow-browed Warbler, with dull grey not yellowish legs. See also: Yellow-browed Warbler p227, Firecrest p244, Siskin p289.

HABITS

This is an active and restless species. It frequently hovers to pick insects off the undersides of leaves and may hang upside-down like a Blue Tit. It often flicks its wings while feeding. At other times, it can be hard to see among the leaves of trees and bushes. It feeds from ground level to the canopy of tall trees, but is usually more than 10m up hidden in the canopy. Its flight and feeding behaviour are reminiscent of Firecrest or Goldcrest.

The Pallas’s Warbler leaves its breeding grounds in Russia or Asia in late August and September and most birds fly to South Asia for the winter. Migrants return to their breeding territories in April and May. However, vagrants regularly reach western Europe and Britain in autumn, between September and December, but with the peak number in October or November. They are first-year birds, examples of an unknown (but small) number of individuals in the population that have migrated in the opposite direction to the others. This is known as ‘reverse migration’ and its purpose is not understood.

CONSERVATION

There are no special conservation measures in place in Britain or Ireland that can help this species.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain, it is a rare passage migrant near the coast, especially along the east coast of England, but some are found as far west as Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly. It is very rare in Ireland. The species breeds in Russia and east into Asia, wintering in South East Asia.

VOICE

The call is a high-pitched chu-eep, which rises.

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Yellow-browed Warbler Phylloscopus inornatus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Passage pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Not assessed – – – Variable and uncertain – – – Insufficient data 10–11cm; 4.3–6.5g

BREEDING

It does not breed in Britain or Ireland. The nest is domed with an entrance at the side. The female incubates, but both adults help to feed the young. They leave the nest at 11–15 days and stay with their parents for about another 13 days.

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Chiffchaff and paler, with whiter underparts. Has a conspicuous long pale stripe over the eye to the nape and below this a narrow dark line through the eye. Cheeks are mottled. The back is mid-green and the wings show two creamy wing-bars, the lower thicker than the upper. Inner flight feathers are conspicuously edged green, creating a bright panel on the closed wing. Has a fine, tiny, dark bill. Some birds have the suggestion of a stripe on the crown and dark lines bordering the pale stripe above the eye, but never as clear or as well marked as on a Pallas’s Warbler. It is slightly larger and longer than Pallas’s Warbler with a green not yellow rump, legs are usually yellowish, not grey, and plumage is not so bright or stripy. See also: Pallas’s Warbler p226, Firecrest p244.

HABITS

Often difficult to see among the leaves of trees and bushes, and it is the call that usually attracts attention. It is constantly on the move as it feeds from ground level to the canopy of tall trees, but often moves actively right through the canopy. Migrants are quite aggressive, chasing other Yellow-browed Warblers and other species away from favoured areas and holding a temporary feeding territory.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

It is a summer migrant that leaves its breeding grounds in Siberia in August and September to fly to South East Asia, and returns the following April or May. However, those that reach Britain are firstwinter birds that reverse the direction of migration and end up in western Europe.

CONSERVATION

Totals observed in Britain have increased in recent years, with many more in some years than others. Occasionally individuals are seen in winter and spring. As with other long-distance migrants, they are best not disturbed and allowed to feed, especially when they first arrive on our shores.

fresh, autumn

DISTRIBUTION VOICE

Call is similar to that of a Coal Tit and is a loud single rising note suu-eet. Individuals often call repeatedly, especially if others are also calling in the locality.

HABITAT

On migration it will feed in whatever cover is available. Often feeds in willow trees and taller sycamores. It breeds in deciduous or mixed forests and is very common in parts of Siberia.

FOOD

It feeds mainly on insects, including beetles and flies, also some other small invertebrates. It will sometimes hover to take prey from the underside of leaves or fly up to snatch an insect in flight.

In Britain, it is most likely to be seen near the east coast in autumn, but sightings stretch from Shetland to the Isles of Scilly, and a few are found inland or on the west coast. It is a regular vagrant to the coast of south-west Ireland, where it visits islands and headlands. Breeds in parts of eastern Russia, China and other parts of Asia. Most winter in South East Asia.

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Chiffchaff Phylloscopus collybita Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Strong increase – 1,650,000 Uncertain April–July 5–6; 2 broods 13–14; 14–16 days Average: 2; Oldest: 8 10–11cm; 9g

IDENTIFICATION

About the size of Blue Tit. Similar in appearance to Willow Warbler but usually with darker legs and shorter wings. Different shape, being more compact with a more rounded head. In spring and summer, upperparts are dull green or olive-brown and the rump slightly paler. Underparts are dull yellowish. The rather short wings are marked with yellowish lines, which are the edges of flight feathers. Dark line through eye and pale stripe above eye. Plumage becomes duller during summer. First-winter birds look fresh and browner than adults, with slightly yellower underparts. Adults moult any time between June and early October. See also: Willow Warbler p229, Wood Warbler p230.

FOOD

Feeds mainly on insects including midges, other flies, aphids and caterpillars of moths. It sometimes takes plant material such as seeds and berries, but this is not a common food.

BREEDING

Nest site is generally among leaves, low down in bushes, especially bramble, or among grass. Female builds a domed nest with a side entrance. Female incubates the eggs and mostly feeds the young that become independent 10–19 days after fledging. Often has a second brood in southern Britain.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Most arrive in Britain and Ireland in late March and April and leave during September. An increasing population in winter now blurs these distinct transitions. In autumn, most head south-east into France and then to the Mediterranean region or North Africa for the winter, and others fly on to West Africa. Some birds from northern Europe winter in Britain and a few British birds may remain here too.

CONSERVATION

fresh, autumn

1st-winter

HABITS

Active and restless; frequently flicks its wings and dips its tail downwards. Often difficult to see hidden within shrubs and trees, but frequently sings from an exposed branch. Flight looks a little jerky as it moves from tree to tree. Will flutter out to catch insects in the air and sometimes hover to pick an insect from under a leaf. Usually solitary outside the breeding season, but large roosts of a hundred or more sometimes occur where it is common in winter.

VOICE

Call is loud, rising huitt and the song a distinctive repeated zip-zap, zip-zap, zip-zap. Between song phrases it sometimes makes a much quieter terric, terric call.

Chiffchaff became scarcer in the late 1960s and early 1970s, along with some other species that migrate to and winter in the Sahel zone of Africa. For the last 20 years the population has been stable or growing, but any alteration to the climate and conditions in this part of Africa will affect the future of these migrants. Fluctuations in the population size are believed to be due to droughts in their wintering areas in West Africa. The breeding range has increased slightly in Britain and Ireland, whereas the wintering range has increased considerably. An ability to shift wintering patterns and migration might in part explain their improving fortunes. The European population shows variation among countries but is stable overall.

DISTRIBUTION Widely distributed in Britain and Ireland. Scarce in northern Scotland and upland areas of northern England. Breeds from Fennoscandia to northern Spain and east through central and southern Europe into the Middle East and western Russia.

HABITAT

Breeds in woods, copses and other shrubby places with thick undergrowth and trees, but not usually in coniferous woodland. In autumn and winter, the distribution shifts southwards, is more coastal and birds found inland are often close to water. It may visit parks and gardens.

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Willow Warbler Phylloscopus trochilus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Strong decline – 2,050,000 – April–July 4–8; 1–2 broods 13–14; 13–16 days Average: 2; Oldest: 10 10.5–11.5cm; 10g

IDENTIFICATION

Size of Blue Tit. Small, slim green warbler with greenish-brown upperparts and yellowish-white underparts. Becomes less yellow as summer advances. Pale legs, dark line through eye, pale yellowish stripe over the eye and no suggestion of a wing-bar. Differs from Chiffchaff by having longer wings and slightly longer body. Most marked difference is, however, the song. Juvenile is variable, but many have very yellow underparts. Unique among British warblers in having two complete moults a year; one between June and early September, before migration, and another in Africa between December and April. See also: Chiffchaff p228, Wood Warbler p230.

fresh, autumn or spring

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Summer migrant to Britain and Ireland, which arrives between March and June, with most arriving in April. By July, young birds disperse in every direction but by August they are starting to head south. At first, migration is generally short flights in a southerly direction, but after refuelling in Iberia, they make longer flights to their winter quarters in West Africa. Willow Warblers breeding in eastern Siberia also migrate to Africa, a journey of 11,250km.

CONSERVATION

Willow Warbler populations in the south of Britain have declined, while those in the north have increased. This difference seems HABITS to be driven Often difficult to see as it feeds mainly by difin trees and bushes, but ferences in frequently breeding sings from success, 1st-winter a prominent itself assofresh, autumn perch. An ciated with active bird, climate and moving quickly land use, and juvenile around trees and scrub especially the hunting for insect food. quality of the habitat. They are also tendVOICE ing to nest earlier, probably due to the changing Song is a pretty, liquid series of climate. Added to which, low adult survival is also descending notes that starts softly thought to be related to poor conditions on their and ends with a flourish. The common wintering grounds in West Africa. Land use has hoo-ee call is almost two notes run together. changed considerably in southern Britain in recent decades, including change in the management and HABITAT state of our woodlands, and importantly woodland Nests in young woods and plantations, scrub and structure, all of which may have affected this small trees in wetlands, along woodland edges and species. The European population is decreasing. rides, and in forest clearings. Also breeds in birch woods, especially in Scotland, on the edge of DISTRIBUTION moorland and on former industrial land and gravel Widespread in Britain and Ireland, workings where there is a growth of bushes.

FOOD

Feeds mainly on insects such as flies, caterpillars, beetles and midges. It also eats spiders and will feed on berries in late summer and autumn.

BREEDING

most abundant in the north and west, away from the highest hills. Large breeding range extends from northern Europe into Russia and right across Asia. Winters in central and southern Africa.

Some males are polygamous, having more than one mate at any one time, and while most are singlebrooded, some males have a second family with a different female. It usually nests on the ground in a well-concealed domed nest with an entrance at the side. The nest is made from leaves, mosses and lichens and is built by the female, which also incubates. Both adults feed the young.

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Wood Warbler Phylloscopus sibilatrix Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Strong decline – 6,500 – May–July 5–7; 1–2 broods 13; 13 days Oldest: 10 12cm; 10g

FOOD

Feeds mainly on insects, such as moth caterpillars, craneflies and other flies, beetles and spiders. Takes very little plant material.

BREEDING

Males defend individual territories, but these are sometimes in clusters within suitable woodlands, and males often try to attract a second mate (polygamy). Nests on the ground with a little cover, or under a fallen tree trunk or branch. Female builds the nest and incubates the eggs. Both adults feed the young until they leave the nest and continue for a further 2–3 days after fledging. Sometimes the family is split between the two parents, or the family may stay together for up to 4 weeks.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

1st-winter

fresh, spring

IDENTIFICATION

Larger bodied and longer winged than Willow Warbler, with a shorter tail. Appears bright and clean, with yellow-green upperparts, pale yellow stripe above eye, bright yellow throat and breast, and pure white underparts. Flight feathers have yellowish edges that give a yellow cast to the closed wing. Plumage becomes a little greyer during summer. Legs are yellowish-brown. First-winter birds are like adults but duller and browner above. See also: Willow Warbler p229, Chiffchaff p228.

HABITS

Active species that sometimes hovers to pick insects from under leaves or captures them in flight. When perched it frequently droops its wings and does not flick its tail like some warblers. Moves with great agility along branches and among foliage. Has a beautiful butterfly-like display flight among the trees. Outside the breeding season, generally seen singly and seeks out dense cover in treetops.

VOICE

Call is a loud, sweet sounding, rather plaintive pewpew. Song a remarkable series of tsic, tsic notes that accelerates into a shivering, long trill, with the bird trembling as it sings. Song is not usually given for a second time from the same perch and sometimes it will sing during its display flight. Also has a second song that is made up of the pew notes.

HABITAT

Summer migrant that returns to Britain in late April and early May and leaves in July and August. Wood Warblers seem to arrive directly on their breeding sites, with only a few being seen at the coast. It appears British Wood Warblers in autumn make unbroken flights to southern Europe, often Italy, and then fly on to the southern fringe of the Sahara Desert. In spring, they break their journey on the North African coast.

CONSERVATION

Like several woodland species, and long-distance migrants, Wood Warbler populations have declined in recent years for reasons that are unclear. The cause may be changes in woodlands either here or in tropical West Africa where they winter. Changes may be caused by less active woodland management and possibly pressure from predators, or by climate change causing earlier and warmer springs bringing an early peak in food, which is out of sync with the needs of chicks. Yet RSPB research shows they can switch prey and suffer no ill effect. There is also a concern about degradation of African forests, but research shows no significant loss in their preferred habitat. The European population is in moderate decline.

DISTRIBUTION Found mainly in the west of Britain with fewer in the east and only a few in Ireland. The highest density is in Wales and Scotland. Breeds from Fennoscandia to Italy and east across Europe into western Russia, Georgia and Azerbaijan. Winters in humid zone of western and central Africa.

Prefers upland mature oak woods with high canopy and limited ground vegetation, and silver birch woods. Elsewhere in Europe it uses pine, alder, birch or mixed deciduous woods. Winters in forests in equatorial Africa.

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Sedge Warbler Acrocephalus schoenobaenus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Stable – 220,000 – May–July 4–5; 1–2 broods 13–15; 13–14 days Average: 2; Oldest: 11 13cm; 12g

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than House Sparrow. Brown warbler with rather flat head. Has blackish streaks on back, dark crown with indistinct pale crown-stripe, and prominent broad white stripe above eye. Reddish-brown, plain rump is especially noticeable in flight. Underparts are creamy white. Becomes duller as plumage wears in summer. Juvenile is fresh-looking and yellower than adult, with boldly marked upperparts, pale crown-stripe and fine streaking on breast. Fine bill and pinkbrown legs. See also: Reed Warbler p232, Aquatic Warbler p310.

HABITS

Clambers among plant stems and frequently feeds on the ground within tangled vegetation. For much of the time it can be hard to observe, but when singing it perches on the outside of a bush and may make a short, jerky songflight. If newly fledged young are disturbed, they will adopt a Bitternlike posture with bill pointing to the sky.

VOICE

Song is loud, strong and repetitive. A mixture of varied fast chattering phrases, sweeter-sounding notes and some mimicry and sparrowlike chirrups. Call is a scolding tuk or grating chrirr. Sings during the day and sometimes at night.

HABITAT

Breeds in thick vegetation in mainly wet places. Present in freshwater marshes and reedbeds with some trees and bushes, in riverside scrub, damp ditches and nettle-beds. Also breeds in drier habitats, including bramble and hawthorn thickets, young forestry plantations and occasionally in fields of rape or other crops. Often found at the edges of wetlands, rather than in the heart of reedbeds, like Reed Warbler.

FOOD

BREEDING

Nest is a deep cup of grass, moss, plant stems and spiders’ webs, lined with soft grass, flower heads, hair and plant down. Generally close to ground among thick, tangled vegetation and woven around vertical stems of plants, and sometimes suspended over water. Female builds nest and also incubates eggs. Both parents feed the young. fresh, spring

juvenile

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Summer migrant that arrives in Britain and Ireland mid-April and leaves its breeding sites in July, with the adults leaving before juveniles. They move to pre-migration feeding areas where they build up large fat reserves for some to fly nearly 4,000km from Europe non-stop to West Africa.

CONSERVATION

Loss of wetlands and unforgiving management of riverside vegetation has affected breeding success. Populations on farmland, like those of many other insectivorous species, have also fallen. Much of the variation in population size is related to changes in adult survival, which is in turn related to changes in rainfall levels on their wintering grounds. More rainfall creates perfect winter habitat and a lack of rain creates an inhospitable environment. Population crashes seen in Britain, such as in 1984/85, coincide with drought in the Sahel. Thus, climate change poses a threat to this species. The European population is estimated to be stable.

DISTRIBUTION Widespread in Britain and Ireland, with highest densities in eastern counties of England. In the west and south, it is most abundant near the coast. It breeds from northern Scandinavia south to France and east across Europe into Russia. It winters in Africa, south of the Sahara.

Feeds low down in dense vegetation. Chiefly eats insects and other invertebrates, including flies, beetles, spiders, worms and small snails. Plum-reed Aphids are an important source of food prior to migration. Also feeds on plant material, especially berries in autumn.

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Reed Warbler Acrocephalus scirpaceus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Moderate increase – 130,000 – May–August 3–5; 1–2 broods 12; 12–13 days Average: 2; Oldest: 14 13cm; 13g

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than House Sparrow. Plain brown warbler with warm brown upperparts and reddish-brown rump. Underparts are buff, graduating to white on throat. Has a rather flat forehead, the suggestion of a peaked crown and a rather long bill. Short pale stripe from the bill to over the eye. Wings are shorter than those of Marsh Warbler. By late summer adults are greyer. Juvenile is fresher, warmer rusty-brown with orange-brown flanks. Legs are dark brown, bill brown, yellow on the lower part. Like all members of its family the feathers below the tail are quite long, reaching beyond the wing-tips. See also: Sedge Warbler p231, Marsh Warbler p233.

HABITS

Spends most of its time among dense reed stems where it is well camouflaged and easily overlooked unless singing. Frequently, song is given from within reedbed and not an obvious perch. Climbs among the reeds with ease, often grasping different reeds with legs apart. May leave reeds to feed in neighbouring shrubs and vegetation. When nesting will defend a small territory within a large or small colony. Solitary outside the breeding season.

VOICE

Song is a noisy, unmusical, repetitive chatter and churring with frequent changes in pitch. It is less varied and lower pitched than Sedge Warbler’s song and full of rrr and zzz’s. Call is a che or harsher chk.

HABITAT

Breeds in common reed (Phragmites) in reedbeds, old fenland, ditches and along the edges of lakes and slow-flowing rivers. It prefers reeds that grow in water, although it occasionally breeds in drier places and other vegetation. On migration it may turn up almost anywhere, including in trees, orchards, gardens and in crops – sometimes away from water – and along the coast.

FOOD

Feeds mainly on insects, spiders and small snails. Insects include aphids, beetles, flies and small bugs.

BREEDING

juvenile

fresh, spring

both adults feed the young. Young become independent 10–14 days after fledging. Nests may be parasitised by Cuckoos.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Summer migrant to Britain, arriving in late April and May and leaving in August or September. The journey to the winter quarters is made in relatively short stages, with British birds heading first for the Atlantic coast of France, then into Spain and Portugal, and finally into Africa via Morocco.

CONSERVATION

In the past, this species suffered from the drainage of wetlands and reedbeds for agriculture, but it is gradually spreading northwards in Britain and there has been an increase in its breeding population. Colonisation of new habitats, such as gravel pits, has helped, as has the creation and restoration of large reedbeds, often managed as nature reserves. Further plans to restore very large areas of wetlands can only help. Productivity may also have improved as a result of reed growth linked to climate warming. The European population is stable.

DISTRIBUTION Found in central and southern England and in Wales. Relatively scarce in the north of England, and even fewer in Scotland and Ireland. Largest concentrations are in southern and eastern England. It also breeds from southern Fennoscandia to North Africa and in parts of the Middle East and Asia. It winters in central Africa.

Female makes a deep cup of grass, leaves and reed heads suspended between reed stems. It takes 4 days to build and 3 days to line with hair, feathers or other soft material. Both sexes incubate and

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Marsh Warbler Acrocephalus palustris Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

juvenile

Red Strong decline – 8 – May–August 4–5; 1 brood 12–14; 10–11 days Oldest: 8 13cm; 13g

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than House Sparrow. Very closely resembles Reed Warbler, but is paler, greyer brown above, with shorter bill and no reddish-brown rump. In fresh spring plumage, it is yellow-brown and just a little greener than Reed Warbler. Has pale stripe above and in front of eye and pale eye-ring. Underparts are pale, throat white, and has buff patches on sides of breast and flanks. Head can look more rounded and gentler than Reed Warbler. Closed wings are longer and more pointed, with pale tips to each primary flight feather. Legs are pale yellow-pink. Its song is the best distinguishing feature. Plumage becomes duller and paler during summer. Juvenile has pale yellowish-pink legs, is fresher-coloured, often with a greenish tinge, but colour is variable. See also: Reed Warbler p232.

HABITS

Often skulking as it feeds on the ground among dense vegetation, but it can be less shy than Reed Warbler and is more likely to sing from an exposed perch such as a bush or small tree. It is a more upright species than Reed Warbler.

VOICE

Very different song from Reed Warbler – a variety of rich and sweet phrases with some churring that is typical of this family, but without the harsh notes of Sedge Warbler. Frequently mimics other species. One individual mimicked 70 different species within half an hour, and a total of 99 British and 133 African species have been heard! Imitations include Swallows, Greenfinches and Blue Tits mixed with African species, and all running up a musical scale.

HABITAT

Requires dense, lush growth of plants such as willowherb, nettle and meadowsweet, with willows and other bushes and trees close by. Sites are often, but not always, damp or close to water. Migrants occur on islands, on headlands, and coastal locations. In Africa, it lives in scrub and thickets.

FOOD

Feeds among grasses and bushes and in adjacent trees close to the nest site. Will fly up to catch flying insects. Eats chiefly insects such as beetles, caterpillars and spiders. Rarely eats berries.

BREEDING

fresh, spring

Young are fed by both adults and are dependent on their parents for 15–19 days after fledging.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Most birds seen in Britain are overshooting migrants in late May or early June from Fennoscandia and eastern Europe. It leaves its breeding grounds within 2 weeks of the young becoming independent, during August or September, and migrates, unusually for British birds, to south-east Africa.

CONSERVATION

A population approaching 200 pairs existed in south-west England in the early 1900s, but numbers fell steadily to 60–70 pairs in the 1970s, and despite protection and special management, became extinct. Now, a tiny breeding population is found sporadically along the east and south coast of England and the Northern Isles. Favoured sites are used in subsequent years, but breeding pairs might well be missed. When nesting is suspected, sites are often protected to avoid disturbance. Beyond nest protection, there are few practical conservation measures. The European population appears to be stable.

DISTRIBUTION Formerly bred in small numbers in England, but now only an occasional breeder in England and northern Scotland. Elsewhere it breeds from southern Fennoscandia south to France, across east and south-east Europe, and into the Middle East and Asia. It winters in southeastern Africa.

Cup-shaped nest is usually off the ground and attached to several supporting stems by what appear to be handles. It is mainly made by the female from dry grasses and plant stems. Incubation is by both sexes.

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Icterine Warbler Hippolais icterina Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Passage pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

HABITAT

Not assessed – – 0–2 80 May–August 4–5; 1 brood 13–15; 13 days Oldest: 10 13.5cm; 13g

Breeds in open, broadleaved woodland with large trees and bushy undergrowth, open mixed forest, forest edge and birch woods. Breeding territories are often associated with water. On passage migration, it can be seen in a variety of habitats, including shrubs, trees and scrubby areas.

FOOD

Feeds on insects such as beetles, flies, aphids and moth caterpillars. In autumn, it also feeds on fruits.

BREEDING

Rarely breeds in Britain. Nest is a deep cup of plant stems, grasses and dead leaves. Built by female, which binds the structure to the stems of a bush or small tree. Incubation is mostly by the female. Both parents feed the young, which become independent 8–11 days after fledging.

fresh, spring

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

1st-winter

IDENTIFICATION

Larger and heavier-looking than Willow Warbler, lacking the bold stripe over the eye and with faint pale line in front of eye. Forehead is rather flat, crown peaks behind eye, and bill appears long, lower part pale yellow. Greenish-grey above with variable amount of pale yellow on underparts. Long-winged, wingtips visible beyond the tertials for almost the same length as the tertials. Yellowish fringes to flight feathers form pale panel on the closed wings. Tail is square-ended. Feathers beneath the tail are short and do not extend along the tail, as in a Reed Warbler. Legs are blue-grey. Yellow plumage fades to off-white during summer. Most migrants in Britain are fresh first-winter birds that have a lemon-yellow throat and are paler below than adults. See also: Melodious Warbler p235, Willow Warbler p229, Garden Warbler p239.

HABITS

Difficult to observe as it is nervous and active. Also perches in the open looking very upright. Quite lively, sometimes taking to the air to catch passing insects. Tail is often flicked, and the long wings are obvious in flight, rather like a Spotted Flycatcher. Crown feathers are frequently raised, making the head appear larger.

VOICE

Call is a short, hard teck, or a triple note tec, tec, tec. Song is a musical tey-te-dwee that incorporates imitations of the songs and calls of other species. Song is like Marsh Warbler, but is less rich and the phrases are repeated, especially a nasal geea.

Passage migrant and rare breeding bird. Summer visitor to northern Europe. Arrives late April and May and leaves between July and September. Migrants probably make one stop on an otherwise non-stop flight into Africa. In autumn, they break their journey around the Mediterranean and in spring they stop in North Africa. Most that reach Britain arrive either in May or in August and September; these are presumably European migrants that drift off course.

CONSERVATION

Mainly a passage migrant on the east coast of Britain, very rarely in Ireland. Territorial birds are regularly seen in spring in suitable nesting habitat and breeding has been confirmed on several occasions in Scotland; most recently in Scotland in 1992 and in 2009. Nest sites are kept secret to prevent disturbance or nest robbery. No other special conservation measures are practical for this species, beyond ensuring there is adequate nesting habitat. The European population is in moderate decline and is threatened by climate change.

DISTRIBUTION Mostly seen along the east coast of Britain, from Norfolk to Shetland. In autumn, it is also seen in the far south-west of England and Ireland, including the Isles of Scilly and Cape Clear. Breeds from Fennoscandia to northern France and east into Russia, the Middle East and Asia. Winters in the southern half of Africa.

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Melodious Warbler Hippolais polyglotta Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Passage pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Not assessed – – – 20 – – – Oldest: 8 13cm; 8–14g

IDENTIFICATION

Larger than Willow Warbler with a sturdier bill and lacking dark eye-stripe, having a rather plain face. Very similar to its ‘sister’ species Icterine Warbler, it’s northern and eastern counterpart, but with noticeably shorter wing-tips, usually plainer wings without an obvious pale wing-panel, and with brownish legs (not blue-grey), straight bill with lower part pale yellow. Bill is marginally finer and shorter than in Icterine Warbler. Unlike Reed Warbler, the undertail feathers are short and do not extend along the undertail. Many birds seen in Britain and Ireland are in their first autumn and have pale lemon-yellow face and throat, only extending very sparingly down the very centre of the breast. Rare spring migrants may have more uniform pale yellow underparts. See also: Icterine Warbler p234, Willow Warbler p229, Garden Warbler p239.

fresh, spring

FOOD

Adult and larval grasshoppers, bugs, flies, beetles, ants, spiders and plant food including blackberries, elderberries, cherries and figs.

BREEDING

Has not bred in Britain or Ireland. Nest is placed at about half a metre up in a shrub or small tree. It is a deep cup of plant stems and leaves with spiders’ webs and is lined with fine rootlets, hair or sometimes feathers. Four eggs are the usual clutch, and these are incubated for 12–14 days. The young are in the nest for up to 13 days and are fed by both parents for another 9 days.

1st-winter

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Winters in tropical West Africa, leaving its European breeding areas in August and September. It returns north in April. In Britain and Ireland, virtually all records are of first-winter birds in August and early September, with a few records in July. Most records are from the south-west and south coasts.

CONSERVATION

HABITS

Often moves quite slowly and deliberately in dense leaf cover, looks a bit pot-bellied at times. It will act like a flycatcher by chasing out of cover briefly, but usually likes to glean insects from branches and foliage. It will stretch up to dislodge berries above it and can look rather clumsy.

VOICE

Usually migrants are silent but sometimes utter a sparrow-like cherrek. Territory-holding birds have a fast, rambling song – not very musical – which includes a rhythmic ptss-chur-chur, a rising strong kooeee, kooeee and a repeated bi-doo, all interspersed with sparrow-like churrs.

Since the 1950s the Melodious Warbler has been expanding its range; from Iberia, Italy and southern France it has spread to northern France, Belgium, parts of Germany and the Netherlands. About 20–30 are seen in Britain most years but numbers have declined. As a rare, nonbreeding bird, there are really no special conservation measures to help the species here. The European population is thought to be increasing.

DISTRIBUTION Rare visitor to the southern coasts of Britain and Ireland. Range is restricted to central, southern and western Europe and north-west Africa. Winters in tropical Guinea forests of West Africa.

HABITAT

In breeding areas in southern Europe, favours river valleys with areas of overgrown scrub, especially tamarisks, brambles, poplars, young alders and oaks. Migrants, usually at coastal headlands, also seek out deep cover in tamarisk, blackthorn, elder and bramble.

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Grasshopper Warbler Locustella naevia Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Strong decline – 9,750 – April–August 5–6; 2 broods 12–15; 12–13 days Oldest: 5 12.5cm; 14g

April to July, during the day and at night, especially at dawn and dusk. Ability of humans to hear the high-pitched song decreases with age.

HABITAT

Breeds in variety of wet and dry habitats in lowland areas, including thick scrub, thickets, edges of marshes, fens, heaths, rough grassland, young forestry plantations and overgrown gravel pits. Requires a combination of dense ground cover, dead and tussock-forming vegetation at ground level, softer soils, and potential songposts.

FOOD

yellowish variant

Eats mainly insects that it picks off the ground or from vegetation. Food includes bugs, beetles, moth caterpillars, lacewings, flies and ants. Also eats elderberries in late summer.

BREEDING

Nest is a thick cup built by both sexes in dense cover or near the ground. Incubation is by both adults and both parents feed the young. Not known when they become fully independent. In the north, one brood is reared, two in the south of the range.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

1st-winter

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than House Sparrow. Secretive small warbler. Olive-brown with dark, broken streaks on upperparts and faint pale stripe over the eye. Underparts are buff with some dark streaks on breast and under tail. Feathers under the graduated tail are very long. Wings short and rounded. Some individuals appear yellow-brown. Juvenile often brighter and more yellow below than adults. Fine bill and pink legs. See also: Sedge Warbler p231.

HABITS

Shy and secretive. Tends to live in deep cover and is difficult to observe. A newly arrived migrant may, for a short time, sing from exposed perches or near the top of a small bush. If disturbed it will slink down and disappear into the vegetation. During courtship it may flit short distances from bush to bush. It has complex displays that involve raising and waving its wings above its back. Most of the time it slips, mouselike, through dense vegetation, and spends much time foraging on the ground among grass or shrubs and is reluctant to fly.

VOICE

Song is a curious insect-like trill, sometimes sustained for several minutes or more without a break. Trill is uniform in pitch and has been likened to the sound made by an angler’s reel. Volume appears to change as the bird turns its head. Song comprises 26 double notes per second and is heard mainly

Summer migrant arriving in Britain and Ireland from mid-April and May. Leaves in July and August and passage migrants from further north or east may appear for a time in September. It is thought to undertake long non-stop flights with much migration taking place at night.

CONSERVATION

Population numbers fluctuate from year to year. Declines have been attributed to habitat loss and degradation in the countryside, to the maturation of forestry plantations, and to drought conditions in its winter quarters in the Sahel. Recent RSPB research, however, points to habitat loss as a major factor, driven by woodland succession and increased grazing pressure. The area of their preferred habitat could be increased through active management in a number of settings. Ironically, on nature reserves some habitats might be better left unmanaged with untidy corners left for them. The European population is increasing.

DISTRIBUTION Widespread in Britain and Ireland, but most numerous in central England and farther west. Scarce in northern Scotland. Breeds from southern Scandinavia to northern Spain and east into Russia. Wintering area is not precisely known, but is likely to be in tropical West Africa.

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Savi’s Warbler Locustella luscinioides Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (pairs) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Strong decline – 5 – April–July 3–6; 2 broods 10–14; 11–15 days Oldest: 9 14cm; 12–15g

IDENTIFICATION

Slightly larger than Reed Warbler. Uniform plumage, reddish-brown above with a pale throat, thin, pale stripe above and behind eye, and reddish-brown flanks. Wings are shorter than Reed Warbler with much longer, rusty-brown and pale-edged feathers under broader graduated tail. Long, dark bill. Pink-brown legs and feet are paler than in Reed Warbler. See also: Reed Warbler p232, Grasshopper Warbler p236.

HABITS

Secretive and difficult to observe, as it feeds low down on the ground in reedbeds or other marshy places. Superficially resembling a Reed Warbler, its behaviour is quite different, as it moves around the reeds with jerky nervous movements, cocks its tail and flicks its wings. Sings from reeds, sometimes in full view near the top of a reed stem. Usually solitary outside the breeding season.

BREEDING

Cup-shaped nest of leaves is woven around the bases of reeds and other plants that grow in swampy conditions. Seems likely both adults build the nest. It is mainly the female that incubates with some help from the male. Both birds help to feed the family.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Summer migrant to Europe. Thought to make long uninterrupted flights, perhaps crossing both the Mediterranean and the Sahara without a break.

CONSERVATION

Britain is at the north edge of its range. First nested in Britain in 1840 in the fens of East Anglia, but within a few years it was extinct. Nested in Kent in 1960 and Suffolk in 1970 and the population grew before declining again. While direct conservation is difficult for this species, the loss of wetlands in the wider countryside means it is largely restricted to protected sites, mainly nature reserves. Restoration of reedbeds and the creation of new ones may help. Trends in this elusive species are not well known in mainland Europe. Drainage of wetlands and natural changes in water levels are thought to affect it, as well as weather conditions in Africa.

VOICE

Song is a curious insect-like buzz, lower and louder than the similar Grasshopper Warbler and so fast that individual notes blend together, whereas the double notes of the Grasshopper Warbler are just about discernible. Bursts of song are usually shorter in length than in Grasshopper Warbler. Song is preceded by a few chick notes, sounding like a Blackbird’s alarm only quieter, becoming progressively faster and leading into the buzzing song.

HABITAT

Breeds in lush marshy vegetation where there is dense growth of common reed and sometimes low scattered bushes. On migration it seeks out similar habitats but may also visit drier areas, including scrub, shrubs, parks and gardens.

DISTRIBUTION Breeding records tend to be in southern and eastern England, although recent breeding on Anglesey shows that they may pop up almost anywhere with suitable habitat. Breeds from the Baltic Sea in the north to North Africa, and east into Russia and parts of Asia. It winters in West Africa, south of the Sahara Desert.

FOOD

Feeds on a variety of small invertebrates, such as insects and their larvae, including flies and beetles, also spiders and small snails.

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Blackcap Sylvia atricapilla Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Strong increase Strong increase 1,600,000 Uncertain April–July 4–5; 1–2 broods 13–14; 11–12 days Average: 2; Oldest: 13 13cm; 21g

berries such as honeysuckle, holly, mistletoe and sea buckthorn. Also feeds on nectar. Opportunist feeder in winter. Will feed on windfall apples and visit bird tables and other feeders where it takes seeds, bread, fat and other scraps.

BREEDING

Nests in a tangle of brambles and other dense vegetation. Male builds several rudimentary nests from which the female chooses one to fashion into a neat, rather delicate cup-shaped nest. Both adults incubate and they both feed the young. In the south of Britain, it may have a second brood.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

male

IDENTIFICATION

Slightly smaller than House Sparrow. One of the larger, sturdier warblers. Male has grey-brown upperparts, ash-grey underparts and jet-black crown and forehead extending to eye level. Back of neck and face is grey. Female is browner above and brown-grey below and has a reddish-brown cap. First-winter birds are like a dull version of the female, but during winter some black feathers start to appear on males. The legs and fine bill are dark grey. See also: Garden Warbler (song) p239, Marsh Tit p213, Willow Tit p212.

HABITS

Active and lively warbler but generally it keeps within cover and foliage. It tends to be a little easier to see than the similar Garden Warbler. It is frequently aggressive towards other small birds, especially in winter when feeding at a bird table or on feeders.

VOICE

Sweet, clear and melodic song is one of the lovely sounds of spring and summer. Like Garden Warbler, but Blackcap has more obvious phrases, rich clear notes, varying tempo and generally ends with a flourish. Sometimes they will incorporate songs and calls of other birds in their song. Call is a hard tack and a grating churr.

HABITAT

In summer, it lives in deciduous or mixed woodlands, copses, thickets and other bushy places, including mature gardens and parks. Generally, needs a mixture of trees and bushes, unlike Garden Warbler, which prefers denser thickets and coppice. Those seen in winter are usually in areas with ornamental shrubs and bushes; frequently visits urban and rural gardens with bird tables and feeders.

FOOD

Northern populations are migratory, southerly ones mainly resident. In Britain and Ireland, it is mainly a summer visitor, with birds arriving in April and May. In autumn, they fly south-west over France and many overwinter in Iberia, female but some fly on to West Africa. In the last few decades, some birds from central Europe have changed their migratory behaviour and now winter in increasing numbers in Britain and Ireland. This strategy is thought to increase their survival rates and allows them to return to their breeding sites earlier.

CONSERVATION

There are no special conservation measures for this adaptable and successful species. Both abundance and range have increased rapidly in Britain and Ireland. While some changes in woodlands would seem detrimental to Blackcaps, such as increased deer grazing altering understorey habitat, numbers have nevertheless still gone up. The recent increase has been linked to climatic change and warming. Those Blackcaps that have altered their migration patterns appear to be at a considerable advantage and are doing well. The European population is also increasing strongly.

DISTRIBUTION Widespread in Britain and Ireland in both summer and winter. Smaller numbers breed and winter in northern Scotland. It breeds from Fennoscandia to North Africa, across Europe and east into the Middle East and Russia. European Blackcaps winter across Europe, the Mediterranean and North Africa, and some go further south into tropical West Africa.

Summer food is chiefly insects such as caterpillars, flies and beetles. In autumn and winter, feeds on

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Garden Warbler Sylvia borin Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Moderate decline – 145,000 – May–July 4–5; 1–2 broods 11–13; 11–13 days Average: 2; Oldest: 14 14cm; 19g

IDENTIFICATION

Similar size to Great Tit. Rather plump and large plain brown warbler with no obvious features. Has brown upperparts and buff flanks and pale underparts. Darkish bill is rather short and thick, and the blue-grey legs are quite stout. Adults become greyer as the breeding season progresses. Suggestion of grey on side of neck, but otherwise is rather nondescript. Sexes look alike. Juvenile resembles adult except it may appear more olive in fresh plumage in late summer when compared with the greyer adult. See also: Blackcap (song) p238, Chiffchaff p228, Reed Warbler p232.

BREEDING

Cup-shaped nest of grass, leaves and small twigs is built low in a shrub, small tree or among other plant stems. Usually male builds a number of unfinished nests from which the female chooses one to complete. Incubation is by both sexes and both adults feed the young. Young often leave the nest before they can fly properly and continue to be looked after by the adults for 10–14 days after fledging.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Summer migrant that returns in late April and May and starts to leave again in mid-July. More are on the move during August and September, including some continental birds that drift off route in their southerly journey and arrive on British coasts.

HABITS

Active but spends most of its time among foliage and in cover and can be diffifresh, cult to see even when in spring song. When seen it does not usually appear as nervous as many other warblers, with no wing-flicking or tail-fanning.

VOICE

Song heard April to July. An attractive stream of sweet, musical phrases that is confusingly like that of Blackcap. Tends to be more even, subdued and hurried in its delivery, and carries on in the same way for a longer time, often singing non-stop for a minute or more. Calls are a hard tacc, tacc and grating churr.

HABITAT

Breeds in deciduous or mixed woodland and scrub with dense ground cover, especially in coppiced woodland. Found in copses on farmland, thick hedges and in some young conifer plantations. Not really a garden bird, except in large, mature gardens with suitable scrubby habitat.

CONSERVATION

Garden Warbler is one of a number of long-distance migrant birds that winter in the humid zone of West Africa that is in decline. Changes in the climate or land use in this region of Africa, or at migratory stopover sites, might be responsible for this downturn, but at the same time, factors on the breeding grounds in Europe might be at play. Changes in British woodlands, for example, with less active management, the maturation of the tree stock, and increasing grazing pressure from deer is changing the forest structure and making it less suitable for warblers. The European population shows a moderate decline.

DISTRIBUTION Widespread in England, Wales and southern Scotland, but scarce in northern Scotland and Ireland. Most abundant in central and southern England and in Wales. Breeds from Fennoscandia to Spain and east into Russia. Winters in central and southern Africa.

FOOD

When nesting, eats mainly invertebrates, especially caterpillars, larvae and adult beetles, larvae and adult flies, aphids, worms and spiders. At other times it eats berries and other fruit, including figs while migrating through the Mediterranean region.

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Barred Warbler Sylvia nisoria Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Passage pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Not assessed – – – 234 – – – Oldest: 11 15.5cm; 25g

male

bramble tangles. On its eastern breeding grounds, it is found in areas of dense bushes and scattered trees, and often shares its territory with Red-backed Shrikes and Thrush Nightingales.

IDENTIFICATION

A little larger than House Sparrow. Large, bulky warbler with long tail and large head. First-winter birds are grey-brown with buff fringes to all the wing feathers, buff wing-bars and barring on flanks and under tail, and off-white outer tail feathers. Adults are rare in Britain. Adult male has grey upperparts, grey-white underparts with fine dark barring right across the underbody, with white outer tail feathers and tail-tips. Two white wing-bars and large white tips to the inner wing feathers. Female is browner and less distinctly barred. Both adults have an obvious yellow iris, while first-winter birds and juveniles have dark eyes. See also: Garden Warbler p239, Whitethroat p242.

BREEDING

Does not breed in Britain or Ireland. In summer breeding areas, the clutch of 4 or 5 eggs is laid in a nest that is generally built by the female. Incubation and care of the young is shared between adults. Young leave the nest at 10–12 days, before they can fly.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Summer migrant to eastern Europe, arriving in the northern part of its range in late May and June and leaving again in August. Migrates from Africa through the Middle East and into Russia and eastern Europe. Surprisingly, very few have ever overshot their breeding grounds and reached Britain in spring, although some regularly arrive here in autumn. These autumn vagrants are all first-winter birds and for reasons not properly understood have set off in the opposite direction to their traditional migration routes.

female

CONSERVATION

HABITS

Skulking; can be difficult to see. In flight, its long tail gives impression of female or juvenile Red-backed Shrike. Moves rapidly through dense vegetation. On breeding grounds, adults frequently raise their crown feathers, flick their tails and have a display flight rather like a Whitethroat, but migrant birds are more subdued in their behaviour.

VOICE

Usually rather silent, but it makes tacking and churring calls like Whitethroat, including hard charr call and a two-note tchad-tchad.

HABITAT

A passage migrant to Britain that may use dense bushes and shrubs in coastal areas. Also visits windswept Northern Isles where there are few bushes and it will be forced to search out crops that grow between low walls or

FOOD

Feeds mainly on insects such as beetles, ants and flies, and other invertebrates. It will eat berries and other fruits in late summer and autumn, especially blackberries and elderberries.

Most visitors to Britain are first-winter birds between mid-August and early November. There are no special conservation measures in place for this species, although many of the sites where it occurs in autumn are nature reserves, and protected and managed as such. Population trends in Europe are variable and not well known; there is evidence of a decline followed by a more recent recovery.

DISTRIBUTION Mainly seen along the eastern coast of Britain, including the Northern Isles. Breeds from Denmark south to northern Italy, east across central Europe into Russia, the Middle East, and into central Asia. It winters in East Africa.

1st-winter

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Dartford Warbler Sylvia undata Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Strong increase – 1,700 – April–August 3–5; 2–3 broods 12–14; 12 days Oldest: 4 12.5cm; 10g

male

IDENTIFICATION

Slightly larger than Blue Tit. Small, dark warbler with short wings, long, thin tail and rather large domed head. Tail is graduated and has a narrow white border. Wings are dark. Male has dark greyish-brown upperparts, dark blue-grey head, dark wine-red underparts and an orange-red ring round the eye. White spots on throat. Female is browner and a little paler than male. Juvenile is rather like female, but rustier on the back and buffer on underparts. Colours are brightest after moult between August and October. See also: Whitethroat p242.

HABITS

Skulking and difficult to observe in thick cover but will occasionally pop up into sight and sing from the top of a low bush. Flight is usually low, often below the tops of shrubs and bushes, and appears weak and undulating, with wings whirring and tail wagging. Often active and restless. When perched it often cocks and flicks its tail above its back and raises feathers on its crown. Where common, small parties of juveniles form outside the breeding season while most adults remain on territory.

VOICE

Call is a quite distinctive buzzing tchirrr. The song is a ‘Whitethroat-like’ warble, which is more metallic and musical. Song is mostly from a low perch, often a gorse bush, but also during a short songflight.

HABITAT

In Britain, lives on dry lowland heath and commons where there is gorse and heather, and increasingly on upland moorland fringes. Elsewhere in its range it is less specialised, occurring in areas of pine, bramble, myrtle and other areas of scrub, such as Mediterranean garrigue.

FOOD

Feeds among gorse, heather, low birch trees and bushes. Eats insects and spiders and takes small beetles, caterpillars and flies. In autumn, it sometimes feeds on berries.

juvenile

female

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Resident in Britain, with many adults remaining in their territories all year. Juveniles disperse from their breeding sites and some may migrate in autumn. Other European populations are partly migratory.

CONSERVATION

Since 1800, more than 80% of Britain’s lowland heaths have been lost. The largely sedentary and specialised Dartford Warbler has suffered from heathland loss and fragmentation. Following the severe winter of 1962/63, numbers dropped to just ten pairs. Recently it has gradually expanded into Wales, south-west and central England and East Anglia. Severe weather remains a threat to this small-bodied bird at the north edge of its range. Pressures on lowland heaths come from afforestation, lack of management, recreational disturbance and increasing demands for housing. Protection of remaining heaths and restoration of others is needed to maintain and grow the population. Climate change may have an effect in future, threatening populations in the south of its range but aiding those in the north. The European population is decreasing.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain, this species is mainly confined to southern England. There are also sites in the English Midlands and Wales. It has a small global range, breeding in the Iberian Peninsula, France, Italy and North Africa.

BREEDING

Nests low in a dense gorse bush or among thick heather. Both sexes help to build a cup of grasses and moss, lined with spiders’ cocoons and other soft material. Male may build one or more flimsy nests that are sometimes finished by the female and used for a second or third brood. The female mainly incubates the eggs and both adults feed the young, which are independent 10–15 days after fledging.

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Whitethroat Sylvia communis Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

FOOD

Green Stable – 1,100,000 – April–July 4–5; 1–2 broods 12–13; 12–14 days Average: 2; Oldest: 8 14cm; 16g

IDENTIFICATION

Similar size to Great Tit, slightly larger than Lesser Whitethroat. Tail rather long, and crown peaked, especially when male is alarmed or displaying. Male also has grey head, white throat and brown back with reddish-brown edges to wing feathers giving a rufous look to the closed wing. Underparts are buff or slightly pinkish and the outer tail feathers are white. As plumage becomes worn during the breeding season, the colours of the male become subdued. Female has a browner head and is generally duller than male. First-winter bird is like the female but is a warmer brown with orange-brown feathers in the wing and offwhite underparts. See also: Lesser Whitethroat p243.

During the breeding season it feeds on beetles, aphids, caterpillars and flies. At other times it eats fruit, especially berries in late summer and also in winter in Africa before migrating northwards.

BREEDING

male summer

HABITS

Jerky songflight in spring but most often sings from a perch. At other times it skulks in bushes and hedges, and flits between areas of cover, keeping out of sight. Territorial during the breeding season and some males may have a second female. Some newly independent young flock in late summer and join groups of other warblers and tits.

VOICE

Common calls are a hard tacc, tacc and scolding tchurrrr. Typical song is a short jumble of unmusical phrases, going up and down, repeated over and over. Also has a more musical song, sometimes heard early in the breeding season.

HABITAT

Breeds in thick hedges, scrub, young plantations, along woodland edges, in glades with thick bushes, brambles, nettles or gorse and other places with tangled vegetation. It sometimes ventures into parks and gardens. In Africa in winter, many birds live in savannah woodland areas, especially prior to 1sttheir return migration.

Male builds several nests and female selects one to complete and use. It is cup-shaped and built low in a bush. Both sexes incubate (the female generally at night) and both adults feed the young. Young remain with parents for a few days after fledging. Once out of the nest, broods are sometimes split between the parents.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Summer migrant arriving midApril until mid-May, with male returning before female. Makes long migratory flights; leaving Britain and Ireland after breeding, it flies south to France, then southwest to Spain and Portugal. From Iberia it flies to winter in the arid Sahel zone of West Africa. Appears to adopt a different strategy on return in spring and flies directly into France. female summer

CONSERVATION

Following a huge population crash in the 1960s, there has been a partial recovery. The sudden decline was due to drought in the Sahel from 1968 to 1975 which affected the bird’s survival. In addition, rapid change in farm policies at that time put more pressure on their populations as nesting and feeding habitats diminished due to the removal of hedgerows, scrub and bushes. Incentives for farmers to adopt nature-friendly techniques, especially the restoration of broad hedges with field margins, would help Whitethroats. However, this species will be vulnerable to future climate change, especially perhaps in West Africa. The European population is stable.

DISTRIBUTION Widespread in Britain and Ireland, avoiding built-up and mountainous areas. Most numerous in the south and east, and relatively thinly scattered in Ireland. In Europe, breeds from the Arctic Circle to North Africa and east into the Middle East and Asia. Birds from Europe winter in West Africa; those from further east in northeast, central and southern Africa.

winter

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Lesser Whitethroat Sylvia curruca Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Stable – 79,000 – May–July 4–5; 1–2 broods 11–12; 12–13 days Average: 2; Oldest: ~7 12.5–13.5cm; 12g

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Great Tit. Compact and rather grey warbler that is a little smaller than Whitethroat with more uniform grey wings and slightly shorter grey tail. Has a grey-brown back and grey head with contrasting mask-like dark grey cheeks. Underparts are off-white but may be tinged pink in early spring. White outer tail feathers. Legs are dark grey, bill small and fine. First-winter birds are very white below, with obvious dark cheeks; some have slight pale stripe from bill over the eye. See also: Whitethroat p242.

HABITS

Skulking behaviour in dense vegetation. The call or distinctive song is most likely to attract attention to this species. Most easily seen when young are out of the nest. It maintains a territory in spring, but is sociable outside the breeding season, with reported flocks of 20 migrating together, and in Africa in winter it forms mixed feeding groups with other warblers.

VOICE

Song usually delivered from within dense cover, such as a bush or hedgerow. Call is a hard tac, tac rather like Blackcap but shorter. Sings from late April to June: song finishes with a dry rattle on the same note and pitch. At close quarters, a more musical warble can be heard before the rattle, and often a quiet stic, stic. The repetitive rattle is very distinctive.

HABITAT

Generally found around hawthorn or blackthorn scrub, hedgerows, shrubberies, overgrown railway 1stembankments, winter disused and overgrown industrial sites, and sometimes ventures into gardens, especially in late summer.

FOOD

Chiefly feeds on invertebrates such as beetles, ants and flies, midges, caterpillars, also some fruit, especially elderberries and blackberries.

BREEDING

Nests in bushes or small trees. Male builds several incomplete nests and pairs work together to complete one of them. Nest is a loose, deep cup of grass and roots. Both adults help with incubation and to feed the young.

male

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Returns to Britain in April and May having flown from its African wintering grounds around the eastern end of the Mediterranean, and from there probably a non-stop flight to Britain. From mid-July return migration is by a different route. Once they leave Britain, they appear to fly direct to northern Italy where many rest and feed before flying on south-east, across the Mediterranean and Egypt to their wintering area in north-eastern Africa.

CONSERVATION

Population in Britain was stable from the 1960s to the late 1980s, declining up to the late 1990s, since which time it has recovered. Changes in farming policies are thought to have driven habitat loss and declines of this species in western Europe, especially the loss of thick hedges and semi-natural habitat. It also depends on specific migration stopovers and a relatively small wintering area in Africa. Any deterioration in habitat quality in these areas could have a damaging long-term effect on the breeding population. Incentives for farmers to adopt nature-friendly techniques, including maintenance and restoration of hedges and field margins, would help. The European population is stable. fresh, autumn or early spring

DISTRIBUTION Breeds in England, Wales and southern Scotland, but very rare in Ireland. Most abundant in central and south-east England. The species has a very large range extending from northern, central and eastern Europe into the Middle East and across Asia. Several other races occur in Asia. Most European birds winter in Ethiopia or Sudan, in northeastern Africa.

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Firecrest Regulus ignicapilla Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Strong increase – 2,000 – April–July 7–10; 2 broods 15–17; 19–20 days Average: 2; Oldest 4 9cm; 6g

male

female

dependent on conifers than Goldcrest, also occurs in deciduous or mixed woods with rich understorey. It has also nested where oak, beech or holly are dominant trees. On migration, it visits scrub and low bushes, often in wooded valleys near the coast.

FOOD

Eats mainly insects and other invertebrates, including springtails, spiders, aphids, caterpillars, flies, bugs, beetles and small snails.

BREEDING

Female builds a nest suspended between twigs towards the end of a branch. It is ball-shaped and made from moss, lichens, spiders’ webs and mainly lined with hair and feathers. Female incubates. Both adults continue to feed the fledglings until they become independent at about 11 days after leaving the nest.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

juvenile

IDENTIFICATION

Only marginally larger than Goldcrest but appears slightly bigger in flight. Firecrest is more brightly coloured, with greener upperparts, whiter underparts and strongly striped head, including dark stripe through eye, white below eye, and obvious broad white stripe over the eye that is bordered black above. Male has startling orange-red and yellow patch on crown, more yellow in female. Both sexes have bronze patch on side of neck. Juvenile lacks orange/yellow crown but has white stripe above eye. Tiny, fine bill and pinkish legs. Adults have a complete moult between July and September. See also: Goldcrest p245, Yellow-browed Warbler p227, Pallas’s Warbler p226.

HABITS

Behaviour like Goldcrest, although may feed lower down, sometimes in shrubs and bushes, especially on migration. Like Goldcrest it sometimes joins wandering flocks of small birds outside the breeding season.

VOICE

Usual call is zit, lower pitched than Goldcrest and often a single note, whereas a Goldcrest usually runs three or more together. Song, mostly May and June, is a succession of zit notes getting louder and faster, but slightly slower and harsher than Goldcrest and ends suddenly without a flourish.

Both resident and passage or winter migrant to Britain. Southern European populations are mainly resident, but those further north and east are migratory. Migrants from the continent usually arrive on British coasts in September and October. In some years, when there are anticyclones in late October, more birds arrive, probably part of a larger movement triggered by the onset of winter weather further east. There is a return movement in March and April.

CONSERVATION

Britain is on the edge of its expanding European range. First nested in the New Forest in 1962 and by 1970 was found in several other locations in southern England and Wales. The population grew slowly up to around 2,000 and is gradually gaining more ground. Commercial forestry helped the colonisation of southern Britain, and the most recent increases may be due to mild winters. Their choice to breed in dense conifer stands may mean they are being overlooked. The New Forest remains its stronghold, but it is an increasingly common sight in many southern woodlands. The population in Europe is stable.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain, breeds mainly in south-east England, with a few pairs in Wales and other parts of England. Widespread in winter with more coastal distribution in Britain and a few in Ireland. Breeds from Denmark and Poland to North Africa and east to the Black Sea. More widespread in southern Europe and North Africa in winter.

HABITAT

Breeds in mature woodland and favours Norway spruce plantations in Britain, but generally less

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Goldcrest Regulus regulus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Stable – 675,000 – April–July 6–8; 2 broods 16–19; 17–18 days Average: 2; Oldest: 7 9cm; 6g

IDENTIFICATION

Britain and Ireland’s smallest bird. Tiny, rather round-looking species with small rounded wings and large eyes with a whitish eye-ring. Upperparts are dull green and underparts off-white and it has a yellow or orange-red patch on the centre of its head that is bordered with black stripes, grey on the face. Crown patch is more yellow on females and, when raised in display, shows deep orange on males. There are two whitish wing-bars. Tiny fine bill and pinkish legs. Juvenile is like the adult but lacks the yellow/orange crown. Adults have a complete moult between June and October. Sometimes begins its moult after rearing the first brood but suspending moult if it begins a second brood. See also: Firecrest p244, male Pallas’s Warbler p226, Yellow-browed Warbler p227.

HABITS

Very small, hyperactive species that always seems to be on the move. Tit-like, it will feed among branches, diligently searching for food, and often hovers to snatch food from the undersides of leaves. Sometimes ignores an observer and is quite approachable. Outside the breeding season, it often joins mobile flocks of small birds, such as tits and warblers, as they forage in woods, hedgerows and gardens. In parts of Europe, small groups of Goldcrests defend winter territories.

VOICE

Call is a high-pitched, thin tsee that is useful for locating this species. Song is sometimes heard in winter and regularly from February. It is a highpitched, wheeling tee-lee-de, tee-lee-de.

HABITAT

Stronghold is coniferous woodland and conifer plantations. Also found in churchyard yews, parks and large gardens with evergreen trees. Outside the breeding season, it roams a variety of habitats where there are trees or thick bushes. Migrants seek any bushy cover and trees, and those that arrive on treeless islands or headlands may be seen flitting around boulders and cliff edges.

FOOD

Feeds almost exclusively on insects and spiders, and sometimes eats small seeds. Insect food includes flies, beetles and small caterpillars.

juvenile

BREEDING

Nest is a deep, rounded cup of moss, lichen and spiders’ webs, female and suspended in a fork of twigs at the end of a conifer branch. Male may build the nest, but usually both birds work on it. Female incubates. Eggs hatch over 1–4 days and both adults feed the young, which become independent 2 weeks after fledging. A second nest may be built and eggs laid before young of first brood leave the first nest. If this happens, the male will continue feeding the first brood.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

British and Irish Goldcrests are mainly resident, but those further north in Fennoscandia and east in Poland and Russia are migrants, making night-long flights, stopping to feed and then moving on. Some migrants reach Britain, especially in October, and they will remain until March. Autumn migration from Fennoscandia peaks when there is high pressure over the Baltic Sea and occasionally large numbers arrive in a ‘fall’ along the east coast of Britain.

CONSERVATION

This small-bodied species is adversely affected by cold winters, particularly if they persist for a long time over a wide area. It is, however, able to bounce back in numbers. It was badly affected in the early 1960s by cold winters and did not fully recover until the mid-1970s. The British population now appears to be stable, with the hint of a recent upturn. An increase in the availability of mature conifer plantations may have benefited this species, as might a run of relatively mild winters. Yet climate change and severe weather pose a threat to this tiny bird. The European population is declining moderately.

DISTRIBUTION Widespread in Britain and Ireland but scarce in the fenland of East Anglia and the far north of Scotland. It breeds from northern Fennoscandia to northern Spain and east into the Middle East, and right across Asia to Japan. The most northerly populations are fully migratory and winter far to the south of their breeding range.

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Wren Troglodytes troglodytes Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Moderate increase – 9,750,000 – April–July 5–6; 2 broods 16; 15–19 days Average: 2; Oldest: 6 9–10cm; 10g

IDENTIFICATION

One of our smallest birds. Tiny, dumpy warm brown bird, energetic and always on the move. Has long thin bill and large feet. Small tail is often cocked above the back, and short neck gives the appearance of a small brown ball. Has reddishbrown upperparts and buff underparts, with delicate dark bars on close inspection. Has long pale stripe above eye. Flight is fast, straight and generally close to the ground. Wings are broad and rounded. See also: Treecreeper p248, Dunnock p270, Goldcrest p245.

HABITS

Constantly searching for food, but often inconspicuous as it hunts low among bushes, vegetation and in crevices in tree trunks, roots and rocks. Usually keeps close to the ground but will forage higher up and may sing from an elevated perch. Most Wrens defend territories throughout the year, but sometimes form communal roosts in cold winter weather. There are records of up to 63 using a single nest box and nearly 100 in an attic of a house near woodland.

VOICE

Call is loud tic-tic-tic that has a rattling quality. Song is powerful for such a diminutive bird, and it trembles as it sings a cascade of notes, generally ending with a loud and distinctive trill.

HABITAT

Occupies a wide variety of habitats in Britain and Ireland. Chief breeding habitat is deciduous and mixed woods, especially alongside streams. Also occurs on farmland, moorland, parks and gardens, cliff tops and offshore islands. In winter, many move into reedbeds.

Shetland race

FOOD

Wide range of insects and other invertebrates. Prey includes beetles, spiders, flies and their larvae, moth caterpillars and ants. Sometimes paddles to reach insects, small fish and tadpoles.

BREEDING

Male builds 5–8 nests in hollows, crevices or holes in banks, walls or trees. Nest is made from moss, leaves and grass and is a domed round structure with a hole in the side. Female chooses one nest and lines it with feathers and other material. Female incubates the eggs. Both adults feed the young, which are tended by their parents for 9–18 days after fledging. Some males in woodland may have two mates.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Many defend a winter territory, but breeding areas support fewer birds in winter and from August there is movement into other habitats, such as reedbeds. Most British and Irish Wrens travel only a short distance, usually towards the south. In mainland Europe, this movement is more marked, with northern Wrens migrating considerable distances.

CONSERVATION

Tiny body size makes Wrens vulnerable to severe winters with prolonged snow cover. Mortality can be very high in cold winters, but populations are able to bounce back in just a few years. This is one of several species breeding earlier in Britain, probably because of climate change, and it seems likely that a warming climate and especially milder winters might help Wren populations. The European population is stable.

DISTRIBUTION One of the most widespread species in Britain and Ireland; absent only in highest mountains. More abundant in the south and west of Britain and in Ireland. There are many races, including those on isolated island groups, such as St Kilda, Shetland and the Hebrides. Also breeds throughout mainland Europe (except in the far north), in Iceland, North Africa, the Middle East, and across Asia, to Japan and eastern Russia.

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Nuthatch Sitta europaea Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Strong increase – 250,000 – April–June 6–8; 1–2 broods 16–17; 24–25 days Average: 2; Oldest: 12 14cm; 24g male

IDENTIFICATION

Size of Great Tit. Resembles small chestnut-andblue woodpecker. Plump with long black pointed bill, rather large head, short neck, short, stiff tail and short, strong legs. Blue-grey upperparts, buff underparts, chestnut on flanks and broad black stripe running through eye to back of head. Juvenile like adult, with less chestnut on the flanks. Wings are rounded at the ends. See also: Blue Tit p215, Great Tit p214.

BREEDING

Nests in natural tree-holes and sometimes uses a hole in a wall or a nest box. To prevent larger birds entering the nest the female reduces the size of the entrance hole with plaster of mud. Nest cavity is filled with dead leaves or pieces of bark. Incubation is by the female. Young are fed in the nest by both adults.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

male Northern race

HABITS

At times is very vocal. Its feeding behaviour in trees is distinctive as it moves up and down branches and tree trunks with jerky movements often on the underside of branches. No other British bird goes down a tree trunk head first. Also feeds on the ground and on thin outer branches. Can be elusive at times as it feeds methodically on boughs and tree trunks. A resident pair will defend a winter territory and although they may accompany roving flocks of other species, they will not usually go far beyond their territory.

VOICE

Call is a loud tuit, tuit, tuit-tuit that becomes more strident when alarmed. This call is territorial and may be heard at any time of year. Also has a loud rattling pee, pee, pee, a slow trill that is most frequent in spring. Song is very varied and loud with whistling notes up and down the scale.

HABITAT

Found in deciduous woodland, mature woods, established parkland with old trees and mature gardens. Rarely nests in coniferous woodlands.

FOOD

Feeds mainly on insects such as small beetles, also spiders in summer. In autumn and winter, eats nuts and seeds, such as hazelnuts, acorns, yew seeds and pine cones. It gets its name from its habit of wedging the nut or seed in a crevice in the bark and hammering it open with its powerful bill. It will sometimes visit bird tables to feed on peanuts and other bird food. Sometimes, when seeds are abundant it hides them by wedging them in cracks in bark, or crevices, and covering them with moss or bark.

In Britain, individuals seldom travel far from the woodlands where they first hatched. Pairs remain in their territories for the whole year and young do not move far away. In some parts of mainland Europe, and in years of high population, there are irruptive movements and invasions of Nuthatches.

CONSERVATION

It declined in northern Britain in the 19th century, but since the 1970s numbers have risen, and it has expanded its range northwards. It first bred in the Scottish borders in 1989 and has gradually gained ground. Colonisation is slow because it is a sedentary species and any expansion is fuelled by the dispersal of juveniles. The remarkable upturn is driven by an increase in the number of young produced per breeding attempt, but the reason is less clear. Nuthatches seem to have benefited from warmer winter weather and possibly bird-feeding in gardens and from maturing and ageing deciduous trees in Britain. Plans to increase the planting of native deciduous trees would help this species in time. The European population is increasing strongly. The main threat is forest loss and fragmentation.

DISTRIBUTION It breeds in central and southern England, in Wales, and in southern and the central belt of Scotland. Most abundant in the south and west of Britain. Absent from Ireland. Breeds widely from southern Fennoscandia to the Mediterranean and North Africa, and east into the Middle East, and east and South East Asia.

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Treecreeper Certhia familiaris Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Stable – 210,000 – April–July 5–6; 2 broods 14; 15 days Average: 2; Oldest: 8 12.5cm; 10g

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Blue Tit. Mouse-like brown-and-white bird with long, downcurved bill and long, stiff, pointed tail feathers. Upperparts are mottled and barred brown with pale streaks. Underparts are clean white, and rump is a rich brown. Has ragged pale stripe over the eye, barring on wing, with buff wingbar. In flight, wings are long and rounded with the wing-bar sometimes obvious. Juvenile is almost identical to adult, but newly hatched birds still have some downy feathers on the body until early autumn. Curved bill, yellowish below and brown on top, legs pink. See also: Wren p246.

HABITS

Restless bird is never still, moves up (never down) a tree trunk or branch, often spiralling upwards from the base. Jerky movements are characteristic as it presses its tail against the wood for support and rapidly probes the bark for insects. Once at the top, or perhaps 16m up a tall tree, it flies down and repeats its search on a neighbouring tree. Generally solitary, but pairs sometimes stay together outside the breeding season. It will often join flocks of small birds, especially tits, which move through its winter territory. At night, they roost in crevices in tree trunks and sometimes form communal roosts in winter to keep each other warm. A favourite roost is on the trunks of a redwood tree (Wellingtonia) where they excavate oval hollows in the soft bark.

VOICE

Call is a thin, high-pitched, wavering tsee, tsee. Song is heard from February to April and again in autumn, a high-pitched trill followed by a warble that can be hard for some older human ears to hear!

HABITAT

Breeds in coniferous and deciduous woods throughout Britain and Ireland. Also breeds in small copses, parks and gardens with mature trees and may visit thick hedges in autumn and winter.

FOOD

BREEDING

Male selects potential nest sites. Female builds a nest behind loose bark or in some other cavity, such as behind ivy stems or on a building. Cavity is partly filled with small twigs or pine needles. A delicate nest cup is built of moss, spiders’ webs, fine grasses, hair, feathers and other soft material. Female incubates. Young are fed by both adults and are independent a week after fledging.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Resident in Britain and Ireland. It may leave its breeding territories in autumn, but most range no further than 20km. Some northern and eastern European Treecreepers are partial migrants and occasionally reach the Northern Isles.

CONSERVATION

The British population has been stable for the past 40 years, with ups and downs attributed to cold winter weather. An earlier crash in numbers was linked to the severe winter of 1962/63. Research shows that they are most sensitive to a combination of wet and cold winter weather, presumably limiting their feeding opportunities and affecting survival. An expansion in coniferous plantations is thought to have helped this species in recent decades. The provision of specially designed nest boxes can support Treecreepers, especially in younger plantations. The European population is stable. Threats in mainland Europe include habitat loss and fragmentation and the loss of old woodlands through modern forestry management.

DISTRIBUTION Lives in coniferous and deciduous woods throughout Britain and Ireland, apart from the Northern Isles. Breeds in central and northern Europe, across Russia and Asia, as far east as Japan. Scarce in the Low Countries, France and Spain, with isolated populations in coniferous forests in the mountains of southern Europe. There are other races in Asia.

Diet of insects includes stoneflies, crickets, earwigs, lacewings and various caterpillars. Some small seeds are eaten in winter, especially pine or spruce.

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Starling Sturnus vulgaris Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Strong decline – 1,650,000 – April–June 4–5; 1–2 broods 12–15; 21 days Average: 5; Oldest: 22 21.5cm; 78g

1st-winter

male

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Blackbird. Stocky, with pointed bill that is yellow in breeding season and dark in winter. Feet and legs change from brown to pink in spring. Feathers are blackish and tinged with an oily sheen, wing feathers have brown edges. juvenile In spring, male is less spotted and glossier than female, and yellow bill has a blue base. Fresh autumn plumage is spotted, but many spots wear away during late winter. Juvenile is plain grey-brown with pale throat, but quickly acquires partial and then later full spotted winter plumage. In flight, the wings appear triangular and the short tail is square-ended. See also: Blackbird p251.

HABITS

Has a jaunty walk. Flight is straight and direct. A gregarious bird. Outside the breeding season it feeds in groups and often forms large roosts in the evening, some roosts attract hundreds or thousands of birds, which frequently perform breathtaking synchronised aerial manoeuvres at dusk. Often bathes communally before roosting.

VOICE

Has a tcheerr call. Both sexes sing throughout the year. Song consists of harsh, rattling and bubbling notes, including wheezy warbling and musical whistles, and often incorporates calls of other birds, such as curlews and ducks, and can mimic barking dogs and car alarms. Song is often accompanied by a visual signal, when the throat feathers are ruffled and wings waved energetically in display.

fresh, autumn

completed by female. Both adults incubate, but female takes longer shifts. Young are fed by both parents in the nest and after fledging until they join summer flocks of young Starlings. Pairs may change mates between broods and some males mate with several females. Some females sometimes dump their eggs in another Starling’s nest.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Resident in Britain and Ireland. Young disperse after becoming independent and roam the countryside, sometimes in large flocks. Those in northern and central Europe, and from further east, are migratory. Some migrants reach Britain in autumn and leave again in spring.

CONSERVATION

A rapid decline of this once common bird is due mainly to changes in pastoral farming. Starlings rely on short sward, especially when feeding young. The change from mixed farming to arable has had an adverse effect. Drainage and insecticide use may have contributed, and the loss of nest sites in buildings may be important. The result has been a collapse in the number of young. Creating grassy field margins and retaining cattle-grazed, permanent pasture would help this species. In parts of Europe, the population has also decreased strongly, but in others it is stable or increasing.

HABITAT

DISTRIBUTION

FOOD

Widespread in Britain and Ireland, missing only from the uplands. Breeds across Europe from Fennoscandia to northern Iberia, eastwards into the Middle East, and across Asia. Northern and eastern populations are migratory. It has been introduced into North America, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand.

Feeds on open, short grassland that may be garden lawns, playing fields, parks and pasture. It exploits refuse sites, town squares, or the strand line by the sea. Nests in farms, villages, towns, and trees in open countryside and in woodlands. Probes for cranefly larvae (leatherjackets) and worms in turf, but also eats spiders, caterpillars and other invertebrates. It will catch insects in the air, such as flying ants. In autumn and winter, it eats soft fruits and visits bird tables and feeders.

BREEDING

Nests in holes in trees, rocks and buildings. Male builds an untidy nest of leaves and grasses that is

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Ring Ouzel Turdus torquatus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Strong decline – 7,300 – April–June 3–5; 1–2 broods 13–14; 12–16 days Average: 2; Oldest: 9 23–24cm; 110g

IDENTIFICATION

Similar size to Blackbird, but slimmer, more elegant and has longer wings. Bill is yellow with black tip. Male is sooty-black with whitish crescent on upper breast and silver-grey panel on closed wing. Faint scaly marks on flanks and under tail. In late summer, has pale tips to many of the body feathers, giving a scaly look, especially on underparts. Female is brown with duller white crescent on breast and scaly marks on underparts. After moult the crescent may be obscured. Juvenile lacks pale crescent and is spotted like a juvenile Blackbird, but less rufous, with scaling on underparts and pale edges to wing feathers. First-year bird may also lack pale crescent, but scaling and pale wings are distinctive. In flight, wings appear paler than body. See also: Blackbird p251.

HABITS

Less approachable than Blackbird, often taking flight a good way from the female observer, 1st-year fresh, but fiercely autumn protects its nest. On the ground, it is more upright than Blackbird. May be loosely colonial when nesting and seen singly or in groups when migrating. On territory, it sings from a prominent perch, likely a rock or boulder, and sometimes rival males will sing against each other.

VOICE

Call is a hard tac, tac, tac like the clicking of stones together. Song is strong and fluty as it sings a few notes, pauses and sings another phrase. Quality is like the song of a Mistle Thrush.

HABITAT

Breeds in gullies on moorland and in mountains, also around hill farms, fringes of forestry plantations and in old quarries. Nest site is frequently near water. On migration, it regularly stops over on open female areas of short grass near the coast or inland, and on traditional inland sites, such as steep chalk hillsides with short natural turf, often with dense shrubs and cover nearby.

male

male

FOOD

In summer, feeds on beetles and their larvae, flies and other insects. Also eats worms and spiders and other invertebrates. Feeds on berries such as elder, hawthorn, white-bryony and blackberry.

BREEDING

Nest site is in a crag, gully or rocky outcrop, or it may be on the ground, or even a low bush. Occasionally a nest may be below ground level, in an old mine. Incubation is mostly, but not exclusively, by the female. Both parents care for the young.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

British breeding birds return in April, arriving on the south or east coasts or at some traditional inland sites, or they fly direct to their breeding territories. In May and again in autumn, passage migrants from breeding populations in Fennoscandia visit the south and east coasts in variable numbers, depending on weather conditions and the prevailing winds.

CONSERVATION

This species has retreated to the remote uplands as its range has shrunk. Afforestation in the uplands has removed previously suitable habitat and grazing pressure may have removed favoured sources of late summer food too. Low survival rates, particularly of first-year birds but also adults, along with climate warming, have been suggested as the primary causes for the ongoing declines. Specifically, increasing summer temperatures have been linked to population declines, though the mechanisms remain unclear. In addition, there is growing recreational disturbance in the uplands, and an increase in the frequency of moorland burning, both of which might have negative impacts on breeding birds. Although the information across Europe is patchy, population trends appear to be stable.

DISTRIBUTION Breeds in upland areas of Wales, Scotland, south-west England, the Pennines, the Cheviots, North York Moors and parts of western Ireland. Occurs widely on migration, especially on chalk downland and coastal areas. Also breeds in Fennoscandia, with other races in the mountains of southern and eastern Europe and the Middle East. Birds from Europe winter around the Mediterranean and North Africa, with many wintering in the Atlas Mountains.

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Blackbird Turdus merula Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Moderate increase – 4,850,000 – March–July 3–5; 2–3 broods 14; 14 days Average: 3; Oldest: 21 24–25cm; 100g

IDENTIFICATION

Larger than Starling. Plump with round head, medium-length tail and long dark grey legs. Male is matt black with yellow bill and yellow eye-ring. Firstyear male is dull black with paler, browner flight feathers and horn-coloured bill. Female is dark midbrown with darker wings and tail, and obscure darker streaks on the breast but can be mottled or slightly spotted. Juvenile is like female but more rufous-brown and with streaks or spots on both upperparts and underparts. Spotting on Blackbirds can sometimes cause confusion with thrushes, but the latter always have pale underparts with dark spots. Juvenile moults body feathers between July and October, but main flight feathers are retained until the following year. See also: Ring Ouzel p250. juvenile

female

HABITS

Flight direct and lands with a characteristic raising of the tail and wings slightly drooping. Tends to be territorial throughout the year, though migrating Blackbirds are relatively gregarious. Feeds under or close to cover as it flicks over leaves in search of food. On sunny days it may be seen ‘sunbathing’ with wings spread, feathers ruffled, bill open and eyes closed. Sings from a prominent high perch, often in trees, or a rooftop or television aerial, in rural and urban areas.

VOICE

Noisy species with a beautiful, mellow song that is a slow, clear warble, which often tails off at the end of each phrase. If alarmed or disturbed, it makes a loud scolding tchook-tchook-tchook. At dusk, many will give nervous chink, chink, chink calls. Sings mainly between March and July.

HABITAT

Adaptable species. Primarily a woodland bird that also lives in gardens, parks and farmland with hedgerows, shelter belts and copses.

male

male

male 1st-year

Plant food includes berries from hawthorn, elder, ripe fruit, such as fallen apples and pears, and kitchen leftovers. Attracted to bird tables and seed feeders, often feeding below them, and mopping up the scraps.

BREEDING

Nesting may begin in February in mild weather. Female mainly constructs the nest, which is a cupshaped structure of grass, straw and small twigs, plastered on the inside with mud and lined with fine grasses. Builds in a bush or small tree. Female incubates, and young are fed by both adults. On leaving the nest the brood is split between the two adults, with the male generally caring for his group longer than the female, which may begin a new brood.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Most breeding Blackbirds in Britain are resident, but in northern and eastern Europe it is a summer migrant. Some of these migrants reach Britain in autumn and stay until early spring. A proportion of British breeding Blackbirds are also migrants and some fly south into Europe or move within Britain.

CONSERVATION

Populations fell in the 1970s and 1980s but are now recovering. The dip coincided with rapid changes in farming, designed to increase food production, but harmful to wildlife. These may have reduced food supplies and removed feeding and nesting habitat. Woodlands may also have become less suitable due to drainage plus pesticide and herbicide drift. Traditional management is also less common and tree stocks are maturing. The European population is also increasing.

DISTRIBUTION Found throughout Britain and Ireland, most abundant in southern England and Ireland. Numbers are low on moors and uplands and absent from the mountains. Breeds throughout Europe and parts of Russia. Other races occur in southern Europe, North Africa and Asia.

FOOD

Eats insects, worms and berries. Eats earthworms all year round, if the soil is damp. Other invertebrates include insect larvae, caterpillars, beetles and snails.

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Fieldfare Turdus pilaris Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Strong decline Uncertain 0–1 680,000 May–July 5–6; 1–2 broods 11–14; 12–15 days Average: 2; Oldest: 18 25.5cm; 100g

IDENTIFICATION

The size of a Blackbird. Large, plump, stylish grey thrush with rather long tail. Grey head with dark streaks on crown, white eye-stripe, long pale grey rump, chestnut upper back and wings, and black tail and flight feathers. Breast is yellow-orange and heavily spotted. Long dark legs. In flight, underwing shows white. Adults moult between June and September, before leaving breeding area. See also: Mistle Thrush p253.

FOOD

Insects and their larvae, worms and other invertebrates. Plant material is chiefly berries, especially from rowan, juniper, elder, hawthorn and holly.

BREEDING

Nest is cup-shaped and mostly built by the female from twigs and roots, lined with mud and with an inner lining of finer material. Incubation is by the female and both adults feed the young, which become independent at about 30 days.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Mainly a winter migrant to Britain and Ireland, most birds arriving in October or early November, with more arriving in midwinter, and leaving between March and May. Flocks are nomadic and may fly further south if food is in short supply or in response to severe weather.

CONSERVATION

HABITS

On the ground, it has an upright stance. Flight appears leisurely with loose wingbeats alternating with short glides. A winter visitor in Britain and Ireland, it is generally seen in small to medium-sized noisy flocks, with larger numbers gathering when migrating. Winter flocks are nomadic as they travel in search of food, devouring berry crops in hedgerows before moving on. They sometimes travel with and feed alongside the slightly smaller Redwings and Starlings. At dusk in winter, large roosts gather in thick hedges and other dense cover. When breeding it may nest singly but often in small colonies. Individuals use well-aimed defecation to deter predators from approaching a nest!

VOICE

Call is a loud chacker, chack, chack and a nasal ee-eep often given in flight. Song is a rather feeble warble with several hard, harsh notes, and not often heard in Britain or Ireland.

HABITAT

In winter, feeds along hedgerows and in orchards. It may be seen in open places, such as pastures and other areas of short grass and on arable fields. Feeding sites are often close to woodland and tall hedges. In Fennoscandia, it breeds in scrub, coniferous woodlands and in parks. In Britain, the few that nest have been in moorland valleys, birch woods and the fringes of coniferous plantations.

For a time, it seemed that this species was set to colonise Britain. It first bred on Orkney in 1967 and possibly in County Durham in the same year. The number of nesting pairs grew slowly in Scotland and England, to reach its peak of 13 possible pairs in 1991. Breeding numbers have subsequently varied erratically but fallen, and it only breeds very occasionally now. Part of this variation is down to the sheer difficulty of finding nesting birds in these oftenremote upland forests. Once nesting is suspected, there is little that conservationists can do. It is on the edge of its southern range when nesting in Britain. The European population is declining. While we can’t be sure, it seems likely that climate change and warming may affect their breeding populations.

DISTRIBUTION Occasional breeder in Britain. Birds seen in summer are usually in northern England or Scotland. In winter, they are widespread with migrating birds occurring almost anywhere, but most abundant in the lowlands of Scotland, central and southern England and eastern Ireland. This species has a very wide range, breeding in central Europe, Fennoscandia, and across most of Russia and into neighbouring Asian countries.

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Mistle Thrush Turdus viscivorus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Moderate decline – 150,000 – March–June 3–5; 2–3 broods 15–16; 14–17 days Average: 3; Oldest: 21 27cm; 130g

IDENTIFICATION

Larger than Song Thrush with longer wings and tail. Cold grey-brown upperparts, paler on the rump, large bold, blotchy spots on whitish breast and white tips to outer tail feathers. Pale-edged feathers create a pale panel on the closed wing and the cheeks are pale with darker vertical marks. Long pinkish legs, strong pointed black-tipped beak. In flight, underwing is white. Juvenile has pale head and pale spots on its upperparts. Adults moult between May and September, and moult may begin before they have finished nesting. See also: Song Thrush p254, Fieldfare p252.

FOOD

Feeds on insects, especially beetles, earthworms, slugs, snails and other invertebrates. Also takes plant material, especially fruits and seeds. Favourite berries include yew, hawthorn, rowan and holly.

BREEDING

Nesting may begin in February. Nest site is usually in a fork of a tree or shrub. Female builds a cup-shaped nest of grass, roots and leaves with some earth, and lines it with finer grasses. Incubation is mostly by the female. Both adults feed the young and continue to care for them for 14 days after fledging.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

juvenile

In Britain and Ireland, it is mostly resident, but groups may be nomadic in winter. After breeding, small flocks move around the countryside in search of food. Many first move onto moorland in search of rowan berries. Most birds seldom move more than 50km, but some from Scotland may reach France. Birds from northern Europe winter in southern Europe and around the Mediterranean, but only a few appear to cross the North Sea to reach Britain.

CONSERVATION

HABITS

On the ground, it is very upright and usually feeds in the open, away from cover. Sings from the tops of tall trees and other exposed perches, and is often the only bird singing during stormy conditions. Flight is strong but deeply undulating at low levels. Outside the breeding season it is often in small groups. A bold and often aggressive thrush. An individual or a pair will sometimes vigorously defend a food source, such as a berry-bearing tree in winter.

VOICE

Call is a loud rattling, given when the bird is alarmed, but also when travelling in flocks. Song is powerful and loud, rather like a Blackbird, but louder with pronounced and slower repeated song phrases and pauses between them.

HABITAT

Requires open woodland and other areas where there are tall trees for nesting and for songposts, and short grass for feeding. This habitat is widespread in Britain and Ireland. After nesting it travels more widely in search of food, including farmland and moorland.

The Mistle Thrush population has fallen steadily since 1970 and that decline continues. It is red listed in the UK on account of the scale of that decline. As in the case of the Song Thrush, the downturn is linked to reduced survival of juveniles, but the causes are not well understood. Land use and climate change are obvious candidates, but more research is needed to better understand this species. The European population is stable.

DISTRIBUTION Widespread in Britain and Ireland in both summer and winter. Absent from the Northern Isles, the Outer Hebrides and the high mountains of Scotland. This species has an extremely large range, breeding from Fennoscandia to the Mediterranean, through central Europe, parts of North Africa, the Middle East and into central Asia, including the Himalayas.

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Song Thrush Turdus philomelos Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Moderate increase – 1,200,000 – March–July 3–5; 2–3 broods 14–15; 14–15 days Average: 3; Oldest: 17 23cm; 83g

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Blackbird. Stocky spotty thrush with relatively short tail, medium-brown upperparts and small black spots all over buff breast and flanks. Long pink legs and dull brown pointed bill. There is slight buff wing-bar. Differs from superficially similar Mistle Thrush in smaller size, plain face pattern, browner plumage, smaller spots, plain brown tail and orange underwing, which shows in flight. Recently fledged juvenile has pale streaks on its upperparts. See also: Mistle Thrush p253, Redwing p255.

juvenile

FOOD

In dry weather, it specialises in feeding on snails, which it opens by hitting them against a hard object, an ‘anvil’. Generally prefers to eat earthworms, caterpillars and other insects, particularly beetles, and fruits, especially berries, in autumn.

BREEDING

Female builds nest of twigs, grass and moss, lined with a smooth layer of mud in a tree or shrub, usually close to the trunk. Incubation is mainly by the female and both adults feed the young. Out of the nest, parents may split care of brood, but young are soon independent. Sometimes, in the south of Europe, it has a third or fourth brood.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

In Britain and Ireland, it is both resident and migrant. The proportion that migrates decreases in the south. Many from Scotland and northern England winter in Ireland, and some from southern England winter in France, Spain and Portugal. Many that breed in Fennoscandia pass through Britain as they head south in autumn; others from Belgium and the Netherlands will winter in Britain and Ireland.

CONSERVATION

HABITS

Secretive and unobtrusive most of the time but conspicuous when singing. Rather upright thrush that flicks its wings when excited or agitated. Territorial during the breeding season and many British and Irish males maintain the same territories during winter. Outside the breeding season usually seen singly, except for loose flocks of migrants. Flight strong and direct without the undulations of Mistle Thrush flight. Sings from prominent songpost, often a small tree or bush, lower than a singing Mistle Thrush.

VOICE

Far-carrying musical song comprises a series of short phrases, each repeated 3–5 times. Pattern of song is distinctive as individuals may have 100 phrases. Sings by day and at dusk, and sometimes at night near streetlights. It sings from March to July and again briefly in autumn and during mild winter weather. Flight call is a thin tsic, not as hard as a Robin’s tic alarm note. It can sometimes be heard on autumn nights as migrants pass over.

There was a wide-scale population decline in Britain from the 1970s to the 1990s, but numbers have stabilised and there has been a partial recovery in recent years. The number of young successfully fledging to survive the first winter fell as a result of a shortage of good nesting habitat and good food supplies. Those changes have been linked to farming practices, particularly land drainage and increased pesticide use, changes in hedgerow and woodland management, and increasing predation. Incentives for farmers to improve and replant hedgerows and put semi-natural habitat back into farmland may have helped this species. Song Thrushes are also susceptible to cold weather, so a run of milder winters may also have helped their recovery. In Europe, the population is increasing.

DISTRIBUTION Very widespread in Britain and Ireland in summer and winter. This species has an extremely large range, breeding in central and northern Europe, and east into Russia and Asia. In winter, it is found around the Mediterranean, parts of North Africa and the Middle East.

HABITAT

Found in a variety of habitats where there are trees and bushes: gardens, parks, coniferous and deciduous woodlands, copses and hedgerows. Often feeds under trees, bushes and hedgerows, and is seldom far from cover.

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Redwing Turdus iliacus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Moderate decline Variable and uncertain 24 650,000 May–June 4–5; 2 broods 12–13; 10–15 days Average: 2; Oldest: 17 21cm; 63g

IDENTIFICATION

Slightly smaller and more slender than Song Thrush with rusty-red flanks and underwings, creamy-white stripe over the eye and pale stripe below cheek. Upperparts are dark brown, and the yellow-buff breast is heavily streaked. Lower belly and undertail are white. Two races are seen: the Icelandic race is darker and more heavily streaked, the Fennoscandian race lighter. Juvenile has buff spots on back and first-year birds retain pale tips to some of the wing feathers. The red on the flanks may be hidden under the folded wings. In flight, the slightly pointed wings and flight silhouette are sometimes reminiscent of a Starling. See also: Song Thrush p254.

HABITS

Generally rather shy. Much of its behaviour is like Song Thrush, but it is much more sociable outside the breeding season, with small to large flocks migrating and feeding together, and large communal roosts develop in suitable habitats. Will feed and roost with other thrushes in winter, especially Fieldfares.

1st-year fresh, autumn

FOOD

In Britain and Ireland, newly arrived autumn migrants feed on fruit, such as windfall apples, and a wide variety of berries, especially hawthorn. As supplies of fruits are exhausted it switches to feed on earthworms and other invertebrates. In summer, it feeds on worms, snails, slugs and insects.

BREEDING

Nest may be in a tree, a low bush or on the ground. Female builds a cup-shaped nest of grasses, twigs and moss. Female incubates and both parents feed young. They continue to be fed for about 14 days after fledging, and the male continues feeding while the female starts another brood.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Northern populations move on a broad front between September and November. Icelandic birds tend to winter in Scotland and Ireland, while those from Fennoscandia and further east winter in southern Britain and further south in Europe. Wintering flocks roam widely. Migrants may winter in quite different areas in different years.

CONSERVATION

The Redwing was first discovered breeding in Sutherland in 1925. Numbers reached a peak of about 50 pairs in 1989, since when it appears to have declined again. It was red listed on the strength of a dwindling breeding population. Nesting mostly in the Highlands of Scotland, it is on the edge of its southern breeding range in Britain. Numbers recorded each year are variable, partly reflecting the number of birdwatchers visiting prime nesting areas. The European population of Redwing is decreasing. Declines in Britain and mainland Europe are not well understood. Climate change and severe cold weather have affected birds in the breeding season and in winter. Climate warming is most likely to affect birds at their southern range edge.

DISTRIBUTION VOICE

Soft thin seeip call, usually given in flight. It is frequently heard after dark during migration and is often the first sign of their arrival in Britain in autumn. The short song, seldom heard in Britain, consists of jumbled notes and is thrush-like in tone.

HABITAT

In autumn, frequents hedges and orchards. Later in winter, feeds in more open areas of short grass. Visits farmland, parks and large gardens. Roosts in thick hedges and scrub. In Scotland, breeds in scrubby areas near water and in conifer plantations. In mainland Europe, it breeds in forest bog, birch and willow scrub, and in wooded parks and gardens.

Widespread in Britain and Ireland between October and March, with the greatest concentrations being in western and southern England and in Ireland. There is a very small population breeding in Scotland and sporadically in England. Breeds very widely from Iceland, Fennoscandia, north-east Europe and right across Russia. In winter, it is found across most of western and central Europe, reaching the Mediterranean and North Africa.

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Nightingale Luscinia megarhynchos Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Strong decline – 5,550 – May–June 4–5; 1–2 broods 14; 11–13 days Average: 2; Oldest: >10 16.5cm; 21g

IDENTIFICATION

Larger than Robin and thrush-like, often easier to hear than to see. Plain warm brown plumage with reddish-brown rump and tail, and grey-brown underparts that are paler and whiter on the throat and undertail. Long pinkish legs. Juvenile is spotted and mottled, more like juvenile Robin, but with rather long rufous tail. See also: Redstart p263, Robin p257.

juvenile

FOOD

Mainly invertebrates with some plant material, especially berries, eaten in autumn. Insect food includes beetles, ants and flies, most of which are caught on the ground among undergrowth.

BREEDING

Female builds a bulky nest of grass and leaves lined with finer, softer materials. Site is usually on, or just off, the ground. Incubation is by the female. Young are cared for and fed by both parents and become independent 2–3 weeks after leaving the nest.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Arrives in Britain in April and leaves between July and September. European migrants mainly travel south-west towards the Mediterranean. From Europe it is possible they overfly both the Mediterranean Sea and the Sahara Desert. They appear to return by a more easterly route.

CONSERVATION

HABITS

Skulking and secretive. Can be surprisingly difficult to observe even when it is singing strongly from inside shrubs close to an observer. Less shy in southern Europe where it is more numerous and occurs in more open habitats. Spends a lot of time on or near the ground in dense cover, sometimes resembling a large Robin. Often appears erect on straight legs and tail cocked. It moves with large hops with frequent flicking of wings and cocking of tail. Can usually be seen, even if obscured by vegetation, with patience and care.

VOICE

Song is a remarkably rich, mellow series of notes that is delivered powerfully at night, when it is most obvious, but also frequently heard during the day. It is loud and fluty and there are recurring phrases, including a distinctive rapid chook, chook, chook, chook and a plaintive pioo, pioo. Song is normally heard between April and early June. Call is a soft hweet similar to but louder than a Chiffchaff. Also has a hard tacc, tacc call.

HABITAT

Breeds in a variety of habitats including dense hedges, thickets, low scrub, coppice woodlands and young conifer plantations. All these places have thick vegetation and are often near rivers, streams, lakes and pools. It avoids dense woodlands, preferring woodland edge. It winters in African woodland and scrub.

The species’ range in Britain contracted during the 20th century, and both range and numbers have continued downwards, with populations becoming increasingly isolated. The Nightingale is at the northerly edge of its range in Britain. It has suffered from wide-scale habitat loss and habitat degradation on its breeding grounds here and may face challenging conditions on its migration route and wintering areas in Africa. The loss of thickets and scrub in the landscape in Britain, along with increasing deer numbers and grazing pressure in woodlands, and maturing forests with less management, are all thought to be significant negative factors. Proactive management of woodland nature reserves, involving coppicing and control of deer numbers to promote understorey vegetation, is known to benefit this species. Sites with significant numbers need to be fully protected. The European population appears to be stable, with increases noted in parts of the range.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain, mainly found south-east of a line from the rivers Humber to Severn; is especially abundant in Kent, Sussex and Essex. Absent from Ireland. Breeds in central and southern Europe and North Africa, east into the Middle East and western Asia. Winters in a band across central Africa from west to east.

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Robin Erithacus rubecula Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Moderate increase – 6,650,000 – April–June 4–5; 2–3 broods 15; 13–16 days Average: 2; Oldest: 19 14cm; 18g

IDENTIFICATION

Size of House Sparrow. Familiar bird with a body shape that can vary from rotund to sleek. Upperparts are olive-brown, forehead, face, neck and breast are orange-red. A band of grey-blue separates the orange breast from brown upperparts, has clean white belly and undertail. Large dark eye is prominent, bill short and thin, and dark pink or flesh-coloured legs are long. Juvenile lacks orangered breast and is heavily spotted and speckled until its first moult and has light brown wing-bar. Adults moult June to September. Juveniles have partial moult into adult plumage when 6–7 weeks old. See also: Bullfinch p281, Chaffinch p278, Redstart p263, Dunnock p270.

winter. Invertebrates include spiders, beetles, sawflies, other flies and worms. Fruits include berries from elder, bramble and rowan. Seeds include grain. Will readily visit bird tables and garden feeders.

BREEDING

Nests are built by female and consist of leaves, moss and grass. Nest site is usually quite low in a hollow in a bank, tree stump, among tree roots, or an artificial site, such as a gap in a wall or a shelf in a garden shed. Incubation is by the female. Both parents feed young, but male continues alone if female starts another brood. Young become independent 16–24 days after fledging.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

In Britain and Ireland, it is mainly sedentary with most not moving more than 5km. However, there is also some migration south-westwards in autumn, with individuals reaching Spain or Portugal. Other European Robins migrate further, especially from northern Europe. Some arrive along the British east coast between August and November, occasionally in large numbers, and stay for the winter.

CONSERVATION

HABITS

juvenile

On the ground, moves in a series of hops, sometimes with wings drooped. In Britain and Ireland, generally rather tame, but less so in other parts of Europe. Defends a territory all the year round. Males and females hold separate territories in winter, the female usually travelling the farthest from its breeding site. A few records (mostly from eastern Scotland) of communal winter roosts. Robins have elaborate courtship displays, when the red breast of the male is used as a visual signal to attract females and ward off rivals.

Robins are sensitive to severe cold winter weather, yet their population is increasing, helped by improved productivity. There are no special conservation measures in place to help Robins in Britain and Ireland. In Europe, there have been concerns about the level of hunting for food around the Mediterranean, but the impact on the population is unclear, and numbers in Europe are estimated to be fresh, autumn increasing.

VOICE

Call is an urgent tic, tic and high-pitched tsweee. Sings almost throughout the year (sometimes at night near streetlights). Song is varied and melodious and takes two distinct forms. After autumn moult, the song is rather sad and wistful, but from around Christmas it becomes stronger, faster and more vigorous. A rich musical warbling.

HABITAT

Breeds in woods and copses with plenty of undergrowth. Also found in dense hedges, mature gardens, parks, and other shrubby places and sometimes in more open country and farmland.

DISTRIBUTION Found throughout Britain and Ireland, but most abundant in the south. Breeds across Europe, from the Arctic Circle south to the Mediterranean and in North Africa, western Russia and the Middle East. Some northern and eastern populations winter around the Mediterranean basin and in the Middle East.

FOOD

Hunts from a perch, watching for movements, or when hopping on the ground. Mostly eats invertebrates in summer and some fruits and seeds in

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Bluethroat Luscinia svecica Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

IDENTIFICATION

Robin-like but more upright, with longer tail and legs. Dark brown with buff underparts, a prominent white stripe over the eye and bright chestnut-orange sides to the base of tail. In spring, male has bright blue throat bordered with narrow bands of black, white and chestnut. Throat pattern varies with race, with those from northern Europe having a red spot, and those from the south having a white spot. Males in autumn show varying amounts of blue and chestnut. Females have pale throat with black breast-band and sometimes a hint of blue. Juvenile is spotted like juvenile Robin, but with rusty-red at the base of the tail. See also: Robin p257, Redstart p263. male summer

female 1st-winter

Not assessed – – 0 – April–May 5–7; 1–2 broods 13–14; 14 days Oldest: 11 14cm; 20g

male summer red-spotted race

female summer

Europe, or freshwater and brackish marshes, reedbeds and other wetland areas further south.

FOOD

Mainly eats beetles, spiders, moth caterpillars and a variety of other invertebrates. Also eats berries.

BREEDING

A very rare breeding species in Britain. Nest is on the ground among dense vegetation. It is a cup of grass, leaves, moss and roots, built mostly by female. Incubation is mainly by female, but with some help from the male, and both parents feed the young. ‘White-spotted’ are sometimes double-brooded.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Most arrive in Britain or Ireland in spring or autumn. In spring, from as early as March, the largest numbers visit the east coast including the Northern Isles. In autumn, the Northern Isles still dominate but there are also more along the south and east coast of England. Most breeding birds from Fennoscandia migrate to Africa, but some go south-east, probably to Pakistan or India.

CONSERVATION

male summer white-spotted race

HABITS

Often skulks and feeds on the ground, usually among thick vegetation. Even on migration, searches out crops and other vegetated areas and, if disturbed, will often fly a short distance before dropping back to hide in cover. On the ground, tends to flit from feeding area to feeding area. Hops like a Robin and often cocks tail and droops its long wings. With a little fieldcraft, Bluethroats may hop out into the open to feed and show off their amazing blue throats.

VOICE

Call is short, hard tacc, tacc or a plaintive warblerlike hweet. Song may be given from a perch or in a short songflight and is a clear, repeated zruu, zruu, zruu accelerating and ranging up and down the scale. Mimics other species and other sounds.

HABITAT

In Britain, usually coastal, arriving as a passage migrant on the east and south coast, and seeking out scrub, gardens and grassy areas. Increasingly, also seen in spring and summer at inland wetland sites. Breeding habitat is either wet birch forest in northern

A few males sometimes hold territories in Britain each spring. Successful breeding was confirmed in the 1990s, and most recently in Scotland in 2016. The few that attempt to nest here need safeguarding and sites are generally secret. The population of the whitespotted form in the Netherlands has risen rapidly in recent decades. Here, it favours large wetlands, often nature reserves, and the prospect of (white-spotted) Bluethroats colonising Britain is very real. The population has declined in northern Europe, while in central and southern Europe it is stable or growing.

DISTRIBUTION Regular passage migrant to Britain and rare breeding bird. Most visit the Northern Isles or the south and east coasts of Britain. Very rare in Ireland. British breeding attempts in Scotland, northern England and East Anglia. This species has an extremely large range, breeding from Fennoscandia south to central Spain, across Europe and eastwards through Asia, and into Alaska. Winters in Africa, the Middle East, India and South East Asia.

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Spotted Flycatcher Muscicapa striata Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Strong decline – 38,500 – May–August 4–5; 2 broods 13–15; 13–16 days Average: 2; Oldest: 11 14.5cm; 17g

IDENTIFICATION

Size of House Sparrow. Small, dark bill is long and wide, the head quite rounded and the wings and tail rather long. Grey-brown upperparts, off-white underparts, streaks on breast and fine streaking on crown. There are pale edges to wing feathers. Very upright when perched. Sexes similar. Juvenile has more scaly or spotted appearance, rather like juvenile Robin. See also: Dunnock p270, Tree Pipit p275.

1stwinter

HABITS

Regularly hunts from a bare branch or other prominent position. Flies out, often chasing its prey erratically, and seizes a flying insect, before returning to the same perch or another close by. It can be tolerant of humans.

VOICE

Call is thin repeated tzee that has been likened to a squeaking wheelbarrow! Alarm is a sharper clicking eez-tchick. Song is rather quiet series of high-pitched notes and low, scratchy warbles.

HABITAT

Woodland glades and edges, large mature gardens and parks, with a mixture of mature trees and younger trees or bushes.

FOOD

Mainly feeds on flying insects, especially larger flies and also butterflies. In cooler weather, when large insects are not flying, it resorts to searching among foliage for aphids and smaller insects. Before laying their eggs, females may feed on calcium-rich food such as small snails and woodlice. Cool wet weather in spring can significantly reduce food availability and results in the loss of young.

BREEDING

Nest site is a natural or artificial ledge or niche where the nest is usually sheltered. Sites may be among ivy and other creepers on a tree trunk or a wall, in the old nest of another species or a specially made open-fronted nest box. The rather loose cup-shaped nest of twigs, grasses and roots is built by both sexes. The female incubates. Both adults feed the young until they leave the nest and the young remain dependent on their parents for 12–32 days after fledging. Some raise a second, smaller brood, especially in southern Britain.

juvenile

migrant, with most wintering south of the equator in tropical forests. Arrival in Britain depends on weather conditions in southern Europe. Our breeding birds start to leave in July and August. Birds from further east arrive in Britain as passage migrants in September.

CONSERVATION

Causes of the recent decline are not well understood. There may be problems in the wintering areas or on the migration routes, due to drought or the activities of humans. Equally, lower survival might reflect the changing quality of breeding habitat in Europe. Lower productivity has been linked to predation pressure in some habitats (Jay is the commonest predator), but could also be related to falling insect abundance and a lack of food. Changes in how our woodlands and farmlands are managed in Britain and Ireland may have impacted negatively on this species, especially perhaps increasing pesticide use. The European population is in moderate decline.

DISTRIBUTION Widespread in Britain and Ireland, but scarce in the far west of Ireland and the Scottish Islands. It breeds widely from Fennoscandia to the north coast of North Africa, and east into the Middle East and central Asia.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Summer migrant, with most returning in late May – one of the last migrants to return. A long-distance

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Pied Flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Moderate decline – 23,500 – April–July 6–7; 1–2 broods 13–15; 16–17 days Average: 2; Oldest: 10 13cm; 13g

IDENTIFICATION

FOOD

Feeds mainly on invertebrates and some fruits and seeds. Insect food includes caterpillars, flies, beetles, bugs and ants. Spiders and millipedes are also taken. male

BREEDING

Female builds nest in a hole in a tree, often an old woodpecker’s hole. Nest boxes are also readily used. Nest is a loose structure of leaves, grass, roots and moss. Incubation is by female. Both adults feed young. Some males have a second or third mate and brood. Such males feed the first brood but are less supportive to the others.

Slightly smaller than House Sparrow. Smaller and plumper than Spotted Flycatcher, with a proportionally shorter tail with female white edges. Adult male in spring is a striking black and white. Upperparts are mostly dull MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS black with a bold white patch on Summer migrant with males returning the folded wing and white spot ahead of females between mid-April above the bill. Underparts are white. and June. In August and September, After breeding, males moult into it makes a non-stop flight over the brown or grey plumage with blackish Sahara to West Africa, some stoprump and tail and buff underparts but ping off in Iberia where they mix retain the white in the wing and tail. Female with other Pied Flycatchers from elsewhere in resembles the non-breeding male but has Europe. They do the same big leap on the return leg a browner rump and tail. Juvenile resemof their journey from Africa. bles female in colour but has spots on upperparts and some speckling on underparts. Fine, dark bill and black legs. Moult sometimes CONSERVATION begins while the adults are feeding young in June This is another example of a woodland species that and is mostly completed before migration. See also: winters in humid West Africa that is in trouble. It has been helped locally in Britain by nest box schemes Pied Wagtail p271, Spotted Flycatcher p259. that provide suitable nest sites in woods where there HABITS is a shortage of natural holes or where the best Often cocks tail and flicks wings nervously. Darts out potential sites are used by resident species before from a perch to catch a fly, but, unlike Spotted Pied Flycatchers return in spring. Climate warming Flycatcher, it seldom appears to return to the same means this species is also threatened by earlier perch. Sometimes clings to branches like a tit and peaks of invertebrate populations, resulting in a occasionally feeds on the ground, especially when mismatch with their breeding season. Their fortunes the weather is poor. Can be obvious when nesting may relate to the poor state of our woodlands, but but after young leave the nest, they and their more likely they are caused by large-scale factors parents disappear quickly from the neighbourhood, outside the breeding season and, specifically, to feeding high in the canopy of trees or in dense changing conditions on the wintering grounds and shrubs, as they prepare to migrate. migration routes in Africa, related to climate change. The European population is in moderate decline.

VOICE

Call is a sharp whit and also a tic. Song is a simple series of rather sweet notes sueesuee-sweet-sweet.

HABITAT

Breeds in mature deciduous woodland, especially oak woods and sometimes birch woods with little undergrowth. Where numerous, it uses gardens and parks, often near streams and rivers. In other parts of its range, it nests in mixed or pine woodland.

DISTRIBUTION juvenile

Breeds mainly in western Britain and is especially abundant in Wales. Absent from Ireland. Breeds from northern Fennoscandia and across central and northern Europe, including in France and Spain, and on into Russia. Winters in western and central Africa in tropical forests.

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Red-breasted Flycatcher Ficedula parva Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Passage pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Not assessed – – – 136 – – – Insufficient data 11.5cm; 8.5–11.5g

male summer

IDENTIFICATION

The size of a Blue Tit. It is a small, dumpy flycatcher with a rounded head. Sits upright and habitually flicks its tail up and down and droops its wings. Black tail has two white patches at the side of the base. First-year males and females have drab brown upperparts, buff-white underparts, long, dark wings, and the distinctive tail pattern. Older adult males have a grey face and shoulders and an orange-red chin, but it may take the male between 2 and 4 years to acquire his full adult plumage. The eye is large and surrounded by a thin pale eye-ring. Fine, dark bill and black legs. First-winter birds in autumn show some buff spots forming a thin wing-bar. See also: Robin p257, Pied Flycatcher p271.

HABITS

This species likes to find sheltered copses and valleys with bushes and trees and can be secretive on migration. It sometimes catches flies from a prominent perch like a typical flycatcher. It frequently flicks its wings and cocks its tail above its back. It is usually seen singly. On its breeding grounds, it lives in the high canopy of tall trees.

VOICE

The usual call is a rattling note, rather like a Wren’s. It also makes a loud, sharp chick.

1st-winter

BREEDING

It does not breed in Britain or Ireland. In its native woodlands, it builds a nest on the side of a tree. It lays 5 or 6 eggs that are incubated by the female. The young leave the nest after 11–15 days.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

These birds arrive on their breeding grounds in May and June and leave again in August and September. This species occurs as a scarce passage migrant to Britain and occasionally to Ireland. A few are seen in spring as they apparently ‘overshoot’ their breeding grounds. Larger numbers arrive in autumn between August and November, with a peak in early October, either because their migratory journey has been reversed or they have been displaced by weather conditions. Nearly all are seen along the east and south coasts of England and Scotland, with concentrations on Shetland, Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly.

CONSERVATION

female

There is no special conservation measure for this rare migrant. Like all scarce migrants, these birds need coastal habitat and to be allowed to feed undisturbed after their arrival in the British Isles.

DISTRIBUTION HABITAT

A rare passage migrant in Britain. It visits mature trees in gardens and wooded valleys near the coast, or if no trees are available, it searches out sheltered quarries or gorges in cliffs. It breeds in mature deciduous woodland, often near water or in clearings in forests. It is also sometimes found closer to habitation in orchards and vineyards.

Small numbers reach Britain and other parts of western Europe in spring and more commonly in autumn. It breeds from Fennoscandia south to northern Turkey and east into western Russia and Asia. It winters in Pakistan and India.

FOOD

It may search for food in the tree canopy or catch prey on the wing. It feeds mainly on insects and other invertebrates such as flies, beetles, ants and spiders.

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Black Redstart Phoenicurus ochruros Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Moderate decline Uncertain 58 400 April–July 4–6; 2–3 broods 12–16; 12–19 days Oldest: 10 14.5cm; 16g

female

male

FOOD

Feeds on insects such as midges, small flies, aphids, moths, ants and beetles. Also takes spiders, worms, berries and seeds.

BREEDING

Nest site is a ledge, crevice or other hole in a rock or wall. Female builds a nest of grass and leaves, lined with hair, wool and feathers. Incubation is by the female. Both parents feed the young, which are cared for by their parents for 11 days after fledging.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

In different parts of its range, it is a migrant, a resident and a partial migrant. In Britain, nest sites are abandoned after breeding and it reaches its wintering areas in September and October. A few stay around British and Irish coasts. Passage migrants from further east arrive in October and November and again in March and April. Breeding birds are usually back on territory during April.

CONSERVATION

IDENTIFICATION

Similar size to Robin but usually slimmer with dark plumage. Males are slate-grey above, sooty black around the face and breast with white flashes on folded wings and orange-red sides to tail. Males are greyer in autumn. Female is uniform dusky greybrown with red tail. Juvenile is like female but with slight flecking and barring. Has many of the characteristics of Redstart, but plumage is darker and those in western Europe have no trace of red on their breasts. Adults moult between July and October, before migration. New feathers of male have pale fringes that give hoary appearance. Fringes wear away as breeding season approaches, revealing striking black plumage. See also: Redstart p263.

HABITS

Bright tail is constantly quivering. Commonly seen on the ground where it runs rather than hops, also regularly perches on buildings, sometimes high up, or rocks. Will often fly up, sometimes hovering for a moment, as it catches insects.

VOICE

Most common call is an urgent tucc, tucc. Song is a short warble with some metallic jangles at the end; heard from March to July and sometimes in late summer.

HABITAT

In Britain, a few pairs nest on cliffs but most on buildings in industrial or inner-city locations, such as power stations, railway stations and disused factories or warehouses. Also nests on other buildings and in quarries in rural areas. On migration and in winter, may be seen on rocky shores or below cliffs. In mainland Europe, it is found in rocky locations but very often in cities, towns and villages.

Gradually colonised Britain during the 20th century. First nested in an urban site in 1926, but colonisation of London bombsites after the Second World War was a turning point and it spread to other artificial sites as well as some coastal cliffs. There remains a small but healthy population in London of around 20 territories. The tiny breeding population has fluctuated and is thought to be in decline, but it is a bird that is easily overlooked. A larger population in winter appears to be going up, though this might juvenile reflect better recording. Some breeding sites are kept secret to prevent nest robbery and disturbance, but most pairs choose inaccessible places to nest. The European population is increasing. However, the redevelopment and regeneration of city centres across Europe has and continues to cause the loss of suitable breeding habitat.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain, breeds mainly in south-east England and the Midlands, with smaller numbers in Lincolnshire and East Anglia. Very rare in Ireland. Widespread but scarce in winter in southern Britain and south-east Ireland. Elsewhere, breeds in central and southern Europe and parts of North Africa. There are other races in Turkey, the Middle East and Asia. European birds winter in southern and western Europe, North Africa and the Middle East.

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Redstart Phoenicurus phoenicurus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

materials. Incubation is by the female. Both parents feed the young, although the female appears to provide most food. Young are independent 2–3 weeks after fledging.

Amber Stable – 135,000 – April–July 5–7; 1–2 broods 13–14; 16–17 days Average: 2; Oldest: 10 14cm; 15g

IDENTIFICATION

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

male

Similar size to Robin but slimmer with longer wings and longer tail that constantly quivers up and down. Tail and rump are a bright orange-red. Male in spring is striking, with blue-grey upperparts, black face and throat, white forehead and orange breast and flanks. Female has grey-brown upperparts and orange-buff underparts; warmer coloured than female Black Redstart. Juvenile is mottled like juvenile Robin, but with reddish tail. Adults moult between June and September, before autumn migration. After moult the bright colours are obscured by buff tips to the feathers that wear off in late winter, revealing the bright, fresh breeding plumage. See also: Black Redstart p262.

HABITS

Sings from prominent perches. At other times, is constantly on the move and often fluttering or hovering to catch insects in the air. Some actions are reminiscent of Robin but is more likely to be seen in trees and shrubs than on the ground. Can be hard to see among dappled leaves, but the constant activity, longish tail and slim rear body give a distinctive profile. Flight is gently undulating.

VOICE

Call a rather sweet, warbler-like hooweet. Song a loud warble ending with a distinctive mechanical jangle.

HABITAT

In Britain, breeds in the uplands of the west and north. Breeds in oak or mixed woodland, parkland, open hill country with scattered trees, and sometimes alongside streams and in rocky areas. In parts of Europe, it is also found in parks and town gardens.

FOOD

Insects, especially flies, beetles, moths and ants, but also a wide variety of other invertebrates, including spiders and worms. Also eats fruits from a variety of plants.

Summer migrant, returning in April and May and leaving in late August. Most European birds move south-west, although some from Fennoscandia take an eastern route around the Mediterranean. Largest numbers are on the move through Europe during September, female when migrants visit eastern Britain. From southern Europe, Redstarts cross into Africa, making a few hops as they move towards their wintering grounds in the West African Sahel.

CONSERVATION

A population crash in the late 1960s and early 1970s was due to severe drought conditions in the Sahel wintering area in Africa, but there has been subsequent recovery, at least in core parts of the range. Range losses continue in lowland sites in southern England and Scotland, where loss of hedgerows and change in woodlands may impact this species. Careful woodland management and provision of nest boxes can help its conservation in Britain. It is one of several long-distance migrant species that winter in the Sahel zone of West Africa to have shown declines. It seems likely juvenile that population fluctuations across Europe might be dictated by large-scale changes in the climate, especially in Africa. The European population is increasing.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain, found mainly in the north and west, especially in Wales where it is most abundant. It breeds in a few other places in central and southern England, and only very rarely in Ireland. Breeds across Europe, parts of North Africa, the Middle East, Russia and central Asia. Winters in central Africa.

BREEDING

Nest is in hole in a tree or some other crevice and nest boxes are often used. Nest built by female and consists of grass, moss and other local

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Whinchat Saxicola rubetra Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Strong decline – 49,500 – May–June 5–6; 1–2 broods 12–13; 14–15 days Average: 2; Oldest: 6 12.5cm; 17g

IDENTIFICATION

Slightly smaller and shorter-tailed than Robin. Slimmer than Stonechat with flatter head, longer wings, heavier bill, white sides to base of tail and black spotting above tail. Male has streaky brown upperparts, orange-brown breast, prominent white stripe above eye and smaller one below its dark cheeks. Female is duller, with buff eye-stripe and buff breast. Juvenile resembles female with less distinct eye-stripe and slightly spotted breast. Rapid flight usually low, and white base of tail is conspicuous. See also: Stonechat p265, Wheatear p266.

male summer

FOOD

juvenile

Eats invertebrates and some seeds. Mayflies, caddis flies, other flies, moths and their caterpillars, beetles, spiders, snails and worms are eaten. Plant food includes blackberries.

BREEDING

Female builds nest with male occasionally helping to select some material. Nest is a cup-shaped structure of grass, leaves and moss, often in an open site among long grass or bracken or sometimes off the ground, low in a bush. Incubation is by the female. Young are fed by both parents and leave the nest a few days before they can fly. They remain dependent on their parents until 28–30 days.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Summer migrant to Britain, arriving in April and May. Young leave their nest sites between July and mid-September and peak passage through western Europe is in September. Migrants concentrate in traditional areas in western France and northern Spain, or in Portugal and southern Spain. After breaking their migration to feed, they tend to make a single crossing of both the Mediterranean and the Sahara Desert. On return, however, many stop in North Africa before flying into Europe.

CONSERVATION

male summer

HABITS

Rather upright when perched and frequently bobs and flicks its tail and wings. Active, seldom sits still for long. Perches on tops of bushes, small trees and wires. Flies low to a new perch with a rather jerky flight. Usually seen singly or in pairs, but family groups may be obvious in late summer.

VOICE

Call is a sharp distinct tic, tic, similar to, but not as hard as that of a Stonechat. Song is a brief melodious warble.

HABITAT

Breeds on moorland edges, among bracken, in young forestry plantations with areas of grass, and a mosaic of short-grazed female grassland, prominent summer perches and thicker vegetation. Also found in some other rough grassland areas, including water meadows and upland farms, especially in the zone between farmland and bracken-covered upland slopes. Other less usual sites include railway embankments, industrial waste ground and colliery tips.

Once common throughout much of Britain, it has retreated from central and southern England. A general tidying-up of the countryside, changes to more intensive farmland practices, especially in grassland management, and overgrazing at nest sites have all combined to reduce the number of pairs. In addition, many tracts of young forests that were planted some decades ago and provided perfect nesting habitat for Whinchats have matured and are now unsuitable. Climate change might also affect its migration and African wintering areas. The European population is in moderate decline. Research in Switzerland shows that sympathetic management of upland meadows is critical to the bird’s survival and recovery.

DISTRIBUTION Most nest sites are in upland areas of northern and western Britain, with a few in Ireland. It is also found from Fennoscandia to northern Spain, in parts of the Middle East, and east into Russia. It winters in a central band across West to East Africa.

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Stonechat Saxicola rubicola Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Strong increase – 61,000 – March–June 5–6; 2–4 broods 15; 12–15 days Oldest: 8 12.5cm; 15g

IDENTIFICATION

Slightly smaller than a Robin. Like Whinchat, but plumper, with shorter wings, rounder head and no eyestripe. Male in spring has a smart black head with white patch on side of neck, white patch in wings, small white rump, juvenile dark brown back and orange-red breast. At other times the colouring of the male is more subdued and duller. Female lacks black head, has less obvious white neck-patch and browner, streaked back. Juvenile resembles a dull female, but with spotting and barring on breast and back. Adults moult between July and October. Only one period of moult; the colour change in late winter into breeding plumage is caused by the duller feather tips wearing away. See also: Whinchat p264, Siberian Stonechat p312.

HABITS

Perches upright and constantly flicks wings, spreads tail and is generally active and restless. In rapid flight, it appears large-headed and shorttailed and has been likened to a large bumblebee. Drops abruptly to the ground to feed. Perches on tops of bushes, especially gorse, small trees, and in crops. Usually seen singly or in pairs, and in Britain and Ireland pairs remain together outside the breeding season.

VOICE

Call is a hard hweet, chac, chac, often repeated, the last two notes being remarkably like two pebbles being knocked together (thus Stonechat). Variable song is rather like that of Dunnock and sometimes given during a short songflight.

HABITAT

Breeds on lowland heaths, coastal sites with plenty of gorse, dune systems, and in young conifer plantations with heather. Other sites include golf courses and railway embankments. More widespread in winter, occurring in many open habitats, including around wetlands and marshes on the coast and inland, and on farmland.

FOOD

Feeds mainly on insects, especially weevils, ichneumon flies, shield bugs, moths, caterpillars of butterflies and moths, and ants. Spiders, snails and worms are also eaten. Plant food includes seeds and blackberries.

male female

male

BREEDING

Female builds a nest among grasses, either in the open or, more often, under a gorse bush or another shrub. Sometimes the nest is off the ground in a bush. Nest is a rather untidy cup of grass of leaves and lined with hair, feathers and wool. Incubation is by female. Young are fed by both parents. Adults continue to feed the young for 4–5 days after they can fly. The male fresh, female will often move on to the next autumn brood while the male continues feeding the first for a further 5–10 days.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

It is a resident and partial migrant. Many British and Irish birds leave their summer territories and winter in coastal areas; others migrate to the Mediterranean basin. Some Stonechats from mainland Europe winter in Britain but most travel to the Mediterranean and North Africa.

CONSERVATION

Once far more common than now, the range contracted between the early 1970s and late 1980s due to the loss of semi-natural habitats in farmland and the maturation of plantation forests. The population, while variable, has increased strongly in recent decades in response to warmer winters. As a small-bodied insectivorous bird, Stonechats are hit hard by severe cold weather, and have benefited from a run of milder winters. It would benefit from more nature-friendly farming, with fewer pesticides, plenty of scrub and uncultivated land, and lower numbers of grazing animals. The European population is decreasing. Here, both land-use change, particularly habitat loss and degradation, and climate change are thought to impact the population.

DISTRIBUTION Breeds widely in the west and north of Britain and in Ireland, but is rarer in central and eastern England. In winter, it is more widespread, especially in the lowlands across Britain and Ireland. Also found across central, southern and eastern Europe, North Africa and into the Middle East, where other races occur. Some European breeding birds migrate to Africa for the winter.

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Wheatear Oenanthe oenanthe Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

male

Green Moderate decline – 165,000 – April–July 5–6; 2–3 broods 14; 15 days Average: 2; Oldest: 10 14.5–15.5cm; 24g

female

male

BREEDING

IDENTIFICATION

Larger than Robin. Upright, sleek bird with rather short tail. Has extensive area of white on rump and uppertail that terminates in a black ‘T’ shape. Head, neck and back of male is blue-grey, wings black and underparts white with an orange flush on breast. Black mask on face with white stripe over the eye and across forehead. After moulting it is browner but retains darker cheeks and pale stripe over the eye. Female is sandy brown with less well-marked face and browner wings. Juvenile is spotted or mottled on upperparts and breast. Brighter spring plumage is revealed as pale feather fringes are lost in spring. See also: Whinchat p264. male Greenland race (spring) male Greenland race (autumn)

Nest site is hole in a wall or rock face or a hole in the ground, such as a rabbit burrow. Female builds a rough cup of bracken, grass or leaves and lines with finer grass stems, moss and lichen. Incubation is by female. Both adults feed the young, which may leave the nest at about 10 days old. They become independent at 28–32 days.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Summer migrant. One of the first migrants to arrive between March and May. Most start to leave in August and migration is mainly at night. Movement is south-west through Europe on a broad front and many stop over on the North African coast before setting off again for their wintering grounds to the south. The slightly larger Greenland race has a remarkable migration that takes it from central Africa to Arctic breeding grounds, with a few passing through the British Isles. For many the return journey necessitates a 30-hour, 2,400km non-stop flight from Greenland to southern Europe or North Africa.

CONSERVATION

HABITS

An upright species. Feeds on the ground; active and restless and frequently bobs. Moves in a series of swift, short runs and perches on rocks and posts. Sometimes it flutters up to catch a flying insect. Mainly solitary or in pairs, but groups may form on migration, especially at coastal sites.

VOICE

Call is a hard chack, chack. Also has a pleasant warbling song that is given on the ground or during a short songflight.

HABITAT

Breeds mainly in the uplands in rocky and stony places, upland pastures with drystone walls, and on moorlands. Also breeds on short rabbit-cropped grasslands in lowland areas often in coastal regions, such as heaths and downland. On migration, it is more widespread, stopping in open grazed, bare and stony habitat, both inland on grasslands and cultivated land, and often near the coast.

FOOD

Mainly insects and other invertebrates. Individual items include beetles, springtails, moths and their caterpillars, flies, small snails, worms and berries from blackberry, rowan and elder.

Once abundant over much of Britain and Ireland, the Wheatear started to decline in about 1940. Habitat change and loss are the most likely factors to explain the waning population. Many old meadows have been ploughed up, grasslands ‘improved’ with the application of herbicides and fertilisers, outbreaks of myxomatosis in rabbits has allowed regrowth of vegetation, and prime habitat has been lost to afforestation in uplands. As a long-distance migrant, it is likely to be sensitive to climate change, both on its breeding grounds in the British Isles but also along its migration route and wintering grounds in sub-Saharan Africa. The European population is decreasing.

DISTRIBUTION Breeds mainly in western and northern Britain and western Ireland, with small numbers in southern and eastern England. Breeds throughout Europe and northern Asia, into Alaska. There are other races in southern Europe and North Africa and in Greenland and northeast Canada. All birds winter in central and eastern Africa; British birds winter in the Sahel of West Africa.

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Dipper Cinclus cinclus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Moderate decline – 12,700 – February–June 4–5; 1–2 broods 17; 21–22 days Average: 3; Oldest: 10 18cm; 64g

BREEDING

Nests are usually within 1m of running water and sites include riverbanks, ledges on rock faces, under waterfalls, riverside walls, tree roots, and especially holes and ledges under bridges. Domed nest of moss, grass and leaves is built by both adults and lined by female. Mainly the female incubates. If disturbed, young leave the nest from 13 days, and sometimes return to the nest to roost. Some males take a second mate, although these second families often produce fewer young.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Starling. Plump, rotund dark bird with short tail that is frequently cocked, and a habitual bobbing action. It is dark sooty-brown and black, with a striking broad white breast and throat, and chestnut band on lower breast and dark brown belly. When blinking, white eyelids are obvious. Wings are short and rounded, and it frequently flies fast and straight, just above the water along waterways. Juvenile is dark grey with brown feather margins, creating scaly-looking upperparts and wavy grey scalloping on underparts. Moults between May and September. Dippers in moult are reluctant to fly and may be flightless for a time.

HABITS

Frequently stands bobbing on rocks in fastflowing rivers and streams. Will enter water and walk below surface in its search for food or will swim and dive. Holds a territory throughout the year and is usually solitary when feeding. Pairs tend to roost together under bridges. Some roosts attract other Dippers, and up to nine have been seen roosting together. Can be seen on lakes and at seashores.

VOICE

Call, frequently given in flight, is sharp zit, zit that carries above the sound of a river. Song is sweet rippling warble, heard mainly September and October and January to March, but also at other times.

HABITAT

Swift-flowing upland streams and rivers and shallow edges of upland lakes. Sometimes follows rivers down into built-up areas in winter. Also, on some lowland rivers where there are weirs and bridges.

FOOD

Principal food is small invertebrates picked from the bottom of streams or rivers up to 50cm deep. Takes both adults and larvae of species, such as caddis, stone and mayflies, and a few crustaceans such as freshwater shrimps.

Few British Dippers move more than 2.5km from their breeding sites, whereas juveniles disperse 5–8km or more, with females travelling further than males. Some northern European populations are partial migrants and travel considerable distances, some occasionally reaching eastern Britain.

CONSERVATION

Its riverine habitats and invertebrate prey have been affected by chemicals running into waterways, from both industrial sources and from farming runoff, but the main cause of decline is thought to be the acidification of rivers flowing through conifer plantations. Additional threats are habitat degradation and water abstraction and control, including damming and irrigation. Water regulation has helped to lessen pollution, but it remains a significant problem. Agriculture is now the largest sector responsible for pollution. Only a tiny handful of rivers are in good condition in England and more needs to be done to clean them up. Conifer plantations should be juvenile sited away from waterways in the uplands to help reduce pollution. 192 Dipper The population in Europe is decreasing.

DISTRIBUTION Breeds in uplands of northern and western Britain, extending into lower areas in the south-west. A different race, hibernicus, occurs in Ireland and northwest Scotland. It is widespread in Ireland, although missing from the central area. Other races breed in both northern and southern Europe and parts of North Africa, the Middle East and in Asia.

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House Sparrow Passer domesticus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Moderate decline – 5,150,000 – April–August 4–5; 2–4 broods 13–15; 15–17 days Average: 3; Oldest: 19 14–15cm; 34g

HABITAT

Usually lives on cultivated land near houses and other buildings, also in towns, parks, gardens, farmyards and industrial areas with open ground. Usually uses thick cover close by for nesting and roosting.

FOOD

Forages around domesticated animals. Eats seeds from plants such as docks and rushes, and spilt grain on farms. Takes household scraps, bird food in gardens, scavenges litter and will visit refuse sites. Nestlings are fed on invertebrates, such as aphids, weevils and caterpillars.

BREEDING

Pairs may be faithful, but infidelity accounts for 10–20% of young. Both adults build the loose round nest of grass and straw with a side entrance. Usually it is in a hole or crevice, under the eaves of a house, even in a House Martin’s nest, or built in a dense tree or bush. Incubation is by both adults, with the female taking the largest share. Both parents feed the young. The young continue to be fed for 11–19 days after fledging. Nests have been observed in nearly every month of the year in Britain. males

IDENTIFICATION

Familiar small, plump, brown bird with thick bill, which becomes black when breeding, and rather short pink legs. Male has a chestnut-brown back with blackish marks, brown head with grey crown, pale grey underparts, grey cheeks and a black bib extending onto the breast. Has small white wingbar. Female and juvenile have streaked brown backs, pale underparts and cheeks, a pale brown, not grey, crown and often a distinct straw-coloured line above and behind the eye. Rapid flight with whirring wings. Fresh autumn plumage has pale fringes to many of the feathers that obscure the brighter colours until the breeding season. See also: Tree Sparrow p269.

HABITS

female

Historically, associated with human activity and uses buildings as nest sites in both urban and rural settings. Can be both tame in places and wary in others. Feeds mainly on the ground but has adapted to take food from bird feeders and will sometimes chase flying insects. A social and noisy species, often nesting in colonies and feeding in flocks throughout the year. Often retreats into dense cover. In winter, flocks may be large and noisy evening roosts form.

VOICE

Makes several simple calls, and insistent chirping and churring notes. Song is monotonous repetition of a single chirp.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Most House Sparrows are sedentary. Young disperse from their nest sites, but generally nest close by. Adults may commute to rich feeding areas. Juveniles from northern and eastern Europe can be migratory.

CONSERVATION

The House Sparrow’s decline is an ornithological mystery. Large late summer flocks in fields are now a thing of the past. Autumn-sown cereal has removed weedy stubble to feed on in winter and efficient harvesting and storage results in less spilt grain. Changing farming practices, with increased pesticides and tidy farmyards, have reduced seed availability during winter and lowered survival. In towns and cities, the situation is less clear. Explanations include predation by cats and Sparrowhawks, a shortage of nest sites, loss of food supplies, increasing air pollution and avian malaria. However, the evidence for any of these is mixed. Provision of nest boxes and winter bird food may be helping, but we can’t be sure. More nature-friendly farming methods in the countryside would help this and other species. The European population is in moderate decline.

DISTRIBUTION Widespread in Britain and Ireland, missing only from the highest mountains. One of the most widespread species in the world, having been introduced into every continent except Antarctica. In Europe, it breeds naturally from Fennoscandia to the Mediterranean, in North Africa, and eastwards through the Middle East and widely across Asia.

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Tree Sparrow Passer montanus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Strong increase – 225,000 – April–July 5–6; 2–3 broods 11–14; 15–18 days Average: 2; Oldest: 13 14cm; 24g

juvenile

IDENTIFICATION

Slightly smaller, sleeker and neater than House Sparrow with a more rounded brown-capped head and shorter tail. Plumage like House Sparrow but has pale collar around back of neck, chocolate-brown cap with no grey on crown, a small isolated dark spot on cheek and smaller black bib. Also has double white wing-bar that can be difficult to see. Bill dark, legs pink. Male and female look alike, in contrast to House Sparrow. Juvenile is duller than the adult with dull brown cap and a dark smudge on cheek. Adults moult between June and September, but there is little change in their appearance. See also: House Sparrow p268.

HABITS

Rather shyer than House Sparrow, but in flight is a little more agile. Less associated with humans in Europe, although in parts of Asia it fills a similar niche to the House Sparrow and is common around houses and in cities. A social species that nests in loose colonies. In winter, may join flocks of House Sparrows, finches and buntings.

VOICE

Basic call is a distinct chip that is higher pitched but similar to House Sparrow. Rudimentary song is a variation on call, chip, chip, chippi, chip.

HABITAT

Nests in places with suitable nest-holes. These include open woodland, farmland with hedges and hedgerow trees, parks, orchards and quarries. In winter, feeds on agricultural land, especially any stubble or other unploughed fields.

FOOD

Eats seeds from grasses, cultivated cereals, such as wheat and barley, and seeds from small wild herbs. It takes small invertebrates such as aphids, caterpillars, weevils and beetles. Food is found in trees, on the ground and to a lesser extent by catching insects in flight.

BREEDING

Nests in holes and crevices in trees, buildings, cliff faces and in banks, including Sand Martins’ nestholes, and can be encouraged to use nest boxes. It uses the same one or two sites year after year. Sometimes it usurps a site of another species and builds a nest on top of an existing nest, even if that first nest contains eggs or young. Both adults help build the nest, share incubation and feed the young. They both continue to look after young for 10–14 days after fledging.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Mainly sedentary, especially in Britain and Ireland. Young disperse from their breeding areas, but seldom travel far. Some breeding in northern Europe and Russia make short migrations. However, when the population is large there are occasional irruptions of birds away from their breeding areas in autumn and some will then cross the North Sea.

CONSERVATION

The population crashed in the 1970s and 1980s to a low level but has subsequently stabilised and is now bouncing back, though it is much less common than it used to be. Its decline is like that of a group of seedeating birds and has been linked to changes in farm policy and practices. These include a switch from spring to autumn sowing of cereals, which reduces the number of weedy winter stubble fields, increased use of herbicides and insecticides, and the loss of hedgerows and marginal habitats, all of which might diminish food supplies, both seeds and insects. Invertebrate prey is particularly important for chick rearing and RSPB research shows Tree Sparrows make extensive use of wetland edge habitats when breeding because they provide plentiful insect food. This and other evidence suggests that invertebrates have become much scarcer on modern farms. Incentives for farmers to adopt nature-friendly farming methods with reduced chemical inputs might help this species. The European population has decreased moderately.

DISTRIBUTION Once widespread in Britain and Ireland, there has been range loss in the south-east. There are remnant populations in eastern Wales, central, eastern and northern England, eastern Scotland and Ireland. Widespread across Europe, from southern Fennoscandia to the Mediterranean, the Canary Islands, parts of North Africa and eastward into the Middle East, and across Asia.

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Dunnock Prunella modularis Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Stable – 2,350,000 – April–July 4–5; 2–3 broods 14–15; 12–15 days Average: 2; Oldest: 20 14.5cm; 21g

winter, but mostly between January and July. Males copy parts of neighbouring Dunnock’s songs and incorporate them into their own.

HABITAT

Breeds in a variety of habitats with dense, shrubby vegeadult displaying tation, including gardens, deciduous woodland, low thick scrub, bramble patches, farmland with hedgerows, bracken on moorland, and in conifer plantations.

FOOD

Mostly feeds on the ground, searching for invertebrates, including beetles, snails, spiders, flies, worms and springtails. Also eats berries, seeds and grain. Visits gardens for bird food but reluctant to visit bird tables or feeders, and is more likely to feed underneath, skulking in nearby shrubs and vegetation.

BREEDING

IDENTIFICATION

Size of House Sparrow but slim build, with thin, pointed bill and pinkish legs. Rich brown upperparts with streaky back and wings and streaks on flanks. Apart from brown crown, the head and breast are blue-grey. Moves with shuffling walk, with body close to ground. Juvenile is less grey and more boldly striped than adult. Moult begins after breeding, between July and October, with Dunnocks in northern England starting before those in the south. See also: Wren p246, House Sparrow p268, Warblers pp224–243.

HABITS

Tends to be solitary and secretive although groups may gather where food is plentiful. Creeps mouse-like on the ground, often giving a nervous flick of wings. In courtship, individuals flick open their wings and wave them above their backs while giving a shrill call. Courtship includes a wing-shivering display by the female. Dunnocks have complicated sex lives, with both polyandry and polygyny. Polyandry is where a female shares several males (rare in birds), polygyny is where a male monopolises several females. While relatively dull in colour, the Dunnock’s social behaviour is far from dull. Dunnocks are frequent hosts for Cuckoos.

VOICE

Call is a shrill, piping tseep that is also made while birds are displaying. Song is a quiet, short, fast warble that is given from a prominent perch in low trees and bushes, often repeated. Males may sing in

Pairing arrangements are unusual. Some pairs are male and female, some males have two females, some females have two or more males, and there are even more complex arrangements. Female builds a cup-shaped nest of roots, leaves and grasses, lined with softer material. Female also incubates. Young are cared for by both sexes and often by additional males too, and are fed for 14–17 days after fledging.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Mostly sedentary in Britain and Ireland, seldom moving more than 1km. Scandinavian populations are migratory and some Dunnocks from northern Europe arrive in eastern Britain in autumn.

CONSERVATION

A significant proportion of Dunnocks nest or feed in gardens; planting dense shrubs for nesting and providing winter food may help its long-term survival. The European population is estimated to be stable.

DISTRIBUTION Throughout Britain and Ireland, except Shetland. Most abundant in southern Britain and in Ireland. Breeds across Europe and east into western Russia and the Middle East. Many populations are residents, some migratory, especially in the north and east of the range. Some of these birds winter around the Mediterranean, including in North Africa, some in the Middle East.

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Pied Wagtail Motacilla alba Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Stable – 495,000 – April–August 5–6; 2 broods 13; 14 days Average: 2; Oldest: 13 18cm; 21g

IDENTIFICATION

Larger than sparrow. Black-and-white bird with long tail that it constantly bobs. In Britain and Ireland, male has black upperparts, rump, chest and throat, and white face. Wings black and white, underparts white. Fine black bill and long black legs. Female has dark grey, slightly blotchy back and less black on crown and throat. Juvenile brownish-grey above, creamy below and has dark breast-band. European race, known as the White Wagtail, is similar but has a pale grey back. Some immature Pied Wagtails have pale backs, but their rumps and crowns are almost black. See also: Grey Wagtail p272, Pied Flycatcher p260.

male summer

HABITS

When feeding, has jerky walk and frequently runs. Flight is bounding and occasionally in spring it makes a songflight. Most feed singly and males may also defend a winter territory, into which it sometimes allows a female or juvenile when food is plentiful. Roosts communally, even in summer, and roosts of up to 3,000–4,000 may gather in winter in vegetation in marshes but also in towns and cities. Large pre-roost gatherings sometimes form on car parks or flat roofs at dusk.

VOICE

Usual call is a sharp twissi-vit or chizzwit, often given in flight. Song is a quiet twittering interspersed with occasional call notes.

HABITAT

Found in a variety of habitats, often, but not always, near water. Breeds in open country such as moorland edge and farmland, and in towns and parks. Most abundant in areas of mixed farming. In winter, it is more widely distributed and a frequent visitor to urban areas, as well as suburban and rural

gardens. A common winter visitor to sewage farms, and groups regularly feed on arable fields, sometimes mixed with Meadow Pipits or other species.

FOOD

Chief food is insects, especially flies and midges and also caterpillars. Most food is taken from the ground, but also from shallow water or sometimes by catching flying insects in the air.

BREEDING

Most nests are in holes, clefts or on ledges and sited in banks, ditches and buildings. Old nests of other birds such as Blackbirds may be used. Both sexes build the nest, with the female female summer taking the largest share and completing the lining of hair, wool and feathers. Incubation and feeding of young is by both adults. Young continue to be fed for 4–7 days after fledging. A second brood is more common in southern Britain.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Varies from being a long-distance migrant in the north of its range to being 1st-winter resident in the south. In Britain, the northern uplands are deserted in winter. White Wagtails from northern Europe regularly visit Britain, in spring and autumn.

CONSERVATION

There are no special conservation measures for this species. Research has shown that survival of young birds has improved in recent years. The European population appears to be stable.

DISTRIBUTION Throughout Britain and Ireland, but most abundant in the north and west in summer. In winter, also widespread, but becomes most abundant in southern England and in Ireland. Various races are found throughout Europe and Asia, and migrant birds reach North Africa.

White Wagtail

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Grey Wagtail Motacilla cinerea Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Stable – 33,500 – March–August 4–6; 2–3 broods 11–14; 14–15 days Oldest: 8 18–19cm; 18g

male summer

habitats, including water treatment works, farmyards, ornamental ponds, canals, lowland rivers and streams, coastal areas, and often rivers and streams in towns and cities.

FOOD

Feeds mainly on insects and other invertebrates that it picks from the ground, from shallow water or snatches in the air. Insects include midges, stoneflies, mayflies, beetles and ants. Other prey includes spiders, small water snails, freshwater shrimps and tadpoles. female summer

IDENTIFICATION

Similar size to Pied Wagtail. Graceful, longbodied bird with a very long tail that is constantly pumped up and down. Has bright egg-yellow undertail. Male has yellow breast, blue-grey upperparts, white stripe over the eye and bold black throat. Female has pale throat with only, usually, a few dark feathers. In winter, eye-stripe of male becomes less obvious, throat becomes paler and yellow breast is washed out. Juvenile resembles female but with buffer underparts. Legs are pinkish and relatively short. Bouncing flight is undulating, calling frequently. See also: Yellow Wagtail p273, Pied Wagtail p271.

HABITS

Usually seen singly or in pairs. Undulating flight is often low, before perching on boulders in water, although it sometimes perches on overhanging trees or bushes. Distinctive songflight during which male parachutes down from a high perch on open, fluttering wings. Some defend a winter territory.

VOICE

Usual call is a loud, hard, sharp tswick that is shorter than the Pied Wagtail. Song, heard mainly between March and May, is a quiet trilling and quite melodious, given in flight or perched.

HABITAT

In summer, typically found in upland areas near fastflowing water bordered by trees and where there are rocks and open ground such as shingle banks. In winter, it leaves the highest ground and visits a wider variety of juvenile

BREEDING

Nest is built in a hole or crevice in a wall, bank or other protected site such as under a bridge or among tree roots. Both sexes build the outer structure of grasses, small twigs and roots, and the female lines it with moss and hair. Incubation is by both sexes. Young are dependent on their parents for 2 weeks after fledging, and they may return to their nest to roost.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Most British and Irish breeding birds do not migrate, they disperse from their upland breeding territories but stay within the British Isles. Northern European breeding birds travel farthest; some of them reach southern Europe and North Africa, and some of these may arrive in southern Britain in winter.

CONSERVATION

In recent years, fluctuations in numbers have tended to reflect the relative severity of winter weather, the population falling after cold spells. Although highly variable, breeding numbers in Britain appear to be stable. Population trends across mainland Europe fluctuate strongly, most probably due to severe cold winter weather, and are not well documented in some countries.

DISTRIBUTION Widespread breeding bird in Wales, northern England, Scotland and Ireland, slightly scarcer in eastern England. In winter, it retreats from most upland and northern areas, and is most abundant in the south and west. Breeds from Fennoscandia to North Africa and east into central and eastern Asia. Some populations winter as far south as North Africa. Other races are found on small islands off the West African coast and in eastern Asia.

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Yellow Wagtail Motacilla flava Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Strong decline – 19,500 – April–August 4–6; 1–2 broods 14; 13–15 days Average: 3; Oldest: 8 17cm; 18g

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller and slimmer than Pied Wagtail, with a comparatively shorter tail. Adult males in summer have bright yellow underparts and faces, olive-green upperparts and brownish wings, and long dark tail with white edge. Legs black. Head colours, markings and the intensity of the colours vary between geographical races. British race flavissima has mainly yellow head, while the nearest other European race flava has a blue head and white eye-stripe, and occasionally visits Britain in spring. Female is duller with browner back, pale throat and pale stripe above eye. Juvenile is like female but with dark necklace and pale streak on cheek, below eye. See also: Grey Wagtail p272, Pied Wagtail p271, Water Pipit p276.

HABITS

Frequently follows cattle juvenile and other large animals in its search for food on pastures. Like other wagtails, it runs or walks with its head moving backwards and forwards and its tail pumping up and down. Sometimes flutters into the air to catch flying insects. Normal flight is long undulating curves. Regularly perches on vegetation, posts or wires. Territorial when nesting, but flocks form in late summer and loose parties migrate together. Often large numbers gather at roost sites.

VOICE

Call is a loud, but thin psweep that is given in flight and from a perch. This is often the first sign of a Yellow Wagtail. Sings from May until July. Song is a variation on the call, interspersed with a rather feeble warble.

HABITAT

A bird of lowland wet grasslands. Breeds in lowland pastures, water meadows, marshes, riversides and arable fields, including those growing potatoes and peas. Some, but not all, breed near water. On migration, visits areas of short mown or grazed grass, such as paddocks or playing fields. In winter, visits paddy fields and marshes.

FOOD

Feeds on small invertebrates, including flies and beetles in summer. Many flies are caught around the feet or dung of farm stock.

BREEDING

Female builds cup-shaped nest on the ground among vegetation, made from grass and lined with

male summer

female summer

hair, wool or fur. Both adults share the incubation and feed the young. Young leave the nest at about 11 days before they can fly. They stay with their parents after fledging and may begin their long migration as a family.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Summer migrant. Arrives in Britain between late March and mid-May, with males returning first. In August and September, it migrates to south-west France and then to Portugal. Some cross the Bay of Biscay to Spain. From here, birds cross into Africa, wintering mainly in the Sahel zone of sub-Saharan Africa. They return by a more easterly route, crossing the Sahara in a single flight, perhaps lasting 72 hours.

CONSERVATION

Population declines have been associated with the loss of wet grassland, due to wetland drainage, changing grassland management and conversion to arable crops. Although some birds nest in crops, cultivation may reduce their nesting success. The loss of mixed farming has brought other changes in farming practice, including higher stocking densities and increased pesticide, herbicide and fertiliser use, all of which might affect their survival and productivity. Increasingly, Yellow Wagtail is a bird found on nature reserves managed as wetland grasslands. On top of this, we know that long-distance migrants may be vulnerable to climate and habitat change in Africa and to changing conditions on their migration routes. The European population is also decreasing.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain, breeds mainly in central and eastern England, with some in eastern Wales. Its distribution is shrinking rapidly. It does not breed in Ireland. The race that breeds in Britain, flavissima, also breeds in parts of western Europe. Other races breed from Fennoscandia to North Africa and east across Russia and Asia. Birds from Europe winter in central and southern Africa.

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Meadow Pipit Anthus pratensis Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

summer

Amber Moderate decline – 2,250,000 Unknown April–August 4–5; 2 broods 13; 10–14 days Average: 3; Oldest: 8 14.5cm; 19g

winter fresh, autumn

IDENTIFICATION

FOOD

Eats mainly invertebrates including flies, especially craneflies (daddy-long-legs) and mayflies, also beetles, moths and spiders and some seeds.

BREEDING

Nesting begins in late March in lowland areas and later in the uplands. Female builds juvenile nest on the ground among vegetation. Incubation is mostly by female. Both parents feed the young, which usually leave the nest before they can fly.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

This species is both a resident and a migrant in Britain and Ireland. It is found in all seasons. Breeding birds start to leave their upland territories in August. Some leave the country, but many do not travel far and winter in lower areas within Britain and Ireland. Also, in autumn, migrants from Fennoscandia reach Britain and, later, others from Greenland and Iceland arrive, especially in Ireland. Return migration takes place in March and April.

Smaller than Skylark and slightly smaller than Tree Pipit, with finer bill and distinctive call. Upperparts are olive-brown with darker streaks. Face is relatively plain, sometimes with small pale stripe over the eye. Bold streaks and spots on the greyish or yellowish breast continue at the same thickness along the flanks. Belly and outer tail feathers are white. Long pink legs with longer hindclaw than Tree Pipit. Juvenile is more pinkishbuff than adult in late summer and lacks the dark CONSERVATION While still a very common breeding bird in streaks on flanks. Adults moult between July and Britain and Ireland, Meadow Pipit September, with flight feathers being lost numbers are falling, and its range is and regrown over about 50 days. songflight being lost in lowland areas. Recent See also: Skylark p219, Tree Pipit losses in southern Britain have p275, Dunnock p270. been linked to changes in land HABITS use and in farming practices, Songflight generally starts from the with loss of marginal land ground and continues as the bird and feeding and nesting rises and parachutes down on opportunities. Meadow Pipit half-spread wings. Feeds on the has undergone a moderately ground and seldom perches on rapid decline across Europe. vegetation such as trees and The main cause is thought to be bushes, like the Tree Pipit. On the changes in farming methods ground, it sometimes appears quite towards more intensive practices, upright and runs with jerky movements. but severe weather on migration Population densities may be high in and in winter might also play a role. suitable habitats. Outside the breeding season it is commonly found in loose flocks, someDISTRIBUTION times feeding alongside Skylarks.

VOICE

In flight, it usually strings three high-pitched and thin calls together, sweet-sweet-sweet. Song is given during aerial display and is a series of plaintive and accelerating seep, seep notes followed by repeated tseut, tseut and ending with a trill.

HABITAT

Breeds in open country, especially upland moors where it is usually the most abundant species, also on lowland heaths, downlands, saltmarshes, rough grasslands and dune systems. In winter, it feeds on agricultural land, including ploughed fields, seashores, coastal marshes, floodplains, and along the edges of lakes and rivers.

Widespread breeding species in the north and west of Britain and Ireland, with a patchier distribution in the south and east of England. In winter, it is also widespread, and the largest numbers are in lowland areas, in the south and west of Britain and Ireland. It breeds in northern Europe, as far south as France and east into Russia, Siberia and western Asia. It also nests in Iceland and eastern Greenland.

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Tree Pipit Anthus trivialis Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

FOOD

Red Strong decline – 105,000 – April–August 4–5; 1–3 broods 13; 12–14 days Average: 2; Oldest: 8 15cm; 24g

Mainly feeds on invertebrates, especially weevils, beetles, caterpillars, ants, spiders and a wide variety of insects. Also eats some plant material such as seeds and berries.

BREEDING

Ground nesting among low cover. Nests in a depression made by the female. Incubation is by female, although both adults feed the young. Young generally leave the nest before they can fly. Some males defend two territories and may be polygamous. summer

spring

juvenile

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than Skylark. Like the more common Meadow Pipit, but a little larger and sleeker with heavier bill, much finer and thinner streaks on flanks, more prominent head markings, sometimes more obvious pale stripe over the eye and a quite different flight call. Has dark olive-brown streaked upperparts, a yellowish breast that is lightly marked with large streaks, fine streaking on the flanks and a white belly. Both Tree and Meadow Pipits have white outer tail feathers. Long pink legs with long hindclaw. Worn plumage becomes drab in late summer. See also: Meadow Pipit p274, Skylark p219.

HABITS

CONSERVATION

The population has declined rapidly since around 1980, with widespread range losses, especially in England. The causes are not well understood but may be linked to the fact that many of our forests are maturing with the loss of lower and more open habitat, upon which it depends for nesting songflight and feeding. Recent declines have also been linked to increased predation pressure, in some areas. As a longdistance migrant, however, it is vulnerable to changes on its migration route and wintering grounds in the humid tropics of Africa. It is among a group of migrant birds that winter in the western forest zone that are declining at a faster rate than other migrants, for reasons that remain obscure. The European population is decreasing.

Unlike Meadow Pipit it frequently perches on trees and bushes. Songflight starts with a bird taking off from a prominent branch or other perch, singing as it rises at about 60 degrees and then parachuting down with legs dangling to land on the same or a nearby perch. Regularly feeds on the ground, where it moves with determination and purpose, rather than the jerkier movements of Meadow Pipit. If disturbed, it takes off steeply and circles before landing on the ground or on a tree or bush. Not particularly sociable, but small groups may form on migration.

VOICE

Call is a sharp teeze, often given in flight. Song may be from a perch or during a songflight. Generally, birds sing as they fly upwards. Song is a series of single notes and trills zit, zit, zit, wich, wich and ending with swee-u, swee-u, as the bird lands.

HABITAT

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Summer migrant. Birds from northern Europe reach Britain on passage. From Britain, most appear to fly direct to Portugal where they pause before migrating into central Africa for the winter.

Breeds on heathland and grasslands with shrubs and trees, in open woodland and near woodland edges, in young conifer plantations, and in areas of forests that have been recently felled. Uses open areas with bushes, if there are older trees for songposts. In winter in Africa, it chooses habitats with similar structure, including savannah woodlands.

DISTRIBUTION Locally common in the south and east of England, it is most numerous in wooded uplands of Scotland and Wales. A very rare breeding bird in Ireland. Breeds from Fennoscandia to northern Spain and Greece and east into Asia, where there are other races. Most birds from Europe winter in central Africa.

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Water Pipit Anthus spinoletta Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber – Variable and uncertain – 205 – – – Oldest: 4 16.5–17cm; 23g

alpine habitats of southern Europe and across Asia, high in treeless, barren meadows and rock fields up to at least 2,600m.

FOOD

Eats mainly invertebrates, also some plant material. Animal food includes springtails, flies, moths and their caterpillars, spiders, centipedes, beetles and bees. It also eats some seeds and berries.

BREEDING

This species does not breed in Britain or Ireland. Female builds a nest on the ground and male may

summer

IDENTIFICATION

Large and stocky pipit, similar in size to a Rock Pipit, but with whiter flanks and belly, clearer streaks on the underparts and bolder, whiter wing-bars. Long legs are dark. Has white outer tail feathers (greywhite in Rock Pipit) and bold pale stripe over the eye. In spring and summer, head is blue-grey, the back is brown and almost unmarked, and the plain breast has a bright pink flush. In winter, it is more subdued in colour, like Rock Pipit, but browner with whiter underparts, and a more obvious pale stripe over the eye. Juvenile is like adult in winter, but with more streaky back. Voice is subtly different from Rock Pipit. Moults between July and September and a second partial moult into breeding plumage between January and March. See also: Rock Pipit p277, Meadow Pipit p274, Yellow Wagtail p273.

HABITS

Much shyer than Rock Pipit, and if disturbed it tends to take off quickly, tower high and land a considerable distance away. May be solitary or occur in small loose flocks. Outside the breeding season, it roosts communally in dense vegetation in damp or wet places. On its breeding grounds, it may sing on the ground, but generally takes off from a rock, bush or from the ground and sings as it rises, circles and parachutes down – like a Meadow Pipit.

VOICE

Call is intermediate between Meadow and Rock Pipit, a loud weest. The song is louder and slightly more musical than a Meadow Pipit – but as a winter visitor here, it is unlikely to be heard.

HABITAT

Although seen in small numbers around the coast, it is much more likely to be seen inland. In winter, it visits wetland sites, such as inland freshwater marshes, watercress beds, floodplains, riverbanks and wet habitats above coastal saltmarshes. It breeds in

winter

help gather some material for the lining. The female incubates 4 or 5 eggs. Both parents care for young. It can have two broods in a year.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

It is a scarce winter visitor in Britain and Ireland, seen mainly between October and April. In other countries, it can be a migrant or a resident, or even a partial migrant. In autumn, those that breed in the mountains descend to the lowlands. This altitudinal migration may be in any direction, even northwards. Many, however, make longer journeys south-west, with birds from eastern Europe being seen in Spain.

CONSERVATION

The number of Water Pipits visiting Britain and Ireland each winter varies, and some may still go unrecorded. There are no special threats to this species nor specific conservation measures. The European population is stable.

DISTRIBUTION Water Pipit was once regarded as a race of Rock Pipit, but they are now recognised as separate species (along with a third species known as Buff-bellied Pipit, which breeds in North America and north-east Siberia). Water Pipits are scarce visitors to Britain and Ireland, particularly in the south and east. Breeds in central and south-eastern Europe and right across Asia, as far east as China. In winter, most migrate to the south of their breeding sites.

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Rock Pipit Anthus petrosus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Stable – 34,000 – April–July 4–5; 1–2 broods 14–15; 15–16 days Oldest: 10 16.5–17cm; 24g

IDENTIFICATION

Larger and darker than Meadow Pipit and smaller than Starling. Large, stocky pipit with dusky olivebrown upperparts and darker streaks that are not as well defined as on smaller pipits. Underparts are dirty white with dark streaking. Legs and bill are dark and outer tail feathers dirty grey. Has broken pale stripe over the eye. In winter, it is duskier with less contrasting plumage. Young are more streaked than adults. Northern race (littoralis) is cleaner-looking with a more prominent stripe over the eye and plainer underparts. Adults moult between June and September and the flight feathers are moulted and regrow within 42 days. See also: Water Pipit p276, Meadow Pipit p274, Skylark p219.

HABITS

populations are migratory and some of the race littoralis, from northern Fennoscandia, move south and west in autumn through Europe. Some of these arrive along the east and south coast of England and in Wales and return northwards in March or April.

CONSERVATION

Population trends in Britain and Ireland are not well surveyed by our standard monitoring programmes because they tend not to cover rocky shores. Breeding and wintering distributions have changed very little over recent decades and that suggests a good degree of stability. Disturbance to nesting birds on popular holiday beaches may be a problem. The status of the European population is unclear, with the suggestion of decreases in some countries, but the picture is incomplete.

Hops, walks and runs as it forages among coastal rocks and boulders, and frequently perches on prominent rocks. It has songflight that is similar to other pipits, involving a steep aerial climb and parachuting flight down on half-closed wings. Fairly tame and can be approached more easily than most pipits. Many retain territories throughout the year, but some form small groups during winter.

summer littoralis

VOICE

Call is pseep, more metallic and less squeaky than Meadow Pipit and often given singly. Song is like Meadow Pipit, but stronger and with more obvious trill. Sings mainly between March and July.

HABITAT

Breeds along rocky shorelines and on small islands around the coasts of Britain and Ireland where there are cliffs and rock-strewn beaches. It avoids sandy beaches and is rare inland.

FOOD

Feeds mainly on invertebrates on the ground and by foraging in the tidewrack on sandy beaches. Food includes flies and midges and their larvae, beetles, fish, small shellfish and seeds.

BREEDING

Female builds nest in a hole or a hollow in a cliff. Nest includes some seaweed in the lining. Most incubation is by the female with the male helping occasionally. Young are fed by both parents and leave the nest after 12 days.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Most Rock Pipits breeding around the coasts of Britain and Ireland are resident, and young disperse only locally after becoming independent. Northern

DISTRIBUTION Found around British and Irish coasts, missing only from the Humber to Essex due to the absence of rocky beaches. It is found right around the coast in winter, occupying coastal saltmarsh as well as rocky shores, and a few rarely occur inland. The species breeds on rocky coasts from northern France to northern Norway and western Russia, north of the Arctic Circle. Wintering birds can be found in coastal habitat from the Baltic Sea down to North Africa.

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Chaffinch Fringilla coelebs Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Stable – 4,800,000 – March–July 4–5; 1 brood 11–13; 13–16 days Average: 3; Oldest: 15 14.5cm; 24g male fresh, autumn

HABITAT

Widespread, nesting wherever there are trees or bushes in coniferous and deciduous woodland, scrub, hedges with trees, parks and large gardens. Feeds in open areas, on lawns and under bird tables and feeders in gardens, on the woodland floor, but mainly on farmland outside the breeding season.

FOOD

Eats seeds from a wide variety of plants, such as goosefoot, chickweed and grasses, but in summer it feeds on insects, especially caterpillars and other invertebrates that it finds in trees and bushes. Eats beechmast when it is plentiful in autumn/winter.

BREEDING

male spring

Pairs form in late winter. Female builds beautifully neat cup-shaped nest into the fork of tree or tall bush. It consists of an outer layer of lichen and spiders’ webs and inner layers of moss and grass with a lining of tiny rootlets and feathers. Female alone incubates. Both parents feed the young in the nest and for 3 weeks after fledging.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

IDENTIFICATION

Size of House Sparrow. Plump finch with medium-sized bill, slightly peaked crown, male rather long wings, white shoulder-patch and white barring on its wing. Tail is quite long with white outer feathers. Male has blue-grey head, pinkish-brown breast and cheeks, chestnut back, and greenish rump. Has distinctive pattern of white on the closed wing that is also obvious in flight. Female is paler yellowish, greybrown and has the same pattern in the wing and white outer tail feathers. Bill is blue-grey, legs dull pink. Juvenile like female, but lacks greenish rump. Adults moult between June and September. After moult birds are less colourful, but pale tips of new feathers abrade during winter and gradually reveal the contrasting breeding plumage. See also: Brambling p279, Bullfinch p281.

HABITS

Flight is undulating. Forms flocks outside of the breeding season, sometimes joining with other finches, buntings and sparrows. In winter, single-sex flocks of all males or all females are frequently seen, with females travelling further from the breeding area than the males. Perches in trees and bushes, but generally feeds on the ground.

VOICE

Sings mainly between February and June. Song is short, fast and rather dry: a descending series of trills that accelerates and ends with a flourish. Call, which may be heard throughout the year, is a loud pink, pink.

female

It is both sedentary and migratory. Most British and Irish Chaffinches never move more than 5km. Other populations are migratory and many from Scandinavia arrive in Britain and Ireland between September and November and leave between February and May. Many migrants cross the North Sea, but others follow the coast of Europe and cross the English Channel from the south. These flocks of migrants wander through farmland in search of food.

CONSERVATION

This adaptable and primarily woodland species has benefited from the planting of new forests in upland areas, and probably from increased winter feeding in gardens. The population has been increasing steadily over the last 50 years but has suddenly tumbled. The recent downturn has been linked to the widespread and severe outbreak of trichomonosis disease that began around 2005 and has significantly depressed the number of Greenfinches. It is, however, unclear whether trichomonosis is the whole story in the case of Chaffinch and it is possible other factors are at play. We need to keep a careful eye on their numbers. The European population is stable.

DISTRIBUTION One of the most widespread and abundant birds in Britain and Ireland. Breeds wherever there are trees and bushes and is thus scarce on some of the northern islands. Also breeds from northern Fennoscandia to the Mediterranean, in North Africa, the Atlantic islands, the Middle East and western Asia. Introduced into New Zealand. There are other races in Africa and on the Atlantic islands.

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Brambling Fringilla montifringilla Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Moderate decline Moderate increase 0–1 923,000 May–June 5–7; 1–2 broods 11–12; 13–14 days Oldest: 14 14cm; 24g

male spring

male

FOOD

IDENTIFICATION

Similar in size to Chaffinch with marginally shorter and more deeply forked tail, and stubbier bill. Chief differences are smart orange breast and shoulderpatches, white belly, no white outer tail feathers, and the long white rump, which shows best in flight. Chaffinch has an olive-green rump. Male in spring is striking with a black head and back, black bill, with orange breast and shoulder-patches. In autumn and winter, the black areas become mottled brown and the orange less bright. Bill is yellow with a dark tip. Female is orange-brown with a mottled back and a mottled brown head with grey on the sides and back of neck, and duller orange breast. Juvenile resembles female but is paler. Legs dark pink. Has complete moult between July and September after which the bright plumage is obscured by pale fringes to the newly grown feathers. These fringes wear away to reveal bright plumage in late winter. See also: Chaffinch p278.

In winter, chiefly a seed-eater that finds its food on the ground, taking a wide variety of seeds, especially beechmast. Regularly visits feeding stations at some reserves and country parks. In summer, feeds mainly on insects, such as beetles and the caterpillars of moths that it finds in trees and bushes. Also catches insects in the air. male fresh, autumn

BREEDING

Very rare breeding species in Britain. Female builds the nest in a fork of a tree or bush. Nest is larger and untidier than Chaffinch. It is made from grass, small roots, lichen and pieces of bark, and lined with hair and feathers. Female incubates. Both adults feed the young.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Mainly a winter visitor to Britain and Ireland. Those breeding in northern Europe migrate south-west on a broad front, and some arrive in Britain in autumn. Many more winter in central and southern Europe and there are influxes when beech seed is plentiful. Migration from Britain starts in March though some stay longer, acquiring full breeding plumage.

CONSERVATION

female male 1st-year fresh, autumn

HABITS

This is the equivalent of the northern Chaffinch and it resembles that species in many ways. Gregarious outside the breeding season and flocks of thousands, sometimes millions, form in Europe where there is a plentiful supply of food in winter. Large roosts also form – one in Merseyside in 1981 may have attracted 150,000 individuals over 6 weeks. Tree-seed food supplies are irregular, and the presence or absence of Brambling flocks in a locality changes from year to year, depending on that supply.

VOICE

Distinct call heard both in flight and when perched, is a rising tchway. Song, which is rarely heard in Britain or Ireland, is a slow, wheezing dzwee.

HABITAT

As most Bramblings are seen in winter they are mostly concentrated around supplies of food – especially beech trees that produce crops of mast. They feed on the ground and may be seen on farmland, sewage works, country parks and sometimes in gardens.

First nested in Scotland in 1920. Breeds in small numbers with possibly eight pairs in 1995, but since then has nested only occasionally, and numbers seem to be falling. There are no practical conservation measures for Brambling, except to protect breeding sites and reduce disturbance. The European population is declining moderately. As a northern species, climate warming may be a cause. Predictions suggest the breeding range of Bramblings might halve in this century, but intensive forestry in northern Europe is also likely to be important.

DISTRIBUTION In winter, widely distributed in Britain, rare in the far north-west. Scarcer in Ireland. A few are seen in summer, predominantly in Scotland. Breeds in Fennoscandia and Russia, across to eastern Siberia. Most populations are fully migratory, wintering far to the south of their breeding range. A winter visitor to southern and western Europe.

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Hawfinch Coccothraustes coccothraustes Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Strong decline – 750 – April–July 4–5; 1 brood 11–13; 12–14 days Oldest: 12 18cm; 58g

juvenile male

female

HABITAT

Inhabits mature deciduous woods and mixed woodland, some large gardens, cemeteries, arboreta and parks, as well as orchards and shrubby places with scattered trees. In winter, it may be seen in more open habitats and in thick hedgerows where there is food. Hornbeam stands are a particular favourite.

FOOD

The main food is large seeds from woodland trees, especially wych elm, hornbeam, beech and maple. It also visits hedges to search for hips and haws and other autumn fruits. In spring, it feeds on buds from oak, and in summer it eats some insects, including large beetles, some of which it catches in flight. It is fond of the fruit of wild cherry and can crack open the hard seed with its powerful bill.

BREEDING

Nests in trees, usually more than 3m from the ground. Nest is an untidy and flimsy saucer-shaped structure of twigs, small roots, grasses and lichen. Female incubates and both adults feed the young.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Relatively little is known about its seasonal movements in Britain and it may be mostly sedentary. On the continent, northern populations are migratory, with juveniles most likely to make the longest journeys and females more likely to migrate than males. A few migrants from northern Europe reach Britain in autumn and some are seen on the Northern Isles in spring. There are also rarer irruptions where large numbers arrive from the continent in autumn.

male

male

IDENTIFICATION

Larger than Greenfinch. Large and heavy-looking rich brown finch with massive conical bill, large head, rather short legs, short square-ended tail and ‘bull-neck’. Has white patch in wing and broad white tip to tail. Back is dark brown, head orange-brown, breast pinkish-brown and neck grey. Wings are blackish and the bluish-black secondary flight feathers are splayed out at the tips and twisted to present a series of spikes. Has black around eye and black bib. Bill is blue-grey in the breeding season and horn-coloured in winter. Female is only slightly less colourful than male. Juvenile has more orange head without black marks, a greenish-yellow breast and dark spotting on its belly. See also: Waxwing p210.

HABITS

Shy and secretive despite large size, spending much time in the treetops. Appears large and heavyfronted in flight with the large white patches on the wings appearing translucent from below, and shorttailed. Flight is rapid, powerful and bounding. Male has a songflight where it switchbacks over its territory before plummeting downwards. Sociable outside the breeding season, often feeding in small groups.

VOICE

Most common call is a short, persistent tic, tic, slightly harder than a Robin’s alarm. In flight, this can be mixed with a softer and more subtle zrri or zih. Rarely heard song is a slow deek, waree, ree, ree.

CONSERVATION

Three-quarters of the former range has been lost in the last 50 years; breeding is now confined to a few sites across Britain. Numbers have declined in many areas, but monitoring is difficult. Possible threats include loss of mature woodland, climate change, fewer invertebrates, increased deer grazing, and nest predation. Birds from the continent winter here regularly but it is unclear whether they stay to breed. Maintaining and increasing the area of broadleaved woodland with the creation of open areas, such as rides and glades, would create nesting and feeding opportunities, and Hawfinches also feed in the wider landscape. The European population is stable.

DISTRIBUTION Breeding population is confined to isolated pockets in England and a few in Wales and Scotland. Winter distribution is more widespread, being found thinly across Britain, most commonly in England and Wales. A very rare visitor to Ireland. It has a very large breeding range from southern Fennoscandia south to the Mediterranean, North Africa, the Middle East, eastwards across Asia to Japan and eastern Russia.

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Bullfinch Pyrrhula pyrrhula Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Moderate increase – 225,000 – April–July 4–5; 2–3 broods 14–16; 15–17 days Average: 2; Oldest: 12 14.5cm; 21g

male

male

Young are fed on plant material and invertebrates. When breeding, adults develop pouches in their mouths to help carry food.

BREEDING

IDENTIFICATION

Similar size to House Sparrow. Plump finch with large head, thick neck, short black, bulbous bill, and longish black tail. Plumage appears soft and cap, wings and bib are glossy black. Strong white wing-bar and gleaming white rump. Lower face and breast of striking male is rose-pink and back is blue-grey. Lower face and breast of female is pinkish-grey, back is grey. Juvenile is browner than female, with no black on head. Legs dark grey. See also: Chaffinch p278.

female

In some years, breeding continues into September. Female Bullfinches build nests in thick bushes, 1–2m off the ground. The nest is a remarkably flimsylooking, rather loose structure made from fine twigs, moss and lichen, with a neat inner cup of roots and hair. Female incubates. Both parents feed young, continuing for 15–20 days after fledging.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Small numbers from Fennoscandia and further east are seen on the Northern Isles and along the east coast in spring and autumn. These are slightly larger, brighter birds. Most breeding birds are resident, but some move up to 28km. This movement is thought to take place between broods, for the family to benefit from new food sources. Elsewhere it is an altitudinal migrant, moving downhill for the winter, as well as a true migrant in the north of its range.

CONSERVATION

juvenile

HABITS

Secretive; seldom far from dense cover. Easily overlooked because they have a quiet call, unobtrusive behaviour and are often deep in a hedgerow. Usually feeds directly on plants rather than on the ground. Often seen in pairs or small family groups after the breeding season. Larger groups sometimes form in rich feeding areas in winter.

VOICE

Usual call is a soft but distinctive peu, peu and also quieter piping as birds keep contact in dense cover. Song is a quiet, creaking or piping warble.

HABITAT

Nests in woodland undergrowth, thickets, shrubby areas and thick hedges. Many of these habitats occur on lowland farmland, especially orchards. Also visits gardens with shrubby trees and bushes, occasionally at bird feeders.

FOOD

Main food is native tree buds. Oak, sallow and hawthorn are commonly eaten, also the buds of fruit trees. Other food includes tree-flowers, berries and other soft fruits and seeds. Seeds include ash, dandelion, buttercup, dock, nettles and bramble.

Once considered an agricultural pest because of damage to fruit buds, numbers fell in Britain in the 1970s and 1980s. Despite an upturn, they remain scarcer than 50 years ago. The loss of hedgerows with standard trees and other farmland changes are a possible cause, alongside changes in woodland management. A loss of farmland weeds may have affected their survival but the decline is not well understood. Incentives for farmers and landowners to adopt nature-friendly measures, such as reinstating hedgerows, managing field margins and reducing pesticides, may help Bullfinches. Creating woodland rides and glades, and reducing deer numbers might also benefit the species. The European population declined moderately, though it has partly recovered in the last decade.

DISTRIBUTION Found throughout Britain and Ireland and is most abundant in southern England and across Ireland. Range extends widely from western Europe eastwards to the Middle East, and across Asia, to Japan and eastern Russia. In Europe, breeds from Fennoscandia to northern Iberia and around the Mediterranean and eastwards.

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Linnet Linaria cannabina Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Moderate decline – 530,000 – April–July 4–5; 2–3 broods 13–14; 13–14 days Average: 2; Oldest: 9 13.5cm; 19g female

male

HABITAT

Nests mainly on gorse-covered heaths, rough ground where there are low bushes and scrub, bushy places in farmland, hedges, young plantations and rural gardens. Outside the breeding season, it feeds mostly on farmland, wasteland and coastal marshes.

FOOD

Eats seeds, especially common weeds, such as fathen and chickweed. Also eats seeds of charlock, dandelion and buttercup. Increasingly, oilseed rape seeds are an important food source. Some insects are eaten in summer, but they are not a large proportion of the diet.

BREEDING

Usually breeds in loose colonies. Early nests are often in evergreen shrubs such as gorse or in bramble. Female builds the nest in a low bush or tussock from grasses, small roots and small twigs, and lines it with hair or wool. Female incubates. Both adults feed the young in the nest and continue to feed them for a further 14 days after fledging.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

male

juvenile

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than House Sparrow. Small, slim finch, with longish forked tail and short grey bill. Male has a grey head with crimson-red forehead and patches on either side of breast, a chestnut back and white underparts. Has white edges to the flight feathers, which form a short white panel that shows on both the closed and open wing. Has white edges to brown tail. Female has fine brown streaking on breast, chestnut back and lacks crimson marks. Juvenile is like female but slightly paler and more boldly striped. Legs are dark grey. Moults between July and October. After moulting males are browner and streaky without the red forehead and breast. The bolder, distinctive spring plumage emerges as the dull tips of the autumn feathers wear away. See also: Redpolls pp284–5, Twite p283.

HABITS

Nervous species that is difficult to approach. More often seen on the ground or in low bushes than in trees. Flocks outside the breeding season and sometimes forms large roosts in the evening. Often flocks on its own but will sometimes mix with other finches and buntings. Flight is light and wavering.

VOICE

Partially migratory, and in Britain and Ireland some migrate and others are resident or nomadic, and it appears some migrate in some years and not in others. Those that leave head for France and Spain, while others from Fennoscandia and the Low Countries arrive in Britain.

CONSERVATION

A population crash in the 1970s and 1980s coincided with rapid changes in land management. Decline of many farmland birds has been attributed to the loss of hedgerows and marginal habitats, increased use of herbicides, and fewer fallow and weedy stubble fields. Lower breeding success pointed to a shortage of food for young. Yet, there are signs of recovery over the last decade. An increase in oilseed rape seems to have boosted food supplies in summer and they may have benefited from a warming climate. Incentives for farmers to provide wild bird seed and grassy field margins, and to reinstate hedgerows and reduce pesticides would help Linnets and other wildlife. Protection of common land and heathland would also benefit this species. The European population is in moderate decline.

DISTRIBUTION Widespread in Britain and Ireland, except for upland areas. Most abundant in eastern Britain and Ireland. Breeds from southern Fennoscandia to North Africa, east into the Middle East, Russia and western Asia. Northern and eastern breeding populations are migratory, moving south and west in winter.

Song of male, given at any time of year, but especially spring, is a rather fast and pleasant warbling that has a slightly wheezy quality. Flight call is rapid twittering chi, chi, chi, chit.

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Twite Linaria flavirostris Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Strong decline Uncertain 7,800 Variable and uncertain May–August 4–6; 1–2 broods 12–13; 14–15 days Oldest: >5 14cm; 16g

IDENTIFICATION

Linnet-sized, slender finch, with dark streaks on upperparts and underparts, yellowish throat and underparts, buff wing-bar, and long forked tail. Rump of male is pink in the breeding season, streaked in female. A rather nondescript but charming streaky finch. Bill is yellow in winter, grey-ish in summer. Legs are dull pink. Flight feathers are edged white and show as white panel in the wing, both in flight and perched, but this feature is not as obvious as on a Linnet. Resembles a Lesser Redpoll but has a longer tail and rarely occur in the same habitats. Young resemble female but are darker and more streaked. See also: Linnet p282, Redpolls pp284–5.

HABITS

Feeds mainly on the ground, but perches on posts, fences and occasionally bushes. Habits are like Lin-net and it is gregarious outside the breeding season, with sometimes quite large flocks forming in winter.

VOICE

Call usually incorporates a harsh twaaay, like Linnet but more ‘nasal’ and distinct. Also makes more drawn-out tchway and tchway-dewee. Song is a variety of these individual notes, and not as well formed as that of Linnet.

male male

male

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Most birds move from their breeding areas in autumn and winter. Some on Scottish islands are more sedentary, but others move to Ireland or England. Those from the Pennines move south-east to East Anglia and some cross into Europe. It is likely that some birds from Norway winter in Britain.

CONSERVATION

Since the 1900s the British Twite population has been decreasing and its range retreating northwards. Farm crofts on islands and the seaboard of north-west Scotland are the heartlands for breeding. As for many seed-eating birds living on farmed land, declines seem to be caused by a diminished food supply. Populations in northern England are declining rapidly. Twite need seed-rich food supplies and have been affected by the loss of flower-rich hay meadows, early cutting of grass, increased grazing and, in England, poor heather management on moorlands. Loss of winter food may also be an issue on farmland and saltmarsh. Climatic factors cannot be discounted. Support is needed for sensitive farming systems and incentives to restore flower-rich meadows. The European population is decreasing.

HABITAT

Lives in open country, on the fringes of moorland, but usually close to hay meadows where seeds are available. Also breeds on headlands and edges of moors and on Scottish islands. Elsewhere breeds on Arctic and alpine tundra, cold steppe and stony mountains. In Europe, mainly winters on or near the coast, or on stubble fields and other cultivated land.

FOOD

Seed-eater that prefers sorrels, dandelions, grass seeds, thistles and hardheads. In winter, on the coast takes the seeds of sea-aster, marsh samphire, sea-rocket and thrift. Inland feeds on mayweeds, milfoil and cultivated species such as goldenrod. Young are fed only on seeds. Adults eat some invertebrates.

BREEDING

Arrives on breeding grounds in March. Nests in heather, bracken or other tall vegetation. Female builds bulky nest of grasses and other plants and incubates the eggs. Both adults feed young, but female does most work. Young continue to be fed for about 2 weeks after leaving nest. Where seed crop is good there may be a second brood. New 07 RSPB Hbk 5 - Species pp_202-299.indd 283

juvenile female

DISTRIBUTION There are widely separated populations: one in northern and western Britain, western Ireland, and in Norway and Russia; another from Turkey eastwards to central Asia, including in Mongolia and western China. In Britain, most abundant in northern and western Scotland. Many European Twites winter around the Baltic and the North Sea, including the British east coast.

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Lesser Redpoll Acanthis cabaret Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Stable – 220,000 – May–July 4–5; 2 broods 10–11; 12 days Average: 2; Oldest: 12 11.5cm; 11g male

juvenile

IDENTIFICATION

the opening buds of trees such as larch. At other times, feeds on grass seeds and other small seeds from low-growing plants, especially willowherb, dandelion, chickweed, sorrel and tansy. Alder seeds are a special favourite in winter.

BREEDING

Nest is built in a tall bush. It is an untidy structure of grasses, moss, old flower heads and small roots, and lined with feathers, hair and other soft material. Incubation is by female. Young may leave the nest before being able to fly strongly and they are independent after about 26 days.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Lesser Redpolls from northern Britain mostly move south in September and October. Some stay in Britain while others of the southern population may move to the continent. More remain in years when there is a plentiful crop of birch seeds. Movements are influenced by local food supplies, and so numbers in any locality will vary from year to year. There are also occasional erratic movements when larger numbers will leave one area to move and breed in another.

Slightly smaller and slimmer female than Linnet with stripy brown body, red forehead, tiny black bib, pale double wing-bar and darkstreaked rump. Triangular bill is small and fine, tail is forked. Males CONSERVATION have a red flush on their upper breasts in Once common in northern and western Britain, it the breeding season, but this and the intensity of the red forehead varies between individuals. declined from about 1930, but from 1950 it increased Forehead of female also varies from dull red to again, probably helped by young forestry plantations. yellow or brown. Often impossible to separate However, since the early 1970s there has been a rapid males from females. Bill is yellow and legs are pink. decline and its range has shrunk northwards. The Moults between July and October. Browner after reasons are not clear, although natural fluctuations moult with red appearing during winter owing to are thought to be linked to the availability of tree abrasion of feathers. See also: Linnet p282, Twite seeds. Maturing woodlands with the loss of birch trees and their seeds is a possible explanation. Trends p283, Common Redpoll p285. in Britain are mixed; numbers are increasing in HABITS Scotland, but probably declining elsewhere. Lesser Small and active, with behaviour rather like a tit, as Redpoll A. cabaret has only recently been recognised it hangs upside-down to reach seeds. Sometimes as a full species and it lives alongside the very similar nests in loose colonies. Gregarious outside the breed- Common Redpoll A. flammea without any significant ing season. Small flocks feed together, and larger interbreeding. The European trend of the two species numbers occur at roosts and during times of is of moderate decline. migration or irruption. Frequently mixes with Siskins. Songflight takes place before territories have been DISTRIBUTION established. Birds fly an undulating course; loops and Widespread in northern and circles on shallow wingbeats with occasional glides.

VOICE

Flight call is a purring trill. Its song incorporates the trill and a twittering chi, chi, chi, chi that is usually given in its songflight.

HABITAT

At home in northern birch forests and young conifer plantations, but also breeds in alder, sallow and hawthorn thickets, in tall hedges and on heaths with scattered trees.

western Britain and Ireland, but numbers and range vary considerably from year to year. Most abundant in northern and western Britain and in Ireland. Also found in parts of northwestern and central Europe and in the Alps. It has been successfully introduced into New Zealand.

FOOD

Main food is birch seeds. In spring, takes flowers and seeds of sallow, and insects that are attracted to

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Common Redpoll Acanthis flammea Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Uncertain Uncertain 12 335 April–August 4–6; 1–2 broods 10–12; 9–14 days Oldest: 9 12.5cm; 14g

male

IDENTIFICATION

Only slightly larger than Lesser Redpoll. Variable species but more robust and generally paler and greyer than Lesser Redpoll. In late winter, it has clean whitish flanks with lines of contrasting brownish streaks, rather clean ‘frosty’ appearance with white wing-bar and almost white rump. Forehead and breast become rose-pink in the breeding season and it has a small black bib. However, these features vary between individuals. Triangular yellow bill is small, but noticeably larger than in Lesser Redpoll, and tail is forked. Female lacks pink breast and sometimes has larger black bib. Breast is buff with darker streaks that join with the marks on the flanks. Immature males resemble females, but some have a trace of pink on their face and rump. Moults between July and October. Fresh autumn plumage is darker and browner and for a time obscures paler breeding plumage. Rump can vary from being strongly streaked to virtually plain white. Feathers abrade during winter to reveal paler plumage, red forehead and breast. See also: Lesser Redpoll p284, Linnet p282.

HABITS

Behaviour may recall a tit, as it hangs from a slender branch in its search for food. Like Lesser Redpoll, it is highly gregarious and flocks form outside the breeding season. In Scandinavian forests, its nests are often in the vicinity of nesting Fieldfares, which help to guard against predators.

VOICE

The call is a trilling tji-tji-tji.

HABITAT

In Britain, it is a migrant that is often first seen in coastal areas before it moves inland in its search for food. It frequently visits areas with birch, alder and spruce trees. In Fennoscandia, it breeds in inland spruce forests.

FOOD

Feeds on very small seeds from birch, alder and spruce. Also eats insects and other invertebrates.

BREEDING

In years when the spruce has a good crop, Common Redpolls may start nesting in March while there is still snow on the ground and the temperature is as low as –20°C. Female builds a cup-shaped nest in a tree and incubates. Young are fed by both parents and may depend on them for 26 days. In years when food is plentiful, a second nest may be started while young of first brood are still dependent on parents, and populations increase.

female

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Northern populations move south for the winter, others are more resident, and all populations are apt to fluctuate. European birds move south-east in October but some cross the North Sea and arrive in eastern Britain, and birds from Greenland arrive on Shetland and the Hebrides. In years when there is an irruption, larger numbers appear. Movements are linked to food shortage or population growth and spillover.

CONSERVATION

Common and Lesser Redpolls have been only recognised as separate species in Britain recently. Until then, they were considered by most ornithologists to be two races of Redpoll. However, there is no evidence that they interbreed when they nest in proximity. While the two are similar in appearance, there are consistent differences in structure and plumage. Common Redpoll populations have natural fluctuations seemingly linked to tree seed supplies and there are no specific conservation actions for this species. As a northern breeding species, Common Redpoll might also be affected by climate change, as models suggest its future range in Europe might shrink and retreat northwards. The European population is in moderate decline.

DISTRIBUTION It is an irregular autumn and winter migrant to eastern Britain, including the Northern Isles. Rare in eastern Ireland. It is also reported to be a scarce breeding species in Britain. It breeds in Fennoscandia, central Europe, across Russia, northern North America and Greenland.

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Greenfinch Chloris chloris Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

HABITAT

Green Strong decline – 760,000 – April–August 4–5; 2 broods 12–14; 13–16 days Average: 2; Oldest: 13 15cm; 28g

Widespread in lowlands in woods, plantations, gardens with trees and bushes, churchyards and farmland with tall hedges. In winter, even more widespread and feeds on farmland, the seashore, in woods and gardens.

FOOD

IDENTIFICATION

Similar in size to House Sparrow. Chunky-looking green finch with large head, rather short, slightly forked tail and heavy-looking conical bill. Male is olive-green with brighter back and rump, head greyish and bright yellow patches in wings and tail. Large pale conical bill, pink legs. Female is duller than male with less yellow and slightly streaky upperparts. Juvenile like female but browner with grey-streaked underparts. Adults have a complete moult between July and November. Feathers are duller after moult and brighten towards the breeding season owing to feather wear. See also: Siskin p289, Goldfinch p287, Crossbill p290. male

male

Eats a variety of seeds, including chickweed, groundsel and dandelion. Takes grain from cereal crops and visits garden bird feeders where it feeds on peanuts, sunflower seeds and other bird food. Its bill can open larger seeds and it favours dog’s mercury in summer, yew and hornbeam in autumn, and rose and bramble in winter.

BREEDING

Female builds a nest in a tall shrub or small tree. It is a bulky structure of twigs, moss, grass and lichen and lined with rootlets and other soft material. Incubation is by the female. Both adults feed the young, which continues after they are out of the nest; male may continue alone if female starts another brood.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Partial migrant. Birds disperse soon after nesting. Young travel further than adults, and northern birds move further than southern populations. Some from northern England and Scotland winter in southern England and others reach Europe. Greenfinches from northern Europe arrive in Britain in autumn. Most movements begin in October or November and they return in March and April.

CONSERVATION

female

HABITS

Undulating flight. Usually feeds in small groups or in larger flocks in winter. Often joins flocks of other finches, buntings and sparrows, and sometimes gathers in large communal roosts. Feeds on the ground and in trees and will feed on hanging seed feeders in gardens. It is a dominant species at feeders and often drives away other smaller species. Sings from high perches and has a circular songflight in which it makes deep, slow, exaggerated wingbeats with its body, rolling as it weaves among the trees.

VOICE

Song is mainly heard between March and July. Makes a variety of wheezy notes and trills, repetitive too-eee, and loud twittering trill that is often followed by a drawn-out wheezing dzeee. In flight, gives a repeated chichichichi and a dry jup, jup, jup.

Has adapted to urban and suburban habitats and visits gardens. Its population was increasing up to around 2005, when it crashed. Numbers have fallen by more than 60% in the last decade due to infection with a virulent parasite Trichomonas gallinae. Emergence of trichomonosis as a finch disease was unexpected and it seems to have jumped host from pigeons. The growth in feeding birds in gardens may have helped spread the disease by bringing birds into close contact with each other. This emphasises the need for high hygiene standards around garden feeders. The European population is in moderate decline, although there is considerable variation; some populations are increasing, others falling fast.

DISTRIBUTION Widely distributed in lowland Britain and only missing from the Scottish Highlands. It is most abundant in southern and eastern England and Ireland. It breeds from Fennoscandia to the Mediterranean, in North Africa, the Middle East and east into Russia and Asia. There are introduced populations in South America, Australia and New Zealand.

juvenile

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Goldfinch Carduelis carduelis Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Strong increase – 1,600,000 – May–August 4–6; 2–3 broods 13–15; 14–17 days Average: 2; Oldest: 14 12cm; 17g

BREEDING

Nests often seem precariously placed, built towards the end of a branch of a small tree or tall bush. Female makes a neat cup from moss, small roots, grasses, lichen and lines it with plant down, hair and feathers. Incubation is by the female, both adults feed and care for the young. After leaving the nest they are fed by their parents for a week, and often stay together as loose family parties.

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller and slimmer than Chaffinch. Delicate, beautiful small finch with red-andwhite face, black crown and rear of head, sandy-brown body with white belly, juvenile black wings with broad yellow bar and white spots, and black tail with white marks. Pale conical bill is MOVEMENTS quite long with a dark tip. Female is similar, but slightly AND MIGRATIONS duller with less red on face. Juvenile has similar wing Partial migrant. There are fewer Goldfinches in and tail markings, greyer and streaky body, and no winter than in summer as many leave to winter in red on the face. Legs are pale pink. Flight is particu- France, Spain and Belgium. More females leave than larly bouncy, but the black-and-yellow wings are not males, and some individuals migrate in some winters always easy to see on a flying bird. Adults moult after and not in others. Irish birds are more sedentary. the breeding season with some individuals beginning Some European Goldfinches probably arrive in in July and others not completing their moult until northern Britain as passage migrants. Migration November. After moult birds appear less colourful, chiefly takes place between September and until the tips of the newly grown feathers wear away. November, and again between February and May. See also: Greenfinch p286, Siskin p289.

HABITS

Usually seen in small groups outside the breeding season. These are often family parties, but larger flocks sometimes form around popular feeding areas in autumn and winter. Frequently seen feeding with other finches on farmland, and on or around seed feeders in gardens.

VOICE

Most common call, often given in flight, is a pleasant tinkling whit-a-whit, whit, heard all year round and is often the best clue to the bird’s presence. Song is a liquid tinkling with trills and more nasal notes.

HABITAT

Breeds where there are scattered bushes and small trees. Uses gardens, parks, orchards, cultivated land and the edges of woods. Feeds on open land, such as industrial wasteland and roadside verges, where there are low-growing plants, as well as on farmland and in parks and gardens.

FOOD

Feeds mainly on or near the ground. Its relatively long bill and its light weight allows it to extract seeds from thistles, teasels, dandelions, burdocks, groundsels and ragworts. Also takes seeds from garden plants such as forget-me-not, aster and pansy. Recently started visiting bird feeders, especially for nyjer seed and sunflower hearts. Insects and other invertebrates are eaten, especially in summer.

CONSERVATION

Once a popular cagebird, thousands were caught in Britain in the 19th century. Goldfinch populations dipped in the 1970s and 1980s due to changing farm practices and reduced food availability. The recent recovery may be partly due to high-energy food provided in gardens in winter. Conservation headlands and other management by farmers may be helping, and restoration of hedgerows, better managed field margins, the creation of winter stubbles and fewer pesticides would help further. The European population is increasing moderately but hunting and trapping remain threats.

DISTRIBUTION Widespread in Britain and Ireland and only absent from mountains and moorland. Most abundant in the south. Breeds from southern Fennoscandia to North Africa, east across Europe into the Middle East and western Asia. In winter, some reach the Middle East. Has also been introduced to Australia, New Zealand and Argentina.

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Serin Serinus serinus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Former breeder Moderate decline – 0 – April–July 3–5; 2 broods 12–14; 14–16 days Oldest: 13 11.5cm; 13g

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller than a sparrow. Tiny active finch with rather large head, tiny, stubby grey bill and forked tail. Adult is streaky yellowish-green or brown, white below with a bright yellow rump. Male has lemon-yellow forehead, face, throat and breast, with dark wings or tail. Female is duller, with browner and more streaky plumage and dull yellow rump. Juvenile is like female but duller and lacks yellow rump. Legs pink. Has complete moult between July and November. See also: Siskin p289, Greenfinch p286. female

male

male

BREEDING

Nest is a tiny structure made from grass, lichens, small roots and moss, bound together with spiders’ webs and lined with hair and feathers. Female builds the nest on the branch of a bush or tree and incubates. Young are fed by both adults. Young continue to be fed for 6–7 days after fledging, and often the male continues to feed the first brood while the female starts another. Two broods are usual in northern Europe, but there are probably more in the south.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Both sedentary and migratory. Generally, only those in the north and east migrate. They fly south-west so that, for example, many from Germany winter in Spain. Autumn movements take place between September and November and the return is mainly in March and April, which is when most are seen in Britain as they ‘overshoot’ their breeding grounds, often on southerly winds.

CONSERVATION

HABITS

Flight is light and undulating, like Goldfinch. Sociable, groups nest quite close together and remain in small flocks outside the breeding season. Often feeds on the ground. Sings from a tree branch or overhead wire and has a songflight during which it rises steeply and parachutes slowly down in an arc, with stiffly spread rounded wings that beat slowly.

VOICE

Most common call is a high-pitched, clear monotonous trilling tirrilillit or prrrp note, and also a harder two- or three-syllable tchizzick, reminiscent of the call of a Pied Wagtail. Young also make zee or zit notes. Song is a warm and pleasant rapid stream of jingling notes.

HABITAT

Nests in gardens, parks, orchards and churchyards where there is plenty of cover. It is as likely to turn up in suburban areas as in rural locations, particularly near the coast. Its original home is Mediterranean woodland, cultivated areas such as olive groves, and around villages and small towns.

FOOD

Chief food is small seeds from weeds, such as shepherd’s purse, dandelion, knotgrass, also seeds from grasses. Eats buds of birch, beech and other trees and bushes in spring. In summer, also eats some invertebrates, such as aphids, caterpillars, beetles and spiders.

Serin has been spreading north in Europe for 200 years, but the population has declined over the last 30 years for reasons that are unclear. The first British breeding record was in Dorset in 1967 and further colonisation was anticipated, but from a peak of nearly ten possible breeding attempts per year, there is no breeding in most years. The last pair bred in England in 2006. There is little that can be done to help this species beyond the provision of good-quality woodlands in southern Britain and nest protection if birds settle to breed. At face value Serin may benefit from climate warming in Britain as models suggest much of southern Britain and Ireland might become suitable for the species in the future. That colonisation, however, should it happen, seems some way off. The European population is declining moderately.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain, most likely to be seen in the south or east of England in spring and summer, but there are also a small number of winter records. It breeds across most of continental Europe just into western Russia, from Estonia and Russia in the north, south to North Africa, and east into the Middle East.

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Siskin Spinus spinus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Green Moderate increase Uncertain 430,000 Variable and uncertain April–July 3–5; 2 broods 12–13; 13–15 days Average: 2; Oldest: 13 12cm; 15g

female male

male

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller and slighter than Greenfinch. Small, yellowgreen finch with distinctly forked tail and rather long conical bill. Male has streaky yellow-green body with whitish belly and black crown, and bib that varies in intensity from bird to bird. Rump is greenish-yellow, and has striking yellow wing-bars on black wings and yellow sides to its dark tail. Female is pale yellow-green, but greyer and streakier than male with two pale yellow wing-bars. Juvenile is duller and browner again than female and more heavily streaked. Bill is grey, legs pink. Adult has complete moult between June and October. After moulting, the black cap and bib of male are obscured by pale feather-tips until the tips wear by spring. See also: Greenfinch p288, Crossbill p290, Serin p288.

HABITS

Mostly feeds near the tops of trees and is less common on the ground than other finches. Resembles a member of the tit family juvenile as it often hangs upsidedown on a branch or twig to reach food and is attracted to garden bird feeders. Flight is light and bouncy. Sociable outside the breeding season and sometimes forms large winter flocks.

VOICE

Has songflight in which it circles with tail spread and slow, exaggerated wingbeats as it gives sweet twittering that includes a drawn-out wheeze. Call frequently given in flight is a clear, loud tsuu or a ringing tszing.

HABITAT

Breeds in coniferous forests, especially Norway spruce, mixed woodlands and plantations. Outside the breeding season, it visits birch and alder trees, often near water. It will also visit bird feeders in gardens.

FOOD

Feeds on seeds, especially from spruce and pine trees, but also from alders and silver birches, as well as those of plants such as dandelion, dock, thistle and meadow­sweet. Eats insects and other invertebrates in summer and sometimes feeds on bird food in gardens, especially peanuts and seeds.

female

BREEDING

Nesting season depends on food supply. It nests in late winter or early spring when there has been a good crop of spruce seeds, but if the crop fails, breeding may be delayed until May or June. The small neat cup-shaped nest is built by the female from conifer twigs, grass, heather, moss and spiders’ webs, and lined with hair and other soft material. Female incubates and both adults feed the young.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Northern birds move south after nesting and others arrive from continental Europe, especially after cold springs that inhibit cone production in Sitka spruce. Continental birds start arriving in variable numbers in September and may remain into May. Individual birds are not consistent in their wintering areas, and some found in Britain one winter may be found elsewhere in Europe the next.

CONSERVATION

Extended its British range during the 20th century due to the planting and maturation of commercial conifer forests. The population depends on spruce seeds being available and ups and downs are linked to the variability in seed production. Siskins can be quite nomadic and will move on if the cone crop fails, which happens periodically. A recent growth in numbers and range expansion in summer and winter has been attributed to a maturing stock of conifer plantations and increasing use of garden bird feeders. The European population is increasing moderately.

DISTRIBUTION Widespread in Britain and Ireland, it nests wherever there is suitable forest habitat from southern England to the north of Scotland. Most abundant in the west and north, and in pockets with coniferous forest. In winter, it is more widespread and frequently seen away from its breeding areas. Its breeding range extends from northern Fennoscandia south to the mountains of Spain, to central and eastern Europe, the Middle East, western Russia, and eastern Asia.

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Crossbill Loxia curvirostra Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight male

Green Stable – 25,000 – February–May 3–4; 2 broods 14–15; 20–25 days Average: 2; Oldest: 14 16.5cm; 43g juvenile

female

FOOD

Chief food is conifer seeds. Norway spruce produces larger seeds than Sitka spruce and in larger quantities, and so is often sought out by crossbills. Cones are wrenched off and held under the feet while the seeds are extracted with the uniquely shaped bill. Can extract seeds from cones of any age but prefers older ones. Also eats buds, shoots and seeds. Some insects and other invertebrates are also eaten.

BREEDING

Across its range has been found breeding in every month, including in winter if there is sufficient food. Typical nest is high in a tree and built by female on a base of twigs and consists of grass, moss, lichen and bark and lined with moss, hair and feathers. Female incubates. Both adults feed the young and continue to do so for 3–6 weeks after fledging.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

IDENTIFICATION

Larger than Greenfinch. Large finch with heavylooking body, large head and grey bill. Tips of the curved upper and lower bill are crossed. Tail is forked. Male is brick-red and slightly brighter on rump. Some males are orange or yellow, or sometimes a mixture of both with streaked backs. Males in their first year resemble females but with some orange or red in their plumage and a paler yellow rump. Wings are dark without any strong markings, although a few individuals may show thin, pale wing-bars. Female is greenish-grey and slightly streaked below. Juvenile is paler brown and more heavily streaked above and below. Legs dull pink. Most moult between July and November, but those that breed later or earlier in the year may moult at other times. See also: Greenfinch p286, Scottish Crossbill p291, Parrot Crossbill p292.

HABITS

Versatile and acrobatic feeder in coniferous trees. Climbs with its feet and bill and flutters from branch to branch rather like a small parrot. Can be rather tame. Frequently comes to edges of ponds, streams and puddles to drink. Gregarious for most of the year, even when nesting. Family groups roam the woods after nesting and some join to make larger flocks. Flight is fast and undulating, often at treetop height.

VOICE

Call is a sharp, clear chip, chip, chip and flocks make a loud crescendo of chips. At dusk, it makes a Blackbird-like chink-chink. Song is an unremarkable soft twittering.

Heavy cone crops are sporadic and occur in different areas in different years. Crossbills regularly leave forests where crops are poor and search out new feeding areas. If there is a good crop, birds will stay and breed and moult before moving on. There is therefore only one movement most years rather than two-way migration. Occasionally there are huge irruptions caused either by food shortage or rapid population growth and new areas and forests are colonised.

CONSERVATION

Crossbill populations are strongly associated with conifer seed production. Numbers appear stable and their breeding range expanded in recent decades across Britain and Ireland thanks to the planting of coniferous forest during the 20th century. Crossbill species are difficult to identify in the field, which confuses monitoring. Climate warming may threaten this northern breeding species. Beyond the establishment of conifer plantations, practical conservation measures are limited. The European population fluctuates in number, threatened by intensive forestry and forest fragmentation.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain and Ireland, a widespread although spasmodic breeder mainly in the uplands, but also in suitable lowland forest. Widespread in Europe, breeding from the Arctic Circle to North Africa, in the Middle East, Asia and in North and Central America.

HABITAT

Spends most of its life associated with coniferous trees, especially Sitka spruce, Norway spruce and larch. Breeds in commercial plantations, as well as larger natural forests and mixed woodlands, and sometimes in parkland.

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Scottish Crossbill Loxia scotica Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

BREEDING

Amber Uncertain – 6,800 – February–June 3–4; 1–2 broods 12–14; 21 days Oldest: >3 16.5cm; 44g

Nesting is synchronised with the ripening of pine cones. Female builds the nest in an old Scots pine, but sometimes in other conifers. Nest is bulky, with a foundation of twigs. The structure is made from twigs, heather, moss and grass, and lined with softer material such as fur, hair and feathers. Female incubates. Both parents feed the young, which remain with their parents after fledging and are fed by them for about the next 8 weeks.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

male

A resident, but within its restricted range it shows the typical crossbill tendency to disperse short distances after breeding and to follow the best food supplies. Like the Common Crossbill in Europe, when large populations start to build up after several successful breeding seasons, there is general movement to find new areas where there is plentiful food, and some birds may stay to breed there.

CONSERVATION

IDENTIFICATION

Larger than Greenfinch. Almost indistinguishable from the Common and Parrot Crossbills. It is a slightly larger bird with a heavier, stronger, deep-based bill, and a wider head with flatter crown. Colours are similar with brick-red, orange or yellow males and green and more streaky females. Young are also yellow-green and more heavily streaked than females. Positive identification is very difficult and proximity to known breeding areas is a good clue but even then, sound recordings or bill measurements are really needed to be sure. Adults undergo annual moult between July and November. See also: Greenfinch p286, Crossbill p290, Parrot Crossbill p292.

Recognised as a full species in 1980, this is Britain’s only endemic bird. Research shows that it can only be safely separated from other crossbills by its bill measurements and calls. It is a specialist of ancient Caledonian forests of Scots pine and birch. This habitat has declined substantially and been degraded through underplanting with exotic conifers and grazing pressure from Red Deer. Management and restoration of this habitat will not only help Scottish Crossbills but also other native species. The restricted northern range of this species makes it very vulnerable to climate change.

female

HABITS

Its habits are like those of other crossbills. It spends most of its time around the tops of pine trees, but it will also visit pools and running water to drink. Flight is strong and undulating. It forms flocks when not breeding and feeding flocks tend to be quite noisy.

VOICE

The call is a hard, sharp chup, chup.

HABITAT

Restricted to areas in the north-east Scottish Highlands. It may nest in commercial plantations or traditional Caledonian pine forest. The nest may be in dense woodland or in isolated clumps of pines. Generally, it selects sunny parts of the wood in preference to the dark forest interiors. Favoured sites generally have access to water for drinking.

DISTRIBUTION It breeds only in the Highlands of northeast Scotland, especially in the remnants of the old Caledonian pine forest. The species occurs nowhere else in the world.

FOOD

The chief food is seeds from Scots pines. It extracts the seeds either with the cones attached to the branch or by removing the cone and flying to a perch, where it holds the cone with its foot as it removes the scales. It also eats some invertebrates in summer.

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Parrot Crossbill Loxia pytyopsittacus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Uncertain – 65 – February–June 3–5; 1–2 broods 14–16; 22 days Oldest: >6 16–18cm; 55g

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Like other members of this family, invasions take place periodically, usually triggered by food shortage or high population pressure. Breeding birds from northern Europe and Russia head south-west and often reach Denmark; some erratically cross the North Sea to Britain in some years. The irruptive movements are often in the same years as Common Crossbill irruptions. At such times, Parrot Crossbills may colonise new locations as they apparently did in Scotland in the late 20th century. male

IDENTIFICATION

Very similar to the Crossbill and Scottish Crossbill. A larger bird with a thicker neck and larger, flattish head and deeper, blunter-looking bill with a more ‘parrot-like’ bulge on lower mandible than other crossbills. Heavier looking and rather shorttailed. Plumage colour like other crossbills, but male tends to be slightly duller, with more grey on nape. Greenish female tends also to be greyer with less black on wings. Heavy and ‘front-loaded’ appearance in flight. Juvenile’s bill less pronounced and hardly separable from other juvenile crossbills. Moults between June and November. See also: Crossbill p290, Scottish Crossbill p291.

HABITS

Behaviour like other crossbills. Secretive although may allow observer to approach when feeding. Usually feeds high in coniferous trees, but frequently comes down to puddles and other water to drink. Often travels in family groups or small flocks and will join flocks of other crossbills. It has a butterfly-like songflight prior to nesting.

VOICE

Call like Crossbill, although some observers have described a deeper, emphatic quop, quop call. Song tends to be lower, slower and slightly better enunciated than the Crossbill.

HABITAT

Found in pine and spruce forests. In Britain, tends to be found in large Scots pine plantations and in the remnants of the ancient Caledonian forest of the Scottish Highlands.

FOOD

Specialist feeder on seeds of conifer trees, especially Scots pine but also spruce and larch. Seeds and buds from other plants, including alder and rowan are also taken. Some invertebrates are also eaten when nesting.

BREEDING

Recorded nesting in stands of Scots pines in Britain. Nests are built by the female 6–20m off the ground and composed of twigs, lichens, moss, bark and pine needles. Young are fed and cared for by both their parents and for a further 6 weeks after fledging.

female

CONSERVATION

First proved breeding in Norfolk in 1984. Since then, around 100 pairs have been found nesting in Scotland in some years, though there may be more, and pairs are occasionally found breeding in other parts of Britain. This is a difficult species to locate, and it is probably under-recorded. Its main breeding areas appear to be in native Scots pine forests, which is a habitat that is specially protected by the RSPB and other conservation bodies. The future of this species is uncertain given its irruptive nature and it is not known how long the current population in Scotland has been established. An increase in planting and protection of native Scots pine forests in Scotland may help this species and other native wildlife. Climate change might pose a threat, as models suggest their range might even halve in size and move northwards in the future.

DISTRIBUTION A small number breed in Scottish forests and very occasionally it is found further south in Britain. The species is found across Fennoscandia, north-eastern Europe and into western Russia. Following population irruptions, it will move south-west to Denmark and sometimes to the Netherlands and Britain.

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Corn Bunting Emberiza calandra Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Strong decline – 11,000 – June–August 4–5; 1–3 broods 13; 11–13 days Oldest: 10 18cm; 41g

IDENTIFICATION

Size of a Skylark; our largest bunting. Plump brown bird with heavy straw-coloured bill, pale eye-ring, pale downward stripe from the bill, which is bordered by dark line below, and pink legs. Plumage is dull streaked brown with paler, boldly streaked underparts, but without distinguishing features, except that some have streaks on their breast clustered in an irregular diamond-shaped patch in the centre of the breast. Sexes are alike. Juveniles are like adults. The plain brown plumage, large head and large size are key identification features. See also: Skylark p219, Yellowhammer p296.

HABITS

Rather inconspicuous. Feeds on the ground, often with other species. In winter, forms small flocks. On winter evenings, where common, larger numbers may form communal roosts in scrub and often reedbeds. Winter flocks break down and territories are reoccupied between February and April. When singing, sits upright on a prominent perch, in an isolated tree or bush, on telephone wires or fence posts, opening its bill wide with head thrown back. In flight, over short distances, often dangles its legs and appears fluttering.

VOICE

Song starts when males visit their territories in January or February and they soon sing incessantly throughout the day. Song is an accelerating series of tinkling notes that has been likened to jangling of keys. Males with several mates sing more than males with only one. Call, which is given frequently when perched or in flight, is a rather abrupt but distinct quit.

HABITAT

Found in dry open countryside, breeding mainly in cereal fields and hay meadows, as well as in grasslands and steppes. Avoids moorland but is present on some heaths. In winter, feeds mainly on farmland, avoiding winter cereals and improved grasslands, and preferring fallows, winter stubbles and rough grasslands with a good number of weeds and areas of bare soil.

FOOD

Most of the year it mainly feeds on plant material. It eats the grain from cereal crops and the tiny seeds from grasses and a variety of wild plants. In summer, it eats invertebrates such as beetles and caterpillars. Young are fed on sawflies, aphids, beetles, plant bugs and a vast list of other invertebrates, as well as ripening grain.

BREEDING

Most males have one mate, but some have two or more females nesting in their territory. Female makes a nest that is a loose cup of grass on the ground or in a low bush, often near the edge of a field. Female incubates and takes most care of the young. Chicks leave the nest often a few days before they can fly.

juvenile

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Mostly rather sedentary but wanders in winter in search of food. There is no evidence of large-scale movements. Other populations in Europe are partial migrants, especially in the north and in upland areas.

CONSERVATION

Declined early in the 20th century, recovered during the 1950s and 1960s, before declining again. These fluctuations are linked to changes in farming, especially switching from spring-sown to autumnsown cereals that result in earlier harvesting and the loss of seed-rich stubble fields. Similarly, a move to earlier and repeat mowing of hay meadows for silage destroys nests and prevents second broods from fledging. RSPB research shows that delayed mowing, growing unharvested crops, reducing pesticides and maintaining grassmargins increases nesting success. Also, growing dense crops in the middle of fields for nesting (rather than at the edge) lowers nest predation. The European population shows a moderate decrease in many countries but is stable in others.

DISTRIBUTION Breeding distribution is patchy and is shrinking rapidly. Breeds mainly but patchily in England, eastern Scotland, and on the Uists. Rare in Wales and Ireland. In mainland Europe, it breeds from Denmark to the Mediterranean, and in North Africa, in central and south-east Europe, and then on into the Middle East and Asia. Most populations are sedentary, a small number are migratory.

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Snow Bunting Plectrophenax nivalis Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

male

Amber Uncertain Variable and uncertain 60 11,250 May–July 4–6; 1–2 broods 12–13; 12–14 days Oldest: 9 16cm; 35g

female

male

female fresh, autumn

FOOD

Feeds on seeds, with insects eaten during the breeding season. Seeds are mainly from plants of the bistort family, grasses, herbs and other lowgrowing plants. Insects include springtails, mites, flies and their larvae, caterpillars and spiders.

BREEDING

Builds a cup-shaped nest of grass, moss and lichen that is lined with hair, wool and feathers. Nest is usually in a crevice among rocks and boulders. Female incubates. Both adults feed the young. Young leave the nest a few days before they can fly, and their parents feed them for a further 8–12 days.

IDENTIFICATION

male fresh, autumn

Frosty white, stocky bunting, slightly larger than Lapland and Reed Buntings. Has thick, stubby bill, rather flat crown, long, pointed wings and short forked tail. Breeding male has a dark bill, white body, black back, black central tail feathers and white wings with prominent black triangular tips. In autumn and winter, the head and breast are sandy-coloured, and the back is rusty brown with darker marks. Bill is yellow. In flight, wings always show white in varying amounts, and wing-tips are always black. Females and immatures resemble winter male but with less white in wing. In late winter, the transformation of the male from sandy winter plumage to gleaming white breeding plumage is largely due to the sandy tips abrading away. See also: Lapland Bunting p295.

HABITS

Very sociable outside the breeding season with flocks of several hundred sometimes forming, occasionally mixing with other finches. Swirling winter flocks resemble snowflakes fluttering through the air. Flocks of juveniles sometimes migrate together. Spends a lot of time on the ground, shuffling along with body close to the earth and short legs largely hidden, searching for seeds in open areas or in low scrubby vegetation. Often quite approachable.

VOICE

Call, usually heard in flight, is a rippling twittering tirrirrirrip. There are calls that sound like seu and sichew. Song is loud and musical and given from a perch or in flight.

HABITAT

In winter, mainly on the seashore, often feeding along the strandline or on rough grassland near the coast. Some winter on high hills and mountains. In Scotland, breeds on mountain tops close to summer snow fields, with broken ground, screes and corries. In the Arctic, it breeds in treeless areas and on rocky coasts.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Most northerly Snow Buntings are migrants, but some overwinter close to breeding sites. Birds originating mostly from Iceland and Scandinavia arrive in Scotland and mainly the east coast of England in late September to November and leave in February and March. It appears males are better able to survive in winter and are more likely to remain closer to their breeding sites.

CONSERVATION

Between 1930 and 1950 the breeding population in Scotland was probably fewer than ten pairs, but an RSPB-led survey in 2011 estimated c.60 territories. This increase may in part reflect better knowledge. In addition to possible disturbance from hill walkers, the biggest threat appears to be climate change, because British birds are at the southern end of their range and predictions suggest that the range might shift northwards. Trends in Europe are unclear but numbers in Fennoscandia have declined. Threats to wintering birds include the loss of saltmarshes to other land uses such as grazed pastures.

DISTRIBUTION Most are seen in winter, mainly along the east coasts of Scotland and England and a few in the north of Ireland. Large numbers winter throughout the Highlands of Scotland and in northern England. The small breeding population is restricted mainly to the Scottish Highlands, especially in the Cairngorms. Breeds around the Arctic Circle, from Scandinavia and Spitsbergen, across Asia to Alaska, Arctic Canada, Greenland and Iceland.

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Lapland Bunting Calcarius lapponicus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Amber Uncertain Variable and uncertain 0–1 310 – 5–6 11–13; 11–13 days Oldest: 6 16cm; 24g

IDENTIFICATION

Larger than Reed Bunting but smaller than Snow Bunting. Heavy-looking bunting with short, thick, strawcoloured bill, large head, long wings and male relatively short forked tail. Male in spring has a striking black face and throat, separated from the black crown by a ‘V’-shaped white band. Back of neck is chestnut. Female lacks black head. In autumn and winter, when birds are most likely in Britain and Ireland, adults resemble Reed Bunting but have plainer reddish-buff faces and distinct black band around the cheeks. Also has rich chestnut panel on wing between two white wing-bars. Flanks are sparsely streaked, unlike wellstreaked underparts of Reed Bunting. Rump is greybrown and streaked and there is a slight pale stripe through the crown. Males retain some chestnut on back of neck in winter. Some have black mottling in a gorget across the breast. Legs pinkish or black. Moults between July and September. After moulting, spring plumage is obscured by the fringes of the newly grown feathers, which abrade away by spring. See also: Snow Bunting p294, Reed Bunting p298.

HABITS

Bounding flight recalls larks and pipits. Mostly feeds on the ground and is often in small flocks, although individual birds and small groups will sometimes join flocks of other buntings, larks and pipits on the British east coast in winter. Larger flocks sometimes form on migration.

VOICE

Flight call is a distinctive dry, rattling terrek. Sometimes it makes a Snow Bunting-like, descending teu call. Song is quite musical and given during a songflight.

HABITAT

Adapted to the Arctic tundra where it breeds among dwarf willows, often in wet areas, or Arctic heath with low-growing shrubs. In autumn, often found on coastal heaths and in winter visits stubble fields and areas of rough grass, mainly near the coast.

FOOD

In summer, eats invertebrates, but at other times feeds on seeds of grasses and herbs. Animal food includesflies, craneflies, beetlesandspiders.Plantmaterial includes knotgrass, dock and shepherd’s purse.

BREEDING

Nests on the ground. Female builds a cup-shaped structure of grass, small roots, leaves and lichen. Incubation is by female and both adults feed the young. Young leave the nest 2–3 days before they can fly and remain with their parents for a further week.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

In Britain and Ireland, mainly arrives between late August and mid-October and leaves again by May. Birds wintering in Britain and Ireland tend to come from Scandinavia or Greenland. Northern populations are fully migratory, moving south in winter. female male fresh, autumn

female 1st-winter

CONSERVATION

The number wintering varies, and in some years much larger numbers appear for reasons that are unclear. It was found summering in 1968, and in the 1970s the number of possible breeding pairs in Scotland was in double figures, but colonisation was short-lived and now only single birds appear occasionally in the breeding season. Secrecy, to protect nests from possible disturbance and the attention of egg thieves, is the only conservation action. Protection and careful managefemale ment of their preferred coastal 1st-winter wintering areas would help the species. The European population trends are uncertain, although Scandinavia’s populations appear to be declining and climate change may be a threat.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain and Ireland, it is an autumn and winter visitor, especially to the east coast of England and Scotland, and the east of Ireland. Birds from Europe winter around the North Sea and in southern Russia and Ukraine. It is distributed around the Arctic Circle, in northern Europe, Asia, North America and southern Greenland.

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Yellowhammer Emberiza citrinella Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Moderate decline – 685,000 – April–September 3–5; 2–3 broods 13–14; 13–16 days Average: 3; Oldest: 13 16cm; 31g

female

breeding season visits larger fields, especially stubble fields, those with winter fodder crops and other places where grain-eating birds gather, although it is an unusual visitor to gardens.

IDENTIFICATION

Little larger than Chaffinch. Rather long-bodied bunting with long forked tail. In spring, male has bright yellow head and breast, rich brown streaky back and plain reddish-brown rump. Faint reddishbrown band across the yellow breast. In autumn and winter, yellow is mostly obscured by greenish-brown streaks. Female is duller with pale yellow below bill and in front of eyes, lines of brown streaks along breast and flanks, and two dull wing-bars. Bill grey, legs pinkish. In flight, shows white towards ends of outer tail feathers. Juveniles and immature females are darker and only faintly yellow. Adults moult between July and October. After moult the brown feather tips on the male hide the bright colours until they abrade away during winter. See also: Cirl Bunting p297, Yellow Wagtail p273. male fresh, autumn male

FOOD

Mainly a seed-eater, but also insects and other invertebrates, especially in summer when feeding young. Seeds include grasses, nettle, dock and chickweed, and grain from cereal crops. Insects include grasshoppers, sawfly larvae and caterpillars.

BREEDING

Eggs are laid mostly in May and June. The nest is usually on the ground among taller vegetation and is made from grass, plant stems and moss, and lined with fine grass and other soft material. Eggs generally incubated by female alone. Young are fed by both parents. They are not usually able to fly when they leave the nest but become independent of their parents 12–14 days later.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Northern populations are migratory but British and Irish breeding birds seldom move far. Birds on passage from Scandinavia sometimes stray across the North Sea and arrive on the east coast in October and November.

CONSERVATION

juvenile

HABITS

Undulating flight. Frequently perches on the tops of bushes, hedges and overhead wires. Feeds mainly on the ground and outside the breeding season is often seen in small flocks, frequently mixing with other buntings, finches and sparrows.

VOICE

Call is sharp, clipped zit or soft trillp. The famous ‘little-bit-of-bread-and-no-cheese’ description of song helps to describe the pace and form, which is variable, but tends to be a rapid succession of repeated notes with the last phrase drawn out into a long wheeze. Song from prominent perch is repeated monotonously during breeding season.

UK population has halved since 1970. Decline mirrors other farmland birds; it appears changes in the countryside have lowered winter survival. Removal of hedgerows, filling of ditches and cultivation up to the field edge are likely to have affected the species. Insecticides and herbicides may have reduced seeds and invertebrates. Restoration of hedgerows, management of field margins and creation of winter stubbles would help, as would a decrease in pesticides. The European population is falling moderately.

DISTRIBUTION Widespread in lowland mainland Britain and southern and eastern Ireland. Most abundant in eastern and central Britain and eastern Ireland. The winter distribution is similar. It has a very large range, from Fennoscandia to the Mediterranean in Europe and eastwards into Russia and Asia.

HABITAT

Breeds in areas of grassland and arable fields with hedges and banks, railway embankments, commons, heaths and woodland edge. Outside the

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Cirl Bunting Emberiza cirlus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

Red Strong increase – 1,100 – April–August 3–4; 2–3 broods 12–14; 12–13 days Insufficient data 16cm; 25g

male

female

IDENTIFICATION

Smaller and more compact than Yellowhammer. Male in spring is striking with a black chin and eyestripe, black-and-olive crown, yellow stripes on the head and yellow underparts with bold red-brown streaks on the flanks and greenish breast-band. Rump is olive-grey and streaked, unlike the rich redbrown of Yellowhammer. Bright colours are mostly obscured in autumn and winter plumage. Females and juveniles are similar to Yellowhammers, but have streaked, grey-brown rumps and bolder stripy head markings. Underparts are clearly marked with evenly spaced fine dark streaks that extend well down the rather pale belly. Bill is dull grey, legs are pink. See also: Yellowhammer p296, Reed Bunting p298.

HABITS

Spends a lot of time on the ground, where it moves slowly with a shuffle that recalls Dunnock. Quite secretive and often skulks in trees and bushes, but when singing it usually selects a prominent songpost. Outside the breeding season it forms flocks of up to about 40 or more. These flocks may mix with other species such as Yellowhammers.

juvenile

VOICE

Call a rather thin, high-pitched stic, stic, higher and more metallic than Yellowhammer. Sings between February and September, a rattling trill of a single repeated note, quite like the song of Lesser Whitethroat and not unlike a Yellowhammer but lacks the ‘cheese’ phrase at the end.

HABITAT

In Britain, found mainly on agricultural land, especially pastures surrounded with thick hedges and trees, and often on bushy slopes on or near the coast. In winter, moves to mainly arable fields, especially winter stubbles and other areas rich in weeds where it feeds relatively close to cover.

BREEDING

Nest site is usually in thick and often thorny vegetation, including gorse, bramble and dog rose. Nest is a cup-shaped structure of grass, plant stems and moss, and lined with softer materials. Female alone incubates. Both adults feed the young, which are independent 8–16 days after leaving the nest.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Most populations are sedentary although it tends to wander in winter in search of good feeding areas. There are some local movements of continental birds away from cold areas in autumn, and some individuals move several hundred kilometres.

CONSERVATION

After a long decline, there has been a recovery, although it is far less common and more restricted than it was 100 years ago. Range contraction was largely due to changes in farming, with loss of winter stubble, insect-rich grasslands and a switch to silage grass production. The RSPB helped to reverse this decline by supporting local farmers and others, and working with farmers to grow spring barley and leave it as winter stubble, to restore and plant hedgerows, and manage rich grasslands with a diversity of invertebrates. Plus, Cirl Buntings were successfully reintroduced into Cornwall in 2006, where there is now a small stable population. It may also benefit from a warming climate at the northern edge of its range. Cirl Bunting is a great conservation success and yet remains quite vulnerable. The European population is increasing moderately.

DISTRIBUTION In Britain, restricted to the south-west of England, and especially to southern Devon and Cornwall. Its stronghold is in southern Europe around the Mediterranean, including in North Africa. There is a small non-native population in New Zealand where it was introduced in the 19th century.

FOOD

Feeds on seeds and invertebrates. Seeds include grasses, chickweed, barley and nettles. Invertebrates include insects such as grasshoppers, weevils, beetles and bugs of various species, flies and aphids.

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Reed Bunting Emberiza schoeniclus Conservation status Pop. trend (breeding) Pop. trend (wintering) Breeding pop. (pairs) Wintering pop. (individuals) Nesting Eggs and broods Incubating and fledging Lifespan (years) Size and weight

out old ditch systems. In winter, it visits agricultural land and other open areas, often away from water.

Amber Moderate increase – 255,000 – April–July 4–5; 1–2 broods 13; 12–14 days Average: 3; Oldest: 12 15cm; 21g

IDENTIFICATION

FOOD

Eats mainly seeds from grasses, saltwort, shepherd’s purse, plants from the goosefoot family, mare’s tail and many other wildflower seeds. In summer, it also feeds on invertebrates, including springtails, caterpillars and spiders. Nestlings are also fed on invertebrates.

BREEDING

male

About the size of House Sparrow, with relatively large head and white outer tail feathers. Male has a sparrow-like body, black head and throat, broad white collar and a small white stripe from the bill downwards. Underparts are white, and has two wing-bars. In autumn and winter, the black head markings are largely obscured. Female has a brown stripy head, long, pale stripe above the eye that narrows towards back of head, pale stripe below the cheeks and thinner triangular-shaped dark stripe below. Underparts pale male with red-brown streaking on fresh, breast and flanks. Juvenile is like autumn female with yellower plumage and darker streaks. Moults between July and November when both sexes look similar, and the black head of male is only revealed for breeding by abrasion of brown feather-tips. See also: Yellowhammer female p296, Lapland Bunting p295.

HABITS

Frequently clings to reeds and often sings from near the top of a reed stem or a low bush in marshland. Often flicks wings nervously when calling. After breeding, forms mixed flocks with other buntings, finches and sparrows, or sometimes wagtails and pipits. Feeds on the ground.

VOICE

Usual call is shrill tsew that is given in flight, and a metallic ching. Song is simple and repetitive; it is a collection of a few metallic notes ending in an unremarkable flourish tweek, tweek, tweek, titty-tweek.

HABITAT

Traditionally a bird of wetlands: reedbeds, river margins, fens, marshes and coastal grazing marshes. More recently it has colonised drier habitats: ditches, young forestry plantations and some farm crops, especially nesting in fields of oilseed rape. On farmland, visits grassland or crops for feeding and seeks

Nest is often near water. Female builds it on the ground among a clump of grass or rushes or off the ground in a bush. Made from grass and moss and lined with finer material. Female incubates the eggs. Both adults feed the young, which leave the nest a few days before they can fly.

MOVEMENTS AND MIGRATIONS

Most Reed Buntings in Britain and Ireland are sedentary, but some tend to withdraw south-west from upland areas in autumn. Females appear more likely to make winter movements away from nesting sites than males. A few from northern Europe winter in Britain.

CONSERVATION

The population fell rapidly in the 1970s but has subsequently and steadily recovered and is now increasing. It seems likely it suffered from large-scale changes in farming policies, along with many other farmland birds. Apparently the availability of winter food has declined because of changes in cropping and the use of herbicides, resulting in the disappearance of weed-rich stubbles and there being much less spilt grain. The drainage of marshland, as well as damp areas in farmland, and more intensive reed cutting in wetlands are important threats to the species. Incentives to support nature-friendly farming would benefit this species, such as rich grassland field margins and reductions in pesticides, as would the restoration and creation of more wetland nature reserves. The European population is in moderate decline.

DISTRIBUTION Widespread in summer and winter, with the largest numbers in central and eastern England, eastern Scotland and in Ireland. In winter, it remains widespread but abandons uplands areas. It has a large range, breeding from central and northern Europe, in the Middle East, and across into eastern Asia, where other races occur. Some populations are resident, but many are migratory, moving far to the south in winter. Some European birds reach North Africa in winter.

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RARITIES American Wigeon Mareca americana 45–56cm. Slightly longer bill, neck and tail than Wigeon. Breeding male has cream-white flash from forehead to top of head, dark green band from eye to nape, and pale freckled cheeks and neck. Breast and flanks pinkish-brown, darker black-andwhite patch between flanks and the black tail. Small white line along body sometimes visible. Wing has greenand-black speculum and white underwing. Female has grey freckled head that contrasts with darker body, rufous flanks and greyer back than Wigeon. Males in moult (eclipse) and juveniles appear similar to females. Breeds in northern North America including tundra. Moves south after breeding and winters south of

female

male

its breeding areas, with some in Central America and Caribbean. A few reach the British Isles, with about half in Scotland, probably fewer than 20 a year. A few stay for a time and move around wetland sites.

Green-winged Teal Anas carolinensis 34–38cm. Much smaller than a Mallard and very similar in appearance to a Teal (p30), but the drake has a conspicuous neat, vertical white stripe either side of the breast and lacks the lateral white stripe along the sides of its body. A female is generally inseparable from the female Teal (as is a male in its eclipse plumage), although the crown and the eyestripe tend to be darker. This rare visitor is seen increasing frequently, with almost 50 being recorded annually in recent years. It is mainly a winter vagrant, with a few arriving with other migrating wildfowl from October onwards. It occurs on any suitable water, often with Teal. Most reports are from the Hebrides, Shetland and western counties of Britain and Ireland. Widespread in North America and moves south in autumn, wintering in southern North America, Central America and some Caribbean islands.

male

male eclipse

female

Ferruginous Duck Aythya nyroca 38–42cm. Quite a secretive small diving duck, often hiding in waterside vegetation, with a steep forehead and high crown. Males are rich chestnut with female darker brown back, white under the tail and a white eye that is obvious at close quarters. Sometimes a small white spot is visible under chin. Bill is bluegrey. Female is duller and has a brown eye. She also has white under the tail but could be confused with female Tufted Ducks that sometimes show this feature. Juvenile like female with duller white undertail. Conspicuous white wing-bar in flight. It breeds in parts of north-west Africa and southern Europe, eastern France and also Germany, Poland and Romania and east into Asia.

female

male

male

female

male

It visits waterbodies often with vegetation, where it can be hard to see. About ten arrive in Britain each year.

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Ring-necked Duck Aythya collaris male female summer

male 1st-summer female winter

37–46cm. Diving duck, size of Tufted Duck (p41). Distinctive high dome set back on crown and flat back of head. Long bill is grey, male has thin white lines around the base, and both sexes have a black tip with thick white band behind it. Male flanks are grey (white in Tufted Duck) and has vertical white mark on breast-side. Females are paler and greyer, pale face at base of bill and white eye-ring with pale stripe behind it. First-winter birds have all-black bill-tip, but less of a white band behind it, and pale eye-ring. All ages and sexes show a grey stripe along the entire length of the wing in flight. Regular North American vagrant, visiting freshwater lakes and reservoirs. About 20 a year reach Britain, usually in March and April, and possibly new arrivals in autumn in southwestern sites in Britain and Ireland.

Lesser Scaup Aythya affinis 38–48cm. Like Scaup, but smaller with distinctive bump or short crest at back of crown and shorter bill that appears slightly curved. Male has purplishviolet black head, and neck, breast and undertail are black. Flanks and belly are white, and back is

male

finely barred with a silver-grey appearance, but more barred and darker grey than Scaup. Bill is grey, tail is black. White bar on secondary wing feathers shows in flight. Female is brown, sometimes reddishbrown, with pale face-patch at base of bill that tends to be smaller than Scaup. Juvenile, and male in moult (eclipse), is similar to female. Breeds in northern North America, with some in the Arctic. Migrates south for the winter, with some reaching Central America. In the early 20th century, this was becoming a frequent visitor to Britain but in recent years numbers have been in single figures.

female

Surf Scoter Melanitta perspicillata male

female

45–56cm. Smaller than Mallard. A dark sea duck with large, eider-like head, long triangular bill and sloping forehead. Striking head markings are unlike other scoters. Male is mainly black with pale eye, a large multicoloured bill (yellow, red and white), and white patches on forehead and nape. Female is blackish-brown with paler underparts and two pale patches in front of and behind eye. Some females also have pale nape. Young males have a white patch on the nape but lack the white forehead. Juveniles resemble female but with paler underparts. In flight, wings are plain and all dark. Male plumage is more like that of the female during moult. It breeds mainly in Canada and Alaska and winters along both the east and west coasts of North America. A few cross the Atlantic and an average of 17 have been seen in recent years, with highest numbers occurring in Scotland.

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White-billed Diver Gavia adamsii 76–91cm. Largest diver, with prominent bulge on forehead. Large white or yellowish pointed bill is often tilted upwards. The base of the neck looks very thick. In breeding plumage, black head and neck can look purplish or green and there are two white collars, the lower one larger than the upper. Black back is spangled with pattern of white squares and spots. Underparts are gleaming white. Non-breeding plumage is similar to Great Northern, but bill paler and often shows pale marks on the back of head and paler face extends above the eye.

Breeds in the far north: Siberia, Alaska and northern Canada. Many winter off the coast of Norway and some visit the British Isles, especially the Scottish coast. In recent years, an average of 27 have been seen, particularly in March to May, and numbers have generally increased since 1990.

summer

winter

Wilson’s Petrel Oceanites oceanicus 15–29cm. Small sooty-black seabird resembling a large Storm Petrel. Obvious pale band on upperwing, unlike Storm Petrel, and longer legs that project beyond the end of the square tail in flight. Yellowish webs on feet only visible at very close quarters. Underwing is usually dark whereas Storm Petrel often has a pale bar, but this feature is variable. White rump appears to wrap around the body more so than on Storm Petrel. Wings more rounded and less angular than Leach’s Petrel. Flies directly, with rapid wingbeats followed by a glide. Less gliding over the waves like some petrels. Legs dangle and wings are lifted in a ‘V’ as it picks food from water surface.

Breeds on remote Antarctic islands in Southern Ocean. Migrates north after breeding and a few visit the British Isles, mainly in the south-west and usually well out to sea. Average of 36 seen annually in recent years.

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Great Shearwater Ardenna gravis 43–51cm. Large shearwater. Like Cory’s Shearwater (p65) but larger than a Manx Shearwater (p67). Wings are normally held more stiffly, and it lacks the lazy, meandering, gull-like flight of Cory’s in calmer sea conditions. In stronger winds, it will arch up above the horizon and show a white collar, dark cap and a white rump. Underbody and underwings are white with varying amounts of browner markings, contrasting with darker upperparts. The white underwing-coverts are striped boldly with dark at the base, and some birds show a brown patch on the white belly. Longish narrow bill is dark. Sometimes in large flocks, and when settled on the water, they make a meowing sound like a group of aquatic cats! Appears in varying numbers around British Isles, as part of its long post-breeding migration from the South Atlantic. There is no clear pattern to these influxes – some years there are hardly any records, in others there are thousands. Most are seen in south-west Britain and Ireland. Numbers and trends are uncertain. Great Shearwaters breed on Inaccessible Island, Nightingale Island and Gough Island in the South Atlantic, where there are an estimated 3.5 million breeding pairs.

Balearic Shearwater Puffinus mauretanicus

light variant

dark variant

34–39cm. Little larger than the closely related Manx Shearwater (p67), but not as crisply black and white. Instead, the western Mediterranean Balearic Shearwater is much browner above and dull below. Underwing is dark round the edges and brownish-white in the centre. Underparts brownish with a white belly. In flight, toes extend beyond short tail. Can be mistaken for Sooty Shearwater (p66) but is shorter-winged and lacks the pale white line in the centre of the underwing of that species. It may appear pot-bellied compared to the sleeker Manx. Moults between June and October, off French and Spanish coasts. Critically endangered species with a world population of some 3,200 pairs. Breeding birds require sustainable fisheries and islands free of domestic and feral cats, common genets and rats. Small numbers of individuals are seen annually in Britain, mostly off Cornish coasts, also off south-west Ireland, western Wales and along the English south coast; more have been seen in the North Sea in recent years. In some years, very large numbers are seen off south-west England, but the exact number visiting our waters is uncertain. Breeds in the Mediterranean on the Balearic Islands and off the south coast of France.

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Glossy Ibis Plegadis falcinellus 80cm. A dark brown bird with some purple gloss in its plumage, looking black from a distance; wingcoverts are glossy green. It has an obvious long, downcurved, horn-coloured bill, which is curlew-like in shape and length, but thicker at the base. Has bare white skin at the base of bill. Male and female similar and juveniles duller, often spotted and with paler underparts. Non-breeding plumage has fine white streaks on its head and neck. Looks all dark in flight, with rounded wings and dark legs with feet sticking out beyond the tail. See also: Curlew p122, Cormorant p85. Perches in trees in marshes, but normally spends most time on the ground. It feeds in shallow water by probing deep into mud or pools where it finds water snails, frogs and insect larvae. It throws back its head to swallow larger prey. Individuals or small groups may appear at scattered locations in Britain, mostly in the south and at any time of year. An average of 78 is seen each year and there have been a couple of recent breeding attempts, but no eggs were laid. Breeds in Europe, the Middle East, Asia, Australasia and the Americas.

winter summer

juvenile

Black Kite Milvus migrans

55–60cm. Like Red Kite (p97) with darker body and wings, less rufous on shorter, less deeply forked tail, darker head and shows six-fingered wing-tips when gliding (Red Kite normally shows five). Has a slightly paler band on underwing, but not as pale as a Red Kite. When the tail is spread, it looks squarer-cut across at the tip. Young birds have dark mask, show slightly paler patch on underwings and pale buff tips to the brown wing-coverts on the upperwing. Larger than Common Buzzard and longer winged, this and the shallow tail fork aid identification. Black Kite holds its wings quite flat, unlike a Marsh Harrier, only dipping the wing-tips down at times (rather than flapping up), and flexing the tail sideways to help steer, rather like a Red Kite. Yellow legs are shorter than a Marsh Harrier’s and it lacks the obvious pale crown of that species.

juvenile

More than 350 have been seen in Britain and sightings are increasing. It breeds in most of Europe, in Russia, and in Morocco and Algeria. It is mainly a summer visitor to Europe. Most British records are in spring, especially April and May, but records continue into September.

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American Golden Plover Pluvialis dominica 24–28cm. Compared with Golden Plover (p116) it is marginally smaller, slimmer, and more upright with narrower wings. Rear seems more tapering due to longer wings. Movement on the ground is more elegant. Legs are darker, bill longer and has distinctive dusky grey-brown underwing (white in Golden Plover). Breeding plumage has black belly, neck and face that tends to be blacker than Golden Plover and separated from golden-spangled back by white patch from bill to shoulder, not extending onto the flanks. Spangled back is darker and greyer than Golden Plover, with less gold spangling. Breeds in the north of North America (mostly Arctic Canada and Alaska) and winters mainly in Argentina, having flown an elliptical course out over the Atlantic and Caribbean to reach its winter quarters. Numbers seen in Britain have increased to around 25 each year, mainly from September to November.

summer

winter

Kentish Plover Charadrius alexandrinus

male summer

winter

juvenile

15–17cm. Small, neat, sandy-coloured plover. Runs swiftly on blackish legs. Head merges with body, giving hunched look, and rear is shorter than Ringed Plover (p118). Black bill is short and slender. Males have chestnut crown with black band above forehead. White forehead extends back above the eye and borders black ear-coverts. Has thin white collar and short, thin black patches either side of the neck. Upperparts are pale greyish-sandy colour. Females duller than males, with sandy-brown crown, no chestnut, pale forehead and grey-brown patch on ear-coverts. Patches on breast are grey-black. Juveniles resemble females with scaly back. Has dark central tail with white sides and white wing-bar in flight. Calls include short, ascending sloo-it and rolling prrrr. Ceased nesting in England in 1950s. About 12 annual sightings. Most visit coastal or inland wetland habitats in spring in south-east England. Migrants favour open sites with sparse vegetation.

Lesser Yellowlegs Tringa flavipes winter

winter

juvenile

23–25cm. Smaller and slimmer than Redshank (p140). Medium-sized slender wader with thin, straight, dark bill and long yellow legs. Dark back is mottled and spotted with lighter marks when breeding, resembling Wood Sandpiper (p137), but is larger with no obvious white eye-stripe. Neck and upper breast are greyish with darker streaks that are less obvious in winter. In flight, there are no obvious markings on the uniformly grey wings, but it has a rather square white rump and barred grey tail. In winter, plumage is lighter grey-brown on back and less spotted. Runs and walks and can be approachable, but bobs when suspicious. Call is a high-pitched tew. Breeds in northern North America in Alaska and Canada, and winters from the Caribbean south to Argentina. Currently, about nine are being seen in Britain each year, mostly between August and October but also some in spring.

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White-rumped Sandpiper Calidris fuscicollis 15–18cm. Smaller, slimmer and shorter-billed than most Dunlins (p127) with long wings extending beyond tail. Overall impression is of greyish wader with shorter legs than Dunlin, longer winged, with a short, dark, slightly downcurved bill and white eye-stripe. Adults visit mainly in July and August as they moult into grey winter plumage and retain some black feathers on the greyer mantle. Brighter juveniles are seen September to October and have rufous across the back with a whitish ‘V’ shape (see juvenile Little Stint p131). Also more obviously streaked breast-band with streaking running down the flanks. All birds have a dark blackish tail and a clear horseshoe-shaped white rump that does not extend up the back like Curlew Sandpiper (p128). Breeds in Arctic Canada and Alaska and winters in southern South America. In recent years, there has been an annual average of 17 in Britain.

summer

winter

juvenile

Buff-breasted Sandpiper Calidris subruficollis 18–29cm. Medium-sized wader with buff-apricot plumage, fading to white on belly with pale ring round eye and dark spots on sides of breast. Shape recalls small, plump, short-legged Ruff (p129), with small rounded head. Scaly-looking back. Deep mustard-yellow legs and short, straight, black bill. In flight, no white on the rump, no wing-bar and legs do not project beyond tail. White underwing with dark crescent near wing-tip. At rest, the wing-tips project beyond the tertial feathers, whereas Ruff’s tertials cloak the wing­ tips entirely. Often feeds on short grass, especially golf courses and airfields on passage, but may visit sheltered coastal bays, maritime heaths and reservoir banks. Breeds in Arctic North America, from Alaska to western Canada, and winters in South America. Around 42 visit Britain annually. Also occurs in south-west Ireland. Most are juveniles in September. Some adults appear May to August.

juveniles

Pectoral Sandpiper Calidris melanotos 19–23cm. Medium-sized wader, larger than Dunlin. Streaked breast ends abruptly in a line contrasting with white belly. Yellowish legs, small head, long wings with faint bar. Prominent pale stripe over the eye. Medium-short tapering dark bill is gently downcurved. Most seen here are juveniles with brown upperparts and pale buff feather-edges forming lines down the back. Male is larger than female. Adults have worn plumage and less noticeable back pattern. In flight, has inconspicuous white wing-bar and a black line down centre of rump with white either side. Breeds in Siberia and Arctic Canada. Amazing migrations to winter in the south of South America and many Siberian birds travel there via Alaska. Some winter in southern Australia and New Zealand, with round trips estimated at 30,000km. Many of the adults seen in Britain may have come from Siberia. An average of 147 are seen each year in Britain.

juveniles

juvenile

male summer

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Ring-billed Gull Larus delawarensis 2nd-winter

winter

summer

43–47cm. Like Common Gull (p158), but slightly larger, bulkier, with chunkier head and longer and stouter bill, slightly longer yellow legs and more pointed wing-tips. Yellow bill has thick black band, whereas Common Gulls have a dark and narrower band, only in winter. Adults are a paler grey than Common and their black wing-tips have smaller white spots. Eyes are pale, as opposed to dark in Common, and develop a red eye-ring in spring. First-winter birds have dark eyes like Common but have paler backs. Has bright pink, deep and angular-shaped bill, with a thick black tip. Often shows coarse brownish mottling on mantle and arrow-shaped marks along flanks. Bigger and bulkier than Common Gull. Breeds in North America and winters south to Mexico. First discovered in Britain in 1973. Numbers increased but are more recently scarce, with an average of 17 each year, mostly arriving in January to May.

Caspian Gull Larus cachinnans 1st-winter

winter

56–68cm. Closely resembles Herring Gull (p156). Has small head, long body, long wings and small, dark eyes. Long sloping forehead, long parallel bill with gently drooping tip and long legs with yellow or pink tinge. Adults have slightly paler upperparts than Herring and a noticeably white head in winter. Longest primary has completely white tip, a large white ‘mirror’ on the second longest, and grey on upperwing extends into the black wing-tip. Firstwinter has pale head with long, sloping forehead, long black bill (shape as in adult), dark tertials with narrow pale edges and tips, ring of distinctive brown spots across the nape, and long wings with pale bars across the coverts. Grey mantle has blackish anchor-shaped marks. Now identified regularly, particularly in southeast England. Numbers uncertain. Most arrive in late summer and early autumn, adults in late autumn. It breeds around the Black Sea and into central Asia.

Gull-billed Tern Gelochelidon nilotica winter

summer

35–38cm. Medium-large tern with rather long black legs, short, stout black bill, broad wings and slightly forked tail. Bill is shorter and thicker than Sandwich Tern (p159) and more gull-like. Back, rump and tail all pale grey (Sandwich has white rump and tail). Breeding birds have smart black cap that extends further down the hindneck than Sandwich’s and lacks a crest. In flight, grey-white wing has a distinct dark trailing edge. In nonbreeding plumage, it loses black cap and has blackish mask in front of and behind the eye. Juvenile is like non-breeding adult. Breeds in Denmark and North Germany with other populations in Spain. Further east it is found in Turkey, southern Russia, and east to Mongolia and China. Birds from Europe winter in West Africa and Asian birds in the Persian Gulf. There are other races in the Americas. Some 3–4 visit Britain most years.

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White-winged Black Tern Chlidonias leucopterus 63–67cm. Small tern, like Black Tern (p164) but with broader, blunter wings and a shorter black bill. Pure white rump is a distinctive feature at all ages. Summer adults are striking, with black head, body and underwing-coverts, contrasting silvery-white flight feathers, white upperwing-coverts and white tail, rump and undertail-coverts. Juvenile lacks the dark smudge on the side of the breast seen in juvenile Black Tern. It has a white rump and contrasting dark brown ‘saddle’ across the back. Wings are mostly very pale and silvery. Short red legs. It feeds by beating up and down freshwater lakes or reservoirs, dipping down to feed from the water surface, like a Black Tern. Regular visitor, usually from May to August, with an average of 20 seen annually. It breeds in eastern Europe into Russia and Asia, and migrates to Africa or South East Asia.

winter

summer

moulting adult

Alpine Swift Tachymarptis melba 20–22cm. Looks like a giant Sand Martin (p221) but is a long-winged, fast-moving swift. Dark brown above with a contrasting white belly, a dark brown breast-band, and a white throat, although at times it is difficult to see the white throat clearly when the bird is moving at speed or at a distance. Scythe-shaped wings, with short forked tail. It is clearly larger and longer-winged than Swift (p186), but size can be hard to judge without other species for comparison. In recent years, an average of 16 a year have been seen in Britain. This species breeds in southern Europe in mountains but also in towns and cities, and on rocky sea cliffs, and some get caught up in fastmoving summer thunderstorms and start to drift and feed further north. Birds have been seen from March to November, with most in spring.

Red-footed Falcon Falco vespertinus 29–31cm. Stunning small insect-eating males falcon like Hobby (p196) but smaller, longer-tailed and shorter-winged. Adult male is dark blue-grey with paler flight feathers, and red undertail, leg feathering, legs and feet. Small dark bill has red-orange base. Orange eye-ring. Female has rusty-buff crown, black mask with white cheeks, buff underparts with dark streaks and grey-and-black barred back and tail. Young males resemble adult but have rusty breast with barred feathering on the underwing. Legs and undertail feathers are orange-red. Juveniles are rare in Britain and look even more Hobby-like but with only a tiny dark ‘moustache’,

female

juvenile

while longer tail and body is noticeably paler than primaries. Hunts with dashing flight or from a perch, or hovers to drop on prey. Average of 18 seen annually in Britain, mostly May to June, sometimes several together. Breeds in eastern Europe with larger numbers further east into Asia. Winters in southern Africa.

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Woodchat Shrike Lanius senator male

juvenile

17cm. Size of Red-backed Shrike (p199). Adults have a black mask and bright chestnut crown and nape, black-and-white back, white breast, belly and rump. Females have duller crowns. Long black tail has white edge. Stout bill is black in adults, grey in juveniles. In flight, there is a white crescent at base of the primaries; the rest of the upperwing is black. First-winter birds look like female Red-backed Shrikes, with pale scapulars, creamy-white breast with dark brown scallop-shaped marks on flanks, a slightly paler and more barred crown and a pale rump. Typical shrike behaviour, perching prominently on bushes, wires or posts and drops onto prey. An average of 30 are seen in Britain each year. It breeds in southern Europe and most records are from southern England, although some reach Scotland. Most adults are seen from April to early June and juveniles from August to early September.

Penduline Tit Remiz pendulinus 11cm. Size of Blue Tit. A small, restless and acrobatic tit-like bird of reedbeds with pale grey head, dashing black mask and fine, pointed bill. Back is chestnutbrown, warm buff below with red-brown chest, and darker stripy feathers on closed wing. Juvenile is rather nondescript brown, lacks the black mask and the chestnut back, and best recognised by its behaviour in and around reedbeds. Often first located by a quiet but far-carrying tsssssseeeooo or by a soft buzzing call. While very tit-like in size and behaviour, it is not closely related to our other tits. Builds a wonderful hanging ‘pendulous’ nest. Once thought to be a likely colonist to Britain, but now fewer than ten are seen most years, with occasional influxes. Breeds in Spain and central and eastern Europe east to Turkey and Russia. Mainly resident, with occasional dispersal away from breeding areas.

Short-toed Lark Calandrella brachydactyla

fresh, autumn

13–14cm. Smaller than Skylark (p219) and more like female sparrow in appearance. Pale lark with a rather long, stout bill. Plain white underparts and sandy or grey upperparts with darker streaks, two wing-bars, long tertials cloak wing-tips, and a dark patch on side of upper breast. Small crest sometimes obvious, a white stripe over the eye and grey-brown cheeks. Crown often quite rufous. Longish pink legs. Flight is undulating and the very pale wings often look white from below. Dark tail with white border. Generally seen on the ground. Call a dry chirrup, drit. Breeds in North Africa, around the Mediterranean and east through the Black Sea into southern Russia and China. Migrates south, with wintering populations in sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East and India. Some visit Britain in spring or autumn with a recent average of 21 a year.

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Red-rumped Swallow Cecropis daurica 14–18cm, including 7–11cm tail. About the size of Swallow (p222) with rusty rump, long blue-black outer tail-streamers, rusty-brown face with dark blue cap, back and wings, pale buff, faintly streaked underparts and black undertailcoverts. Tail feathers are curved inwards slightly, giving a distinctive outline, but usually the long outer tail feathers are held tightly together, forming a black spike. Pale buff rump and collar are distinctive in flight. Juvenile has shorter tail and is less colourful overall, with whitish rump. Call is sparrow-like cherreet. This species likes to glide and circle more leisurely than Swallow. Trend is for more to be seen in Britain. Average of 42 sightings annually, many occurring as overshoots from southern European breeding areas in April and May. Individuals have also arrived in late October and even November, and the origin of these autumn birds is difficult to deduce.

juvenile

Radde’s Warbler Phylloscopus schwarzi 12.5cm. Recalls large Chiffchaff (p228). A mediumsized warbler with a rather large head and a very long stripe over the eye. Similar in appearance to Dusky Warbler (below), but not as dark, with an olivegreen back, head and tail, and yellowish underparts, prominent pale eye-stripe, and apricot-buff undertail. Has relatively stout pale bill and sturdy pinkish legs. Some have greenish panel on wings and rump. Tends to be skulking in behaviour and moves deliberately through dense vegetation almost at ground level. Frequent chrep or thick calls can help to locate a vagrant bird. Increasing numbers are being reported in Britain in autumn with a recent average of 14 a year. A summer migrant that breeds from Siberia east into China and migrates south to winter in India and South East Asia.

fresh, autumn

Dusky Warbler Phylloscopus fuscatus 11–12cm. Similar size and proportions to Chiffchaff (p228) but with longer, slimmer rear-end and rather neckless appearance. A small, dull brown warbler with no suggestion of green or yellow in plumage. Fine darkish bill and relatively short-tailed with a prominent pale stripe above eye that is buff towards the rear, well defined between the eye and the bill, with a small black line through eye. Brownish upperparts, paler washed buff below, and yellowish undertail. Call is a sharp, persistent teck and is often the best clue to its presence and identity. Like Radde’s Warbler, very skulking in behaviour, travelling through low vegetation and hedgerows, but will feed in trees and bushes. Restless, often flicking wings. Increasing numbers visit Britain in spring, but mostly in late autumn. An average of 18 seen over recent years. Breeds from Siberia through Russia to China. Summer migrant that winters in Nepal, southern China and South East Asia.

1st-winter

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Greenish Warbler Phylloscopus trochiloides spring

10–11.5cm. Similar in size and shape to Chiffchaff (p228). Olive-green upperparts and white or yellowish-white underparts, with a single whitish wing-bar that may be hard to see if plumage is worn. Prominent long yellowish stripe over the eye and almost to the nape. Bill often points slightly upwards, showing yellowish lower mandible. Dark grey legs and weak-looking bill help to distinguish it from Arctic Warbler. Head, nape and rump may look greyish in spring and summer. Usually active, flits about high in trees and bushes when available, or in low cover when not. Usual call is a distinct, musical chee-weee. The species breeds in East Germany north to Finland and east through Russia to Mongolia and Afghanistan and the lower slopes of north-west Himalayas. Winters in the Indian subcontinent and east to northern Thailand. There has been a moderate increase in sightings in Britain in recent years, with an average of 26 a year being seen in spring, mainly May/June, and in early autumn in August/September.

Aquatic Warbler Acrocephalus paludicola

juvenile

12.5cm. A skulking marshland species that is hard to observe. Looks like a juvenile Sedge Warbler (p231), but it is a brighter, more yellow ‘tiger-striped’ bird. Bold head pattern with broad yellowish eye-stripe and thin pale crown-stripe. Has two striking yellow stripes down its dark back and fine streaks on the buff rump. Pale between eye and bill, giving a plain, open face compared to Sedge Warbler. Fine, pointed bill with pale lower mandible and pink-yellow legs. Most British records are of young birds in late summer/autumn, as some move west from breeding areas in Poland, Belarus and Ukraine before they move south to winter in West Africa. End of July into August is the period most are seen or trapped by ringing schemes, mostly in reedbed sites in southern Wales, southern and south-west England. Birds quickly move from reedbeds into more favoured areas of wet rushes. Between 1958 and 2007, 1,275 Aquatic Warblers had been seen in Britain, mostly thanks to the efforts of ringers. There has been a recent decrease in numbers, with the average being about ten per year. The IUCN lists this rare species as Globally Threatened.

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Blyth’s Reed Warbler Acrocephalus dumetorum 12–14cm. Very like Reed and Marsh Warblers (p232–33), Blyth’s is slightly stouter with darker legs and a more peaked crown. Has a spiky-looking bill and slightly colder, more drab olive-brown plumage. Has thin white eye-stripe above and more obviously in front of eye with a dark line through the eye. Appears short-winged, as primary feathers on the closed wing are noticeably shorter than on Reed and Marsh Warblers. Call is a hard thik or chak and cherr. Habitat choice in the breeding season is quite different to the other two species. In north-east Europe, it breeds in damp woodland and thickets, tending to avoid reedbeds. Vagrants, however, could occur in any scrubby coastal habitat. Breeds in Finland, eastern Baltic into Russia, Siberia and China, also Mongolia and Pakistan. Winters in the Indian subcontinent. Increasing numbers are seen in Britain mainly in May/June and in September/ October, with an average of 18 individuals a year.

juvenile

fresh, spring

Subalpine Warbler Sylvia cantillans 12.5cm. Males have blue-grey upperparts, slightly peaked crown like Whitethroat (p242), white stripes form a ‘moustache’ either side of an orangey-red throat and breast, fading to off-white on the belly, with red eye and eye-ring. Dark tail has white in the outer tail feathers. Wings look quite short. Some migrants give a hurried Whitethroat-like song. Females and first-winter birds are grey-brown above, with dark centres to the tertials and brown

edges — not rusty-brown as on Whitethroats. Females are blue-brown above and pale pinkishwhite below, with whiter stripes either side of throat. Call is a short tek, tek, sometimes running several phrases together. Subalpine Warblers breed in southern Europe and North Africa. Western and eastern races are recognised. Males of the former race are all rustyred below with a narrow white stripe on the face, males of the latter have a more restricted brick-red throat and upper chest with a bolder white stripe on the face. In recent years, an average of 23 a year have been identified in Britain. Many of these are adults in late April to early June, but some appear in autumn too.

male

female

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Siberian Stonechat Saxicola maurus

female

12cm. Like Stonechat (p265), male is boldly marked in spring, with black hood linking with blackish back, large white rump extending up between wings and obscured by buff feathertips during autumn and winter. Also, has more extensive white patches on neck and wings and the orange-red is concentrated in the centre of the breast, with white or peachy flanks. The inner part of the underwing is jet-black, but grey on Stonechat. Females are brown, streaked on head and back, sometimes with a faint white stripe over the eye, much paler orange breast and whitish underparts and large pale rump. Has fine, dark bill and black legs. Unmarked pale peach rump is characteristic of the species, as Stonechat always has a darker streaked rump or a small amount of white. Behaviour is like Stonechat, perching up on vegetation and bushes, restless and active. Breeds from western Russia and central Asia, wintering far to the south. There are several races of Stonechat, some including this one are now recognised as separate species. Siberian Stonechats visit Britain as very rare vagrants in the late autumn, most on the east coast. Very small numbers may visit Britain each year.

Citrine Wagtail Motacilla citreola

female summer

16.5–20cm. Generally larger and plumper than Yellow Wagtail (p273) with a marginally longer tail, longer legs and stouter bill. Spring male has bright deep yellow head, breast and underparts. Grey back with black collar on the rear of lower neck that extends round to the sides of the breast. Two white bars on blackish wings and black tail with white outer feathers. Non-breeding males and females are much duller and greyer with yellowish stripe over the eye that curves round the cheeks and meets yellowish throat. White under tail. Some have yellowish forehead. Juveniles similar, having unmarked breast and pale surround to the cheek. Breeds in parts of Turkey and from Baltic states east across Siberia, Russia, northern China and to the Himalayas. Winters in India and South East Asia. Increasing numbers visiting Britain in recent years, with an average of 14 being seen annually, mostly in May or early autumn.

male summer

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Richard’s Pipit Anthus richardi 18cm. Larger than Meadow Pipit (p274), upright with longer tail, longer legs and stouter bill. Pale face with no dark stripe between eye and bill. Buff breast with fine streaks and dark streak on side of neck. Flanks are deep buff, belly white. Long pink legs with a pronounced long hindclaw. Outer tail feathers have white in them, noticeable when bird takes off or hovers before landing. Walks strongly and disappears easily in long grass. Call is a harsh schreep, quite like House Sparrow, usually given on taking off or flying over. In flight, it looks long-tailed. Prefers open grassy habitats such as rough grasslands, golf courses and airfields. Breeds in central Asia and Siberia, and other races to New

Zealand. Winters in Africa, India and South East Asia. Regular scarce migrant to Britain, with an average of 111 a year. Most seen in October to November, but also midwinter and spring.

1st-winter fresh, autumn or spring

Tawny Pipit Anthus campestris 17cm. Larger than Meadow Pipit and similar in size to Richard’s Pipit, but slightly slimmer with shorter legs, shorter tail and thinner bill. Sandy-grey upperparts with only faint streaks and unmarked pale buff underparts. Sandy stripe above eye, dark line through eye and dark and pale lines forming moustachial and malar streaks from bill to upper breast. Flight feathers and coverts darker brown, with pale fringes forming lines on closed wing. Series of obvious dark marks on breast and shoulders. Juvenile has dark streaks on upperparts and fine streaking on upper breast. Like Richard’s Pipit, but always has black line between eye and bill. Call a cheeping chup. Breeds in North Africa, parts of western Europe to the Baltic, eastern Europe and east across Russia into Asia. Winters in Africa, the Arabian Peninsula and India. Always rare but was more numerous 30 years ago; now only about ten reach Britain each year.

Olive-backed Pipit Anthus hodgsoni 14.5cm. Size of Meadow Pipit. Usually brighter than Tree Pipit (p275), with olive-green back and bolder streaked breast contrasting with white belly. Upperparts are almost unmarked and face markings more distinct, with pale stripe above eye that is buff in front of the eye and bordered black above. Black stripes run from bill to neck and has a distinct black-and-white spot at the back of the cheek. In worn plumage, the main feature is a prominent stripe over the eye with dark border and olive plumage. Juveniles are similar but with longer and bolder streaks on breast. Often associated with trees and bushes, where it feeds quietly on the ground.

Breeds from the Urals across Siberia and Asia. Winters in India and South East Asia. Vagrant to Northern Isles, the east and south coast of Britain. After a 20-year decline, the numbers visiting have increased to about 33 a year, mostly in autumn. summer

juvenile

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Red-throated Pipit Anthus cervinus male winter

1st-winter

juvenile

15cm. About the size of Meadow Pipit (p274) but differs by having streaked rump and uppertailcoverts, though this can be hard to see in the field. In spring, adults have striking brick-red or pink on face and throat, which fades in winter. Has prominent parallel black streaks along the flanks, usually forming two almost continuous lines, much more obvious than on a Meadow Pipit. Clean white underparts are streaked with black. The brown upperparts are dark and heavily streaked, with long pale stripes down the edge of the mantle, like braces. Usual call is a drawn-out and distinct skeeezz. Breeds in Fennoscandia and Russia. About ten a year are found in Britain with most records in late September and October, especially in the Northern Isles but also in south-west England, with a few in late spring. It can occur in almost any open grassy habitat including airfields, maritime heaths and pasture.

Common Rosefinch Carpodacus erythrinus

male

male 1st-year

female

14.5cm. Size of House Sparrow (p268). Dumpy, short-necked appearance with short, bulbous bill, round head, and beady black eye set in plain face. Splendid males have reddish-pink head, breast and rump; younger males lack red and have mainly plain brownish upperparts with off-white lightly streaked underparts. Females have rather plain brown plumage, two pale wing-bars and are lightly streaked below. Longish brown tail is deeply notched. Older female resembles young male. Juveniles are more heavily streaked. After moult, the red of male is subdued but becomes brighter during winter. Call is a loud chew-ee, chew-ee, like contact calls of young Willow Warblers. Pleasant soft, repetitive song consisting of five notes. Occasionally nests in Britain. Breeds in northern and eastern Europe across Russia and Asia. Winters in the Middle East, India and South East Asia. Around 100 birds visit Britain annually, most along the east coast in spring and autumn. Largest numbers are recorded in the Northern Isles.

Rose-coloured Starling Pastor roseus

fresh, autumn

male

juvenile

21cm. Similar size and behaviour to Starling (p249). Adult has a bright pink back and underparts, glossy iridescent black head, wings and tail, a shaggy crest on the back of the head, pink legs and pale yellowishhorn bill. Juvenile is like juvenile Starling but much paler, darker wings and tail contrast with body, and a yellowish, slightly downcurved, short bill. Unlike Starling, does not moult quickly out of juvenile plumage and appears pink-fawn in autumn. Can appear in Britain in almost any month, adults in June to August and juveniles more likely from late August to late October. Readily joins Starling flocks. An irruptive species, which breeds eastwards from the Black Sea and into central Asia, and winters in India. In some years, birds spread west following a supply of emerging grasshoppers. On average, nearly 100 are seen in most years.

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Arctic Redpoll Carduelis hornemanni

female

juvenile

male

13–14cm. Like Lesser and Common Redpolls (p284– 85), but slightly larger, whiter birds with small red cap, clear, unmarked white rumps, frosty lines down the mantle, broad white tips to the greater coverts forming a strong wing-bar, and white underparts with fine lines of blackish streaking on the flanks. Yellow bill is comparatively short and deep, giving a snub-nosed look. Feathering around face and upper breast is often pinkish-rose. Undertail-coverts are white with either no streaks or one or two thin streaks. Some individuals are very like Common Redpoll, but overall appearance is of a tubby, shortbilled, bull-necked redpoll with frosty plumage. Arctic Redpolls have a circumpolar range, breeding in Fennoscandia, Siberia, Alaska, Canada and

male (northern race)

Greenland. Moving south to winter, some reach the British Isles and especially the Northern Isles in October. Numbers are very variable, sometimes quite large. On average, 21 are seen each year, mostly in the north and on the coast.

Little Bunting Emberiza pusilla 13.5cm. Resembles small female Reed Bunting (p298), with shorter tail, distinct pale buff eye-ring, smaller triangular-shaped bill and reddish-buff cheeks. The top of the bill is straight from base to tip; Reed Bunting’s bill is convex. Has a central redbrown crown-stripe, bordered by thicker black stripes, and two wing-bars. Grey bill and pink legs. Underparts are clean white with narrow brown streaks. Plain brown, streaked mantle lacks any

obvious stripes. Call is a Robin-like tick, quite unlike that of Reed Bunting. Mostly feeds on the ground. When it flies to a low perch it flicks its wings and flexes its tail outwards. Breeds in northern Finland eastwards into Russia. An average of 78 are seen in Britain annually. Most are found in the Northern Isles, Isles of Scilly and along the east coast in September and October, but there are also a few spring and winter records.

female summer male summer

1st-winter

juvenile

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Rustic Bunting Emberiza rustica 13–14.5cm. Like Reed Bunting (p298) but stocky male has boldly marked black head with white line over the eye, white throat bordered by dark ‘moustache’, red-brown back and upper breast, with chestnut marks on flanks and white underparts. 1st-winter

Has two white wing-bars, a rusty rump and reddish nape. In autumn and winter, the male’s head pattern is more subdued. Legs pink. Crown can look peaked or even have a small crest. Both sexes have a pale spot behind the ear-coverts. Females and juveniles closely resemble Reed Buntings but have stronger wing-bars, pale base to larger bill, red-brown rumps, and sharper face pattern with a white spot on the rear of the cheek. Call is a sharp zit. Breeds from Fennoscandia across Asia to the Far East. Numbers have declined. Winters in South and South East Asia. About ten seen annually in Britain in spring or autumn, mostly in the east.

male

male fresh, autumn

Ortolan Bunting Emberiza hortulana

male summer

female summer

16cm. Marginally smaller and more compact than Yellowhammer (p296). Smart male has a greenishgrey head, yellowish-white eye-ring, yellowish stripe from bill along the edge of cheeks, yellow throat, orange-brown underparts, well-marked stripy brown back with streaked yellowish-brown rump, streaked brown wings and plain brown tail. Male in autumn and winter, and female, are similarly patterned with more subdued colours and streaks on breast. Relatively long-billed and rather roundheaded. Bill and legs are pink. Looks rather blankfaced with no stripes above or through the eye. Juveniles are like adults with yellowish-buff eyering, tawny-brown streaked upperparts, faint wing-bars and finely streaked orange underparts. Breeds widely across Europe south to the Mediterranean and into central Asia. Winters in Africa, south of the Sahara. Rare passage migrant, more infrequent in recent years, averaging 31 a year. Mainly coastal in distribution, on the Isles of Scilly, south or east of Britain, including the Northern Isles. female 1st-winter

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Further reading and resources BOOKS

In addition to these sources, which cover the ecology, identification and current data for many different species, there is also a great number of species monographs and family profiles – especially those published by Bloomsbury, Christopher Helm and HarperCollins – that we thoroughly recommend. We especially recommend the following: Balmer, D., Gillings, S., Caffrey, B. and Swann, B. 2013. Bird Atlas 2007–11: The Breeding and Wintering Birds of Britain and Ireland. British Trust for Ornithology, Thetford. Beaman, M. and Madge, S. 1998. The Handbook of Bird Identification. Christopher Helm, London. British Birds monthly magazine. Published by British Birds 2000 Ltd. Cramp, S. et al. 1977–1994. Handbook of the Birds of Europe, Middle East and North Africa: The Birds of the Western Palearctic. 9 vols. OUP, Oxford.

WEBSITES

Increasingly, more information is available online such as the Handbook of Birds of the World Alive, BirdLife International’s Data Zone and the European Bird Census Council’s Pan-European Common Bird Monitoring Scheme. Also, the RSPB, British Trust for Ornithology (BirdFacts and BirdTrends) and Rare Breeding Birds Panel run excellent websites that are highly recommended as a mine of information on birds and how to get involved in research and conservation. British Trust for Ornithology (BTO) bto.org Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) rspb.org.uk Wild Bird Populations in the UK gov.uk/government/statistics/ wild-bird-populations-in-the-uk

Mullarney, K., Svensson, L., Zetterstrom, D. and Grant, P.J. 2010. Collins Bird Guide: The Most Complete Guide to the Birds of Britain and Europe. 2nd Edition. HarperCollins, London.

Index A

Acanthis cabaret 284 flammea 285 Accipiter gentilis 92 nisus 93 Acrocephalus dumetorum 311 paludicola 310 palustris 233 schoenobaenus 231 scirpaceus 232 Actitis hypoleucos 138 Aegithalos caudatus 224 Aix galericulata 37 Alauda arvensis 219 Alca torda 171 Alcedo atthis 189 Alectoris rufa 57 Alle alle 169 Alopochen aegyptiaca 26 Anas acuta 34 carolinensis 299 crecca 30 platyrhynchos 35 Anser albifrons 22 anser 18 brachyrhynchus 19 fabalis 20 serrirostris 21 Anthus campestris 313 cervinus 314 hodgsoni 313 petrosus 277 pratensis 274 richardi 313 spinoletta 276

trivialis 275 Apus apus 186 Aquila chrysaetos 90 Ardea alba 81 cinerea 79 purpurea 78 Ardenna gravis 302 grisea 66 Arenaria interpres 121 Asio flammeus 182 otus 183 Athene noctua 181 Auk, Little 169 Avocet 108, 114 Aythya affinis 300 collaris 300 ferina 40 fuligula 41 marila 42 nyroca 299

B

Bee-eater 188 Bittern 76 Little 77 Blackbird 251 Blackcap 238 Bluethroat 258 Bombycilla garrulus 210 Botaurus stellaris 76 Brambling 279 Branta bernicla 15 canadensis 16 leucopsis 17 Bubulcus ibis 82

Bucephala clangula 47 Bullfinch 281 Bunting, Cirl 297 Corn 293 Lapland 295 Little 315 Ortolan 316 Reed 298 Rustic 316 Snow 294 Burhinus oedicnemus 107 Bustard, Great 100 Buteo buteo 99 lagopus 98 Buzzard 86, 99 Rough-legged 86, 98

C

Calandrella brachydactyla 308 Calcarius lapponicus 295 Calidris alba 133 alpina 127 canutus 126 ferruginea 128 fuscicollis 305 maritima 132 melanotos 305 minuta 130 pugnax 129 subruficollis 305 temmincki 130 Calonectris borealis 65 Capercaillie 53 Caprimulgus europaeus 185 Carduelis carduelis 287

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Index hornemanni 315 Carpodacus erythrinus 314 Cecropis daurica 309 Cepphus grylle 172 Certhia familiaris 248 Cettia cetti 225 Chaffinch 278 Charadrius alexandrinus 304 dubius 119 hiaticula 118 morinellus 120 Chiffchaff 228 Chlidonias leucopterus 307 niger 164 Chloris chloris 286 Chough 204 Chroicocephalus ridibundus 150 Ciconia ciconia 73 Cinclus cinclus 267 Circus aeruginosus 96 cyaneus 94 pygargus 95 Clangula hyemalis 50 Coccothraustes coccothraustes 280 Columba livia 178 oenas 175 palumbus 174 Coot 105 Cormorant 85 Corncrake 102 Corvus corax 209 cornix 208 corone 207 frugilegus 206 monedula 205 Coturnix coturnix 58 Crake, Spotted 103 Crane 106 Crex crex 102 Crossbill 290 Parrot 292 Scottish 291 Crow, Carrion 207 Hooded 208 Cuckoo 179 Cuculus canorus 179 Curlew 108, 122 Cyanistes caeruleus 215 Cygnus columbianus 24 cygnus 25 olor 23

D

Delichon urbicum 223 Dendrocopos major 190 minor 191 Dipper 267 Diver, Black-throated 60 Great Northern 61 Red-throated 59 White-billed 301 Dotterel 108, 120 Dove, Collared 176 Rock 178 Stock 175 Turtle 177 Duck, Ferruginous 299 Long-tailed 39, 50

Mandarin 37 Ring-necked 300 Tufted 38, 41 Dunlin 110, 127 Dunnock 270

E

Eagle, Golden 87, 90 White-tailed 87, 91 Egret, Cattle 82 Great White 81 Little 80 Egretta garzetta 80 Eider 38, 43 Emberiza calandra 293 cirlus 297 citrinella 296 hortulana 316 pusilla 315 rustica 316 schoeniclus 298 Eremophila alpestris 220 Erithacus rubecula 257

F

Falco columbarius 195 peregrinus 197 subbuteo 196 tinnunculus 194 vespertinus 307 Falcon, Red-footed 307 Ficedula hypoleuca 260 parva 261 Fieldfare 252 Firecrest 244 Flycatcher, Pied 260 Red-breasted 261 Spotted 259 Fratercula arctica 173 Fringilla coelebs 278 montifringilla 279 Fulica atra 105 Fulmar 64 Fulmarus glacialis 64

G

Gadwall 28, 33 Gallinago gallinago 142 Gallinula chloropus 104 Gannet 83 Garganey 28, 31 Garrulus glandarius 202 Gavia adamsii 301 arctica 60 immer 61 stellata 59 Gelochelidon nilotica 306 Godwit, Bar-tailed 109, 125 Black-tailed 109, 124 Goldcrest 245 Goldeneye 39, 47 Goldfinch 287 Goosander 39, 49 Goose, Barnacle 17 Brent 15 Canada 16 Egyptian 26 Greylag 18 Pink-footed 19

Taiga Bean 20 Tundra Bean 21 White-fronted 22 Goshawk 86, 92 Grebe, Black-necked 70 Great Crested 68 Little 72 Red-necked 69 Slavonian 71 Greenfinch 286 Greenshank 111, 139 Grouse, Black 52 Red 54 Grus grus 106 Guillemot 170 Black 172 Gull, Black-headed 146, 150 Caspian 306 Common 147, 158 Glaucous 147, 154 Great Black-backed 146, 153 Herring 147, 156 Iceland 147, 155 Lesser Black-backed 146, 152 Little 146, 149 Mediterranean 146, 151 Ring-billed 306 Sabine’s 146, 148 Yellow-legged 147, 157

H

Haematopus ostralegus 112 Haliaeetus albicilla 91 Harrier, Hen 86, 94 Marsh 86, 96 Montagu’s 86, 95 Hawfinch 280 Heron, Grey 79 Night 75 Purple 78 Himantopus himantopus 115 Hippolais icterina 234 polyglotta 235 Hirundo rustica 222 Hobby 87, 196 Honey-buzzard 86, 89 Hoopoe 187 Hydrobates pelagicus 62 Hydrocoloeus minutus 149

I

Ibis, Glossy 303 Ichthyaetus melanocephalus 151 Ixobrychus minutus 77

J

Jackdaw 205 Jay 202 Jynx torquilla 193

K

Kestrel 87, 194 Kingfisher 189 Kite, Black 303 Red 86, 97 Kittiwake 145, 146 Knot 110, 126

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Index

L

Lagopus lagopus 54 muta 55 Lanius collurio 199 excubitor 198 senator 308 Lapwing 108, 113 Lark, Shore 220 Short-toed 308 Larus argentatus 156 cachinnans 306 canus 158 delawarensis 306 fuscus 152 glaucoides 155 hyperboreus 154 marinus 153 michahellis 157 Limosa lapponica 125 limosa 124 Linaria cannabina 282 flavirostris 283 Linnet 282 Locustella luscinioides 237 naevia 236 Lophophanes cristatus 217 Loxia curvirostra 290 pytyopsittacus 292 scotica 291 Lullula arborea 218 Luscinia megarhynchos 256 svecica 258 Lymnocryptes minimus 143 Lyrurus tetrix 52

M

Magpie 203 Mallard 28, 35 Mareca americana 299 penelope 36 strepera 33 Martin, House 223 Sand 221 Melanitta fusca 44 nigra 45 perspicillata 300 Merganser, Red-breasted 39, 48 Mergellus albellus 46 Mergus merganser 49 serrator 48 Merlin 87, 195 Merops apiaster 188 Milvus migrans 303 milvus 97 Moorhen 104 Morus bassanus 83 Motacilla alba 271 cinerea 272 citreola 312 flava 273 Muscicapa striata 259

N

Nightingale 256 Nightjar 185 Numenius arquata 122 phaeopus 122 Nuthatch 247 Nycticorax nycticorax 75

O

Oceanites oceanicus 301 Oceanodroma leucorhoa 63 Oenanthe oenanthe 266 Oriole, Golden 201 Oriolus oriolus 201 Osprey 87, 88 Otis tarda 100 Ouzel, Ring 250 Owl, Barn 184 Little 181 Long-eared 183 Short-eared 182 Tawny 180 Oystercatcher 108, 112

P

Pandion haliaetus 88 Panurus biarmicus 211 Parakeet, Ring-necked 200 Partridge, Grey 56 Red-legged 57 Parus major 214 Passer domesticus 268 montanus 269 Pastor roseus 314 Perdix perdix 56 Peregrine 87, 197 Periparus ater 216 Pernis apivorus 89 Petrel, Leach’s 63 Storm 62 Wilson’s 301 Phalacrocorax aristotelis 84 carbo 85 Phalarope, Grey 111, 134 Red-necked 111, 135 Phalaropus fulicarius 134 lobatus 135 Phasianus colchicus 51 Pheasant 51 Phoenicurus ochruros 262 phoenicurus 263 Phylloscopus collybita 228 fuscatus 309 inornatus 227 proregulus 226 schwarzi 309 sibilatrix 230 trochiloides 310 trochilus 229 Pica pica 203 Picus viridis 192 Pigeon, Feral 178 Pintail 29, 34 Pipit, Meadow 274 Olive-backed 313 Red-throated 314 Richard’s 313 Rock 277 Tawny 313 Tree 275 Water 276 Platalea leucorodia 74 Plectrophenax nivalis 294 Plegadis falcinellus 303 Plover, American Golden 304 Golden 108, 116 Grey 108, 117

Kentish 304 Little Ringed 110, 119 Ringed 110, 118 Pluvialis apricaria 116 dominica 304 squatarola 117 Pochard 38, 40 Podiceps auritus 71 cristatus 68 grisegena 69 nigricollis 70 Poecile montanus 210 palustris 211 Porzana porzana 103 Prunella modularis 270 Psittacula krameri 200 Ptarmigan 55 Puffin 173 Puffinus mauretanicus 302 puffinus 67 Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax 204 Pyrrhula pyrrhula 281

Q

Quail 58

R

Rail, Water 101 Rallus aquaticus 101 Raven 209 Razorbill 171 Recurvirostra avosetta 114 Redpoll, Arctic 315 Common 285 Lesser 284 Redshank 111, 140 Spotted 111, 141 Redstart 263 Black 262 Redwing 255 Regulus ignicapilla 244 regulus 245 Remiz pendulinus 308 Riparia riparia 221 Rissa tridactyla 145 Robin 257 Rook 206 Rosefinch, Common 314 Ruff 109, 129

S

Sanderling 110, 133 Sandpiper, Buff-breasted 305 Common 111, 138 Curlew 110, 128 Green 111, 136 Pectoral 111, 305 Purple 110, 132 White-rumped 305 Wood 111, 137 Saxicola maurus 312 rubicola 264 torquatus 265 Scaup 38, 42 Lesser 300 Scolopax rusticola 144 Scoter, Common 38, 45 Surf 300 Velvet 38, 44

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Index Serin 288 Serinus serinus 288 Shag 84 Shearwater, Balearic 302 Cory’s 65 Great 302 Manx 67 Sooty 66 Shelduck 27, 29 Shoveler 29, 32 Shrike, Great Grey 198 Red-backed 199 Woodchat 308 Siskin 289 Sitta europaea 247 Skua, Arctic 167 Great 165 Long-tailed 166 Pomarine 168 Skylark 219 Smew 39, 46 Snipe 109, 142 Jack 109, 143 Somateria mollisima 43 Sparrow, House 268 Tree 269 Sparrowhawk 86, 93 Spatula clypeata 32 querquedula 31 Spinus spinus 289 Spoonbill 74 Starling 249 Rose-coloured 314 Stercorarius longicaudus 166 parasiticus 167 pomarinus 168 skua 165 Sterna dougallii 161 hirundo 162 paradisaea 163 Sternula albifrons 160 Stilt, Black-winged 115 Stint, Little 110, 131 Temminck’s 110, 130 Stonechat 265 Siberian 312 Stone-curlew 107, 108 Stork, White 73 Streptopelia decaocto 176 turtur 177 Strix aluco 180 Sturnus vulgaris 249 Swallow 222 Red-rumped 309 Swan, Bewick’s 24 Mute 23

Whooper 25 Swift 186 Alpine 307 Sylvia atricapilla 238 borin 239 cantillans 311 communis 242 curruca 243 nisoria 240 undata 241

T

Tachybaptus ruficollis 72 Tachymarptis melba 307 Tadorna tadorna 27 Teal 28, 30 Green-winged 299 Tern, Arctic 163 Black 164 Common 162 Gull-billed 306 Little 160 Roseate 161 Sandwich 159 White-winged Black 307 Tetrao urogallus 53 Thalasseus sandvicensis 159 Thrush, Mistle 253 Song 254 Tit, Bearded 211 Blue 215 Coal 216 Crested 217 Great 214 Long-tailed 224 Marsh 213 Penduline 308 Willow 212 Treecreeper 248 Tringa erythropus 141 flavipes 304 glareola 137 nebularia 139 ochropus 136 totanus 140 Troglodytes troglodytes 246 Turdus iliacus 255 merula 251 philomelos 254 pilaris 252 torquatus 250 viscivorus 253 Turnstone 110, 121 Twite 283 Tyto alba 184

U

Upupa epops 187 Uria aalge 170

V

Vanellus vanellus 113

W

Wagtail, Citrine 312 Grey 272 Pied 271 Yellow 273 Warbler, Aquatic 310 Barred 240 Blyth’s Reed 311 Cetti’s 225 Dartford 241 Dusky 309 Garden 239 Grasshopper 236 Greenish 310 Icterine 234 Marsh 233 Melodious 235 Pallas’s 226 Radde’s 309 Reed 232 Savi’s 237 Sedge 231 Subalpine 311 Willow 229 Wood 230 Yellow-browed 227 Waxwing 210 Wheatear 266 Whimbrel 109, 123 Whinchat 264 Whitethroat 242 Lesser 243 Wigeon 29, 36 American 299 Woodcock 109, 144 Woodlark 218 Woodpecker, Great Spotted 190 Green 192 Lesser Spotted 191 Woodpigeon 174 Wren 246 Wryneck 193

X

Xema sabini 148

Y

Yellowhammer 296 Yellowlegs, Lesser 304

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