Roman Republican Castrametation: A reappraisal of historical and archaeological sources 9780860548126, 9781407349374

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Roman Republican Castrametation A reappraisal of historical and archaeological sources

John Pamment Salvatore

BAR International Series 630 1996

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 630 Roman Republican Castrametation © John Pamment Salvatore and the Publisher 1996 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860548126 paperback ISBN 9781407349374 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860548126 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Tempvs Reparatvm in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 1996. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

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' D i q u i n a sceva c he iR oman i p o tevano t e ne re u na f o rma d 'a l log iamen to , p e rche v o levano e he is i to u bb id i s se al o ro , n on l o ro a ls i to . ' ( Ma ch iave l l i 1 520 ,Ch .V I ) .

For Adolf Schulten 1870-1960

ABSTRACT T h is v o lume r e por t s o n as t udy i n to R oman R epub l ican

T he m a jo rc on tr ibu t ion i nP ar t I I c on s is t so f ar e app ra isa l

m i l i ta ry c a s t rame ta t ion . B o th h i s tor ica l a nd a r chaeo log ica l

o f t h e p ub l ished a r chaeo log ica l e v iden ce f r om t h e R epub l ican c amp s i n S pa in w i th s ome s pec ia l a t ten t ion

e v idence i sc on s ide red a nd e va lua ted . T h e re a r e t wo m a in a r ea s o f i n qu iry . T he f i r s t i sc once rned w i th t h e m a jo r h i s to r ica l s ou rce p e r ta in ing t o R epub l ican c a s t rame ta t ion , n ame ly t h e d e s cr ip t ion o f aR oman a rmy c amp g i ven b y

b e ing p a id t ob a r rack a c commoda t ion .

t h eG reek h i s to r ian P o lyb iu s . T he s e cond i sc oncerned w i th

T he p ub l ished w o rk s a r e l a rge ly t ho se o f A do lf S chu l ten w ho r e por ted o n t h e e xcava t ion s w h ich h e c onduc ted i n

t h e o n ly s i gn if ican t b ody o f p ub l ished a r chaeo log ica l e v idence o fR epub l ican c amp s w h ich e x i s t s i nt h e p re sen t d ay . T h is b ody o f e v idence d er ive s l a rge ly f r om

S pa in d u r ing t h e e a r ly y ea r s o ft h e t wen t ie th c en tu ry . T he p r e sen ta u tho ro f f e r ss ome ma jo rn ew i n t erp re ta t ion so ft h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence t oge the r w i th s ome f r e sh

e xcava t ion s w h ich h ave t a ken p l ace i nS pa in .

o b se rva t ion s d er ived f r om f i e ld -wo rk .

P a r t Io ft h is v o lume c on ta in s an ew t h eo ry r e la t ing t ot h e n a tu r e o f t h e s ou r ce w h ich P o lyb ius e mp loyed i n h i s p r e sen ta t ion o f aR oman c amp . I t i s a rgued t h a t t h e p rob lem s w i th t h e d escr ip t ion o f t h e c amp , w h ich h ave

P a r tI V c on ta in s ad i s cu s s ion o ft h e mo s ti mpor tan ta spec t s o fR oman R epub l ican c a s t rame ta t ion w h ich e me rged f r om t h e s t udy o f t h e r ema in s i n S pa in a nd m ake s s ome c ompa r ison t o t h e s i tua t ion w h ich p er ta ined u nde r t h e Emp ire .

a r is en a ppa r en t ly f r om P o lyb iu s ' d ec i s ion t od e scr ibe o n ly o ne h a lf o f af ou r l e g ion c amp , c an b e o ve r come b y a c l o se e xam ina t ion o ft h es ou r ce w h ich h ee mp loyed a nd t h e t i me a nd c on t ex t i n wh ich i tw a s w r i t ten i n r e la t ion t o P o lyb iu s ' o wn p e r cep t ion o fR oman m i l i ta ry a f f a ir s . I nP a r t Io ft h is v o lume s ome c ommen t i sm ade u pon t h e d a t ing , f r om a r chaeo log ica l e v idence a nd o the r e v iden ce , o ft h e R epub l ican c amp s i nt h e I b e r ian p en in su la .

I ti sa rgued t h a t t h e r e i ss ome e v iden ce o fc on t inu i ty f r om R epub l ic t o Emp ir e i nm a t te r sc on ce rn ing t h eR oman a rmy w h ich h a s n o t p rev iou s ly b een c ommen ted u pon .

TABLE OF CONTENTS P ag e

A cknow ledgemen t s I NTRODUCT ION B a ckground t ot h e r e sea r ch R e sea rch m e thods a nd v o lume o verv iew S umma ry PART I

1 3 3

5

S ome c ommen t o n t h e d a t ing a nd c h rono logy o ft h e S pan ish a r cha eo log ica l e v iden ce

CHAPTER 2 T he d a t ing e v iden ce a nd t h e c h rono logy o fR oman R epub l ican a rmy c amp s i nH i span ia PART I I

1

H is tor ica l s ou r ce s : an ew t h eo ry c on ce rn ing P o lyb iu s ' s ou r ce

CHAPTER 1 P o lyb iu s ' d e sc r ip t ion o f aR oman a rmy c amp PART I

v i i i

2 1

Ar e -eva lua t ion o ft h e a r cha eo log ica l r ema in s o ft h e R oman R epub l ican m i l i ta ry c amp s i nS pa in

CHAPTER 3 C amps I I I Ia tR en ieb la s C amp I C amp I C amp I I CHAPTER 3 aT he s ou th -ea s ta nnexe o fC amp I I R en ieb la s

3 1 3 1 3 3 7 7 7

CHAPTER 4 T he s i ege -camp ss u r round ing Nwnan t ia C a s t i l le jo P e l la R edonda

7 9 8 1 9 2

CHAPTER 5 C amp sI Va nd V a tR en ieb la s C amp IV C ampV CHAPTER 6 T he l e g iona ry b a se a tC ä ce re se lV ie jo PART I V

17 17 17 1 3 1

F ina l d i scu s s ion a nd s ome c ompa r ison w i th t h e c a s t rame ta t ion o f t h e Emp ir e

CHAPTER 7 T he t r an s i t ion f r om m an ip le t oc ohor ti nt h e R oman R epub l ican l e g ion CHAPTER 8 R epub l ican c amp t y pe sa nd f unc t ion s

1 35 1 39

CHAPTER 9

P lann ing e l emen t s o ft h e l e g iona ry c amp

1 45

CHAPTER 1 0 B a r ra ck s a nd s t ab le s : t ype , s i ze a nd c on s t i tuen t e l emen t s CHAPTER 1 C onc lud ing r ema rk s

1 49 1 55

APPEND IX T he L oeb t r an s la t ion o fP o lyb iu s ' B ook V I C hap te r s1 9 -42 .( The R oman M i l i ta ry S y s tem )

1 57

REFERENCES A bb r ev ia t ion s

1 65

A nc ien ta u thor s B ib l iog raphy

1 65 1 66

L IST OF F IGURES CHAPTER 1

P age

1 . 1 S ugge s ted mob i l isa t ion -camp f o r as i ng le c on su la ra rmy o ft wo l e g ion s

6

1 . 2 S ugge s t ed mob i l isa t ion -camp f o r ad oub le c on su la ra rmy o ff ou r l e g ion s 1 . 3 S ugge s t ed ma rch ing - o rw a r -camp f o r as i ng le c on su la ra rmy o ft wo l e g ion s

7 8

1 . 4 T he R oman c amp a cco rd ing t oP o lyb iu s s how ing t h e l e g ion s i nr e la t ion t ot h ep rae tor ium 1 . 5 O rde ro ft h e l a you t o ft h e e ncampmen t f l ag s i n am a r ch ing -camp a c co rd ing t oP o lyb iu s

1 5 1 7

CHAPTER 2 2 . 1 L oca t ion o ft h e p r inc ipa l s i te s i nH i span ia m en t ioned i nt h e t e x t

2 2

CHAPTER 3 3 . 1 T he l o ca t ion o fN uman t ia a nd t h e m a jo rR oman c amp sn ea rby i nt h e modern t opog raphy

3 0

3 .2 C amps Ia nd I a tR en ieb la s 3 . 3 C amp IR en ieb la s( Ground s u rvey ) 3 .4 . C amp IR en ieb la s( Tacheome tr ic s urvey ) 3 .5 C amp I I R en ieb la s( t he r ema in s )

3 2 3 4 3 5 3 6

3 .6 C amp I IR en ieb la s( S chu l t en 's i n terp re ta t ion ) 3 .7 P l an o ft h e r ema in s i nt h e n or th -ea s tern p a r t o fC amp I I R en ieb la s 3 .8 D e ta i l o fh ow s u rveyo r 's l i ne s m ay h ave b een s e t o u t w i th ag roma a tC amp I I

3 8 4 0 4 2

3 .9 I d en t if ica t ion o fr ow s o fb ar ra ck s w i th t r oop t y pe s 3 . 10 B ar ra ck R ow s Ka nd A a tC amp I I R en ieb la s

4 4 4 6

3 . 11 S cheme f o r ab a r rack o ft h ee qu i te s R oman i 3 . 12 S cheme f o r ab a r rack o ft h e t r iar i i

4 8 5 0

3 . 13 B ar ra ck R ow s Ba nd C a tC amp I I R en ieb la s 3 . 14 S cheme f o r ab a r ra ck o ft h ep r inc ipe s o r t h eh a s ta t i 3 . 15 D e ta i l o ft h e h ead o fB ar ra ck 1 ,R ow B a tC amp I I R en ieb la s

5 4 5 5 5 6

3 . 16 B a r ra ck R ow D a tC amp I I R en ieb la s

6 0

3 . 17 S cheme f o r ab a r ra ck o ft h e e qu i te s S oc iorum 3 . 18 B a r rack R ow E a nd b u i ld ing c omp lexe s Ga nd H a tC amp I I R en ieb la s

6 2 6 4

3 . 19 A p o s s ib le b a r ra ck f o r ac ohor s am icorum a tC amp I I R en ieb la s

6 7

3 .20 P o s s ib le t r ibune s ' h ou se s a tC amp I I R en ieb la s

6 8

CHAPTER 3 a 3 a .1 T he s ou th -ea s ta nnexe o fC amp I I a tR en ieb la s

7 6

CHAPTER 4 4 . 1 T he S c ip ion ic c amp s , r i ve r s ide f o r t s a nd s i ege -wo rk s s ur round ing N uman t ia 4 .2 . P lan o ft h e r ema in s o fC a s t i l le jo ( Camp 3 )

8 0 8 2

4 .3 . 4 .4 4 .5 4 .6

8 3 8 6 8 7 8 8

S chu l ten 's r e s tor ed p l an o fC a s t i l le jo C amp 3 P lan o ft h er ema in s o fB a r ra ck 1 8 ; C a s t i l le jo C amp 3 S cheme f o r ac ava lry b a r ra ck P lan o ft h e r ema in s o fB a r rack s 1 10 ; C a s t i l le jo C amp 3

4 .7 R e s to red p l an o ft h e r ema in so ft h e b a r rack so ft h e l e g iona ry i n f an t ry a tC a s t i l le jo C amp 3 4 .8 S cheme f o ra ni n f an try m an ip le -ba r ra ck a nd H yg inu s ' s c heme f o rt h e t e n t so f am an ip le 4 .9 P lan o ft h e r ema in sa tP e f ia R edonda 4 . 10 T he l a you to fP e ll a R edonda a c co rd ing t oS chu l ten 's P o lyb ian s c heme

8 9 9 1 9 3 9 4

4 . 11 D e ta i l o ft h e b a r rack s n o r th o ft h ep rae tor ium a tP e t la R edonda

9 6

4 . 12 T he b a r ra ck s s ou th o ft h ep rae tor ium a tP e f ia R edonda s how ing S chu l ten 's i n te rp r e ta t ion . . . .100 4 . 13 T he b a r rack s s ou th o ft h e p rae tor ium a tP e l la R edonda s how ing t h e r ema in s o n ly 1 0 1 4 . 14 P l an o fB a r ra ck s 1 4 19 s ou th o ft h ep rae tor ium b a sed o n S chu l ten 's i n terpre ta t ion 4 . 15 P roposed n ew a r rangemen t f o r B a r rack s Aa nd B s ou th o ft h ep rae tor ium

1 0 3 1 04

4 . 16 S chema t ic r e p re sen ta t ion o ft h e b a r ra ck s s ou th o f t h ep rae tor ium a tP e i la R edonda s how ing ap o s s ib le a l terna t ive a r rangemen t

1 06

4 . 17 P lan o ft h e r ema in s o fb a r ra ck b u i ld ing s a t Mo l ino

1 08

4 . 18 P l an o f as u spec ted b a r ra ck a tS a led i l la

1 09

v i

L IST OF F IGURES CONT . CHAPTER 5

P age

5 . 1 T he o u te r w a l ls o fC amp s I V a nd V a tR en ieb la s 5 . 2 S chu l ten 's r e s tor ed p l an o fC amp V a tR en ieb la s 5 . 3 D e ta i l o fS chu l ten 's r e s to red p l an o ft h e b ar rack s i nt h e e a s te rn p a r t o fC amp V

16 17 1 20

5 .4 D e ta i l o ft h e p l an o ft h e r ema in s o n ly i nt h e n or th -ea s t ern p ar t o fC amp V 5 . 5 D e ta i l o fS chu l ten 's r e s tor ed p l an o ft h e b ar ra ck s i nt h e n or th -ea s tern p a r t o fC amp V

1 22 1 23

5 .6 P lan o fC amp s I V a nd V a tR en ieb la s s how ing t h eA b sch lußmaue r 5 . 7 P lan o fB u i ld ing s A /B /D a nd F : p ropo sed n ew i n t erp re ta t ion o ft h e r ema in s

1 24 1 26

5 . 8 P lan o fB u i ld ings B /C /E a nd G : p ropo sed n ew i n terp re ta t ion o ft h e r ema in s

1 28

CHAPTER 6 6 . 1 P lan o ft h e l e g ionary b a se o fC ä ce re s e lV ie jo

1 32

CHAPTER 8 8 . 1 T he g eograph ica l a nd s t ra teg ic l o ca t ion o ft h e l e g iona ry b a se a tC äce r e s e lV ie jo

1 42

CHAPTER 1 0 1 0 .1 B ar ra ck A f r om C amp V R en ieb la s a nd ab a r ra ck f r om af o r t a tE chze l l i nG ermany f o rc ompa r ison

1 50

APPEND IX A pp .1 T he R oman c amp a c co rd ing t oP o lyb iu s

1 60

L IST OF TABLES CHAPTER 2 2 . 1 . S chu l ten 's c h rono logy a nd d a t ing o f t h e m a jo r R oman R epub l ican c amp s i nH i span ia 2 .2 T he d a t ing o fC amp s I I a nd V a tR en ieb la s a nd t h e s i ege -camp s a r ound N uman t ia o n t h e b a s is o ft h e n um isma t ic e v iden ce ( a f te r H i ldeb rand t ) 2 .3 A p ar t ia l c h rono logy a nd s ugge s ted d a te range s f o r s ome o ft h e R oman R epub l ican c amp s i nS pa in

v i i

2 1 2 6 2 8

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS

H i s tör ico s , Mad r id f o rh e ra s s is tan ce w h i l s t Iw a si nS pa in , H e r r . M . B l e ch a nd H e r r . W . T r i l lm ich o ft h e D eu t s ch e s A r chäo log i sche s I n s t i tu t , Madr id , f o r t h e i r h e lp o n m y v i s i t s t ot h e I n s t i tu t e i n Madr id a nd t h e i r w i l l ingn e s s t o d i s cu s s a s pe c t s o f t h e w o rk o f A do lf S chu l t en , a nd V lad im i rC ican i o fA lban ian R ad io T i rana f o r c ondu c t ing e nqu ir ie s o nm y b eha lf o n t h e s t a t e o ft h e p r e se rva t ion o f t h e s i ege -wo rk sa nd c amp se r ec ted b y C a e sa ra nd P omp ey

T h i s v o lume a nd t h e w o rk h e r e in i s ad i r ec t c on sequen ce o f r e s ea r ch u nder tak en f o r my P hD a nd w a s o r ig ina l ly p r e s en t ed i n as l igh t ly d i f f e r en tf o rm a s ad oc to r a l t h e s i st o t h e U n ive r s i ty o f B i rm ingham . Iw ou ld t h e r ef o r e l i k e t o t h ank t h e s t a f fo f t h e D epa r tmen t o f A n c ien t H is tory a nd A r cha eo logy a tt h e Un ive r s i ty o f B i rm ingham u nde r t h e l e ad e r sh ip o f P rof . R icha rd T om l in son f o r t h e ir s uppor t a nd f o ra low ing m e t ou s e t h e f a c i l i t ie so ft h ed epa r tmen t w h i l s t Iu nder took b o th t h e r e sea r ch a nd t h e w r i t ing o ft h e

i nt h e r e g ion o fD yr r ach iu rn ( mod ern D ür re s ) i nA lban ia .

t h e s i s . I np ar t icu la r Is hou ld l i ke t ot h ank m y s up erv iso r D r . S imon E smonde C lea ry w ho i d en t if ied ar e sea r ch p a th i nt h e a r ea o fR oman c a s t rame ta t ion w h ich Iw ou ld mo s t c e r ta in ly h ave o ve r look ed . F rom t h e U n ive r s i ty o f B i rm ingham Is hou ld l i k ea l so t ot h ank D r . S u san F i s ch le r f o r h e rc ommen t s a nd a dv ice p a r t icu la r ly o n t h e m a t te ro f t h e p r e sen ta t ion o fh i s tor ica l e v iden ce , D r .W . J .D odd f o r h i s a s s i s tan ce i n s ome a r ea s o f G e rman t r an s la t ion , D r .A .M . W i l son f o rh e ra s s i s tan ce i ns ome a r ea s o fL a t in t r an s la t ion , a nd J am ie P ea r t f o r a s s is tan ce i nt h e l o ca t ion o fm ap s .

Is hou ld a l so l i ke t o t h ank r e spe c t ive ly t h e s t a f f o f t h e l i b ra r ie s o ft h e U n ive r s i ty o fB irm ingham ; t h e I n s t i tu t e o f A r cha eo logy , L ondon ; t h e C la s s ica l S t ud ie s L ib r a ry , L ondon ; t h e A shmo lean L ib ra ry , O xfo rd ; t h e Wa rbu rg I n s t i tu t e , L ondon ; t h e B r i t ish L ib ra ry a t t h e B r i t i sh Mu seum , a nd T he G oe the I n s t i tu t , L ondon . Iw ou ld l i k e t o e xp r e s s my a pp r ec ia t ion t o t h e H a r va rd Un ive r s i ty P r e s s f o r p e rm is s ion t or e p roduce as e c t ion o f t h e L o eb e d i t ion o fP o lyb iu s T he H i s tor ie s V o l . I I I , B ook V I , C h .19 -42 , T he R oman M i l i ta r y S ys tem , T ran s . b y W .R . P a ton ( 1 972 ) .

Is hou ld l i ke t ot h ank C h r i s tophe r H ende r son f o ra low ing m e t ou s e s om e o f t h e f a c i l i t ie s o f t h e E xe t e r Mu seum s A r cha eo log ica l F i e ld U n i t( E MAFU ) f o rt h ec omp le t ion o f t h i s v o lume a nd f o ra n a dvan ce c opy o fh i s p ape rg i ven a t t h e L ime s c on f e r en ce i n C an t e rbu ry o n a s pe c t s o f t h e p l ann ing o ft h e N e ron ian f o r t r e s s a tE xe te r . Is hou ld a l so l i ke t ot h ank T ony I v e s o ft h e EMAFU f o r g i v ing u p h i s s pa r e t i me i n o rde r t o a s s is t i n t h e c omp i la t ion o f t h e p l an s , J ann in eJ udde ry f o rt h e t r an s la t ion f r om G e rman o f s ome p a s sage s f r om S chu l t en 's w o rk w h ich h ad d e f ea ted m e , a nd T ony C o l l ing s f o r h i s a s s i s tan ce i ns ome o f t h e m o r e t e chn ica l a s pec t s o fp r epar ing c opy f o r p ub l ica t ion . My m o s tr e cen te mp loye r sC o t swo ld A r cha eo log ica lT ru s t ( CAT ) u nde r t h e i r m anage r N e i l H o lb rook a r e a l so t ob e t h ank ed f o r p rov id ing f a c i l i t ie s . S ome i lu s t ra t ion s i nt h is v o lume w e r e p rodu ced b y R icha rd Mor ton o f CAT .

S ome o ft h e p ub l i shed p l an s o fA do lf S chu l ten h ave b e en r e p roduced i nt h i s w o rk . T he se p l an s a nd t h e r e su l t s o f S chu l t en 's e nd eavou r s , much o fw h ich p rov ide s t h e b a s i s f o r t h i s p r e sen t w o rk , h ave b een i nt h e p ub l ic d oma in f o r i n e xc e s s o f f i f ty y ea r s . Iw ou ld l i k e t o t a k e t h e o ppor tun i ty t o r e co rd m y a dm ira t ion f o r t h e p rod ig iou s w o rk o f P rof . S chu l ten w ho e xcava ted a tt h e t u rn o ft h e c en tu r ya nd w ho c on t inued t op ub l i sh u n t i l 1 955 ; S chu l t en h im se lf d i ed i n 1 960 . We r e P rof . S chu l ten a l ive t o d ay I w ou ld h ope h e w ou ld a c cep t t h is w o rk i n t h e a c adem i c s p ir i t i n w h ich i ti sp r e sen ted e sp ec ia l ly i n t h o se a r ea s w he r e Ih av ed r awn d i f f e r en tc on c lu s ion sf r om t h o se o fh i s o wn . T he p ho tog raph o f A do lf S chu l t en a nd t h e e x t r a c t f r om h i sd ay b ook a r ep ub l i shed c ou r t e sy o ft h e D eu t s ch e s A r chäo log i s che s I n s t i tu t , Madr id .

F rom e l s ewhe r e i nB r i ta in Is hou ld l i k et ot h ank D r . Mar t in G oodman f o r h i s a s s i s tan ce o n s ome a spec t s o f e a r ly R oman l i t e ra tu r e , D r .Law r en ce K epp ie f o r h i s c ommen t s o n s ome e a r ly d r af t s o f t h i s w o rk a nd h i s g r ea t e n cou ragemen ta nd s uppo r t , D r . C a th er in eG i l l ive rf o rh e r p r e -pub l ica t ion d r a f t o ft h e t e x t o fH yg inu s , P rof .M icha e l C raw f o rd f o r h i s c ommen t s o n t h e c o in e v iden ce f r om C amp V a tR en ieb la s , t h e l a t e M is s E l izabe th R aw son f o r h e r c ommen t s o n t h e m a t te r o f P o lyb iu s ' s ou r ce s , D r . D av id D av ison f o rc ommen t so nt h e n a tu r eo fh i s w o rk o n R oman I mpe r ia l b a r ra ck s p r io r t o i t s p ub l ica t ion , Ma rk H a s sa l l f o rg i v ing m e t h e o ppor tun i ty t op r e sen t as em ina r o n p ar t o f m y t h e s is a t t h e I n s t i tu t e o f A r cha eo logy i n L ondon , a nd P e te r C onno l ly f o r h i s e n cou ragemen t . I s hou ld a l so l i ke t o t h ank G udrun L ey w ho r e ad a nd c or r e c t ed m y G e rman t e x t a nd R ober t J one s w ho a s s i s ted i nt h e p rodu c t ion o fS pan i sh m ap s . F rom a b road Is hou ld l i k e t ot h ank P rof .G un t e r U lb er t f o r c ommen t s o n h i s r e cen t w o rk o n t h e s i t e o f C ä ce r e s e l V ie jo , D r .I s abe l Ma r t in ez N ava r r e t eo ft h eC en t ro E s tud io s

v i i i

T he o r ig ina l t h e s i s a nd r e sea rch w a s u nde r taken w i th t h e a i d o f am a jo r s t a te s t uden t sh ip a nd at r ave l g ran t , b o th a wa rded b y t h e B r i t i sh A cademy , f o r w h ich t h e p r e sen t a u tho r i sm o s t g r a t efu l . L a s t , b u t n o t l e a s t , Is hou ld l i k e t ot h ank m y p a r en t s f o r t h e i r c on s tan t s uppor t a nd my w if e f o r h e r i mpa t ien c e . C ame r a r eady c opy w a s p roduced u s ing Wo rdpe r f e c t 5 . 1 o na nE p son P C w i th a n HP l a se r je tp r in t e r . T he t e x ti ss e t i nT ime s 1 0p o in t . J ohn P a rnmen t S a lva to r e C i r ence s te r( Cor in ium D obunnorum ) 1 9 95

I NTRODUCT ION

THE BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH I NTRODUCT ION w e r ec on s t ruc t ed . T h is c an b es e en a sp a r to ft h e l e ga cy o f R ome 's c onf l ic t w i th C ar thag ed ur ing t h e l a t t e rp a r to ft h e t h i rd c en tur y B .C . w hen ac on t inued m i l i ta ry p r e sen ce i n S pa in w a s f e l t t ob e d e s i r ab le . T h is r e qu i r ed a tl e a s t t wo l e g ion s k ep t p e rman en t ly i n S pa in f r om t h e e nd o f t h e S e cond P un ic Wa r ( Kepp ie 1 984 ,44 ; T oynb ee 1 965 ,652 ) . T he t wo p r a e to r s s e n t t o S pa in i n 1 97 t o ge the r w i th t h e i n c r ea se i nt h e n umbe r o fm ag i s t r a c ie s b y t h e a dd i t ion o f t wo p r ea to r sh ip s p o in t s t os uppor t f o r ap e rman en t R oman p r e s en ce f r om t h a t d a te o nwa rd s ( R icha rd son 1 986 ,75 ) . O n ce t h i s d ec i s ion h ad b een t a k en t h e R oman s w e r e f a ced i n S pa in w i th t h e p ro t ra c t ed p ro ce s s o f s ub juga t ing t h e I b er ic t r ib e sw ho w e r e , a c co rd ing t oS t r abo ( I V, 4 ,2 ) , m o r e d i ff icu l t t oc onque rt h an t h e G au ls ; i n deed i tw a s n o tu n t i l t h et i me o fA ugu s tu st h a tS pa in w a se n t ir e ly b rough tw i th in R oman c on t ro l ( Kepp ie 1 984 ,44 ) .

T he f o r t s a nd f o r t r e s se s o f t h e R oman a rmy o f t h e P r in c ipa te a nd t h e b u i ld ing s w i th in t h em h ave r e ce ived a g r ea t d ea l o f a t t en t ion f r om a r cha eo log i s t s a nd f r om c ommen ta to r s o n t h e p r a c t ice s o f t h e R oman a rmy . T he r ema in s o f t h e m i l i ta ry c amp s o f t h e R epub l ican p e r iod h ave n o t c ommanded s u ch a t t en t ion . T h i s i s m a in ly b e cau se t h e r e i s ad ea r th o fe xcava ted m i l i ta r y s i t e s w h ich d a te f r om b e f o r e t h e t ime o f A ugu s tu s a nd t h o se w h ich h ave b een i n ve s t iga t ed r a re ly p rodu ce a ny e v iden ce f o r t h e ir i n terna l l a you t . Af t e r t h e i n i t ia l e xpan s ion o f R ome a nd f o r t h e p e r iod p r io r t o t h e a cqu is i t ion o f t e r r i to ry o u t s ide I t a ly , t h e R oman a rmy f o ugh t , u nde r n o rma l c i r cum s tan ce s , o n a s e a sona l b a s i s . U n t i l 1 53 B .C . t h e c ampa ign ing s e a son b egan i n Ma r ch a nd e nded i n O c tobe r o fe a ch y ea r w i th t h e t r oop su sua l ly , t h ough n o ta lway s i nt h ec a se o fS pa in , r e tu rn ing h ome d u r ing t h e w in t e r . ' T he r ew a s t h e r e f o r en o n e ed f o r t h e s em i -pe rmanen t o r p e rmanen t m i l i tar y e s tab l ishmen t s w h ich p rov ide t h e g r ea t b ody o f a r cha eo log ica l m a ter ia l w h ich d a t e s f r om t h e I mp e r ia l p er iod . An umbe r o f m i l i ta ry s i t e s w h ich d a t e f r om j u s t b ef o r e t h e c o l lap se o f t h e R epub l ic h ave h ow eve r b een i d en t if ied . R oman c amp s d a t ing f r om C ae sa r 's c ampa ign s i n G au l h ave l o ng b een k nown a nd t h e se h ave b een p ho tog raphed f r om t h e a i r b y A ga che ( 1 978 ) a nd G oguey ( 1 968 ) a mong s t o t he r s . K ing ( 1 990 ,42 -54 ) h a s d r awn r e newed a t t en t ion t ot h e se c amp sb u th a ss t r e s s ed t h a ts ome o ft h ec amp sa t t r ibu ted t oC ae sa ra r en o tp roven . 'T he s i t e s o f R epub l i can a rmy c amp s d a t ing f r om t h e C iv i l Wa r b e tween C a es a r a nd P ompey a r e a l so k nown f r om t h e m any p a r t s o f t h e Med i te r ran ean w he r e t h e c on f l ic t t o ok p l a ce . S ome o ft h e se c amp s o n t h e A d r ia t ic s e aboa rd a nd f u r the r i n to t h e i n t er io r o f G r ee ce w e r e i n ve s t iga t ed b y V e i th i nt h e e a r ly d ecade s o ft h e t w en t ie th c en tur y ( Ve i th 1 906 ;1920 ) . T he se i n ve s t iga t ion sm o s t ly t o ok t h e f o rm o f o b ser va t ion sm ade i nt h ef i e ld . L i t t le w o rk o nt h ei n t e r io r s o ft h e se c amp sh a s t h e r ef o r e t a ken p l a ce a l though i ti st r u e t h a t t h e t y pe o f c amp w h ich w ou ld b e a s so c ia t ed w i th s e a sona l c ampa ign ing , o f t en am a r ch ing -camp o r p e rhap s as i ege camp , c on s is t ing o f t e n t s , w ou ld l e ave v e ry f ew i n te rna l t r a ce s . A s ar e su l t e xcava t ion o f t h e k nown R epub l ican c amp s o f G au l o r Ma cedon ia , w he r e i th a s o c cu r r ed , h a s t e nded t oc on cen t ra te o n t h e d e f en ce s .

S pa in t h e r ef o r eh ad al o ng h i s to ry o fa c t ive R oman m i l i ta ry c ampa ign ing . T he se c ampa ign s o f ten c a l led f o r s em i -p e rmanen t c amp s i n w h ich t r oop s c ou ld b e k ep t t o o ve r -w in t e r i n t h e f i e ld i n s ome t ime s w e t a nd w indy c ond i t ion s . U nde rs u ch c i r cum s tan ce si tw ou ld h ave p roved i mpo s s ib le t oh ave r e ta ined af i gh t ing -f i ta rmy w i th in t e n t s . ( The p r e sen t a u tho r e xp er ien ced t h e h a r shne s s o f t h e w ea the r w h ich c an b e c o ld a nd w e t i n n or the rn cen t r a l S pa in e ven i n t h e S p r ing ) , In n e ighbou r ing G au l , e ven C a e sa r h ad e n coun t e r ed p rob lem s i nt h is r e spe c t : .a st h er a in c on t inued i tw a si mpo s s ib le t ok e ep t h e m en u nde r c anva s a ny l o nge r . ( Ca e sa r G a l l ic W ar , 1 1 1 ,29 ) . C a e sa r 's s o lu t ion i nt h is c a se w a s t ob i l le t t h e m en a mong t h o se n a t ive t r ib e s w ho h ad b een s ub juga ted . S u ch a s o lu t ion w a s n o t p e rhap s p o s s ib le i n S pa in i n ac oun t ry p opu la ted b y v o la t i le t r ibe s c apab le o f q u ick s h if t s o f a leg ian ce . ' Ap l en t if u ls upp ly o fb u i ld ing s t one a tc e r ta in a dvan tageou s l o ca t ion sm u s ta l so h ave c on t r ibu ted t ot h eR oman d e c i s ion t ob u i ld c amp s i ns t on ea ts ome s i te s . T he r ema in so fs u ch s t on e -bu i l t c amp s i n S pa in a t t ra c ted t h e a t t en t ion o f a r cha eo log is t s i nt h e e a r ly p a r t o f t h e t w en t ie th c en tu r y . F o r emo s t a mong s t t h e se w a s t h e G e rman a r cha eo log i s t A do lf S chu l ten w ho c ondu c ted as e r ie s o fe xcava t ion s a t a nd a r ound N uman t ia i n n o r the rn cen t ra l S pa in a nd w ho a l so i n ve s t iga ted t h e r ema in so f aR oman l e g ion a ry b a se a t C ä ce r e s e l V ie jo n ea r t h e P o r tugue se b o rde r . T he e xcava t ion s i n n o r the rn cen t ra l S pa in c en t r ed u pon t h e r ema in s o f t h e s e cond c en tu ry B .C . I b e r ian h i l l top s t rongho ld o f N uman t ia a nd o n t h e R oman f o r t if ica t ion s o fv a r iou sd a t e s n ea rby i n c lud ing t h e R oman l e g iona r y c amp s a t R en ieb la s , C a s t i l le jo a nd P ef i a R edonda . T he se e x cava t ion s t o ok p l a ce d u r ing t h e y ea r s 1 905 19 12 b u t , d ue t o t h e v i c is s i tude s o f w a r , f u l l p ub l ica t ion o ft h e r e su l t s d i d n o t o ccu r u n t i l mu ch l a t e r

T he s i tua t ion i nS pa in i ss omewha td i f f e ren t . An umb e ro f R epub l ican c amp s w i th s u rv iv ing r ema in s o f i n t e rna l b u i ld ing s i ns t one h ave b een r e cogn ised a nd s ome q u i te e x ten s ive e xcava t ion s o f t h e se c amp s h ave b een u nde r taken , a l be i ti nt h ee a r ly p a r to ft h et w en t ie th c en tury T he r e a son sw hy s ome o ft h ec amp s i nS pa in s hou ld d i f f e r f r on t t h o s e e l sewhe r e r e qu i r e s s ome e xp lana t ion . l tw a s o n ly w hen i tb e came i n cumben t u pon t h e R oman a rmy t os t a t ion t r oop s o u t s ide I t a ly i no rde r t op ro t e c t R oman i n te r e s t s w h ich c amp so f amo r ep e rman en t n a tu r e

1

I NTRODUCT ION u nde r t h e g ene ra l t i t le o fN u tnan t ia . D ie E rgebn i s se d e r

S ome o f t h e se c onnec t ion s a r e b a sed o n t h in o r e ven

A u sgrabungen 1 905 -19 12 ( S chu l ten 1 9 14 , 1 927 , 1 929 , 1 931 , B and sI 1V ) . T he e xcava t ion sa tC ä ce r e sw e re s p r ead

n on -ex i s ten t a r cha eo log ica l e v idence b u t t h ey h ave , n eve r the le s s , b een a ccep ted a nd r e pea ted u n cr i t ica l ly i n

o ve rs ome t wen ty y ea r s a nd w e re r epor ted i nt h eJ ahrbuch o f t h e D eu t sche s A rchäo log i sche s I n s t i tu t f o r t h e y ea r s

l a te r w o rk s a sw i l l b e i lu s t ra ted b e low .

1 9 18 , 1 928 , 1 930 , a nd 1 932 .

T he s e cond c en tu ry B .C . , t h e c en tury i n w h ich t h e m a jor i ty o f t h e c amp s e xcava t ed b y S chu l ten w er e

T he r ema in s o f t h e s ucce s s ive c amp s a t R en ieb la s a nd t h os e a tP e t la R edonda a r e s t i l l e x tan t a nd i ti ss urpr is ing

c on s t ru c ted , s hou ld b e av i ta l p er iod f o r s t udy o f t h e

t h e refo re t h a t t h e se r ema in s h ave n o t r e ce ived g rea te r a t ten t ion a s t h ey p rov ide u s w i th o u r o n ly r e a l b ody o f e v iden ce f o r t h e c a s t rame ta t ion o f t h e R oman a rmy i n

a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd s hou ld b e s c ru t in ised f o r a ny s i gn s o ft h e t r an s i t ion o ft h e l e g ion f r om t h a t b a sed o nm an ip le s t o t h a t b a sed o n c ohor t s . I th a s b een s ugge s ted t h a t t h e

R epub l ican t ime s . We m igh ta g r ee w i th K epp ie w ho s t a te s :

r e f o rm s o f Ma r iu s a t t h e t u rn o f t h e f i r s t c en tury B .C .

d eve lopmen t o f t h e

R oman

a rmy .

I n p a r t icu la r t h e

w e r e m e re ly a f o rma l r e cogn i t ion o f s ome l o ng e x is t ing p r a c t ice sr a the rt h an b e ing i nnova t ive ( Kepp ie 1 984 ,57f f .) .

. . tha t t h e se ( t he c amp s a r ound Numan t ia ) a nd t h e R en ieb la s s e r ie s h ave n o t b een t h e s ub je c t o f mo re i n t en se s t udy mu s t i n p a r t b e d ue t o an ar row p r eo ccupa t ion , i nt h is c oun try a nd b eyond , w i th t h e

I ft h is w e r e t ob e t h e c a se t h en s ome i nd ica t ion m igh t b e s ough t i n t h e l a you t o f t h e b a r rack s w i th in t h e c amp s w h ich w ou ld h ave s ome b ea r ing o n t h i s s ugge s t ion .

a rmy o ft h e Emp ir e .

I n h i s r e v iew o f S chu l ten 's B and I I ( D ie L age r d e s

O ne a r ea w h ich h a s g ene ra ted s ome i n te re s t i st h a t o f t h e d a t ing o f t h e c o in e v idence f r om s ome o f t h e c amp s a nd t h is h a se xc i ted t h ei n te re s to fn um isma t is t s . C onf l ic t so ve r

S c ip io ) , w h ich d ea l t w i th t h e s e r ie s o f s i ege camp s c on s t ruc ted a round N uman t ia , a lmo s t c er ta in ly b y t h e

t h e m e thod s u sed t o d a te t h e c o in s h ave h oweve r s e rved o n ly t oc omp l ica te t h e p i c tu re f u r the r .

( 1984 ,51) .

R oman g ene ra l S c ip io , R ichmond w ro te : T he s t udy o f R oman R epub l ican c a s t rame ta t ion h a s a l so b een c l ouded b y t h e u n ce r ta in t ies w h ich s u r round t h e a c coun t o f aR oman m a r ch ing -camp , o s ten s ib ly f o r t wo

T he i mpor tance o ft h e s i te s i nt h e Numan t ian d i s tr ic t i s s o g r ea t f o r t h e h i s to ry o f R oman c a s t rame ta t ion , t h a t n o e f for t s hou ld b e s pa red i nm ak ing t h em i n te l l ig ib le

l e g ion s , p rov ided b y t h e G reek h i s to r ian P o lyb iu s i nT he H i s tor ie s ( Book V I ,26 -32 ) .4 T h is a ccoun t h a s f r equen t ly b een c a l led i n to q ue s t ion . C ommen ta tor s s u ch a s O xe

o n t h e s i de o fi n te rp r e ta t ion . ( 1928 ,49 1) .

( 1909 ,76 -84 ) , S t o l le ( 1912 ,52 -68 ) a nd F ra cca ro ( 1934 ,151-6 1) h ave a l l c a s t d oub t o n t h e d e sc r ip t ion , s ugge s t ing t h a t i t r ef lec t s n o t at wo leg ion c amp , a s P o lyb iu s s e em s t o i mp ly , b u t o ne h a lf o f af o u r leg ion c amp . Mo re r e cen t ly R awson ( 1971 ,15 ) , f o l low ing

I nt h e f o l low ing y ea r R ichmond a dded : T he w ho le i n terp r e ta t ion o f t h e v a s t b ody o f e v idence f r om t h e Numan t ia d i s t r ic t i s at a sk o fg r ea t d e l ica cy , e spec ia l ly i n t h e c onnec t ion o f a r cha eo log ica l a nd l i t e rary e v idence . I ti sn o t a lways p o s s ib le t o f o rge a l i nk b e tween t h e t wo t h a t w i l l b ea r t h e s t ra in o f c r i t ic i sm . I no ther w ord s , n o t o ne i n te rp r e ta t ion a l one i sp o s s ib le , b u t s e ve ra l a l terna t ive s .

F racca ro , h a s d emon s t ra ted t h a t , f o r h i s d e scr ip t ion o ft h e R oman a rmy a nd c amp , P o lyb iu s a ppea r s t oh ave u sed a s ou r ce o fi l -def ined d a te , p e rhap s av ade -mecum i s sued t o m i l i ta ry t r ibune s . Wh i ls t i t i s g en e ra l ly a ccep ted t h a t P o lyb iu s w ro te h i s a c coun t o f t h e R oman a rmy a nd i t s m e thod o f c amp ing i n t h e m idd le y ea r s o f t h e s e cond c en tu ry B .C . ( s ee B r ink a nd Wa lbank 1 954 ,10 1) , h i s e mp loymen t o f as ou r ce , w h ich m ay h ave p r e -da t ed h i s o wn t ime , d emand s t h a th i sa ccoun to f am a r ch ing camp b e

( R ichmond 1 929 ,370 ) . D e sp i te t h e u nde r ly ing c ha l lenge i nt h e a bove s t a temen t s , n o r e cen t e xcava t ion h a s t a ken p l a ce a nd v e ry l i t t le w ork h a s b een u nder tak en e i the r i nt h e w ay o f r e in terp re ta t ion o ro ff r e sh c ommen to nS chu l ten 's f i nd ing sa tR en ieb la so r i n t h e r e g ion o f N uman t ia . T h is h a s p romp ted s ome

t r ea ted w i th s ome c au t ion . '

c onunen ta tor s t o b e r i gh t ly c au t iou s i n d ea l ing w i th t h e e v iden ce s upp l ied b y S chuh en , e . g .

l ti st h e r ef o re p o s s ib le t oi d en t if y s eve ra l a r ea s w i th in t h e f i e ld o f R oman R epub l ican c a s t rame ta t ion w h ich w ou ld r e pay f r e sh a nd d e ta i led s t udy ; t h e se a r e :

I tm u s t b e s t re s sed t h a t t h e d a t ing a nd i d en t if i ca t ion o f t h e i n te rna l f e a tu re s o f i n d iv idua l c amp s h ave n o t

1 P o lyb iu s ' a ccoun t o f aR oman m a r ch ing -camp .

a lways b een e s tab l ished c onc lu s ive ly . 2 T he m o re r e cen t w o rk u nder tak en o n t h e d a t ing e v iden ce , n o tab ly t h e c o in s , f r om s ome o f t h e R oman

( J ohn son 1 983 ,223 ) .

R epub l ican c amp s i nS pa in .

T he m e thod so fe xcava t ion e mp loyed b y S chu l ten h ave a l so b een c a l led i n to q ue s t ion ( Ga rc ia y B e l l ido 1 976 ,69 ) . I n a dd i t ion , i ti sc l ea r , f r om e ven ar ud imen ta ry s t udy o ft h e

3 S chu l ten 's p ub l ished e v idence p rov ided b y t h e s e r ie s o f e xcava t ion s i nS pa in c a rr ied o u t o n R oman c amp s i te s .

t e x t s , t h a t S chu l ten w a s o f ten a t p a in s t o f i nd a n h i s to r ica l ly r e co rded e ven t w h ich w ou ld f i t t h e c i rcum s tance s o f w h icheve r c amp h e w a s i n ve s t iga t ing . 2

THE B ACKGROUND TO THE R ESEARCH RESEARCH METHODS AND VOLUME OVERVIE W T he t h ree a r ea s o f i nve s t iga t ion i d en t i f ied a bove a r e

a nd t h is m ay b e s o . I tw a s n o tp o s s ib le t oc heck a ccu ra te ly d i s tance s i n e xce s s o f 3 0m . a nd i ti sp os s ib le t h a t t h e e xcava to r h a s u nw i t t ing ly p ub l ished s ome i n a ccu ra t e

a dd r e s sed w i th in t h is v o lume . I n e a ch c a se t h e p re sen t a u thor h a s a t t emp ted t oa dd t ot h e d eba te a nd t h is s e c t ion d e ta i ls t h er e s ea r ch me thod sa pp l icab le t oe a ch a r ea a nd t h e a pp roach t a k en .T h is s ec t ion a l so p rov ide s ab r ief o verv iew o f t h e o rgan is a t ion o ft h e v o lume a nd t h e c on ten t o fe a ch o ft h e c hap te r s .

d imen s ion sb u tt h e se m ay b er e s tr ic ted t ot ho se w h ich w e r e m ea su r ed o ve r l o ng s t r e t che s o f u neven g round . S uch c on s ide r a t ion ss hou ld n o ts e r iou s ly a f f ec t t h ed i scu s s ion o f t h e i n terna l b u i ld ing s w he r et h ee xcava to r 's f i gu r es c an f o r t h e mo s t p a r t b e t a ken a tf a ce v a lue . T he m a jor t a sk o ft h e f i e ld -wo rk u nde r tak en w a s t h e r e co rd ing o f t h e i n te rna l d imen s ion s o f i n d iv idua l c on tubern ia a nd o ff ice r s ' q ua r te r s . '

P o lyb iu s ' d e s cr ip t ion o f ac amp l a you t i ss o c en t ra l t ot h e s ub jec t m a t t e ro ft h is v o lume t h a t i t sp r ec i se n a tu re a nd i t s s i gn if icance m u s t b e e va lua ted a nd u nde r s tood a sf a r a s i s p o s s ib le a t t h e o u t se t . I n P a r t Io f t h is p r e sen t w o rk , e x t ra c t s f r om P o lyb iu s ' t e x t d ea l ing w i th t h e c amp ing a nd m a r ch ing a r rangemen t s o f t h e R oman a rmy a r e r e -exam ined c l o se ly a nd p re sen ted a l ong s ide t h e r e su l t s o f p r ev iou s r e s ea r ch wh ich h ave d emon s t ra t ed t h ep r e sence o f aw r i t ten a nd a na ch ron is t ic s ou rce e mp loyed b y P o lyb iu s . A n a t temp t i sm ade t o a na lyse a nd d i s sec t t h e p rec ise n a tu re o f t h i s s ou rce a nd t o p l ace i ti n ac h rono log ica l

O ne a spec t w h ich w i l l f i nd o n ly l im i ted s pace w i th in t h e r em i t o ft h is p r e sen t w o rk i s as t udy o f t h e w eapon f i nd s f r om t h e N uman t ine c amp s .' A l though t h ey a r e o f g r ea t i n t r in s ic i n te r e s tt ot h es t uden to fR oman m i l i tar ia t h e f i nd s o f w eapon ry c anno t b e u sed w i th a ny c onf idence i n t h e i d en t if i ca t ion o f i n d iv idua l b u i ld ings i n w h ich t h ey w e r e f ound . S chu l t en a ppea r s t oh ave b een s e lec t ive i nh i s u s e

c on tex t . T he d a t ing o f P o lyb iu s ' s ou r ce i sq ue s t ioned a nd ap os s ib le n ew s o lu t ion t o t h e a mb igu i t ie s i n he r en t i n P o lyb iu s ' t e x t i so f f ered .

o ft h is c l a ss o fe v idence . R aw son , i nh e r c on s ide ra t ion o f t h e v a lue o ft h e w eapon f i nd s a tR en ieb la s a sa n i nd ica to r o f t h e a rm s u t i l ised b y d i f f e ren t c l a s se s o f t r oop s w a s d i sm is s ive o ft h e ir v a lue ( 1971 ,19 ,n .19 ) .

Af r e sh l o ok w i l l a l so b e t a ken i nP a r t Ia tt h e d a t ing o f S ome c ommen t i sp o s s ib le o n t h e i n terna l l a you t w h ich m ay b e a s soc ia t ed w i th t h e R oman R epub l ican c amp s i n S pa in a nd i t s s im i la r i ty o r o therw ise t ot h e P o lyb ian c amp p l an . U sed w i th c i r cum spec t ion t h e P o lyb ian d e sc r ip t ion c on ta in s m any o b ser va t ion s w h ich a r e o f i mmen se v a lue b u t i tw i l l b e d emon s t ra ted t h a t o n ly r a r e ly i st h e r e a ny c on co rdan ce b e tween t h e P o lyb ian p l an a nd t h er ema in s o f R oman c amp s o n t h e g round .

a l o f t h e R oman R epub l ican c amp s i n H i span ia . I n p a r t icu la r t h e c ur ren t d eba te s ur round ing t h e d a t ing o f R oman c o in age i nS pa in i si n ve s t iga t ed i nC hap te r 2 . P a r t I I d ea l s s o le ly w i th t h e e v idence p rov ided b y a r chaeo logy . T he i n terp re ta t ion o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s o fa l o ft h e R oman c amp s e xcava ted b y S chu l ten a tN uman t ia a nd R en ieb la s i ss ub jec ted t of r e sh a nd s eve re s c ru t iny . ' T h i s i su nder taken b y r e f e r en ce t ot h e p ub l ished

T he i mpo r tan ce o ft h is s t udy l i e s i nt h e f a c t t h a t i tc ove r s ap e r iod w hen c hange s i n t h e w ay i n w h ich t h e R oman a rmy w a s o rgan ised , b o th s t ruc tu ra l ly a nd t a c t ica l ly , w e r e i mp lemen ted . I ti s i n tended t h a t t h e d i scu s s ion o f t h e a r cha eo log ica l e v idence f o r s u ch d eve lopmen t s w i l l a low s ome b road c ompar ison , i n P a r t I V , o f R oman c a s t rame ta t ion u nde r t h e R epub l ic w i th t h a t o ft h e Emp ir e w h ich w ou ld a low t h ed i f f e ren ce sa nd s im i la r i t ie sb e tween t h e t wo t ob e m o r e r e ad i ly u nde r s tood .

p l an s a nd t e x t s c oup led w i th t h e r e su l t s o b ta ined f r om f i e ld -wo rk . ' T h is s how s t h a t i n s ome c a se s S chu l ten 's i n terp re ta t ion s w ere a t v ar iance w i th t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e cord a nd s ome a t temp t i s m ade t o o f f e r a l terna t ive s . P e r t inen t q ue s t ion s a r is ing f r om t h e f r e sh s t ud ie s a r e p u t a nd a dd re s s ed . E lsewhe re , a s i n t h e c a se o f C amp V a t R en ieb la s , S chu l ten 's e n t ire h ypo the s is i sc ha l lenged a nd a r gumen t s a r e p u t f orwa rd f o r an ew e xpo s i t ion b a sed o n a r ev iew o f t h e e v idence . When d ea l ing w i th t h e a r chaeo logy , i t i s t h e b ar ra ck a c commoda t ion w h ich r e ce ive s t h e m o s t a t ten t ion . C hange s i nb a r ra ck t y pe , o r t h e w ay i nw h ich t h e b ar rack sw e re g rouped , w e re d eemed l i ke ly t ob et h eb es ti nd ica to ro ft h ew ay i nw h ich t h ea rmy w a s o rgan i s ed . T he k ind o fd e ta i led s t a t is t ica l a na lys is a nd c ompa r ison o f I mper ia l b ar rack t ype s w h ich w a s c a r r ied o u t b y D av i son ( 1989 ) c anno t b e a t temp ted h e re w hen d ea l ing w i th a much s ma l le r b ody o f r e co rded m a ter ia l a l though s ome a t temp t i sm ade t os how h ow t h e b a r ra ck s o f t h e R epub l ic may h ave i nf luenced t h e d e s ign o f t h e ir I mper ia l c oun terpar t s . W i thou t

t h e

c omm is s ion

o f a c omp le te ly

n ew

A t e n ta t ive c a se f o r t h e d eve lopmen t o f R oman s t ra teg ic d ep loymen t s u nde r t h e R epub l ic w h ich a ppea r t o f o r e shadow t h o se o f t h e f i r s t c en tury AD . i s a l so p u t f o rwa rd i nr e la t ion t o t h e s i t ing o f t h e l e g iona ry b a se a t C äce re s e lV ie jo . SU MMARY T he r e -exam ina t ion o fP o lyb iu s ' t e x t i si n tended t oa dd t o t h e e x ten s ive d eba te s u r round ing t h e p re c ise m ean ing o f t h e t e x t . a nd t h e r e -eva lua t ion o f t h e m a in b ody o f a r chaeo log ica l e v iden ce f o r R oman R epub l ican c amp s w h ich h a s s u r v ived , w i l l , i ti sh oped , o pen t h e w ay f o r f u r the r d e ta i led i n qu iry a nd w i l l f u r the r h igh l igh t t h e c on tr ibu t ion o f t h e a rmy o f t h e R epub l ic t o t h a t o f t h e Emp ir e .

a nd

c omp rehen s ive f i e ld -survey i ti sn o t p o s s ib le t oc ommen t i n a ny g r ea t d e ta i l o n t h e d ef en ce s o f t h e c amp s u nde r s t udy n o ru pon t h e ir a r ea . ' S ome d oub th a sb een e xp re s sed o ve rt h e m ea su remen ts g i ven b yS chu l t en ( Kepp ie , i nl i t t .) 3

I NTRODUCT ION NOTES 1 T he b eg inn ing o ft h e c ampa ign s e a son w a s c hanged

w e re l a te r l o s to rd e s t royed i nw a r t ime o r r ema in i n

f r om Ma r ch t oJ anuary i n 1 53 B .C . i np repa ra t ion f o r t h e C e l t ibe r ian w a r i no rde r t oa vo id t o o s hor t a

p r iva t e h and s ( Tr i l lm ich p e r s .comm .) . H oweve r , w h i ls t Iw a s i n Mad r id , o ne d ay -book c on cerned w i th t h e e xcava t ion o f Numan t ia i t s e lf a r r ived f r om B e r l in . T h is d ay -book m en t ion s v i s i t s t ot h e s i te so f

c ampa ign ing s e a son . T he 1 s t . o fJ anuary t h e reaf t e r b ecame t h e f i xed d a te ( S cu l la rd 1 981 ,52 ) .

t h e R oman s i ege -camp s a nd R en ieb la s . I tc on ta in s b a s ic n o te s a nd s ke tche s o fw o rk u nder taken d ur ing t h e c ou r se o f 1 905 1906 b u t t h e r e i sl i t t le w h ich i s r e ad i ly i n t e l l ig ib le . F i e ld -wo rk a tR en ieb la sa nd t h e

2 Ac a se i n p o in t i st h e c amp a t Mauchamp w h ich , a l though a t tr ibu ted t o C ae sa r b y N apo leon I I a nd G ren ie r e t a t , h a s c l av icu la w h ich , e l sewhe r e , a ppea r t ob e u nknown u n t i l t h e F l av ian p er iod .

s i ege camp o f P ef ia R edonda w a s c onduc ted b y t h e p r e sen t a u tho r o ve r t h e c ou r se o ft h ree w eek s u s ing

3 S t rabo a ccu sed t h e I b er ian s o fb e ing u nab le t oc ome

3 0m . tape sa nd s ur veyo r 's s t ake sa nd 3 m . h and tape s .

t o ge the r t o f o rm w o rkab le a l l ian ce s a nd t o b e c on s tan t ly i nvo lved i n i n te r t r iba l d i spu te s ( S t rabo

8 S ome d i scu s s ion o f t h e d ef en ce s o fR epub l ican c amp s i sf ound i nJ one s ( 1975 ,8 12 ) .

1 1 ,4 ,5 ) . A pp ian g ive s s ome i n s tan ce s o f o cca s ion s w hen a ny r eve r sa l i n R oman f o r tune s o r p e r ce ived w eakne s s i nR oman t r oop n umbe r s w ou ld l e ad t oa n a bandonmen t o n t h e p ar t o f R ome 's S pan ish a l l ie s . ( e .g . l ber ica V I 1 ,38 ; V 1 1 1 ,39 ; I X ,44 ;47 ; X ,58 ; X 1 1 ,73 ; XV 1 ,99 : ) . S er tor iu s w a s a b le t o mob i l ise a S pan ish a rmy i n o rde r t o f u r the r h i s r e be l l ion a ga in s t t h e o ff ic ia l R oman f o r ces i n t h e e a r ly f i r s t c en tur y B .C . a ppa ren t ly w i th l i t t le d i ff icu l ty ( P lu ta r ch L ive s S er tor iu s XV I ) .

9 S chu l t en r e co rded o n ly t h e e x t erna l d imen s ion s o f t h e r oom s i n t h e b a r ra ck s w h ich h e e xcava t ed . D u r ing t h e c ou r se o ft h is p re sen t w ork i ti sa lways t h e i n t e rna l d imen s ion s o f o ff i ce r s ' q ua r te r s o r c on tubern ia w h ich a r e b e ing r e f er r ed t o u n le s s o therw ise s t a ted . 1 0 Iu nde r s tand t h a t t h e w eapon f i nd s f r om t h e c amp s a r e t h e s ub jec t o f a n i n ten s ive s t udy c ur ren t ly b e ing c onduc ted b y Mar t in L u ik o f t h e R öm isch G e rman isch Z en t ra lmu seum , Ma inz .

4 T he w ork s o f P o lyb iu s a r e r e f er red t o o n s o m any o cca s ion s i n t h is w o rk , p a r t icu la r ly i n C hap t e r 1 , t h a t t h eg ene ra l p ref ix T he H i s tor ie s i s om i t ted f r om e a ch r e f e ren ce f o r r e a son s o f s pa ce . T he s ame a pp l ie st oA pp ian a nd h i sR oman H i s tory a l though i n A pp ian 's c a se e ach r e f e ren ce i s p ref ixed b y i t s g eog raph ica l s ubd iv is ion a bove .

e . g . l ber ica a s i n n .2

5 T h is o b serva t ion h a s n o ta lway s b een a pp rec ia ted b y m ode rn c ommen ta to r s . W i tne s s t h er e cen tc on fu s ion i nJ ohn son ( 1983 ,223 -4 ; F ig .171) w he re t h e a u thor h a s i n cor rec t ly i d en t if ied t h e p o s i t ion ing o f t h e p rae tor ium , q uae s tor ium , a nd f orum o f t h e m id second c en tu ry B .C . C amp I I a t R en ieb la s , a ppa ren t ly o n am is read ing o f t h e P o lyb ian c amp d e scr ip t ion . 6 I ti su sef u l t o a pp rec ia te h ow s uch i n terp re ta t ion s w e r e o r ig ina l ly f o rmu la ted . S chu l ten 's i n te r im r e po r t so n t h ee xcava t ion s o fC amp I I a tR en ieb la s , c omp i led d u r ing t h e e a r ly 1 900 's , w e r e e xam in ed c r i t ica l ly . I t w a s d i scove red t h a t o n n ume rou s o cca s ion s t h ee v idence p rov ided b y a r chaeo logy w a s m ade s ub serv ien t t o ap i c tu r e w h ich w ou ld f i t c omfor tab ly w i th P o lyb iu s ' d e scr ip t ion o f aR oman c amp o r w i th t h e p e r ce ived h i s to r ica l r e co rd . 7 T he m a jo r s e t o f p l an s u sed w e re f r om S chu l ten 1 927 B and I ( P lan 1-P l an XLV I I ) a nd 1 929 B and I V ( P lan I P lan XXX I I I ) a nd f r om o t he r w o rk s o f S chu l ten r e f e r red t oi nt h e t e x t . T he d ay -book s f r om S chu l ten 's e xcava t ion s w e re n o t a va i lab le f o r i n spec t ion ; t h ey w e r e r emoved t oB e r l in w he re t h ey 4

P ART I : CHAPTER 1

POLYB ILS ' DESCR IPT ION OF A RO MAN ARMY CA MP I NTRODUCT ION : The b ackg round t ot he d eba te . Af our leg ion o r at wo leg ion c amp? I tm igh tr e a sonab ly b ee xpec ted t h a tt h ed e ta i led a ccoun to f aR oman t e n t ed c amp w h ich P o lyb iu sp rov ided i nB ook V I o f T he H i s tor ie s * wou ld p re sen t u s w i th a c l ea r u nde r s tand ing o ft h e f o rm a nd l a you to f aR oman l e g iona ry

S ome o ft h e e xp lana t ion s p u t f o rwa rd h ave b een d i scu s sed i nd e ta i l b y F abr ic iu s( 1932 ,78 -82 ) . T he se e xp lana t ion sa r e c en t red l a rge ly o n t h e s eman t ic s o f P o lyb iu s ' f i na l w o rd s i nC h .32 . F abr ic iu s h im se lf w a s f i rm ly o ft h e o p in ion t h a t

c amp f o r t wo l e g ion s f o rt h ep e r iod a round t h em id second c en tu ry B .C . P o lyb ius ' i n t roduc t ion t oh i s d e scr ip t ion o f

P o lyb iu s w a s i n capab le o f m ys t ify ing h i s r e ade r sh ip a nd t h a t t h e :

t h e c amp w ou ld s e em t o i n d ica te t h a t t h is i si n deed t h e c a se :

. . w ea l th o f d e ta i ls r e f er r ing t o t h e w ho le , m ake i t c l ea r t h a t a n o rd ina ry t wo leg ion c amp i sm ean t . ( i b id . ,83 ) .

. . the t r ibun e s t a ke b o th t h e R oman s a nd t h e a l l ie s a nd p i tch t h e i rc amp , o ne s imp le p l an o fc amp b e ing a dop ted a ta l t imes a nd a ta l l p l a ce s .

F abr ic iu s f a vou red a l a te r a dd i t ion t ot h e o r ig ina l t e x t o f C h . 3 2 w h ich o wed n o th ing t oP o lyb iu s ' a u tho r sh ip .

( Po l .V I, 2 6, 1 0 ) . ' U n f o r tuna te ly i th a s l ong b een r e cogn i sed t h a t t h e r e a r e

A m a jo r , a l though o f ten o ve r looked c on t r ibu t ion t o t h e d eba te w a s f r om t h e G e rman s cho la r O xe w ho c ame t ot h e c onc lu s ion t h a t P o lyb iu sh ad b rough tt o ge the r d e ta i l s f r om

m a jo r d i ff i cu l t ie s w i th P o lyb iu s ' d e scr ip t ion . F abr ic iu s ( 1 932 ,78 -87 ) d r ew a t ten t ion t o a n a ppa ren t ly a mb iguou s p a s sage w h ich o ccu r s n ea rt h e e nd o fP o lyb iu s ' a ccoun t o f t h e c amp . T h is p a s sage a ppea r s t oo f f e r av a r ian t o n t h e c amp p l an w h ich w a sd e ta i led . T he m a in d e scr ip t ion w h ich i sg i ven b y P o lyb iu s ( V I ,26 -31) a ppea r st od e scr ibe ac amp f o r as i ng le c on su l a nd h i s a rmy o f t wo R oman l e g ion s

t h r ee t y pe s o f c amp e a ch o f w h ich h ad ad i f f e ren t l a you t d epend ing u pon t h e f o r ce s i t w a s t o c on ta in o r t h e c i r cum s tan ce s u nde r wh ich i tw a s t ob e c on s truc ted ( Oxe 1 938 ,47 -74 ) . O xe b e l ieved t h a t h e c ou ld d e tec t t h e r e a son ing b eh ind t h e se d i f f e r en tc amp l a you t sa nd h es t y led t h em T ype s I-H I .

p l u s a l l ie s i nw h ich t h e l e g ion s a r e c amped t oo ne s i de o f t h e a dm in i s t ra t ive a nd s e rv ice r a nge c on s is t ing o f t h e p rae tor ium , q uae s tor ium a nd f orum ( t he a r ea l a te r k nown

T ype I ,O xe s ugge s ted , w a s t h e mob i l isa t ion -camp f o r a s i ng le c on su la r a rmy o ft wo l e g ion s -ac amp s e t u p f o r a

i nf o r t re sse s o ft h e Emp ire a s t h e l a tera p rae tor i i ) . I nt h e c hap te r w h ich f o l low s t h is d e scr ip t ion ( Po l .V I ,32 ) , P o lyb iu s c on c lude s h i s a ccoun t o ft h e c amp p l an w i th t h e

f u l l l e g iona ry a rmy a s i tc ome s t o ge the r f o r t h e f i r s t t ime ( F ig .1 .1) .

c hange s t h a t t h is p lan h a s t o u nde rgo w hen a g rea t e r n umbe r o f a l ie s w ere t o b e a ccommoda ted o r w hen t wo c on su ls w i th t h e ir c omb ined a rm ie s ( i .e f ou r l e g ion s p lu s a l ie s ) w e r e c amped t o ge ther . I n t h e f i na l p a s sages o f C h .32 P o lyb iu s s t a te s t h a t t h e d e ta i led d e s cr ip t ion o f t h e c amp w h ich h e h a s g iven c an b e u s ed i n a n i mag ina t ive

T ype I w a s t h e mob i l isa t ion -camp f o r t wo c on su ls w i th t h e ir c omb ined a rm ie s o f f ou r l e g ion s ( t h is w ou ld c on s is t o f t wo c amp s o fT ype Ij o ined t o ge the r b a ck t ob a ck ; s e e F ig .1 . 2 ) .

r e con s t ruc t ion o f af ou r leg ion c amp b y i mag in ing t wo c amp s , s im i la r t ot h e o ne w h ich h e h a s d e scr ibed , p l aced b a ck t o b a ck . H e t h en s t a te s t h a t i nt h e c amp o f as i ng le c on su la r a rmy o f o n ly t wo l e g ion s t h e p l an r ema in s

T ype I I w a s t h e m a r ch ing , o r w a r -camp f o r as i ng le c on su la r a rmy o ft wo l e g ion s , d i f f er ing o n ly f r om T ype I i n i t s s i t ing o f t h e p rae tor ium , q uae s tor ium a nd f orum ( F ig .1 .3 ) .

u n changed e x cep t f o r t h e p rae tor ium , q uae s tor ium a nd f orum w h ich a r e p la ced b e tween t h e l e g ion s i n s tead o f t o o ne s i de o ft h em . '

p u rpo ses i s at wo leg ion c amp i n h i s m a in a c coun t , P o lyb iu s i n fo rm s h i s r e ader sh ip t h a t i nf a c t t h e l a you to fa

S i gn if ican t ly , O xe s aw ac l ea r d i s t inc t ion b e tween c amp s e r ec ted i nt h e f i e ld a nd t h o se e r ec ted a s mob i l isa t ion c amp s w hen t h e l e v ie s w e re d rawn t o ge the rf o rt h e f i r s t t ime -f o r ag r ea t d ea l o f t h e e a r ly R epub l ican p e r iod t h e l e g ion s w e r e d i sbanded a t t h e e nd o f e ach c ampa ign a nd w e r e d rawn u p w i th n ew r e cru i t s o n t h e e ve o f t h e f o l low ing

t wo leg ion c amp i s d i f f e ren t i n o ne f undamen ta l a spec t f r om t h e d e s c r ip t ion w h ich h e h ad g i ven .

c ampa ign s e a son . O xe w en t o n t o s ugge s t t h a t P o lyb iu s p r e s en t s u s w i th ak i nd o fi d ea l ised c amp f o r t wo l e g ion s ;

T h is s omewha tc onfu s ing d escr ip t ion o f aR oman c amp h a s

ac amp w h ich w ou ld n eve r h ave b een c on s truc ted o n c ampa ign b u t w h ich u sef u l ly i lu s t ra ted t h e n o t ion o f a R oman c amp , t h e s a l ien t f e a tu re s o f w h ich h e w an ted t o

T hu s , h av ing c l ea r ly d e scr ibed w ha t t o a l l i n ten t s a nd

g i ven r i se t o a n e x ten s ive l i t e ra tu r e a nd m any h ave

b r ing t ot h e a t ten t ion o fh i s G reek r e ade r sh ip :

a temp ted t oe xp la in t h e r e a son w hy P o lyb ius s hou ld h ave p r e sen ted w ha t a ppea r s t ob e af l awed a ccoun t .

D ie P o lyb ian i sche L age rbe schre ibung i s tz war e i ne z u sammenhängende , a bgerunde te D ar s te l lung , b i lde t a be r n i ch t e i n g anz s e lb s tänd ige s K ap i te lf ür s i ch . ( Oxe 1 938 ,62 -3 ) .4

* The L oeb t r an s la t ion o ft h e R oman m i l i tar y s y s tem g i ven b y P o lyb iu s i nB ook V I w i l l b e f o und i nt h e A ppend ix . ' 5

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6

POLYB IUS ' DESCR IPT ION OF A ROMAN ARMY C A MP

F i g .1 .2 S ugge s ted moh i l isa t ion -camp f o r ad oub le c on su la r a rmy o f f o u r l e g ion s ( af t e r 0 ) (6 1 938 , A bb . 3 )

7

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S ugge s ted ma rch ing , o r w a r -camp , f o r as i ng le c on su la r a rmy o f t wo l e g ion s ( a f te r O xe 1 938 , T af 2 2 ) 8

POLYB IUS ' DESCR IPT ION OF A ROMAN ARMY C A MP H owever , f o r r e a son s wh ich w i l l b ecome a ppa ren t , t h e p r e sen t a u tho r b e l ieves t h a t P o lyb iu s a dhe red t o t h e

e x is ted b e tween t h e se t wo t ype s o f c amp .' P o lyb iu s , c er ta in ly a tt h eo u t se t , b e l ieve st h a th ei sg iv ing a na c coun t o f aR oman c amp f o r t wo l e g ion s a sf ound i nt h e f i e ld a nd

d e scr ip t ion o fo n ly o ne v ery s pec if ic t y pe o fc amp a nd w a s n o td raw ing u pon s evera l d i f f e r en t t y pe s . T he c amp w h ich

t h a t h e i su nawa re t h a t t h e re c ou ld b e a ny v a r ia t ion s . H e

P o lyb iu s d es cr ibed i nd e ta i l w ou ld a g ree i ni t s f o rm w i th

c er ta in ly s e em s t o i mp ly t h a t t h is i st h e c a se w hen h e i s a bou t t oe mba rk u pon t h e c amp d e scr ip t ion a t V I .26 ,10 . B y t h e t ime h e r e a che s t h em idd le o fC hap te r 3 2 i ti sc l ea r

T ype Io fO xe 's t y po logy a l though P o lyb iu s p re sen t s i ta s an orma l a nd u n chang ing c amp t y pe . '

t h a t s ome th ing h a s g one w rong b u t w hy a nd h ow? O xe d eser ve s r e spec t f o r b r ing ing t o o u r a t ten t ion t h e i mpor tan t d i s t in c t ion b e tween a mob i l isa t ion -camp a nd a m a rch ing , o r f i e ld camp f o r t h is i sn o t j u s t am a t te r o f

T he mo s t a t t rac t ive s o lu t ion w h ich h a s e merged i st h a t

s eman t ics . I t i s t h e d i f f e ren t ia t ion b e tween a m ob i l isa t ion -camp a nd a m a r ch ing -camp w h ich i so n e o f t h e m a jo r p r in c ip le s u pon w h ich t h is p r e sen t c hap te r i s

d oub le c on su la r a rmy . T he p o in t i sp u t w e l l b y F ra cca ro :

P o lyb iu s w a s d e scr ib ing , n o t a n i n dependen t t wo leg ion c amp , b u t o ne h a lf o f af ou r leg ion c amp f o r au n i ted

b a sed . Id i f f e rh owever f r om O xe b y s ugge s t ing t h a t t h e r e

c ampo m inu tamen te d e scr i t to d a P o l ib io n on Eu n c ampo a u tonomo , p er che p rae tor ium ,quae s tor ium e

w a s mor e t h an j u s t t h e b a s ic mu s ter ing r o le w h ich h e c ha rac ter i sed a sb e ing t h e s o le r e a son f o r t h e e r ec t ion o f m ob i l isa t ion camp s .

f orum n on s ono f ra l e t r uppe , m a v e r so l a p ar te p o s te r iore d e l c ampo . . . . R ia s sun to -L af orma t i p ica d e l l 'accampamen to r omano e ra q ue l la d e lc ampo d id ue e s er c i t i c on so lar i ; p erc iö P o l ib io h a d e sc r i t to m inu tamen te q ue s ta f orma en on q ue l la d e lc ampo d iu n

F o r b o th t y p e so f mob i l isa t ion -camp s w h ich O xe c l a im st o i d en t ify f r om P o lyb iu s ( Type s Ia nd I ) , O xe s t a te s :

s o lo e s er c i to c on so lare . M i td em A b sch luß d er Mob i lmachung h a t te d er L age r typ I( u nd I ) s e inen Zweck e r f ü l l t .

( F ra cca ro 1 934 ,161 ) . '

( 1938 ,66 ) .

T h i s t h eory h a s w on a g rea t d ea l o f a c cep tan ce i nr e cen t y ea r s . ' T he i d ea t h a t P o lyb iu s h ad d e scr ibed o n ly o ne h a lf o f af ou r leg ion c amp w a s n o t an ew o ne . O xe h ad s a id much t h e s ame t h ing p r ev iou s ly i n h i s d i scu s s ion o f t h e l a you t o ft h e f o r t r e s s a tN eus s ( 1909 ,78 -83 ) s ome t wen ty y ea r s b efo r e h e w a s t o p ub l ish h i s much mo r e d e ta i led i n ve s t iga t ion i n to t h e P o lyb ian c amp p l an ; t h ei d ea h ad a l so

A ccord ing t oO xe , o nce t h e mob i l isa t ion w a s c omp le ted , t h e a rmy w ou ld n eve ra ga in a dop tt h ec amp l a you tp u ti n to p r ac t ice a tt h e m ob i l isa t ion b u t w ou ld s ub sequen t ly a dop t t h e f o rm o fc amp s u i ted t oo pe ra t ion s i nh os t i le t e r r i tory w i th t h e g en e ra l 's t e n t -t h e p rae tor ium - i n a mo r e p ro tec ted a nd c en t ra lp o s i t ion w i th in t h ec amp ( h is T ype I I f o r as i ng le c on su la ra rmy ) . T h is i si n gen iou s b u t t h i s i d ea i sp erhap s n o t f u l ly e xp lo red a nd p rovoke s o n ly f u r the r q ue s t ion s . O xe , d oe s n o t c on s ide r t h e s c ena r io w h ich

b een v i go rou s ly p u r sued b y S to l le ( 1912 ,52 -68 ; n o t e e spec ia l ly t h e p a s sage s o n p age 5 3 ) . T he we o f as ource b y P o lyb iu s a nd h ow t ha t s ou rce

w ou ld b e p r e sen ted w hen t wo c on su la r a rm ie s o f f ou r l e g ion sw en to nc ampa ign t oge the ro rc omb ined i nt h ef i e ld a s au n i ted f o r ce ; w ou ld t h ey a l so c amp i n af o rma t ion o n ap a r w i th a w a r f oo t ing? S econd ly , w ou ld t h e R oman s h ave i n s t ru c t ed t h e t r oop s ( i n c lud ing r e cru i t s i f a t a

w a s emp loyed I ti sw i th P o lyb iu s ' s ou r ce a nd h i s a ppa ren t m i scon cep t ion a bou t t h e t y pe o f c amp o f w h ich h e w a s w r i t ing w he re f u r the r p rogr e s s m ay b e a ch ieved . I tw a s F ra cca ro w ho f i r s t s ugge s ted t h a t P o lyb iu s mu s t h ave r e l ied f o r h i s d e s cr ip t ion o f t h e c amp o n aw r i t ten s ou r ce , p robab ly a v ad e -mecum , i nt h is c a se ak ind o fi n s truc t iona l h andbook w h ich c on ta ined t h e d e ta i ls o fh ow t o l a y o u t ac amp o n t h e g round ( 1934 ,158 ) . T h is t h eme w a s f o l lowed b y R aw son ( 1971) w ho d emon s t ra ted t h a t v i r tua l ly a l o f P o lyb iu s ' a ccoun t o f t h e R oman a rmy , f r om t h a t o f t h e l e vy t ot h e c amp p l an , w a s t a k en f r om as ou r ce p r eda t ing

m ob i l isa t ion camp ) t o e r ec t ac amp w h ich w ou ld n o t r e p l ica t e t h a t e r ec ted i n t h e f i e ld? I tw ou ld s e em t ob e a w a s tefu l a nd a nu nnece s sa ry s t ep t oi n i t ia te t r a in ing i nt h is o pe ra t ion i f ad i f f e ren t l a you t w a s t o b e e mp loyed a ta l l o t he r t ime s . A mo re p ragma t ic a pp roa ch w ou ld h ave b een t ou se t h eo ppor tun i ty p rov ided b y t h e mob i l isa t ion t oe r ec t ac amp e xa c t ly a s i tw ou ld a ppea r s ub sequen t ly i n t h e f i e ld . T h i rd ly , w hy s hou ld P o lyb iu s h ave c ho sen t o i lu s t ra te t h e R oman c amp w i th a n e xamp le w h ich w a s n o t

P o lyb iu s ' o wn t ime .

r e pre sen ta t ive a nd w h ich n ece s s i ta ted t h e a wkwa rd a dd i t ion s a tt h e e nd o f h i s a ccoun t ? O xe l a te r n o t ed t h a t P o lyb ius d i d n o t s e e f i t t o d i scu s s i n a ny d e ta i l t h e d i f f e rence b e tween a mob i l isa t ion -camp a nd a m a r ch ing camp :

T he f a c t t h a t h e ( Po lyb iu s ) c ome s t ot h e l e vy ing o ft h e c ava lry o n ly a f t e rt h a to ft h ei n f an t ry , a nd t h en c o r re c t s h im se lf t o s ay t h a t i n r e a l i ty i ti sn ow l e v ied f i r s t , make s i tc l ea r t h a t h e i sf o l low ing s uch as ou r ce . ( Raw son 1 971 ,14 ) .

P o l yb iu se r k lär ts e inen L e sern n i ch td en v e r sch iedenen C hara k t e rd er b e iden r öm i schen L ager typen Iu nd I I . ( Oxe 1 938 ,68 ) .

R aw son p rov ided f u r the r c ommen t o n t h e l i ke ly n a tu re o f t h e s ou r ce . S he d emon s t ra ted t h a t i ta ppea red t oh ave b een c omp i led s pec if i ca l ly f o r t h e b enef i t o f m i l i tar y t r ibun e s ( i b id . ,14 15 ) . T he t r ibune s w e re t h e s en io r o f f ice r s o ft h e l e g ion a n swe rab le o n ly t ot h e c on su l a nd P o lyb iu s t e l ls u s

T h is s u r e ly w ou ld h ave b een a g l ar ing om is s ion , h ad P o lyb iu s b e en a wa re o f t h e n uance s w h ich m igh t h ave 9

P ART

CHAPTER 1

t h a t t h e re w e re s i x t r ibune st oe a ch l e g ion ( Po l .V 1 ,19 ,8 -9 ) .

f r om t h e p aper s o f af r iend 's g r andf a the r . ( Raw son 1 97 1 ,15 ) .

R aw son n o ted t h a t : P o lyb iu s , f r om t h e a ccoun t o f t h e l e vy t o t h a t o f t h e

R aw son d oe sn o te l abo ra te o nt h is p o in tb u tt h ei mp l ica t ion

c amp , s t ick s , w i th c e r ta in d igre s s ion s , t ot h e a c t iv i t ie s o ft h em i l i tary t r ibune s , e ven t ot h e e x ten to fg iv ing a n u nba lan ced p i c tu re b y a lmos t w ho l ly om i t t ing t h e p ar t o ft h ec on su l o n t h e o ne h and a nd t h e c en tur ion s o n t h e

i sc l ea r . S he b e l ieved t h a t P o lyb iu s h ad a cce s s t o as ou r ce wh ich h ad p robab ly b een o b ta in ed f o r h im b y S c ip io

o t he r . I tl o ok s t h eref or e a si fP o lyb iu s h a s g o t h o ld o f

t h an a s ou r ce w h ich d a ted f r om m u ch e a r l ie r a nd w h ich m ay h ave f o rmed p a r to ft h ep ape r so fS c ip io 's g randf a the r

A em i l ianu s a nd w h ich d a ted t o ap e r iod n o t l o ng b efo re P o lyb iu s w ro te B ook V I -a round 1 55 150 B .C . -r a ther

s ome c ommen tar i i o fm i l i tary t r ibun es . T hey , l i ke a l l o t he r m ag is t ra tes , mu s t h ave h ad s uch t h ing s .

S c ip io A f r icanus ." I nf a c t t h ere a r e s ome i nd ica t ion s t h a t w ou ld s ugge s t t h a t P o lyb iu s ' s ou r ce w a s mo re l i ke ly t o

P r eme r s te in a rgue s t h a t i ti s am is take t or ega rd t h em a sg ene ra lI n s t ruc t ionbüche r : r a the ra r et h ey r e co rd so f , o r d i r ec t ion s f o r as i ng le e ven t . ' I ft h is i ss o , i n t h is

h ave b een w r i t ten mo re t h an t wen ty y ea r s o r s o b efo r e i t c ame i n to h i s h and s .

c a se a t l e a s t , s ome o f t h e c on t rad ic t ion s , b o th w i th P o lyb iu s h im se lf a nd w i th o the r s ou r ce s c an b e e xp la ined ; P o lyb iu s n o to n ly h a s t ob r ing h i s s ou r ce u p

T he re d o e s a ppea r t o b e t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o f e s tab l ish ing a t e rm inu s p o s t q uem f o r P o lyb iu s ' s ou r ce . P o lyb iu s m en t ion s t h a t a f te r t h e e n ro lmen t h ad b een c omp le ted i t w a s t h e t r ibune s w ho a dm in is te r ed t h e o a th o f a leg ian ce

t od a te , b u t t h e c ou r se o fe ven t s i tr e co rd s m ay b e a n u nu sua l o ne .

( Po l .V 1 ,2 1 ,I-3 ) . A cco rd ing t oL ivy t h i so a th w a s f o rme r ly

( Raw son 1 971 ,14 15 ) .

v o lun tar y a nd o n ly c ame t ob e o ve r s een b y t h e t r ibune s i n 2 16 ( L ivy XX 1 1 ,38 ) . O n t h e m a t t e r o f t h e l e vy i t se lf ;

T h is w ou ld a ppea r t o b e s o . T he r o le o f t h e t r ibune s i sa c on s tan t t h eme t h roughou t P o lyb iu s ' a ccoun to ft h er a is ing

P o lyb iu s c a ta logue s t h e r a is ing o f f o u r l e g ion s a tR ome w h ich w e re t o p rov ide t h e a rm ie s f o r t wo c on su ls ( Po l .V 1 ,19 -20 ) . T h is h a s a t t rac ted c r i t ic ism f r om B run t

o f t h e a rmy a nd o fi t s d u t ie s i nt h e f i e ld . F o r i n s tan ce w e a r e t o ld t h a t :

( 1971 , A ppend ix 1 9 ,625 )a nd Wa lbank ( 1957 ,699 )w ho a r e o f t h e o p in ion t h a t t h e r a is ing o f f ou r l e g ion s

When t h e a rmy o n t h e m a r ch i s n ea r t h e p l a ce o f e ncampmen t , o ne o f t h e t r ibune s a nd t h o se c en tur ion s w ho a r e s pec ia l ly c ha rged w i th t h is d u ty g o o n i n a dvan ce , a nd s urvey t h e w ho le g round o n w h ich t h e c amp i st oh e f o rmed .

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e x t r eme ly u n l ike ly a t ad a te a s l a t e a st h e m idd le o f t h e s e cond c en tu ry B .C . T h is a rgumen t h a s s ome m e r i t a nd i t m ay h ave b een t h a t a ny l e vy o n t h eC ap i to l may o n ly h ave e n compa s sed t ho se r e cru i ted f r om R ome a nd t h e r e s to ft h e a ger R omanu s . A l terna t ive ly t h e l e vy m ay h ave b een c onduc ted a tt h e C ampu s Mar t iu sd u r ing P o lyb iu s ' d ay ( a s i tw a s i n t h e l a te R epub l ic ) w i th s ome v es t ige o f t h e

( Po l .V I ,4 1 ,1-2 ) . I fw e t a ke n o te t h a t i ti s t h e t r ibune s w ho a r e s a id t o s uper v ise t h e e r ec t ion o f t h e d ef ence s a nd a l o the r w o rk c onnec ted w i th t h ec on s truc t ion o ft h ec amp ( Po l .V 1 ,34 ,3 ) , t h en w e m igh t b e l ieve , w i th R aw son a nd F ra cca ro , t h a t P o lyb iu s h a s b a sed h i s c hap te r s o n t h e R oman a rmy o n

c e remony s t i l l t a k ing p l a ce o n t h e C ap i to l» T h is p rob lem w ou ld a ppea r t ob e i n so lub le . H ow eve r , i fP o lyb iu s w e re m e r e ly t r an sc r ib ing h i ss ou r ce t h en i ti si n deed f ou rl e g ion s

s on ic t r ibune s 'c ommen tar i i w h ich w ere o r ig ina l ly i n tended

w h ich a r e b e ing r a ised . I ti sp e rhap s n o t w he re b u t w hy f ou r l e g ion sw ere b e ing r a ised a nd w he the ri tw a s i n tended t h a tt h ey s hou ld f o rm au n i ted d oub le c on su la ra rmy w h ich i st h e m o r e p rom is ing l i ne o fe nqu ir y .

t o a c t a s ag u ide t o m i l i ta ry t r ibune s i n t h e c or rec t a dm in is t ra t ion o ft h e ir d u t ie s . I tw ou ld a ppea r t h a t P o lyb iu s t r an scr ibed much m a ter ia l f r om t h e se c ommen tar i i , s upp lemen t ing i tw i th h i s o wn k now ledge , a nd w e h ave a l r eady n o ted t h a t i nt h e s e c t ion

F ou r l e g ion s w a s c er ta in ly t h e t o ta l r e qu ired f o r t wo c on su ls o nc ampa ign a nd t h ese l e g ion s w ou ld t h eo r e t ica l ly b e r a ised e a ch s pr ing . B y t h e t ime t h a t P o lyb iu s w a s

o n t h e l e vy ing h e d oe sj u s t t h is , c or rec t ing t h e o ld s ou r ce i n o rde r t o r ef lec t t h e p ra c t ice s o f h i s o wn t ime . I fh e a dop ted t h e s ame p ro cedu r e f o r h i s d e sc r ip t ion o f ac amp t h en P o lyb iu s w i l l h ave t r an scr ibed t h e d e ta i ls o f a h a lf -camp f o r af ou r leg ion a rmy . T he p a s sage sa tt h e e nd

w r i t ing h owever i th ad b ecome c ommonp la ce f o r s on ic o f t h e c on su la r a rm ie s t o s pend t h e w in te r a b road i n a w in te r -camp ( h iberna ) .1 3 P o lyb iu s h im se lf r e por t s t h a t H o s t i l iu s w i th as i ng le c on su la r a rmy w in te red i nT he s sa ly i n 1 70 ( Po l .XXV I I 1 ,3 ,1) a nd A pp ian s t a t e s t h a t t h eC on su l N ob i l io r c on s truc ted a w in te r -camp i n t h e r e g ion o f

o f C 1 1 .32 o n t h e c amp ing a r rangemen t s m ay b e a n a me l io ra t ion o f t h e s ame k i nd a s t h a t f ound a tt h e e nd o f t h e a c coun t o f t h e l e vy . We a r e l e f t w i th t h e p rob lem o f

N uman t ia i nS pa in i n 1 53 B .C . ( App ian l b er ica I X ,47 ) . I t i sc l ea r t h a t e xcep t f o r e x t reme c i r cum s tances i tw ou ld

t r y ing t oe s tab l ish h ow o u tda ted t h e c ommen tar i i w e re a t t h e t i me w hen P o lyb ius w a s w r i t ing . ' " R aw son o n t h e d a t ing o f P o lyb iu s ' s ou rce , s t a te s :

o f ten b e n ece s sary o n ly t o r e info r ce e x is t ing c on su la r l e g ion s w h ich w e re a l r eady i n -p lace w i th s upp lemen ta .

l ti s u n l ike ly t h a t t h e c ommen tar i i w er e mo re t h an t wen ty , a tt h e a b so lu te o u t s ide mo re t h an f i f ty , y ea r s

T he f r equen cy w i th w h ich s upp lemen ta a r e r e co rded

o l d ; P o lyb iu s p robab ly g o t t h em f r om af r iend , n o t

l e g ion s w ere c ommon ly k ep t u p t of u l l s t reng th . ( B run t 1 97 1 ,4 17 ) .

b e tween 2 00 a nd

1 0

1 68 s ugges t s t h a t i n t h ose y ea r s

POLYB IUS ' DESCR IPT ION OF A ROMAN A RMY C AMP I ti ss t rang e t h a tP o lyb iu ss hou ld p rov ide a na c coun to ft h e p e rhap s e xcep t iona l c i r cum s tan ce o f f o u r l e g ion s f o r c on su la r u s e b e ing r a ised t o ge the r f r om s c ra t ch . I s P o lyb iu s t r y ing t op re sen t ap i c tu r e o f at h eo r e t ica l l e vy ? H i s c or rec t ion o f t h e o rde r o f t h e l e vy ing o f t h e c ava lry s h ow s u s t h a t t h i s i s n o t l i ke ly t o b e t h e c a se . H e h a s c ho sen t oi lu s t r a t e t h e l e vy b y t r an s cr ib ing h i s s ou r ce a nd i tg i ves at o t a l o ff ou r l e g ion s b e ing r a i s ed . S uch al a rge s c a le mob i l i s a t ion o ff o r ce sm igh tn o th ave b een c on s ide r ed u nu sua l d u r ing p e r iod s o fi n t en se m i l i ta r y p r e s su r e o n t h e R epub l ic , e i t he r d ur ing t h e S econd P un ic Wa r o r , o n o c ca s ion , d u r ing t h e t h ir ty y ea r s o r s o f o l low ing t h e c u lm ina t ion o ft h a t w a r d own t ot h e t r iumph o fP au l lu s i n M a cedon i n 1 6 8 . R ome w a s n o t t h e r eaf t e r e ngaged i n s e r iou s w a r f a r e u n t i l 1 53 .

t h e c ampa ign o f 1 80 L i vy w r i te s : T he t wo c on su l s l e d t h e i r a rm ie s a ga in s t t h e L igu r ian s f r om d i f f e r en t d i r ec t ion s . ( L ivy XL ,4 1 ,1) . L ivy p rov ide s l e s s d e ta i l a bou t t h e c ampa ign o f 1 82 h u t P lu ta r ch i nh i s b i og r aphy o f A em i l iu s t e l l s o f t h e c on su l e ngaged a ga in s t t h e L igu r ian s w i th w ha t w a s c l ea r ly o n ly as i ng le c on su la r a rmy ( P lu t . A em i l iu s 6 , 1-3 ) . A l though t h e f o u rl e g ion s w h ich L ivy r e por t s a sb e ing r a i sed f o rt h e y ea r 1 82 m ay n o t h ave b een a ma lgam a t ed i n to ad oub le c on su la ra rmy t h ey w e r e e v iden t ly l e v ied d ur ing at i me o f g r ave d ange r : Q u in tu s F ab iu s h ad w r i t t en f r om t h e L igu r ian c oun t r y t h a tt h eA puan iw e r em ed i ta t ing r e be l l ion a nd t h a tt h e r e w a sd ange rt h a tt h ey w ou ld i n vade t h et e r r i tory o fP i sa . ( L ivy

I fL ivy , o n t h em a t te r o ft h eo a th , i st ob eb e l ieved t h en i t w ou ld a pp ea r t h a t t h e s ou r ce f r om w h ich P o lyb iu s h a s d r awn d a te s f r om b e tween 2 16 168 B .C ." I ft h e s ou r ce w a s c on cern ed w i th au n i t ed a rmy o ft wo c on su ls t h en i t m ay b e p o s s ib le t or ef ine t h e l a t t e re nd o ft h is d a t e r a nge . B rough ton ( 1 951) h a s d rawn t o ge the rm any o ft h es ou r ce s w h ich c ove r t h i s p er iod f o r h i s l i s t ing s o ft h e m ag is t ra t e s o f t h e R om an R epub l ic . T he o cca s ion s o n w h ich b o th c on su ls o p e ra ted i n t h e s ame p rov ince w e r e q u i t e n ume rou s . B e twe en 1 94 172 B .C . B rough ton m en t ion s n o l e s s t h an n i n e o cca s ion s w hen L igu r ia f e a tu r e s a s t h e p r ov in ce a s s igned t ob o th c on su l s .' Two o ft h e se o cca s ion s m u s t g en e r a t e ag r ea t d ea l o f i n t e r e s t , t h e s e a r e t h e y ea r s 1 8 2 a nd 1 8 0 B .C . I n t h e se y ea r s , n o t o n ly w e r e b o th c on su ls p o s t ed t o t h e s ame p rov in ce o f L igu r ia , b u t w e h e a r f r om L i vy t h a t o n e a ch o cca s ion t wo n ew c on su la r a rm ie s w e r e r a i sed . L ivy i sv er y s p e c if ic a bou t t h e f o r ce s r a ised f o r t h e y ea r 1 82 ; h e w r i t e s :

T he l a ck o fc o r robo ra t ion i nt h e se t wo i n s tan ce s d o e s n o t s e r iou s ly w eak en t h e c a se f o r e i the r t h e r e a l o r i n t ended d ep loymen t o f u n i ted c on su la r a rm ie s i n t h e f i e ld . A d oub le c on su la ra rmy m igh tb e r a i sed f o r aj o in tc ampa ign i na n t ic ipa t ion o f t h e n e ed f o r s u ch as t rong f o r ce . L a te r c hange s i nc i r cum s tan ce m igh t a lway s a l t e r t h e se k i nd o f c on t ingen cy p l an s a nd ac e r ta in a moun to ff l ex ib i l i ty m u s t b e a s sumed . I tw ou ld h ave b een a dvan tageou s , c e r ta in ly d u r ing t h e H ann iba l ic Wa r a nd p e rhap s f o r s ome c ampa ign s t h e r eaf t e r , t h a t i n dependen t t wo l e g ion a rm ie s s hou ld h ave h ad t h e c apa c i ty t o l i nk w i th a no the r t wo l e g ion a rmy t oo pe ra t e a s aj o in t f o r ce .' T he l a s t p a s sage s o fP o lyb iu s V I C h .32 r e cogn i se d ef ac to t h a tb o th o p t ion s w ou ld b e a va i lab le t o t h e c on su ls w h i l s t P o lyb iu s 1 ,107 ,14 s t a te s i mp l ic i t ly t h a t t h i s i st h e c a s e .

. i t w a s d e t e rm ined t oe n l is t n ew a rm ie s , f ou r l e g ion s f o r s e rv i ce a ga in s t t h e L igu r ian s , e a ch t o c on s i s t o f 5 , 200 i n f an t ry a nd 3 00 c ava l ry , a nd , i na dd i t ion t h e r e to 1 5 ,000 i n f an t ry a nd 8 00 c ava lry o f t h e a l ie s o f t h e L a t in c on f ede ra cy . T he se w e r e t o b e t wo c on su la r a rm ie s . ( L ivy XL ,1 , 5 ) .1 6

We h ave s e en t h a t P o lyb iu s ' s ou r ce c ou ld w e l l h ave d a t ed f r om t h ee a r ly p a r to ft h e s e cond c en tu ry B .C . S u ch ad a t e w ou ld f a l l w i th in t h e r a nge i n i t ia l ly s ugge s t ed b y R aw son ( i .e . t h a t t h e c ommen tar i i w e r e b e tw een t w en ty a nd f i f t y y ea r s o l d w hen t h ey c ame i n to P o lyb iu s ' h and s ) . A l te rn a t ive ly t h ey c ou ld h ave d a t ed f r om al i t t le e a r l ie r , p e rhap s f r om t h e p er iod o f t h e H ann iba l ic Wa r w hen u n i t ed c on su la r a rm ie s t o ok t ot h e f i e ld i nt h e d ef en ce o f R ome ( Po 1 . 1 1 1 ,72 ,1112 ; 1 ,109 ,1 ; IX ,6 -7 ) . O nr e f le c t ion , R aw son s t a t ed m o r er e cen t ly : ' Id on ' tr e a l ly s e ea ny r e a son w hy s ome m emo r anda f o r m i l i ta ry t r ibun e s ( o r as p ec if i c m i l i ta ry t r ibun e ) s hou ld n o t h ave b een p rodu ced t owa rd s t h ee nd o ft h et h i rd c en tu ry B .C . ' ( Raw son , 1 988 , i nl i t t .) .

T he f i gu r e s q uo ted b y L ivy d o n o t c o r r e spond e xa c t ly t o t h o se o f P o lyb iu s b u t t h e c r uc ia l p o in t i st h a t w e a r e t o ld o f f ou r l e g ion s b e ing r a ised f o r t wo c on su la r a rm ie s a nd , e ven m o r e s i gn if ican t ly , t h a t t h ey w e r e a bou t t oe n te r t h e s ame t h ea t r e o fw a r .' We a r e p r e s en t ed w i th as im i la rs e t o fc i r cum s t an ce s f o r t h e y ea r 1 80 : A n e n t i r e n ew a rmy w a s d ec r eed t ot h e c on su l s , t wo R oman l e g ion s f o r e a ch , w i th t h e a pp rop r ia t e c ava lr y , a nd o f t h e a l ie s a sg r ea t an umbe r a sa lway s , 1 5 ,000 i n f an t ry a nd 8 00 c ava lry . W i th t h i s a rmy t h ey w e r e d i r ec t ed t om ake w a r u pon t h e L igu r ian A puan i . ( L ivyXL ,36 ,6 -7 ) .

A cco rd ing t oL ivy ( XL ,35 ,8 ) , 1 80 i st h e l a s ty ea rp r io r t o t h ed ef ea to fP e r seu s i nw h ich f o u rl e g ion s w e r e r a is ed f o r t wo c on su la ra rm ie sw h ich w e r et ob ee ngaged i nt h es ame p rov in ce .' I ti sp e rhap s n o ts u rp r is ing t h a ta tt h e t i me t h a t P o lyb iu s w a s w r i t ing h e s hou ld h ave f o rmed t h e o p in ion t h a t t h e d ep loymen t b y R ome o f au n i ted d oub le c on su la r a rmy w a s a n u n common e ven t . When a dd r e s s ing t h e s ub jec t o ft h e R oman a pp roa ch t oc ampa ign ing , P o lyb iu s w r i te s :

H oweve r , i nt h e s ub sequen ta c coun to ft h e f o r tun e so fb o th o f t h e se c ampa ign s t h e r e i s n o th ing t o s ugge s t i n t h e l i t e ra tu r e t h a t t h e re w a s e ve r a n o cca s ion w hen t h e t wo c on su la ra rm ie sw e r eu n i t ed ; r a the rt h er e ve r se i st r ue . F o r

Mo s to ft h e i r w a r sa r e d e c ided b y o n e c on su l , a na rmy 1

P ART I : CHAPTER I o ft wo l e g ion sa nd t h e n orma l q uo ta o fa l l ied t r oop s , s o t h a t i ti so n ly o n r a re o cca s ion s t h a t t h ey e mp loy a l l

c on tex t i n w h ich t h e c amp i sb e ing d e scr ibed . P o lyb ius

t h e ir f o r ce sa tt h e s ame momen t a nd i nt h e s ame b a t t le . ( Po 1 .1 1 1 ,107 ,14 ) .

t h e l e vy i nw h ich at o ta l o f f ou r l e g ion s a r e b e ing r a ised

b eg in s h i s a c coun t o ft h e R oman a rmy w i th ad ep ic t ion o f ( Po l .V I ,19 -20 ) . E a ch o f t h e t wo c on su ls i sa l lo t ted t wo l e g ion s ; t h en o rma l c omp lemen t f o r ac on su la ra rmy . A f ter g iv ing h i s a ccoun to ft h e l e vy ing o ff ou r l e g ion s , P o lyb ius

T ha t p a s sage o ccu r s w i th in P o lyb iu s ' a ccoun t o f t h e S e cond P un ic Wa r . H oweve r , i t w a s a lmo s t c er ta in ly

g oe s o n t od e scr ibe t h e d iv is ion i n to r ank s a nd t h ea rm ing o f t h e t r oop s . F o l low ing t h is w e a r e i n formed t h a t e ach

m ean tt or e f lec t R oman p ra c t ice a su nde r s tood b y P o lyb iu s i nh i s d ay a nd c an b e t a ken a sa n e xamp le o fa n i n se r t ion b y P o lyb iu si n to t h e n ar ra t ive w h ich w ou ld s e rve t oi n form

c on su l u sua l ly a ppo in t s as epa ra te r e ndezvou s f o r h i s own t r oop s a nd t h a t :

h i s r e ade r sh ip t h a t as i ng le c on su la ra rmy w a st h en orm f o r a ny R oman c ampa ign .

. .ea ch h a s r e ce ived h i s s ha re o f t h e a l l ie s a nd t wo R oman l e g ion s . . . ( Po l .V 1 ,26 ,3 ) .

2 1

l tr ema in s t o b e c on s ide red w ha t m igh t h ave o ccu r red i f P o lyb iu s ' s ou r ce h ad i n deed b een s omewha t o u t o f d a te a nd h ad b een c oncerned w i th w ha t w a s t h e much r a re r o ccu r r en ce b y t h e m id s e cond c en tu ry B .C . , t h a t o f a d oub le c on su la r a rmy o f f ou r l e g ion s r a ised f r om s c ra tch f o r a j o in t c ampa ign . I n s uch c i rcum s tan ce s i t i s

F o l low ing t h es t a temen ti nC h .26 t h a te a ch c on su ln o rma l ly a ppo in t s a s epa ra te r e ndezvou s f o r h i s own t r oop s , P o lyb iu s t h en b a ses t h e r ema inde ro fh i s c hap te r s , u p u n t i l C h .32 , a r ound as i ng le c on su la r a rmy o ft wo l e g ion s p lus a l l ie s . F rom t h e t e s t imony o f C h .26 w e c an d edu ce f r om

u nde r s tandab le w hy h e m igh t n o t h ave r e cogn ised t h e p rec ise n a tu r e o ft h e d ocumen t w h ich h e h ad b efo re h im .

t h e a c t iv i t ie s d e s cr ibed t h a t t h ey a r eu nder taken d u r ing t h e i n i t ia l o rgan isa t ion o fe a ch c on su la ra rmy . I ti sr e a sonab le t oa s sume t h a t t h e p rocedu res i nvo lved w ou ld b e t h e s ame

I tm ay b e t h a t P o lyb iu s f e l t t h a t t h e m a te r ia l t h a t h e c ou ld o b ta in f r om h i s s our ce c ou ld b e e f f ec t ive ly u pda ted b y c on t r ibu t ion s m ade f r om h i s o wn k now ledge .

a t e ach o f t h e t wo mob i l isa t ion camp s ( o r r e ndezvous p o in t s ) a ppo in ted b y t h e c on su ls . A ny i n s truc t ion m anua l

T he h andbook t o w h ich P o lyb iu s a ppea r s t o h ave h ad a cce s s , m ay h ave a ppea red a t t ra c t ive , w i th v ery l i t t le a dap ta t ion , a s am ean s o fp r e sen t ing t h e p rocedu re o f t h e r a is ing o f aR oman a rmy , t h e c amp ing a r rangemen t s i nt h e f i e ld , a nd o t he r d e ta i ls o n R oman m i l i ta ry p ra c t ice w h ich l i e w ished t oc onvey . We k now t h a t P o lyb iu s r e cogn ised

f o r m i l i ta ry t r ibune s w ou ld n eed o n ly t o d ea l w i th t h e a r rangemen t s w h ich w e re n eces sa ry f o r as i ng le c on su la r a rmy a to ne o f t h e se c amp s . On t h e o t he r h and w e m igh t s u spec t t h a t aa t l e a s t o ne c opy o f t h e h andbook a te a ch mob i l isa t ion p o in t w ou ld b e am in imum r equ i r emen t .

t h a t h i s s ou r ce w a s n o t e n t ire ly i n a cco rdance w i th p ra c t ice s o f h i s o wn d ay a nd t h a t h e t ook s t ep s t o m ake s ome c o r r ec t ion s ; w ha t P o lyb iu s f a i led t o r e cogn ise

P o lyb iu s t h u s c ome s t oh i s d esc r ip t ion o f aR oman c amp a t ap o in t w he re h i s o r ig ina l s ou r ce m ay h ave f o und i t n ece s sary t op re sen t i n s truc t ion s o n t h e b a s is o f as i ng le c on su la r a rmy n ow a s semb led a t i t s r e ndezvou s . A s s oon

h ow eve r , a tl e a s t a tt h e o u t se t , w a s t h e a ppa ren t s i ngu la r n a tu re o f h i s s ou rce . I tw ou ld s e em t o b e t h is w h ich l e d h im i n to d i ff icu l ty .

a st h is n ew ly f o rmed a rmy h a s c ome t o ge ther t h en t h en ex t s t ep i sa wa i ted :

F rom t h e p ropo s i t ion a s p re sen ted s o f a r i ti si n ten t ion o f

When t h e se a r rangemen t s h ave b e en m ade t h e t r ibunes

t h e p r e sen t a u tho r t oa rgue t h a t , f o r h i s d e s cr ip t ion o ft h e

t a k e b o th t h e R oman s a nd a l l ie s a nd p i tch t h e i r c amp , o ne s imp le p l an o fc amp b e ing a dop t ed a ta l l t i me s a nd i na l l p l a ce s .

R oman a rmy c amp a nd o f t h e a rmy i nt h e f i e ld , P o lyb iu s t r an sc r ibed m uch o fh i s s ou r ce , p au s ing o n ly o cca s iona l ly t oc l a r ify o ne o fh i s p rev iou sp a s sage so rt ou pda te t h e t e x t w he r e i t w a s o bv iou s t h a t i t w a s r e co rd ing o b so le te i n for n ia t ion . A n e xam ina t ion o f t h e r e levan t c hap te r s i n P o lyb ius ' B ook V I w i l l c onf irm t h en a tu re o ft h ed ocumen t u pon w h ich P o lyb iu s r e l ied s o h eav i ly . F rom t h is i tw i l l b e

A f te r h e h a s m ade t h e a bove s t a temen t , P o lyb iu s i n ser t s a p a s sage i nw h ich h ed ec la r e sh i s i n ten t ion t od escr ibe t oh i s

p o s s ib le t oo f f e ro ne r e a son w hy P o lyb iu sc ame t od e scr ibe

r e ade r sh ip t h ed i spo s i t ion o ft h e R oman f o r ces w hen o nt h e m a r ch , w hen e ncamped a nd when i na c t ion . H e b eg in s , h oweve r , n o t w i th t h e m a rch ing o rd e r , b u t w i th t h e

t h e c amp o fh a lf o f af ou r leg ion a rmy i n s tead o ft h e c amp o f at wo leg ion a rmy w h ich h e s u re ly i n tended t op or t ray .

I ti si nh i sd e s cr ip t ion o f aR oman c amp t h a t P o lyb iu s h a s

d e s cr ip t ion o ft h e c amp . I fw e i mag ine P o lyb iu s s t i l l t ob e f o l low ing h i ss ou r ce t h en t h is i se n t ire ly c on s is ten tw i th t h e c h rono logy w h ich h a s b een e s tab l ished . A t C h .26 ,1 0 w e h ea r o f t h e t r ibune s p i t ch ing c amp i mmed ia te ly a f t e r

p rov ided u sw i th aw ea l th o fd e ta i l . We h ave s e en t h a t t h is a c coun t i ss omewha t t a rn ished b y t h e a mb igu i t ie s w h ich

a l l ie s .

o ccu r i n t h e f i na l l i ne s o f C h .32 . I th a s b een s ugge s ted

e mba rk s u pon t h e d e ta i led d e scr ip t ion o f t h e p l an o f a

a bove t h a t P o lyb iu s w a s

c amp f o r t wo l e g ion s p l u s a l l ies . T h i s d e scr ip t ion o f a t wo leg ion c amp i s t h e o ne w h ich m any s cho la r s n ow

T he P o lyb ian c amp p lan e xp la ined i n c on tex t

h av ing f o rmed t h e n ew c on su la r a rmy o ft wo l e g ion s p l u s

l e d i n to d i ff icu l t ie s b y t h e

a na chron is t ic n a tur e o f as our ce u pon w h ich h e r e l ied t o p rov ide h im w i th t h e m inu t iae o ft h e c amp d e scr ip t ion . I n

I mmed ia te ly

a f terwa rd s ,

P o lyb iu s ,

i n C h .27 ,

a c cep t p o r t r ays t h e h a lf -camp o f af ou r leg ion a rmy . H ow c ou ld P o lyb iu s h ave b een m is led i n to t h ink ing t h a t h i s

o rde r t o d emon s tra te mo re c l ea r ly h ow P o lyb iu s w a s m is led b y h i s s ou r ce i ti sn ece s sa ry t ol o ok i nd e ta i l a tt h e

s ou r ce p rov ided h im w i th a s t anda rd c amp l a you t w h ich 1 2

POLYB IUS ' DESCR IPT ION OF A ROMAN ARMY C A MP r ema ined

u na l te r ed

i n

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c i rcum s tan ce s ?

Wa lbank ,

r endezvou s . We h ave s e en e a r l ie r t h a t , n o t i n f r equen t ly ,

f o l low ing F ra cca ro , c on s ide r ed t h a t P o lyb iu s h ad a s sumed

t wo c on su ls w e r e a s s igned t ot h e s ame p rov ince a nd i ti s

t h a t t h e f our leg ion c amp r a the r t h an t h e t wo leg ion c amp

p o s s ib le u nde rt ho se c i r cum s tan ce s t h a tt h ey m ay h ave a l so c ampa igned t o ge the r . L ivy g i ve s a n e xamp le o f j o in t o pe ra t ion s c onduc ted a ga in s t t h e B o i i b y u n i ted c on su la r a rm ie s u nde r L . F ur iu s P urpur io a nd M . C laud iu s

w a s t h e s t anda rd c amp a nd w h ich f o rc onven ience a l one h e h ad d e scr ibed o n ly o ne -ha lf o f af ou r leg ion c amp , t h e o t he r h a lf b e ing am ir ror i mage (Wa lbank 1 957 ,711) . B u t t h is a r gumen t d oe s n o t h o ld . We h ave s e en t h a t P o lyb iu s b e l ieved t h a t i tw a s more u sua l f o r t h e R oman f o r ce s t o e ngage i n w a r s a nd c onf l ic t s w i th o n ly as i ng le c on su la r a rmy o ft wo l e g ion s( Po 1 . 1 1 1 ,107 ,14 ) . Wa lbank ( 1957 ,711)

Ma r ce l lu s f o r t h e y ea r 1 96 : T hencefor th w i th u n i ted f o r ce s t h ey p ene t ra t ed f i r s t t h e B o i i t e r r i tory a sf a ra sF e ls ina , p lunder ing a st h ey w en t . ( L ivyXXX I I 1 ,37 ,3 ) .

c on t rad ic t s h im se lf b y a dm i t t ing t h a t b y P o lyb iu s ' t ime i t w ou ld b e mo r e u sua l f o r as i ng le c on su la r a rmy t oc amp

S c ip io r e por ted ly u n i t ed h i sa rmy w i th t h a to fh i sc o l league

a l one .

i n 1 94 B .C . ( L ivy XXX IV ,48 ,1) . I tm akes mo r es e n se i fP o lyb iu sh ad , a tt h eo u t se t , b e l ieved t h a t h e w a s d e s cr ib ing a s t anda rd c amp f o r at wo leg ion c on su la ra rmy . When , a tC h .26 ,10 , h ew ro te o fo ne s imp le p l an o fc amp b e ing a dop ted a ta l l t ime sa nd i na l l p l ace s h e w a s s u re ly u nawa re o f t h e p rob lem w h i ch l a y a head a nd

I fi th ad b een i n tended t h a t t h e t wo c on su la r a rm ie s o f P o lyb iu s ' s ou r ce s hou ld u n i te w hen o n c ampa ign t h en i t w ou ld h ave b een p ruden t f o r e ach a rmy t o p rac t ise t h e c on s truc t ion o fi t s o wn h a lf o ft h e c omb ined c amp s o t h a t t h i so pe ra t ion m igh tb el a te rc onduc ted e ff ic ien t ly i nh o s t i le

w hen h e w a s a bou t t o b eg in t h e s e c t ion d evo ted t o t h e R oman a rmy i nt h e f i e ld h e m ay h ave f o und i tc onven ien t

t e r r i tory . I nt h o se c i r cum s tance s t h en t h e f o rm o ft h ec amp a te a ch o ft h e s epa ra te r e ndezvou s l o ca t ions m ay h ave b een

t ot r an scr ibe t h ed e scr ip t ion o f at wo leg ion c amp w h ich h e a lmo s t c e r ta in ly h ad b efo re h im . T ha t d e sc r ip t ion w ou ld , i f t h e a rgumen t g iven a bove i s a c cep ted , b e o f a m ob i l isa t ion camp ( t he c a tegory o fc amp i d en t if ied b y0 ) (6 ) n o t ama rch ing camp .

i n ten t iona l ly l a id o u t i nt h e f o rm o ft h e h a lf -camp f o r t wo l e g ion s o f au n i ted f ou r leg ion a rmy a nd n o t t h a t o f a n i n dependen t c on su la ra rmy o ft wo l e g ion s . I ti st h is s ub t le d i f f e r ence w h ich P o lyb iu sp e rhap sf a i led t or e cogn i se . T h is i sh a rd ly s urpr is ing , h e e xpec t ed , f o r t h e mo s t p ar t , t h a t s i ng le c on su la ra rm ie sw ou ld a c ti ndependen t ly . H is s ou r ce w ou ld o n ly h ave s e rved t o r e in fo rce t h is v i ew i f , t o a l i n ten t s a nd p urpo ses , i tw a s d ea l ing w i th a t wo leg ion ca mp .

T he r e a r e s ound r e a son s t o b e l ieve t h a t a m ob i l isa t ion camp wou ld r ef lec t e xac t ly t h e l a you t o f a c amp i n t h e f i e ld f o r i tw ou ld h ave b een v i ta l f o r t h e r e c ru i t s t h a t t h ey s hou ld b e f am i l ia r w i th t h e c amp l a you t a nd i t s m e thod o fc on s truc t ion f o r t h is w ou ld p romo te t h e e a se o f movemen t a nd o rde r n ece s sa ry w hen c amp s w e re

I f t h e o bserva t ion s w h ich h ave b een m ade a bove a pp rox ima te t o t h e t r u th t h en t h e p re sen t a u tho r w ou ld s ugge s t t h a t P o lyb iu s h a s t r an scr ibed f r om h i s s ou r ce ( a lmo s tc er ta in ly at r ibune 's c ommen tar iu s ) t h e l a you t o fa mob i l isa t ion camp f o r ac on su la r a rmy o ft wo l e g ion s i n t h e m is taken b e l ief t h a t h e w a s d e scr ib ing t h e s t anda rd

c on s truc ted o n t h e ma r ch i n h o s t i le t e r r i tory . O n t h e p r e c ise p o in t o ft h e l a you t o f am a r ch ing camp , P o lyb iu s w r i te s : . . i t i so bv ious t ha t w hen t h e l e g ion s m a rch u p a nd g e t ag ood v i ew o f t h e s i te f o r t h e c amp , a l l p a r t s o fi ta r e k nown a to n ce t oe ve ryone , a st h ey h ave o n ly t or e ckon f r om t h e p o s i t ion o ft h e c on su l 's f l ag .

l a you t f o r am a r ch ing -camp o f at wo leg ion a rmy i n t h e f i e ld . I ft h a t i ss o t h en t h e mo s t l o g ica l r e a son w hy t h is s hou ld h ave o ccur red i s t h a t t h e l a you t o f t h e mob i l isa t ion camp g i ven i n t h e s ou r ce w a s f o r as i ng le c on su la r a rmy w h ich w a s n o t i n tended t o o pe ra te

( Po l .V I ,4 1 ,9 ) . I tw ou ld b e s u rp r is ing i fn ew ly -en ro l led t r oop s w e r e n o t g i ven p ra c t ice i n d ep loymen t a nd c amp c on s truc t ion

i n dependen t ly b u t a s p ar t o f ad oub le c on su la r a rmy o f f ou r l e g ion s .

t e chn ique s a t t h e e a r l ie s t o ppo r tun i ty , p ref e rab ly a t a l o ca t ion w he r e n o t h rea t e x is ted .

P r eme r s te in h a s s t a ted t h a t t h e c ommen tar i i p roduced f o r

I fw e r e tu rn t oP o lyb iu s ' t e x t a nd i mag ine h im s t i l l t ob e

m ag is t ra te s a r e t ob e c on s ide r ed a s d i re c t ion s f o r as i ng le e ven t( 190 1 ,726 ) . 2'I ft h is i ss ot h en t h ec ommen tar iu s u s ed

f o l low ing h i s s our ce t h en w e c an s e e t h a t t h e f i r s t t a sk u nder tak en o n ce t h e a l l ied t r oop s h ad b een a l lo t ted t ot h e ir v a r iou s u n i t s , w a s t op i tch c amp ( Po l .V I ,26 ,10 ) . T he f i r s t

b y P o lyb iu s m ay h ave b een s pec if ica l ly c omp i led f o r t h e t r ibune s o f ac on su la r a rmy a bou t t oc ampa ign u nde r t h e c i r cum s tance s s ugge s ted a bove .

c amp , p i t ched a t t h e r e ndezvou s p o in t , i sl i ke ly t o h ave b e en i n i t s e s s en t ia l d e ta i ls , t h e s ame a s t h e c amp e r ec ted

C an a ly s uppo r t f o rt h is h ypo the s is b ed e tec ted i nt h e t e x t ? T he p a s sage s d ea l ing w i th t h e m inu t ia e o f t h e c amp

i nf i e ld c ond i t ion sa nd e ven i fP o lyb iu sh ad r e cogn ised t h a t h i s s our ce w a s g iv ing h im t h e d e ta i ls o f a

d e s cr ip t ion d on o ti n i t ia l ly a ppea rp rom is ing i nt h is r e spec t .

m ob i l isa t ion camp a nd n o t am a r ch ing -camp , t h e re c ou ld h ave a ppea red l i t t le o b jec t ion t ot h e i d ea o fu s ing t h e o ne t oi lus t ra te t h eo ther . B u t P o lyb iu s ' s ou r ce h ad b egun w i th t h e r a is ing o f t wo c on su la r a rm ie s e a ch o f w h ich , o n h i s t e s t imony , i sl i ke ly t o h ave b een a s semb led a t as epa ra te

Af i r s t r e ad ing o f P o lyb iu s ' C hap te r s 2 7 -31 i n B ook V I , c once rned w i th t h e m ea su r emen t s o f t h e c amp a nd i t s l a you tw ou ld a ppea rt oc onf i rm t h a th e i sp rov id ing u sw i th ap i c tu re o f a n i n dependen t c amp f o r t wo l e g ion s p l u s a l ie s . When t h e m ea su remen t s a r e d rawn o u t t h en w e 1 3

P ART I : CHAPTER 1 a r r ive a t ap i c tu r e o f ac amp f o r at wo l e g ion a rmy w i th t h ef orum , p rae tor ium a nd q uae s tor ium t oo n e s i de o ft h e l e g ion s ( s ee F i g .1 .4 ) . Mo s ts t r ik ing ly , w ea r et o ld t h a tt h e w ho le c amp f o rm s as qua r e a nd t h a t t h e a gger i so n a l l s i de s a d i s tan ce o f 2 00 f e e t f r om t h e t e n t s ( Po l .V 1 ,31 ,10 11 ) . I fP o lyb iu s ' s ou r ce w a s i n deed g i v ing t h e l a you t o f am ob i l isa t ion camp f o r au n i t ed c on su la r a rmy o ff ou r l e g ion s a nd P o lyb iu s c ho se t od e scr ibe o n ly h a lf o fi tt h en i ti ss u rp r is ing t h a t h e s hou ld s t a t e t h a t t h e

e r e c t ion o f c amp d ef en ce s . ( Po lyb iu s V I ,34 ,1-2 t e l ls u s h ow t h e w o rk o f c on s truc t ing t h e c amp d e f en ce s w a s d i v ided b e tween t h eR omans a nd t h ea l l ie sw i th e a ch l e g ion a nd e a ch a l a b e ing r e spon s ib le f o r t h e c on s t ru c t ion o fo n e s i de o f t h e c amp ) . O ne m igh t s u spec t t h a t a t a mob i l i sa t ion camp s u ch a n o ppo r tun i ty w ou ld n o t h ave b een w a s ted a nd e ven i nw ha tw a si ne f f ec t ah a lf camp t h e a gge rw ou ld s u r e ly h ave b een c on s t ruc ted o na l f ou rs i de s a nd ad i t ch c u t t op rov ide t h e m a t e r ia l f o r i t . '

a gge r w a s f o und o n a l f o u r s i de s . I nt h eory , a nd a lmo s t c e r ta in ly i n p r a c t ice , a n a gge r w ou ld n o t h ave b een r e qu i r ed i nt h e p o s i t ion a d ja cen t t ot h e e x t raord inar i i i na u n i t ed c amp f o r i tw ou ld b e h e r e w he r e t h e t wo h a lve s o f t h e c amp w ou ld m ee t ( c f . P o l .V I ,32 ,6 ; a nd s e e F ig .1 .2 ) . We a r e t o ld h ow eve r t h a t t h e f i na l m ob i l isa t ion o f t h e c on su la r a rm ie s u sua l ly t a ke s p l a ce a ts e pa ra te l o ca t ion s ( Po l .V 1 ,26 ,3 ) . I fi tw a s i n t ended t h a tt wo h a lf camp sw e re t o b e c on s t ru c ted i n i s o la t ion a t b o th o f t h e se s e pa ra t e l o ca t ion s t h en i tw ou ld h ave b een a b su rd f o rt h e d ef en s ive c i r cu i t t oh ave b een c omp le t ed o n o n ly t h r ee s i de s . Mo r e p e r t inen t t o t h e a r gumen t i s t h a t am ob i l i sa t ion camp w ou ld , b y i t s v ery n a tu r e , h ave b een s i tua t ed a t as a f e p l ac e f o r t h e t r oop s t oa s semb le a nd w he r e n o i mmed ia t e d ange r t h r ea t en ed . A t s u ch a c amp t h e b u i ld ing o f a d ef en s ive c i r cu i t w ou ld h ave b een u s e fu l o n ly a s a n e xe r c is e i nt h e i r c on s t ru c t ion . T he r e c an b e n o d oub t t h a t t h e R oman s h e ld t h e a r t o f c a s t rame ta t ion i n h i gh r e ga rd . T he s k i l l o f t h e R oman t r oop s o f t h e f i r s t c en tur y A .D . i n t h e a r t o f c amp c on s tru c t ion w a s c ommen ted u pon b y t h eJ ew i sh h i s tor ian J o sephu s :

Whenev e rt h et wo c on su ls w i th a lt h e ir f ou rl e g ion sa r e u n i t ed i n o n e c amp , w e h ave o n ly t o i mag in e t wo c amp s l i k e t h e a bove p l a ced i nj ux tapos i t ion b a ck t o b a ck , t h ej un c t ion b e ing f o rmed a tt h e e n campm en t s o f t h e e x t r aord inar i i i n f an try o f e a ch c amp w hom w e d e s cr ib ed a sb e ing s t a t ioned f a c ing t h e r e a rwa rd a gger o ft h e c amp . ( Po l .V 1 ,32 ,6 ) .

T hu s , a s i tw e r e , ac i ty s p r ing s u p o n t h e s pu r o f t h e m omen t . . .t h eo u t e rw a l l a nd a l t h eb u i ld ing si n s ide a r e c on s t ruc t ed m o r e q u ick ly t h an t h ough t , b ecau se t h e i r w o rkmen a r e s o s k i lfu l a nd n ume rou s . ( J o sephu sT he J ew i sh W ar ,3 .8 3 -4 ) .

T h is i sc l ea r ly s t a t ed . P o lyb iu s a sk s h i s r e ade r sh ip t ou s e t h e d e s c r ip t ion w h ich h e h a s g i v en i n a n i mag in a t ive r e con s t ru c t ion o f ac amp o ft wo u n i t ed c on su la ra rm ie s :

T he R oman g ene ra l C o rbu lo i sc r ed i t ed w i th t h e f amou s r ema rk t h a tt h ed o labra w a st h ew eapon w i th w h ich t ob ea t t h e e n emy ( F ron t inu s , S t ra tagem s 4 . 7 .2 .) . T h is c an b e t a ken t ob e ar e f e r en ce t ot h e e f f e c t iven e s s o ft h e R oman c amp d ef ended b yi t ss u r round ing d i t ch w h ich t h u se nab led t h e R oman s o ld ie r t os l eep f r e e f r om t h e f e a r o f as udden a t ta ck w i th in t h e b ound s o ft h e c amp . A pp ian t e l l s u s t h a t t h e y ounge r S c ip io w ou ld n o t e ngage t h e e n emy u n t i l h e h ad f u l ly t r a ined h i s m en a nd t h i s i n c lud ed t h e t a sk o f c amp c on s t ruc t ion .

T he s h ap e o ft h e c amp i sn ow o b long , i t s a r ea d oub le w ha t i tw a s a nd i t s c i r cumf e r en ce h a lf a s m u ch a ga in . When eve rb o th c on su l se n camp t o g e ther t h ey a dop tt h is a r rangem en t ; . . . ( Po l .V 1 ,32 ,7 ) . W i th t h ei n f o rma t ion w h ich P o lyb iu sh a sp rov ided , w ea r e i n ap o s i t ion t ov i sua l ise am a r ch ing camp o ft h ec omb in ed a rm ie so ft wo c on su l sb u tn o t ama r ch ing -camp f o r as i ng le c on su la ra rmy . F o rt h ec amp o ft wo l e g ion s u nd e r as i ng le c on su l w e h ave o n ly t h e v e ry e nd o fC h .32 :

S c ip io i ss a id t oh ave : . .d a i ly f o r t if ied n ew c amp so n ea f t e ra no the ra nd t h en d emo l ished t h em , d ug d eep t r en che s a nd f i l led t h em u p a ga in , c on s tru c ted h i gh w a l l s a nd o ver th r ew t h em , p e r son a l ly o ve r look ing t h ew o rk f r om mo rn ing t on i gh t . ( App ian

O n ce h e h ad c omp le ted t h e d e s c r ip t ion o f t h e c amp P o lyb iu sf e l ti tn e ce s sa ry t oa dd t h eq ua l if ica t ion sf o und i n C h .32 . I ti s r e a sonab le t o a g r e e , a l ong w i th R aw son , ( 1971 ,22 ) , t h a t b y t h i s s t age P o lyb iu s h ad d i s cove r ed h i s e r ro r . C e r ta in ly t h i s i st h e o n ly e xp lana t ion w h ich m ak e s s en se o f t h e p a s sage s a t C h .32 ,6 -8 . T he d e ta i l o f a mob i l i sa t ion camp w h ich P o lyb iu sh ad t r an scr ib ed w a s f o r t wo l e g ion s p l u s a l ie s b u t f o rmed u nde r s u ch s p e c ia l c i r cum s tan ce s t h a t t h o se d e ta i ls d i d n o t e xac t ly m a t ch t h e a ppea ran c e o f t h e i n dependen t m a r ch ing camp f o r t wo l e g ion s i nt h e f i e ld u nde r t h e c ommand o f as i ng le c on su l . P o lyb iu s , b y t r an scr ib ing h i s s ou r ce , h ad b een l e d i n to a d i ff i cu l ty w h ich h e t h en h ad t ot r y t or e c t if y . I no r de r t o r e cove r s ome th ing f r om t h is m i s con s t ruc t ion o f h i s o wn mak ing , P o lyb iu s , i nC h .32 , t r ied t ot u rn t h e e r ro r t oh i s a dvan tage b y o f f er ing h i s r e ade r sh ip t h e o ppor tun i ty t o e nv is ion b o th t h e f ou r leg ion a nd t h e t wo leg ion m a r ch ing camp :

.bu tw h en t h e t wo e n camp a par tt h eo n ly d i f f e r en c e i s t h a t t h ef o rum , q uae s tor ium , a nd p rae tor ium a r ep l a ced b e tween t h e t wo l e g ion s ." ( Po l .V 1 ,32 ,8 ) .

l b e r ica ,X 1 V, 8 6 ) .

T he m ob i l isa t ion camp , d oub l ing u p a s ap r a c t ice camp , w ou ld h ave p rov ided t h e f i r s t o ppo r tun i ty f o r r aw r e cru i t s t ob ecome a cqua in ted w i th t h e t e chn ique s i n vo lved i nt h e

m y e mpha s i s . "f o r t r an s la t ion q uer ie s s e e n o te 2a nd A ppend ix n o t e 2 . 1 4

POLYB IUS ' DESCR IPT ION OF A ROMAN ARMY C A MP

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F i g . 1 . 4 T he R oman c amp a c cord ing t o P o lyb iu s s how ing t h e p o s i t ion o f t h e l e g ion s i nr e la t ion t ot h e p rae tor ium ( af t e r F ahr ic iu s 1 932 ,F ig .12 )

15

P ART 1 : CHAPTER 1 A t t h is p o in t w ec an s e e h ow 0 ) (8 a r r ived a th i s t h r ee c amp

p r e sen ted w i th ap i c tu r e o f as i ng le c onsu la r a rmy o f t wo

t y po logy . P o lyb iu s h a s g i ven af u l l d es cr ip t ion o fo ne t y pe o f c amp a nd h a s m en t ioned t h e e x is tence o f t wo o the r

l e g ion s .

t y pe s .

T he n ex t c hap ter , C h .4 1 , g ive s t h e b a s ic s t age s i n t h e

P o lyb iu s s t a te s t h a t t h e s i t ing o f t h ef orum , q uae s tor ium ,

l a y ing o u t o f am a r ch ing -camp . We mus t a sk w hy t h e c amp p l an w a s g iven e a r l ier a nd n o t a t t h is s t age? T h is

a nd p rae tor ium i st h e o n ly d i f f e rence i n t h e c amp p l an w ou ld h ave a f f ec ted s ome o f t h e m ea su remen t s w h ich h e h ad g i ven p rev iou s ly e spec ia l ly a si tw a s f r om t h e l o ca t ion

d up l ica t ion o f t h e b a s ic r equ iremen t s i nt h e l a y ing o u t o f ac amp i sv ery o dd . H owever , i ft h e o bserva t ion s w h ich h ave b e en m ade a bove a re c or r e c t t h en P o lyb iu s h ad p rev iou s ly g i ven t h e d e ta i led d e scr ip t ion o n ly o f a

o f t h e p rae tor ium t h a t a l l t h e o t he r c amp m ea su remen t s u l t ima te ly d er ived ( Po l .V 1 ,27 ) .

mob i l isa t ion -camp . I ti si n C h .4 1 t h a t h e g ive s t h e f i r s t g enu ine m en t ion o f ac amp i n t h e f i e ld . I n w ha t i sc l ea r ly

w hen t h e c on su ls e ncamp a pa r t , b u t s uch a n a r rangemen t

ad e scr ip t ion o ft h e l a y ing o u t o f ac amp o n t h em a r ch h e r e f e r s b a ck e xp l ic i t ly t oh i s e a r l ie r a c coun t :

I fw e c on t inue t o f o l low t h e t e x t o f B ook V I b eyond t h e s e c t ion sd ea l ing o n ly w i th t h e c amp p l an t h en i ti sp o s s ib le t oc onf irm t h e n a tu re o ft h e d ocumen t w h ich P o lyb iu s h ad a t h i s d i spo sa l a nd t o p e rce ive h ow h i s m a in c amp

When t h e a rmy o n t h e ma r ch i s n ea r t h e p l a ce o f

d e scr ip t ion f i t s i n to c on tex t . F o l low ing C h .32 , i n w h ich

w ho a r e s pec ia l ly c ha rged w i th t h is d u ty g o o n i n a dvan ce , a nd a f t e r s urvey ing t h e w ho le g round o n

e n campmen t , o ne o f t h e t r ibune s a nd t hose c en tur ion s

P o lyb iu s h a s i n se r ted h i s o wn q ua l if ica t ion s i n o rde r t o

w h ich t h e c amp i st ob e f ormed , f i r s t o f a l l d e t e rm ine

m ake s e n se o ft h e m a in a ccoun to ft h ec amp , h e t u rn so n ce a ga in t oh i s s ou r ce a nd p i ck s u p t h e c h rono logy e xa c t ly w he r e h e l e f t i ta tt h e e nd o fC h .31 : A f te r

f o rm ing

t h e

c amp

t h e

t r ibune s

m ee t

f r om t h e c on s ide ra t ion s Imen t ioned a bove , w he r e t h e c on su l 's t e n ts hou ld b ep laced a nd o nw h ich f r on to ft h e s pace r ound h i s t e n t t h e l e g ion s s hou ld e ncamp . ( Po l .V I ,4 1 ,1-2 ) .

a nd

a dm in is te r a n o a th , m an b y m an , t oa l l i nt h e c amp . . . P o lyb iu sg oe so n t od e scr ibe h ow o ne o ft h e t r ibune s , w i th t h e a i d o fs ome c en tur ion s , wou ld g o a bou t s e t t ing o u t t h e

( Po l .V I ,33 ,1 ) . T h is w ou ld a ppea r t oc onf irm t h a t w e a r e r e ad ing a bou t a mob i l isa t ion -camp . T h is p rocedu re o f a dm in is te r ing t h e o a th w ou ld b e u nder taken a t t h e v e ry o u t se t o f t h e

v a r iou s t e n t l i ne s : . . they m ea su re o u t f i r s t t h e a r ea o f t h e p rae tor ium , n ex t t h e s t ra igh t l i ne a l ong w h ich t h e t e n t s o f t h e

c ampa ign , u n le s s w ea r e t ob e l ieve t h a t t h is p a r t icu la ro a th w a sa dm in is te red m an b y m an o ne very o cca s ion w h ich t h e

t r ibun e s a r e e r ec ted a nd n ex t t h e l i ne p a ra l le l t ot h is , s t a r t ing f r om w h ich t h e t r oop s f o rm t h e ir e ncampmen t . I n t h e s ame w ay t h ey d raw l i ne s o n t h e o the r s i de o f

t r oop s e n camped . T her e i s af u r the r e xamp le i nP o l :V 1 ,33 w h ich d emon s t ra te s t h a t t h e p repa ra t ion s i n h and w e re t h o se w h ich w ou ld b e t a ken a tt h e v ery b eg inn ing o fa ny c ampa ign f o r w e h ea r o f t h e m an ip le s o f h as ta t i a nd p r inc ipe s o f e a ch l e g ion b e ing d iv ided b y l o t t o r e nde r s e rv ice t o t h e t r ibune s ( Po l .V 1 ,33 ,5 ) . T h is w ou ld o n ly

t h e p rae tor ium , t h e a r rangemen t o f w h ich Id e sc r ibed a bove i nd e ta i l a nd a ts ome l e ng th . T he ma rk ing o u t i s aq u i te e a sy m a t te r , a l l t h e d i s tan ce s b e ing f i xed a nd f am i l ia r ; a nd t h ey n ow p lan t f l ag s , o ne o n t h e s po t

n eed t ob e d one o n ce , t h e t h ree m an ip le s a l lo t ted t oe a ch t r ibune m a in ta in ing ar o ta s y s tem f o r a sl ong a st h e l e g ion w a s a c t ive i nt h e f i e ld .

i n tended f o r t h ec on su l 's t e n t , a no the ro n t h a t s i de o fi t t h ey h ave c hosen f o r t h e c amp , at h i rd i nt h e m idd le o f t h e l i ne o nw h ich t h e t r ibunes ' t e n t sw i l l s t and , af o u r th o n t h e o t he r p a ra l le l l i ne a long w h ich t h e l e g ion s w i l l

T he f a c t t h a t P o lyb iu s h ad c l ea r ly r e tu rned t oh i s o r ig ina l

e n camp .

s ou r ce a f te r t h e n ece s sa ry i n se r t ion o fC h .32 s hou ld m ake t h e c on tex t o f t h e c amp p l an w h ich h e h ad t r an scr ibed

( Po l .V 1 ,4 1 ,3 -6 ) .

q u i te c l ea r . I th ad o ccu r red w i th in a b road s e c t ion o f

T he se s t a temen t s a r e o f t h e g rea te s t s i gn if ican ce . I n h i s e a r l ie r p a ss age s , f o r e xamp le i n C h .32 , P o lyb iu s w ou ld

m a te r ia l ( e qua l t oP o lyb iu s ' C hap te r s 2 7 -33 b u t e xc lud ing h i s o wn C hap te r 3 2 ) i n w h ich t h e t r ibune s a r e b e ing

h ave t h ep rae tor i i o fe ach o ft h e t wo c on su la r a rm ie s i na

i n s truc ted i nt h es t ep s n eces sa ry t os e t u pa nd t h en r e gu la te t h e s moo th r unn ing o f an ew ly l e v ied c on su la r a rmy ( a n

c omb ined f o u r leg ion c amp l o ca ted n ea r t h e c en t r e o ft h e c amp a nd s e pa r a ted f r om e a ch o the r o n ly b y t h e t e n t s o f

a rmy w h ich t h ep re sen ta u tho rb e l ieves w a s i n tended t oa c t i nt a ndem w i th a no the r c on su la r a rmy ) .

t h e e x traord inar i i o f e ach a rmy . F ur thermore , t h e t wo l e g ion s o f e a ch a rmy w ou ld i n t h is s c h eme b e c amp ed t o o ne s i de o n ly o ft h e ir r e spec t ive p rae tor i ia si nF ig .1 .2 . I n C h .4 1 w e h ave t wo l e g ion s d escr ibed a s b e ing o n t h e

T he c hap te r s w h ich f o l low C hap te r 3 3 ( up u n t i l C h .4 1 ,9 ) a l s how s t rong i n d ica t ion s t h a t t h ey h ave b een l i f ted f r om ah andbook f o r t r ibune s , t h e s ou r ce p o s tu la ted b y R aw son

m a r ch i nC h .40 c om ing i n to ac amp i nw h ich t h ey a r e t o s e t u p t h e i r t e n t s e xa c t ly a s i ft h ey w e r e f o l low ing t h is

a nd F racca ro ( 1971 ,15 ; 1 934 ,158 ) a nd t h e c hrono logy o f

p ro cedu re f o r f o rm ing t h e ir own h a lf o f ac omb ined c amp f o r f ou r l e g ion sa nd p l ac ing t h emse lve s t oo ne s i de o n ly o f

t h e e ven t s c once rned w i th s e t t ing u p t h e c amp c on t inues a nd c an b e d i sce rned i nC h .34 -39 ." O u r p r ima ry i n te re s t mu s t b e r e sumed i n C 1 1 .40 w h ich g ive s t h e o rde r o f b r eak ing c amp a nd o ft h e m a r ch . H e re , a s b efo re , w e a r e

t h e p rae tor ium ( F ig .1 . 5 ) . T h is i ss omewha t p uz z l ing f o r P o lyb iu s h ad s t a ted t h a t t h e l o ca t ion o f t h e p rae tor ium w ou ld h e r e loca ted i n at wo leg ion c amp t o ap o s i t ion 1 6

POLYB IUS DESCR IPT ION OF A ROMAN ARMY C A MP

100 f t

Con su l ' s f l ag

A rea s e t a s ide f o r t he p rae to r ium . V C amp f l ag 1 00ft

50 f t

T r ibune s ' t en t l i ne T r ibune s ' f l ag

1 00 f t

L eg ion s ' t en t l i ne

f L eg ion s ' f l ag

L eg ion I

L eg ion I

F i g .1 .5 O rde ro ft h e l a you to ft h e e ncampmen t f l ag s i n ama rch ing -camp a ccord ing t oP o lyb iu s ( V I ,41 ,4 -7 ) s how ing t h e p o s i t ion a l loca ted t ot h e l e g ion s( i .e . t oo ne s i de o n ly o ft h ep rae tor ium ) . T he c on su l 's f l ag i ss a id t oh ave b een wh i te , t h e o the r s c r imson . 1 7

P ART I : CHAPTER 1 b e twe en t h e l e g ion s ( Po l .V 1 ,32 ,8 ) . O n t h e o the rh and t h i s i se xa c t ly t h e s i tua t ion w h ich w ou ld b e e n coun te r ed i ft h e t wo l e g ion sw e r em a r ch ing i n to t h e ir d e s igna ted h a lf o ft h e c omb ined c amp f o r t wo c on su la r a rm ie s ( c f . F i g .1 .5 w i th t h e l owe r h a lf o f F i g .1 .2 ) .

a nd o rde r ed w ay i n w h ich i tc onduc ted i t s e lf e s pec ia l ly w i th r e ga rd t oc a s t r ame ta t ion a nd h ow t h i s s t ood i ns t a rk c on t r a s t t ot h e G r eek a pproa ch :

C hap t e r 4 1 g i ve s t h e s u re s t s i gna l t h a t P o lyb iu s h ad c on t inued t ou s e t h e s a ne s ou r ce t h roughou t B ook V I f o r h i s d e s c r ip t ion o ft h e R oman a rmy . I tf u r the r s how s t h a t h i s t e nden cy w a s t o t r an scr ib e t h a t s ou r c e a nd t h a t t h e d e ta i l s c on ta ined i n i tw e r e t a i lo r ed t o t h e n eed s o f a c on su la r a rmy o ft wo leg ion s w h ich w a s t oc ampa ign i na c omb ined r o le w i th a s im i la r f o r ce o f t wo l e g ion s i n a d oub le c on su la r a rmy . I nC h .27 -3 IP o lyb iu s d e s cr ibe s a c amp f o r t wo l e g ion s p l u s a l ie s , ad e scr ip t ion w h ich h e b e l ieve s i so f am a r ch ing camp . O n ly a tt h e e nd o f t h a t d e s c r ip t ion d oe s h e r e a l i se t h a t h e h a s d e s cr ib ed h a lf o fa c omb in ed c amp f o r f ou r l e g ion s p l u s a l l ie s , t h u s n e ce s s i ta t ing C h .32 . I nC h .4 1 , w hen t h e r ec an b en od oub t t h a t h e i sa t t emp t ing t op or t r ay am a r ch ing -camp f o r t wo l e g ion si nt h ef i e ld , h et r an scr ibe sa nd t h e r ef o r er e pea t st h e b a s ic l a you to fw ha th eh a s a l r eady a dm i t ted h im se lf i st h e h a lf camp o f af ou r leg ion a rmy .

T he R oman s b y t h us s t udy ing c onven ien ce i n t h i s m a t te r p u r sue , i ts e em s t om e , ac ou r se d i ame t r ica l ly o ppo s i t e t ot h a t u sua l a mong t h e G reek s . ( P o l .V 1 ,42 ,1 ) . F rom t h ed i scu s s ion w h ich h a st a k en p l ace a bove i ti sc l ea r t h a t t h e P o lyb ian c amp p l an m u s t b e t r ea t ed w i th c i r cum spe c t ion . I tc anno tb eu s ed i nt h ea l-emb ra c ing w ay w h ich w a s a t t emp t ed b y S chu l t en a s ab a s ic b l uepr in t f o r a l R epub l ican c amp s . T he r e i st h e p rob lem t o o o f t h o s e c amp sw he r e o n ly o n e l e g ion o rp a r t o f al e g ion a ppea r st o h ave b een p r e sen t . P o lyb iu s s p eak s i nd e ta i l o n ly o f t h e c amp o ft wo l e g ion sa ti t s mob i l i sa t ion p o in ta nd s e em ing ly u nde rs p e c ia l c i r cum s tance s , n eve ro ft h e c amp o f as i ng le l e g ion . T he se p o in t sb e come o fs ome i mpor tan ce w hen t h e r e po r t s o ft h e e xcava t ions a tt h e s i eg e -camp s s u r round ing N tnnan t ia a r e l o ok ed a t a f r e sh i n l a te r s e c t ion s o f t h i s p r e sen t w o rk . NOTES

A NE W THEORY CONCERN ING NATURE OF POLYB IUS ' S OURCE

THE

EXACT

I ts hou ld b ee v iden t t h a t P o lyb iu s , w hen w r i t ing B ook V I , n eve rh ad a th i sd i spo sa l t h e f u l l m ea su r emen t sa nd d e t a i l s o f ac amp f o r a n i n depend en t c on su la r a rmy o f t wo l e g ion s . Wha t h e d i d h ave a ppea r s t o h ave b een a h andbook f o rt r ibun e sw h ich w a ss omewha to u to fd a te a nd w h ich w a s d e s igned f o r as pe c if ic s e t o fc i rcum s t an ce s . I t i ss ugge s ted h e r e t h a tt h eh andbook g ave i n s t ru c t ion t ot h e t r ibun e s o f ac on su la r a rmy o f t wo l e g ion s w h ich w a s i n tended t oj o in f o r ce s w i th a no the r c on su la r a rmy i nt h e f i e ld a nd t h a t t h e t wo a rm ie s w e r e t o u n i te i n as i ng le f o u r leg ion c amp o f t h e t y p e w h ich P o lyb iu s a sk s h i s r e ade r s t oe nv isage . I ti sf u r the r s ugge s ted t h a t a s ar e su l t o ft h i s c i r cum s tan ce a nd f o r t h e r e a son s g i ven a bove , t h e f o rm o f c amp g i ven i n t h e h andbook w a s t h a t o f a m ob i l i sa t ion -camp f o r h a lf o f au n i t ed f ou r leg ion a rmy e r e c ted i nh ome R oman t e r r i tory . T he e r ec t ion o f ad i t ch o na l f o u rs i de so fs u ch ac amp i ss ugge s ted t ob ep rud en t n o t a s ad ef en ce , r e dundan t i n as e cu r e s po t , b u t a s a n e xe r c i s e i nc amp c on s t ru c t ion a nd t oe n su r et h a tt h et r oop s a r et r a ined a nd c omp e tan ti nu nde r tak ing t h i st a sk . G i l l ive r ( i n l i t t . ) r em ind s m e t h a t H yg inu s m ake s as im i la r o b s er va t ion w hen h e s t a t e st h a ti n amo r es e cu r ep l a ce , t h e d i t ch i su s ed f o r t h e s a k e o fd i s c ip l in e . F o s sa l o co s ecu r io r i c au sa d i sc ip l inae . . . . ( Hyg inu sd em un .ca s t . ,49 .1 ) . P o lyb iu s r e cogn i sed t h a t h i s s ou r ce w a s o u t o fd a t e a nd , p robab ly b e la ted ly , r e a l i sed t h a t t h e r e w a s s ome d i ff icu l ty o ve r t h e c amp p l an . H oweve r , h ec ho se t oc on t inu e t ou s e h i s s ou r ce i no rde r t op rov ide t h e b a s ic d e ta i l s w h ich h e w i shed t o i lu s t r a t e . H e m ay h ave c on s ide r ed t h a t i t s i n adequa c ie s w e r e o f m ino r i mpo r tan ce ; h e w a s a b le t o g i ve ag r aph ic p i c tu r eo ft h eR oman a rmy a nd t h ee ff ic ien t

1C f . P o l . IX ,20 ,1 -3 w h ich s t a t e s t h a t i n c e r ta in c i r cum s tan ce s t h e w ho le p lan o ft h e c amp m igh t b e c hanged a nd V I ,32 ,6 -8 w h ich g i ve s t h e a l t e rna t ive a r rangemen t w hen t wo c on su l s c amp a pa r t . 2 A ny s e n se t h a t P o lyb iu s m ean s o t he r t h an ' b e tween t h e l e g ion s ' i nC h .32 ,8 h a s l i t t l e t or e commend i t . S e e F .W . Wa lbank ( 1957 ,711 ) . 3 P o lyb iu s : T he H i s tor ie s . T r an s . W .R . P a ton 1 972 ( Lo eb C la s s ica l L ib ra ry ) . 4 O xe ( 1 938 , .63 ) g oe s o n t o c ompa r e P o lyb iu s t oa m ov ie d i r ec to rw ho h a sc u t t o g e th e rd i f f e r en tp i e ce s o f f i lm i n o rde r t o o b ta in a f i na l p o l i shed p rodu c t ion : DieLage rbe schr e ibung b i lde tg l e ich sam n u re i n s d e rB i ld e re i ne s F i lme s , d en P o l yb iu s w ie e i n g e sch ick te r R eg i s seur v o r d en A ugen s e ine r L e se ra b lauf en l ä ß t . ' 5 P o lyb iu s d oe s h oweve r m en t ion o t h e r c amp t y pe s a l though n o t i nd e ta i l . T he c omb in ed c amp f o r t wo c on su la ra rm ie s a nd t h em ar ch ing camp f o r as i ng le c on su la r a rmy ( wh ich w ou ld c o r r e spond t o O xe 's T yp e s Ia nd I I ) a r e m en t ion ed b y P o lyb iu s b u t s e em ing ly o n ly a s a n a f ter though t a t t h e e nd o f C hap t e r3 2i nt h ep a s sage wh ich h a sc au sed s om uch d i squ ie t . 6 R aw son ( 1 971 ,13 ) c on c luded t h a t P o lyb iu s w ou ld h ave b e en a tp a in s t op re sen t ac on t empo r a ry a nd a c cu r a t e p o r t raya l o ft h e R oman a rmy , c e r ta in ly t o h i s G r e ek r e ade r sh ip w ho h ad f a ced aR oman a rmy b e f o r e a nd m igh t s ub sequen t ly h ave t o f a ce o n e a ga in .

1 8

POLYB IUS ' DESCR IPT ION OF A ROMAN ARMY C A MP 1 7 P o lyb iu s , V I ,26 ,3 , a l so s t a te s t h a ta n a rmy f o r t wo

7 F racca ro b e l ieved t h a t P o lyb iu s c hose t o d e sc r ibe o n ly o n e h a lf o f t h e c amp , t h e o the r h a lf b e ing a m ir ro r i mage . T h is a ppea r s t o b e b o rn e o u t b y

c on su ls w ou ld c on s i s t o ff ou r l e g ion s . H is f i gu r e s f o r as t r eng thened l e g ion , t h a t i s al e g ion r a is ed i n at ime o f e xcep t iona l d ange r , a r e v er y c l o se t o t h o se o f L ivy ; 5 ,000 i n f an try a nd 3 00 c ava lry

P o l .V 1 ,32 ,6 .

( Po l .V I ,20 , 8 -9 ) . T he r e i s ag rea te r d i sc repan cy o ve r t h e f i gu re s f o r t h e a l l ie s . P o lyb iu s ( V I ,26 ,7 ) w ou ld h ave t h e n umbe r o f a l l ied i n f an try u sua l ly e qua l t ot h a t o f t h e R oman s a nd t h e c ava lry t h ree

8 ' S cho la r s h ave mo re r e cen t ly d iv ined t h a t P o lyb iu s w a s i n e f f ec t d e sc r ib ing h a lf o f a f ou r leg ion c amp .' ( K epp ie 1 984 ,37 ) ; ' He ( Po lyb iu s ) a c tua l ly d escr ib ed h a lf ad oub le -con su la r f ou r leg ion c amp . '

t ime s a sm any .

( J on e s 1 9 75 ,10 ) . 9 A .v .P r em e r s te in P .W . I V , 7 26 -59 ` Commen tar i i ' .

1 8 I nt h e e ven t t h e t h rea t b y t h e A puan i m ay n o t h ave b een a s g rea t a s a tf i r s t p e rce ived b y F ab iu s . T he c on su ls a ppea r n o t t oh ave b een s e r iou s ly t r oub led w hen o nc ampa ign i nL igur ia ( L ivy XL ,16 ,4 ;17 ,6 ) .

1 0 F o l low ing t h e d ef ea t o f P e r seu s a t P ydna i n 1 68 B .C . , P o lyb iu s w a s s ummoned t oR ome a l ong w i th o the r e m inen t A chaean s ( Po l . XXX ,32 ,1-12 ) . H e w a s s ub s equen t ly h e ld i n R ome w he r e h e m e t a nd was b ef r iended b y S c ip io A em i l ianus ( Po l . XXX I ,23 ) . On t h ed a te o fB ook V I : ' The re i s

1 9 A ne xamp le o ft h ec om ing t oge the r o ft wo c on su la r a rm ie s w h i ls t o n c ampa ign i sr e por ted b y L ivy f o r t h e y ea r 1 78 w hen t h e c on su ls w e re a lo t t ed d i f f e ren t p rov in ces b u t l a te r b o th a rm ie s c ame

n o e v id en ce t h a t a ny p a r t o f V I w a s c ompo sed s ubs tan t ia l ly l a te r t h an t h e b ook a s aw ho le ; a nd t h e r e i sn o th ing i n i tw h ich p o in t s t o ad a te l a te r t h an 1 50 f o r i t s c ompo s i t ion a nd ag ood d ea l w h ich i sr e levan tt ot h ep er iod j u s tb efo re t h a td a t e .' ( Br ink a nd Wa lbank 1 954 ,10 1) .

t o ge the r a tA qu i le ia ( XL I ,5 ,5 a nd 9 12 ) . E a r ly i n t h e H ann iba l ic Wa r t h e t wo d i c ta to r s F ab iu s a nd M inuc iu s w e re a tf i r s te ncamped t o ge the rw i th t h e ir r e spe c t ive a rm ie s . A f te r s ome d i sag reemen t s o ve r t h es t ra tegy t ob ea dop ted a ga in s tt h eC a r thag in ian s , M inuc iu s a g reed t o ad iv is ion o f t h e a rmy a nd c amped a pa r t f r om h i s c o l league . Af t e r an ea r

1 S c ip io A em i l ianu s h ad b een a dop ted b y P . C orne l i u s S c ip io t h e e l de r s on o fS c ip io A f r icanu s Ma jo r a nd c ou ld t h e refo re l a y c l a im t o A f r icanu s a s h i s g randf a the r .

d ef ea t i n b a t t le i n w h ich M inuc iu s ' f o r ce s w e r e s a ved b y t h o se o f F ab iu s , t h e R oman s a ga in j o ined f o r ce s i nas i ng le c amp ( Po 1 . 1 1 1 ,103 -105 .) .

1 2 ' The r e w a s n o r oom f o r s o many m en t oa s semb le a nd b ed ep loyed t r ibe b y t r ibe o nt h eC ap i to l . I nt h e

2 0 I n1 73 B .C . b o th c on su ls w e re a s s igned L igur ia a nd b o th w e re t o e n l is t t wo l e g ion s e a ch ( L ivy XL I I ,1 ,1-2 ) b u t P o s tum iu s w a s s en t b y t h e S ena te t oC ampan ia t os e t t le s ome b oundary d i spu t e s( L ivy

l a te R epub l ic t h e s c en e o ft h e l e vy w a s t h e C ampu s Mar t iu s . ' ( Brun t 1 971 ,626 ) . B run t c i t e s D io f r .109 .5 a nd V ar ro ,RR i i .2 .4 . t o s how t h e l e vy b e ing h e ld a tt h e C ampu s Mar t iu s .

XL I I ,1 , 6 ) . 2 1 A s l a te a s 1 69 , o n ly o ne y ea r b efo re P ydna , f ou r

1 3 L ivy w r i te st h a ti n1 82 B .C . A em i l iu sw a st ow in te r w i th h i s l e g ion s a tP i sa , ( XL ,17 ,7 ) a nd t h a t i n 1 78 B .C .

t h e

t wo

c on su ls

l e d

t h e i r

l e g ion s

l e g ion s a s w e l l a s s upp lemen ta w e r e a ppa r en t ly r a ised i n t h e s ame y ea r b u t o n ly t wo o f t h e se l e g ion s w e re d e s t ined f o r c on su la r u se a nd t h e

i n to

m a jo r d i f f e ren ce i n t h is c a se w a s t h a t t h e t wo c on su ls w e r e t oc ampa ign a par t , o n e i nI t a ly , t h e o t he r i n Ma cedon ia . ( L ivy XL I I 1 ,15 ,1-3 ) .

w in t e r -qua r te r s a tA qu i le ia ( XL I ,5 ,12 ) . 1 4 R aw son p o in ted o u t t h a t L ivy o n m i l i tar y i n nova t ion s i n t h e H ann iba l ic Wa r i s n o t v ery r e l iab le ( 1971 ,17 ) .

2 2 T he a r rangemen t s t h a t P o lyb iu s w a s r e f er r ing t o w a s t h e a l loca t ion o f ac er ta in n umbe r o ft h e a l l ied

1 5 B o th c on su ls w e re s en t t oL igur ia i n1 94 , 1 87 , 1 84 , 1 82 , 1 8 1 , 1 80 , 1 79 , 1 75 a nd 1 72 B .C . ( Brough ton 1 95 1 , 3 42 -417 ) .

t r oop s w ho w e re a s s igned a s e x t raord inan i . 2 3 T he O xf ord L a t in D ic t ionar y o f 1 968 g i ve s s e ve ra l d ef in i t ion s o f ac ommen tar ium o f w h ich 3 b ) a n e xpo s i tory t r ea t ise , i st h em ean ing t h a tm o s tc l ose ly

1 6 E s t im a t e so fl e g iona ry s t reng th b a sed o n t h e f i gu re s p rov ided b yL ivy h ave b een q ue s t ioned b u tT oynbee w ho f o und t h a t t h e a rgumen t s : ` . . te l l i nf a vou r o f t h e v i ew t h a t L ivy 's s t a t is t ica l i n f o rma t ion f o r t h e

d ef ine s t h e k i nd o f t e x t t h a t i sl i ke ly t oh ave b een f o und i n av ade m ecum .

y ea r s2 18 167 B .C . c a l l l e g i t ima te ly b e r e ga rded a s b e ing c o r rec t o n t h e w ho le . . .' ( Toynbee 1 965 ,45 ) ;

2 4 T h is i s s u r e ly t h e o n ly a r rangemen t t h a t w ou ld m ake s en se . I tw ou ld b e t h e u tmo s t f o l ly t ot a ke a n

B r un t ( 1971,4 16 ) a l so t o ok L ivy 's f i gu r e s t o b e

a rmy o n c ampa ign w i thou t t h e t r oop s h av ing b een

c r ed ib le f o rt h e mo s tp a r t : ` . .the g ene ra l r e l iab i l i ty o f L i vy 's d a ta o n a rm ie s a nd f l ee t s i sa s sumed . '

g i ven a tl e a s t r ud imen ta ry i n s truc t ion i nd r i l l a nd c amp c on s tru c t ion .

1 9

P ART 1 : CHAPTER 1 2 5 I n h i s s t udy o f I mper ia l R oman m i l i ta ry p ra c t ice c amp s i n Wa le s , D av ie s f o und t h a t : ' I n a l t h e c amp s t h e d i t ch w a s t h e m o s t i mpo r tan t f e a tu r e . ' ( 1 989 ,135 ) . 2 6 C hap t e r s 3 4 -36 a r e c on ce rn ed w i th d u t ie s w h ich w ou ld b e c a r r ied o u t d a i ly , a l though C h .34 s t i l l m ake s s ome r e f e r en ce s t o t h e a lo ca t ion o f r e spon s ib i l i t ie s w h ich w ou ld h ave b een d e c ided u pon a tt h e o u t se t o f t h e c ampa ign . P o l .V 1 ,34 ,3 ; F o r i n s tan ce t h e s i x t r ibun e s o fe a ch l e g ion d i v ide t h em se lve s i n to p a i r s ; e a ch p a i r i so n d u ty i nt u rn f o r t wo m on th s o u t o f s i x , s uperv i s ing a l l f i e ld o pe r a t ion s ( Po l .V 1 ,34 ,2 ) . S ome o ft h e d u t ie s s u ch a s t h e p a s s ing o f t h e w a t chwo rd a nd g o ing t h e r o und s a t n i gh t a r e d e scr ibed i n d e ta i l b u t i ti s n o t iceab le t h a ti ti st h e t r ibun e sw ho a r er e spon s ib le f o r m on i to r ing t h e se d u t ie s a nd e n su r ing t h a t t h ey a r ec or r ec t ly c a r r ied o u t( Po l .V 1 ,34 ,7 12 ) . C hap te r s 3 7 -39 d ea l w i th p un i shmen t s a nd r ewa rd sa nd o n ce a ga in i ti st h e t r ibune s w ho p rov ide t h e o ff ice r s f o r t h e c our t s -ma r t ia l ( Po l .V I ,37 ,1 ) , f o r t h e a dm in is t ra t ion o fp un ishmen t s( Po l .V I ,38 ,2 )a nd f o r t h e p r e sen ta t ion o fa wa rd s ( Po l .V 1 ,39 ,6 ) .

2 0

PART II: CHAPTER 2

DATING AND CHRONOLOGY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLICAN CAMPS IN SPAIN INTRODUCTION

For location of these sites and others mentioned in the text: see Fig.2.1.

In any investigation into the detail of Roman Republican castrametation it is necessary that the date of the foundation of each camp which has produced archaeological findings is identified as closely as possible. This is particularly so for those camps which show evidence of the internal buildings and layout in Spain for these provide some of the earliest and the best evidence for the development of Roman castrametation as a whole.

The sites of some Caesarian and Pompeian marching-camps in Spain dating from the time of the Civil War are either known or suspected.2 The evidence provided by the histories

Adolf Schulten's excavations during the early decades of this century have added greatly to our knowledge of Roman Republican legionary camps. Schulten however went further than was perhaps prudent, given the available evidence, in believing that he could deduce an exact chronology of the camps in Spain. He often attributed dates, campaigns and even Roman generals to the camps which he investigated, including those where little or no actual excavation took place. The arguments for such claims are presented at length in Schulten's two major volumes dealing with these camps (Schulten 1927; 1929) and in other sources listed below.

Schulten relied heavily on documentary sources, particularly the histories of Appian and Livy, to provide him with a background to the events in Spain- during the period of Roman Republican campaigning and occupation. Often he would attempt to match the events recorded by these historians with remains of Roman camps which he found on the ground. Many of these attributions, which identify the Roman military camps with a particular consul and campaign, are circumstantially attractive but it is an unfortunate fact that frequently far too little supporting evidence has come to light which could lend weight to these attributions.

Unfortunately the picture is not as clear cut as Schulten would have us believe and it is a requirement, before further detailed discussion can proceed, that the sequence and dating of the known Republican camps in Spain is examined in such a way that a fresh perspective can be introduced. In addition new evidence which has accumulated subsequent to the publications of the late l 920's and early l 930's can be considered.

The identification of the camp at Almenara with Go.Corn.Scipio is made solely on topographical grounds (Schulten 1927b,233). The camp was discovered 9km north of Roman Saguntum and Polybius tells us that Scipio, in 217 B.C.• camped with his forces about 5 miles from the town (III, 97,6). Likewise, the camps at Aguilar and Alpanseque have been linked to Cato's campaign against the Celtiberi on the basis that they are close to Segontia which, according to Livy (XXXIV,19,10), Cato is said to have besieged in 195. Schulten also credits Cato with the construction of Camp I at Renieblas which is close to the Celtiberian hill-fort of Numantia. He cites a passage of Aulus Genius (Attic Nights XIV,1,3) which reports that Cato delivered a speech at Numantia. From this and some additional tenuous evidence Schulten states that:

The chronology of the camps in Spain, their date and attributions according to Schulten may be swnmarised as follows in Table 2. I. Table 2.I: Chronology and dating of the major Roman Republican camps in Hispania (after Schulten).

So hat man denn Grund fur die Vermutung, Lager I konne im Jahre 195 von Cato erbaut sein. (1929,37).

Attribution Camp Date of foundation Almenara 217 B.C. GnComScipio Cato Aguila 195 B.C. Cato Alpanseque 195 B.C. Cato Renieblas, Camp I 195 B.C. Cato 195 B.C. Renieblas, Camp II Nobilior 153 B.C. Renieblas, Camp III (Auxiliary annexe) Nobilior 153 B.C. Almazan Nobilior 153 B.C. Castillejo, Camp l Marcellus 151 B.C. Castillejo, Camp 2 Pompeius 140 B.C. Viseu (Portugal) Brutus Callaicus 138 B.C. Castillejo, Camp 3 Scipio Aemilianus 134 B.C. Scipio Aemilianus Pena Redonda 134 B.C. Metellus Pius Caceres el Viejo 79 B.C. Pompeius Renieblas, Camp IV 75 B.C. Titurius B.eniebla ,Camp V 75/74 B.C.

Schulten went on to claim that Camp I at Renieblas would have served as Cato's winter-camp whilst Camp II, which overlay Camp I, would have been constructed by Cato as his swnmer-camp during the same campaign (Schulten 1929,40). There is greater plausibility in Schulten's identification of Camp Ill at Renieblas as the winter-quarters of the consul Nobilior in 153-152 B.C. (Keppie 1984,46). Appian tells us that Nobilior, after failing to subdue the Nwnantians, went into a winter-camp to await the arrival of his successor Claudius Marcellus and that d1is camp was only 24 stades (approximately 5km) from Numantia (Jberica IX,46-8). The shortest distance on the ground from Numantia to Renieblas measured on the modem map is

Sources for Table 2.11 21

PART I : CHAPTER 2

1 )

S c ip ion ic s i ege -camp s a t Numan t ia i n c lud ing C a s t i l le jo a nd

2 )

P e l la R edonda . T he s i te o f t he c amp s o n t he G ran A ta laya a tR en ieb la s .

3 )

A lmazän a nd N ava lcaba l lo , b o th t o t h e s ou th o f Numan t ia .

4 )

A lpanesque a nd Agu i la r , b o th c l o se t oS egon t ia .

5 )

C ava d e V ir ia to ( V i seu) .

6 )

A l to d o C a s te lo ( A lp ia rca ) .

8 )

Mo ron ( A lme ir im ) . Ronda l aV ie ja .

9 ) 1 0 )

A lmena ra . C äcere s e lV ie jo .

F ig .2 .1

L oca t ion o f t he p r inc ipa l s i tes i n H ispan ia men t ioned i n t he t ex t

DAT ING AND CHRONOLOGY OF THE ROMAN REPUBL ICAN C A MPS I NS PAIN a bou t7 .5 1 cm ( a pprox . 3 6s t ade s ) .3 C amp I Ic er ta in ly h e ld

T he c amp a tV iseu i nP or tuga l ( b e tween modern C o imb ra

q ua r te r s f o r al a rge f o rce i ns em i -pe rman en t b a r ra ck s b u t

a nd O por to ) , k nown a st h e C ava d e V ir ia to , w a s b e l ieved b y S chu l ten t oh ave b een t h e w o rk o fB ru tu s C a l la icu s i n

S chu l t en w a sp e rhap su nw ise t on ame i t` Nob i l io r 's C amp ' ( R ichmond 1 929 ,369 )a nd t h is c amp i sr e f e r red t oa sC amp I I R en ieb la s i nt h e r ema inde r o f t h is p r e sen t w o rk . A n

1 38 B .C . ( 1933 ,534 -38 ) . B ru tu s i ss a id b y S t rabo ( 1 1 1 ,3 ,1) t oh ave b a sed h i so pe ra t ion sa ga in s t t h eL u s i tan i i nt h ec i ty o f Moron ( mode rn A lme ir im i n P or tuga l ) w h ich i ss ome

a nnexe o f C amp I wh ich a d jo in s t h e m a in c amp i n t h e s ou th -ea s t w a s a l so a t tr ibu ted t oN ob i l ior o n t h e b a s is t h a t

1 70 I cm t ot h e s ou th o f V iseu . A la r cäo w r i t e s :

t h e c on su l w a s s a id t o h ave b een a c compan ied b y l o ca l I b er ian a ux i l ia r ie s ( App ian l ber ica I X ,47 ) a nd t h a t s uch a ux i l ia r ies w e r e o f t en p rov ided w i th t h e i r own c amp . '

S chu l ten c onnec t s t h e " Cava " w i th t h e c ampa ign s o f D ec imu s l un iu s B ru tu s C a l la icu s , b u t a s O le iro ( 1959 ,6 12 ) h a s p o in t ed o u t , i ti sv ery d oub tf u l t h a t t h e c on su l f ough t s o f a r i nt h e i n t er io r o f L u s i tan ia . T he r e a r e a lmos t n o r ema in s o ft h e R oman o ccupa t ion i n s ide

A lma zän , w h ich i saR oman c amp a bou t 3 4 1 cm s ou th o f N uman t ia , w a se xam ined b y S chu l ten a nd w a ss a id b y h im

t h e " Cava " .

t oh ave b een c on s t ruc ted d u r ing t h e s ame c ampa ign a ga in s t t h e N uman t ian s a st h a t m en t ioned a bove ; i tw a s t h er efo re a t t r ibu ted t oN ob i l ior ( Schu l ten 1 929 ,189 ) .T h is c onnec t ion w a s m ade o n h i s tor ica l a nd t opogr aph ica l g round s . A lmazän s t and s a t ap o in t m idway b e tween t h e t own o f

( A la r cäo l988 ,Vo l . I I ,Fa sc .2 ,59 ) . When c ommen t ing o n S chu l ten 's a t t r ibu t ion o f t h is c amp t oB ru tu s C a l la icu s , K a lb a nd H öck s t a t e :

O c i / i s ( mode rn Med inace l i )a nd Numan t ia , t hu s , a cco rd ing E s g ib t k e ine a rchäo log i schen F unde o der B ef unde ,

t oS chu l ten , a bou t o ne d ay 's m a rch f r om e i the r . A pp ian t e l ls u s t h a t N ob i l io r 's a rmy h ad s t o red t h e i r money a nd p rov is ion sa tO c i l i s( l ber ica I X ,47 ) . S chu l ten r e a soned t h a t ac amp p l a ced i n a dvan ce o f t h e s t o re s a t as t ra teg ic l o ca t ion o n t h e r ou te t o N uman t ia w ou ld h ave b een d e s irab le . H e b e l ieved t h a t N ob i l io r h ad s e t o u t f r om t h is

d i e d i e se D eu tung u nd Da t ierung s t ü t zen k önn ten . ( 1986 ,698 ) . S chu l ten p r e sen t s amo re c onv in c ing c a se i nt h ec onnec t ion b e tween h i s tor ica l a nd a r chaeo log ica l e v idence w hen d ea l ing w i th t h e s i ege camp s w h ich a r e i n v er y c l o se p rox im i ty t oN uman t ia . A pp ian ( l be r ica XV ,90 ) g i ve s a n

c amp p r ior t ot h e b a t t le o ft h e V u lcana l ia :

a ccoun to fs e ven f o r t sc on s truc ted u nde rS c ip io A em i l ianu s f o r t h e s i ege o fN uman t ia , a l l o fw h ich w e r e c onnec ted b y aw a l l w h ich c i r cumva l la ted N uman t ia i t s e lf . S chu l ten 's

D a s L age r A l tna zän w är e d ann e i n ige T age v or d er g roßen S ch lac t a n d en V u lcana l ien ( 2 3 A ugu s t ) 1 53 v .Chr . , a l so e twa am 2 0A ugu s t 1 53 e rbau t w orden . ( S chu l ten 1 929 ,189 ) .

e xcava t ion s a round t h e h i l l top o f N uman t ia p roduced e v idence o fs e ven c amp s a nd p a r t o f av a l lum , t h ough t t o b e as e c t ion o ft h e c i r cumva l la t ion ( S chu l ten 1 927 ) . T he se

C a s t i l le jo C amp s 1a nd 2 ,w h ich s t ood c l o se t oN uman t ia , w e r e l i kew ise a tr ibu ted b y S chu l ten o n t h e b a s is o f

s i ege -wo rk s c an b e a s cr ibed w i th a r e a sonab le d eg ree o f c er ta in ty t oS c ip io 's c ampa ign o f 1 34 133 B .C . Two o ft h e s e ven c amp s w h ich w e r e i n corpo ra ted i n to t h e c i r cumva l la t ion w e re t h ough t t ob e f o r l e g iona r ie s . O ne o f

r e f e rences p rov ided i nA pp ian 's l b er ica ( IX ,50 ; X I I 1 ,76 ) . T he e a r l ie r C amp 1 i s i d en t if ied w i th t h e c ampa ign o f C laud iu s Ma r ce l lus a nd t h e l a te rC amp 2t ot h a to fQ u in tu s P ompe iu s ( S chu l ten 1 927 ,172 ) . Ma r ce l lu s w a s , a cco rd ing

t h e se w a s P ef ia R edonda w he re p a r t o ft h e e nc irc l ing w a l l m en t ioned b y A pp ian w a s d i scover ed c l o se t ot h ed ef en ce s o f t h e c amp ; t h e o t he r w a s a t C a s t i l le jo ( Camp 3 ) . F o l low ing t h e d e s truc t ion o f N uman t ia i n 1 33 B .C . t h e r e w a s n o f u r the r R oman c ampa ign i nt h e i mmed ia te a r ea a nd t h is m ake s t h e i d en t if ica t ion o ft h e f i na l c amp o fC a s t i l le jo w i th t h e o pe ra t ion s c onduc ted b y S c ip io s e em a l l t h e m o r e l i ke ly .

t oA pp ian , a c t ive i n t h e a r ea i n 1 52 B .C . a nd w a s s a id t o h ave c amped w i th h i s a rmy a d i s tan ce o f 5s t ade s f r om N uman t ia ( App ian l ber ica I X ,50 ) . 5s t ade sw ou ld b ea bou t r i gh t f o r t h e d i s tance b e tween t h e h i l l o f C a s t i l le jo a nd N uman t ia ( 0 .208x5 = 1 . 04km ) b u t t h e re i sn o th ing e l se w h ich w ou ld i d en t if y C amp Iw i th Ma r ce l lu s w i th a ny c e r ta in ty . T he R oman s h ad c ampa igned i n t h e a r ea a t d i f f e ren t t i me s o ver a p er iod o f f i f ty y ea r s b efo r e t h e a r r iva l o f Ma r ce l lu sa nd t h e r ema in so fC amp Im igh th ave o r ig ina ted f r om o ne o f t h e se e a r l ie r c ampa ign s o r f r om

T he c amp w h ich w a s d i s cove red n ea r m odern C a ce r e s , p e rhap s t ob e i d en t if ied a st h e R oman C as t ra C aec i l ia , b u t r e f e r r ed t o i n r e cen t t ime s a s C a ce re s e l V ie jo ( U lber t 1 984 ,192 ) , i st ob e f ound i nS pan ish E x t r emadu ra c l o se t o t h e m ode rn b o rde r w i th P o r tuga l . I tr e ce ived ag r ea t d ea l

a lmo s t a ny c ampa ign p r io r t o t h e f i n a l a c t ion w h ich t o ok p l a ce a ga in s t N uman t ia i n 1 34 B .C . C amp 2 i sa t tr ibu ted b y S chuf t en t oP ompe iu s w ho i ss a id b y A pp ian t o h ave o ve rw in te r ed i n t h e v i c in i ty o f

o f a t ten t ion f r om S chu l ten . H e b e l ieved t h a t t h is c amp c ou ld b e a s soc ia ted w i th t h e S e r to r ian Wa r a nd m o r e

N uman t ia i n 1 40 B .C . ( l ber ica I X, 7 8 ) . T he re w e re c ampa ign s i nt h e f o l low ing y ea r s l e d b y P op i l l iu sa nd t h en

s pec if ica l ly w i th t h e c ampa ign o fC a ec i l iu s Me te l lu s P i u s d u r ing t h e c ou r se o f t h a t w a r . H e b a sed t h is b e l ief o n a c omb ina t ion o f t he p lace-name a ssoc ia t ion

Man c inu s a l though S chu l ten ( 1927 ,175 ) a rgue s , o n t h e b a s is o f A pp ian 's a c coun t , t h a t n e i the r P op i l l iu s n o r

C aec i l ia/Caec i l iu s t oC a ce re sa nd u pon h i s to r ica la c coun t s ( d rawn f r om S a l lu s t a nd P lu ta r ch ) . T h is t h eory w a s f i r s t e xpounded b yS chu l ten i n1 9 18 a nd r e pea ted i n1 928 i nt h e J .D .A .I . ( Ar ch .A nz . ,2 ) .

Manc inu sw ou ld h ave h ad o cca s ion t ob u i ld aw in ter -camp , b u t , l a ck ing o t her e v idence , S chu l ten 's a rgumen ti nf a vou r o f o ne p a r t icu la r b u i lde r f o r C a s t i l le jo C amp 2 c an n eve r h e e n t ir e ly c onv inc ing . 2 3

P ART I : CHAPTER 2 T he k i nd o f h i s tor ica l g ue s swo rk e mp loyed b y S chu l t en , a nd w h ich f o rm s t h e b a s is o f T ab le 2 . 1 , h a s l i t t le t o r e comm end i t .

T he f i na l c amp a t R en ieb la s ( Camp V ) w a s t h ough t b y S chu l t en t ob e long t ot h e p e r iod o f t h e l a t te r p a r t o f t h e S er to r ian Wa r a nd t oh ave b een p u rpo se -bu i l t f o r t h e 11 2 / l e g ion sw h ich S a l lu s t( H i s t . , I I ,94 )t e l ls u sh ad a c compan ied t h eg en e ra l T i tur iu s . S chu l t en 's h ypo the s is c on ce rn ing t h is c amp c an b e s hown t o b e v ery s e r iou s ly f l awed ( s ee C hap te r 5 ) . T he d a t ing e v iden ce f r om C amp V h a s a l so b een p rob lema t ic a nd t h i s i sd i s cu s sed i ns ome d e ta i l l a t e r .

R e cen t f i e ld -work : o n t he g round a nd i nt he a i r

T he c hrono logy o ft he c amp s I t i sp o s s ib le t o d e term in e a l o ca l ised a nd r e la t ive c h rono logy f o rt h o se s i te s s u ch a sR en ieb la sa nd C a s t i l le jo w he r e t h e r e h a s b een s u cce s s ive R oman a c t iv i ty . T h is i s b e cau s e a tb o th o f t h e se l o ca t ion s t h e s i t e c ho s en f o r t h e c amp h ad l i t t le v a r ia t ion . Whe r e t h i s o ccu r s t h en a tt h e v er y l e a s t t h e c amp s c an b e p l a ced i n as e quen ce a nd a r e la t ive d a t e c an b e p ropo sed f o r t h o se w h ich l i e s t r a t ig raph ica l ly a bove o r b e low t h e c amp w h ich c an b e d a t ed . T h i s t h row s i n to r e l ief t h e b a s ic a r cha eo log ica l p ro ce s sa nd h ow w e l l i tw a s u nde r s tood b y S chu l t en f o ri n s ome c a se s as t r ic t a pp l ica t ion o f s t ra t ig r aph ic p r in c ip le s w i l l n o ta low t h e k i nd o fc on c lu s ion st h a th ep u tf o rwa rd . A t R en ieb la s , C amp Ii sd emon s t rab ly t h ee a r l ie s tc amp o n t h e s i t e a l though i t s d a te o fc on s t ru c t ion i su nknown . T he l a te r C amp I , i d en t if ied b y S chu l t en a s a n i n dependen t s umme r camp , a l though c l ea r ly l a t e r t h an C amp Iw h ich i t o ve r l ie s , h a s a n u n ce r ta in r e la t ion sh ip w i th C amp I I . S chu l t en s ugge s ted t h a t p a r t o f t h e w a l l o f C amp I w a s d e s t royed b y t h e b u i ld ing o fC amp I I ( S chu l ten 1 929 ,39 ) b u th ei su n c lea ra bou tt h ee xa c ta r chaeo log ica lr e la t ion sh ip a tt h ej un c t ion w he r e t h e t wo w a l ls m e e t . I nf a c t S chuf t en l a te rc on t rad ic t sh im se lf a nd a dm i t st h a tC amp I c ou ld j u s t a s e a s i ly h ave b een a n a nn exe t o C amp I I ( S chu l ten 1 929 ,115 ) . L ik ew i se , t h e r e i s ap rob lem w i th t h e a nn exe w h ich S chu l t en e xcava ted o n t h e s ou th ea s t s i de o fC amp I . I t a pp ea r s f r om t h e e xcava to r 's a c coun t ( i b id . ,111 ) t h a t t h e w a l l o f t h i s a nnexe a bu t s t h e w a l l o fC amp I I . I ft h is i s a c cep ted t h en t h e a nn exe mu s t b e e i the r c on t empo ra ry w i th , o rl a t e r t h an C amp I I . S chu l t en g i ve s o n ly t h e f i r s t o p t ion , t h a tt h e a nnexe i sc on tempo ra ry w i th C amp I a nd t h a t i t m u s t h ave b e longed t o t h e a ux i l ia r ie s w ho a c compan ied N ob i l io r t oh i s w in t e r -camp a tR en ieb la s i n 1 5 3 B .C . ( i b id . ,117 ) . P e rhap ss i gn if ican t ly , t h eg a te o ft h is a nnexe i sd ef ended b y at i tu /um ( i n t h i s c a s e as t on e b ank 9 . 5m l o ng ) ; af e a tu r e w h ich a ppea r s t ob e a b sen tf r om a ny o ft h e g a t e s o fC amp I I . T he s e cond a l terna t ive , t h a t t h e a nn exe i sl a t e r t h an C amp I I , c anno t b e r u led o u t . O the r c amp s w h ich h ave as t ra t ig raph ic r e la t ion sh ip t oC amp I I a r eC amp sI V a nd V . b o th o fw h ich h ave d ef en s ive c i r cu i t s w h ich d emon s t rab ly o ve r l ie C amp I I .

L a t e r w o rk c a r r ied o u t o n t h e c amp s i n S pa in h a s d on e l i t t le t o i mp rove t h e v exed m a t t e r o f t h e i r d a t e . S ome f i e ld -wo rk w a s u nde r tak en i n 1 968 a tt h e R oman c amp o f A lmazän ( Game r a nd O r tego y F r fa s 1 969 ,172 -84 ) . S chu l ten h ad c onne c t ed A lmaz än w i th N ob i l io r b e l iev ing i tt ob e h i ss umme r camp i n 1 53 B .C . h e e xp re s s ed d oub t s a bou t t h i s a t t r ibu t ion ( S chu l ten 1 929 ,127 ,n .2 ) . T he w o rk o fG ame ra nd O r t ego yF r fa sw a sp r ima r i ly c on cerned w i th f r e sh o b s erva t ion s o n t h e d ef en ce s a tA lmazän . T he f i nd s m ade d u r ing t h e c ou r se o f t h e l i m i t ed e xcava t ion s e a son p o in t ed t o ad a t e o fo ccupa t ion f o r t h e m a in c amp o f t h e s e cond h a lf o f t h e s e cond c en tu r y B .C . o r t h e e a r ly f i r s t c en tu ry B .C . T h i s l e d t h e e xcava to r s t ob e l ieve t h a t t h e r e w a s s om e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t t h e c amp m igh t h ave b een a s so c ia ted w i th D id iu s , t h e c on su la r g overno ro f C i t er ior i n9 8 B .C . , b u t i nt h e i r f i na l c on c lu s ion s t h e q u e s t ion o f t h e c ampa ign t ow h ich t h is c amp b e longed w a s l e f t o pen ( Game r a nd yF r ia s 1 969 ,184 ) .6 G a r c ia y B e l l ido ( 1976 ) l i s ted m any o ft h e k nown R oman c amp s i n t h e I b er ian p en in su la a nd p rov ided s ome s umma ry o fe a ch . G a r c ia mo s t ly a c cep ted t h e d a t ing a nd a t t r ibu t ion sm ade b yS chu l t en b u th ei n t rodu ced s ome s l igh t a d ju s tmen t s . F o r C amp Ia t R en ieb la s h e e x t ended t h e p e r iod i n w h ich t h e c amp w a s c on s t ru c ted b eyond t h e s i ng le d a te o f 1 95 B .C . o f f e red b y S chu l t en . F o rC amp I , G a r c ia g i ve s ad a t eo fc on s t ru c t ion b e tw een 1 95 179 B .C . ( 1976 ,67 ) . A l though h i s r e a son s a r e n o t g i ven , h e p r e sumab ly b e l ieved t h a t t h e c amp c ou ld d a t e f r om a ny t i me b e tw een t h e f i r s t c ampa ign o f C a to a nd t h e e s tab l i shmen t o f ar e la t ive p eace i nt h e p en in su la i n 1 78 B .C . C amp I V a tR en ieb la s , w h i ch S chu l ten d a t ed t o7 5 B .C . , w a s s a id b y G a r c ia m e re ly t op o s t -da t e t h e y ea r 9 0 B .C . (1976 ,67 ) . G a r c ia d oe s r a i se s ome g r ea t e r d oub t s o ve r t h e d a t ing o f t h eC ava d eV i r ia to w h ich S chu l ten t h ough tt ob et h e w o rk o fB ru tu s C a l la icu s a nd h e s t a te s t h a t : L aa t r ibuc iön a V i r ia to e sv u lga r ys i na poyo c i en t ff ico a l guno . ( Ga r c ia yB e l l ido 1 9 76 ,70 ) . A c amp w h i ch c ame t o l i gh t a f t e r t h e i n ve s t iga t ion s o f S chu l ten w a s t h a t a t N ava lcaba l lo 1 0km s ou th ea s t o f S o r ia . T h is w a s as umme r camp o f a bou t 3 0 h e c ta r e s c apab le o fh o ld ing t wo l e g ion s . G a r c ia a r gue s t h a t i td a t e s p robab ly f r om t h e t i me o ft h e S e r to r ian Wa r ( i b id . ,7 1 ) .

A t C a s t i l le jo t h e r e a r e t wo c amp s , C amp s 1a nd 2 ,w h ich c an h e s hown t op r ecede t h e f i na l c amp , C amp 3 ,t h e o ne w h ich a ppea r s c e r ta in t o h ave b een b u i l t f o r S c ip io 's c ampa ign o f 1 34 133 B .C .

An ew R oman c amp w a s o b served b y G a r c ia i na n a e r ia l p ho tog raph o ft h e a r ea a r ound t h e m od e rn t own o fR onda i n s ou the rn S pa in . T he c amp , a t R ond a l aV ie ja , h ad a r e gu la r r e c tangu la r s h ape a nd w a s t h ough t b y G a r c ia t o h ave r e su l ted f r om t h e s t rugg le s o fC ae s a ra ga in s tP ompey o n t h e g round s t h a t i ti si n t h e p r e c i s e a r ea w he r e t h e c onf l ic tt o ok p l a ce b u th ea dm i t st h a tt h e r ei sn os uppo r t ing

I nt h e d i s cu s s ion s o f a r , i tw i l l b e s e en t h a t t h e r e a r e f ew f i rm ly d a t ed s i te s o f R oman R epub l ican c amp s i nS pa in . 2 4

D AT ING AND CHRONOLOGY OF THE ROMAN R EPUBLICAN C A MPS I NS PAIN e v id en ce f o r t h i s a s s e r t ion ( i b id . ,71 ) .

d i s cove ry ( i .e . w he the r t h e f i nd s w e r e s t r a t if ied o r n o t ) a l though t h ed i scu s s ion o ft h ef i nd st h em se lve sw a su sua l ly q u i t e d e ta i led . T he p o t t e ry f r om t h e c amp s a tR en ieb la s a nd t h o se s u r round ing N uman t ia w a se xam in ed b y K oen en ( i n S chu l ten 1 929 , 2 84 -305 ) . O ne o f t h e m o s t t e l l ing c e ram ic f i nd s f o r d a t ing p u rpo se s w a s m ade a tC amp I R en ieb la s w he r e p a r t o f a n a mphora w a s f o und t oh ave b een s t amped w i th t h e m ak e r 's m a rk o f ap o t te r w ho se p rodu c t sh ad b een f o und i nt h ed e s t ruc t ion l e v e l sa s so c ia ted w i th t h e s a ck ing o f C a r thage i n 1 46 B .C . ' Wh i l s t t h i s s i ng le f i nd c anno t b e t a k en a sc on c lu s ive e v iden ce o f t h e l i k e ly o ccupa t ion d a t e f o r C amp I I i t d o e s , w hen c on s ide r ed i nc on jun c t ion w i th o t he re v iden ce ( s ee b e low ) , p o in t t owa rd s am id se cond c en tury B .C . d a t e f o r t h e o ccupa t ion o fC amp I R en ieb la s a nd t h i s v i ew h a s b een g en e ra l ly a c cep ted b y modern s c ho la r s .'

A m o r e r e cen t w o rk i s t h a t o f B l äzqu e z ( 1 986 ) w ho p ub l i shed as e r ie s o fa e r ia l p ho tog r aph s o ft h e r ema in s o f t h e R oman R epub l ican c amp s i n c en t ra l S pa in . T he t e x t w h ich a c compan ie s t h e se p ho tog r aph s o f f e r s n o th ing n ew o n t h e q ue s t ion o fd a t ing a pa r t f r om d r aw ing a t t en t ion t o t h e w o rk o f U lbe r t a nd H i ldeb rand t ( s ee b e low ) . I n f a c t B l ä zqu ez s t ick s v e r y c l ose ly t o t h e p i c tu r e p r e sen ted b y S chu l t en ; h e l i s t s , i ns uppo sed ly c h rono log ica l o rde r , t h e R epub l ican c amp so fH i span ia . T h is l i s td oe s n o td i f f e ri n i t sc h rono logy f r om t h e l i s tg i ven a bove i nT ab le 2 . 1 . Two c amp s a r e h ow eve ra dded t ot h a t l i s t . T h e f i r s t o ft h e s e i s ac amp a t Ampu r ia s , s a id t ob e t h e w o rk o fG na eu s S c ip io i n2 18 B .C . T he c amp a t Ampur ia s , t h e f o rme r G r eek t r ad ing s e t t lem en t o f Empor ion , i sa c co rd ing t oB lä zquez t h e s i t e o f t h e o l d e s t R oman m i l i ta r y c amp i nH i span ia ( 1 986 ,681 ) .

T he c o in s f r om a l o f t h e c amp s e xcava t ed b y S chu l ten w e r e i n i t ia l ly c on s ide red b y h im t o b e m o s t ly o f l i t t le d a t ing v a lue a s h e b e l ieved t h a t t h ey w e r e i nc i r cu la t ion o ve r t o o g r ea t ap e r iod ( 1 9 18 ,105 ) . L a t e r , i n 1 929 , S chu l ten c omm i s s ion ed a s p ec ia l i s t r e po r t o n t h e c o in s f o und a t t h e R en ieb la s s e r ie s o f c amp s ( S chu l t en 1 929 ,234 -83 ) . H e r e cogn i sed t h a t t h e l a t e s t c o in s o n t h e s i t e m ay g i ve s ome i n d ica t ion o f t h e d a t e o f t h e l a t e s t o c cupa t ion ; t h i s i so n t h e u nde r s tand ing t h a t t h e r e i sn o e v iden ce t os ugge s t t h a t t h e c amp s u nde r d i scu s s ion h e r e w e r ec on t inuou s ly o c cup ied o ve rv ery l o ng p er iod so ft i me l i k e s ome I mpe r ia l m i l i ta r y i n s ta l la t ion s . C lea r ly t h e r e i s r oom f o r s ome l a t i tude a nd d a te s a r r ived a t f r om c o in e v iden ce s hou ld b e c on s ide r ed a l ong s ide a l o t he r r e levan t f a c to r s . An o t e o fc au t ion i si n je c ted b y C r awf o rd :

T h e o t he r a dd i t ion i s t h e c amp a t N ava lcaba l lo a nd B l ä zqu ez , p e rhap s f o l low ing G a r c ia , p l a ce s i t i n t h e S e r to r ian Wa r . ' A n o bv iou s e r ro r h a s o ccu r r ed i n t h e l i s t ing w her e t h e s i ege -camp s a tN uman t ia a r e c r ed i t ed t o G n a eu s S c ip io i n s t ead o fS c ip io A em i l ianu s . T h i s m i s tak e i ss u b s equen t ly c o r r ec ted i nt h e d e ta i led d i scu s s ion o ft h e s i t e . O n e o ft h e f ew k nown o r s u spe c t ed R oman c amp s i nt h e I b er ian p en in su la t oh ave e s caped t h ea t t en t ion so fS chu l ten w a st h a to fA l to d oC a s te lo n ea rA lp ia r c ai nP or tuga l . T he c amp h ad ap o lygona ld ef en s ive f o r t if ica t ion s im i la rt ot h a t f o und a tV i s eu . T he s i te w a s t h e s ub je c t o f as ma l l s c a le e x cava t ion c a r r ied o u t i n 1 981 ( Ka lb a nd H ö ck 1 982 ) . D u r ing t h e c ou r s e o f t h e e xcava t ion a t r en ch w a s d ug t h rough t h e d e f en s ive w a l l b u t t h i s p rodu ced o n ly p r e -Roman m a t e r ia l . I n s p i te o f t h i s t h e e xcava to r s h e ld t h a tt h e w a l l sw e r ep robab ly R oman ( i b id . ,15 1) . N oc l o se r d a t ing w a s p o s s ib le . I n h i s g aze t t e e r o f R oman s i t e s i n P o r tuga l , A la r cäo s t a te s t h a t A l to d o C a s t e lo w a s :

O fc ou r se i tc anno t b ea s sumed t h a t as i t e o rp a r t o f as i t e t h a t c l o s e s a t ac e r ta in d a te w i l l p rodu ce a s e r ie s o fc o in s r e a ch ing r i gh t d own t ot h a t d a t e . ( 1 969 ,5 ) . T he c o in e v idence f r om R oman R epub l ican c amp s i n S pa in

.a s i t e d e f ended b y a ne a r th b ank w he r e p o t t er y f r om t h e s e cond c en tury B .C . t ot h e f i r s t c en tu ry A .D . h a s b e en f ound . T he e xcava t ion s h ave s t i l l n o t r e vea led w he the r i tw a s aR oman ised " o pp id um" o rm o r e l i k e ly aR oman c amp . ( A la r cäo 1 988 ,V o l .I ,F a sc .2 ,116 ) .

Many o ft h ec o in sf o und o nt h e R oman c amp s i te si nS pa in w h ich w e r e e xcava t ed b y S chu l ten a r e p r e sen t ly h e ld b y t h e R öm is ch -G e rman i sch Z en t ra lmu seum i n Ma in z a l though s ome r ema in i nt h e P rov in c ia l Mu s eum a tS or ia . T ho se f r om N uman t ia a nd R en ieb la s w e r e t h e s ub je c t o fa r e cen t s t a t is t ica l a na ly s is c a r r ied o u t b y H an s J oa ch im H i ldeb rand t . T he m e thodo logy a pp l ied b y H i ldeb r and t i s s e t o u t i n Mad r id e r M i t t e i lungen ( 1 979 ,Vo l .20 ,238 -7 1 ) . T he p r em ise w h ich h e p u t f o rwa rd i st h a t t h e d a t e o f c i r cu la t ion o ft h eb ronz ec o in s i nt h e S pan ish c amp so ft h e R epub l ic c an h ea r r ived a tb yc ompa r ing t h e ir w e igh t sw i th t h o se o f k nown d a t e f r om t h e c en t r a l R oman m in t s . H i ldeb rand t w a s a wa r e o f t h e d i ff i cu l t ie s i n he r en t i n a pp ly ing s u ch a s y s tem . T he t i me d e lay b e tween t h e m in t ing o f ac o in a nd i t sa r r iva l i nc i r cu la t ion a to ne o ft h e S pan ish s i te s i s i mpo s s ib le t o d e t e rm ine . H i ldeb r and t s ugge s t st h a tt h o se c o in sw h ich s how l i t t le s i gn o fw ea ra r e l i ke ly t oh ave a r r ived o n t h e s i te s n o t l o ng a f t e r m in t ing b u t h e a l so c ommen t s :

I ndependen t d a t ing ma ter ia l i n r e la t ion t ot he R oman R epub l ican c amp s i n S pa in Wha t o f t h e e v iden ce s upp l ied b y a r t if a c t s f o und a tt h e s i t e so ft h ec amp s , p r in c ipa l ly p o t t e r y , b rooche sa nd c o in s , w h ich m igh t p r ov ide a n i n dependen t d a t ing s ou r ce? T h is b ody o fm a t e r ia l , a pa r t f r om t h e c o in s , h a s r e ce ived o n ly l i m i ted a t t en t ion t od a te . ' I nS chu l t en 's t wo m a jo r p ub l ica t ion so n t h e R oman c amp s i nS pa in t h e d i scu s s ion o f t h e f i nd s o ccu r r ed a s af i na l c on s ider a t ion i n t h e s i t e r e po r t ( 1 927 ,243 -266 ; 1 9 29 ,20 1-305 ) . T he se f i nd s r e po r t s o f ten g ave n o p r e c is e l o ca t ion o f i n d iv idua l f i nd spo t s n o r t h e c i r cum s tan ce s o f 2 5

P ART I : CHAPTER 2 D ie s i ch e rgebenden Z e i ten k önnen s e lb s tv er s tänd l ich

T he d a t e range g iven f o r C amp I I a tR en ieb la s d oe s n o t

n ur s og enau s e in w ie d ie b ekann ten Z e i tangaben f i ir d i e r öm i schen B ronzemünzen . ( H i ldeb rand t 1 979 ,265 ) .

c onf l ic t w i th o the r e v idence w h ich h a s b een p re sen ted e a r l ie r a nd w ou ld n o t b e i n con s is ten t w i th t h e o ccupa t ion

H i ldeb rand t 's m e thod a nd c on c lus ion s . H i ldeb rand t l i s ted a l l o f t h e c o in s f r om t h e s e r ie s o fc amp s a tR en ieb la s o n

o ft h e s i t e i n 1 53 B .C . As i ng le h oa rd o fo ve r 1 00 s i lve r v i c tor ia t i f ound a t C amp I I h a s a l so b een d a ted t o t h e m idd le y ea r s o f t h e s e cond c en tu ry B .C . ( H i ldeb rand t 1 979 ,251 ) .1 2 T he d a te range f o r t h e s i ege -camp s n o t

t h e G ran Ma laya a nd t h ose f r om t h e s i ege -camp s a round

s urp r is ing ly i n c lude s t h e y ea r s 1 34 133 B .C . , t h e y ea r s i n

N uman t ia . H e u sed h i s o wn n umber ing b u t p rov ided a c on co rdan ce w i th t h e l i s t ings o f C rawfo rd ( 1974 ) a nd H aebe r l in ( i n S chu l t en 1 927 a nd 1 929 ) . F o l low ing t h is ,

w h ich S c ip io i sr e co rded a sh av ing l a id s i ege t oN uman t ia . F o rC amp V a tR en ieb la s h oweve r , H i ldeb r and tc on c luded

D e sp i te t h is i t i s n ever the le s s i n s truc t ive t o e xam ine

H i ldeb rand t d evo ted a c hap te r t o t h e c ha ra c ter is t ics o f b ronze c o in s o f t h e c en t ra l m in t s o f t h e R oman R epub l ic a nd t h o se o ft h e m in t s o ft h e S pan ish R oman p rov ince s i n

t h a t : N um i sma t i sch r echner i sch i s t d a s L ager n V d en ' L age r en d e sS c ip io 'z e i t l ich e i n ige J ahre n achgeordne t .

w h ich h e s t re s sed t h e i mpor tance o f c o in -we igh t a nd

H i ldeb rand t b e l ieved t h a t h e c ou ld i d en t if y ag radua l

E s g ehör t a ber z we if e l lo s i n d en h i s tor i schen Z u sammenhang d e s r öm ischen K ampf e s g egen d i e A revake r v on N uman t ia . ( 1 979 ,27 1) .

a ve rage w e igh t l o s s i n t h e R oman b ronze c o in s m in ted d u r ing t h e f i na l t wo c en tur ie s B .C . a nd t h a t t h is w e igh t l o s s w ou ld b e r ef lec ted i n t h e c o inage f ound a t t h e

I ts hou ld b e n o ted t h a t H i ldeb rand t 's d a t ing f o r C amp V h a sn o tb e en u n ive r sa l ly a ccep ted ( s ee f oo tno t e 1 3 , C hap te r

m in t -ma rk s i ne nab l ing i d en t if ica t ion s t ob e m ade .

r e ce iv ing s i te s . O n t h is b a s is , t h e s i te w h ich p roduced t h e h ighe s t a ve rage w e igh t f o r i t s c o in s amp le s hou ld b e t h e

2i nK epp ie 1 984 ,236 ) a nd as ugge s t ed d a te o fc . 135 -c .130 f o r t h is c amp mu s t g ene ra te a g r ea t d ea l o f c oncern .' H i ldeb rand t 's d a t ing o fC amp V o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e c o in e v iden ce m u s t b e c ha l lenged .

e a r l ie s t . H i ldeb rand t g rouped t h e N uman t ian c o in s u nde r t h e ir r e spec t ive s i te s a nd l i s ted t h em a cco rd ing t ow e igh t . F rom t h is h e w a s a b le t o p roduce a t a b le s how ing t h e a ve rage w e igh t o f b ronze c o in s f r om t ho se s i te s w he r e e nough c o in s h ad b een f ound t oj u s t if y t h e a pp l ica t ion o f t h is p roce s s ( t he m in imum n umber w a s 1 5 ) . T he t h ree

c o in s

T he d a t ing o fC amp V R en ieb la s o nt he e v idence o ft he

w h ich q ua l if ied w er e C amp I I a t R en ieb la s , t h e s i ege -camp s s u r round ing N uman t ia ( wh ich w e r ec omb ined

T he t o ta l n umber o fc o in s a va i lab le f o r s t udy f r om C amp Vw a s 1 5 . T h i s i s ar e la t ive ly s ma l l n umbe r w i th w h ich t o

a nd t r ea ted a so ne s i te ) a nd C amp V a tR en ieb la s .

c onduc t as t udy b a sed o n a verage w e igh t a nd c ompa re s u nf avou rab ly w i th t h e t o ta l o f 6 5 c o in s f r om C amp I a t

T he s i te w i th t h e h i ghe s t a ve rage b ronze c o in -we igh t w a s C amp I Ia tR en ieb la sf o l lowed b y t h eS c ip ion ic c amp sa nd t h en C amp V a t R en ieb la s w h ich p roduced t h e l i gh te s t a verage . H i ldeb rand t t h e r efo re p ropo sed a r e la t ive

R en ieb la s a nd t h e 4 0 f r om t h e s i ege -camp s a r ound Numan t ia . I na dd i t ion , H i ldebrand t 's s t a t is t ic s , b a sed o n a ve rage w e igh t l o s s i nR epub l ican c o inage o ve rt h ep er iod o ft h e f i na l t wo c en tu r ie s B .C . , c an b ec a l led i n to q ue s t ion .

c hrono logy f o r t h e se t h ree s i te s i n w h ich C amp I I a t R en ieb la s w a s t h e e a r l ie s t a nd C amp V a tR en ieb la s , t h e

O f t h e 1 5 c o in s f r om C amp V , o n ly s e ven w e r e f r om t h e c en t ra l R oman m in t s , t h e o the r s i x w e re p roduc t s o f t h e

l a tes t , w i th t h e s i ege -camp s f a l l ing b e tween t h e se t wo ( H i ldeb rand t 1 979 ,257 ) . T he r e la t ive c h rono logy p roduced d oes n o tc onf l ic tw i th t h e s equen ce p roposed b y S chu l ten .

p rov inc ia l S pan ish m in t s . V i l la ronga ( 1979 ) i n a c h rono logy o f R epub l ican c o in s f r om s ou ther n S pa in t h ough t t h a t t h e S pan ish m in ts r e du ced t h e a ve rage w e igh t o ft h e ir b ron ze c o inage i nt a ndem w i th t h e c en t ra l R oman m in t sa nd H i ldeb rand tp roceeded o nt h es ame p r in c ip le . O n

F rom ap o s i t ion o fh av ing e s tab l ished ar e la t ive c h rono logy f o r t h e t h r ee s i te s m en t ion ed a bove , H i ldeb rand t t h en a t temp ted t o d e t erm ine a n a b so lu te d a te range f o r t h e o ccupa t ion p e r iod o f e a ch . T h is w a s a ch ieved b y i n ve s t iga t ing t h e c o in s i n much g rea te r d e ta i l , t a k ing i n to a c coun t i n d ica t ion s s u ch a sm in t -ma rk s .

t h is p o in t , K napp c ommen t s : T he t e nd en cy n ow i s t o d a te S pan ish m a te r ia l b y a c omb ina t ion o f m e tro log ica l a nd h i s tor ica l c on s ide r a t ion s . T he a s sump t ion i sm ade t h a t s i lve r a nd b ronze c o in sw e re m in ted l o ca l ly i na c co rdan ce w i th t h e

T he r e su l t s o f t h is i n ve s t iga t ion c an b e t a bu la ted a s f o l low s : T ab le 2 .2 . T he d a t ing o fC amp s I I a nd V a tR en ieb la sa nd

w e igh t so ft h e ir R oman c oun terpar t s f r om I t a ly a nd t h a t b o th R oman a nd n a t ive w e igh t sd ec r ea sed i nt h ec ou r se o f t h e 2 nd . a nd 1 s t . c en tur ie s B .C . A l though n a t ive i s sue s w e re c l ea r ly i n tended t o c omp lemen t a nd

t h e s i ege -camp s a round Numan t ia ( a f te r H i ldeb rand t ) ."

c i r cu la te w i th R oman i s sues , c h rono log ica l a r gumen t s

C amp

b a sed o nd e c l in ing w e igh t s a r e u n re l iab le . We igh t sa r e , i n deed , g ene ra l ly l e s s i n4 5 B .C . t h an i n2 00 B .C . , t h e

R en ieb la s , C amp I I

D a te r a nge 1 57 -1 46 B .C .

S i ege camp s ( a t N uman t ia )

1 4 1-c .130 B .C .

R en ieb la s , C amp V

d ec rea se h oweve r , i sn o t s moo th e ven w i th t h e R oman c o inage a nd t h e n a t ive c o inage c an h a rd ly h e e xpec ted

c . 135 -c .130 B .C .

t ob e a ny b e t te r . 2 6

D AT ING AND CHRONOLOGY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLICAN C A MPS I NS PAIN ( Knapp i nB urne t t a nd C rawfo rd e d s .1987 ,19 ) .

w a s f ound i n ap a r t o ft h e c amp w h ich d i d n o t o ve r l ie a ny e a r l ie r c amp s a nd c ou ld , h e b e l ieved , b e f i rm ly l i nked t o

S u ch a w e igh t c or re la t ion h a s n o t b een f ound i n I t a ly w he r e l o ca l b ronz e a f t e r t h e H ann iba l ic Wa r c anno t b e

C amp V .' H is a c tua l d e scr ip t ion o ft h e f i nd spo t v a r ie s i n n o w ay f r om h i s d e scr ip t ion o f t h e f i nd spo t s f o r o t he r c o in s a t R en ieb la s w he r e h e i d en t if ie s t h e b a r ra ck o r

d a ted b y ac ompa r ison o f :

b u i ld ing i n w h ich e ach c o in w a s f ound b u t h e r a r e ly p rof f e r ed a ny a dd i t iona l i n forma t ion . H i ldeb rand t 's c on ten t ion t h a t t h e f i nd spo t f o r t h e u nc ia w a s u nc lea r a ppea r s t o b e a n e spec ia l c a se o f s pec ia l p l ead ing . I n a l

. .non -Roman w e igh t s t anda rd s t o R oman s ex tan t ia l , u n ica l o r s em tm ica l ( o r w ha teve r ) s t anda rd s . ( Burne t t 1 982 ,126 ) .

o t he r i n s tance s h ea ppea r s t ob eh appy t oa c cep tS chu l ten 's l i s t ing s o ft h e i n d iv idua l f i nd spo t s .'

N um isma t is t sa r ee v iden t ly n o ti na g reemen ta bou tw he the r t h e d ec l in e i n a ve rage w e igh t i n t h e b ronze c o inage c i r cu la t ing i nS pa in i nt h e R epub l ican p er iod c an r e a l ly b e p e r ce ived a s a c cu ra te ly a s H i ldeb rand t w ou ld s ugge s t .

H i ldeb rand t 's r a the r n a r row d a te range f o r t h e o ccupa t ion o f C amp V o f c . 135 -c130 B .C . w ou ld , i fc or rec t , b e h igh ly s i gn if ican t . C lea r ly , s uch ap rec is e d a t ing o fC amp Vc anno t b e a ccep ted w i th a ny d eg ree o f c onf iden ce . A

H i ldeb rand t 's f i nd ing s mu s t t h er ef o re b e t r ea ted w i th c i r cum spec t ion a nd f u r the r c ommen t mu s t b e s ough t . T he c o in s e r ie s f r om C amp V , a nd a l so t h o se f r om C amp I I a t

d a te s omewhe re b e tween t h e l a te s e cond a nd t h e e a r ly f i r s t c en tury B .C . i sp e rhap s a l l t h a t c an b e p ropo sed o n t h e b a lan ce o ft h e a va i lab le e v iden ce .

R en ieb la s , f r om t h e s i ege -camp s a round N uman t ia a nd f r om C ä ce re s e lV ie jo , h ave p rev iou s ly b een e xam ined b y C rawfo rd ( 1 969 ) . H is f i nd ing s w e re t h a tC amp I I a nd t h e

T he c o in f i nd s f rom C äcere s e lV ie jo

s i ege -camps b o th p roduced c o in s w h ich w e re m in ted b e tween 2 08 -c .150 B .C . , w h i ls t t h e c o in s f r om C amp V a nd C ä ce r es e lV ie jo w ere t hough t t of a l l w i th in t h e r ange o f1 24 -92 B .C .( Crawford 1 969 ,144 -5 ) . T h is c onf l ic t sw i th H i ldeb rand t w ho a r r ived a t ad i f f e ren t c onc lu s ion f o r t h e c o in s f ound a tC amp V . H e s t a ted t h a t :

H i ldeb rand t w a s a l so i n vo lved , a s a u tho r o f t h e c o in r e po r t , i n t h e r e a s se s smen t o f o n e o f S chu l ten 's e xcava t ion s a t t h e R oman c amp k nown a s C ä ce re s e l V ie jo . S chu l ten 's o r ig ina l r epor t i s s p read o ve r f ou r v o lume s o f t h e J .D .A .I . XXX I I I ( 19 18 ) ; XL I I I ( 1928 ) ; XLV ( 1930 ) a nd XLV I I ( 1932 ) . N o n ew e xcava t ion w a s u nder taken b u t U lber t ( 1984 ) o f f e red a c omp rehen s ive

A l le i mL age r Vg ef undenen Münzen m i tA u snahme d e r U nze N r .183 , m ü ssen d aher v or 1 30 v .Chr . g epräg t w orden s e in .

r e v iew o f t h e a r chaeo logy a nd h e p ub l ished a d e ta i led c a ta logue a nd c onunen ta ry o n t h e f i nd s . O ve r 2 80 c o in s w e re f ound a nd H i ldeb rand t u sed t h e s ame m e thod o f c l a s s if ica t ion o ft h e c o in s i n to w e igh tc l a s se s w h ich h e h ad

( 1979 ,268 ) .1 4 C o in n umb e r 1 83 h ad b een s ub jec ted t op rev iou s s t udy . I t w a sa nu nc ia w h ich H aebe r l in , i nS chu l ten ( 1929 ,182 ) , h ad a s cr ibed t o am in t o f 8 2 B .C . T h is , a l ong w i th t h e

e mp loyed e a r l ie r f o r t h e c o in s f r om N uman t ia . F rom t h is h e c on c luded t h a t c i r cu la t ion o fc o in s a tC äce re s e lV ie jo c ea sed i n8 0 B .C . p lu s o r m inu s t h ree y ea r s ( H i ldeb rand t i nU lber t 1 984 ,297 ) . T he r e serva t ion s a bou t t h e r e l iab i l i ty o f H i ldeb rand t 's m e thod s s hou ld h oweve r b e b orne i n

e v iden ce o f m i l i ta ry i nnova t ion s i n t h e l a you t o f t h e b a r ra ck s t h a t S chu l ten b e l ieved h e c ou ld i d en t if y a tC amp V . l e d h im t ob e l ieve t h a t i t mu s t h ave b een c on s t ruc ted a f te r 9 0 B .C . a nd , c ruc ia l ly , a l so a f t er 8 2 B .C . , p robab ly d ur ing t h e p er iod o f t h e S er tor ian Wa r . T he o r ig ina l i d en t if ica t ion o ft h e c o in w i th S u I la i sn ow t h ough t t ob e i n cor re c t . C r awfo rd d a te s i tt o a bou t 10 B .C . ( 1969 ,5 )

m ind . I nd iv idua l c o in s w h ich c ou ld b e i d en t if ied b y m in t -ma rk s

a nd h e f u r the r b e l ieves t h a t i tp rov ide s as e cu r e t e rm inu s p o s t q uem f o r C amp V ( Crawf o rd i n l i t t . ) .1 5 H i ldeb rand t

i n c luded t h e l a te s t d enar iu s w h ich w a s f ound o n t h e s i t e , q ue s t ionab ly o f 9 6 o r 9 2 B .C . a nd t h e l a te s t s em i s se s o f 9 0 -80 B .C . ( H i ldeb rand t i nU lber t 1 984 ,272 ; 2 93 ) . U lber t

i n c luded t h eu nc ia i nh i sc o in -we igh t s t a t is t ic s f o rC amp V b u t e l im ina t ed i tf r om c on s ide ra t ion i n h i s f i na l d e ta i led s t udy o n t h e g round s t h a t i tw a s u n s t ra t if ied :

c on s ide red t h e c o in s t o b e t h e mo s t i mpor tan t o f t h e d a teab le f i nd s a nd h e q uo ted H i ldeb rand t 's c on c lu s ion s v e rba t im . O n t h e o t he r f i nd s U lber t w r i te s :

D ie n ähe ren F undum s tände d er U nze i m L ager s i nd n ich t b e kann t .

V er s tänd l icherwe i se e rgaben d i eA na l y sen d er ü br igen F undga t tungen i n g ün s t igen F ä l len l e d ig l ich

( H i ldeb rand t 1979 ,268 ) .

D a t ierungen n ach J ahrhunde r thä lf t en . ( U lbe r t 1 984 ,192 ) .

I nf a c t S chuhen i ss pec if ic a bou t t h e f i ndspo t o ft h is c o in : T he s u sp ic ion b y S chu l ten t h a t t h e s i te b e longed i n t h e e a r ly f i r s t c en tu ry B .C . a ppea r s t h e refo r e t ob ec on f irmed . U lbe r t i sh oweve rc au t ious a bou ta ccep t ing t h e c amp a st h e

G ef und en i nd en T r ic l in ienhäu sern 0 . v om P rä tor ium , a l so s i che ri mL ager V ,d a d i ea ndern L ager n i ch t w e i t n ach S .r e ichen .

b a se o f Me te l lu s P iu s :

( S chu l t en 1 929 ,foo tno t e 1 , 182 ) . Me te l lu s w ar d ann a ber w oh l n i ch t d e r G ründe r . . . ( i b id ., 2 00 ) .

T he m en t ion o f t h e o t he r c amp s w a s i n c luded b ecau se S chu l t en w i shed t od raw a t ten t ion t ot h e f a c t t h a t t h e c o in 2 7

P ART I : CHAPTER 2 CONCLUS IONS

H e w a s u nw i l l ing t o g o f u r th e r a nd t h e r e su l t s o f f u tu r e e xcava t ion s a t t h e s i t e a r e a wa i t ed w i th i n t e r e s t . T he se e xcava t ion s m ay t a ke p l ace i nt h e 1 990 's ( U lbe r t i nl i t t . ) a l though a tt h et ime o fg o ing t op ub l ica t ion o ft h is w o rk i n 1 995 n o p rog r e s s h ad t a k en p l a ce .

T he r e su l t s o f t h i s e xam ina t ion i n to t h e d a t ing o f t h e R oman R epub l ican c amp s i nS pa in , b a s ed o n af r e sh l o ok a t t h e e x i s t ing e v iden ce , c on t r a s t s m a rked ly w i th t h e p i c tu r e p r e s en t ed b y S chu l t en , a s ac ompa r ison o f T ab le 2 . 1 w i th T ab le 2 . 3 w i l l c l ea r ly s how . S u ch a ne xam ina t ion i s an ece s sa ry r e qu i r emen ti nt h es t udy o ft h e se c amp s a nd i th a s b een s hown t o b e l o ng o ve rdu e . T h is h a s b e en i lu s t ra ted b y r e f e r en ce t o t h e r e cen t p ap e r b y B l ä zquez ( 1 986 ) i n w h ich t h e h ypo the se s g en e r a ted b y S chu l t en c on cern ing t h e d a t ing a nd a t tr ibu t ion o f t h e c amp s w e r e r e p roduced u n cr i t ica l ly . S chu l t en 's d a t ing o f t h e R epub l ican c amp s a l so p rov ided t h e b a s is f o r ap ap e r b y G a r c ia y B e l l ido ( 1976 ) o n t h e R oman a rmy i nS pa in b u t h e w a sr a the rm o r e w a r y a bou t a c c ep t ing a l l o fS chu l t en 's f i nd ing s .

T he s equence a nd d a t ing o f t he R oman R epub l ican c amp s i nS pa in : t he p re sen t s t a te o f afa ir s I tc an b es e en t h a t i ti sn o tp o s s ib le t oc on s t ru c t ac omp le t e c h rono logy f o rt h eR oman R epub l ican c amp s i nS pa in t h a t w i l l b ea r t h e w e igh t o f c r i t ic i sm . H oweve r s ome a t temp t c an b e m ade t op r e sen t t h e k nown e v iden ce c oup led w i th t h e f i nd ing s w h ich h ave e me rged f r om t h e d i s cu s s ion a bove . T h i s w i l l a tl e a s t p rov ide aw o rk ing p l a t f o rm f r om w h ich f u r the r d e ta i led d i scu s s ion c an p ro ceed . T ab le 2 . 3 P a r t ia l c h rono logy a nd s ugge s t ed d a t e o f f o unda t ion f o r s ome o f t h e R oman R epub l ican c amp s i n S pa in . C amp R en ieb la s , C amp I R en ieb la s , C amp I ? R en ieb la s , C amp I ( a nnexe ? )

F ounda t ion d a t e E a r l ie r t h an C amp I I R en ieb la s U n cer ta in M id se cond c en tu r y B .C . C on tempo ra ry w i th o r l a t e r t h an C amp I I

C a s t i l le jo , C amp 1 C a s t i l le jo , C amp 2

E a r l ie r t h an C amp 2C a s t i l le jo E a r l ie r t h an C amp 3C a s t i l le jo

C a s t i l le jo , C amp 3

1 34 B .C . ( S iege camp o fS c ip io A em i l ianu s ) 1 34 B .C . ( S iege camp o fS c ip io A em i l ianu s )

P e l la R edonda

A lmaz än

S e cond h a lf o ft h e s e cond c en tu ry t ot h e e a r ly f i r s t c en tur y B .C .

R en ieb la s , C amp I V

L a t e r t h an C amp I I a nd e a r l ie r t h an C amp V o n t h e s ame s i t e .

R en ieb la s , C amp V

L a t es e cond -ea r ly f i r s tc en tu r yB .C .

C ä ce r e s e lV ie jo

E a r ly f i r s t c en tu ry B .C .

NOTES 1 Al inena r a ( S chu l ten 1 927b ,233 ) ; A gu i la r ( S chu l t en 1 929 ,19 1-2 ) ; A lpan seque ( S chu l t en 1 929 ,196 ) ; R en ieb la s , C amp I( S chu l ten 1 9 29 ,37 ) ; R en ieb la s , C amp I ( S chu l t en 1 929 ,39 -40 ) ;R en ieb la s ,C amp I ( S chuf t en 1 929 ,116 19 ) ;R en ieb la s ,A ux i l iary a nn exe ( S chu l t en 1 929 ,11115 ) ; A lm az än ( S chuf t en 1 929 ,189 ) ; C a s t i l le jo , C amp 1 ( Schu l t en 1 927 ,170 -74 ) ; C a s t i l le jo , C amp 2 ( i b id . ,170 -74 ) ; C a s t i l le jo , C amp 3 ( i b id . ,170 -74 ) ; P e l la R edond a ( S chu l t en 1 927 ,22 ) ; V i seu ( S chu l t en 1 9 33 , 5 34 -38 ) ; C ace r e se lV ie jo ( S chu l ten 1 928 ,2 ) ; R en ieb la s ,Camp I V ( S chu l t en 1 929 ,144 ) ; R en ieb la s , C amp V ( S chuf t en 1 929 ,182 ) . 2 S ome m a r ch ing -camp s d a t ing f r om C a e sa r 's c ampa ign a ga in s t t h e P ompe ian a rmy i n 4 9 B .C . w e r e c l a imed t o h ave b een l o ca t ed b y S chu l t en ( 1 940 ,31-80 a nd Mapa I I I ) i n t h e r e g ion a r ound L er ida ( I l erda ) . O the r c amp s d a t ing f r om t h e l a t e r c ampa ign o fC ae sa r i n4 5 B .C . a ga in s t t h e r e s idua l P ompe ian a rmy a r et h ough tt oh av eb e en s i ted i nt h e r e g ion s a r ound C o rduba a nd n o r th o f Mon t i l la ( i b id . ,102 -40 a nd Mapa I I ) ; t h e s e i n c lude t h e s o -ca l led C a s t ra P o s tum iana w h ich i sm en t ioned b y C ae sa r i n h i s S pan i sh W ar ( 1 ,8 ) . T h is c amp , p robab ly n amed a f t e r P o s t tun iu s A lb inu s t h e p rop ra e to ro fU l ter ior i n1 80 179 B .C . ,w a sf o r t if i ed b y C ae sa r ; i ti su sua l ly i d en t if ied w i th t h e mod er n h i l lo fH a rn i l la a bou t5 1 an s ou th -we s to fT eba ( Way , 1 955 ,324 , 1 ) 1 ; P a scuc c i 1 965 ,Tay . I I ) .

T ab le 2 . 3s umma r ise st h er e su l t so ft h ei n ve s t iga t ion sm ade a bove . T h is t a b le d oe s n o t i n c lude t h o se c amp s f o r w h ich t h e r e i sn o i n dependen td a t ing e v iden ce b u ti td oe s i n c lude t h o se w h ich h ave s ome s t r a t ig r aph ic r e la t ion sh ip t o o ne a no the r a nd w he r e a tl e a s t o ne o f t h em h a s s ome d a t ing e v iden ce . I tw i l l b e s e en t h a t t h e c h rono logy g i ven i nt h is l i s t i so n ly p a r t ia l d ue t ot h e g roup ing o ft h e c amp s w h ich h ave r e la t ive d a t ing o n ly . T he d a t e o f f o unda t ion g i ven h e r e f o r i n d iv idua l c amp s , w i th t h e e xcep t ion o fC a s t i l le jo C amp 3a nd P e i la R edonda , i so f ten i mp r e c i se b u t p r e sen t e v iden ce w ou ld n o t s e em t oa low f o r f u r the r r ef in emen t e x cep t p e rhap s i n t h e c a se o f C ä ce r e s e l V ie jo -a nd U lb e r t 's c ommen t s o n t h a t m a t t e ra r e d ea l t w i th i nf u r the r d e ta i l l a t e r .

3 Mapa M i l i ta rD e E spana 1 : 50 ,000 , 1 9 75 ; 1s t ad e = 0 .208 1 cm . 4 S chu l t en c i t ed t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e i s n o d i r e c t c ommun ica t ion b e tw een t h e a nnexe a nd t h e m a in c amp . H e s aw t h is a s c onf i rma t ion t h a t a ux i l ia r y f o r ce sw e r en o tt r u s ted . L i vy ( XXV ,33 )d e sc r ibe sa n o cca s ion i n2 12 B .C . w hen H a sdrub a l w a s a b le t o e n t ice t h e e n t i r e C e l t ibe r ian f o r ce o u to ft h e R oman

2 8

DAT ING AND CHRONOLOGY OF THE ROMAN REPUBL ICAN C A MPS I NS PAIN C amp I I b u t t h e s o ca l led t r ic l in ium -hou se e a s t o f

c amp t hu s l e av ing i t v u lne rab le t o a t tack . T h i s i n c iden t w a s p resumab ly k nown t o l a te r R oman g ene ra ls a nd L ivy g ive s a n e xamp le i n 1 78 B .C . o f

t h ep rae tor ium i n wh ich t h e c o in w a s f ound i sw e l l o u t s ide t h ef u r the s tp o s s ib le s ou thern e x ten to fC amp

t h e c amp o ft h e G au l ish a ux i l ia r ie s b e ing s t a t ioned o n e m i le f r om t h e R oman c amp ( L ivy XL I ,1 ,8 ) . 5 S a l lu s t H i s t . , 1 ,115 -19 ; S e r tor iu s .

1 ,28 ;

P lu ta r ch

1 7 H i ldeb rand tr e p roduce st h em i n as e r ie so ff oo tno te s t oh i s c o in l is t ( 1979 ,238 -71) .

L ive s

6 T he r e c tangu la r s hape o f t h e c amp a t A lmazän i s s im i la r t o t h a t o f t h e l e g iona ry b a se a tC ä ce r e s e l V ie jo a nd t h e o f t en r e co rded s hape o f f o r t re s se s o f t h e Emp ire b u t t h e s hape o f ac amp i sn o s u r eg u ide t oi t s l i ke ly p e r iod o fc on s truc t ion . 7 R ef e ren ce s t o t h e c amp a t N ava lcaba l lo m ay b e f o und i nG a rc ia y B e l l ido ( 1976 ,70 -71) . 8 T he f i nd s f r om t h e l e g ionary b a se a t C ä ce r e s e l V ie jo h ave b een r e -exam ined i n al e ng thy a nd s c ho la r ly v o lume p ub l ished b y U lbe r t ( 1984 ) . F o ra r e v iew o f t h is work s e e K epp ie i n B r i tann ia XV I 1 1 ,1987 ,40 1-2 . 9 D iscu s s ion o f t h e d a t ing o f R hod ian a mphorae i s f ound i nB l ec i cmann ( 1907 ) . 1 0 R ichmond 1 929 ,369 ; K epp ie 1 984 ,37 ; C onno l ly i n H acke t t e d . , 1 989 ,159 -60 . 1 H i ldeb rand t 1 979 ,26 . 1 2 C rawf ord ( 1969 ,74 )i n c lude st h i sh oa rd o fv i c tor ia t i i n h i s l i s t ing o f t h e R epub l ican c o in -hoa rd s o f 2 08 -150 B .C . ( No .118 ) . 1 3 S chu l ten b e l ieved t h a t t h e b ar ra ck s a t C amp V R en ieb la s w e re a r ranged i n s u ch a w ay t h a t t h ey w ou ld i n d ica te t ha t t h e l e g ion s w e re a c commoda ted i nf u l l c ohor ta l o rde r ( Schu l ten 1 929 ,16 1 a nd P lan XX ) . Mo reove r , h e b e l ieved t h a t s u ch a n a r rangemen tc ou ld o n ly b ee xp la ined b yi n nova t ion s i nc amp d e s ign b rough t a bou t b y t h e i n co rpo ra t ion o ft h e S oc i i i n to t h e l e g ion s f o l low ing t h eL e x J u l ia o f9 0 B .C . , ac once s s ion t ot h eS oc i i r e su l t ing f r om t h eo u tcome o ft h eS oc ia l Wa r( S chu l ten 1 929 ,180 ) . O nt h is b a s is S chu l ten h ad at e rm inu sp os tq uem f o r C amp V o f 9 0 B .C . w h ich i si r re conc i lab le w i th H i ldeb rand t 's d a t ing o fC amp V i nt h e 1 30 's B .C . 1 4 T h is i sH i ldeb rand t 's l i s t ing ; t h e c o in i sl i s ted a s N o .20 1 b y H aebe r l in i n S chu l ten ( 1929 ) a nd a d escr ip t ion o ft h e c o in i sf ound o n p age 2 47 . 1 5 A cco rd ing t oC rawfo rd , a nonymou su nc iae ( s uch a s t h e e xamp le f r om C amp V ) w i th d oub le c ornucop iae w h ich a r e u sua l ly a t t r ibu ted t oS u I la , p robab ly b e long w i th t h e u nc iae o fM . HERENN 1 ( Cr awf o rd 1 969 , N o te 1 ,T ab le X I ,40 ) . 1 6 T he n o r th -ea s t p a r t o fC amp V o ve r l ie s t h e e a r l ie r 2 9

P ART I I : CHAPTER 3

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T he l o ca t ion o f N uman t ia ( 1 ) , t h e G ran A ta laya ( 2 ) , C a s t i l le jo ( 3 ) , a nd P ef i a R edonda ( 4 ) .

1 )

P ART I I : CHAPTER 3

CA MPS I I I I AT REN IEBLAS AUTHOR 'S NOTE t e rmed t h e e a r ly s e r ie s o fc amp s o n t h e s i t e a l though t h e p r ec ise d a t ing o f C amp s Ia nd I i su nknown ( s ee T ab le

T h is c hap te r e xam ines t h e a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s o f t h e s e r ie s o f ' e a r ly ' R oman c amp s ( Camp s I I I I ) a tR en ieb la s i n n or thern c en t ra l S pa in a nd p rov ide s a l terna t ive i n t erp re ta t ion s t ot h o se p u t f o rwa rd b y S chu l ten .

2 . 3 , a bove ) . A l l o f t h e c amp s i n t h e e a r ly s e r ie s u t i l i sed t h e c on tou r s o f t h e h i l l i n o rde r t o a ch ieve a f a vou rab le d ef en s ive c i r cu i t ; t h ey c l ea r ly d i f f er f r om t h e l a t er s e r ie s ( Camp s I V a nd V ) w he r e t h is c on s ide ra t ion a ppea r s t o h ave b een l a rge ly u n impo r tan t .

D u r ing t h e r e s t o ft h is w o rk d imen s ion s w i l l b e g iven i n m e t r e s . Whe r e a pp ropr ia te , a dd i t iona l m ea su remen t s a nd d imen s ion s w i l l b e g iven i n pM t h is b e ing t h ea bbrev ia ted f o rm o fp e s Mone ta l is , t h e R oman f oo t f o r w h ich av a lue o f 0 .2957m i s a s sumed ( s ee D i lk e 1 989 ,26 ) . I t i s

T he s t a te o ft he p re serva t ion o f C amp s I I I I L ong s e c t ion s o f t h e p er ime t e r w a l ls o f C amp s I I l l ( a l l

r e a sonab le t oc on s ider t h a t t h ep e s Mone ta l i s w ou ld h ave b een t h e o ff ic ia l a nd d e s igna ted u n i t o fm ea su remen t o fa R oman a rmy d e spa tched f r om R ome . T h is u n i t i s mor e

c on s truc ted l i ke t h e i n terna l b u i ld ing s o f l o ca l l ime s ton e ) s u rv ive a tf ounda t ion l e ve l . S ome o ft h e g a t e f ounda t ion s

l i k e ly t oh ave b een t h e u n i t o fm ea su remen t e mp loyed o n R oman m i l i ta ry s i te so ft h e R epub l ican p e r iod t h an t h ep e s

p a r t icu la r ly t h ep or ta d ecur nan .a o fC amp I I .

D ru s ianu sw h ich w ou ld a ppea r t oh ave h ad ag r ea te ru sage i nt h ep rov in ce sb u t n o t n e ce s sa r i ly w i th in R oman m i l i tary

h ave a l so

s urv ived

i n a q u i te r e a sonab le c ond i t ion ,

e s tab l ishmen t s o ft h e t wo c en tu r ie s b ef o r e C h r is t .

T he s t a te o f p r e serva t ion o f t h e i n te rna l b u i ld ing s i s v a r iab le . T he f ounda t ion s o f many o ft h e b u i ld ings i nt h e n or thern h a lf o fC amp I Ic an b ei d en t if ied f r om S chu l t en 's

Av a lue o f0 .2957 w a s a l so u sed b y S chu l ten i na l l o fh i s c a lcu la t ion si nt h ec onve r s ion o fm e t r ic m ea su remen t s i n to R oman f e e t a nd v i ce v e r sa a l though t h e s u ff ix pM w a s n o t u t i l ised . F o rt h es ake o fc on s is tency t h ep r e sen ta u tho rh a s a t temp ted t o u s e pM w he re p o s s ib le t h roughou t f o r a l l R oman m ea su remen t s . T he f a ir ly f r equen t r e f e rence s t o s p ec if ic d imen s ion s i ns ome o ft h e r ema in ing c hap ter s may a ppea r t e d iou sb u t t h e se a r e n ece s sa ry i no rde rt od raw o u t t h e d i f f e r en ce s b e tween t h ea r chaeo log ica l r ema in s a st h ey w e re o r ig ina l ly r e co rded a nd c an s t i l l b e r e co rded t oday a nd t h e s t anda rd ised p i c tu r e w h ich i ss ome t ime sp re sen ted .

p l an s o f 1 927 a nd 1 929 b u t t h o se i nt h e s ou th h ad a l ready s uf f e red b ad ly b y t h e t u rn o f t h e t wen t ie th c en tury f r om s t one robb ing p e rhap sf o rt h ec r ea t ion o ff i e ld t e r race s ; t h is p r ac t ice m ay s t i l l c on t inue . Wh i ls t t h e o u t l ine s o f s u ch d e ta i l s a si n d iv idua l r oom s i ns ome o ft h eb u i ld ings w i th in C amp I I c an b e e a s i ly i d en t if ied o n t h e g round , i tw a s o b served t h a t i n d iv idua l s t one s w i th in t h e w a l ls h ave b e come d i sp la ced o ve r t h e y ea r s i nq u i t e l a rge n umbe r s . T h is w ou ld a ppea r t ob e t h e r e su l t o fa l low ing g oa t h e rd s t or oam a c ro s st h e r u in s , s ome th ing w h ich s t i l l o ccu r sw i th f r equency . T he r e i sn o r e s t r ic t ion o f a c ce s s a tR en ieb la s u n l ik e N uman t ia w he re t h e r ema in s o n t h e h i l l -f o r t a r e

I NTRODUCT ION

g ua rded a nd p ro tec t ed a ga in s t l i ve s tock . '

T he R oman s i te k nown a s R en ieb la s t a k e s i t s n ame f r om

CA MP IREN IEBLAS

t h e s ma l l t own n ea rby . T h is l o ca t ion o f f e r s av i ew o f t h e C e l t iber ian h i l l -fo r t o f Nwnan t ia , s ome 6 I cm t ot h e w e s t , a nd w a s t h e r efo re r e cogn ised a s as t ra t eg ica l ly i mpor tan t p o s i t ion o nm o r et h an o ne o cca s ion . T he s ucce s s ive R oman

T he s hape a nd a rea o ft he c amp T he n o r th w a l la nd p a r t so ft h ee a s ta nd w e s t w a l l o fC amp Is u rv ive . T he n or th w a l l f o l low s t h e n a tu ra l s l ope o f t h e h i l lj u s tb e low t h e 100m c on tou r( F ig .3 .2 ) . A l though t h is w a l l i ss hown o n t h e p l an a s h av ing b een r e cove red o ve r i t s e n t ir e l e ng th S chu l ten r e cogn ised t h a t t h e re w a s s ome d oub t a bou t w he the r m a jo r p ar t s o f i tm ay h ave b een r e con s truc ted , p e rhap s f o r l a te r s t ock e n c lo su re s :

c amp s g en e ra l ly d e scr ibed a s b e ing a t R en ieb la s a r e a c tua l ly s i tua t ed o n h igh g round o n t h em o s t w e s te r ly s pu r o f ar ange o fh i l ls k nown a st h e G ran A ta laya ; t h e t own o f R en ieb la s l i e s b e low . O n t h e mode rn m ap t h e r u in s a r e m a rked ' Ru ina s C ampamen to d e E s c ip iön ' ( F ig .3 .1) b u t t h e re i sn o d i re c t e v iden ce t h a t l i nk s a ny o ft h e c amp s a t R en ieb la s t ot h e S c ip ion ic c ampa ign : t h e k nown S c ip ion ic c amp s a r e c on s ide red i n al a te r c hap te r .

D ie v or d e rS ch luch ta nd en W a l la nse t zende Maue r n ach S üd i s t w oh l n i ch t r öm i sch . ( S chu l t en 1 929 ,34 f n .1) .

A l l o f t h e c amp s a t R en ieb la s w e re c on s truc ted o f s t one a nd p robab ly t imbe r , w i th t e r t ia ry l i me s tone p rov id ing t h e m a te r ia l f o r b u i ld ing f ounda t ion s a nd f o r t h e o u te r

S chu l ten g i ve s ab r ead th f o rt h e i n ter io r o ft h ec amp ( f rom w e s t t oe a s t ) o f 3 45m w h ich h e c l a imed w a s c l o se t ot h e

d ef en s ive w a l ls . T he l i me s tone w a s r e ad i ly a va i lab le a tt h e

m ea su r emen t

s i te a nd c ou ld b e q ua r r ied e a s i ly f r om t h e s u r f a ce d ue t o

o f

3 54m

a nd

t h u s

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o f

a pp rox ima te ly 1 200pM o r 1 2 ( s ic ) a c tu s S chu l ten c l ea r ly i n tended t h is t or e ad 1 0 a c tu s r a the r t h an

l a ck o ft o p so i la nd t h ep a t te rn o fw ea the r ing w h ich a l lowed m anageab le b lock s t ob e r emoved w i th a ppa r en t e a se .

1 2 . ( 1 a c tu s = 3 5 .48m , t h u s 1 2 a c tu s w ou ld b e i n t h e r e g ion o f4 26m a nd n o t 3 54m ) .

C amp s 1 , Ha nd I a tR en ieb la s c on s t i tu te w ha t m ay b e

3 1

P ART I I : CHAPTER 3

F ig . 3 .2 T he w a l ls o fC amp 1a nd C amp 1 a tR en ieb la s i nr e la t ion t oC amp I ( a f ter S chuhen 1 913 ) . S ca le 1 : 1 00000 3 2

C A MPS

AT REN IEBLAS

T he a r chaeo log ica l e v idence i si n suff ic ien t t os uppor t a ny

d oub t s r a i sed a bove . H e re w e a r e p re sen ted o n p l an w i th

o fS chu l ten 's a s ser t ion sr ega rd ing t h em en su ra t ion o fC amp I .T he p o s i t ion o ft h es ou th o u te rw a l l w a sn o tl o ca t ed w i th a ny c e r ta in ty e i the r b y S chu l ten o r t h e p re sen t a u thor .

w ha t a ppea r f o r t h e mos t p ar t a s as e r ie s o fh em i s t r ig ia , m any o f w h ich a r e o r ien ta ted n or th sou th . T he se a r e t h e s ame b u i ld ing s w h ich S chu l ten h ad s ugge s ted w e r e t h e a c commoda t ion -w ing so ft h r ee s ided b a r ra ck s , e a ch p a i ro f w h ich w ou ld h ave f l anked ac en t ra l c our tya rd . H oweve r t h e b u i ld ing s s hown o n P lan I l ia a ppea r t o b e much t o

T he i n terna l b u i ld ing s a t C amp I T he r ema in s o f t h e b u i ld ings i d en t if ied a s b e long ing t o

c l o se

C amp Ia tR en ieb la s a r e e x t reme ly f r agmen ta ry . S chu l ten

s u cceeded a nd t h e re i sl i t t le r oom o r i n deed e v iden ce f o r

t o o ne

a no ther

f o r t h is

a r rangemen t t o h ave

p ub l ished t wo p l an so ft h e se r ema in s i nh i s f i na l r e por t o n t h e s i te ( 1929 , P l an s I I a nd I l ia ) . T he f i r s t o ft h e se p l an s , t h a t o f K oen en , s how s t h e r ema in s o f t h e b u i ld ing s a s r e co rded b y o b serva t ion a nd p l anned b y t h e t r ad i t iona l g round sur vey m e thod . T he s e cond p l an s how s t h e s ame a r ea w i th t h e b u i ld ings p lo t ted o n b y m ean s o f a

t h e r e a r r a nges . T he l a you t o f t h e se b a r rack s i sn o t t o o d i s s im i la r t o t h a t s e en i n t h e a nnexe o f C amp I I ( c f . F ig .3 .4 w i th F ig .3a .1) . I ti sc l ea r , f r om a r e ad ing o f t h e t e x t , t h a t S chuf t en h a s t a ken t h e P o lyb ian d e scr ip t ion ( Po l .V I ,29 )o ft e n t s l a id o u t i n r ow s i n m an ipu la r o rde r a s t h e b a s is f o r h i s i n terp re ta t ion o f t h e b u i ld ing s w i th in C amp I .I ti st h i s l a you t w h ich i s r e cogn is ab le i n t h e r ow s o f b a r ra ck s

t a cheome tr ic s urvey c onduc ted b y L amme r e r . S chu l ten r e commend sh i sr e ade r sh ip t ou se b o th p l an s( 1929 ,33 )a nd t h e e xcava to ra ppea r s t oh ave f o l lowed t h i sa dv ice h im se lf

g rouped i nl i ne s o f f i ve b a r ra ck s t o ar ow w h ich S chu l ten h ad i d en t if ied w i th mu ch g rea te r s ucce s s a t C amp I R en ieb la s( S chuf t en 1 929 ,64 -5 )a nd w a sa l so ,a rguab ly , t h e l a you te mp loyed f o rc e r ta in o ft h eb a r ra ck sa tt h eS c ip ion ic s i ege -camp o fC a s t i l le jo . S chu l ten w r i te s :

w hen h e c ome s t o d i scu s s t h e i n terp re ta t ion o f t h e b u i ld ings o f C amp I ; t h is r e su l t s i n ar a the r c onfu s ing p i c tu re . O n P l an I I ( t ha t w h ich r e co rd s t h e o b se rvab le s e c t ion s o fw a l l ing -s hown h e re a s F ig .3 .3 ) S chu l ten h a s a dded c on je c tu ra l w a l l l ine s i nt h e b e l ief t h a t t h e r ema in s w e r e t h o se o f b a r ra ck s w h ich w e r e l a id o u t i nm an ipu la r f a sh ion e ach r ow h av ing f i ve b ar ra ck s , e a ch b a r ra ck i s s ugge s ted t oh o ld t h e t wo c en tur ie s o ft h em an ip le . T hu sa r ow o f f i ve b a r ra ck s wou ld h o ld f i ve m an ip le s a nd t wo s u ch r ow s w ou ld h o ld t h ec omp le te t e n -man ip le s t r eng th o f o ne o f t h e c l a s se s o f l e g iona ry i n f an tr y . T he t wo mo s t n o r the r ly r ow s a r e s hown a s b e ing b a ck t ob a ck a nd t h e b a r ra ck s a r er e s to red o np l an a sb e ing o ft h e t h ree s ided o r ' h or se shoe ' t y pe . '

Da w ir i m L age r I I u nd i m s c ip ion i schen L age r C a s t i l le jo G ruppen v on 2 x5 o der 5K a sernen f i nden , i s t v i e l le ich t i nL ager Im i t R e ihen v on 5K a se rnen . . . ( 1 929 ,36 ) . I n n e i the r o f t h e p l an s p roduced o f t h e b u i ld ing s w i th in C amp Ii st h e re a ny c onc lu s ive e v iden ce f o r t h r ee s ided b a r ra ck s o r p o s i t ive g roup ing s o f f i ve s uch b ar ra ck s . S chu l ten w a s r a the r mo r e c i rcum spec t i n 1 9 11 w hen h e f i r s t c ame t oc on s ide r t h e se b u i ld ing s :

l tw i l l b e s e en t h a t t h e r e s to red p lan h a s l i t t le t oc ommend i t .T he b u i ld ings i nq ue s t ion m ay w e l l b e b ar ra ck s b u t t h e r ema in s t h em se lve s c anno ta l low t h e a mb i t iou s r e s to ra t ion p ropo sed b y S chu l ten a nd i n s ome c a se s t h e ir l o ca t ion w ou ld a ppea r d i rec t ly t o c on t rad ic t i t . F o r i n s tan ce t h e

Ü be r d i e I nnenbau ten d e s L ager s w ird s i ch e r s t , n achdem v on i hnen m ehr a uf gedeck ti s t , u r te i len l a s sen . ( S chu l t en19 11 ,12 ) .

b a r ra ck so fR ow 2 ,i ft h ey w e re o ft h e t h ree s ided t ype a nd b u i l t b a ck t o b a ck w i th R ow I , s hou ld e a ch h ave a c our tya rd o pen ing t o t h e s ou th . I n f a c t t h e r ema in s o f a b u i ld ing a r e s hown s t radd l ing t h e p o s i t ion i nf r on t o f t h e s uppo sed c ou r tya rd s o f B ar rack s 2 ' a nd 3 ' . S chu l ten r ema rked : E s h a t d en A nsche in , a l s o b d i e K a sernen 2 ' -3 ' d er z we i ten R e ihe n ach S üd z u n ich t g an z o f en g ewe sen s e ien . ( 1 929 ,36 ) .

I ns p i te o ft h e f a c t t h a t t h e p l an o ft h e se b u i ld ing s w a s n o t s ub s tan t ia l ly a dded t o a f t e r 1 9 11 , S chu l ten , i n t h e f i na l p ub l ica t ion o f 1 929 , s t a ted t h a t t h e b a r rack s w i th in C amp Iw e r e m an ip le -ba r rack s o f t h e t h r ee s ided t y pe a nd t h a t t h ey w e re o f t h e d imen s ion s o f 1 20x120pM ( 1929 ,35 ) . ' T h is s t a t emen t m ade u pon t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v iden ce w h ich w a s a va i lab le a ppea r s t ob e q u i te u nwar ran ted . CA MP I RENIEBLAS T he s hape a nd a rea o ft he c amp

S chu l ten o f f e r s n o f u r the r c ommen t o n t h is i mpor tan t o b se rva t ion b u t i ti s c e r ta in t h a t i f t h e l a you t w a s a s S chuf t en s ugge s ted t h en i ti su n l ike ly t h a t s u ch r e s tr ic ted a c ce s so re g r e s s t oa nd f r om t h e b a r ra ck s w ou ld h ave b een t o le ra ted b y t h e R oman m i l i ta ry . A f o u r th w ing w ou ld

T he d ef en ce so ft h is c amp o ver l ie , a nd t h e r ef o re p o s t -da te , t h e w a l ls o f C amp 1 .T he re i ss ome c on s ide rab le d oub t w he the r t h is w a s a n i n dependen t s umme r camp o r a n a nnexe t oC amp I I . Much o f t h e n o r th w a l l s u rv ive s a s d oe s p ar t o f t h e w e s t w a l l ( F ig .3 .2 ) . T he e a s t w a l l w a s

h ave f o rmed a n e nc lo sed c our tya rd t o ta l ly u n su i ted f o r e ve ryday t r oop movemen t sa nd p o ten t ia l ly d ange rou si na n a l arm . '

e i the r a bu t t ing t h e n o r th w a l l o fC amp I i , i fi ts e rved a s t h e w a l l o fa n a nnexe , o r w a s r emoved b y C amp I I i fi t w a s e a r l ie r . T h is w a s n o t r e so lved b y e xcava t ion . T he r e i s n o s urv iva l o f as ou th w a l l .

T he p i c tu re p roduced b y t h e t a cheome tr ic s u rvey a nd s hown i n P l an I la ( F ig .3 .4 ) o n ly s e rve s t o i n c rea se t h e 3

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3 5

P ART 1 1 : CHAPTER 3

F ig .3 .5

P l an o f t h e r ema ins o fC amp I I a tR en ieb la s ( a f te r S chu l ten ) . S ca le 1 : 5000

3 6

C A MPS I I I I AT REN IEBLAS D e sp i te t h el a ck o fe v idence , a nd t h eu n cer ta in r e la t ion sh ip

D ie P e r ipher ie d e sL age r sb e t räg te twa 2 550m . D a si s t

b e tween t h e e a s t w a l l a nd t h e w a l l o f C amp I I , S chuf ten b e l ieved t h a t t h e c amp may h ave e ncompa s sed a n a r ea o f

d e r Umf ang d er m e i s ten r öm i schen K o lon ien i nI t a l ien ,

4 13x413m o r 1 7ha ( 1929 ,40 ) . T h i s w a s b a sed o n m ea su remen t st a ken a cros s t h e i n ter io rf r om t h ee a s t t ot h e

( S chuf t en 1 929 ,47 ) .

a l so d er e i ne r m i t t ieren S t ad t .

w e s t w a l l w h ich w e re t hough t t o b e n ea r e nough t o a R oman s urveyo r s t a rge t o f 1 400pM ( 4 13 .9m ) . T he m ea su remen t s r e corded w e re i n f a c t b e tween 4 15 a nd 4 20m ( i b id . ,40 ) T he s qua re s hape o f t h e c amp a nd t h e

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n o r th sou th d imen s ion w e r e s imp ly a s sumed b y S chu l ten o n t h e b a s is t h a tt h e c amp w ou ld h ave b een r e qu ired t ob e l a rge e nough t o h o ld t h e t e n t s o f at wo leg ion c on su la r a rmy t h ec on su la ra rmy i nq ue s t ion , a cco rd ing t oS chu l ten , b e ing t h a t o fC a to .

p rov ided b y t h e c i r cu i t o f C amp I I a nd t h a t o f aR oman c o lony a ppea r s t ob e v ery f a r -f e t ched . T he p o s i t ion ing f o r

T he l a ck o fs u r v iva l o ft h e w a l ls o fC amp I , p a r t icu la r ly

a nd t h e p rov is ion o ft owe r s t oh o ld a r t i l lery w ou ld t e nd t o

t h e s ou th w a l l , c oup led w i th t h e u n ce r ta in ty t h a ts ur round s t h e e a s t w a l l m ean s t h a t n o s e r iou sa t t emp tc an b e m ade t o e s t ima te i t s s i z e .

s uppor t t h e v i ew t h a t t h e c amp w a s d e s igned w i th d ef en s ive c on s ide ra t ion si nm ind a nd t h e f a c tt h a tt h ec amp i ss i tua ted o n an a tu ra l ly d ef en s ive l o ca t ion w h ich a l so

e s tab l ishmen t s i n t h e R epub l ic i s w e l l a t t es ted a nd i s c ommen ted u pon b e low b u t S chu l ten 's a t temp t t o d r aw c ompar ison s i n t h is i n s tan ce b e tween t h e t o ta l a r ea

t h e s ou th w a l l w h ich i ss ugge s ted b y S chu l ten a ppea r s t o b e i n con s is ten t w i th t h e e s sen t ia l ly d ef en s ive n a tu re w h ich i se xh ib i ted b y t h e c amp a s aw ho le . T he c on s t ruc t ion o f as t one o u te r w a l l t oe ncompa s s t h e h ighe s ta r ea o ft h e h i l l

o ve r look st h eN uman t ian p l a in w ou ld s e em t oc onf irm t h is . S chu l ten h im se lf n o ted t h a t :

B u i ld ing e v idence N o b u i ld ing sw e r er epor ted t ob ea s soc ia ted w i th C amp I .

. .d ie F orm d e s L ager s i s t d urchau s d em T er ra in a ngepaß t . S e in W a l l u mg ib t w ie e i n R ingwa l l i n

CA MP I I REN IEBLAS

g l e ichem A b s tande d i e H öhe d e s B erge s . ( 1 929 ,46 ) .

C amp I I a t R en ieb la s p rov ide s u s w i th t h e e a r l ie s t e xamp le w he r e t h e l a you t o f as ubs tan t ia l p a r t o f t h e i n te r io r o f aR oman R epub l ican c amp c an b e e s tab l ished

B u t t h e e f f ec t o fi n c lud ing mu ch o f t h e s t eep s l ope t ot h e s ou th a nd t h en c on s truc t ing ar ampa r tj u s t f o rwa rd o f t h e m a jo r b r eak i n t h a t s l ope , a s S chu l ten h a s s ugge s ted , w ou ld s e em t om ak e l i t t le s en se . T he d ef en s ive c apab i l i ty w ou ld h ave b een c omp rom ised a nd t h e re a ppea r s t ob e n o o bv iou sa dvan tage i ns u ch a na r rangemen t . T he g rad ien to f

w i th r e a son ab le a c cu racy . T he c amp i t se lf d a te s f r om t h e m idd le y ea r s o f t h e s e cond c en tu ry B .C . a nd t h e g rea te r p a r t o f t h e n o r thern h a lf o f t h e c amp h a s s urv ived a t f o unda t ion l e ve l .

t h e s ou th s l ope i st o o g r ea t t oh ave s uppor ted b u i ld ing s o n i t s l owe r r e ache s . T he s l ope c ou ld h ave b een u s ed f o r g raz ing l i ve s tock b u ta na nnexe p o s i t ioned e l sewhe r em igh t h ave b een mo r e s u i ted t os u ch ap urpo se a nd l e s s l i ke ly t o h ave p re sen t ed ap o ten t ia l w eak s po t .

T he s hape a nd a rea o f C amp I I T he f o rm o fC amp I I i si r regu la r . T h is i sd ue t oi th av ing b een b u i l t s ot h a t t h e d ef ence s , f o r t h em o s tp a r t , f o l lowed t h e n a tu ra l h i l lc on tou r s( F ig .3 .5 ) . T he c amp a l so s t radd le s ar i dge w i th as t eep s l ope t o t h e s ou th -we s t a nd a l e s se r s l ope t ot h e n or th -ea s t . T he h ighe s t p o in t o f t h e r i dge a t 152m i sa pp rox ima te ly m idway b e tween t h ee a s ta nd w e s t w a l ls . T he o n ly c o rne r o f C amp I I w h ich a pp roa che s a r i gh t a ng le i st h a t a t t h e n or th -we s t . T he n or thern w a l l

F abr ic iu s h ad s ugge s ted p r ev iou s ly t h a t a mo r e l o g ica l p o s i t ion f o r t h e s ou the rn d ef en ce s o f t h e c amp w ou ld b e a l ong t h e 115m c on tou r ( 19 11 ,377 ) . I n f a c t t h e 120m c on tou r s e ems mo r e f a vou rab le f o r m uch o f t h e d i s tan ce i n vo lved a st h is c ou ld h ave u t i l ised t h ed e f en s ive p o ten t ia l

e x tend s s ome 4 00m e a s t f r om t h e n or th -we s te rn c o rne r t o t h e n or th -ea s te rn c orne r . F rom t h is p o in t t h e e a s te rn w a l l b end ss ou thwa rd a nd b ow so u te x tend ing s ome 8 5O rn t ot h e

o f as t re tch o fn a tu ra l ly o ccu r r ing r o ck o u t c rop s ome 1 00m i nl e ng th .

s ou th -ea s te rn c orne r . T he w e s te rn w a l l s u rv ive st o al e ng th o f 5l O rn b ea r ing s l igh t ly s ou th -we s tf r om t h en o r th -we s te rn c o rne ra nd i fi to r ig ina l ly e x tended f u r the r s ou th , a ss e em s

Wh i ls t t h e n o r thern , e a s tern a nd p a r t o ft h e w es tern s i de s o ft h e c amp a r er e a sonab ly w e l l d ef ined , t h ep o s i t ion o ft h e s ou the rn d ef en ce s i ss t i l l f a r f r om c l ea r . S chu l ten g i ve s t h e i n te rna l a r ea o ft h e c amp a sa bou t4 5ha . ( 1929 ,48 ) b u t a ny

l i ke ly t h en t h e r ema inde r h a s b een l o s t . T he p e r ime te r o f t h e c amp t ot h e s ou th w a s n eve r s a t isf a c tor i ly e s tab l ished ; t h e p l an p roduced b y S chu l ten ( 19 11 , B eli) g i ve s o ne p os s ib le e s t ima t ion . T h is i n vo lve s t a k ing a l i ne f r om t h e s ou th -ea s t c o rne r t o as e c t ion o f i s o la ted r ampa r t w h ich s u rv ive sj u s t b e low t h e 1 090m c on tou ra nd p ro jec t ing t h a t

a t temp t t oc a lcu la te t h is f i gu re w i thou t p r ec ise k now ledge o f t h e c ou r se o f t h e s ou the rn d ef en ce s i s l i ke ly t o h e f l awed . T he o r ien ta t ion o f C amp I I

l i ne w e s twa rd s u n t i l i tm ee t s t h e p ro jec t ed l i ne o f t h e w e s tern w a l l . T he r e su l t i s ah ypo the t ica l l e ng th f o r t h e s ou th w a l l o f7 40m a nd at o ta l l e ng th o ft h ec i r cu i to fs ome 2 550m . T h is w a s t hough t b y S chu l ten t ob e s i gn i f ican t :

O r ien ta t ion w a s i mpo r tan t t ot h e R oman s i n mo re t h an o ne f i e ld o f a c t iv i ty a nd c a r r ied r e l ig iou s a s w e l l a s s e cu la r o ver tone s :

3 7

P ART I I : CHAPTER 3

F i g . 3 . 6 P l an o fC amp I I R en ieb la ss how ing t h e r ema in sa si n t e rp r e t ed b y S chu l ten a s ac amp f o rt wo l e g ion s w i th s t anda rd d imen s ion s t ot h eo u te rw a l l s t a k en f r om as u gge s ted p o s i t ion f o r t h eg roma b eh ind t h e p rae tor ium ( af t e r S chu l ten ) . S ca le 1 : 5000 . 3 8

C A MPS I 1 1 1 AT R EN IEBLAS T he R oman a ugu r , b efo re o bserv ing t h e a usp ice s , h ad t o

d e s ign o f t h e c amp w a s t h e t e r ra in . T h is w ou ld h ave

e n su re t h a t h e w a s f a c ing s ou th o r e a s t . T he s urveyo r l i kew ise h ad t ot a ke h i s b ea r ing s b efo re c onduc t ing an ew s u rvey , a nd h i so r ien ta t ion a nd t e rm ino logy w e r e t o ag r ea t e x ten t b a sed o n t ho se o f a ugury . M i l i ta ry s urvey w a s

n ece s s i ta ted ac er ta in a moun t o fa d ju s tmen t o n t h e p ar t o f t h e c amp b u i lde r s w ho a ppea r t oh ave b een a b le t oa dap t w ho le s e c t ion s o ft h e c amp t of i t t h e h i l l s lope w h i ls t s t i l l r e ta in ing s ome a x ia l r ou te s w i th in ac i r cu i t w h ich a ppea r s

g ove rned b y s im i la r r u le s .

t ob e b a sed o n t h e d ef en s ive q ua l i t ie s o ft h e h i l l s ide . ( D i Ike 1 971 ,86 ) . T he i n terna l p lann ing o ft he c amp

S chuf t en b e l ieved t h a tt h em a in o r ien ta t ion o fC amp I I w a s t owa rd s t h e e a s tern s un r ise . When d i scu s s ing t h e b a r ra ck s i n t h e n o r the rn p a r t o f t h e c amp a nd o f t h e b u i ld ing s i mmed ia te ly t ot h e ir s ou th h e s t a te s :

T he u neven s t a te o f s urv iva l o f t h e a r cha eo logy i n t h e i n ter io r o ft h e c amp m ake s d i scu s s ion o f t h e i n te rna l p l an u nba lan ced . S chu l ten s uppo sed t h a t t h e s ou thern p ar t o f C amp I I w ou ld p re sen t e s sen t ia l ly am ir ro r image o f t h e

I h re R ich tung e n t spr ich t a nnähe rnd d em w ir k l ichen A uf gang d e r S onne z ur Z e i t d er F rüh jahr s - o der d er

n or thern p a r t a nd t h a t t h e a c commoda t ion f o r as e cond l e g ion w ou ld h ave b een f ound t h e re ( S chu l ten 1 929 ,9 1-3 ) .7

H e rb s t - T ag u nd N ach tge le iche am 2 3 . Mär z u nd 2 1 . S ep tembe r . S i e e n t spr ich t g enau d em s che inbar en S onnenauf gang z uA nf ang S ep tember , i ndem d i e S onne i nd er R ich tung d i e ser Mauren h in t er d em G ipf e l d e s

H oweve r , v i r tua l ly n o th ing i n te l l ig ib le s u rv ive s o f t h e b u i ld ing s s ou th o ft h e s u spec ted p rae tor ium e xcep t f o r t h e r ema in so f ag roup o fb ar ra ck s t ot h es ou th o fa nd f l ank ing S t r ee t 1 'c l o se t ot h e e a s tern g a teway a nd p a r t o fa no the r g roup o f b a r ra ck s i mmed ia te ly b eh ind t h em ( F ig .3 .6 ) . T ho se b a r ra ck sf l ank ing S t ree t l 'w e re t h ough tb y S chuhen t o h ave h ou sed t h e R oman c ava lry c on t ingen t e qu i te s R oman i o f a l e g ion e ncamped t o t h e s ou th o f t h e

A lmue r zo s i ch tbar w ird . ( S chu l ten 1 929 ,48 -9 ) . S chu l t en w en t o n t o p ropo se t h a t t h e o r ien ta t ion o f t h e c amp w ou ld h ave b een t a ken f r om t h e s un r ise o fa bou t t h e 2 6 th . A ugu s t 1 53 B .C . s hor t ly a f te r t h e d ef ea to fN ob i l io r

p rae tor ium ( i b id . ,92 ) .

b y t h e N uman t ine s o n t h e f e s t iva l o fV u lcana l ia . '

D e sp i te t h is u neven p i c tu r e S chu l ten t h ough t h e c ou ld d i sce rn av ery s t r ic t b a s is f o r t h e l a y ing o u t o ft h e i n te r io r o ft h e c amp i nt h e f o rm o f ac ro s s ( 1929 ,43 ) . T h is w ou ld b e c on s is ten t i n f o l low ing a l o ng t r ad i t ion o f R oman s urvey ing p ra c t ice a pp l ied t ot h e d iv is ion o fl a nd i nw h ich t wo l i ne s , t h e c ardo a nd t h e d ecumanu s w e re m a rked o u t

D a sL ager I Iw ürde d ann A nf ang S ep tember 1 53 v .C hr . e rbau tw orden s e in . Das p aß tg enau z ud en h i s tor i schen T a t sachen , d enn am 2 6 . A ugu s t -3 T age n ach d e r S ch lach t a n d en V u lcana l ien , am 2 4 A ugu s t -t r af N ob i l ior a uf d er G ran A ta laya e i n .

a tr i gh ta ng le s t oo ne a no the r( D i lke 1 971 ,89 ) . T he R oman m i l i ta ry e qu iva len t o f t h e se t wo l i ne s w e r e t h e s t ree t s

( S chu l ten 1 929 ,49 ) .

k nown a s t h e v i a p r inc ipa l i s a nd t h e v i a p rae tor ia ) .8T he c en t ra l p o in t a tt h e i n t e r sec t ion o ft h e se l i n e s a nd t h e p l a ce

S chu l ten c oun te r s t h e a rgumen t t h a t aw in te r camp w ou ld n o t h ave b een c on s truc ted a s s oon a s N ob i l io r a r r ived o n t h e G ran A ta laya b y s t a t ing t h a t t h e c on sequen t w in te r b u i ld ing s o fC amp I I w ou ld s imp ly h ave r e p la ced e xa c t ly

f r om w he re t h e f i r s tm ea su r emen t s w e r e t a ken w a s k nown a s t h e t e t ran s . I tw a s t h e r e t h a t t h e g roma , t h e R oman s u rvey ing i n s trumen t f o r s e t t ing o u t r i gh t a ng le s , w ou ld

t h e t e n t s w h ich s t ood b efo re t h em :

h ave b een s e t u p . B o th P o lyb iu s ( V I ,27 -28 ) a nd H yg inu s ( d e m un .ca s t . ,Ch .12 ) d e sc r ibe t h e p o in t f r om w h ich t h e m a in s t ree t s w e re m a rked o u t i n am i l i ta ry c amp , t h is b e ing d one f r om ap o s i t ion i n f r on t o f t h e g ene ra l 's t e n t ( p rae tor ium ) . S chu l ten b e l ieved h oweve r t h a t i nC amp I I

. .auch f ir d a s S ommer - u nd Z e l t lage r m uß ten d i e L age r l in ien a bge s teck t u nd o r ien t ier t w e rden . ( i b id .‚ f oo tno te 6 ,49 ) .

t h e g roma h ad b een s e t u p n o t a tt h e f r on t b u t a tt h e r e a r o ft h ep rae tor ium ( F ig .3 .6 ) . S chu l ten w r i te s :

T h is a r gumen t i si n i t ia l ly a t t rac t ive , i fu np roved , b u t i ti s d emon s t ra t ed i nt h e f o l low ing p ages t h a t t h e l a you t o ft h e b ar ra ck s a t C amp I I c l o se ly r e semb le s t h e l a you t o f a t e n ted c amp a sd e scr ibed b y P o lyb iu s . I ti sc er ta in t h a t t h e t e r ra in a t al o ca t ion s uch a s t h e G ran

E sf ä l l ta uf , d a si mL ager I Id i e G roma s t a t tw ie H yg in u nd s ons t i n d er M i t te d e r F ron t d e s P rä tor ium s , v i e lmehr i nd ie H in ter se i te u nd S O -Ecke d e sP rä tor ium s g e leg t i s t

A ta laya w ou ld h ave h ad a s i gn if ican t i nf luence o n t h e o r ien ta t ion o f i n d iv idua l b u i ld ing s o r b u i ld ing g roup s

( 1 929 ,44 ) .

w i th in t h e c amp . A n e xam ina t ion o f t h e p l an o f t h e e xcava ted r ema in s o fC amp I I ( F ig .3 .6 ) r e vea ls an umbe r o f d i f f e ren t l o ca l ised o r ien ta t ion s . S t r ee t l ' a ppea r s t o p rov ide a n o r ien ta t ion f o r t h e b u i ld ing s t ot h e s ou th o f i t

T he re i sl i t t le t os uppo r t s uch ac l a im . T he o n ly e v iden ce w h ich S chu l ten s upp l ie s i st h a t t h e c o rn e r o f ab u i ld ing ( no t c onv inc ing ly i d en t if ied a s t h ep rae tor ium ) a ppea r s t o b e a tt h e c en t re o fC amp I I , ad i s tance o fa pp rox ima te ly 1 200pM ( o r 1 0 a c tu s ) f r om a l f ou r s i de s . H oweve r , i t

w h ich c on t ra s t s t o t h e o r ien ta t ion o f t h e b a r rack s i n t h e n or the rn p ar t o f t h e c amp L ikew ise t h e t r ibune s ' h ou se s w h ich p a r t ia l ly o ve r l ie t h e s ugge s ted v i a p r inc ipa l i s .

s hou ld b e n o ted t h a t t h e w e s te rn w a l l o ft h e c amp d oe s n o t s u rv ive i n ap os i t ion w he r e t h is c an b e c he cked a nd , a sw e h ave s e en a bove , d oub t s s u r round t h e p o s i t ion o f t h e s ou the rn p er ime te r . S chu l ten g i ve s c a lcu la t ion s b a sed o n

l ts e em s c l ea r t h a t t h e d om ina t ing f a c to r i n t h e i n te r io r 3 9

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t h en o r th , e a s ta nd s ou th d ef en ce so ft h ec amp . T he se w e re r e co rded a s 3 58m , 3 55m , a nd 3 65m r e spec t ive ly .

p a r t o f t h e b u i lde r s o fC amp I I t op roduce ap l an w h ich h ad t h e v i ap r inc ipa l i s o n ad i rec t p erpend icu la ra x is f r om o ne s i de o f t h e c amp t o t h e o the r m ay h ave b een a

S i gn if ican t ly , t wo o f t h e se m ea su remen t s e xceed b y s ome

s e conda ry c on s ide ra t ion .

m e t re s t h e n om ina l v a lue o f 1 0 a c tu s ( 3 54 .8m ) . I ft h e s u rveyo r w a s i n deed a t temp t ing t os e t o u t ad i s tance o f 1 0 a c tu s t h en o n as l op ing s i te s uch a s t h a t a t R en ieb la s i t

T he l a y ing -ou t o f b u i ld ing p lo t s

m ea sur emen t s t a ken f r om t h e c orne r o ft h e p rae tor ium t o

T he s i ng le mo s t i mpor tan t f a c to r w h ich i mmed ia te ly

m igh t h ave b een e xpec ted t h a t t h e r e su l t ing m ea su remen t s w ou ld h ave b een u nde r t h e n om ina l v a lue . A t t h e f i r s t

a t t ra c t s a t ten t ion i n as t udy o f t h e r ema in s o f t h e n or th -ea s te rn p ar t o f C amp I I i s t h e r e gu lar i ty o f t h e

c en tury AD l e g iona ry f o r t re s s a tE xe te r i tw a s f ound t h a t i r r egu la r i t ie s i nt h e c amp l a you t w e re p robab ly c au sed b y t h e s ur veyo r 's p ra c t ice o f m ea su r ing a l ong t h e g round , w h ich o n as l op ing s i te c au se s as i gn if ican t d i s to r t ion i n t r ue p l an d imen s ion s o ve r l onger d i s tan ce s ( Hende r son 1 988 ,95 ) .

b u i ld ing p l an o ve r a n a r ea o f s ome 4 50m e a s t /we s t b y 2 00m n o r th / sou th ( s ee F ig .3 .7 ) . T he a r ea o f t h e n or th -ea s tern p a r t o ft h e c amp i ss ub -d iv ided b y as y s tem o fl a te ra l s t r ee t s ( I , Ia nd I I ) s o t h a t t h e r ow s o fb a r ra ck s a r e g rouped w i th in p a i red s t r ip s ( K a nd A ; Ba nd C ) . T he i n d iv idua l b a r rack sh ave t h ea ppea rance o fb e ing c on ta ined

T here a r e an umbe r o f o the r r e a son s t o s u spec t t h a t t h e i n ter io r p l ann ing o f t h e c amp w a s n o t d ependen t o n t h e

w i th in e l onga ted i n su lae .

l o ca t ion o f t h e g roma i n t h e p o s i t ion s ugge s ted b y S chuf ten . I tw i l l b eo b served t h a tt h e re a r en os t ree t sw h ich c or r e spond d i r ec t ly t oa ny c a rd ina l l i ne d rawn o u t f r om t h e

T he p roce s s i nw h ich t h is p ar t o f t h e c amp h a s b een l a id o u t i ns t r ip s o fv ar iou sw id th i sv ery s im i la rt ot h e p roce s s w h ich C rummy h a s i d en t if ied a sb e ing i n s trumen ta l i nt h e p l ann ing o f t h e C laud ian f o r t res s a tC o lche s t e r ( Crummy 1 981 ,5 ;F ig .6 ) . A tC o lche s te r , C rummy s ugge s t ed t h a t t h e f o r t r e ss w a s l a id o u t i ns i x n or th / sou th s t r ips o f 3 00 a nd 2 00pM . O n t h e p l an o fC amp I I ( F ig .3 .6 ) i ti sp o s s ib le t o d i s t ingu i sh e i gh tp a ra l le l l i ne s r unn ing f r om t h e w e s tt ot h e

s ou th -ea s t c orne r o f t h e b u i ld ing . O n t h e o the r h and t h e t e r ra in o n w h ich t h e c amp w a sp l aced w ou ld h ave d i c ta ted t h e i n te r io rd e s ign o ft h ec amp t o ac on s ide rab le e x ten ta nd t h e r e g imen t ed l a you t w h ich P o lyb iu s d e scr ibe s i n h i s m a r ch ing c amp wou ld h ave r e qu ir ed a d eg ree o f c omp rom ise i fa dap ted t ot h e k ind o fs l ope s f ound o n t h e

e a s t , a tr i gh ta ng le s t ot h es ugge s ted v i ap r inc ipa l i s , w h ich w ou ld a pp ea r t oh ave b een s e t o u t b y t h e c amp b u i lde r s . T he se l i ne s f o rm a s e r ie s o f p a ra l le l s t r ip s . T h is d emon s t ra te s t h a t t h is p a r to ft h e c amp a tl e a s t w a s l a id o u t a s p a r t o f as i ng le o pe ra t ion i n w h ich t h e p o s i t ion o f t h e s t r ip s r e la t ive t o e a ch o t he r w ou ld h ave b een t a ken i n to

G ran A ta laya . A s ar e su l t t h e r egu la r i ty o f l a you t w h ich o ne m igh t e xpec t t o h ave e ncoun te r ed i n a c amp c on s t ruc ted o n l e ve l g round w i l l n o t n ece s sa r i ly b ee v iden t i n ac amp s u ch a sC amp I I . T he v a r iou s a t temp t s b y S chu l ten a t ar e s to ra t ion o f t h e p l an o f C amp I c on s is ten t ly s how t h e v i a p r inc ipa l i s e x tend ing i n as t ra igh t l i ne f r om n or th t os ou th -a n e a r ly a t temp ta tt h er e s tored p l an e ven g oe s s o f a ra st op o s tu la te ag a te a ti t ss ou the r ne nd ( S chu l ten 1 9 12 , B e i 1 .2 ) . A mo r e

a c coun t . O fp a r t icu la r i n te re s t a r e t h o se s t r ip s w h ich h ave b een i d en t if ied a s h o ld ing t h e b ar rack s o f l e g iona ry

l i ke ly s c ena r io i st h a t t h e m a jo r s t ree t l i n es w e re m a rked o u t w he r e t h ey c ou ld b e s t b e f i t ted a nd t h en r i gh t a ng le s p ro jec ted f r om t h e se b a se l ine s . T he b ar rack s o f t h e n o r th -ea s tern p ar t o f t h e c amp a ppea r t o o we t h e i r a l ignmen t t o as e r ie s o f p a ra l le l l i ne s a t9 0° t o t h e s t r ee t i d en t if ied b y S chu l ten a s t h e v i a p r inc ipa l i s b u t t h e b a r ra ck s i n t h e s ou th o f t h e c amp s how a 5 -6° d ev ia t ion f r om t h is a l ignmen t ; t h ey c l ea r ly c anno th ave b een l a id o u t f r om a n i d en t ica l b a se l ine .

A l l o f t h e b a r ra ck s o f R ow A i n t h e s ou thernmo s t s t r ip

i n f an t ry a nd c ava lry ( Row s K a nd A a nd B a nd C o n F ig .3 .7 ) .

a ppea r t o b e r e spec t ing ac ommon s t r ee t f r on tage t o t h e n or th ( S t r ee t I ) w h ich s ugge s t s t h a t al i ne w a s l a id o u t a t af i xed d i s tan ce a lmo s t c e r ta in ly i n tended t ob e p a ra l le l t o ac en t ra l l i ne w h ich m a rked t h e d iv is ion b e tween t h e se b ar ra ck s a nd t h o se o fR ow K t ot h e s ou th . T he b a r rack so f R ow K , i n t u rn , r e spec t t h e l i ne o f as t r ee t f r on tage t o t h e i r s ou th ( S t ree t I ) . T he t o ta l w id th o f t h is s t r ip n o r th /sou th w a s 1 55pM . T he s ame g ene ra l a r rangemen t i s v i s ib le i nt h e l a you t o f R ow s Ba nd C w he r e t h e w id th o f t h e s t r ip w a s i nt h is i n s tance 2 65p M . A l though t h e w id th o f b o th o f t h e se s t r ip s i sr e a sonab ly c on s tan t a l ong t h e ir e n t ire l e ng th i tw i l l b e o b se rved t h a t t h e v i a q u in tana d i v ide s b o th s t r ip s i n to b l ock s o f u nequa l s i ze , t h e b l o ck s e a s t o ft h e v i a q u in tana a r e a ppa ren t ly r e s t r ic ted i nl e ng th

Wh i ls t t h e b u i ld ing s i n t h e n or the rn p a r t o f t h e c amp i n d ica te t h a tt h ey w e re c on s truc ted w i th in c a r efu l ly l a id o u t p l o t s , t h o se i n t h e m idd le o f t h e c amp d o n o t a ppea r t o s ha re t h is c ha ra c ter is t ic . T h is w ou ld s ugge s t t h a t s ome a dd i t iona la t temp th a sb een m ade t or e ta in r e gu la r i ty w i th in t h o se p ar t s o f t h e c amp w her e i t w a s p a r t icu la r ly n ece s sa ry , i . e . i nt h e l a you t o ft h e b a r ra ck s . T he n eed f o r

d ue t ot h e i rp rox im i ty t ot h eo u te r w a l l ; t h is mu s t h ave h ad i mp l ica t ion s f o r t h e s i ze o f t h e b a r rack s w h ich t h ey c on ta ined . I ft h es camna w e re t h ec on t ro l l ing i n f luen ce o n

t h e t r oop s t ob e i nc o r re c t o rde r t od ep loy a nd t ob e a b le t o a s semb le q u ick ly a nd w i thou t c on f u s ion w i th d i rec t a c ce s s o n to a n u n impeded s t ree t m ay , i nt h is c a se , r ef lec t e xac t ly t h e b a s ic r e qu ir emen t f o r at e n ted c amp e r ec ted i n h o s t i le t e rr i to ry . T he n eed f o r ar a p id a nd o rde red r e spon se t o a ny t h r ea t w h ich m igh t m a ter ia l ise w ou ld p rov ide a p r ime r e a son f o r s uch c on s ide ra t ion s . A ny d e s ir e o n t h e

t h e p l ann ing t h en t h e i n d iv idua l b a r rack s w e re i n a l l i ke l ihood c on s truc ted w i th in t h e c onf ine s o f l a rge r p l o t s w h ich h ad b een m a rked o u t o n t h e g round b ef o rehand a nd t h en s ub -d iv ided w i th t h e r e su l tt h a t t h e re w ou ld h ave b een s ome m inor v a r ia t ion i nt h e ir l e ng th , g i ven t h e c umu la t ive e r ro rw h ich m igh to ccu r w hen t wo p a ra l le l l i n e s w e re l a id

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C A MPS I I l l AT R EN IEBLAS o u t o n u neven g round . T he w id th s o f t h e b a r rack s , c er ta in ly t hose o fR ow s Ba nd C e a s t o ft h e v i a q u in tana ,

t h ey d id n o t a lways c o r re spond e xa c t ly t ot h e b oundar ie s w h ich h ad b een s e to u t . N ever the le s s t h e r ea ppea r s t oh ave

w ou ld h ave r e qu ir ed s ome a d ju stmen ta st h es camnum h er e

b een l i t t le o r n o e ncroachmen t o f t h e b ar ra ck s o n to t h e

i ss ome 3 5pM s hor te r t h an i t s c oun t e rpa r t t o t h e w e s t ; much o ft h es ho r tf a l l wou ld a ppea rt oh ave b een d eb i ted t o

l a te ra l s t r ee t s w h ich p e rhap s e mpha s ise s t h e i mpo r tan ce o f t h e l a t te r . T he t r oop s w ou ld i s sue o u t f r om t h e i r b a r ra ck s qua re s o n to t h e se s t ree t s f o r t h e p u rpo se s o f f o rm ing u p

t h e t e n th a nd l a s t b a r rack i ne ach R ow a nd B ar rack 1 0 o f R ow C m ay h ave b een c on s tru c ted w i th av ery s hor t n or th w ing s u ch w a s i t sc l o se p rox im i ty t ot h e o u te r w a l l . T he se n ece s sary r e s tr ic t ion s a nd t h e r a the r p oo r s t a te o f

i n to c en tur ie s b efor e m a r ch ing o u t o ft h e b ar ra ck c omp lex a nd i t m ay h ave b een a r e qu iremen t t h a t t h e s t r ee t s f r on t ing t h e b ar ra ck s w e r e k ep t f r ee f r om o b s truc t ion . E nc roa chmen t w he re i td oe s o ccu r s e em s t o h ave b een l im i ted t o t h e v i a q u in tana w h ich w ou ld n o t h ave s e rved

p re se rva t ion m ake t h ese b a r rack s u n su i tab le f o r d e ta i led s t udy ; t h o se w e s to ft h e v i a q u in tana p rov ide as u re rb ody o fm a ter ia l .

s uch a n i mpo r tan t r o le i n C amp I I a s t h e l a t e ra l s t r ee t s b e tween b a r ra ck s , l e ad ing , a s i td i d , t owa rd s t h e h ead o f

As t udy o ft h e b u i ld ing p l an w e s t o ft h e v i a q u in tana c an d emon s t ra te h ow a l l o f t h e b ar rack s t h e r e w e re l a id o u t w i th in a p r e -a r ranged g r id i n w h ich t h e l a te ra l s t ree t

ar a v in e w h ich w a s e n c lo sed w i th in t h e n o r th -ea s tern

s y s tem w a s p e rhap s t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t f a c to r . I n F ig .3 .8 d e ta i l o f t h e b a r ra ck s h a s b een r emoved i no rde r t os how h ow t h e g r id w a s p robab ly m a rked o u t o n t h e g round . ' I t

C amp I I R en ieb las a nd t he P o lyb ian c amp p lan

w i l l b e s e en t h a tt h e re a re s i x n or th /sou th l i ne s ( numbe red 1 6 ) . O ft h e s e , l i ne s 3 -6 c an b e s e en t oh ave b een s e t o u t o ve r t h e w id th o fb o th s t r ip s ( t he s ame m ay h ave b een t r ue o fl i ne s 1a nd 2 ) . S ix w e s t /ea s t l i ne s a r es hown ( numbe red 1 16 ) . T he e f f e c t wou ld h ave b een t od i v ide t h e a r ea i n to as e r ie so fp l o t s . T he p lo t s i nt h en or the rnmo s ts t r ip ( Row s Ba nd C ) l o ok t ob e p a r t icu la r ly r e gu la r . I n f a c t t h e re i s s ome v a r ia t ion i n t h e w id th ( i .e . t h e w e s t t o e a s t m ea su remen t ) o f t h ese p lo t s w h ich r a nge b e tween a

c er ta in ly i n tended t o d e scr ibe a R oman c amp f o r t wo l e g ion s a si tw ou ld h ave a ppea red i nt h e f i e ld . D e sp i te h i s a ppa ren tf a i lu re t oa ch ieve t h a to b jec t ive t h eo rde ri nw h ich

d ef en ce s .

I th a s b een a rgued i n C hap te r 1t h a t P o lyb iu s a lmo s t

m in imum o f 3 9m ( c .132p M ) t o am ax imum o f 4 1m ( c .138p M ) . T he n or th t o s ou th l e ng th s r a nge b e tween 3 9 a nd 4 0m ( c .132 -c .135p M ) . A m ean c a lcu la t ion g ive s a b u i ld ing p lo t i nR ow s Ba nd C w h ich a pp rox ima te s t oa s qua r e o fa bou t 1 34x134pM . T he p lo t s i nt h e s t r ip t ot h e

t h e v a r iou s c l a s se s o f l e g iona ry t r oop s w e re e ncamped a ppea r s t or ema in f i xed w he the r t h e t r oop s w e r e d ep loyed i n at wo leg ion o r af ou r leg ion c amp ; i tw a s o n ly t h e p o s i t ion o f t h e l e g ion a s aw ho le i n r e la t ion t o t h e p rae tor ium w h ich c hanged a s P o lyb iu s m ake s c l ea r i n V I ,32 ,8 . P o lyb iu sp rov ide s u s w i th ad e sc r ip t ion o f aR oman l e g ion a nd t h e d i spo s i t ion o f t h a t l e g ion i n r ow s o f t e n t s ( Po l .V 1 ,19 -31) . T he l e g ion o f P o lyb iu s i sd i v ided i nt h e f o l low ing m anne r : t h e re a r e 1 0 s quad ron s ( t ur r nae ) o f c ava lry ( e qu i te s R oman i )a nd 1 0m an ip le se a ch o ft h e t h r ee m a jo rc l a s se s o fi n f an try , t h e t r iar i i , p r inc ipe s a nd h a s ta t i

s ou th h o ld ing R ow s Ka nd A s how t h e s ame v a r ia t ion i n t h e ir w e s t t oe a s tl e ng th s( b e tween 3 9a nd 4 1m ) w h i ls t t h ey m ay h ave b een f a ir ly c on s is ten t i nh av ing an or th t os ou th

p lu s an umbe r o fv e l i te s . P o lyb iu s a l so g i ve s t h e n umbe r s o f t r oop s w h ich w ou ld h e f ound i nt h e v a r iou s c l a sse s o f i n f an try a nd c ava l ry i n a n o rd inary u nenfo r ced l e g ion . T he se a moun t t o 6 00 f o r t h e t r iar i i , 1 200 f o r b o th t h e

l e ng th o f2 3m o r c .78pM . T he r e su l t ing b u i ld ing p lo t s i n R ow s Ka nd A w ou ld h ave b een r e c tang le sw i th a na ve rage s i ze o f 1 35x78pM .

p r inc ipe s a nd h a s ta t i , 3 00 f o r t h e e qu i te s R oman i a nd a n u nknown n umber f o r t h e v e l i te s b u t , b y d edu c t ion o f t h e n umbe r s o f t h e o the r c l a s se s f r om P o lyb iu s ' t o ta l o f4 200

I ti sc e r ta in t h a t i ft h e R oman s urveyo r s w e re l a y ing o u t o p t imum b u i ld ing p lo t s f o r t h ose b a r ra ck s w e s t o ft h e v i a q u in tana t h en t h ey wou ld n o t h ave b een a b le t or e pea t t h e p ro cedu re f o r t h ose b ar ra ck s e a s t o f i t ; t h e t o ta l a r ea r e qu i red f o r s u ch ar epe t i t ion w a s al i t t le o ve r t h a t w h ich w a sa va i lab le . T h is s ugge s t st h a t t h ey w e r e q u i te w i l l ing t o

l e g iona ry i n f an try t r oop s , t h e v e l i te s a r e u sua l ly r e ckoned t o h ave 1 200 m en ( Po l .V 1 ,2 1 ,9 ; 2 0 ,9 ) . I n a dd i t ion , t h e P o lyb ian l e g ion a l so i n c luded a c omp lemen t o f a l ie s ( Soc i i ) c on s is t ing o f 3 0 s quad ron s o f c ava lry ( e qu i te s S oc iorum ) a nd a n umbe r o f i n f an t ry ( p ed i te s S oc iorum )

m ake w ha teve r a dap ta t ion s t o t h e m ea su remen t s o f t h e i n d iv idua l p l o t s w h ich w e re n e ces sar y a nd e ven , i ns ome

s a id t o e qua l ( Po l .V 1 ,26 ,7 ) .

c a se s , t oa l te r t h e e n t ir e f o rm o f t h e b a r rack s ( a s a ppea r s t oh ave b een t h ec a se w i th s ome o ft h eb ar ra ck s o fR ow E w he r e t o pog raph ica l c on s t ra in t s w e re g r ea te r t h an i n t h e

t h e

n umbe r s

o f

t h e

R oman

l e g ion .

P o lyb iu sp roceed s , i nh i sd e scr ip t ion o ft h ec amp , t od e ta i l t h e l a y ing o u t o fp a ra l le l l i ne sa l ong w h ich t h e t e n t s o ft h e v a r iou s c l a s se s o ft r oop s w e re p i tched b a ck t ob a ck . T hu s

o t he r r ow s ) . l tw i l l b e s e en t h a t a dhe ren ce t oa ny o p t imum b a r ra ck d imen s ion wh ich m igh t h ave e x is ted w a s n o t t h e o ve r -r id ing f a c to r i n d e te rn i in ing t h e f i na l a ppea rance o f t h e r ow s o fb a r ra ck s ; ac e r ta in f l ex ib i l i ty o n t h e p a r to ft h e s ur veyo r s w a s u nque s t ionab ly n ece s sa ry .

t h e t e n t s o ft h e t r iar i i w e r e p i t ched i n al i ne b a ck t ob a ck w i th t h o se o f t h e e qu i te s R oman i ; t h o se o f t h e p r inc ipe s b a ck t o b a ck w i th t h o se o f t h e h a s ta t i a nd t h o se o f t h e p ed i te s S oc iorum b a ck t o b a ck w i th t ho se o f t h e e qu i t e s

F i g .3 .8 i lu s t ra tes t h a t b a se l ine s a nd r i gh t a ng le s w e re l a id o u t o ve r c on s ide rab le d i s tan ce s i nC amp I I a nd t h a t p lo t s w e re m a rk ed o u t f o r m any i f n o t a l o f t h e b a r rack

S oc iorum ( Po l .V 1 ,29 -31) . I ti su nc lea r w he re t h e v e l i te s w e re t o b e c amped i n t h is s c heme ; t h ey m ay h ave b een d i s t r ibu ted p ropo r t iona l ly a mong t h e i n f an t ry f o r

b u i ld ings w i th in i t . When t h e b ar ra ck s c ame t o b e b u i l t

a dm in is t ra t ive p urpo se s ( Kepp ie 1 984 ,35 ) a nd t h ey w e r e 4 3

P ART I I : CHAPTER 3

4 4

C A MPS 1 4 1 1 AT REN IEBLAS p e rhap s h ou sed w i th t h ese i n f an t ry . T h is i n deed p rov ide s

l a id

a n e xp lana t ion f o r t h e p o s t -Mar ian c en tu r y o f 8 0 m en , i f

b a r ra ck s n ea r t h e c en t re o ft h e c amp ( Row s Ka nd A ) c an

o u t

( S chu l ten

1 929 ,119 -126 ) .

T hu s

t h e

s ma l le r

e a ch h a lf -man ip le o fp r inc ipe s a nd h a s ta t i h ad 2 0 v e l i te s

b e i d en t if ied w i th s ome d eg ree o f c onf iden ce a s t h o se o f

a s cr ibed t o i tt h en t h e f i gu re o f 8 0 m en i n t h e c en tu ry w ou ld h ave b een a f am i l ia r o ne i n t h e R epub l ican a rmy

t h e e qu i te s R oman ia nd t h et r iar i ib o th o fw hom h ad f ewe r

b efo r e i tw a s r e f ormed .

l a t te r w ou ld i nt u rn w ou ld h ave o ccup ied R ow s Ba nd C r e spec t ive ly i n b a r ra ck s o f s im i la r s i ze t o e a ch o t he r a s

T he d egr ee o f i n forma t ion w h ich P o lyb iu s p rov ide s h a s e nab led s cho la r s t ob u i ld u p ap i c tu re o ft h e k i nd o fc amp w h ich h e w a s d e scr ib ing ( s ee F ig .1 .4 ) . T h is i s a

b ef i t t ing t h e ir s im i la r s t reng th o f n umbe r s . T he much

n umbe r s o f t r oop s t h an t h e p r inc ipe s a nd h a s ta t i . T he se

l a rge r b a r rack s o f R ow E w ou ld h ave h e ld t h e c ohor t s o f t h e p ed i te s S oc iorum ." T he se l a t te r b a r ra ck s w e re b u i l t

h a lf -camp . T he r e a son w hy t h e P o lyb ian c amp i su sua l ly

b a ck t ob a ck w i th R ow D w h ich c an b e s a id , w i th s ome

s hown i n t h i s m anner a nd t h e p o s i t ion o f t h e l e g ion s i n r e la t ion t ot h ep rae to t ium h a s b een d i scu s sed i nC hap te r 1 .

c onf iden ce , t oh ave h ou sed t h e e qu i te s S oc iorum . S o f a r , much o ft h is i sc ommonp lace . C onno l ly w r i te s :

Wha t i sc l ea ri st h a t P o lyb iu s h a sd e scr ibed t h e p i tch ing o f t h e t e n t s i n h i s c amp i n aman ipu la r o rde r a nd i ns uch a w ay t h a t t h e s t ruc tu re o f t h e l e g ion a c co rd ing t o r ank i s r ef lec t ed o nt h eg round . E a ch man ip le o ccup ie s as qua re o f

T h is p a r to fP o lyb iu s ' d e scr ip t ion ( i .e . t h e o rde r o ft h e t r oop l i ne s i n al e g iona ry e n campmen t ) w a s c onf i rmed e a r ly t h is c en tu ry w hen a s e r ie s o f l a te R epub l ican

w h ich t h e re a r e t e n t oe a ch r ow :

c amp s w e r e e xcava ted a tR en ieb la s . . . ( 1989 ,159 ) .

A s e ach c l a s s b y v i r tue o ft h e o r ig ina l d iv is ion c on s is t s o f t e n m an ip le s , t h e s t r ee t s a r e a l l e qua l i nl e ng th . . . ( Po l .V 1 ,29 ,9 ) .

T he l a you t o ft h e n o r the rn p a r t o fC amp I I , w ou ld , i tc an b e s u spec ted o ng round so fm i l i tary e xped iency , b es im i la r t o t h a t o f a t e n ted f i e ld camp o f t h e s ame p er iod .

A cco rd ing t o P o lyb ius t h e t e n t s o f t h e h i ghe r c l a s se s o f t r oop s , t h e e qu i te s R oman ia nd t h e t r iar i i w e r e p l a ced i na c en t ra l p o s i t ion w i th in t h ec amp w h i l s tt h ose o ft h ep ed i te s S oc iorum ( who w e re n o tg rouped i nm an ip le s b u tp robab ly i nl a rge c ohor t s ) w e re p l aced a tt h e f u r the s t d i s tan ce f r om

F ur thermo re , t h e g roup ing o ft h e b ar rack s i nt h e n or thern p a r to fC amp I I i n to b l ock s o ff i ve g i ve s ac l ea ri n d ica t ion o ft h e b r igad ing i nm an ip le -ba r ra ck s o f am an ipu la ra rmy . T he v a lue o fC amp I I i st h a ti ts t and sa st h eo n ly r e co rded e xamp le o f ac amp i n w h ich t h e l e g ion s w e r e c l ea r ly o rgan ised a c co rd ing t o t h e m an ipu la r s y s tem a nd i n to s pec ia l ised c l a s se s o fi n f an t ry .

t h e e qu i te s R oman i c l ose t o t h e o u te r p e r ime te r ( Po l .V I ,28 -30 ) . P o lyb iu sg oes o nt od e s cr ibe t h ed i v i s ion o fe a ch r ow o ft e n t e n t s qua re s i n to t wo b l ock s o ff i ve :

THE BARRACKS AT CA MP I I REN IEBLAS' . . they a lways l e ave as pace o f5 0 f e e tb e tween t h e f i f th t r oop a nd t h es i x th , . . .so t h a ta no the rp a s sage t r ave r s ing t h e w ho le c amp i sf o rmed , a tr i gh ta ng les t ot h es t ree t s , a nd p a ra l le l t ot h e l i n e o ft h e t r ibune s ' t e n t s . T h is t h ey c a l led q u in tana , a s i tr un s a l ong t h e f i f th t r oop s a nd

R ow K ( t he c ava lry b arrack s ) : Number , d i spo s i t ion a nd d imen s ion s o ft he b arrack s ( F ig .3 .10 )

c ompan ie s .

b e l ieved p rov ided a c commoda t ion f o r l e g iona r y c ava lry

S chu l ten i d en t if ied t e n b a r rack s i n R ow K w h ich h e ( e qu i te s R oman i ) . S chu l ten t o ok t h e v i ew t h a t o ne t u rma w ou ld b e a l loca ted t oe a ch o ft h e b a r rack s o f R ow K a nd t h e f o r ce d i v ided e qua l ly , 3 0 t r oope r s w i th t h e ir h o r ses t o

( Po l .V 1 ,31 ,5 -6 ) . S ome th ing v ery s im i la r t oP o lyb iu s ' d e scr ip t ion i sv i s ib le i nt h e l a you t o f t h e b a r ra ck s i n t h e n o r th -ea s tern p a r t o f C amp I I a s ac ompa r ison o f F ig .1 .4 w i th F ig .3 .9 w i l l m ake c l ea r . T he a r ea o ft h e n or th -ea s te rn p a r t o fC amp I I

e a ch b ar ra ck . T he r ema in s w h ich w e r e u n cove r ed i n R ow K s how t h a t

w a s s ub -d iv ided b y as y s tem o fl a te ra l s t r ee t s ( I , Ia nd I I )

t h e re a ppea r s t o b e e v iden ce f o r t e n b ar ra ck s a nd t h e

a s s hown i n t h e p rev iou s s e c t ion , s o t h a t t h e r ow s o f b a r ra ck b l o ck s w ere g rouped i np a ir s , Ka nd A , Ba nd C ,

d e s ign o f t h is p a r t o f t h e c amp w ou ld a l so s uppor t t h a t v i ew a l though t h e r e i sv ery l i t t le r ema in ing o f B a r rack 1 .

Da nd E . T he r ema ins s how t h a t t h e b a r rack s w e re c l ea r ly b u i l t b a ck t ob ack ; t h e s im i la r i ty t oP o lyb iu s ' s c heme f o r

E ach b a r rack a ppea r s t o c omp r ise t wo o ppo s ing w ings , s ome t ime sw i th ar a nge o fr oom sa tt h e r e a r( nor th ) , w h ich f o rm t h ree s i de s o f ar e c tang le s ur round ing a c ou r tya rd , t h e r ema in ing s i de w a s o pen o n to t h e s t r ee t . T he b a r ra ck s

t e n t s i ss t r ik ing . A lso i n e v idence i st h e d iv is ion o f t h e r ow s i n to t wo b l ock s b ym ean so f as t r e e t r unn ing b e tween t h e f i f th a nd s i x th b a r ra ck s o f a l l t h e r ow s ; t h is w ou ld

w e re b u i l t b a ck t ob a ck w i th t h o se o fR ow A w h ich , i ft h e a r rangemen t w a s t h e s ame a s t h a t g i ven b y P o lyb iu s ,

c or r e spond t oP o lyb iu s ' v i a q u in tana . I ft h e p a ra l le ls w i th P o lyb iu s ' s c heme a re e xa c t t h en t h e b a r ra ck so ft h ee qu i te s

w ou ld h ave h ou sed t h et r iar i i ( F ig .3 .10 ) . E lemen t s o ft h is f o rm c an b e s e en c l ea r ly i n B a r ra ck s 2 , 3 ,4 ,5 ,6 ,7 ,8 , a nd 1 0 , a l though t h e r e w e r e n o i n s tance s i nw h ich t h e r ema in s

R oman i w ou ld o ccupy t h e i nnermo s t p o s i t ion i nt h e c amp a nd t h o se o f t h e p ed i te s S oc iorum w ou ld b e a t t h e p e r iphe ry . I tw a sd educed b y t h e e xcava to rt h a tt h e r e la t ive s i ze s o f t h e b a r rack s a nd t h e ir p o s i t ion i nr e la t ion t oo n e a no the r i n C amp I I s ugge s t t h a t s ome th ing a k in t o t h e P o lyb ian c amp p l an w a sa dop ted w hen t h e se b a r r ack sw e r e

o f ac omp le te t h ree s ided b a r ra ck w e r e r e cove red . T he v i a q u in tana , w h ich r un s b e tween B a r rack s 5a nd 6 , d i v ide s t h e r ow i n to t wo b l ock s .

4 5

P ART I I : CHAPTER 3

4 6

C AMPS

AT R EN IEBLAS c ha r a c t e r i s t ic s i nt h e a r rangemen to ft h e i r r oom s . I ti sb y n o m ean s c l ea r w h ich r oom s b e longed t o ge the r a s au n i t

S chu l t en p ub l i shed a n i d ea l i sed p l an o f ab a r ra ck f o r e qu i t e s R oman i i n w h ich t h e d imen s ion s o f t h e b a r r a ck w e r eg i ven a s7 5pM ( 22 .2m ) i nl e ng th b y 1 30pM ( 3 8 .5m ) i n w id th ( 1929 ,T af .9 ,5 ; r e p roduced h e r e a s F i g .3 .11 ) ." T h ee a s tw ing o fB a r ra ck 5w a si n d eed 2 2 .2m i nl e ng th b u t n on e o ft h e o t he rs i de -w ing s i nR ow K c ou ld b e s hown t o m a t ch t h is l e ng th ; t h e w e s t w ing o fB a r ra ck 8w a s f o und t ob e 2 0 .5m i n l e ng th ( a bou t 6 9pM ) . Whe r e t h e w id th s c ou ld h e r e co rded o n t h e g round , mo s t o ft h e b a r r a ck s i n R ow K e xceeded 1 30pM .

a nd t h e d i v is ion s i mpo sed o n t h e p l an b y S chu l t en a pp ea r i nm any c a se s t ob e a r b i t ra ry .

R ow K : T he c ava lry b arrack s a s p re sen ted b y S chu l ten S chu l t en 's i d ea l i sed p l an o f ac ava lry b ar ra ck f o r e qu i t e s R oman i ( F ig .3 .11) s how s t h e d i v i s ion o ft h a tb a r r a ck i n to t e nc on tuber n ia ( i . e . s e lf -con ta ined u n i t sw h ich w ou ld h ave p r ov ided a c commoda t ion f o r an umbe r o f t r oop s i n a m e s s -g roup ) '4 o fw h ich t h r ee , m ea su r ing 2 5x25pM , w e r e p o s i t ioned i n e a ch o ppo s ing w ing w i th a f u r the r f ou r c on tubern ia ( 2 5x2OpM ) i n t h e r e a r r a nge . A l l o f t h e se c on tube rn ia w e r e s ugge s ted t o h o ld t h r ee m en p l u s t h e m oun t s f o r t h e se m en . T he c on tube rn ium i nt h i s i d ea l i sed f o rm i ss ugge s t ed t ob ed i v ided i n to t h r ee r oom se a ch w i th ad i f f e ren t f u n c t ion - a s t ab le , al i v ing r oom , a nd a b aggage o re qu ipmen tr oom ( S chu l t en 1 929 ,68 -9 ) . S u ch a n a r rangemen t f o r t h e s t ab l ing o fh o r se s i sf a r f r om i d ea l a s w i l l b e d emon s t ra ted b e low . T he c omb ina t ion o f as t ab le a nd ac on tube rn ium w a so b ser ved i nt h eb a r ra ck se xcava ted a tN eu s s ( Ko enen 1 904 ,143 -5 ) a nd S chu l ten w a s p e rhap s i n f luen ced b y t h is r e por t w h ich h ad i d en t if ied t h e s e b a r ra ck s a sl e g ionar y .' S chu l ten m ake s d i r ec t r e f e r en ce s t o N eu s s i n h i s d i scu s s ion o f t h e b a r ra ck s o f R ow K ( 1 929 ,70 ) a l though h ec l a imed t h a tt h e s t ab le sa tR en ieb la s w e r e i n co rpo r a ted w i th in t h e c on tuber n ia n o t a d jo in ing t h em a sw a s s ugge s ted a tN eu s s . S chu l ten a l so b e l ieved t h a t t h e c on tubern ia c l o se s t t ot h e s t r ee t i ne a ch b a r ra ck o f R ow K w e r e l i k e ly t oh ave h e ld t h e s i x o ff i ce r s , t h r ee D ecu r ion s a nd t h r e e O p t io s ( 1 929 ,6 9 ) . T he o ff ice r s ' q uar ter s O f f icer s ' q ua r t e r sa r e r e cogn isab le i n ap o s i t ion a tt h eh ead o fs ome o ft h es i de -w ing si nt h ei n f an t ry b a r ra ck so fC amp I l a nd S chuf t en b e l ieved t h a t t h ey c ou ld b e i d en t if ied a l so i nt h e b a r r a ck s o ft h e c ava lry . H e s t a ted t h a t :

I nB a r ra ck 4 t h ea c commoda t ion s ugge s t ed b y S chu l ten t o b ef o ro ff i ce r s( c ompr is ing o ft wo r oom si nt h ew e s tw ing ) h ad ad oo rway l e ad ing t o at h ird r oom w h ich S chu l t en h a s a s cr ibed t o as e pa ra t ec on tube r n ium . T he r o om so ft h ee a s t w ing o f B a r ra ck 3 w e r e s im i la r ly l i nked b u t a ppea r o n S chu l ten 's p l an t ob eg rouped i n to i n d iv idua l c on tube r n ia ( 1 929 , p l an V I ) . T he e a s t w ing o fB a r r a ck 2i sc l ea r e r . I t h ad t wo d i s t in c t s u i te s o f r oom s . T he f o rwa rd s u i t e h ad f o u rr oom s , w h ich i nt o ta lp rov ided 5 4m 2 o fi n ter na l s p a ce ; t h e r e a r s u i t e h ad t h r ee r oom s w i th t o ta l i n t e rna l d imen s ion so f6 x6m ( 36m2) .T he a dd i t iona ls p a ce a c co rded t ot h e r oom a tt h e h ead o ft h e w ing m igh t s ugge s t t h a t t h e o ccupan t s e n joyed ah i ghe r s t a tu s t h an t h o s e i nt h e r o om b eh ind b u t i ti s d i ff icu l t t o f i nd p a r a l le ls i n t h e o t he r b a r ra ck s o f R ow K . T he r o om s a tt h e h ead o f t h e w e s t w ing o f B a r ra ck 3 m ir ro r ed c l o s e ly , i n t h e i r l a you t a nd d imen s ion , t h o se o f t h e i r n e ighbou r i n B a r r a ck 2 b u t u n f or tuna te ly t h e r oom s i mmed ia te ly b eh ind d o n o t s u rv ive . T he f r on t r oom s o f t h e w e s t w ing o f B ar r a ck 6 h ad a tl e a s t t wo a dd i t iona l r oom s a t ta ched t ot h em b u t s o d i d t h e r oom s a way f r om t h e f r on tage i nt h e e a s t w ing o f B a r ra ck 3 . B y w ay o fc on t r a s t , t h e w e s t w ing o f B a r r a ck 8h ad a t o ta l ly d i f f e ren t a r r angemen t w i th a l u nd iv ided r oom a ti t s h ead a nd a r a nge o f r oom s b eh ind , d i v ided c en t ra l ly a nd mo s t ly o fa pp rox ima t e ly e qua l s i ze . I ns p i te o ft h i si n con c lu s ive e v idence t h e r ei ss ome s uppo r t f o r t h e i d ea t h a t t h e r oom s o ccupy ing t h e p o s i t ion o n t h e s t r ee t f r on tage w e r e f o r o f f ice r s . T h is c ome s f r om t h e o b s erva t ion t h a t t h ey w e r e e s pe c ia l ly w e l l c on s t ru c ted i n c ompa r i son t ot h er oom sl y ing b eh ind ( S chu l ten 1 929 ,68 ) ." A l though t h is i st h e o n ly d emon s t r ab le e v iden ce w h ich w ou ld p o in t t owa rd s t h e q ua r te r s a t t h e h ead o f t h e b a r r a ck so fR ow K a sh av ing b een r e ser ved e xc lu s ive ly f o r o ff i ce r s t h i s w ou ld , n eve r the le s s , b e t h e i r n a tu ra l p o s i t ion a nd t h e a na logy t a ken f r om t h e b a r ra ck s o f t h e Emp i r e ( whe re t h e c en tu r ia l q ua r t e r s a r e i n va r iab ly f o und a tt h e h ead o f t h e b a r ra ck s ) , a nd f r om t h e i n f an t ry b a r r a ck s o f C amp I w ou ld a dd w e igh tt ot h e b e l ief t h a t a tl e a s t s ome o ft h e q ua r t e r sa tt h e h ead o ft h e b a r ra ck s i nR ow K . w e r e f o r o ff i ce r s .' T he men 's q uar ter s

E si s tw oh lk e ine F rage , d aß , w ie b e id e rI n f an t e r ie s o a uch h i e rj e d i e e r s ten C on tube rn ien d e r F lüge l Ar d i e C harg ier ten d e r T urma b e s t imm t w ar en . ( S chu l t en 1 929 ,68 ) .

S chu l t en i d en t i f ied t h r e e room u n i t s a s s t anda rd c on tubern ia f o r c ava l ry ( F ig .3 .11) . I n f a c t o n ly e i gh t c on tube rn ia i n R ow K s how s u ch a d i v is ion i n to t h r ee r oom s ; a l e i gh t a r e c onf ined t o B a r r a ck s 1 6 , n on e a r e a ppa r en t i n B a r ra ck s 7 10 ( F ig .3 .10 ) . T he r oom s w h ich c omp r ised t h e se u n i t s w e r e n o t a lway s a r ranged i n t h e s ame o rde r . T he l a rge r r o om , t h ough t t ob e as t ab le , w a s s ome t ime s f o rwa rd , s ome t ime s t ot h es i d e o rs ome t ime st o t h e r e a ro ft h e l i v ing q ua r te r s . T h is d i r e c t p rox im i ty o ft h e s t ab le t ot h e l i v ing q ua r t e r s i nS chu l ten 's s c heme a ppea r s t ob em o s tu n l ike ly . I nr e cen t ly e xcava t ed a ux i l ia ry c ava lry

T ha t s t a t emen t r e qu ir e s s ome q ua l if i ca t ion . A pa r t f r om t h e i rp o s i t ion a tt h eh ead o ft h ew ing , t h eo ff i ce r s ' q ua r te r s i nt h e b a r r a ck s o f t h e i n f an t ry w e r e a l so c ha ra c t e r is ed b y t h e i rg r ea t e rs i ze r e la t ive t ot h ec on tube r n ia b eh ind t h em .1 6 T he q ua r t e r s o ccupy ing t h e p o s i t ion a t t h e h ead o f t h e b a r ra ck s o fR ow K f r on t ing o n to S t r ee t I( F ig .3 .10 ) w e r e n o t o f a ny s t anda rd s i ze a nd a l d i sp lay d i f f e r en t 4 7

P ART I lk CHAPTER 3

F ig .3 .11

I d ea l ised p l an o f ab a r rack o ft h e e qu i te s R oman i ( a f te r S chu l ten 1 929 , T af .9 .5 ) . N o t d rawn t o s c a le . D imen s ion s s hown a r e i n R oman pM . 4 8

C A MPS I 1 1 1 AT REN IEBLAS b a r ra ck s o ft h e I mper ia l p er iod , w he r e m en a nd h o r se s a r e t h ough tt os ha r et h es ame b u i ld ing , t h ea c commoda t ion f o r e a ch i sc l ea r ly d ef ined b y m ean s o f aw a l l o r p ar t i t ion ( Dav i son 1 989 ,156 -8 ) .' I tw i l l b e a rgued l a te r t h a t t h e p r esen ce o f s t ab le s w i th in t h e s ame c on tubern ia a s t h e

d in ing a r ea s ( g iven t h e r ank ing a cco rded t o t h e c ava lr y t r oope r s ) . S ign if ican t ly , s ome th ing o f t h e s ame k ind w a s o b served i nR ow D wh ich w a s t h ough t t oh ou se t r oop s o f t h e a l l ied c ava lry . T he p re sence o f s t ab le s i n a ny s i gn if ican t n umbe r i n R ow K i s n o t d emon s t ra t ed b y a r e v iew o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence a nd t h i s p rob lem i s

t r oope r s i sh igh ly q ues t ionab le . O nt h ee v iden ce p r e sen ted b y t h e a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s n o f i rm p a t tern i sv i s ib le . T oo f ew c omp le te r ooms b e long ing t ot h er e a rr a nge sw e re

a dd re s sed s e pa ra te ly i n t h e d i scu s s ion a tt h e e nd o f t h is c hap te r .

r e cove red w h ich w ou ld a s s i s t i ni d en t if y ing t h e i r p urpo se . T he r oom s o ccupy ing a s e conda ry p o s i t ion o n t h e w ing s ,

R ow A ( t he b arrack s o f t he t r iar i i .) : d i spo s i t ion a nd d imen s ion s o ft he b arrack s

b eh ind t ho se c l o se s t t o t h e s t ree t , w e re a l l d i f f e r en t i n s hape a nd f o rm f r om b a r ra ck t o b ar ra ck a nd a ppea r i n

Number ,

s ome c a se s t o h ave b een c onnec ted b y d oorways t o t h e f o remo s t r oom s . Where t h i s l a t te r o ccu r s t h e d iv is ion i n to

Al i ne o fb a r ra ck so ft h e t h ree s ided t ype w a se xcava ted b y S chu l ten a tC amp I I R en ieb la sa nd w a s d e s igna ted b y h im

s e pa ra te c on tube rn ia , s ugge s t ed b y S chu l ten , i sp e rhap s

a s R ow A ( 1929 ,71-3 ) . S chu l ten h a s r e s to red t e n b a r rack s o n h i s p l an o f t h is r ow ( F ig .3 .10 ) a nd h e m ay w e l l b e c or r ec t i n t h is , a l though B a r rack s 1 , 2 ,6 ,7 ,8 , a nd 9 w e re r ep r e sen ted b y f r agmen ta ry r ema in s o r t h e r ema in s o fo ne

u n saf e . Ap o s s ib le t r ic l in ium w a s i d en t if ied i n t h e r e a r r a nge o f B a r ra ck 5 ( S chu l ten 1 929 ,70 ) ; i fi tw a s at r ic l in ium t h en

w ing o n ly . Ac l ea rd iv is ion e x is ted b e tween B ar rack s 5a nd 6w he re a s t r ee t , t h e v i a q u in tana , r an b e tween t h e t wo a nd t h is h a s t h e e f f ec t o f d i v id ing t h e b a r ra ck s i n to t wo

t h i s w ou ld s ugge s t ac er ta in d eg ree o f s t a tu s f o r s ome o f t h eo ccupan t so ft h eb a r ra ck . T h is w ou ld n o tn ece s sar i ly b e i n con s is ten t f o r c ava lry t r oops w ho , i nb o th t h e P o lyb ian p l an a nd i nt h i s c amp , a re p l a ced i n ap r ime p o s i t ion n ea r t ot h e c en t r e .

g roup s w i th p robab ly f i ve b a r ra ck s i ne a ch g roup . Whe re i tc an b e a s ce r ta ined , e a ch o ft h e b a r ra ck s a ppea r s t oh ave b een b u i l t a r ound ac our tya rd w h ich o pened o n to as t r ee t t o t h e n o r th ( t he e xcep t ion w a s B ar rack 1 0 w h ich w a s

D i scu s s ion : t he b arrack s o fR ow K

p l a ced a t9 0° t ot h eo the r sa nd f a ced t h e o u t e rw a l l ) . T he se b a r ra ck sw e r eb u i l tb a ck to -ba ck w i th t h o se i mmed ia te ly t o t h e s ou th a nd t h ey a r e r e a sonab ly c er ta in t o h ave b een o ccup ied b y t h em an ip le s o ft h et r iar i i . S chu l ten p ub l ished a ni d ea l ised p l an o f ab a r ra ck -b lock f o r am an ip le o ft r iar i i

Many o f t h e b a r ra ck s i n R ow K w e r e b u i l t i nt i gh t o rde r w i th p a r ty w a l ls . T h is j ux tapo s i t ion l e ave sn og ap b e tween t h em . T h is i si nc on t ra s t t o t h e m a jor i ty o f t h e b a r ra ck s e l sewhe r e i n t h e c amp w h ich w e r e s epa ra ted f r om e a ch o t he r b y ag ap w h ich r ep r e sen t s ap a s sage o r p e rhap s a n e ave s -dr ip . T he a bsence o f t h is g ap h a s t h e e f f ec t o f w inn ing a dd i t iona l s pace f o rt h e w id th o ft h eb a r ra ck s . A l l o f t h e b a r ra ck s o f R ow K , w he r e t h e o b serva t ion c an b e m ade , h ad c ou r tya rds o pen t ot h es ou th . T he i d en t if ica t ion a s c ava lry b a r ra ck s , wh i ls t n o t s e cu r e , a ppea r s t o b e r e a sonab le o n t h e b a s is o ft h e P o lyb ian a na logy .

b a sed o n h i s f i nd ing s i n R ow A . I th ad d imen s ion s o f 2 2 .2m i nl e ng th b y 3 8 .5m i nw id th ( 1929 ,T af .11 ,2 ) . T he se m ea su r emen t s o f 2 2 .2x38 .5m g iven o n S chu l ten 's p l an c o r r e spond t ot h e R oman d imen s ion s o f7 5x130pM . T he l e ng th o ft h e s i de -w ing so ft h e t h ree b a r ra ck s f ound i n t h e f i r s t g roup w es t o ft h e v i a q u in tana i nR ow A w e r e a l q u i te c l o se t ot h e t a rge t f i gu r eo f2 2 .2m . O n ly af ew o ft h e s i de -w ing s i nt h e b a r ra ck s o ft h e s e cond g roup i nR ow A s urv ived o r w e r e e xpo sed . O f t h e se , B a r ra ck 1 0 h a s a d i f f e r en t o r ien ta t ion a nd i s as pec ia l c a se w h i ls t B a r ra ck 8 h ad a w e s tern w ing , i fc omp le te , o f o n ly 2 0m i n l e ng th ( 67 1 /pM 2 ) t h u s s omewha ts hor te r t h an t h o se e n coun te r ed i n t h e f i r s t g roup . T he w e s t w a l l o fB ar ra ck 6a d jacen t t ot h e v i a q u in tana m ay b e a bou t 2 2 .5m ( n ea r e r 7 6p M ) l o ng , w h i ls t t h e m ea su remen t a c ro s s t h e f r on tage o fB ar rack 1 0 , w h ich f a ce s t h e o u te r w a l l a nd o ccup ie s t h e p lo t a t t h e e x t reme e a s te rn e nd , i s a pp rox ima te ly 2 3m l o ng o r 7 71 /pM 2

T he n umbe ra nd d i spos i t ion o ft h e c on tubern ia , t h e ir s i ze a nd t h e i r i n terna l a r rangemen t w a s v er y v ar ied i nR ow K , m o re m a rk ed ly s o t han a ny o f t h e o t he r r ow s . T he a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s d o n o t r e f lec t as e r ie s o fs t anda rd b ar ra ck s a l o f f er ing mu ch t h e s ame i n t h e w ay o f a c commoda t ion b u t r a the r t h e o ppo s i te ; m u l t ifo rm i ty i mp ly ing av ar ie ty o fa r rangemen t s a nd p e rhap s f un c t ion s w i th in e a ch . T h is c ou ld s ugges t t h a t e a ch b ar ra ck w a s c on s tru c ted b y ad i f f eren tc ompany ( t urma )a cco rd ing t oi t s o wn p r ef e r en ce s . I tc ou ld b e s ugge s ted t h a t t h e a ppa r en t f r eedom t oc on s t ruc t t h e b a r ra ck sa cco rd ing t ot h e t a s te o f t h e i n d iv idua l t u rma m ay h ave b een d ue t o ac e r ta in a moun t o fl a t i tude a l lowed t oc ava lry t r oop s b y v i r tue o f t h e ir s en io r i ty o ve rt h ei n f an try .' I tm igh tb ee xpec ted t h a t

T he w id th s o f t h e b a r ra ck s o f R ow A w he r e t h ey c ou ld s t i l l b e r e co rded w ere a l l a bou t 3 9 .5m ( c .133p M ) . B ar ra ck 1 0 w a sa bou t 2 3m ( c .77 1 2 pM / ) w ide b u t t h is i sb ecau se t h e

t h e re w ou ld a l so b e s pec ia l ised r oom s w h ich w ou ld c a ter f o rt h e n eed so fc ava lry t r oope r sa nd t h is m igh ta c coun tf o r

b ar rack w a s t u rned t h rough 9 0 " a nd t h e w id th w a s i nt h is i n s tance n ece s sa r i ly s hor tened s o t h a t i tc onf ormed t ot h e w id th o ft h e s camnum o ft h e t r iar i i .

t h e d i v is ion s w h ich a r e f ound i ns on ic o ft h e c on tubern ia . ( The t h r ee room u n i t s a r e n o t f ound i nt h e b a r ra ck s w i th in t h e c amp w h ich h ave b een s ugge s t ed t o h ave h e ld i n f an t ry ) . T he p rov is ion o ft h ree r oom sm igh tr e p r e sen tt h e

S chu l ten

d i v is ion i n to a s t oreroom f o r h a rne s s a nd o t he r c ava lry a c cou t remen t s a nd p erhap s s epa ra te l i v ing , s l eep ing o r

S chuf t en p roduced as chema t ic p l an o f ab a r r ack -b lock f o r

R ow A : T he b arrack s o f t he t r iar i i a s p re sen ted b y

4 9

P ART I I : CHAPTER 3

F i g .3 .12 I d ea l i sed p l an o f ab a r r ack o ft h e t r iar i i ( af t e r S chu l ten 1 9 29 , T af .11 .2 ) . N o t d r awn t os c a le . D imen s ion s s hown a r e i nR oman pM . 5 0

C A MPS I / I l AT R EN 1EBLAS t r iar i i ( 1929 ,T af .11 ,2 ; r e p rodu ced h e r e a s F ig .3 .12 ) . S chu l t en d e s cr ibed t h e b a r ra ck s hown i n h i s p l an a s ' n o rma le ' ( 1 929 ,72 -3 ) . I n t h i s s c heme t h e f i r s t ` c on tubern ium ' , t h a t c l o se s t t ot h e s t r ee t , i ne a ch w ing i s a lo t ted t ot h e c en tur ion a nd t h e t wo j un io ro ff i ce r s o ft h e c en tu r y ( t he se b e ing t h e o p t io a nd t h e s i gmf e r ) . T he r ema in ing f o u r( s ic ) c on tuber n ia o fe a ch w ing w e r es a id t o a c commoda te t h e m en . T he l i v ing s pa ce a lo t t ed t o t h e o ff i ce r s i s s a id t o b e t w ice t h a t o f t h e o rd ina ry c on tubern ium . T h i s i d ea i st a k en f r om H yg inu s ( d e m un . c a s t . ,1 ) w he r e t h e t e n t s ( pap i l ione s ) o f t h e o rd ina ry s o ld ie r s a r e g i ven a s 1 0x l Oped e s ; t h a t o ft h e c en tu r ion a s t h e w id th o f t wo p ap i l ione s . T he n ume rou s e xamp le s o f b a r ra ck b lo ck s d a t ing f r om t h e P r inc ipa t e w he r e t h e c e n tw ia l q ua r t e r s a r e p e r cep t ib ly l a rge r t h an t h o se o ft h e m en l e nd s w e igh tt ot h eb e l ief t h a tt h is w a st r ue a l so i nt h e R epub l ic .

c on s is ted o f ap a r t ia l ly d i v ided r oom , w ou ld h ave p rov ided al i t t le u nde r2 8m2.a nd t h e t h ree r oom s a tt h eh ead o ft h e w e s t ern w ing o fB a r ra ck 6w ou ld h ave p rov ided 2 4m .2 I fa l o ft h e se a r ea s d o i n deed r e p r e sen t t h e l i v ing s p a ce s a va i lab le t o t h e c en tur ion s o f t h e t r iar i i t h en i tc an b e a pp r e c ia t ed t h a t t h ey a r e r e la t ive ly s ma l l c ompa r ed t ot h e k i nd o f s p a ce w h ich w a s a t t h e d i spo sa l o f l e g iona ry c en tu r ion s f r om t h eC laud ian p e r iod o nwa rd s( c f . D av ison 1 989 , F ig .19 ) . T hey a r e e ven s ma l le r i n a r ea t h an t h e s ma l le s t e xamp le s w h ich D av ison c i t e s -t h o se o f t h e c en tu r ia l q ua r t e r s o f A ugu s tan d a te a t O be raden a nd H a l t ern . A t O be r aden t h e c en tu r ia l q ua r te r s w e r e i n t h e r e g ion o f 9 x8m ( Ho rn 1 987 , A bb .302 ) ; t h o s e a tH a l t e rn f r om c oho r t 1l b , a bou t 9 x9m ( v . S chnu rbe in 1 98 1 ,50 ) . I n b o th c a s e st h e se a r ee x t erna ld imen s ion ss ot h e l i v ing s p a ce w ou ld b e r e du ced a c co rd ing ly . N eve r the le s s,t h e a r ea a va i lab le t o ac en tu r ion a tO be raden ( p e rhap sa r ound 7 0n r) w ou ld s t i l l c omf o r tab ly e xceed t h a t t h ough t t oh ave b e en a va i lab le i nt h e c en tur ia l q ua r t e r s o ft h e b a r ra ck s o f R ow Aa tR en ieb la s . O n t h e o t he rh and a na r ea o f3 6 ,6m 2 m ay w e l l h ave b een a c cep tab le f o r t h e c en tu r ion o ft h e s e cond m an ip le o ft h e t r ia r i i i nh i s s u spec ted q ua r te r s a tt h e h ead o fB a r r a ck 2 .T h is a r ea i sg r ea t e r t h an t h a to ft h e q ua r te r s a tt h e h ead o f t h e n o r thern w ing o f B a r ra ck 1i nR ow B w h ich w e r e p o s s ib ly t h o se o f t h e c en tu r ion o f t h e f i r s t m an ip le o f t h e p r inc ipe s a nd a p e ck ing o rd e r f o r t h e v a r iou sc la s se so ft r oop s w i th in C amp I c an b ed i s ce rn ed n o to n ly i nt h e i rr e la t ive p o s i t ion w i th in t h ec amp b u ta l so p e rhap si nt h eq ua l i ty a nd s i ze o fa c commoda t ion o f f e r ed .

T he o ff icer s ' q uar ter s C e r ta in p r e ceden t s , t a k en n o d oub t f r om t h e o rd e r o f l a y ing o u tt h e t e n t s i n am a r ch ing -camp d oa ppea r t oh ave b e en i no p e r a t ion i nC amp I I . T hu s , S chu l t en f i nd s s ome s u ppo r t f o r h i s b e l ief t h a t t h e o ff i ce r s ' q ua r t e r s i n t h e b a r r a ck s o ft h e i n f an t ry w e r e c l o se s t t ot h e s t r ee t a st h ey w ou ld h ave b een i nt h e t e n ted c amp d e sc r ibed b y P o lyb iu s ( V I ,30 ,5 ) . Whe the rt h e se q ua r te r sa l so h ou sed t h es i gn if e r a nd o p t io o f t h e c en tu ry i s a no the r m a t te r . I t w a s c ommonp la ce i n f o r t r e s se s o f t h e P r in c ipa t e f o r t h e c e n tu r ion 's q ua r t e r s t ob e i mmed ia t e ly a d ja cen t t o as t r ee t ( of t en t h e v i a s agu lar i s ) i n i n s tan ce s w he re t h e b a r ra ck s w e r e a r ranged a r ound t h e i n s ide o ft h e d ef en ce s , b u t t h ey a r e a l so f o und a d jacen t t oo t he r s t r ee t s .

Wh i ls t t h e r e i s s ome j u s t if ica t ion f o r t h e b e l ief t h a t o ff i ce r s ' q ua r t e r sc an b ei d en t if ied i nR ow A t h e r em u s tb e l e s s c e r ta in ty a bou t t h e n umbe r o f s u ch q uar te r s w h ich o ccu r r ed i ne a ch m an ip le -ba r r a ck . P o lyb iu s s t a te s t h a t :

S chu l ten o b se rved t h a t t h e s u spe c t ed o ff i ce r s ' q ua r t e r s i n t h e i n f an t r y b a r ra ck s a tC amp I I w e r e d i s t ingu ished b y t h e ir r e la t ive ly l a rge s i ze i n r e la t ion t o o rd ina ry c on tuber n ia , b y t h e p rov is ion o f a dd i t iona l r oom s , a nd s ome t ime s b y t h e p re sen ce o f w ha t h e i n t e rp re ted w i th s ome l i k e l ihood a s g ua rd room s o r ' W ach t s tuben ' ( 1 929 ,72 ) . E v iden ce o ft h is n a tu r e i nR ow A w a s r e co rded i nB a r ra ck s2 ,3 ,4 , 5a nd 6a nd , l e s ss e cu r e ly , i nB a r r a ck s 7a nd 1 0 .

I n e a ch m an ip le t h e f i r s t t e n t a t e i the r e nd i s o ccup ied b y t h e c en tur ion s . ( Po l .V I ,30 ,5 ) . I nS chu l ten 's s c heme f o r am an ip le -ba r r a ck o f t h e t r iar i i ( F ig .3 .12 ) h e s how s o ff ice r s ' q ua r te r s a tt h e h ead o fb o th o ft h eo ppo s ing w ing s . T h is i sd e sp i te t h e f a c tt h a tt h e r e i s n o t o n e s i ng le e xamp le o f ab a r ra ck i nR ow A w he r e t h e r e cove r ed g round -p lan w ou ld s uppo r t s u ch a n a s sump t ion ( F ig .3 .10 ) .

T he r ema in s o f ar e la t ive ly l a rge u n i t w e r e r e co rded a tt h e h ead o ft h ee a s t e rn w ing o fB a r r a ck 2( F ig .3 .10 ) . S chu l ten d e scr ibed t h i s u n i t a s at h re e room c en tu r ion 's h ou se o f t h e t r iar i i i sa c cep ted t h en t h e q ua r te r s c ou ld b e t h o s e o f t h e c en tu r ion o f t h e s e cond m an ip le o f t h e t r iar i i . When m ea su r ed o n t h e g round b y t h e p r e sen t a u tho r i n 1 989 t h e se q ua r t e r s h ad i n terna l d imen s ion s o f6 x6 .1 0m g i v ing at o ta l o f3 6 .6m 2 i n c lu s ive o ft h e i n te rna l w a l ls . T he t o ta l f l oo r s p a ce a va i lab le w ou ld h ave b een al i t t le u nde r t h is . T he u n i t a tt h e h ead o ft h e e a s t ern w ing o fB a r ra ck 4h ad e i the r t wo o r t h r ee r oom s . T he t wo r o om s w h ich a r e c e r ta in w ou ld h ave p rov ided a bou t 2 3 .8m 2;at h ird r o om b e tween t h e se a nd t h e g ua rd room w ou ld h ave g i ven a g r and t o t a l o f a pp rox ima te ly 3 6 .8m 2 i n c lu s ive o f t h e i n te rna l w a l l s .

T he e v iden ce , w he r ei te x is t ss how s ac on t r a ry p i c tu r e . F o r i n s tan ce , t h e r o om a tt h e h ead o ft h e e a s t w ing o fB a r r a ck 5c on s is t s o f ar e la t ive ly s ma l l u nd iv ided r oom w i th i n te rn a l d imen s ion s o f3 . 5x2 .6m w he r ea s t h e r oom sa tt h e h ead o f t h e o ppo s ing w e s t w ing o f B a r r a ck 5 a r e l a rg e r a nd m o r e c omp lex i nn a tu r e . B a r ra ck 3d i sp lay s as im i la r p a t t e rn ; t h e e a s t w ing h a s f o u r r o om s i n ap o s i t ion a tt h e h ead o f t h e b a r ra ck , t h ough t t ob e f o r o f f ice r s ( S chu l t en 1 929 ,73 ) , w h i l s tt h ew e s tw ing h a so n ly as i ng le u nd iv ided r o om o f m o r e m ode s t d imen s ion s . T he f r agmen ta ry r ema in s o f t h e b a r ra ck s t ot h e e a s t o f t h e v i a q u in tana i n R ow A s e r ve o n ly t oc onf i rm t h is p i c tu r e .

T he u n i ta tt h e h ead o ft h e w e s t w ing o fB a r r a ck 5 ,w h ich

I ti sn o t p o s s ib le t om ake ac a s e f o r o f f ice r s ' q ua r te r s a t 5 1

P ART I I : CHAPTER 3 o f t h e c ou r tya rd b e tween t h e t wo s i de -w ing s o f t h e s e b a r ra ck s w a s r e ser ved f o r t h e s t ab l ing o f p a ck -an ima l s , t h en e v iden t ly n o th ing o f av e ry p e rmanen t n a tu r e w a s e r e c ted . T e the r ing p o s t s t oge the r w i th s ome f o rm o f r ud imen ta ry c ove r m ay h ave b een a l t h a t s u ff i ced .

t h e h ead o f e a ch o f t h e s i de w ing s i nt h e w ay w h ich h a s b e en p ropo sed b y S chuhen . G rave d oub t s mu s t a l so a t ta ch t h em se lve s t o S chu l t en 's p ropo sa l sc on ce rn ing t h ea l loca t ion o fr oom s t ot h ej un ior o f f ice r s . H ec l a imed t h a t t h eo p t io a nd t h es i gn if e ro fe a ch c en tur y w ou ld h ave s ha red t h e s e cond c on tubern ium o f e a ch s i de -w ing i mmed ia te ly b eh ind t h a t o f t h e c en tu r ion ( S chu l t en 1 929 ,72 ) . T he r e i sn o e v iden ce w h ich w ou ld s uppo r t t h i s v i ew .

D i scu s s ion : t he b arrack s o f R ow A

T he m en 's q uar ter s T he p r e sen ce o fc on tubern ia c an b e r e ad i ly i d en t if ied i n t h e b a r ra ck s o f R ow s B a nd C ; t h ey a r e l e s s e a s i ly r e cogn i sed i n t h e b a r ra ck s o f R ow A d e sp i te S chu l ten 's c l a im t h a t e a ch m an ip le -ba r ra ck o ft h e t r iar i i ( s ic .) w ou ld h ave b een f u rn i shed w i th e i gh t c on tube rn ia , f o u r o n e a ch s i de -w ing ( S chu l t en 1 929 ,72 ) . I nf a c tt h em an ip le -ba r r a ck s i n R ow A w e r e c l ea r ly n owhe r e a s n ea r u n if o rm a s S chu l ten h a s p ropo sed . E ven a c u r so ry l o ok a tt h e p l an ( F ig .3 .10 ) w i l l r e vea l d i f f e r en ce s i n t h e s i ze a nd a r rangemen t o f t h e r oom s w h ich c ou ld s ugge s t s ome v a r ie ty i nf un c t ion . S chu l t en h im se lf c ommen t s u pon t wo r o om sw h ich m igh th ave b een u s ed i n ar o le o t he rt h an t h a t o fp rov id ing s imp le s l eep ing a nd l i v ing a c commoda t ion . I n o ne o ft h e r e a r r oom s o ft h e e a s t w ing o f B a r ra ck 3w e r e f o und t h e r ema in s o f w ha t a ppea r s o n p l an t o b e a t r ic l in ium ( i b id . ,73 a nd P l an V I ) . E l sewhe r e i nC amp I I t r ic l in ia h ave b een f o und o n ly i n a s soc ia t ion w i th t h e b u i ld ing s o f t h e t r ibune s , t h e c oho r t o f f r iend s a nd t h e l e g ion a ry c ava l ry ( i b id ., 7 3 ) .2 1 T ha tt h eb a r ra ck s o fR ow A s ha r e s ome o ft h e s ame c ha ra c t e r is t ic s i n d ica t ive o fh i ghe r s t a tu s t r oop s i ss i gn if ican t . T he p r e sen ce o fr oom s p l a ced f o rwa rd o f s ome o f t h e c on tuber n ia i n t h e e a s t w ing o f B a r ra ck 4 s ugge s t s as p ec ia l ised p u rpo se f o r s ome o f t h e r oom s i n t h is w ing . T h is v i ew i s r e in f o r ced b y t h e o b ser va t ion t h a to ne o ft h er oom sh ad at h roughway l i nk ing i tt oi t s n e ighbou r i nB a r ra ck 5 . N ea r ly s qua re o rr e c tangu la rc on tubern ia a r ev i s ib le i nt h e

T he b a r ra ck s i nt h e f i r s t g roup w e s t o f t h e v i a q u in tana w e r e f o und t o h ave l e ng th s o n e i the r s i de o f S chu l t en 's t h eo r e t ica l d imen s ion o f7 5p M . T he i r w id th s o n t h e o t he r h and w e r e c on s is t en t ly a bove h i s t h eo r e t ica l w id th o f 1 30pM o f t en b ya bou to ne m e t re ( o rj u s tu nde r 3 pM ) . T he r ema in s o f t h o se b a r ra ck s e a s t o f t h e v i a q u in tana w e r e f r agmen ta ry ; t h e ir l e ng th s w e r e m o s t ly j u s t o ve r t h o s e s ugge s t ed b y S chu l t en t ob e s t anda rd . I ti se v iden t t h a ta l o ft h e b a r ra ck s i nR ow A r e spec t S t r e e t Is ugge s t ing t h ey w e r er e qu ir ed t oc on f o rm t o al i n ew h ich h ad b een l a id o u t o ve r ac on s ide rab le l e ng th f o r t h e e xp re s s p u rpo se o f d e l in ea t ing t h es t r ee t . U n l ike t h en e ighbour ing b a r r a ck so f R ow K t ot h e s ou th , t h e b ar ra ck s o fR ow A o f t en h ad a p a s sage b e tween a d jo in ing b a r ra ck s . O n b a lan ce , i ts e em s l i ke ly t h a t t h e r e w e r e t e n b ar ra ck s i nt h e r ow ; t h i s w ou ld m a t ch t h ed i spo s i t ion o ppo s i te i nR ow B .P a ra l le l sw i th t h e l a you t o f R ow s Ba nd C s ugge s t t h a t B a r ra ck 1s h ou ld h ave o pen ed o n to t h es u spec ted v i ap r inc ipa l i s t ot h ew e s t . T he mo r e d e ta i led s t udy o ft h e b a r ra ck s h a s d emon s t r a t ed t h a t t h ey d i sp layed g r ea t d i ve r s i ty i n t h e ir g round -p lan . I n d iv idua l m an ip le s m ay h ave b een a lowed ad eg r e e o f f r e edom i nt h ed i spo s i t ion a nd s i ze o ft h e c on tube rn ia a nd i n t h e p r ov is ion o f e mbe l l ishmen t s s u ch a s a dd i t iona l r oom s a nd m aybe e ven d in ing a r ea s . T h i s m igh t b e t a k en t os uppo r tt h ev i ew t h a tt h e se b a r r a ck sw e r em ade a va i lab le t ot h e s e n io r i n f an t ry t r oop s o f t h e l e g ion , t h e t r iar i i a nd p r iv i lege s m ay h ave b een g ran ted t o t h em w h ich w e r e d en ied t ot h e l owe rr a nk s . T h is o b se r va t ion w a sm ad ea l so f o r t h e b a r ra ck s o f R ow K t h ough t t o b e t h o s e o f t h e e qu i te s R oman i ( s ee a bove ) . I th a s b een s hown t h a t i tw a s u n l ike ly t h a t o ff i ce r s ' q ua r t e r s w e r e l o ca t ed a tt h e h ead o f b o th w ing s i ne a ch m an ip le -ba r ra ck . O f ten o n ew ing h a sr o om si nt h is p o s i t ion w h ich s how n o d i s t ingu ish ing f e a tu r e s w h ich w ou ld m a rk t h em o u t f r om o t he r r oom s i nt h es ame w ing a nd t h ey m ay w e l l h ave b e en c on tube rn ia .

p l an s o ft h e w e s t w ing s o fB a r ra ck 3a nd 8a nd i nt h e e a s t w ing s o f B a r ra ck s 5a nd 9 ( F ig .3 .10 ) . T he r e a r e s ome c on s ide rab le v a r ia t ion s i nt h e ir d imen s ion s . F o r i n s tan ce , t h es e cond c on tube rn ium i nt h ew e s tw ing o fB a r ra ck 8h ad i n te rna l d imen s ion s o fa bou t 5 . 8x4 .5m w h i l s t t h a t o f t h e f o u r th c on tubern ium o f t h e e a s t w ing o f B a r ra ck 5 h ad d imen s ion s o fo n ly 2 x3 .6 te I ti si mpo s s ib le t or e con c i le t h e se f i nd ing s w i th t h ep i c tu r e t h e i d ea l i s ed b a r ra ck f o r t r iar i i a sp ropo sed b y S chu l t en .

I nt h o se b a r ra ck s i nR ow A w he r e e v idence o fb o th w ing s s u r v ive s , n o tab ly i nB a r ra ck s 3a nd 5 ,i tc an b e s e en t h a t i ne a ch c a se o n e o ft h e w ing s b oa s t ed ac omp lex o fr o om s w h ich c ou ld b e f o r o ff i ce r s w h i l s t i t s o ppo s i te n umb e r

S tab l ing

c on s i s ted o f as e r ie s o f c on tubern ia w h ich w e r e m o r e u n ifo rm i nn a tu r e .

T he r e w a s n o e v iden ce f o r s t ab l ing a t t h e r e a r o f t h e

T he f r agmen ta ry s u rv iva l o ft h e r ema in so ft h e se b a r r a ck s a nd t h e v a r ie ty w h ich i sp e r ce ivab le i nt h e d i spo s i t ion o f t h e i r q ua r te r s m ak e i ti mpo s s ib le t oj udge t h e n umb e r s o f c on tube rn ia w h ich t h ey m ay h ave p o s s e s s ed . I ts e em sc l ea r t h a t t h e r e w a s n o s t anda rd c on tube r n ium s i ze a nd i ti s s ome t ime s i mpo s s ib le t o d i s t ingu i sh b e tween p u ta t ive c on tube rn ia a nd o t he r p urpo se r oom s .

c ou r tya rd s i n R ow A w he r e S chu l ten s u spe c ted t h a t t h e p a ck -an ima ls w e r es omehow e n c lo sed ( S chu l ten 1 929 ,72 ) . Whe r e s u ch e v iden ce m igh t h ave b een e xp e c ted t o h ave s u rv ived , f o r i n s tan ce i n B a r ra ck s 3 ,4 a nd 5 w he r e p r e se rva t ion w a s o t he rw ise g ood , n o th ing w a s r e co rded ( F ig .3 .10 ) . I fS chu l ten w a sc o r r ec t , a nd t h ea r ea a tt h e r e a r 5 2

C A MPS

AT REN IEBLAS

R ow B : n umber , d i spos i t ion , a nd d imen s ion s o f t he b ar rack s T he r ema in s o f t wo l i ne s o f b ar ra ck s o f t h e t h ree s ided

c on tubern ia o f e ve ry w ing . T he r ema in ing e i gh t ( s ic )

t y pe , e a ch b a r ra ck a r ranged a round a c our tya rd , w e re e xcava ted b y S chu l ten a nd d e s igna ted b y h im a s R ow s B and C ( 1929 ,73 -7 ) . T ho se b a r rack s i n R ow B w er e t h ough t t oh ave b een o ccup ied b y t h ep r inc ipe s . T h is r ow

c on tubern ia o fe a ch w ing a r es a id t oa ccommoda te t h em en a nd t h e b u i ld ing a tt h e r e a r o f t h e c ou r tya rd i ss a id t ob e f o r t h e p a ck -an ima ls ( S chu l ten 1 929 ,74 -5 ) . T h is s ymme tr ica l p i c tu re i sn o t s o e v iden t w hen t h e r ema in s t h em se lve s a r e s c ru t in ised i nd e ta i l .

s t ood o ppo s i t e , a t ad i s tan ce o f 1 2m ( a bou t 5 0pM ) , f r om t h e b a r rack so fR ow A . P a ra l le l t oa nd i mmed ia te ly t ot h e

T he o ff icer s ' q uar ter s

n o r th o f R ow B w a s af u r the r r ow o f b a r rack s o f v ery s im i la r a ppea rance . T he b a r ra ck s o f b o th r ow s w e re

F rom t h ea r cha eo log ica l e v iden ce t h e r ei sr e a son t ob e l ieve

s e pa r a ted f r om e a ch o the rb y an ar row 1 . 5m w ide c or r ido r o r e ave s -d r ip . S chu l ten h a s r e s to red o n p l an t e n b ar ra ck s i ne a ch o ft h e s e r ow s ( F ig .3 .13 ) . T he v i a q u in tana b i sec t s

t h a t a tl e a s t s ome o ft h e r oom s s i tua ted a tt h e h ead o f t h e s i de -w ing s i n R ow B w e re f o r o ff ice r s . T he p r e sence o f

b o th r ow s b e tween B ar ra ck s 5a nd 6 . S chu l ten b e l ieved t h a tt h e b ar ra ck so fb o th R ow s Ba nd C w e r e l a id o u t w i th

l a rge r oom s i nr e la t ion t ot h o se b eh ind t h em i n t h e s ame w ing , a dd i t iona l r oom s , o ri n t e rna l f e a tu re s , a r e a l l f a c to r s

t h e d imen s ion s o f 3 8 .5x38 .5m o r 1 30x130pM a s a t h eo r e t ica lt a rge tf o re ach b a r ra ck p lo t( S chu l ten 1 929 ,74 ) .

w h ich c ou ld b e t a ken t oi n d ica t e t h e l i ke l ihood o fo f f ice r s ' q ua r te r s . A ni n spe c t ion o ft h ep l an ( F ig .3 .13 ) w i l l c onf i rm t h a tt h e se o b serva t ion sc an b em ade i nt h eb a r ra ck so fR ow

I nR ow B , o f t h e g roup o f f i ve b a r rack s w e s t o f t h e v i a

B . F o ri n s tan ce t h e r oom sa tt h e h ead o ft h en or the rn w ing o fB a r ra ck 1w e r e o f ag rea te rs i ze t h an t h e c on tubern ia t o

q u in tana , B a r r ack 1i st h e o n ly o ne w h ich f a ce s w es t ( c f . P o l .V 1 ,29 ,9 ) . T h is b ar ra ck h a s as urv iv ing l e ng th i nt h e n or th w ing o fc . 32 .5m b u ti tl o ok sl i ke ly t oh ave o r ig ina l ly

t h e ir r e a r . A d e ta i led p l an o f t h is w ing i s g iven i n F ig .3 .15 . T he r oom a tt h e h ead o f t h e w ing , w h ich w a s

o c cup ied a l l o ft h e 4 0m o r 1 35pM w h ich a pp ea r s t oh ave b e en a va i lab le . B ar rack s 2 , 3 a nd 4w e re a l 3 9m i nl e ng th ( c .132p M ) . T he r ea r e f ew c omp le te s i de -w ing sw h ich h ave

p a r t ia l ly d i v ided , h ad a n i n terna l a r ea o f3 1 .8m 2 i n c lu s ive o f t h e p a r t i t ion w a l l . I tw a s a l so p rov ided w i th ah ear th . S chu l ten i d en t if ied t h e se q ua r te r s a s t h o se o f t h e p r imu s

s u rv ived i nt h e s e cond g roup o f f i ve b a r rack s i n R ow B . T he w es tern w ing o f B a r r a ck 6 i s3 9 .20m i n l e ng th ( j u s t

p r incep s p r ior i s c en tur iae , t h e f i r s t c en tur ion o f t h e f i r s t m an ip le o f t h ep r inc ipe s ( 1929 ,76 ) .2 5 T he p rov is ion o f a h ea r th m igh t b e t a ken t os uppor t t h e v i ew t h a t t h e r oom s w e re a cco rded s ome s pec ia l f un c t ion . I ti su nc lea r w he re t h e s i gn if er a nd t h e o p t io o ft h e c en tur y w ou ld h ave b een

o ve r 1 32p M ) . T he w ing s o f B a r rack 1 0 ( wh ich f a ce s t h e o u te r w a l l ) a r e much s hor te rt h an t h eo the r s r e co rded f r om R ow B . T h i s i sb ecause t h e b ar ra ck o ccup ie s t h e p o s i t ion c l o se s t t ot h eo u te r w a l l a nd ar e s t r ic t ion i nt h e a moun t o f s p a ce a va i lab le t ot h e t e n th b a r ra ck i se v iden t i na l l t h ree r ow s o f b a r r a ck s a l loca ted t o t h e l e g iona ry t r oop s i n t h e n or thern p a r to fC amp I I ( F ig .3 .9 ) . I ti sa l so t u rned , l i ke B ar ra ck 1 ,a t9 0° t o t h e m a in g roup i nt h e s ame m anne r w h ich P o lyb iu s d e scr ibe s . T hu s t h e n o r thernmo s t w ing o f B ar ra ck 1 0 i so n ly a bou t 3m i nl e ng th ( c .111p M ) w h i ls t

a c commoda ted . T he t wo r oom s i mmed ia te ly b eh ind t h e q ua r te r s a t t h e h ead o f B a r ra ck 1b o th h ad a n i d en t ica l i n terna l a r ea o f 1 4 .4m 2,t h u s b o th h ad a bou t h a lf t h e s pa ce w h ich w a s a va i lab le t ot h e r oom a tt h e h ead o f t h e w ing . Ap o s s ib le s c ena r io f o rs u ch a na r rangemen t w ou ld s e e t h e f i r s t r oom h ou s ing t h e c en tur ion a nd t h e t wo a d jo in ing r oom s h ou s ing t h e s i gn if e r a nd t h e o p t io r e spe c t ive ly , b u t t h is a r rangemen t i sn o t r e pea ted e l sewhe r e .

t h e s ou the rnmo s t w ing i s3 5m i n l e ng th ( c .118pM ) . T he b a r ra ck s a l l r e spec t ar e la t ive ly s t ra igh t l i ne w h ich f o rm s t h e n or the rn b oundary o fS t r ee t I .' I ti sp o s s ib le t oo b ta in am ea su remen t o f w id th f o r mo s t o f t h e t e n b ar ra ck s o f R ow B . T hey w ere f ound t ob e v ery s im i la r , b e tween 3 8 .2 a nd 3 9m ( c .129 -131 1 /pM 2 ) i nw id th . O n ly B ar ra ck 1 0 w a s

T he r oom a tt h e h ead o ft h e e a s tern w ing o fB a r rack 4h ad i n terna l d imen s ion s o f7 . 5x5 .4m g iv ing a n a r ea o f4 0 .5m 2 I tw a s d i v ided f r om t h e r oom b eh ind i tb y ap ar t icu la r ly t h ick w a l l , s ome 1 . 10m w ide ( S chu l ten 1 929 ,77 ) . T he w e s t w ing o fB a r ra ck 5h a s ar oom a tt h e h ead o ft h e w ing w i th

c on s ide rab ly s hor te r a t 3 6 .5m ( c .123p M ) b u t t h is w a s b e cau se o fi th av ing b een t u rned t of a ce t h e o u te r w a l l .

al i v ing s pa ce o f c . 33m 2,i ta l so h ad s ome i n d ica t ion s o f h av ing b een d i v ided i n te rna l ly . S chu l ten 's s ugge s t ion t h a t i nb o th c a se s t h e se r ooms w ou ld h ave h ou sed ac en tur ion i sp e rhap s j u s t if ied . Many o f t h e r oom s w h ich h ead t h e w ings i n t h e r ema in ing b a r ra ck s o f R ow B a r e

R ow B : T he b arrack s i n d e ta i l T he b a r ra ck s o f R ow B h ave amo re u n iform a ppea ran ce

i n d is t ingu ishab le f r om t h e r oom s w h ich a d jo in t h em . I f

t h an t h o se o fR ow A . N ever the le s s , n o t wo b a r ra ck s w e r e i d en t ica l i nt h e ir g round -p lan . A pa r tf r om t h et wo b ar ra ck s

t h ey h e ld o ff i ce r s t h en t h e r e i sn o v i s ib le s i gn t h a t t h ey d i d s o . T h is a ppa ren t a b sen ce o fc en tur ia l q ua r te r s a tt h e h ead o fs ome o ft h e w ings w a s n o ted i no t he r m an ip le -ba r r a ck s i nC amp I I a nd f u r the r c ommen t w i l l b e f ound b e low .

a te i the re nd o ft h e r ow , a l l t h e b ar rack s o ft h e R ow B f a ce o n to S t ree t I . S chu l ten p ub l ished as c heme o f at h eo re t ica l b a r rack w h ich h e b e l ieved w ou ld h ave s e rved am an ip le o f e i the r t h e p r inc ipe s o r t h e h a s ta t i ( 1929 ,T af .10 ,3 ; r e p roduced h e re a s F i g .3 .14 ) ; i tw a s b a sed u pon t h e e v iden ce o ft h e r ema in s o f t h o se b a r ra ck s i nR ow s Ba nd

T he men 's q uar ter s

C . I n t h is t h eo r e t ica l b a r ra ck t h er e a r e t e n c on tubern ia t o

Many o ft h e s i de -w ings o ft h e b ar rack s i nR ow B l o ok t o

e a ch w ing ." T he o ff i ce r s a r e s a id t oo ccupy t h e f i r s t t wo

h ave b een m ade u po fs o le ly o fc on tubern ia , o t he r sc on s is t 5 3

B a r rack R ows B a nd C a tC amp I R en ieb las ( a f te r S chu l ten 1 929 . P l an I V ) .

P ART I l l : CHAPTER 3

Tj e

Q . )

VD

5 4

C A MPS 1 1 1 1 AT R EN 1EBLAS

F i g .3 . 1 4 I d ea l ised p l an o f ab ar ra ck o ft h ep r inc ipe s o r t h e h a s ta t i ( a f te r S chu l ten 1 929 , T af .10 .3 ) . N o t d rawn t os c a le . D imen s ion s s hown a r e i nR oman pM . 5

P ART I I : CHAPTER 3

56

C A MPS I I I ! AT R EN IEBLAS D i scu s s ion : T he b arrack s o f R ow B

o f j u s t o ne o r t wo r oom s w h ich w e re q u i te c l ea r ly t o o l a rge t oh ave s e rved t h is p urpose a l one . A ne xamp le o ft h e l a t te r i ss e en i nt h e w e s t w ing o f B ar rack 4 ( F ig .3 .15 ) .

T he r e -exam ina t ion o f t h e e v iden ce f o r t h e b a r ra ck s o f R ow B h a s s hown t h a t , l i ke t ho se o fR ow A , t h e b ar ra ck s w e re n o t c on s truc ted w i th a n i n te rna l a r rangemen t w h ich

E ven mo re u nu sua l i st h e e a s t w ing o f B a r r ack 4 a nd i t s n e ighbou r , t h e w e s t w ing o f B a r ra ck 5 ; t h e se l o ok t o b e m o r e c omp lex i nn a tu re t han t h e r oom s o fo t he r b ar rack s i nt h e s ame r ow . As pec ia l f unc t ion f o rt h e r oom so ft h ese

c onf ormed t oa n e xa c t b l uepr in t w h ich w a s r e p l ica ted o n e ach o cca s ion . I nd iv idua l m an ip le s m ay h ave b een a t l i ber ty , w i th in r e a son , t oa r range t h eo ff ice r s ' q ua r te r sa nd t h e c on tubern ia a s t h ey s aw f i t . T he o n ly f i xed c r i te r ion

t wo w ings s e em s l i ke ly . E lsewhe re i nR ow B m any o ft h e s i de -w ings h ave t h e more u n if orm a ppea rance o fr ow s o f c on tubern ia . T he b e s t s urv iv ing w ing w a s t h a t o fB a r ra ck

a ppea r st oh ave b een t h er e qu i remen tt op l a ce t h eb u i ld ings a round t h r ee s i de s o f ac ou r tya rd w h ich o pened o n to a s t ree t . Wh i ls t c en tur ion s m ay h ave o ccup ied ap o s i t ion a t t h e h ead o f as i de -w ing i n o ne o r t wo c a se s , t h e r e a r e

6 .T he e a s t w ing i se n t ire ly m is s ing b u t t h e w e s t w ing h a s n i ne s epa ra te c on tubern ia w i th t h e p robab i l i ty o f at e n th a t t h e r e a r ( F ig .3 .15 ) . T he i n terna l d imen s ion s o f t h e n ine c on tubern ia w h ich c ou ld b e i d en t if ied i n B ar ra ck 6 r anged f r om 4 .5x4 .5m ( 2 0 .25 1 0 , w h ich w a s t h e l a rge s t , t o 4 .5x3m ( 13 .5m 2) w h ich w a s t h e s ma l les t . Ac omp le te r ow o f c on tubern ia w a s a l so f ound i n t h e e a s t w ing o f B a r ra ck 2 . S chu l ten

mo re e xamp le s i n R ow B w he r e t h e r oom a tt h e h ead o f t h e w ing h ad n o f e a tu re s w h ich w ou ld d i s t ingu ish i tf r om ac on tubern ium . T he l o dg ing s w h ich b e s t e xemp l if y t h e q ua r te r s o f ac en tu r ion a r e t ho se a t t h e h ead o f t h e n or thern w ing o f B a r ra ck 1b u t t h e se m ay h ave b e longed t ot h e s en io rc en tur ion o ft h ep r inc ipe s a nd t h ey m ay h ave

c l a imed t h a t t h e r e w ere t e n c on tube rn ia i n t h is w ing ( 1929 ,76 ) . H e a r r ived a t t h is f i gu re b y d i v id ing t h e r e a r t wo r oom s w h ich w e re a bou t t w ice t h e s i ze o f o the r

b een g rande r i n s c a le t h an t h o se o f h i s s ubo rd ina te

c on tube rn ia i n t h e s ame b ar ra ck . Whe the r t h is w a s w a r ran ted i s u n c lea r ; S chu l ten m ake s n o s t a temen t o n w he the ra ny i n d ica t ion o f ad i v is ion w a sf o und i nt h e se t wo

T he n umbe ro fc on tube rn ia w h ich w ou ld h ave b een f ound i ne a ch m an ip le -ba r ra ck i su n ce r ta in b u t t h e r e i sn o r e a son t ob e l ieve t h a t i tw ou ld n ece s sa r i ly h ave b een t h e s ame i n e ach b ar ra ck . I t h a s b een s hown t h a t i n s ome c a se s c on tubern ia m ay h ave o ccup ied ap o s i t ion a l ong t h er e a ro f

c en tur ion s .

r oom s . T he f i r s t s i x c on tubern ia o f t h e e a s t w ing o f B a r ra ck 2 v a r ied i n t h e ir i n te rna l d imen s ion s f r om t h e

t h e c our tya rd , s ome th ing w h ich w a s n o t a ppa r en t i n t h e b a r ra ck s o f R ow A . S ome o ft h e s i de -w ings h ad e n la rged o rs pec ia l c on tubern ia b eh ind t h o se a tt h e h ead o ft h e w ing w h ich m ay h ave s e rved a s o ff ice r s ' q ua r te r s o r f o r s ome o the r p urpo se . T he n umbe r o f c on tubern ia i n t h e s i de -w ing s c ou ld b e e i gh t -o n t h e e v iden ce o f f r om t h e e a s t w ing o f B a r ra ck 2 - o r e i the r n ine o r t e n o n t h e

l a rge s t , a t 4 . 2x4 .2m ( c .1 7 .5m 2) , t o t h e s ma l le s t a t 4 .2x2 .4m ( 10 .8m 2) .O ther c on tubern ia f r om t h es i de -w ing s o f t h e b a r ra ck s o f R ow B o f ten f e l l b e tween t h is r ange . T he e xcep t ion sw e r e t h e t wo c on tubern ia a tt h e r e a ro ft h e e a s t w ing o fB a r ra ck 2 , t ho se i nt h e w e s t w ing o fB ar rack 4a nd t h e f i r s tt wo c on tubern ia o ft h ee a s t w ing o fB ar ra ck 5 .E i the rS chu l t en f a i led t of i nd a nd r e co rd t h ed iv is ion si n t h ese r oom s -t h is c an b e n e i ther p roved n or d i sp roved -o r

e v idence f r om B ar ra ck 6 .B a r ra ck 1 0h ad e i gh tc on tube rn ia

t h ey s e rved ap urpo se o the r t h an o rd ina ry c on tube rn ia . I ti sn o t iceab le t h a t b u i ld ing s w i th s t one f ounda t ion s w e re e r ec ted a c ro s s t h e r e a r o f t h e c our tya rd s i n R ow B ; a p o s i t ion w h ich S chu l ten b e l ieved w a s r e served f o rs t ab l ing ( 1 929 ,75 a nd T af .10 ,3 ) . I ns ome c a se st h er ema in so ft h ese r e a r b u i ld ing s l o ok n o d i f f e r en t t o t h o se o f ag roup o f c on tube rn ia ( v iz , t hose a t t h e r e a r o f B a r ra ck s 4a nd 7 , F i g .3 .15 ) . O n t h e o ther h and t h e g roup o fb u i ld ing s a tt h e r e a ro fB a r r a ck 5a r e a noma lou s , o na no dd a l ignmen t , a nd t h e re i s n o n a r row p a s sage b e tween t h em a s f ound e l sewhe re i nt h e se t wo r ow s . S chu l ten c l a imed t h a t t h eo dd

i n b o th s i de -w ing s b u t t h e b a r ra ck w a s s ho r t e r t h an t h e o t he r s i n R ow B p e rhap s c onf irm ing i t s s t and ing a s t h e a ccommoda t ion p rov ided f o r t h e t e n th a nd l e a s t s en io r m an ip le .' T he r e w e re n o e xamp le s i nR ow B w h ich c ou ld b oa s t b o th c en tur ia l q uar te r s a nd a c omp lemen t o f t e n c on tubern ia i nt h e s ame w ing . R ow C : Number , d i spo s i t ion a nd d imen s ion s o f t he b ar rack s R ow C w a s t h e mo r e n or the r ly o ft h e t wo r ow s o fs im i la r

a l ignmen t o f t h is g roup m ay h ave b e en t h e r e su l t o f a l a nd s l ip ; a n ' E rd ru t sch ' ( 1929 ,75 ) . I fs o t h e l a nd s l ip mu s t h ave b een v e r y l o ca l ised a nd t h is d oe s n o t a c coun t f o r t h e

b a r ra ck s w h ich l a y b ack t ob ack , t h e o the r b e ing R ow B ( F ig .3 .13 ) . R ow C w a s t h ough t t oh ave b een o ccup ied b y t h e t r oop s o ft h e h a s ta t i .

u nu sua l a r r angemen t o ft h e r oom s . T he n umbe r o f b ar ra ck s i n R ow C a ppea r s t o b e t e n a l though B a r rack s 6a nd 7m ay b eh a lf -ba r ra ck so n ly a st h e

S tab l ing

h ead o f ad eep r a v ine mu s t h ave p re c luded t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o fc on s tru c t ing mo re t h an o ne w ing i ne a ch c a se . Mos t o f t h e s i de -w ing s i nt h is r ow , w he re c omp le te l e ng th s c an b e m ea su red , a r ei nt h e r e g ion o f3 8m ( 128p M ) i nl e ng th . T he

T he r e a r e n o i n d ica t ion s o f s t ab l ing i nt h e r ema in s o f t h e b a r ra ck s o f R ow B . I n s ome c a se s t h e r ema in s a tt h e r e a r o ft h ec ou r tya rd sh ave t h ef o rm o fc on tubern ia . E l sewhe re , f o r i n s tan ce i n B a r rack 2 , as e r ie s o f o pen -f ron ted s t a l ls c ou ld b e p o s tu la ted a tt h e r e a r o ft h e c our tya rd b u t i tm ay

e xcep t ion s a r e i nt h e t wo b a r ra ck s w h ich .f lank e i the r s i de o ft h e r a v ine ; t h e s i ng le w e s t w ing o fB a r ra ck 6 w a s 3 7m

b e t h a t t h e f r on tage o f t h is b u i ld ing w a s m is s ing w hen p l anned ( c f . t h e w es tern w ing o f B a r ra ck 3 ) .

( c .125pM ) l o ng a nd t h e s i ng le e a s t w ing o fB a r ra ck 7w a s o n ly 2 5m ( c .84p M ) l o ng . T he l a s t b a r rack o f t h e r ow , B ar ra ck 1 0 , w a s s ho r tened i nt h e s ame w ay a s t h a t o f i t s 5 7

P ART I I : CHAPTER 3 h ead o ft h e n e ighbour ing b ar ra ck t ot h e s ou th i nR ow B .

c oun terpa r ti nR ow B ; t h e s ou thern w ing w a so n ly 3 3 .20m ( 1 12p M )i nl e ng th . L i t t le r ema ined o ft h e n or thern w ing o f t h i s b a r rack b u t i tc ou ld n o t h ave b een much more t h an

T he f i r s tt wo r oom so ft h e w e s te rn w ing o fB a r ra ck 6h ave

2 0m ( 67 1 2 pM / ) i nl e ng th o r i tw ou ld h ave e nc roached t oo

a n i n terna l a r ea o f3 3m 2 Two f u r the r r oom s , w h ich w ou ld

c l o se t ot h eo u te rw a l l a nd l e f t n or oom f o r at horoughf a re . I nR ow C a l l o ft h e b ar ra ck s c ou ld b e m ea su red f o r w id th

h ave e n c roa ched o nt ot h e v i a q u in tana , a r ea t ta ched t ot h e h ead o f t h is w ing a nd t oge ther t h ey w ou ld h ave p rov ided a n a dd i t iona l 2 1 m2 a pp rox ima te ly .

e xcep t f o r t h o se s t radd l ing t h e r a v ine ( i .e . B ar rack s 6a nd 7w he re , i n b o th c a se s , p a r t s o f ar e a r r ange e x is ted b u t

B ar ra ck 3i nR ow C i st h e o n ly b a r r ack i nt h e t h ree r ow s

w he re t h e re w a s n o s i gn o fa n o ppo s i te w ing ) . B a r ra ck 4 w a s o n ly 3 7 .5m w ide o r a bou t 1 26 1 2 pM / . B a r ra ck 3 w a s

o f l e g iona ry i n f an try b ar rack s ( Row s A , Ba nd C ) w he r e

t h e w ides t a ta bou t 3 9 .5m ( c .133p M ) ; t h e r e s t w e re a l l a bou t3 8m ( c .128pM )w ide i n c lud ing B ar rack 1 0w he re t h e

a ni n i t ia l c a se c ou ld b e m ade o u tt os ugge s t t h a tb o th o ft h e o ppo s ing w ing s w e re h eaded b y c en tur ia l q uar te r s b u t

w id th w a s r e co rded f r om t h e n or th /sou th a x is a s i tl a y a t 9 00 t ot h e o the r s .

u n f or tuna te ly b o th w ings h ave i n comp le te g round -p lan s . T he w e s tern w ing o fB a r rack 3h a s a ti t s h ead t wo r oom s , o r as i ng le r oom w i th a p ar t ia l d i v i s ion , wh ich h ad a n i n terna l a r ea o fp e rhap s 3 0m 2 T h is f i gure o f3 0m 2 a c cord s r e a sonab ly w e l l w i th t h e a rea s w h ich h ave b een a s soc ia t ed w i th t h e s u spec ted c en tur ia l q ua r te r s e l sewhe r e i nR ow s B

R ow C : T he b arrack s i n d e ta i l Many

o f

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w h ich

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b een

m ade

a nd C . T he p re sence o f t h e a t ta ched g ua rd room p e rhap s s uppor t s t h e v i ew t h a t t h is w a s t h e a ccommoda t ion

c oncern ing t h e b a r ra ck s o fR ow B a r e r e levan t a l so w hen e xam in ing t h e b ar rack s R ow C . I t c an b e s e en , b y r e f e r ence t o F ig .3 . 13 t h a t n o t wo b a r rack s i n R ow C

p rov ided f o r ac en tur ion . T he o ppo s i te , e a s tern , w ing i n B ar ra ck 3h a s a na r rangemen t a ti t s h ead w h ich l o ok s v er y

a ppea r t o h ave a dop ted e xac t ly t h e s ame l a you t . T h is s hou ld b e b orne i n m ind w hen c ompar ison i sm ade w i th p r inc ipe s a nd h a s ta t i ( 1929 ,T af .10 ,3 ; r ep roduced h e r e a s F ig .3 .14 ) .

s im i la r t oi t s c oun terpa r t , e ven t ot h e e x ten t o f h av ing a s ma l l a t ta ched g ua rd room b u t t h e r ema in s h ave n o t s urv ived t o t h e e x ten t w h ich w ou ld a l low a ny c e r ta in ty o ve rt h e ir i n te rp re ta t ion . Once a ga in , a sh a s b een n o ted f o r

T he b a r ra ck so fR ow C w er ec on s tru c ted b a ck t ob a ck w i th t h o se o f R ow B ( e xcep t f o r t ho se a te a ch o f t h e e x t reme

t h e b a r ra ck s o fR ow s Aa nd B , n o ta l l o ft h e r oom s a tt h e h ead o f e a ch w ing c ou ld b e s a id t o h ave b een f o r c en tur ion s ; s ome h ad t h e a ppea rance o f o rd ina r y

S chu l ten 's t h eo re t ica l a nd i d ea l ised p l an o f ab a r ra ck f o r

e nd s o ft h e r ow w h ich w e r e t u rned t h rough 9 00)a nd t h ey w e r e s epa ra ted f r om t h e B a r ra ck s o f R ow B b y a p a s sageway o re ave s -d r ip . T he m a jor i ty o ft h e b ar rack s o f

c on tubern ia . T he men 's q uar ter s

R ow C f a ced n o r th a nd o pened o n to S t ree t I I . T he r e a r e s eve ra l e xamp les o f b a r ra ck s i n R ow C w h ich T he o ff icer s ' q uar ter s

h ave a tl e a s t o ne w ing w i th a c omp le t e o r n ea r c omp le t e s e r ie s o fc on tubern ia . T he s ou the rn w ing o fB a r r a ck 1h a s

O ff i ce r s ' q uar te r s a r e a lmo s t c er ta in ly i n e v idence i n B a r ra ck s 1a nd 6 w he re i n b o th c a se s r e la t ive ly l a rge

e i gh t c on tube rn ia . T hey r ange i n a r ea f r om 4 .2x4 .2m

r oom ss t and a tt h eh ead o f as i de -w ing . T he i n d ica t ion sa r e

( c .11m 2)i nC on tubern ium 2 .T he f i r s tc ontubern ium o ft h is w ing h ad n o s pec ia l c ha rac t er is t ic s a nd w a s o n ly

i n terna l ly

l e s s s e cu re f o r B ar rack 3 a l though S chuf t en c l a imed t h a t o ff ice r s w e re a c commoda ted i n t h e r oom s a tt h e h ead o f b o th w ing s i nt h is b a r ra ck ( 1929 ,77 ) .

( 17 .6m 2) i n C on tubern ium

3 t o 4 .2x2 .4m

m a rg ina l ly l a rge r t h an t h e s ma l le s t . T he w e s t w ing o f B a r ra ck 2p roduced ac omp le te g round -p lan o fw ha ta ppea r t ob e t e nc on tubern ia . T he s ma l le s to ft h ese w a s t h a t a tt h e

I ft h e se b a r ra ck s w e re t h o se o ft h e h as ta t i t h en B ar rack 1

h ead o f t h e w ing , o n ly 3 .6x2 .2m ( c .8m 2) ; i fi tw a s a

m ay h ave h ou sed t h e F i r s t Man ip le o ft h e h a s ta t i a nd t h e r oom sa tt h eh ead o ft h e n or thernmo s t w ing m ay w e l l h ave

s epa ra te c on tubern ium t h en i tc an h a rd ly h ave b een f o r a c en tur ion . T he r e s t w e r e o f af a ir ly u n if orm s i ze o fa r ound

b een t h o se o ft h ep r imu sp r incep s p r ior i s c en tur iae o ft h e h a s ta t i ( c f . t h e p ropo s i t ion p u t f o rwa rd f o r t h e r oom s i na

3 .5x3m ( 10 .5m 2)e xcep t f o r C on tube rn ia 5 a nd 6 w h ich w e r e al i t t le l a rger . T he e a s tern w ing o ft h is s ame b a r ra ck

s im i la r p o s i t ion i n B a r rack 1 o f R ow B a bove ) . I t i s u nc lea rh ow m any r oom sw ou ld h ave b een a va i lab le i nt h is s e t o f q ua r te r s a s t h e f ounda t ion s o f t h is w ing w e re n o t

h ad f i ve s im i la r s i zed c on tubern ia o f c . 4x3m ( 1 2m 2) i n te r spe r sed b y s ome l a rge r r oom s . Al a rge r oom i sa l so i ne v iden ce i nt h e e a s te rn w ing o fB ar ra ck 3a nd s e ve ra l i n

w ho l ly p re served ( s ee F ig .3 .13 ) . T he p o s i t ion i sf u r the r c omp l ica ted b y t h e s ma l l e nc losed a r ea w h ich i sb u i l t i n to

t h e w e s tern w ing o f B ar ra ck 8 . R oom s much l a rge r t h an t ho se o f t h e ir n e ighbou r s a nd t h e r ef o r e u n l ike ly t o b e

R oom 1 .S chu l ten i n terp r e ted t h is f e a tu re a s ag ua rd room ( 1929 ,77 ) a l though w he re t h e se w e re t h ough t t o o ccu r

c on tubern ia w e re a l so n o ted i nt h e b a r ra ck s o fR ow B . I n

e l sewhe re i nt h e s ame c amp t h ey w e re a lways e x te rna l t o

h i s t h eo re t ica l b ar rack ( t en t oe ach w ing ) S chu l ten w ou ld

t h e l i v ing q ua r te r s . I f ac en tur ion h ad o ccup ied t h e f i r s t

h ave e xpec ted t h e se l a rge r r oom s t oh ave b een d i v ided u p

t wo r oom s t h en h e w ou ld h ave h ad a th i s d i sposa l at o ta l o f 3 1 .6m 2 o f l i v ing s pace , w h ich i se xc lud ing t h e a r ea g i ven o ve rt ot h e p u ta t ive g ua rd room . T h is c ompa re s w e l l

i n to c on tubern ia b u t h e m ake s n o m en t ion o f t h is i nt h e t e x t . I ti s n ow i mpo s s ib le , b a r r ing f r esh a nd d e ta i led e xcava t ion , t od e term ine w he the r t h e se l a rge r r oom s e ve r

t o t h e 3 1 .8m 2 o f t h e s u spec ted c en tu r ia l q ua r te r s a t t h e

w e r e d i v ided i n to s epa ra te c on tube rn ia .'

o rde r t op rov ide t h e r e qu is i te n umbe r o f c on tubern ia f o r

5 8

C A MPS 1 1 1 1 AT REN 1EBLAS b een c on tubern ia i nt h e s t r ic te s t s en se o f t h e w o rd ; s ome

T he o ppos i te p rob lem o ccu r s i n t h e c on tubern ia o f t h e w e s tern w ing o f B a r rack 6 w he re s ome o f t h e r oom s

m ay h ave b een s t o re room s . T he a b sen ce o f t h e d i v is ion b e tween p ap i l io a nd a rma i nt h e se c on tubern ia w ou ld s e em t od emand t h a t a tl e a s t s ome r oom s w ou ld b e s e ta s ide f o r s t o rage . S to rage f a c i l i t ie s c ou ld h ave b een a ccommoda ted a l ong t h e r e a r o f t h e c our tya rd s i ft h e se a r ea s w e r e n o t r e qu ired f o r s t ab l ing b u t t h e r e w a s l i t t le s urv iva l o f t h e b u i ld ing s i nt h is p o s i t ion i nt h e b ar ra ck s o f R ow C .

a ppea rt ob et o os ma l l i na r ea t oh ave b een a c commoda t ion f o r am e s s g roup . A t t h e h ead o f t h e w ing , a d ja cen t t o S t ree t I I w er et h e c en tur ia l q uar te r s , p lu s s ome a dd i t iona l r oom s w h ich e nc roached o n to t h e v i a q u in tana . B eh ind t h em w e re a s e r ies o f e i gh t c on tubern ia ( F ig .3 .13 ) . O f t h ese , n o l e s s t h an f i ve w e re b e low 3 m i n w id th . I ti s p o s s ib le t h a t s ome o ft h ese s ma l l c on tubern ia h ou sed o n ly af ew t r oop s b u t i ti sd if f icu l t t om ake s uch ac l a im f o r t h e s ma l le s tr oom w h ich w a s , i n terna l ly , o n ly 4 .5m f r om f r on t t ob a ck a nd o n ly 1 . 5m w ide .

R ow D : Number , d i spo s i t ion a nd d imen s ion s o f t he b arrack s S chu l ten c l a imed t oh ave i d en t if ied t e n b a r rack s i nR ow D ( 1929 ,80 ) . S chu l ten m ay b em is taken i nt h is b e l ief a l though h e c e r ta in ly e xpec ted t of i nd t e n b a r ra ck s :

T he s urv iv ing c on tubern ia o ft h ee a s tw ing o fB a r ra ck 7a l l e xceeded 3 m i nw id th a nd w ere a l l a bou t 4m f r om f r on t t ob ack . T he c on tubern ia o f t h e e a s t w ing o f B a r rack 9 , a pa r t f r om t h e r oom a t t h e h ead , w e re a l l 3 m o r mo re i n w id th a nd w e r e a l l a bou t 4m f r om f r on t t ob a ck . B ar ra ck 1 0 w a s i n ar e s t r ic ted p o s i t ion a tt h e e nd o f R ow C . T he

W ir f i nden w e s t l ich d e r v i a q u in tana f ür d ie e qu i te s S oc iorum d i e se lben 5 K a sernen w ie b e i d en Man ipe ln d e r L eg ion , w e rden a l so ö s t l ich d er v i a q u in tana w e i ter e 5K a sernen e rwar ten . ( S chu l ten 1 929 ,80 ) .

c on tubern ia i ni t s s ou thern w ing , a l though n o t c omp le te ly s u rv iv ing , p robab ly mea su red 5m f r om f r on t t ob a ck a nd t h ey r anged i nw id th f r om 2 .8 t on ea r ly 5 m .

T he r ema in s o f f i ve b a r rack s w e s t o ft h e v i a q u in tana c an b e s e en c l ea r ly o n p l an ( F ig .3 .16 ) b u t t h er e a r e o n ly f r agmen ta ry r ema in s e a s t o f t h e v i a q u in tana . S chu l ten

S tab l ing

p ropo sed t h a t t ho se e a s t o f t h e v i a q u in tana r e p re sen ted w ha t w a s l e f t o f f i ve f u l l b u t s ho r tened b a r ra ck s . H e f u r the r p ropo sed t h a t B a r ra ck 8 w ou ld h ave b een b u i l t i n t h e r a v ine a nd , e ven m o re c ur iou s ly , t h a t B ar ra ck 6w ou ld h ave s t radd led t h e v i a q u in tana :

T he s ame c ommen t sc on cern ing s t ab l ing w h ich w e re m ade f o r t h e b ar r a ck s o f R ow B s e rve e qua l ly w e l l f o r t h e b a r ra ck s o f R ow C , i . e . t h e r e i s n o f i rm e v idence o f s t ab l ing . D iscu s s ion : T he b arracks o f R ow C

K a sernen 6a uf d i e v i a q u in tana l e g te -w obe i d i e se d en H of a bgab u nd d er M i t te l t rak t w egf ie l . . ( S chuh en 1 929 ,80 ) .

T he b a r rack s i n R ows B a nd C h ave b een s hown n o t t o c on form t o S chu l ten 's t h eo r e t ica l d imen s ion s o f 1 30x130pM . T hey may n ever the le ss h ave b een l a id o u t

A l l o f t h e se p ropo sa ls a r e e x t reme ly u n l ike ly . T he s t eep s i de s o f t h e r a v ine w ou ld h ave m ade i ti mp ra c t icab le t o

w i th in p lo t s w h ich h ad b een m a rked o u t o n t h e g round a s ap r e l im ina ry m ea sure .

h ave b u i l ta c ro s s i ti nt h e w ay w h ich S chuhen s u spec t s w a s T he d i f f er en ce s i n d e ta i l i n t h e s i z e a nd d i spo s i t ion o f

a c comp l ished f o r B a r rack 8 .T he re a r e c e r ta in ly b u i ld ings

r oom s w i th in i n d iv idua l b ar rack s w e re a ga in h i gh l igh ted . T he b a r rack s o fR ow C i nt h e ir o ve ra l l l a you t a nd s i ze d o h oweve ra ppea re s sen t ia l ly t ob e o ft h e s ame t y pe a st h o se r e corded i n R ow B , a s w a s s ugge s ted b y S chuhen ( 1929 ,74 ) . T he i d en t if ica t ion o f R ow C a s t h a t o f t h e h a s ta t i , w ho , t h eo re t ica l ly h ad t h e s ame n umbe r o ft r oop s

e nc roa ch ing o n to t h ev i aq u in tana b u tt h ey c anno tr e pr e sen t as epa ra te b ar ra ck ; r a the r t h ey s hou ld b e s e en a s o f f e r ing a dd i t iona l a c commoda t ion much i nt h e s ame w ay a s t h o se r oom s a t tached t oB ar ra ck s 5a nd 6o fR ow C . T he r e w a s s ome s urv iva l o fb u i ld ing s i nt h e p o s i t ion w h ich S chu l ten a l loca ted t oB a r rack s 9a nd 1 0 b u t w he the r t h e se w e r e f u l l b a r ra ck s i sd oub tfu l . I ti sb e t te r t o v i ew t h o se b u i ld ing s e a s t o f t h e v i a q u in tana a s b u i ld ing s ( ? ba r rack s ) w h ich w e re p l aced w he r e t h ey c ou ld b e s t b e f i t ted g i ven t h e u n su i tab le t e r ra in i lt h a t c orne r o ft h e c amp .

a s t h e p r inc ipe s , i s o n t h is b a s is , a nd o n t h e P o lyb ian a na logy , q u i te r e a sonab le . O ne f a c to r w h ich h a s e me rged i n t h e e xam ina t ion o f t h e B a r rack s o f R ow C i s t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t i n o ne c a se ( Ba r ra ck 3 ) c en tu r ia l q ua r te r s c ou ld b e i d en t if ied a t t h e h ead o fb o th w ings , b u t t h e s u sp ic ion mu s t r ema in t h a t i n t h e b a r ra ck s o fC amp I I i tw a s more u sua l f o r o n ly o ne w ing o fe a ch m an ip le -ba r ra ck t oh ave b een p rov ided w i th

S chuhen f u r the r c l a imed t h a t t h e e a s t w ing o f B ar ra ck 7 h ad b een d e s t royed b y t h e c on s truc t ion o f t h e w a l l o f t h e l a te r C amp I V ( S chu l ten 1 929 ,83 ) b u t t h is w a l l w a s c on s truc ted w e l l t ot h e e a s to fw he re s uch aw ing m igh t b e p o s tu la ted .

c en tu r ia l q ua r t er s a ti t s h ead . T he n umbe ro fc on tube rn ia w h ich w a su sua l ly p rov ided f o r

I n t o ta l , t h e e v iden ce e x is t s f o r o n ly f i ve f u l l b ona f ide

t h e m en i n aw ing o f am an ip le -ba r ra ck o f R ow C i s

b a r ra ck s p lu s s ome a dd i t iona l d e ta ched w ing s . I tc an b e

d i ff icu l t t od e term ine . I n t h o se c omp le te e xamp le s w he r e o ff ice r s ' q ua r te r sc an a l so b e r e cogn ised t h en t h e t o ta l m ay

o b se rved o n p l an ( F ig .3 .16 ) t h a t t h e o ppos ing s i de w ing s o f t h e b a r rack s o f R ow D a r e a l igned a skan ce i nr e la t ion t ot h o se t ot h e s ou th . T h is i sa lmo s tc e r ta in ly d ue t ot h e l i e

b ee i gh t , n i ne o rt e n . N o ta l o ft h e se m ay n e ce s sar i ly h ave 5 9

P ART I I : CHAPTER 3

6 0

C A MPS 1 1 1 1 AT REN 1EBLAS o ft h e l a nd i nt h is p ar to ft h ec amp . T he t wo r a v ine sw h ich

a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s r e vea ls af a r mo r e c omp lex s t a te o f

a r e p a r t ia l ly e n c lo sed w i th in C amp I I b o th d rop t owa rd s t h e n o r th -ea s t a nd i t may h ave b ecome i n cr ea s ing ly d i ff i cu l t t o b u i ld a cro ss t h e g ra in o f t h e o u tc ropp ing

a f f a ir s . Many o f t h e o b jec t ion s w h ich w e r e r a ised p r ev iou s ly w i th r e ga rd t ot h e i n c lu s ion o fc ava lr y s t ab le s

l i me s tone s t ra ta o n t h e l owe r a nd s t eepe r c on tou r s a way f r om t h e c en t re o f t h e c amp . T he o r ien ta t ion o f t h e b a r ra ck s i n R ow D mu s t h ave b een d i c ta ted b y t h is

a pp l icab le h e re .

w i th in t h e b ar rack s o f t h e e qu i te s R oman i a r e e qua l ly

T he o f f icer s ' q uar ter s

c on s ide ra t ion . T he c r i ter ion w h ich a s s is t s i nt h e i d en t if i ca t ion o fo ff i ce r s ' B a r ra ck s 1 5 o fR ow D w e r e b u i l t b a ck t ob ack w i th t h o se o f R ow E . Ap a s sageway s epa ra te s s ome o f t h e b a r ra ck s o ft h ea d ja cen tr ow s , e l sewhe re t h e b ar ra ck so fR ow D a nd Es ha re ar e a rp a r ty -wa l l ( F ig .3 .16 ) . S chu l ten b e l ieved t h a t

q ua r te r s i st h e p r e sen ce o f r ooms a tt h e h ead o f t h e w ing w h ich a r e l a rge r t h an t h o se o f t h e c on tuber n ia b eh ind t h em . I ti sn o t p o s s ib le t oo b se rve t h is w i th a ny c e r ta in ty i nt h e b a r ra ck s o fR ow D . A no the rf e a tu re w h ich m igh t b e

t h e b ar rack so fR ow D w e re t hose o ft h e e qu i te s S oc iorum a nd at h eo re t ica l p l an o f ab a r rack f o r t h i s c l a s s o ft r oop s

a s soc ia ted w i th o ff ice r s i st h e p re sen ce o f ah ea r th w i th in t h e l i v ing q uar te r s . T he r oom s a tt h e h ead o ft h ee a s t w ing

w a sp ub l ished b yS chu l ten ( 1929 ,T af .11 ,3 ,r e p roduced h e r e a sF ig .3 .17 ) . I tg ave t heo r e t ica l d imen s ion s o f9 0x130p M f o r a b a r ra ck o f t h is t ype . T h is c ompa re s w i th t h e 7 5x130p M w h ich h eb e l ieved w e re t h es t anda rd d imen s ion s

o f B ar rack 1 w e re f u rn ished w i th h ear th s ; t h i s s ugge s t s s ome s pec ia l f unc t ion f o r t h e se r oom s ( c f . t h e u n i t a tt h e h ead o fB ar ra ck 1o fR ow B w he re t h e r ema ins o f ah ea r th w e re d i scove red ) , h oweve r , i n B a r ra ck 5 a h ea r th w a s

f o r ab a r rack o ft h e e qu i te s R oman i ( S chu l t en 1 929 ,68 ) .

f ound i n ap o s i t ion a way f r om t h e b a r ra ck f r on tage .

T he a dd i t iona l l e ng th i nt h e b a r rack s o fR ow D o ve rt h o se f o und i n R ow K r e su l ted , S chu l ten b e l ieved , f r om t h e

T he men 's q uar ter s

p r ov is ion o fa ne x t ra c on tube rn ium o ne a ch w ing . T hu st h e b a r rack s o f t h e e qu i te s S oc iorum w e re e xpec ted t o h ave f o u r c on tube rn ia o n e ach w ing , t h o se o f t h e e qu i te s

T he c on tubern ia i nt h e b a r ra ck s o fR ow D w er e s ugge s ted b yS chuhen t oh ave t h ed iv is ion i n to s t ab le a nd l i v ing r oom

R oman i , o n ly t h ree . Howeve r , i th a s b een a rgued a bove t h a tt h ed iv i s ion i n to c on tube rn ia o ft h eb a r rack si nR ow K m ay n o t b e a sS chu l ten p roposed ; t h e n umbe r i sd i ff icu l t

e qu i te s R oman i :

w h ich h e b e l ieved c ha ra c te r ised t h e c on tubern ia o f t h e

. .w ie b e i d en r öm i schen R e i tern , s o a uch h i e r d a s c on tubern ium

t od e te rm in e .

i n

W ohn -

u nd

S t a l l raum

g e te i l t

g ewe sen s e i . ( 1 929 ,82 ) .

I n B ar ra ck s 1 5 o f R ow D t h e l e ng th o f t h o se b a r rack s , w he re t h is c an b e e s tab l ished , a ppea r s t ob e a bou t 2 7m o r c . 9 1pM . S chu l ten r epor ted t h a tt wo o ft h e b ar rack s i nR ow

S uch a c l o se p rox im i ty o f m an a nd h o r se i n t h e s ame q ua r te r s i su n l ike ly t oh ave b een t o le ra t ed e spec ia l ly w he re t h is w a s t ot h e o bv iou s d e tr imen t o ft h e l i v ing o r s l eep ing a r ea s .

D ( No s .1 a nd 4 ) w e re 3 8 .6m i n w id th , t h a t i s 1 30pM w h ich h e b e l ieved w a s t h e t h eore t ica l ly c or r ec t f i gu re f o r t h e w id th o f s u ch b a r ra ck s . T he w ing s o f t h e b a r ra ck s w e re n o ta l le xac t ly p a ra l le l h oweve ra nd t h em ea su remen t o fw id th c ou ld v a ry c on s ide rab ly d epend ing o nh ow i tw a s d e term ined . F o r i n s tance , t h e e a s t w ing o f B a r rack 1w a s

T he c on tubern ia i nR ow D s how a s much d i ve r s i ty i nt h e ir i n terna l a r rangemen t s a s t h o se i n R ow K w h ich w e re

o r ien ta ted w i th i t s f r on t e nd a ng led t o t h e w e s t t h u s r e duc ing t h e a r ea o ft h e o pen c ou r tya rd . T he w id th a c ro s s t h e f r on tage w a s i ndeed t h e 3 8 .6m w h ich S chu l ten r e f e r s t o , b u t , m ea su r ed a ta ny o the r p o in t , t h e b a r ra ck i sw ide r t h an t h is .

t h ough t t o b e f o r t h e R oman c ava lry . T he r oom s i n t h e r e a r r ange o f B a r ra ck 5 ( F ig .3 .16 ) w e r e f ound t oh ave a c on s ide rab le n umbe r o f i n te rna l d i v is ion s w h ich s e t t h em a pa r t f r om t h e c on tubern ia a s soc ia ted w i th i n f an t ry

R ow D : T he b arracks i nd e ta i l

S tab l ing

O n ly t ho se b a r rack s w e s t o f t h e v i a q u in tana w i l l b e

O n ce a ga in S chu l ten a s sumed , a s h e d i d w hen d i scu s s ing

b ar rack s i nC amp I I , e i the r l e g ionary o r a l l ied .

d i scu ssed h e r e . T he i d ea l ised p l an o f ac ava lry b a r ra ck f o r

t h e s t ab l ing o ft h e moun t s o f t h e e qu i te s R oman i , t h a t a l

e qu i te s S oc iorum g iven b y S chu l ten ( F ig .3 .17 ) s how s f ou r c on tubern ia o ne ach w ing ,e a ch c on tube rn ium w i th i n te rna l

o ft h e h o r se s o fe a ch t u rma mu s t h ave b een s t ab led w i th in t h ec onf ine so ft h eb ar ra ck s . T h is p o in ti sd i scu s sed b e low .

m ea sur emen t s o f 2 0x2OpM . T he r e a r r a nge i ss hown a s h av ing f ou rc on tubern ia a l so , b u tw i th t h es l igh t ly r e du ced

D iscu s s ion : T he b arrack s o f R ow D

i n te rna l m ea su remen t s o f 2 0x16pM . S chu l ten o nce a ga in o p ted f o r t h e t h ree -room d i v is ion o ft h e c on tube rn ium a s

I th a s b een s hown t h a t t h e n umbe r o f b a r ra ck s i n R ow D

b e ing t h e m o s t l i ke ly i n te rna l a r rangemen t f o r c ava lry

i su n l ike ly t oh ave b een t e n . T he r e a r e t h e r ema in s o ff i ve

t r oop s . H e f u r the r b e l ieved t h a t e a ch b a r ra ck w ou ld h ave

b a r ra ck s w e s t o ft h e v i a q u in tana . T h is a r rangemen tc ou ld

h e ld a t u rma a nd t ha t o ff ice r s q ua r te r s w ou ld h ave b een f o und a tt h e h ead o fe a ch w ing ( Schu l t en 1 929 ,81) . I nf a c t t h e p i c tu r e w h ich c an b e g a ined f r om a s t udy o f t h e

e v idence s urv ive s f o r f u l l b a r rack s o t he r t h an t h e f i ve w h ich h ave b een r e cogn ised . T he B a r ra ck s 1 5 r e spec t

n o t h ave b een r e pea ted i n f u l l f u r the r t o t h e e a s t a nd n o

6 1

P ART I I CHAPTER 3

F ig .3 .17

I d ea l ised p l an o f ab ar ra ck o f t h e e qu i te s S oc iorum ( a f ter S chu l ten 1 929 , T af 1 .3 ) . N o t d rawn t os c a le . D imen s ion s s hown a r e i nR oman pM . 6 2

C A MPS I I I I AT REN IEBLAS S t r ee t I I a nd s ome a t temp t h a s b een m ade t om a tch t h e ir f r on tage s w i th t h o se o f t h e b ar rack s o ppo s i te i n R ow C e ven t hough t h e a l ignmen t o f e ach b a r ra ck v ee r s s ome

S oc iorum w e r e , a c co rd ing t oS chu l ten , 2 70pM i nl e ng th b y

d eg r ee s t o t h e e a s t . T he i nd iv idua l d imen s ion s o f e a ch

3 : 1 r a t io ( i .e . 2 70 :90p M ) i n t h e d iv is ion o f t h e a r ea m a rked o u t f o r t h e i n f an try a nd c ava lry b a r ra ck s o f t h e

1 90pM i nw id th ( 1929 ,79 ) . T he f i gu r e o f2 70p M ( 79 .8m ) f o r t h e l e ng th w a s d educed b y S chu l ten o n t h e b a s is o fa

b a r ra ck a nd i t s l a you t h a s b een s hown t ov a ry s ugge s t ing t h a t , a l though t h e b ar rack s w e re s im i la r , t h e re w a s n o f i xed b ar ra ck p l an . T he r ema in s a r e i n suff ic ien t t og auge

S oc i i ;

t h e

l a rge r s ha re

b e ing

f o r t h e

i n f an t ry .

N o t

w i th a ny c er ta in ty w he ther t h es ame n umbe ro fc on tubern ia w ou ld h ave b een f ound i n e ach b ar ra ck b u t w ha t d oe s

s urpr is ing ly , i nv i ew o ft h eu neven t e r ra in a nd t h e r e su l t ing n eed t o p l a ce t h e se b a r ra ck s w he r e t h ey c ou ld b e s t b e f i t ted , t h e se f i gu r e s a r e n o t f ound o n t h e g round .

s u rv ive s how s t h a t s ome c on tube rn ia w e re p rov ided w i th i n t erna l d iv is ion s . T h is m igh t s uppor t t h e v i ew t h a t t h e se b a r ra ck s h ad f u rn ished t h e s pec ia l n eed s o f c ava lry t r oope r sa nd t h ee qu i te s S oc iorum a r et h e mo s tl i ke ly g roup

T he o n ly s i de -w ing s i n B a r rack s 1 5 w h ich c ou ld b e s a id t ob e c omp le te i nl e ng th w e r e t h o se o ft h e a d jo in ing b a ck t o b a ck w ing s o f B a r rack s 1a nd 2 a nd t h e se w e re a n

o f c ava lry t o h ave o ccup ied t h em f o r t h e r e a son s g i ven e a r l ie r . T he s t a tu s o f o rd ina ry a l l ied c ava lr y t r oop s i n

i d en t ica l 8 2m ( c .277p M ) i nl e ng th . T he w id th o fo n ly t wo b a r ra ck s c ou ld b e r e corded w i th a ny c e r ta in ty ; t h ese w e r e

r e la t ion t o l e g ionary f o r ce s , moun ted o r o therw ise , i sn o t e n t ir e ly c l ea r b u t i ft h ey w e re a cco rded s ome p r iv i lege s t h en t h ey d id n o t i nt h is c a se e x tend t ot h e p rov is ion o fa m o re f a vou rab le p os i t ion w i th in C amp I I .

B a r ra ck s 1a nd 4 .B a r ra ck 1w a s 5 3m i nw id th , B ar ra ck 4 , 5 6m i nw id th ( a bou t 1 79pM a nd 1 89p M r e spec t ive ly ) . Af u r the r t h ree b a r racks , n umbe r s 6 -8 , w er e t hough t a l so t o h ave b een o ccup ied b y t h e p ed i te s S oc iorum . T he s e b a r ra ck s w e re w e s t o fS chu l ten 's s u spec ted v i ap r inc ipa l i s a nd f a ced t owa rd s t h e w e s tern w a l l . T hey w er e t h e r efo r e

R ow E : Number , d i spo s i t ion , a nd d imen s ion s o f t he b arrack s B u i l t b ack t o b a ck w i th t h e b a r rack s o f R ow D w a s a f u r ther g roup o fb a r ra ck s d es igna ted b y S chu l ten a s R ow E . ( F ig .3 .18 ) . T he b ar rack s o ft h is r ow o ccup ied t h e mos t n or the r ly p o s i t ion w i th in t h e w a l ls o f C amp I I a nd t h ey h ad c l ea r ly b een l a id o u t i n a cco rdan ce w i th t h e o ve ra l l s c heme w h ich i sa ppa ren t o ve r much o ft h e n or thern p a r t o f t h e c amp . T he b ar rack s w e re s ugge s ted b y S chu l ten t o

a t9 00 t ot h e o t he r sa nd f u r thermo re t h ey h ad b een l a id o u t p e rhap s w i th s ome d i ff icu l ty g iven t h e s l op ing g round o n w h ich t h ey a r ec on s t ruc ted . S chu l ten n ever the le s s i n c luded t h em i nR ow E . H e b e l ieved t h a t t h e re w e r e t wo s epa ra t e b a r ra ck s , N umbe r s 6a nd 7 , i nt h e e x t reme n or th -we s tern c orne ro ft h ec amp ( S chuf t en 1 929 ,86 ) b u t t h ee v iden ce f o r t wo b a r ra ck s i st e nuou s . R a the ri ta ppea r sa si ft h e r e i so ne l a rge b a r ra ck , a ma lgama t ing t h e c omponen t s o f 6a nd 7 ,

h ave h ou sed t h e t r oop s o f t h e p ed i t e s S oc iorum ( 1 929 ,84 -6 ) . T he re a r e t h e r ema in s o f f i ve s epa ra te b ar rack s i nR ow E w h ich f a ced t h e o u te r n or the rn w a l l o f

a l be i to fc on s ide rab le s i ze , w i th a dd i t iona l a ccommoda t ion p rov ided i n t h e f o rm o f b u i ld ing s i n t h e c our tya rd a r ea . T he l o nge rb u i ld ing i nt h e c our tya rd h a s t h ea ppea ran ce o f

t h e c amp ; t h e se w ere n umbe red 1 5 b y S chu l ten .

ab a r ra ck w i th as u i te o fo ff ice r s ' q uar te r s a tt h e h ead o f as e r ie s o f t e n c on tube rn ia ; t h e o the r b u i ld ing h a s a n u nknown f un c t ion b u t i tm ay h ave s e rved i nt h e s ame w ay a s t h e b u i ld ing f ound i nt h e c our tya rd o f B ar ra ck 4 .

T he f o rm o fB a r ra ck s 1 4 w a s o ft h e t h r ee s ided t y pe w i th ac ou r tya rd f a c ing t owa rd s t h e n or th w a l l . T he se b a r ra ck s w e re b u i l t o ve rp a r t icu la r ly d i ff icu l t g round a nd n o t a l o f

B ar ra ck 8h a s t wo s i de s w e l l p r e served a tf ounda t ion l e ve l b u t t h e t h ird s i de , i fi te x is ted , h ad a l ready d i sappea r ed b y

t h e w ing s m ay h ave b een c omp le te . I tm ay h ave p roved i mpos s ib le t oh ave b u i l t af u l l c omp lemen t o fc on tubern ia f o r t h e s i de -w ings i nB a r ra ck s 2a nd 3t h u s f u l l s ymme tr y

t h e t i me t h a t t h e b a r rack w a s r e co rded b y S chu l ten .

w a s n o ta ch ieved . T h is w a sd ue t ot h e p re sen ce o ft h eh ead o f ar av ine w h ich r un s a c ros s w ha t w ou ld h ave b een t h e m o s t l i ke ly p o s i t ion f o r ac on t inua t ion o ft h e e a s t w ing o f B ar rack 2a nd t h e w e s t w ing o fB a r ra ck 3 .P a r t o ft h e e a s t w ing o fB a r ra ck 2may h ave b een r e loca ted w i th in i t s o wn c our tya rd ; t h e e v iden ce w ou ld s ugge s tt h is . B a r ra ck 5m ay

R ow E : T he b arrack s i n d e ta i l T he b a r ra ck s o fR ow E w e re d i s s im i la r t ot h ose e l sewhe r e i nC amp I I . T he i r s i ze w a s f a r i ne xce s s o f t ho se o f t h e l a rge s t o ft h e l e g iona ry m an ip le -bar ra ck s f ound i nR ow s B a nd C . a nd f u r the r d i f f e ren ces w i l l b ecome a ppa ren t f r om t h e d i scu s s ion b e low .

o n ly e ve r h ave c on s is ted o f o ne w ing ; t h e r a v ine w ou ld s e em t oh ave p rec luded t h e p os s ib i l i ty o fb u i ld ing a n e a s t w ing t ot h i s b a r rack a l though S chu l ten c l a im s t h a t :

T he o f f icer s ' q uar ter s

V on K a serne 5 i s t d er 0 -F lüge l d urch d en 0 -W a l l v on L ager I Vz er s tör t w orden .

T he r e i sl i t t le c l ea r e v iden ce f o r a ny o ff ice r s ' q ua r te r s i n t h e b a r ra ck s i n R ow E d e sp i te S chu l ten 's c l a im t h a t n i ne

( 1 929 ,86 ) .

c on tubern ia i ne ach s i de -w ing w ou ld b e r e served f o r t h em ( 1929 ,84 ) . T he r oom s a t t h e h ead o f t h e e a s t w ing o f

A l l o f t h e se b ar rack s , i n c lud ing B a r ra ck 5 , h ad a s ma l l

B ar ra ck Ip r e sen t t h e mo s t l i ke ly a ppea ran ce o f h av ing

i n dependen t b u i ld ing w i th in t h e ir c our tya rd a r ea ; i n t h e c a se o f B a r ra ck 2 t h is w a s i n a dd i t ion t o i t s s u spec ted

b een f o ra n o ff ice r ( F ig .3 .18 ) . T he f i r s tc on tubern ium h a s as ma l l a t tached r oom , p e rhap s ag ua rdroom ( c f . t h a t

d i sp laced w ing .

o f B a r ra ck 3 i n R ow C . T he r ooms i mmed ia te ly b eh ind

T he t h eo re t ica l d imen s ion s o f ab a r ra ck f o r t h e p ed i te s

t h is a ppea r t oh ave b een i n te r connec ted . I fs o t h ey w ou ld h ave p rov ided a bou t 4 0m 2 o fl i v ing s pa ce ; t hu s l a rge rt h an 6 3

S ca le 1 : 2000

P ART I l l CHAPTER 3

00 C f ).

t i )

i -

6 4

C A MPS I 1 1 1 AT R EN IEBLAS a ny o ft h e c on tubern ia i nt h e s ame w ing . T he r oom sa tt h e

o the r h and i ti sn o t i mpo s s ib le t h a t t h ey o f f e red s on ic o f

h ead o ft h e r e loca t ed s e c t ion o ft h e e a s t w ing o fB ar ra ck 2 m igh t a l so b e c on s ide red a s h av ing b een f o r o f f ice r s a s m igh t s ome o f t h e l a rge r r oom s i n t h e ? ama lgama ted

b een r e cogn i sed e l sewhe r e i nR ow E .

B a r ra ck 6 /7 , p ar t icu la r ly t ho se i nt h e c our tya rd .

D iscu s s ion : T he b arrack s o f R ow E

T he men 's q uar ter s

T he g rea t s i ze o ft h e b a r ra ck s i nR ow E i se xp la in ed i fi t i sa c cep ted t h a t t h e se w e re t h e b ar rack s a l loca ted t o t h e

T he c on tubern ia o ft h e s i de -w ings i nB a r ra ck s 1 5 o fR ow Ep re sen t as im i la r p i c tur e t o t ho se f ound i nt h e b ar ra ck s

a l l ied i n f an try ( ped i te s S oc iorum ) a nd t h a t t h e se a l ied i n f an try w e re h ou sed i nb a r ra ck s w h ich h e ld au n i t m uch

t h e a ccommoda t ion f o ro ff i ce r s w h ich h a s n o t b een a lway s

l a rge r t h an aman ip le , t h e u n i t i nq ue s t ion b e ing p robab ly

o ft h el e g iona ry i n f an try . Mo s ta r er e c tangu la ri ns hape b u t s on ic a r e n ea r ly s qua re a nd t h e r e i s ac on s ide rab le v ar ie ty i nt h ea moun to fs pa ce wh ich i sa va i lab le . F o ri n s tan ce T he f i f th c on tubern ium o ft h e w e s tern w ing o f B a r rack 2 h ad i n terna l d imen s ion s o f 5 .8x4 .6m g iv ing at o ta l o f n ea r ly

t h e a l l ied c ohor t . P o lyb iu s t e l ls u s t h a t t h e t o ta l n umbe ro f a l l ied i n f an t ry w a s u sua l ly e qua l t o t h a t o f t h e R oman s ( V 1 ,26 ,7 ) b u t i ts e em s a lmo s t c e r ta in t h a t t h ey w e r e n o t d i v ided i n to c l a s se s o f i n f an try i n t h e m ann e r o f t h e l e g ionary t r oop s . I n s tead t h ey a ppea r t oh ave b een f o rmed

2 7m 2 w h i ls t i nt h e s ame w ing t h e n in th c on tubern ium w a s o n ly 5 x2m ( 10m 2) .T h is c ou ld m ean t h a t n o t a l l o f t h e

i n to c on t ingen t s , e ach b e tween 4 00 -500 m en s t rong w i th a c omp lemen t o f c ava lry ( Conno l ly 1 989 ,155 ) . L ivy ( X ,43 ,3 ) d e scr ibe st h e se c on t ingen t sa sc ohor t sa nd t e l ls u s

c on tube rn ia m ay h ave b een f o r a ccommoda t ion p er s e . A s i gn if ican t d i f f e ren ce i n s ome o f t h e se c on tube rn ia a nd t h o se f ound i nt h eb a r rack s o fR ow s Ba nd C i se v iden t i n t h e d i v is ion o f s ome o f t h em i n to t wo p a r t s . T h is s ubd iv i s ion o ft h ec on tubern ium i s aw e l l k nown f e a tu re i n b a r ra ck s o f t h e I mper ia l p er iod a nd i su sua l ly t a ken t o

t h a t t e n o f t h e se m ade u p t h e a la S oc iorum ; t h e a l ied e qu iva len t o f al e g ion . K epp ie w r i te s : A c on su la r a rmy o f t wo l e g ion s w a s n orma l ly a c compan ied o n l e g ion -equ iva len t s .

r e p r e sen tt h ea ppor t ionmen to ft h ea rma a nd p ap i l io w i th in t h e c on tubern ium . T he p ap i l io i st h e i n ne rr oom , t h ea r m

c ampa ign

b y

t wo

s u ch ( 1 984 ,22 ) .

i st h e o u te r . I n t h o se c on tubern ia i n t h e e a s t w ing o f B a r ra ck 2 w h ich w e r e d iv ided , t h e ? pap i l ione s w e re a l l m a rg ina l ly l a rge r t h an t h e a rma . T he d i v is ion o f t h e

P o lyb iu s i mp l ie s a l so t h a t t h is i st h e c a se i nh i s B ook V I ( 26 ,7 ) . On ly t h e h i ghe s t l e ve l i nt h e c ha in o fc ommand o f

c on tubern ia i s v e ry c l ea r i n B ar rack 8 w he re i n t h is

t h e a l l ie s i sk nown . T he a la a s aw ho le w a s , a c co rd ing t o P o lyb iu s , c o mmanded b y s i x p raef ec t i s oc ioru r n ( Po l .V 1 ,26 ,5 ) . T he se w e r e R oman so fe que s t r ian r a nk w ho w e r e n om ina ted b y t h ec on su ls ( Kepp ie 1 984 ,23 ) . H ow t h e

i n s tance t h ep ap i l ione sw e re c on s is ten t ly a bou t3 m i nd ep th w h i ls t t h e a rma w e r e mo s t ly 2 .5m i nd ep th . S tab l ing

i n d iv idua l c ohor t s w e re c ommanded i su nc lea r b u t t h e r e m ay n o t h ave b een t h e n umber s o f o ff ice r s w h ich w ou ld h ave b een r e qu ir ed f o r t h e s ma l le r u n i t s o f t h e l e g iona ry i n f an t ry .

T he r e a r r ange so fB a r ra ck s 1 4 a l l h ave as e r ie s o fr oom s w h ich a r e l a rge r , f o r t h e mo s t p a r t , t h an t h e c on tubern ia i nt h e i r s i de -w ing s . S chu l ten s t a te s :

T he d iv is ion o fs ome o ft h e c on tubern ia i nt h e b a r ra ck so f R ow E r e qu ir e s s ome c ommen t . T he p r e sen ce o f

W ir w e rden i n i hnen w ie b e i d er r ö r n i schen I n f an ter ie d i e S t a lk f ür d ie Z ug t iere s ehen l e s sen . ( 1 929 ,84 ) .

c on tubern ia i n t h e r e a r r a nge s o f t h e se b ar ra ck s ( s een c l ea r ly i nB a r rack s 6 /7 a nd 8 )m ay h ave l e f t l i t t le r oom f o r s t o re s . S to re room s m ay h ave f o rmed t h e m a jo rc omponen t i n t h e r e a r r ange s o f t h e b a r ra ck s o f t h e p r inc ipe s a nd

T he r e i sn o th ing w h ich s uppor t s t h is a s sump t ion ; s ome o f t h e r ooms c ou ld h ave b een f o r s t o re s o r o the r p u rpo se s . T he r e a r r a nge s o f t h e b a r ra ck s f a c ing t h e w e s t w a l l

h a s ta t i a nd i ns on ic o f t h e b a r ra ck s o f R ow E i t se lf . I ti s u n for tuna te t h a t t h e s ou th w ing o f B ar ra ck 8 d i d n o t s u rv ive f o r i tw ou ld h ave p rov ided a dd i t iona l e v idence . I ft h e b ar ra ck s i n R ow E r e co rd t h e e a r l ie s t o cca s ion i n w h ich t h e d iv is ion o f t h e c on tubern ium i n to p ap i l io a nd

( No s .6 -8 ) w e r e c omp r ised mo s t ly o f c on tubern ia w i th o cca s iona l l a rge r r oom s . C our tyard b u i ld ing s

a rma h a s b een s e en t h en i tw ou ld n o t b e t h e o n ly e xamp le A pa r t f r om t h o se s e c t ion s o f t h e s i de -w ing s w h ich w e r e r e lo ca ted i n t h e c ou r tya rd s , t h e r e w a s l o ca ted w i th in t h e c ou r tya rd s o f B a r ra ck s 1 5 a nd p o s s ib ly w i th in t h a t o f B a r ra ck 6 / 7 , as e r ie s o f s ma l l i n dependen t b u i ld ings . S chu l ten s ugge s t ed t h a t t h ey c ou ld h ave b een l a t r ine s ( S chu l ten 1 929 ,85 )b u t as ma l lo ven w a sd i scove red i no ne o f t h e r oom s o f t h e c our tya rd b u i ld ing i n B a r ra ck 1 ( i b id . ,85 ) . O ne p o s s ib le e xp lana t ion f o r t h e se c ou r tya rd

w he r e i nnova t ion , w h ich h e re m igh tb ea s soc ia ted w i th t h e a l l ie s , i sl a te r f ound i n corpo ra ted i n to l e g iona ry p r a c t ice f o r t h e v ery o rgan isa t ion o f t h e l e g iona ry c ohor t a s a t a c t ica l u n i t m ay w e l l d er ive f r om t h e o rgan isa t ion o f t h e a l l ied c on t ingen t s ( Kepp ie 1 989 ,172 ) . A rea s Ga nd H ( F ig .3 .18 )

b u i ld ings i s t h a t t h ey f u lf i l led t h e f unc t ion o f s ma l l

S chuhen e xcava ted t h e r ema in so fs i x s epa ra te b u i ld ing s i n

d e ta ched c ookhou se s i n am anne r s im i la rt ot h a t w h ich h a s

a na r ea s andw iched b e tween t wo b a r rack si nt h e n o r th -we s t

b een p o s tu la ted a tC he s te r ( S t r ick land 1 984 ,19 ) . O n t h e

c o rner o ft h ec amp . T he l o ca t ion o ft h e se b u i ld ing s l e dh im 6 5

P ART I I CHAPTER 3 s ou th o f S t ree t Ii n t h e a r ea w h ich h e c on s ider ed w a s a d ja cen t t o t h e p rae tor ium . One o f t h e se w a s t h ough t t o

t o b e l ieve t h a t h e h ad i d en t if ied t h e s i x h ou se s o f t h e p rae f ec t i S oc iorum ( 1929 ,88 -90 ) .

h ave b een a b a r ra ck f o r ag roup o f t h e c on su l 's c l o se f o l lowe r s -ac ohor s am icorum ( S chu l ten 1 929 ,10 1-2 ) -a f o r erunne r o f t h a t b ody o f t r oop s l a te r k nown a s t h e

P o lyb iu s s t a te s t h a t t h e a l l ied f o r ce i n ac on su la r a rmy o f t wo l e g ion sw ou ld h ave b een c ommanded b y t we lve s en io r o ff ice r s k nown a s p raef ec t i S oc iorum , t h e se b e ing t h e

P rae tor ian C oho r t , e s sen t ia l ly a p e r sona l b odygua rd f o r t h e Empe ro r , w h ich t o ok i t s n ame f r om t h e o r ig ina l p rox im i ty o f s uch a b odygua rd t o t h e g ene ra l 's t e n t

e qu iva len t o f t h e t we lve t r ibune s o f t h e R oman l e g ion s ( Po l .V 1 ,26 ,5 ) . T he s i ng le l e g ion w h ich w a s c amped i nt h e n or thern h a lf o fC amp I I w ou ld , i tf o l low s , h ave o n ly h a lf

( p rae tor ium ) .

o f t h e a l l ied c on t ingen t ( a n a la ) i n a t tendance w i th t h e T he l a rge b a r ra ck l ike b u i ld ing h ad t h ree s i de s s e t a round

o the r l e g ion a nd a la b e ing s t a t ioned i n t h e s ou the rn h a lf ( S chu l ten , 1 929 ,91f f ) . On t h is b a s is S chu l ten t h ough t i t

ac our tya rd ( F ig .3 .19 ) . T he n or th w ing a ppea r s t o h ave b een d i v ided i n to c on tubem ia w i th m any o f t h e se

r e a sonab le t oa s sume t h a t t h e s i x b u i ld ings w h ich h e h ad i d en t if ied c ou ld b e m a t ched t ot h e s i x p rae f ec t i .

t h e d e s ign o f f i ve o f t h em a ppea r s u n su i ted t o t h e

d i sp lay ing as ubd iv is ion i n to p ap i l io a nd a rma .T he e a s te rn o r r e a r r ange a l so b oa s ted c on tubern ia b u t w i th t h e a dd i t ion o f as e to fs i ng le -ce l l r ooms a t tached t ow ha t m ay h ave b een t h e o r ig ina l r e a rw a l l o ft h e b u i ld ing . T he w a l ls

r e qu i remen t s o fj u s t as i ng le o ff ice r . S chu l ten a rgued t h a t t h e a r ea e ncompa s sed b y e a ch b u i ld ing w a s a bou t

o ft h e se r oom sd o n o tm a tch t h ec on tube rn ia d i v is ion sa nd t h e p re sen ce o f at r ic l in ium i no ne o ft h em c ou ld s ugge s t

2 ,500p e w h ich m ade t h em s im i la r i na r ea t o t h a t o f t h e t r ibune s ' h ou se s a t b o th C amp I I a nd a t t h e S c ip ion ic c amp o fP e l la R edonda a nd t h a t ac or re sponden ce b e tween t h e r a nk o fp raef ec tu s a nd t h a t o f at r ibune w a s t h u s i n

t h a t t h e se r oom s w e r e f o r c ommuna l u se .

I n f a c t t h e s i x b u i ld ing s a r e n o t a l l o f t h e s ame t y pe a nd

T he s ubd iv ided c on tuber r z ia a r e u nu sua l i n t h a t t h ey a r e r e co rded e l sewhere i nC amp I I o n ly i nt h e b a r rack s o ft h e a l l ied i n f an t ry a nd n o t t h ose o ft h e l e g iona ry i n f an try . T h is r e semb lan ce b e tween t h e t ype o f r oom s f ound i n t h is

e v iden ce ( i b id . ,88 ) . H oweve r , e ven ac u r sory e xam ina t ion o ft h ep l an ( F ig .3 .18 ) r e vea ls t h a tB u i ld ing s I -V w e r e s t r ip b u i ld ing s mo re r em in iscen to fb a r rack s t h an t h e s qua re a nd much mo re c omp lex a nd i nd iv idua l ised t r ibune s ' h ou ses o f w h ich t wo e xamp le s w er e r e co rded f r om C amp I I a nd

b a r ra ck a nd t h o se f ound i n s ome o f t h e i n f an t ry b ar ra ck s o ft h ea l l ie sm ay n o tb ee n t ire ly c o inc iden ta l . I tm igh ts t em f r om t h e b a r rack h av ing b een d e s igned f o r ac on t ingen t o f t r oop s d rawn f r om t h e a l l ies r a the r t h an ab ody o ff r iend s .

s e ven f r om C amp V a tR en ieb la s . F ur thermore , B u i ld ing s I IV a ppea rt oh ave b een d iv ided i n to u n i t sc ompr is ing f ou r s im i la rc e l ls . T h is d up l ica t ion o ft h e c e l ls , m any o fw h ich a ppea r t o b e s ub -d iv ided i n to a n a r rangemen t w h ich p roduce sa nL shaped r oom s ur round ing as ma l le re n c losed

S oc iorum w e re c ho sen a s as e lec t c orp s ( Po l .V 1 ,26 ,8 -9 ) k nown a st h ee x t raord inar i i . I ti sr e a sonab le t oa s sume t h a t

r oom , s ugge s t st h a te a ch u n i th ou sed a ni n d iv idua la l though i t i s r e cogn ised t h a t s ome o f t h e c e l ls l ook t o h ave i n te r connec ted . F rom t h e se o b serva t ion s i ti sc l ea r t h a t

t h e b ar rack s o ft h e e x traord inar i i w ou ld n o t b e d i s s im i la r f r om t h o se o ft h e ir c ompa t r io t s , t h e o n ly d i f f er ence b e ing i n t h e ir s i t ing a nd i n t h e p o s s ib le a dd i t ion o f f a c i l i t ie s

S chu l ten 's i n terp re ta t ion mu s t b e q ua l if ied i fn o t e n t ire ly r e jec t ed .

w h ich m igh t b ef i t t h e i r r a ised s t a tu s ( t he e x traord inar i i , a mongs t o t he rd u t ie s , a c ted a s ab odygua rd t ot h ec on su l ) .

T he v er y c a r efu l n a tu re o f t h e c on s truc t ion o f t h e se

I nt h e P o lyb ian c amp -p lan t h e t e n t s o f t h e e x t raord inar i i a r e t o b e f ound c amped c l o se t o t h e c on su l 's t e n t

P o lyb iu s t e l l s u s t h a t a bou t o ne f i f th o f t h e p ed i te s

b u i ld ing s , w h ich w a s c ommen ted u pon b y S chu l ten ( i b id . ,88 ) , p o in t st owa rd s as t a tu sf o rt h ei nhab i tan t sw h ich w a s h i ghe rt h an t h a to ft h eo rd ina ry i n f an tryman o rt r oope r

( Po l .V I ,31 ,4 ) . I ft h e b a r ra ck i nq ue s t ion w a s f o rt r oop s o f t h e e x t raord inar i i t h en i t s p o s i t ion w ou ld t e nd t o s ub s tan t ia te S chu l ten 's c l a im t h a t t h e b u i ld ing t ot h e w e s t o f i tw a s t h e p rae tor ium . T he j ux tapos i t ion o f t h e t wo w ou ld b e m u tua l ly s uppor t ive o n P o lyb ius ' r e ckon ing b u t t h e d ange r h e re i so ne o f ac i r cu la r a rgumen t . S chu l ten w a s s u r e ly c o r rec t h owever i n o b serv ing t h a t t h e b a r ra ck

-t h is w a s s hown t o b e t h e c a se e l sewhe re i n t h e c amp . C lea r ly B u i ld ing V I i sd i s s im i la r t o t h e o the r s a nd mu s t h ave h ad s ome s pec ia l f unc t ion b u tB u i ld ings I -V m ay h ave p rov ided u p t os i x teen s epa ra te u n i t s . C ou ld i tb e t h a t t h e c e l ls h ou sed

t h ose o ff ice r s o f t h e

p ed i te s S oc iorum

w a s f o re l i te t r oop s a nd t h e t r ic l in ium i nt h e r oom a t tached t ot h e r e a r o ft h e b a r ra ck w ou ld s uppo r t t h a t v i ew .

s ubo rd ina te t ot h e p raef ec t i w ho h e ld t h e r ank e qu iva len t t o ac en tu r ion a nd w ho se q ua r te r s h ave n o t b een l o ca ted w i th a ny g r ea t c onf iden ce ? I ft h is w a s t h e c a se t h en t h e h ou se so ft h ep raef ec t i h ave r ema ined u nde tec ted . A ga in s t

P o s s ib le b arrack q uae s tor ium

b u i ld ing s

i n t he

v i c in i ty

o f t he

t h is , i tm igh t b e c on s ide red u n l ike ly f o r s uch o ff ice r s t o h ave b een d i s loca ted i nt h is w ay f r om t h e b a r rack s o f t h e m en u nde r t h e i r c ommand .

Am u l t i tude o fb u i ld ing s w er e r e co rded i nt h e e a s tern p a r t o f t h e c amp b e tween t h e t wo s t ree t s m a rked / a nd I ' ( F ig .3 .6 ) . T he se b u i ld ing sc ou ld h ave f u lf i l led an umbe ro f

O ther b arrack s w i th in C amp I I Ab arrack o ft he c ohor s a m icorum?

f un c t ion s . S ome h ave t h ea ppea ran ce o fh em i s t r ig ia b u tt h e P o lyb ian c amp p l an c anno t a s s is t h e r e i n d e term in ing w h ich t y pe o f t r oop s t h ey may h ave h e ld i ft h e se w e re

S chuhen i n ve s t iga ted ac on s ide rab le n umbe r o f b u i ld ings

d e ta ched b a r ra ck s . T he R epub l ican l e g ion , l i k e i t sI mper ia l s ucce s so r , p robab ly c a rr ied an umbe ro fm en o n i t s b ook s 6 6

C A MPS

AT R EN IEBLAS

F ig .3 .19 P lan o f ab a r rack a tC amp I I R en ieb la s , s u spec ted b y t h e e xcava to r t oh ave b een t h e a ccommoda t ion f o r ac o /or s a m icon im ( af te r S chu l ten 1 929 , P l an X I 2 ) . S ca le 1 : 500

6 7

P ART I I CHAPTER 3

F ig .3 .20

P os s ib le t r ibune s ' h ou se s a tC amp I I R en ieb la s ( a f te r S chu l ten 1 929 , P l an XV 2 ) . S ca le 1 : 200

C A MPS I I I I AT R EN IEBLAS D ISCUSS ION : CA MP I I REN IEBLAS

i n a dd i t ion t o t h e f i gh t ing f o r ce . T ho se w i th s ub s id ia ry r o le s s uch a s c a lone s

( mu le tee r s ) m ay n o t h ave b een I n troduc t ion

l o dged i n t h e b a r rack s o f t h e m an ip les . T he se a nd o the r a n c i l la r ie s m ay i n s tead h ave b een h ou sed i n s epa ra te a c commoda t ion a nd t h ey p rov ide o ne p o s s ib i l i ty f o r t h e

I n t h e c ou r se o f t h is c hap te r ag ood d ea l o f a t ten t ion h a s b een f o cu sed u pon t h e b a r rack s a tC amp I I R en ieb la s a nd t h i s h a s i n c luded p ar t icu la r a t ten t ion t ot h e ir l a you t , t h e ir d imen s ion s , a nd t h e a r rangemen t o f t h e r oom s w i th in

i n hab i tan t s o ft h e b a r rack l ike b u i ld ings w h ich a r e s e en t o t h e s ou th o ft h eo rder ed r ow so fm an ip le -ba r rack s . F o rt h e l a te rR oman p e r iod Web s te r ( 1981 , 19 -20 )c i te s aR oman d i ge s t w h ich l i s t s av a s t a r ray o fs pec ia l is t s a nd c r af t smen

t h em . I t i s t h is a t ten t ion t o d e ta i l w h ich e nab le s t h e a rgumen t s w h ich a r e p u t i nt h is f i na l s e c t ion o n C amp I a tR en ieb la s t op roceed w i th s ome d eg r ee o fc on f idence . I t h a s b een d emon s t ra ted t h a t n o g rea t r e l ian ce c an b e p l a ced

w ho m ay h ave b een a b le t oc l a im t h a t t h ey w e r e i mmune s a nd t h u se xcu sed h eavy f a t igue s . I mmune s w e re s ome t ime s p rov ided w i th t h e ir own s pec ia l b ar ra ck s ( von P e tr ikov i t s 1 975 , 4 3 -50 ; D av ison 1 989 , 6 0 -71) . A no the rp o s s ib i l i ty i s

o n S chu l ten 's i n terp re ta t ion s a t R en ieb la s e spec ia l ly i n t h o se i n s tances w he re h e h a s a dop ted a t o o s imp l is t ic

t h a t t h e b ar ra ck l ike b u i ld ings h ou sed t h e v e l i te s b u tt h e se t r oop s a r e u n l ike ly t oh ave b een a cco rded ap o s i t ion c l o se t ot h e c en t re o ft h e c amp g iven t h e i r r e la t ive ly l ow s t a tus .

a pp roa ch t o t h e f o rm o f t h e b a r ra ck s a nd t h e f unc t ion o f

T ho se b u i ld ing s c l o se s t t o t h e p or ta d ecumana w e r e b rough t t o ge the r u nde r t h e g ene ra l d e scr ip t ion o f q ua e s tor ium ( S chu l ten 1 929 , 1 08 10 ) ; i ti sn o t i mpo s s ib le t h a t s ome o ft h e se b u i ld ing s t oo m ay h ave h e ld t r oop s .

Wh i ls t i ti s p o s s ib le t o a g ree w i th S chu l t en o n m any g en e ra l p o in t s o fi n terp r e ta t ion t h is f r e sh s t udy h a s s hown t h a t c ompa ra t ive m a ter ia l d rawn f r om e l sewher e , s ome o f i to f c ou r se u nava i lab le t o t h e e xcava to r a t t h e t i me o f

t h e r oom s w i th in t h em .

p ub l ica t ion , c an b e u t i l ised t o a dd s i gn if i can t ly t o t h e d eba te . T h is c ompa ra t ive m a ter ia l a l l ied t ot h ei n f orma t ion w h ich c an s t i l l b e o b ta ined f r om as t udy o ft h e p ub l ished p l an s a nd t e x t a nd b y ap hys ica l e xam ina t ion o f t h e s t and ing r ema in sa l low s as e r ie s o fn ew o b serva t ion s t ob e p re sen ted b e low .

O ther b u i ld ing s w i th in Camp I I Ar a nge o f t r ibun es ' h ouse s w e r e t h ough t b y S chu l ten t o h ave e x is ted f a c ing , a nd j u s t t o t h e w e s t o f , t h e r ow s o f l e g iona ry b a r ra ck s . T h is p o s i t ion w ou ld b ec on s is ten t w i th t h e l o ca t ion o f t h e s camnum t r ibunorum a s g i ven b y P o lyb ius ( V I ,28 ,1) . P o lyb iu s p rov ide s af i gu re o f s i x t r ibune s f o r e a ch l e g ion i n ac on su la r a rmy ( Po l .V 1 ,27 ,4 ) a nd S chu l ten t h us r e s to red s i x h ou se s o n h i s p l an ( 1929 ,P lan I V ) e ven t hough e v iden ce e x is ted o n ly f o r

C ava lry b arrack s R ow s K a nd D : t he p re sence o f s t ab le s w i th in t he c on tubern ia o ft he b arra ck s ( s ee F ig .3 .10 )

t h ree . O ft h e t h ree h ouse s w h ich w e r e i d en t if ied o n ly t wo , N o s . 3a nd 4 ,w e re r e corded i na ny d e ta i l ( F ig .3 .20 ) . T he o r ien ta t ion o f t h e se b u i ld ing s w a s c l ea r ly n o t a t r i gh t a ng le s . T h i s w a s a lmo s t c er ta in ly d ue t o ad e s i re o n t h e p a r t o f t h e b u i lde r s t o u t i l ise t h e r e la t ive ly f l a t g round

S chu l ten w a s o ft h e o p in ion t h a t a l l o ft h e moun t s o fe ach t u rma o ft h ee qu i te sR oman ia nd o ft h ee qu i te s S oc iorum a t C amp I I w ou ld b e s t ab led w i th in b a r ra ck s ( 1929 ,68 -70 ; 8 1 ) . S uch s t a temen t s h ave r e qu i red a d e ta i led r e inve s t iga t ion o f t h e e v idence .

b e tween t h e 135m a nd 138m c on tou r s . A ny o the r o r ien ta t ion f o r t h e se b u i ld ing s w ou ld p robab ly h ave i n vo lved p l a c ing t h e f l oo r s o fa d jo in ing r oom sa td i f f e r en t l e ve ls . T he i n terp re ta t ion o f t h e se b u i ld ing s a s t r ibune s ' h ou se s i sn o t i mp lau s ib le b u t i fs o t h ey s e em t oh ave b een

T he l o ca t ion o ft h e r oom s i d en t if ied a ss t ab le s b y S chu l ten w ou ld i nm any c a se s h ave c au sed p rob lems o fo ne s o r t o r a no the rh ad t h ey e x is ted i nr e a l i ty . T he a r rangemen tw he r e t h es t ab le i ss ugge s ted t ob ea tt h er e a ro ft h ec on tuber n ium i so dd a nd c l umsy a st h is w ou ld i n vo lve l e ad ing t h e h or se s i na nd o u t t h rough t h e l i v ing a r ea ( pap i l io ) r e su l t ing i na

o f at y pe w i th a c ce s sp rov ided b y ac en t ra l p a s sage i n s tead o ft h e c our tya rd t y pe sw h ich w e re f ound i nt h e l a te rC amp Va nd w h ich a r e f am i l ia r i nf o r t re s se s o ft h e Emp ir e .

s ub sequen t l o s s o f l i v ing space n o t t o m en t ion g rea t i n conven ience . D e sp i te t h is o b jec t ion S chu l ten g i ve s f o u r e xamp le s i nR ow K w he r e h e b e l ieve s t h is h a so c cu r r ed .' S chu l ten s t a te s :

T he p r ae tor ium ,f orum , a nd q uaes to t ium T he p rae to r ium o f C amp I I w a s l o ca ted b y S chu l ten

Da sf ä l l ta uf , d ad i eP f e rde s od ur ch d en W ohnraum g e f ühr t w e rd en m uß ten . ( 1 929 ,70 ) .

( 19 12 , 8 7 -8 ) i n ac en t ra l p o s i t ion w i th in t h e c amp . B eh ind ( e a s t ) o f t h e s i te o f t h e p rae tor ium s t ood t h e s u spec ted b ar ra ck o f t h e c ohor s am icorum a nd b eh ind t h i s a n o pen a r ea w a s r e co rded . S chu l ten ( 1929 , 1 04 -6 ) c l a imed t h is a r ea t oh ave b een t h ef orum o fC amp I I a nd h e c l a imed i n

Af o rwa rd p os i t ion f o r t h e s t ab le i se qua l ly u nde s irab le .

a dd i t ion t h e b u i ld ings t oi t s e a s t w e re t abernae . T he t e rm t a bernae a ppea r s t o h ave b een l o o se ly a pp l ied . T he

T h is p o s i t ion , p ropo sed i n t h e c on tubern ium i n t h e r e a r

b u i ld ing sw e re n o tt h eo pen -f ron ted t y pe o fu n i t sw h ich a r e

t h e l i v ing q ua r te r s b eh ind ( Camp I l i sb u i l t o n ah i l l s ide w i th t h e b a r ra ck s o f R ow K f a c ing t h e c r e s t o f t h e h i l l ) .

r a nge o fB a r ra ck 2 ,w ou ld h ave l e d t ow a s te d ra in ing i n to

g ene ra l ly i d en t if ied w i th I mper ia l t abernae , e xamp le s o f w h ich a r e f am i l ia r f r om t h e f o r t r e s se s o fN eu s s , V e te ra I , a nd I n ch tu th i l ( Koenen 1 904 ;Lehne r 1 930 ;P i t t s a nd S t .

T he s ame p rob lem w ou ld p robab ly h ave o ccu r r ed i nt h e s e cond c on tubern ium o ft h e e a s t w ing o f B a r ra ck 2 .

J o seph 1 9 85 ) . 6 9

P ART I I : CHAPTER 3 D ra inage f a c i l i t ie s w ou ld s e em t o b e e s sen t ia l f o r a ny

1 969 ,429 , f oo tno te 3 whe re h e c a s t s d oub t o n s ome o f

b u i ld ing w h ich h ou sed h o r ses w i th in t h ec onf ine so fC amp I I s o t h a t a d ja cen t a r ea s r ema ined u n su l l ied . We l ls g i ve s an umbe r o fe xamp le s o f R oman m i l i ta ry s t ab le s a l l w i th d ra in s ( 1977 ,663 ) . I ti s s i gn if ican t t h a t n o d ra in s w e re r e co rded i nt h e b a r rack s o fR ow K b u t t h e re a r e a l so o the r

H yg inu s ' f i gu r e s ) .

f a c to r s w h ich w ou ld a rgue a ga in s t t h e p r e sence o f h o r se s i na ny n umbe r w i th in t h e se b ar racks . A t D ormagen , i na

I tc an b e t h ough t l i ke ly t h a t t h e l e g iona ry c ava l ry u n i t o f R epub l ican t ime s w ou ld l i kew is e h ave a t temp ted t o m a in ta in a n umbe r o f h o r se s a bove t h e m in imum r e qu iremen t a s ac on t ingency m ea su re . Wha t t h is f i gu r e m igh tb ei s am a t te ro fc on jec tu re . Ac on serva t ive e s t ima te

f o r t o f t h e s e cond c en tury A .D . , w he re m en a nd h o r se s w e re t h ough t t oo ccupy t h e s ame b ar ra ck , t h ed i scovery o f s ump p i t s , w h ich c hem ica l a na lys is s how s w e re l i ke ly t o h ave t a ken a n ima ld i scha rge , s how st h a ta l lt h es t ab le room s w e re a d ja cen t t oo ne a no the ra nd d id n o t o ccupy av a r ie ty

o ft h ree e x t ra h o r se s t oe ach t u rma w ou ld p roduce af i gu r e

o fp o s i t ion st h roughou tt h eb ar ra ck ( Mü l ler 1 979 ,27 -35 a nd

s t ab l ing f o ra bou t 3 3 h o r se s . We h ave s e en t h a t f ew o ft h e r oom s i nt h e b a r ra ck s o f R ow K , c e r ta in ly t h o se w e s t o f

o f 30 h o r se s f o r t e n t u rmne o fl e g iona ry c ava lry s e rv ing w i th aR epub l ican l e g ion . I fS chu l ten i st ob eb e l ieved t h en a l l o f t h e se h o r se s w ou ld b e s t ab led w i th in t h e b a r ra ck s a nd i tf o l low s t h a t e ach b ar ra ck w ou ld n eed t o p rov ide

T af .8 ) .

t r oope r s i nt h e s ame b u i ld ing , a ppea r s t ob e t h e p ref er r ed o p t ion f o rs t ab le sa ta l l t ime s( s ee We l ls 1 977 ,662 ) . R ecen t

t h e v i a q u in tana , d i sp lay a ny o f t h e c ha ra c te r is t ic s o f s t ab le s w h ich a r e k nown f r om I mp er ia l t ime s . I tw ou ld h ave b een i mp ra c t icab le t oh ave k ep ta ny n umbe ro fh o r se s i ns ma l l s t ab le room s w h ich w e r e d i spe r sed t h roughou t t h e

w o rk b y D av ison ( 1989 ) h a se xam ined t h et y pe o fb u i ld ing a nd t h e d imen s ion s r e qu ired f o r t h e s t ab l ing o fh o r se s i n R oman m i l i tary e s tab l ishmen t s o f t h e f i r s t th ird c en tur ie s A .D . H e f ound t h a t :

c on tubern ia . S ome o ft h e l a rge rr oom s i nt h eb a r ra ck se a s t o ft h e v i a q u in tana m igh t h ave b een mo r e s u i ted t oa c t a s s t ab le s b u t l a rge u nd iv ided r oom s a r e s e en a l so i n t h e b a r ra ck s w h ich a r e s ugge s ted t ob e t h o se o ft h e i n f an t ry .

T he c ha rac ter is t ic c on f igu ra t ion o f s t ab le s w h ich

T he re a r e s ome s pec ia l c i r cum s tan ce s u nde r w h ich h o r se s

h ave t oh ou se a ny c on s ide rab le n umbe r o fh o r se s i s t h a t t h ey a r e l ong , r e c tangu la r , s i ng le s to rey b u i ld ing s . ( Dav ison 1 989 ,136 ) .

c ou ld b e s t ab led w i th in t h e b a r ra ck s , p erhap s w i th t empo ra ry b edd ing . T he s t ab l ing o f f a vou red moun t s , o ff ice r s h o r se s o r h or se s r e qu ir ing v e ter ina ry a t t en t ion

T he s t ab l ing o ft h e h o r se s i n al ong l i n e , w i th o r w i thou t

c ou ld a l l p rov ide t h e r e a son s f o rj u s t s uch as i tua t ion . I n t h ee a s t w ing o fB ar rack 4t h e re a r e s ome p ro trud ing s t one moun t ings w h ich m igh t i nd ica te t h a t o ne o ft h e r oom sw a s d i v ided i n to t h r ee s t a l ls , p erhap s b y m ean s o fp a r t i t ion so r b a i ls . T h is w a s t h e i n terpr e ta t ion p u t f o rwa rd b y S chu l ten

D av ison a l so s t a te s t h a t t h e d i f f e ren t c ha rac ter is t ics o ft h e v a r iou s b r eeds o fh o r se a r e b ound t oh ave i mp l ica t ion s f o r t h e ir s t ab l ing a nd t h a tC e l t ic p on ies a r e l i ke ly t oh ave b een f a r

l e s s

s u scep t ib le

t o b ad

w ea the r c ond i t ion s

t h an

( 1929 ,70 ) . T he w id th so ft h ep u ta t ive i n d iv idua ls t a l l s , w a s b e tween 1 . 2 a nd 1 . 4m . I ti sn o ted t h a t D av ison c on c luded t h a t t h e a ve rage w id th a l lowance f o r ah o r se i nt h e s t ab le s o f t h e I mper ia l p e r iod w a s v ery c l o s e t o t h is f i gu r e a t 1 . 16m . ( 1989 ,160 ) . T here a r e t h en a n umbe r o f

h i gh -b red A rab t y pe h o r se s ( i b id . ,16 1) . T he t ype o f C e l t iber ian p ony w h ich w ou ld h ave b een e mp loyed i n S pa in w a s e spec ia l ly f a vou red b y t h e R oman s ( Cae sa rh ad C e l t iber ian p on ie s b rough t i n to G au l f o r h i s G a l l ic c ampa ign s -C ae sa r G a l l ic W ar ,7 ,55 ) . T he se p on ie s m igh t

c i r cum s tance s w h ich c ou ld h ave l e d t o as ma l l n umbe r o f h o r se s b e ing k ep t a tt h e b ar rack s , i fo n ly o n at empo ra ry b a s i s .

h ave b een mo re s u i ted t o ac o r ra l t h an c onf ined w i th in b a r ra ck s . T her e i sc er ta in ly s pa ce a va i lab le f o r ac or ra l w i th in C amp I I , n o tab ly i nt h e s ou th -we s t c orne r , w her e n ob u i ld ing sh ave b een r e co rded . I na dd i t ion , t h ee nc lo sur e w h ich S chuf t en i d en t if ied a to ne t ime a s as epa ra te c amp

A l l o f t h is a r gumen t a pp l ie s e qua l ly w e l l w hen t h e e v idence f o rt h eb a r rack so ft h e e qu i te s S oc iorum ( Row D ) i se xam ined . T he se b a r ra ck s l i ke t h o s e o f t h e l e g iona ry

( Camp I ) m ay w e l l h ave b een a n a nnexe o f C amp I I p rov id ing y e t af u r the r p os s ib i l i ty t h a t t h ey w e re k ep t t h e re .

c ava lry h ave r oom s w h ich b ea r n one o ft h e c ha ra c ter is t ic s o fs t ab le s w h ich o ne m igh t e xpec t . D e sp i te t h is , S chu l t en

T ha t t h e h o r se s o f t h e e qu i te s R oman i w e r e n o t s t ab led w i th in t h e b ar rack s o f R ow K i sp erhap s s uppor ted b y a c on s ide ra t ion o f t h e n umbe r o f moun t s a nd r e -moun t s w h ich t h ey w ou ld r e qu ire . We h ave t h e t e s t imony o f P o lyb iu s t h a t e ach l e g ion , a tf u l l s t reng th w ou ld h ave h ad ac omp lemen t o f 3 00 l e g ionary c ava lry . F rom t h is i t f o l low s t h a t t h e re w e re a tl e a s t 3 00 h o r se s b u t t h a t i st h e m in imum f i gu re .

a t temp ted t of i nd t h e s pace w i th in t h e b a r ra ck s o fb o th t h e e qu i te s R oman ia nd t h ee qu i te sS oc iorum f o ra l lt h e moun t s w h ich w ou ld h ave b een r e qu ired b y t h e se u n i t s . We l l s r em ind s u s t h a t p a ra l le ls f r om o the r p e r iod s s ugge s t t h a t c ava lry h or se s w e r e r e gu la r ly t u rned o u t i n to c o r ra ls i n t h o se s i tua t ion s w he re g ar r ison s w e r e n o t e xpec ted t o r ema in i nt h e s ame p l a ce f o r a n e x tended p e r iod :

H yg inu s ( d e m un .ca s t . ,16 ) p rov ide s

. .we n eed n o t n ece s sa r i ly e xpec t t of i nd p e rmanen t

f i gu r e s f o r t h e n umbe r s o f moun t s r e qu i red f o r a n a la

s t ab l ing p rov ided f o r a l l t h e a n ima ls o f au n i t , e spec ia l ly o ne o n a c t ive s e rv ice . (We l ls 1 977 ,662 ) .

q u ingenar ia o fI mpe r ia l t ime s . H is f i gu re o f5 64 h o r se s i s f o r af o r ce n o t iona l ly o f5 00 t r oope r s . C a lcu la t ion s b a sed o n t h e p rov is ion o f a dd i t iona l moun t s f o r t h e o ff i ce r s o f

I f C amp I l a t R en ieb la s w a s i n deed a w in te r camp ,

e a ch t u rma c an p u sh t h a t f i gur e u p t o5 92 ( bu t s e e D av ie s 7 0

C A MPS I 1 1 1 AT R EN IEBLAS C amp I I w e re i nt h e r e g ion o f3 0 -37m2 i na r ea a l though

i n t ended t ob e o ccup ied o n ly f o r ar e la t ive ly s hor t p e r iod , t h en t h ec on s t ruc t ion o fs t ab le sm ay n o th ave b een j u s t if ied

s ome w e re s ma l le r t h an t h is . I f t h ese q ua r te r s w e re r e f lec t ing t h e k i nd o fa r ea w h ich c ou ld b e e xpec ted t ob e f ound f o r at e n t t h en t h is c ou ld s ugge s t t h a t t e n t s i ze s r ema ined r e la t ive ly u nchanged i nt h e R oman a rmy o ve r a p er iod w h ich e n compa s sed s eve ra l c en tu r ie s .

p a r t icu la r ly i ft h ea n ima ls w e r eq u i te c apab le o fs urv iva l i n t h e o pen . I th a sb een d emon s t ra ted t h a ti tw a se x t r eme ly u n l ike ly t h a t a ny g rea t n umbe r s o fh or se w e re s t ab led w i th in t h e l i v ing

C en tur ia l Quar ter s a nd t he Man ip le

q uar te r s o ft h eb ar rack s wh ich w e r e s pec if i ca l ly t h ough t t o h o ld c ava lry t r ooper s a nd n o p o s i t ive e v idence o f a s t ab le -b lock w a s f o r thcom ing f r om a r e v iew o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v iden ce .

I th a s b een a rgu ed p rev iou s ly t h a t t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f t h e o ff ice r s ' q ua r t e r s i n t h o se m an ip le -ba r rack s a tC amp I I , w he r e e nough o f t h e g round -p lan s urv ive s , i sr e a sonab ly

L eg ionary i n fan try b arrack s : R ow s A , Ba nd C

h i gh . T h is h a s r e su l ted i n as ub sequen t d i ff icu l ty f o r i th a s

T he s i ze o ft he c en tur ia l q uar ter s

a l so b een d emon s t ra ted t h a tc en tu r ia l q ua r ter sa r e n o t t ob e f ound a tt h e h ead o f e very w ing ; t h e w e igh t o f e v iden ce w ou ld l e an t owa rd st h ev i ew t h a te ach m an ip le -ba r ra ck w a s f u rn ished w i th o n ly o n e s e t o f c en tur ia l q ua r te r s . T h is s t and si nc on t r a s tt oS chu l ten 's b e l ief t h a tc en tur ia lq ua r te r s w ou ld b ep re sen ta tt h eh ead o fb o th o ft h eo ppo s ing w ing s i n e a ch m an ip le -ba r ra ck i n a l l t h e c l a s ses o f l e g ionary i n f an try ( 1929 ,72 -4 ) . I t i s r e a sonab le t o a s sume t h a t

T he s ma l l s i z e o ft h e c en tur ia l q uar te r s i nt h e b a r ra ck s o f t h e l e g iona ry i n f an try r e la t ive t o t h a t o f t h e ir I mpe r ia l c oun terpa r ts r e qu ire s s ome c ommen t . D av ison ( 1989 ) , i n h i s s t udy o f t h o se b a r ra ck s r e co rded f r om t h e m i l i ta ry e s tab l ishmen t s o ft h e Emp ire , h a s s hown t h a t s ome o ft h e s ma l les te xamp le so fc en tur ia lq ua r te r si n l e g iona ry c ohor t b a r ra ck s o ccu ri nt h e Augu s tan /T iber ian p er iod w he re t h ey

S chu l ten a r r ived a tt h is c on c lu s ion b y w ay o f P o lyb iu s ' s t a temen t t h a t e a ch m an ip le h ad t wo c en tur ion s ( V I ,24 ,1) a nd t h a t t h e e nd t e n t s o f e a ch man ip le w e re o ccup ied b y

w e r e o f t en b e low 1 00m2 i n a r ea . A l l o f t h e s u spec ted c en tu r ia l q ua r te r s i nt h e b a r rack s o ft h e l e g iona ry i n f an try i nC amp I I w e r e b e low e ven t h is f i gu r e . I tw a s n o t u n t i l

t h e se s ame c en tur ion s ( V I ,30 ,5 ) . I ti sn ece s sa ry t ol o ok i n d iv idua l ly a tt h e R ow s A , Ba nd Ci nC amp I I ( now i d en t if ied w i th r e a sonab le c onf iden ce

a f te rt h eA ugu s tan /T iber ian p er iod t h a tc en tu r ion s 'q ua r te r s w e r e f ound t o b e c on s is ten t ly l a rge r i n a r ea t h an t h e ir p r edeces so r s ( Dav ison 1 989 ,26 -8 a nd F ig .19 ) . T h is p e rhap sr ef le c t st h eg row ing s t a tu so ft h ep os to fc en tu r ion . C ae sa r g ive s s eve ra l e xamp le s o f t h e g a l lan t ry o f n amed c en tur ion s i nh i s G a l l ic W ar ( 1 1 1 ,5 ; V ,35 ,44 ; V I 1 ,47 ,50 ) a nd t h e ir e xper ience a sp rof e s s iona l s o ld ie r sb ecame h i gh ly v a lued a s C a e sa r make s c l ea r . Webs te r p o in t s o u t t h a t i n t h e e a r ly p e r iod o f t h e Emp i re t h e r ank o f c en tur ion w a s h i gh ly p a id a nd a s ub s tan t ia l g ran t w a s a va i lab le o n d i scha rge ( Web s te r 1 981 ,114 ) .

a s t h e b a r ra ck s o f t h e t r iar i i , p r inc ipe s a nd h a s ta t i r e spec t ive ly ) . T he s t r eng th o ft h e t r iar i i w a s r e ckoned a sh a lf t h a t o ft h e o t he r i n f an try c l a s se s ; 6 00 a ga in s t t h e 1 200 o f b o th t h e p r inc ipe s a nd t h e h a s ta t i ( Po l .V 1 ,21 ,9 ) . T h is f o r ce w a s n eve r the le s s d i v ided i n to t e n m an ip le s i nt h e s ame m anne r a st h e o t he r s ( Po l .V I ,24 ,3 ) . E ach m an ip le o ft r iar i i w ou ld a s r e su l t h ave h ad a p ape r s t reng th o f 6 0 m en , t h e s ame n umbe r a s ac en tury o fp r inc ipe s o rh a s ta t i . I ti sd i ff icu l t t o r e conc i le t h ese f i gu r e s w i th P o lyb iu s ' l a te r s t a temen t t h a t t wo c en tu r ion s a r e a s s igned t oe ach m an ip le o fa l t h e c l a s se s o f i n f an try e xcep t t h e v e l i te s ( V I ,24 ,3 ) . I f t h e

I tw a s o n ly i nt h e l a te r f i r s t c en tury A .D . t h a t f o r t r e s se s b egan t ob e c on s ide red b y t h e R oman s a s mo re p e rmanen t i n s t i tu t ion s p l a ced a t f i xed s t ra t eg ic l o ca t ion s r a the r t h an t h e t empo ra r y c ampa ign b a se s w h ich h ad o f t en b een t h e ir

m an ip le o f t r iar i i w a s s ubd iv ided i n to t wo c en tur ie s t h en e a ch c en tury c ou ld h ave c a l led u pon n o mo re t h an 3 0m en . Wou ld s uch a s ma l l u n i t , j u s t u nde r o ne t h ird o f t h e

r o le p rev iou s ly . L u t twak b e l ieved t h a ts t one -bu i l tf o r t r e s se s w ou ld r ap id ly a cqu ire a n u rban a tmo sphe re ( 1976 ,119 ) . I t m igh t b ee xpec ted t h a tt h e s t anda rd o fa c commoda t ion a nd t h e a men i t ie s p rov ided w i th in t h e f o r t r e s se s o f t h a t d a te

s t r eng th o f t h e e ponymou s c en tur ia o f 1 00 m en , h ave w a r ran ted a c en tur ion ? S umne r ( 1970 ) h a s a rgued t h a t ,

a nd b eyond w ou ld b e i mp roved d ue t o t h e c hange f r om s ho r t term t o mor e l ong term o ccupa t ion c oup led w i th t h e e me rgen ce o f ap rof e s s iona l a nd s t and ing a rmy .

a l ready , b y t h e t ime o f P o lyb iu s , t h e c en tur y h ad n o t a c t ica l f un c t ion : T he b i na ry s t ruc tu re o f t h e m an ip le w a s e s sen t ia l ly a n h i s tor ica l s ur v iva l f r om t h e t ime w hen t h e

C amp I I a tR en ieb la s w a s c on s truc ted l o ng b efo re t h e se d eve lopmen t s b egan t o m an if e s t t h em se lve s a nd t h e

c en tury w a s t h e b a s ic t a c t ica l u n i t . I nt h e s ame w ay

b a r ra ck s w i th in i t may i n s tead h ave c l o se ly r e p l ica ted i n

t h em an ip le i t se lf s ur v ived a f ter i th ad b een t a c t ica l ly

t h e ir a r ea t h e t e n t s i ze s w h ich w ou ld h ave b een f am i l ia r i n f i e ld -oper a t ion s .

s upe r seded b y t h e c oho r t . ( Sumne r ,1970 ,68 ) .

U nfo r tuna te ly P o lyb iu s d oe s n o t g i ve t h e d imen s ion s o fa c en tu r ion 's t e n to ft h eR epub l ican a rmy b u tH yg inu sw ou ld s e em t oh ave a lowed 2 0x20 p ede s ( a lmo s t 3 5m . 2)f o r t h e c en tur ion i n at e n ted c amp o f t h e Emp ir e .' Many o f t h e r e cogn isab le o ff ice r s ' q ua r te r s o f t h e i n f an t ry b a r ra ck s i n 7 1

E ven i ft h e c en tury h ad n o t a c t ica l s i gn if icance f r om a n e a r ly d a te , w e k now t h a t i nt h e a rmy o f t e n c oho r t s e a ch c en tu ry h ad i t s o wn c en tur ion . T he re i sn o g ood r e a son t o d i sm is s t h e i d ea t h a t s e pa ra te c en tu r ie s a nd c en tu r ion s d i d n o t s u rv ive s a y w i th in t h e m an ip le s o f t h e t r iar i i e ven

P ART H I CHAPTER 3 B ar rack s o fa l l c l a s se s , l e g ionary a nd a l l ied .

a low ing f o r t h e s ma l l n umbe r o f m en p e r c en tu r y . We h ave s e en h oweve r t h a t t h e e v iden ce w h ich w ou ld d emon s t ra t e t h e p r e sen ce o ft wo c en tur ion si nt h eb a r ra ck s o ft h e t r iar i i ( i n R ow A ) i se l u s ive . T he a n swe rm igh t l a y i n t h e r e la t ive s t a tu s o f t h e t wo c en tur ion s w i th in t h e m an ip le . T he t i t le s o f t h e s e c en tur ion s s u rv ived i n to t h e Emp ir e ; t h ef i r s tc en tur ion w a sk nown a st h ec en tur io p r ior a nd h i s c o l league a s t h e c en tur io p o s te r ior . T he s en io r c en tur ion h e ld t h e f o r ce d e i u r e i n t h e m an ip le , h av ing c ommand o f r i gh t -hand s i de ( Po l .V I ,24 ,7 -8 ; Wa lbank 1 957 ,707 ) . T he p r ima cy o fr i gh t o ve r l ef t i nt h e c ha in o f c ommand w a s a l so r ema rk ed u pon b y V e it h ( i n K romaye r a nd V e i t h 1 928 ,317 -8 ) .

Number a nd s i ze o ft he c on tubern ia T he t o ta l n umbe r o f c on tubern ia f o und i n a ny o f t h e b a r r a ck s o f C amp I w a s d i ff i cu l t t o d e t e rm in e . I t c e r ta in ly v a r ied , n o t o n ly f r om c l a s s t o c l a s s b u t a l so w i th in b a r r a ck s o f t h e s ame c l a s s . T he r e c an b e n o c e r ta in ty t h a tt h em an ip le so re ven t h ec en tu r ie s w e r ea l o f e qua l s t r eng th a nd t h a t e a ch h em i s t r ig ium w ou ld t h e r ef o r e d emand t h e s ame n umbe r o fc on tube rn ia . T he g r ea t v a r ie ty o f l a you t w h ich w a s d i sp layed i n t h e b a r ra ck s o f t h e t r iar i i ( Row A ) a nd t h e e qu i te s R oman i ( Row K ) a nd t h e p r e sen ce o fa tl e a s t s ome c on tube r n ia i n t h o se b a r r a ck s w h ich c l ea r ly f u lf i l led as p ec ia l f u n c t ion , m i l i ta t ea ga in s ta ny a t t emp t t oe s tab l i sh c on tuber n ia t o ta l s f o r t h o se b a r r ack s . T h i s w a s c oup led w i th t h e g r ea te r d e s t ru c t ion o ft h e r ema in so ft h e se b a r ra ck s i nc ompa r ison w i th t h o se o ft h ep r inc ipe s a nd h a s ta t i .

I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t h e p r e ceden ce o fo n ec en tu r ion o ve rt h e o t he r w a s r ef lec ted i n t h e k i nd o f a c commoda t ion w h ich w a s p rov ided w i th in ae a ch man ip le -ba r ra ck . T h i s m igh t e xp la in t h e a ppa r en t a b sen ce o f c en tu r ia l q ua r t er s a tt h e h ead o fb o th w ing s i nt h o se b a r ra ck so fR ow A w he r e t h e o ppo s ing w ing s h ave s u rv ived . T he j un io r c en tu r ion ( o r c en tur io p o s te r ior ) i n am an ip le m ay h ave b een s ubo rd ina t e t ot h ee x ten to fh av ing b een p rov ided w i th a c commoda t ion w h ich w a s n o t i na ny w ay c ompa rab le t ot h a to fh i ss en io r c o l league a nd w h ich i sn o t t h e r ef o r e r e cogn is ab le a ss u ch i nt h e a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd . T h i s h ypo the s is f i nd s s ome s uppo r t w hen t h e e v iden ce f r om t h e b a r r a ck s o f R ow B ( p r inc ipe s ) a nd R ow C ( ha s ta t i ) i sc on s ide r ed f o r t h e se b a r r a ck s a ppea r t o h ave b een l a id o u t f o r t h e m o s t p a r t w i th af u l lh em i s t r ig ium o ne a ch w ing ; t h u si ti sr e a sonab le t o a s sume t h a t t wo c en tur ie s w i th t wo c en tu r ion s w e r e p r e s en t i ne a ch m an ip le . I nt h e m an ip le -ba r ra ck s o ft h e se t r oop s t h e t wo o ppo s ing w ing s o r h em i s t r ig ia o f e a ch c en tu ry a r ec l ea r ly s e en i nt h eg round -p lan s( F ig .3 .13 ) b u t t h e p r e sen ce o f o n ly o ne i d en t if iab le c en tu r ia l b l o ck p e r m an ip le p e rhap s g i ve s as u r e r s i gn .

T he n umbe r o f c on tubern ia i n a s i de -w ing o f a m an ip le -ba r ra ck o ft h ep r inc ipe s ( Row B )m ay h ave v a r ied b e tween e i gh t a nd t e n a nd w a s p e rhap s d epend en t u pon w he the rc en tu r ia l q ua r t e r s w e r e p r e s en to rn o t . I nt h ec a se o f t h e h a s ta t i ( Row C ) , t h e n umbe r o f c on tube rn ia i na s i de -w ing w ou ld a ga in a ppea r t o b e m o s t o f t en b e twe en e i gh t a nd t e n . Whe r e n o o bv iou s c en tu r ia l q ua r t e r s a r e p r e s en t , s u ch a s i n t h e w e s t w ing o f B ar ra ck 2 , t h e h em i s t r ig ium c ompr ise s t e n c on tube rn ia . Whe r e c en tu r ia l q ua r te r s h ave b een c on s t ruc ted a tt h e h ead o f aw ing t h en t h is h a s b een a c comp l i shed a t t h e e xpen se o f t h e c on tube r n ia w h ich a r er e du ced i nn umb e rt oe i gh to rn i n e . T h is f o rmu la a ppea r s t oh o ld g ood f o r B a r ra ck 6o fR ow Cw he r e t h e n umbe r o fc on tuber r z ia i nt h e w e s tw ing w a s e i gh t b eh ind t h e c en tur ia l q ua r te r s a nd i n B a r ra ck 3 , p robab ly n i n e -a l so i n t h e w e s t w ing . H ow eve r , a r e du c t ion i nt h e d imen s ion s o fs ome o ft h e c on tuber n ia i s v i s ib le i nt h e p l an o fB a r ra ck 6 ,s om u ch s ot h a t n o ta l o f t h em m ay h ave h ou sed t r oop s .The n o r thern w ing o f B a r ra ck 1 h a s p e rhap s e i gh t c on tuber n ia b eh ind t h e c en tu r ia l q ua r te r s ( s e e F ig .3 .13 ) . C on tube rn ia m ay s ome t ime sh ave b een f o und i nt h eb u i ld ing sw h ich o ccu ra t t h er e a ro ft h ec ou r tya rd so ft h el e g iona ry i n f an t ry b a r r a ck s b u t o n ly p e rhap s i n t h o se c i r cum s tan ce s w he r e t h e c onven t iona l a r rangemen t o f p l a c ing t h e c en tu r ie s i n o ppo s ing w ing s s e pa ra t ed b y ac our tya rd h ad b een a l t e r ed t oa c commoda t e s ome s p ec ia l b u i ld ing .

O n b a lan ce t h e o ve r r id ing s en ior i ty o fj u s t o n e c en tu r ion , c e r ta in ly i n e a ch m an ip le o f t h e p r inc ipe s a nd h a s ta t i , w ou ld a ppea r t o b e r e cogn isab le i n t h e a r cha eo log ica l r ema in s o f t h e i r a c commoda t ion i n C amp I I a nd t h e c ommen t m ade b y V e i th ( K romaye r a nd V e i th 1 928 ,318 ) t h a t t h ep r ior c en tur ion w a s : . .K ommandan td e s G ranzen z u b e t rach ten . . . i sb rough t s ha rp ly i n to f o cu s . J un ior o f f icer s a ccommoda t ion T he t e rm j un io r o ff ice r i su s ed w i th s ome r e lu c tan ce i t b e ing as omewha ti mp r ec is et e rm ,p r inc ipa le s i so f f e r ed a s a n a l t erna t ive . T he i d en t if i ca t ion o ft h ej un io r o ff i ce r s ' o r p r inc ipa le s q ua r te r s i nt h e m an ip le -ba r ra ck s , l i k e t h o se o f t h e j un io r c en tur ion s , r ema in s e l u s ive . T h i s i sd e sp i t e S chu l t en 's c onv ic t ion t h a t s u ch o ff ice r s w ou ld o c cupy t h e s e cond c on tube rn ium o f e a ch s i de -w ing . T he r e i s n o e v iden ce w h ich w ou ld s uppor t s u ch a c l a im . S pec ia l c on tube rn ia ( S ch lußbau ten ) h ave b een r e cogn i sed i n

T he b a r r a ck s o f R ow D ( e qu i te s S oc iorum ) w ou ld a pp ea r t oh ave h ad an o rma l c omp lemen t o f e i the r t h r e e o r f o u r c on tube rn ia i n e a ch b a r ra ck b u t t h i s i n c lude s t h o s e c on tube rn ia w h ich m igh t h ave b een f o r o ff ice r s . T he n umbe ro fc on tubern ia i nt h es i de -w ing so ft h e b a r r a ck so f t h e a l ied i n f an t ry a ppea r s t oh ave o f t en e xceeded t w en ty a s b ef i t s t h e i r p u rpo se i n h o ld ing t h e g r ea te r n umb e r s a s so c ia ted w i th ac oho r to fa l ie s . T he r e a r r a nge so ft h e s e b a r r ack s , i nc on t r a s t t o t h e l e g iona ry i n f an t ry b a r r a ck s , p rov ided a c commoda t ion a nd f our te en c on tubern ia m ay b e c oun ted i nt h e r e a r r a nge o fB a r ra ck 8 .

b a r ra ck s f r om t h e I mpe r ia l p e r iod w h ich m ay h ave s e rved t h ep u rpo se o fp rov id ing a c commoda t ion f o rj un io ro ff ice r s ( Dav i son 1 9 89 ,34 ) . T he o n ly c l ea re xamp le o fs u ch s p ec ia l c on tube rn ia i nt h eb a r ra ck so ft h eR epub l ic o ccu r sa tC amp VR en ieb la s .

7 2

C A MPS

AT REN IEBLAS

N os t anda rd s i ze f o rt h el i v ing s pa ce w i th in ac on tubern ium

t h e e v idence f o r t h is m ay h ave b een v e ry e pheme ra l a nd

w a s a ppa ren t f o r a ny o f t h e c l a s se s o f t h e l e g ionary i n f an try o r t h e a l ie s w i th in C amp A s ar e su l t o n ly

t hu s n o te a s i ly r e cogn ised i ne xcava t ion . T he p o s s ib i l i ty o f c or ra ls h a s b een r a ised a s h a s t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t c e r ta in a r ea s w i th in t h e c amp m ay h ave b een f r ee o f b u i ld ing s a nd t hu s a va i lab le f o r t h e k eep ing o f l i ve s tock .

b road c ompar ison s c an b e m ade b e tween t h e c on tubern ia s i zes o ft h e v a r iou s d i f f eren t t r oop s . G ene ra l ly , t h e l a rges t c on tubern ia w e re f ound i n t h e b a r ra ck s o f R ow s K a nd D , t ho se b ar ra ck s w h ich a r e

L eg ion s t ruc ture

s u spec ted t oh ave h e ld c ava lry t r oope r s , t h e se c on tubern ia w e r ea l so d i s t ingu ished b y t h e ir g rea te rn umbe ro fi n terna l d i v is ion s o ve r t h o se f ound i nt h e i n f an t ry b ar ra ck s .

I th a s b een a rgued b y S chu l ten ( 1929 , p a s s im ) t h a t t h e b ar ra ck si nt h e n or thern p a r t o fC amp I I R en ieb la s h ou sed al e g ion p lu sa l l ied c on t ingen tw h ich w a sd i v ided i n to t r oop c omponen t s v e ry much a s t h a t d e scr ibed b y P o lyb iu s a nd t h a t t h e l e g iona ry i n f an try w e r e o rgan ised i n to m an ip le s .

C on tubern ia i n R ow s K a nd D u sua l ly h ad i n terna l d imen s ion s o fa tl e a s t 5 x5m . a nd m any w e r e i ne xce s s o f t h is . T h is c on t ra s t s w i th t h e b a r ra ck s o f t h e l e g iona ry

T he re i sn o r e a son t oc on t rad ic t t h a t v i ew a nd much i nt h e a r cha eo logy t os uppor t i t .

i n f an try w he r e , i nR ows B a nd C ( p r inc ipe s a nd h a s ta t i ) t h e l a rge s tc on tubern ia a r ea bou t5 x4m . a l though m any a r e s ma l le r a nd s ome p e rhap s t o o s ma l l t ob e c on tubern ia .

CONCLUS IONS

I n R ow E t h e b a r rack s o f t h e a l l ied i n f an try h ad c on tubern ia w i th d ep th s o f t en o fa bou t S m . b u t w id th s o f o f t en n o mo r e t h an 3m . s o w h i ls t t h e d ep th o f a

T he d e ta i led r e -eva lua t ion o f t h e r ema in s o f t h e b a r rack s

c on tubern ium w a s g ene ra l ly a bou t t h e s ame a s t h a t f ound i nt h e l e g iona ry i n f an try b ar ra cks o f R ow s Ba nd C t h e w id ths w e re c on s is ten t ly l e s s .T ho se c on tubern ia w h ich h ad b een d i v ided i nt h e b ar ra ck s o f R ow E s ha r ed t h e s ame r a nge o fi n te rna ld imen s ion sw h ich w e re r e co rded f o rt h ose w h ich w e re u nd iv ided e xcep t t h a t t h e i n te rna l d iv is ion

a tC amp I I a nd t h e a t ten t ion p a id t ot h e i r d imen s ion s h a s y i e lded s ome i mpor tan t r e su l t s . I th a s b een d emon s t ra ted t h a t t h eb a r rack s i d en t if ied w i th in C amp I I a r e much mo r e c omp lex i n t h e ir d e ta i l t h an t h e l a rge ly s imp l if ied a nd s c hema t ic p i c tu re w h ich h a sp u t f o rwa rd b y S chu l ten . T h is i sn o t t os a y t h a t at h eo re t ica l R oman ' b luepr in t ' f o r e a ch b a r ra ck t ype m ay n o th ave e x is ted b u tr a the rt h a ti n d iv idua l b a r ra ck s w e re a l lowed a c er ta in d eg ree o f c u s tom isa t ion w i th in t h es pa ce a va i lab le a sl o ng a st h eb ar rack c onf ormed t o i t s g ener ic t y pe a nd r e qu ired o r ien ta t ion . I n a s em i -permanen t s t one -bu i l t c amp s u ch a s R en ieb la s I t h er e i se ve ry r e a son t o b e l ieve t h a t a dd i t iona l f a c i l i t ie s

w ou ld h ave s l igh t ly r educed t h ea va i lab le f l oo r spa ce . T he c on tube rn iw n o f t h e c ava lry t r oope r , w he the r a l l ied o r l e g iona ry , w a s o n a ve rage l a rge r t h an t h a t o f t h e i r r e spec t ive i n f an try c o l league s w h i ls t al e g iona ry , o n t h e e v idence f r om C amp I I , c ou ld e xpec t t o s ha re a l a rge r c on tubern ium t h an a n i n f an t ryman o ft h e a l l ies .

w ou ld h ave b een d e s ired a nd r e qu ir ed o ve ra nd a bove w ha t m ay h ave b een n o rma l i n at e n ted c amp . T h is a ppea r s t o h ave f ound e xp re s s ion i n t h e b u i ld ing o f r oom s w h ich

N umber o ft r oop s i n ac on tubern ium A ny a t temp t t o d e term ine t h e n umbe r o f t r oop s i n a

s e rved ap urpo se o t he r t h an o rd ina ry c on tubern ia a nd t h e e mp loymen to fi n te rna lp a r t i t ion sf o rp r ivacy . T h is t o ge the r w i th t h e d i v is ion o f l i v ing a nd w o rk ing a r ea s p l u s t h e p rov is ion o fs t one -bu i l t t r ic l in ia a r e a l f e a tu re s w h ich a r e

c on tubern ium o fa ny o ft h e m a in i n f an t ry c l a s se s a nd t hu s t h e l i v ing s p a ce a l lo t ted t o e a ch m an w ou ld a lmo s t

v i s ib le t o ag rea te r o r l e s se r e x ten t i n a l o f t h e b a r ra ck r ow s . I n a dd i t ion , t h e i n d iv idua l m an ip le m ay , w i th in

c e r ta in ly l e ad t oe r ror . We h ave P o lyb iu s ' f i gu re s f o r t h e n umbe r o fm en i ne ach c l a s s o f i n f an tr y t r oop e xcep t f o r t h e v e l i te s ( Po l .V 1 ,21 ,9 ) b u t t h is i sf o r al e g ion u nde r l e vy a tt h e o u t se to fi t sc ampa ign . We h ave n o w ay o fk now ing w he the r t h e se n umber s w e r e k ep t u p i nt h e f i e ld a nd t h e n umber s o ft r oop s wh ich o ccup ied C amp I I i su nknown . I fC amp I I w a s i ndeed t h e c amp o f N ob i l io r t h en t h e

r e a son , h ave b een a l lowed ac er ta in a moun t o f l a t i tude i n t h ea r rangemen to ft h eb a r ra ck w i th in i t sa lo t ted p l o t . T h is l a t i tude m ay h ave b een a l lowed e ven g r ea te r e xp re s s ion d epend ing u pon t h e c l a s s o f t h e t r oop s c on ce rn ed a nd a ppea r s t oh ave f ound g r ea te s t e xp re ss ion w hen e x tended t ot h ec ava lry t r oop so fb o th t h e R oman sa nd t h e a l ie s a nd

l e g ion s w ou ld h ave s uf f e red c on s ide r ab le l o s se s b efo r e g o ing i n to c amp a cco rd ing t o A pp ian ( l ber ica I X ,47 ) .

t ot h e t r iar i i o f t h e l e g ion .

F u r thermo r e , i t h a s b een s hown t h a t a pa r t f r om t h e d i f f e r ing n umbe r so fc on tubern ia i nt h e m an ip le -ba r rack s ,

T he b a s ic l a you t o f av e ry o rde r ly t e n ted c amp w i th n ea t l i ne s a nd ac l ea r a nd u nc lu t ter ed s pace b e tween t h e m a jo r

t h e r e i sg r ea t v a r ia t ion i nt h e ir s i ze a nd t h u s i nt h e l i v ing s pa ce p rov ided a nd o n ly g enera l o b serva t ion s h ave b een p r esen ted o n t h e c u r ren t e v idence .

b a r ra ck r ow s w h ich c ou ld a c t a s as t r ee t ( v e ry m uch a s p re sen ted i n P o lyb iu s 's d e scr ip t ion ) i sc l ea r ly s e en i nt h e p l an o fC amp I I . I th a s a l so b een a r gued , f r om as t udy o f

S tab le s i n , o r a s soc ia ted w i th , i n fan try b arrack s

q ua r te r s o f t h e b a r ra ck s , t h a t t h e a r ea a va i lab le w i th in

N o e v iden ce w h ich w ou ld p o s i t ive ly i n d ica te t h e p re sence

t h e se q uar te r s m ay h ave b een v e ry s im i la r t o t h a t w h ich w ou ld b e e ncompa s sed b y ac en tu r ion 's t e n t . E ve ry th ing

t h e

d imen s ion s

o f t h e

l i v ing spa ce

o f t h e

c en tur ia l

p o in t s t ot h e p l an o f at e n ted c amp o f t h e p e r iod h av ing , e s sen t ia l ly , b een r e p l ica ted i ns t one i nt h e n or thern p a r t o f C amp I I .

o f s t ab les i sf o r thcom ing f r om a s t udy o f t h e r ema in s o f t h e i n f an t ry b a r ra ck s w i th in C amp I I . P a ck -an ima ls m ay h ave b een t e the r ed o r k ep tw i th in ad ef ined a r ea w i th in t h e c onf ine so ft h ec our tya rd so ft h e m an ip le -ba r ra ck sb u t i fs o 7 3

P ART I I CHAPTER 3 NOTES b een a s sumed t h a t t h e s urveyo r 's l i ne w a s i n t h e c en t r e o f t h e p a s sage m idway b e tween t h e o u te r b a r ra ck w a l ls .

1 T he r u in s o f t h e c amp s a t R en ieb la s a ppea r t o b e u nde r n o a c t ive g ua rd ian sh ip . 2 T he a c tu so f1 20 R oman f e e t ,a tt h e s t anda rd R oman

1 0 T he u s e o f t h e t e rm c oho r t w hen a pp l ied t o t h e a l l ie s s hou ld n o t b e c onfu sed w i th t h e s ame t e rm

f oo t ( pM = 0 .2957m ) h a s al e ng th o f 3 5 .48m . ( D i Ik e 1 971 ,82 ) .

w hen u sed o f ac ohor t o f t h e I mper ia l p e r iod ( a b ody o fs i x c en tur ie s o f l e g iona r ie s , c .480 m en ) . T he t e rm i n i t s R epub l ican c on tex t a nd a s soc ia t ed w i th t h e a l l ie s i sf o r ag roup ing o fa bou t 5 00 m en

3 S chu l ten r e f e r red t ob a r ra ck s w h ich e nc lo sed t h ree s i de s o f ac ou r tya rd a s ' Huf e i sen ' a s t h e ir s hape i n p l an s omewha t r e semb le s ah o r se shoe . T he t wo

( Kepp ie 1 984 ,22 ) .

w ing s w h ich f a ce e ach o the r a cro s s a n o pen c our tya rd i n ab a r rack o f t h is t ype a lmo s t c er ta in ly h e ld t h e t wo c en tu r ie s o ft h em an ip le , o ne o n e i the r

1 T he c ompo s i t ion o ft h e a l l ied c oho r t o fR epub l ican t ime s i s u nc lea r . K epp ie s t a te s t h a t e ach a l ied c oho r t w ou ld h ave c on ta ined t h e s ame e l emen t s a s

s i de , w h i ls tt h e b u i ld ing a tt h e r e a ro ft h e c our tya rd p rov ided s t o rage o r o the r f a c i l i t ie s . T he t wo f a c ing w ings a r e t h e d i rec t e qu iva len t o f t h e t wo f a c ing h em i s t r ig ia o f t en s e en i nt h ep l an so fb ar ra ck so ft h e

f ound i n al e g ion s o t h a t i tw ou ld h ave b een a l e g ion i nm in ia tu re ( 1984 ,23 ) . H oweve r , t h e l a rge b a r ra ck -b lock s w h ich a lmo s t c e r ta in ly h ou sed t h e t r oop s o ft h e a l l ie s i nC amp I I s ugge s t t h e f o rma l d i v is ion i n to c l a s se s w h ich i s a ppa ren t i n t h e l e g iona ry t r oop s d i d n o t e x tend t ot h e a l l ie s .

Emp ire . 4 C f . t h e a rgumen t p u t f o rwa rd i n s im i la r c i rcum s tan ce s i nr e la t ion t ot h e b a r ra ck s i nC amp V l a te r i nt h is w o rk .

1 2 S chu l ten 's n omen c la tu re f o r t h e r ow s o f b a r r a ck s a nd t h e i n d iv idua l n umber ing o f e a ch b ar ra ck i s

5 T he se d imen s ion s a r e t h e e qu iva len t o f t h e s qua re a c tu s o f 1 20x120pM . S chu l ten a rgued t h a t t h is w a s as t anda rd m ea su r emen tw h ich c ou ld b ep e rce ived i n t h e l a you t o fs ome o ft h e b a r rack s o fC amp I I .

r e ta in ed f o r c onven ience a l though s ome m ino r a d ju s tmen t s a r e m ade w he re t h is w a s t hough t t ob e n ece s sa ry ; w he re t h is h a s o ccur red e xp lana t ion i sg iven i nt h e t e x t .

6 N ob i l io r 's d ef ea t w a s c on s ide red b y t h e R oman s t o b e s o d amn ing t h a t f u tu re g ene ra ls w e re f o rb idden t o g i ve b a t t le o n t h e f e a s t o f V u lcana l ia u n le s s c ompe l led s o t od o ( App ian l ber ica I X ,45 ) .

1 3 D u r ing t h e c ou r se o ft h is p re sen t w o rk t h e f r on t o f at h ree s ided b a r ra ck -b lock w i l l a lways r e f e rt ot h a t s i de o f i t w h ich i n c lude s t h e o pen -f ron ted c ou r tya rd , t h e l e ng th w i l l a lway s r e f er t ot h e l e ng th o ft h e s i de -w ing s i n c lu s ive o ft h e ir o u te r w a l ls a nd t h e w id th w i l l a lways r e f er s t ot h e d i s tan ce a c ro s s t h e r e a ro ft h e b a r ra ck i n c lus ive o ft h e w id th o ft h e

7 I n t h e c amp o f ac on su la r a rmy , f r om a p o s i t ion l o ok ing o u twa rd s f r om t h e f r on t o ft h ep rae tor ium , t h e f i r s tr ank ing l e g ion w a sp l aced t ot h e r i gh t o ft h e

t wo s i de -w ings .

p rae tor ium , t h es e cond r ank ing s e cond t ot h el e f t . A t C amp I I R en ieb la s S chuhen b e l ieved t h a t t h e p rae tor ium f a ced w es t a nd t h a t t h e f i r s t r ank ing c on su la r l e g ion w a s t h e r efo r e t o t h e n o r th a nd t h e s e cond r ank ing c on su la rl e g ion t ot h es ou th ( 1929 ,64 f . )

1 4 T he t e rm c on tubern ium i su sua l ly a pp l ied t o as i ng le b a r ra ck r oom . I n t h e t e n ted c amp o f H yg inu s ( d e m un . c a s t . ,1) e i gh t g rega le s c on s t i tu t ed a m e s s -g roup a nd t h ey s ha red o ne t e n t . T he n umbe r o f m en s ha r ing a c on tubern ium i n t h e v ar iou s c l a s se s o fb a r ra cks i nC amp I I i sn o t k nown .

8 T he u se o ft h e t e rm v i ap r inc ipa l i s i s am isnome r i n a ny

a f u l l

d i s cu s s ion o f t h e R epub l ican c amp s o f t h e

s e cond c en tu ry B .C . T he p r inc ip ia , f r om w h ich t h e v i ap r inc ipa l i s t a ke s i t s n ame , w a s t h e h eadqua r te r s b u i ld ing i n al e g ionary f o r t re s s o f t h e I mper ia l

1 5 S ee v on P e tr ikov i t s ( 1975 ,55 -57 ) w ho a rgue s t h a t

p e r iod a nd i tw a s s epa ra t e f r om t h e p rae tor ium w h ich w a s t h e n ame g iven t ot h eh ou se ' o ft h e l e ga te o r t h e c ommand ing o ff ice r . T he p r inc ip ia h a s n o d i r ec t e qu iva len t i nt h e R epub l ican c amp w he re t h e

1 6 L a rge r oom s a t t h e h ead o f t wo b a r ra ck s w e r e

t h ey w e r e f o r a ux i l iar ie s .

r e co rded i nt h e p rae ten tura a tt h e f o r t o f K ün z ing a nd t h e se w er e t h ough t b y S chönbe rge r t o b e t h e a c commoda t ion f o r d ecur ion s i nb ar ra ck s p rov ided

p rae tor ium s e rved a sb o th t h ec on su l 's h eadquar te r s

f o r t h e t u rmae o f ac ohor s q u ingenar ia e qu i ta ta

a nd t h ea dm in is t ra t ive c en t r e . Af u l le re xp lana t ion o f t h e f unc t ion o f t h e t wo t y pe s o f b u i ld ings a nd a

( 1975 ,108 16 ) . 1 7 T ha t t h e q ua r te r s o f t h e o ff ice r s w e re s ome t ime s

c ompa r ison b e tween t h e b u i ld ing p l an s o f e ach i s f o und i nF e l lmann 1 958 , 8 9 -92 ) .

v e ry w e l la ppo in ted i nm i l i t ary e s tab l i shmen t so ft h e e a r ly Emp ire i nc ompa r ison t ot h o se o ft h eo rd ina ry s o ld ie r i s d emon s t ra ted b y t h e d i scove r ie s a t

9 Wher e c o r r ido r s o ccu r b e tween t h e b a r ra ck s i th a s 7 4

C A MPS 1 4 1 1 AT REN IEBLAS 2 9 T he c ommon s o ld ie r 's t e n t s ( pap i l ione s ) w e re ,

V a lkenbu rg w he re t h e o ff ice r 's q ua r te r s w e re i na d e tached b lock a nd w e re p rov ided w i th h ea r th s , w a sh ing f a c i l i t ie sa nd l a tr ine s( v an G if f en 1 950 ,p l an

a c co rd ing t oH yg inu s , 1 0x10 p ede s a nd t h e t e n t o f t h e c en tur ion t w ice t h is ( de m an . c a s t .1 ) . A t

8 ) .

C aw thorn t h e t u r f sc reen a round t h e t e n t p l a cemen t f o r a n o ff ice r ' wa s a bou t t wen ty f e e t s qua re . ' ( Mc In tyr e a nd R ichmond 1 934 ,63 ) .

1 8 S ome f i ne C ampagn ian p o t te ry w a s u nea r thed i n B ar rack 6 . T h is w a s t a ken b y S chu l ten t oi n d ica te t h e h igh s t anda rd o f l i v ing o f t h e o ccupan t s

3 0 D av ison ( 1989 ,37 ) f r om amuch l a rge r s amp le w a s

( 1929 ,71) . U nf or tuna te ly S chu l ten g i ve s n o f u r the r d e ta i ls a bou tt h is d i scove ry a nd t h ep rec ise l o ca t ion

u nab le t od i sce rn a ny s t anda rd c on tubern ium s i ze i n t h e l e g ionary b a r ra ck s o ft h e Emp ire .

o ft h e f i nd spo t i sn o t g iven . 1 9 F o r ad e ta i led p l an o ft h ea ux i l iary c ava lry b ar ra ck s a t D ormagen s e e Mü l le r ( 1979 ,27 -35 , T af .9 a nd T af .15 ) . 2 0 F o r f u r the rc ommen t o n t h e r ank ing o fc ava lry a nd o t he r t r oop s w i th in t h e R epub l ican a rmy s e e S uo lah t i ( 1955 ,21-29 ) . 2 1 I ti s w or th n o t ing t h a t a t Ma sada t r ic l in ia w e re r egu la r ly o b served w i th in m any o ft h e c on tubern ia o fC amp B ( R ichmond 1 962 ,146 ) . 2 I n t h i s p r e sen t wo rk l e ng th i n r e la t ion t o a c on tubem ium a lways r e f e r st ot h el e ng th f r om f r on t t o b a ck , s ome t imes r e f er red t o a s t h e d ep th . T he w id th a lway s r e f er s t ot h e w id th f r om s i de t os i de . A l l d imen s ion so fc on tube rn ia r e la te t ot h e i n terna l d imen s ion sa nd a r et hu se xc lu s ive o fw a l lt h ickne s s . E x terna lm ea su remen t so fc on tubern ia a r en o tg iven u n les s t h e t e x t s pec if ica l ly s t a te s t h a t t h is i st h e c a se . 2 3 E xcep t f o r af r agmen ta ry p i e ce o f w a l l ing n ea r B a r ra ck 1w h ich f i nd s n o p l a ce i nS chu l ten 's t e x t . 2 4 A r r ived a tb y d iv id ing t h e t h eo re t ica l 1 30pM l e ng th o f ab a r rack b y t e n a nd a l low ing 1 5pM f o r t h e w id th . ( S chu l ten , 1 929 ,74 ) . 2 5 T he p r io r i ty o f t h e m an ip le s i s e s tab l ished i n P o lyb iu s w he re t h ey a r e g iven i n r e la t ion t o t h e p rae tor ium ( V I ,27 ) . T hu s t h e f i r s t m an ip le w ou ld o ccupy ap o s i t ion n ea re s t t h ep rae tor ium . 2 6 T he t e n th o r ' l a s t ' man ip le w ou ld o ccupy ap o s i t ion n ea r t o t h e o u te r d ef ence s ( Po l .V I ,29 ) . T he s t ree t k nown a st h e v i a d ecumana t a ke s i t s n ame f r om i t s p o s i t ion a d jacen t t ot h e t e n th m an ip le s . 2 7 S chu l ten 's m e thod so fe xcava t ion w e re o f ten t ol o ad t h e s po i l c over ing t h e w a l ls i n to t h e i n te r io r o ft h e r ooms t h u s c r ea t ing mound s o f e a r th i n s ide w h ich w ou ld s e rve t o o b scu r e i n terna l f e a tu r e s s uch a s p a r t i t ion s . 2 8 B a r ra ck 2 , C on tubern ium 2 , e a s t w ing ; B a r ra ck 4 , C on tubern ia 3 a nd 4 i nt h e r e a r r a nge ; B a r ra ck 5 , C on tubem ium 1 , e a s t w ing . T he se l o ca t ion s a r e i n d ica ted b y as ma l l ' s ' o n F ig . 3 . 10 . 7 5

P ART I I : CHAPTER 3 A

F i g .3a .1 T he s ou th ea s ta nn exe o fC amp I a tR en ieb la s( a f te rS chu l t en 1 929 , P l an I V ) . S ca le 1 : 2500 7 6

P ART I I : CHAPTER 3 A

THE SOUTH -EAST ANNEXE AT CA MP I I RENIEBLAS I NTRODUCT ION T he r e cove red b u i ld ing s o ft h e a nn exe a l l c l u s te rc l o se t o i t s o u te r w a l l w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f B a r r ack 1 4 . T h i s i s p e rhap s n o t s u rpr is ing . T he h ead o f ar a v in e w h ich d rop s s ou thwa rd s f r om ap o s i t ion j u s ts ou th o fB a r r a ck 1 4w ou ld h ave m ade c on s t ru c t ion d i ff i cu l t i nt h ea r ea a d ja cen t t ot h e m a in c amp w a l l . T he f l a t te r g round , m o r e s u i tab le t o r e ce ive b u i ld ing s , i sr e s t r ic t ed t o an a r row s t r ip b e tw e en t h e e a s te rn e dge o f t h e r a v in e a nd t h e o u t e r w a l l o f t h e a nn exe . I ti ss i gn if i can tt h a t B a r ra ck 1 4i st h e l a rge s to fi t s t y pe a nd h a s a d i f f e r en t o r ien ta t ion ( a pp rox ima t e ly n o r th / sou th ) f r om t h eo t he r s w h ich a r e s ma l le r i ns i z e a nd w h ich l i e e a s t /w e s t . B a r r a ck 1 4 o ccup ie s ap o s i t ion a bove t h e h ead o f t h e r a v in e w he r e t h e g round i s mo s t f a vou rab le . T he s i ng le w e s t e rn w ing i sa bou t6 0m i nl e ng th a nd i s d i v ided i n to e i gh teen c on tube rn ia ; n o o ff i ce r s ' q ua r t e r s a r e r e cogn i sab le . T he e a s t ern w ing i sf o rmed b y t wo b a ck t ob a ck h em i s t r ig ia a pp rox ima te ly 3 9m i nl e ng th .

A n a nnexe o n t h e e a s tern w a l l o fC amp I I w a s s ugge s t ed b y S chu l t en t o h ave h ou sed a f o r ce o f I b er ian a ux i l ia ry w h ich h ad a c compan ied t h e l e g ion s i n s ide t h e m a in c amp ( S chu l t en 1 929 ,111-5 ) . H oweve r , i tw a s a r gu ed e a r l ie r t h a t , o n t h e a va i lab le e v idence , n e i the rt h e d ef en ce so ft h e a nn exe n o r t h e b u i ld ing s w i th in i tc an b e d emon s t ra t ed w i th c e r ta in ty t oh ave b een c on t empo ra r y w i th t h e m a in c amp a l though t h is r ema in s t h e m o s t l i k e ly i n t e rp r e ta t ion . THE BARRACKS OF THE ANNEXE T he a nnexe h ou s e s t h e r ema in s o f as e r ie s o f b a r r a ck s w h ich c ove r a n a r ea e x t end ing f r om a d i s tan ce o f o ve r 4 00m s ou th f r om t h e e a s t g a te o f C amp I I . Mo r e b u i ld ing s m ay h ave e x is t ed y e t f u r th e r s ou th b u t t h e se , a l ong w i th w h a tc an b e a s sumed w a s ac on t inua t ion o ft h e w a l l o f t h e a nn exe , w e r e r e po r t ed d e s t royed b y e a r l ie r a g r icu l tu ra l a c t iv i ty ( i b id . ,114 ) . I tw i l l b e s e en ( F ig .3a .1 ) t h a t t h e se b a rr a ck sd o n o ta ppea rt ob e l a id o u ti nt h e k i nd o fr e g imen ted w ay r e cogn i sab le i nC amp I I .

Al o ng h em i s t r ig ium ( 40m + ) c an b e s e en a l so i nB a r ra ck 6w he r e t h e n a tu ra l r o ck o u t c rop c u rve s t ot h e w e s t a nd t h i s w ou ld h ave a low ed t h i s b u i ld ing t o e x tend f u r the r w e s t t h an i t s n e ighbou r s . T he e l emen t s w h ich w ou ld b e f o und i n at h r ee s ided b a r r a ck w ou ld a pp ea r i nt h i sc a se t o h ave b een s p l i t u p i n to u n equa l p a r t s a nd p l a ced w he r e t h ey c ou ld b e s t f i ti n am ann e r s im i la r t ot h a t a dop ted f o r s ome o ft h e b a r ra ck s o fR ow E i nt h e m a in c amp .

T he b a r ra ck s c ompr ised t wo d i s t in c t t y p e s : f i r s t ly , t h o se w i th h em i s t r ig ia w h ich l a y o ppo s i t e e a ch o t h e r -t h e se S chu l ten b e l ieved w e r e f o r i n f an t ry , a nd , s e cond ly , t h o se w i th ag roup o fc on tuber n ia a r ranged a r ound t h r ee s i de so f ac ou r tya rd -t h e s e S chu l t en b e l ieved w e r e f o r c ava lry . T he f i r s t t y p e m u s t g en e ra te ac e r ta in a moun t o fi n t e re s t . I tw a s t h e se h em i s t r ig ia type b a r ra ck sw h ich S chuf t en s aw a s an ew t y p e w h ich f o r e shadowed t h e b a r r a ck s f o und a t t h e s i ege -camp s a t n ea rby N uman t ia d a t ing f r om t h e c ampa ign o fS c ip io i n 1 34 B .C . ( i b id . ,115 ) . ' S chuf t en p ropo s ed t h a t e a ch b a r ra ck o f t h e f i r s t t y pe c ompr ised t h r ee p a ra l le l h em i s t r ig ia u n l ik e a ny o f t h e b a r ra ck s i n t h e m a in c amp w he r e ar e a r r a nge o f t en c onn e c ted o ppo s ing h em i s t r ig ia i n a t h r ee s ided a r rangemen t ( i b id ., 1 13 -4 ) . H ow ev e r , a d i f f e r en t p e rmu ta t ion o ft h e t h ree e l emen t so f at h ree s ided b a r ra ck b l o ck w ou ld g i ve t h em am a rk ed ly d i f f e ren ta pp ea r an ce o n p l an . T he r e a rr a nge c ou ld h ave b een p l a ced p a r a l le l t ot h e h em i s tr ig ia i n s t ead o f a t r i gh t a ng le s t o t h em . F o r ced d ev ia t ion s f r om t h e a r rangemen t o ft wo w ing s a nd ar e a r r a nge i n t h e b a r ra ck s o f t h e a l l ied i n f an t r y w e r e n o t u nknown i nC amp I I . F o ri n s tan ce , i nt h en or th ern p a r to f t h e c amp t h e b a r ra ck s o f R ow E , o f t h e a l ied i n f an t ry , w e r e n o t a lway s a r ranged w i th t h r e e s i de s a r ound a c ou r tya rd i nt h es ame m anne ra st h el e g iona r y i n f an tr y . A l l o f t h e d epa r tu r e s f r om t h e p e rhap s m ode l a r r angemen t , a ppea r t oh ave b een t h e r e su l t o ft h e b u i lde r s h av ing b een f o r ced b yt h eh e av i ly u ndu la t ing t e r ra in t od ev ia t ef r om t h e i d ea l s c heme . T h is w a s a ch ieved b y f i t t ing s e c t ion s o f h em i s t r ig ia i n to t h e r e la t ive ly f l a t t e r a r ea s w he r eve r t h ey c ou ld b e s tb ea c commoda ted . S ome th ing o ft h e s ame k i nd m ay h ave i n f luen ced t h ed ep loymen to ft h eb a r r a ck s w i th in t h e a nnexe w he r e f l a t g round w a s a t ap r em ium .

7

T he s e cond t y p e o f b a r r a ck i d en t i f ied i n t h e a nn exe c on s is t ed o f as ma l ln umbe ro fc on tubern ia g roup ed a r ound ac ou r tya rd . S chu l t en o b se rved t h a t t h e b a r r a ck s a ppea r ed t oh ave b een p a i red ; e a ch b a r ra ck o f t h e f i r s t t y p e b e ing a d ja cen t t o o n e o f t h e s e s ma l l c ou r tya rd -ba r r a ck s . T h i s p a ir ing , S chu l t en s ugge s t ed , r ef l ec t ed t h e c omb ina t ion o f a n i n f an t ry a nd a c a va lry b a r ra ck c omp r is ing t h e a c commoda t ion r e qu i r ed f o r o n e c oho r t o f a ux i l ia r y t r oop s . ' S chu l t en b e l ieved t h a t t h e a ux i l ia ry t u rma a tt h i s p er iod w ou ld h ave c ompr is ed t h ir ty t r oop e r s . T h is b e l ie f w a s b a sed o n ad e c r ee w h ich l i s t ed t h ir ty n ame s o f a n I b er ian t u rma o f c ava lr y k nown a s t h e t u rma S a l lu i tana w h ich h ad d i s t ingu ished i t s e lf i n t h e s i ege o f A scu lum ( De s sau 1 955 ,Vo l . I I I ,pa r s . I I ,X l ) . S chu l t en w en t o n t o p ropo s e t h a t s u ch at u rma , i n c lud ing a l t h em oun t s , c ou ld h ave b een a c commoda t ed i ne a ch o f t h e s ma l l c ou r tya rd b a r ra ck s o r ' Huf e i sen , ' h e s t a t ed : Z u d i e se r g er ingen A nzah l p a s sen d i e k l e inen H uf e i sen , i nd e r en 8 10 R äumen 3 0 Mann m i ti h r en P f e rd en a l lenf a l l s P la t zf anden . ( S chu l t en 1 9 29 , 114 ) . S chu l ten o f f e r s n o e xp lana t ion o f h ow t h i s n umbe r o f t r oop e r s a nd t h e ir h o r se s c ou ld h ave b e en a c commoda t ed t o ge the r . Ac o r ra l r a the r t h an s t ab le s w ou ld p e rhap s h ave b e t t e r s u i ted t h e t y p e o f C e l t ibe r ian p ony w h ich w ou ld a lmo s t c e r ta in ly h ave b een e mp loyed b y S pan ish n a t ive a ux i l ia r ie s i fi tw e r e t h ey w ho h ad o c cup ied t h e a nn exe .

P ART I I : CHAPTER 3 , 4 I t s e em s c l ea r t h a t t h e c ou r tya rd -ba r ra ck s c anno t b e b a r ra ck s f o r at u rma a c commoda t ing m en a nd h o r se si nt h e w ay i nw h ich S chu l t en d e sc r ib e s ; t h e re i si n suff ic ien tr oom f o r t h e f o r ce w h ich h e s ugge s t s . A n a l t e rna t ive m igh t b e t h a t t h e c ou r tya rd -ba r ra ck s c ompr ised c on tube rn ia w h ich h e ld o n ly t h e t r oope r s o f at u rma a nd n o t t h e s t ab le s f o r t h e ir m oun t s ( c f . t h e s im i la r i n t e rp r e ta t ion p u t f o rwa rd e a r l ie r f o r t h e b a r ra ck s o f R ow K i n C amp I I ) . I ft h i s w e re t h ec a se t h en S chu l t en 's i n te rp r e ta t ion o fe a ch p a i r ing o fh em i s t r ig ia a nd c ou r tya rd -ba r ra ck b e ing f o r ac oho r t o f a ux i l ia ry m igh t m ak e s e n s e . A l t e rna t ive ly , t h e c ou r tya rd b a r ra ck s c ou ld h ave b een f o r o ff i ce r s . O ff ice r s ' q ua r t e r s a r e n o t r e ad i ly a ppa r en t i n t h e g round -p lan s o f t h e h em i s t r ig ia . I ft h e a nnexe w e r e a na ux i l ia ry e s tab l ishmen t t h e t r oop s m ay h ave b een c ommanded b y R oman o ff i ce r s o r b y n ob le s f r om t h e a ux i l ia r ie s n a t ive t r ibe , b o th o f w h ich m ay w e l l h ave r e qu i r ed s e pa ra t e q ua r te r s , b u t i t mu s t b e r e i t e r a t ed t h a t t h e e v iden ce w h ich l i nk s t h e se b a r ra ck s t oa ux i l ia r ie s i ss t i l l r a the r w e ak . ' NOTES 1 N o t eh oweve rt h a tt h et y pe o fb a r ra ck w i th o ppo s ing p a ra l le l h em i s t r ig ia m ay o ccu r i nt h e e a r l ie s t c amp i nt h e R en ieb la s s e r ie s t h a t o fC amp I . 2 T he p r ec i se n umbe ro fm en i n ac ohor to fa ux i l ia ry o f t h e s e cond c en tu ry B .C . i sn o t k nown a l though t h ey m ay h ave b een o rgan ised a l ong t h e s ame l i ne s a st h e a l l ied c ohor t s . 3 B o th R o ldän ( 1 974 ,23 -47 ) a nd G u i l len ( 1980 ,436 4 4 ) h ave w r i t ten o n t h e s ub jec t o ft h e e mp loym en t o f a ux i l ia r ie s b y t h e R oman R epub l ican a rmy i n S pa in a nd u pon t h e t y pe o f w eapon s t h a t t h ey u t i l ised . S chu l ten r e po r t ed n o s p e c ia l f i nd s o f w eapon r y o r n a t ive S pan i sh a c cou t r emen t s t h a t m igh t , a r guab ly , h ave s uppo r ted h i s c l a im t h a t t h e b a r ra ck si nt h ea nnexe w e r e f o rS pan ish a ux i l ia r ie s .

7 8

P ART I I : CHAPTER 4

THE SC IP ION IC S IEGE -CA MPS AT REN IEBLAS I NTRODUCT ION

THE S CIP ION IC S IEGE -CAMPS : t he b ackg round

I th a s b een d emon s t ra ted i nt h e p r ev iou s c hap t e r t h a t t h e b a r r a ck a c commoda t ion p rov ided f o r t h e l e g ion s a t t h e m id s e cond c en tu r y B .C . c amp o f R en ieb la s I I w a s l a id o u t i n aw ay w h ich c l ea r ly r e f le c t ed t h e m an ipu la r s t ru c tu r eo ft h e l e g ion a ta no rgan isa t iona l l e ve l . T he r ea r e g round sf o rb e l iev ing h oweve rt h a tt h el e g iona ry c oho r t( o r t h e p ro to coho r t o f t h ree m an ip le s o f t h e s ame c l a s s o f t r oop s ) m ay h ave b een i n c r ea s ing ly e mp loyed i n S pa in d ur ing t h e s e cond c en tu ry B .C . a s at a c t ica l u n i t . A d eve lopmen t o f s u ch a m agn i tude m igh t h ave b een e xpe c t ed t oh ave l e d t o ar e s t ru c tur ing o ft h e w ay i nw h ich t h e m an ip le s w e r e b r igaded a nd t h en ce t oc hange s i nt h e w ay i nw h ich t h e i r b a r ra ck s w e r e a r ranged .

Af t e r t h e S econd N innan t in e Wa r ( wh ich b egan i n1 4 3 B .C . ) h ad b een d r agg ing o n f o r n ea r ly n i n e y ea r s t h e R oman g ene ra l S c ip io A e tn i l ianu s w a s s e n t t oH i span ia C i t er ior w i th t h e e xp r e s s p u rpo se o f s ub juga t ing t h e N uman t in e s f o l low ing t h e f a i lu r e o f Man c inu s t oa ch ieve t h i s o b jec t ive . A pp ian t e l l s u s t h a t d ue t ot h e p r e s su r e o n m i l i ta r y r e sou r ce s S c ip io d i d n o t t a k e al e g ion w i th h im f r om R ome b u t c r o s s ed t oS pa in w i th a n a d h oc f o r ce o f v o lun tee r s n umbe r ing s ome 4 ,000 ( l be r ica X IV ,84 ) . O n a r r iva l i nS pa in S c ip io a dded t ot h i s f o r ce t h e r emnan t s o f Man c inu s ' l e g ion s . We a r e n o tt o ld o ft h e s t r eng th o ft h e s e l e g ion sb u tt h ey a r e l i k e ly t oh ave b een s omewha td ep le t ed f o l low ing a n umbe r o f e a r l ie r r e ve r s e s a ga in s t t h e N uman t ine s . T he m o ra le o ft h e s el e g ion sh ad a l so s u f f e r ed a s ac on s equ en ce o ft h e se d ef ea t sa nd S c ip io i sr e por t ed b y A pp ian t oh ave t a k en e x ten s ive a nd s t e rn m ea su r e si no rd e r t or e s to r e d i sc ip l in e ( i b id . ,X IV ,84 -86 ) .

C an a ny i n nova t ion b e r e cogn ised i n t h e a r cha eo log ica l r ema in so ft h ep e r iod i nS pa in ?S chu l t en ( 1 927 ,134 -5 ;2 13 ) c e r ta in ly b e l ieved t h a t h e c ou ld i d en t if y ac hange i nb o th t h e f o rm a nd t h e l a you t o f t h e l e g ion a ry b a r ra ck s w i th in t h e c amp s w h ich f o rmed p a r t o f t h e s i ege -wo rk s w h ich w e r e t h rown u p a r ound N uman t ia i n t h e w in te r o f 1 34 B .C . T he s i ege -wo rk s a nd t h e c amp s h ave b een , q u i t e c onv in c ing ly , a t t r ibu ted t o t h e R oman g ene ra l S c ip io . S chu l t en p e r ce ived t h ec hange si nt h ef o rm o ft h el a you to f t h e b a r ra ck s i n t h e se c amp s a s as i gn t h a t t h e r e w a s a t r an s i t iona l p er iod : .e ine r Z e i t d e s Ü be rgang s . ( i b id . , 135 ) , l e ad ing u l t ima t e ly t owa rd s t h e t ime w hen t h e c amp l a you t a nd t h e f o rm o ft h e b a r ra ck s w a s d i c ta t ed b y t h e d i v is ion o ft h e l e g ion i n to c ohor t s p rope r . S chu l t en a r gued t h a t t h e r ema in s o ft h e b a r r a ck s w h ich h e u n cove r ed a tC a s t i l le jo a nd t h o se a tt h ec on tempo ra r yc amp o f P eru R edonda b o th p rov ided e v iden ce o f a' n ew ' a r r angemen ti nt h e f o rm o ft h eb a r ra ck so ft h ei n f an t ry . H e s u gge s ted t h a t t h ey w e r e n o l o nge r o ft h e t h r e e s ided t y pe ( t he a r rang emen tw h ich h ad mo s tf r equ en t ly b een o b ser ved a tC amp I I a tR en ieb la s ) b u t i n s tead c omp r i sed o ppo s ing h em i s t r ig ia w i thou t a ny c onnec t ing r e a r r a nge ( S chu l t en 1 9 27 ,163 -4 ) . As im i la rc l a im w a sm ade f o rt h eb a r ra ck so f t h e e qu i te s R oman i a tP e t la R edonda ( i b id . ,20 1 ) .

D e sp i t e t h e se m ea su r e s i ts e em s t h a t S c ip io m ay n o t h ave r e s to r ed t h e l e g ion si nS pa in t o al e ve l w he r et h ey c ou ld b e f u l ly t r u s ted t op e r f o rm w e l l ( S imon 1 962 ,178 ) . T h i s m ay h ave b een o n e o f t h e r e a son s w hy S c ip io c ho se n o t t o e n coun t e r t h e N uman t ine s i n o p en b a t t le b u t t o e n c lo s e t h e i rs t rongho ld , N uman t ia , w i th in aw a l la nd t or e du ce t h e i n hab i tan t s b y f am in e . A pp ian r e por t s t h a t , a sw e l l a st h e w a l l w h ich e n c i r c led N uman t ia , S c ip io a l so e r e c ted s e ven c amp s a l ong t h e s i ege l in e s ( l ber ica XV . ,90 ) . T he r ema in s o fs e ven R oman c amp s h ave b een i d en t if i ed i nt h e f i e ld ( F ig .4 .1 ) a th i gh p o in t s a r ound N uman t ia a nd t h ey a r e k nown b y t h e i rm ode rn n ame sa sR a za , D ehe s i l la , A l to R ea l , C a s t i l le jo ( Camp 3 ) , T rave sada s , V a ldevo r rön a nd P e l la R edonda . Two f u r the r s ma l l r i ve r s ide c amp s w e r e c l a imed t oh ave b een l o ca ted b y A do lf S chu l ten a t Mo l ino a nd V ega a tt h e t wo p o in t s w he r e t h e R ive r D u e ro c r o s s ed t h e s i ege l in e s ( 1 927 ,232 -40 ) . A pp ian p rov ide s af i gu r e o f 6 0 ,000 m en f o r t h e t o ta l s t r eng th o f S c ip io 's a rmy , i n c lud ing n a t ive a ux i l ia r ie s ( I be r ica XV ,92 ) , b u t w e a r e n o t g i ven a ny b r eakdown o f t h e n umb e r s w h ich w ou ld f o rm t h e v a r iou sc omponen t so f t h is a rmy ( i . e . l e g iona ry , a l ied a nd a ux i l ia ry s t r eng th s ) . We a r e t o ld h oweve r t h a t t h e a rmy w a s p o s ted i n t h e f o l low ing m ann e r : 3 0 ,000 m en w e re a s s ign ed t og ua rd t h e w a l l a s am ob i le f o r ce a b le t o d ep loy w he r e n e eded , 2 0 ,000 w e r et ob ei np l a ce a l ong t h e l e ng th o ft h ew a l l a nd 1 0 ,000 w e r e t ob e k ep t i nr e se rve ( i b id . ,XV ,92 ) . H ow f a r a ny o f t h e se f i gu r e s c an b e t r u s t ed r ema in s h i gh ly q ue s t ionab le . ' I f A pp ian 's f i gu r e s a r e a nywhe r e n e a r c or r ec t t h en t h e r e se rve f o r ce , i fi tw e r e n o m o r e t h an 1 0 ,000 s t rong c ou ld w e l l h ave c on s is t ed o f l e g iona ry t r oop s a nd e xp er ien ced s o ld ie r s ( p e rhap s ac omb ina t ion o f t h e r emnan t s o f Man c inu s ' l e g ion s a nd t h e v o lun t ee rf o r ce w h ich h ad a c compan ied S c ip io f r om I t a ly )b u ti ti su n l ike ly t h a t w e s h a l l e ve rb e i n ap o s i t ion t od i s cove re xa c t ly h ow t h e R oman f o r ce w a s d ep loyed . F ab r ic iu s ( 1 9 11 ,379 ) t h ough t i t p o s s ib le t h a t S c ip io m ay h ave b a s ed h i s h eadqua r te r s a tR en ieb la so nt h e s ame s i t e a st h a tu s ed b y

T h ee xcava to ra l so b e l ieved t h a th ec ou ld i d en t if y m an ip le b a r r a ck s f o r l e g iona ry t r oop s a tP ef i a R edonda w h ich h ad b e en l a id o u t i n ac ohor ta l o rde r w i th t h e c ohor t , i nt h is i n s tan ce , c ompr is ing t h re e m an ip le s o f t h e s ame c l a s s o f t r oop s ( i .e . t h e p ro to -coho r t ) . T he a r cha eo log ica l e v iden ce r e qu ir e s d e ta i led s t udy i n o r de r t od e te rm in e w he the r t h e r ema in s o ft h e b a r r a ck s a t t h e se c amp s d o i n deed i n d ica t e at r an s i t ion b e tw een t h e ' o ld ' m an ipu la ra r rangemen t f o r t h e l a you to ft h e b a r r a ck s a nd t h e a r rangemen t i nc ohor t -b lo ck s s o w e l l k nown i n f o r t r e s se s o f t h e Emp ir e . T he q ue s t ion i sa mong s t o t he r s w h ich a r e a dd r e s s ed b e low . 7 9

P ART I I : CHAPTER 4

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1 000

P ena R edonda

2 000 me tre s

F i g .4 .1

T he S c ip ion ic c amp s , r i ve r s ide f o r t s , a nd s i ege -wo rk s s ur round ing N uman t ia ( af t e r S chu l ten ) . S ca le 1 : 20000

8 0

T HE S C IP ION IC S IEGE -CAMPS A T NUMANT IA p r ev iou s R oman g en e ra ls . A ga in s tt h is i tc ou ld b es a id t h a t R en ieb la s , a ta bou t s i x k i lome t r e s d i s tan t f r om N uman t ia , w a s t o o f a r a way t ob e e f f ec t ive i fs i ege o pe r a t ion s w e r e t oh ave b een d i r e c t ed f r om t h e r e a l though i tc ou ld h ave h e ld t h e r e s er ve f o r ce . A pp ian i se xp l ic i t t h a t S c ip io w a s h im s e lf i n at empo ra ry c amp c l o se t oN uman t ia p r io rt ot h e c on s t ru c t ion o ft h e s i ege l in e s ( App ian l b e r ica XV ,90 ) .

t h e c i r cwn va l la t ion w h ich h ad a v e ry r e gu la r d e f en s ive c i r cu i t . I tw a s l a id o u t a s ar e c tang le a nd t h e r e w a s e v iden ce f o r t wo t iu la p ro te c t ing t h e g a t e s o n t h e e a s t ern s i d e ( S chu l t en 1 927 ,230 1) a l though a t iu /um i s a l so k nown a tP eüa R edonda . T he r e a son w hy t h i s c amp a l on e o fa l t h e s i ege camp s s hou ld h ave a no r thogona lc i r cu i to f d ef en ce s i su n c lea r . A ny s u sp ic ion t h a ti tw a s al a t e rc amp t h an t h o se a s so c ia t ed w i th t h e s i ege i ss p ec if ica l ly d en ied b y S chu l t en ( i b id . ,230 ) . C er ta in ly , i ft h e r e w a s n o c amp h e r e d u r ing t h e s i ege i t s e lf t h en i tw ou ld h ave b een t h e o n ly a r ea o fh i gh g round a r ound N uman t ia w h e r e s u ch a c amp h ad n o tb een e s tab l i shed . T he c amp e n c lo s ed a na r ea o fa bou t6 ha . S chu l ten r e po r t s f i nd ing n ot r a ce so fi n t e rna l b u i ld ing s ( i b id . ,231 ) .

T he s i ege i sr e po r t ed b y A pp ian ( l be r ica XV ,98 ) t oh ave e nded w i th t h ec a p i tu la t ion o fN uman t ia a nd i t sd e s t ru c t ion a tt h e h and s o f S c ip io . Why t h e t own s hou ld h ave b een r a zed , e v iden t ly w i thou t t h e p e rm is s ion o f t h e S ena t e , i s n o t e n t ir e ly c l ea r ( s ee A s t in 1 962 ,153 -5 ) . S even m a jo r c amp s h ave b een i d en t if ied a s b e ing i n co rpo ra t ed i n to t h e s i ege l in e s a r ound N uman t ia . Two , t h o s ea tC a s t i l le jo a nd P eüa R edonda , w e r eb e l ieved b yt h e e x cava to r ( S chu l t en ) t o h ave h ou sed R oman l e g iona ry t r oop s . H e s t a t ed a l so t h a t d e ta chmen t s o f l e g iona r ie s o r I t a l ian a l ie s w ou ld h ave b een d ep loyed i na l l o ft h e o t he r c amp s , i n c lud ing t h e r i ve r s ide c amp a t Mo l ino ( S chu l ten 1 9 27 ,46 -7 ) , a nd t h e p r e s en ce , a s ar e qu i r emen t o f t h e c ha in o fc omm and , o fR oman o ff i ce r s a ta l o ft h e c amp s i sp e rhap s l i k e ly . I tmu s tb e n o t ed h oweve r t h a ta ts ome o f t h e c amp s o n ly t h e d ef en ce s w e re r e co rded a nd l i t t le a r cha eo log i ca l i n ve s t iga t ion h a s b een c a r r ied o u t i n t h e i n te r io r s , a to t h e r s t h e r ema in s w e r e t o o f r agmen ta ry f o r a ny p o s i t ive i d en t if ica t ion o fb u i ld ing t y pe .

V a ldevor rön T he c amp o f V a ldevor rön w a s p l a ced o n a n a r ea o f h i gh g round i mmed ia t e ly t ot h ee a s to fN uman t ia a nd a bou th a lf ak i lome t r e f r om i t( F ig .4 .1) . S chu l t en c a lcu la t ed t h e a r ea o f t h e c amp a s 9 ha . a l though t h e f u l l c i r cu i t o f t h e d ef en ce s w a s n o t l o ca t ed ( S chuh en 1 927 ,2 18 ) . T he o n ly i n t e rna l s t ru c tu r e s w h ich w e r e r e co rded w e r e as e r ie s o f w a l l s w h ich w e r e s ugge s ted t o b e a r t i l le ry p l a tf o rm s ( S chu l t en 1 927 ,2 18 -20 ) b u t t o o l i t t le s u r v ived f o r t h is i n t e rp r e ta t ion t o b e s e cu re . T he h i l l o n w h ich t h e c amp s t ood i st o day s u r rounded b y f i e ld s u nde r c u l t iva t ion a nd i sd i f f icu l t t or e a ch f o rt h a t r e a son . T he r e i sl i t t le t os e e a t t h e s i t e t o day a pa r t f r om t r a ce s o f w ha t m ay b e t h e d e f en ce s .

T ho se c amp s w h ich h ave n o t p rodu ced a ny d e ta i led e v iden ce f o r t h e b u i ld i tw s w i th in t h em a r e a sf o l low s :

V ega D ehe s i l la I n 1 907 S chuhen d i s cove r ed s ome w a l l ing c l o se t o t h e c on f lu en ce o ft h e R ive r s D ue ro a nd T e r a a t ap o in t w he r e t h e D ue ro , f l ow ing f r om t h e w e s t , w ou ld h ave c r o s sed t h e l i ne o f t h e c i r cumva l la t ion ( F ig .4 .1) . T he w a l l ing h ad m o s t ly b een d e s t royed b yt h er o ad l e ad ing o u tf r om G a r ray t oT a rde s i l la s . S chu l t en c on s ide red t h a t t h e r ema in s m igh t h ave b een t h o se o f ar i ve r s ide c amp , s e t u p , l i k e Mo l ino f u r the rt ot h e s ou th , t op r even ta ny r i ve r -bo rn ea c ce s s i n to N uman t ia ( 1 927 ,240 ) .

T h is c amp o c cup ied al a rge a r ea o ft h e h i l l w h ich s t ood o n t h e w e s t s i de o ft h e R ive r D ue ro f a c ing N uman t ia w h ich s t ood o n t h e o ppo s i te s i de o f t h e r i ve r ( F ig .4 .1 ) . T he d e f en ce s o ft h i s c amp w e r e m apped b y S chu l ten a nd i fh e w a sc o r r ec tt h en t h e c amp e n compa s sed a na r ea o f 1 4 .6ha . ( i b id . ,226 ) . S ome o ft h e d ef en s ive s t ru c tu r e o ft h e w a l l o f t h is c amp c a n s t i l l b e s e en t o day b u t i ti sd i ff i cu l t t o d i s t ingu i sh t h e b ona f i de w a l l r ema in s f r om l a te r f i e ld b ounda r ie s .

T he r ema in ing t h re e c amp s , t h o se a t C a s t i l le jo , P e i la R edonda a nd T rave sada sa nd t h e r i ve r s ide camp a t Mo l ino a l p rodu ced e v iden ce o f b a r ra ck s w h ich w e r e i n te rp r e ted b yS chu l ten a sh o ld ing v a r iou st y pe so fl e g ion a ry a nd a l ied t r oop s . T he se c amp s a r e d ea l t w i th i ng r ea te rd e ta i l i nt h e p age s w h ich f o l low .

A l to R ea l T he c amp o f A l to R ea l s t ood f u r the r t o t h e n o r th t h an D ehe s i l la b u to nt h es ame s i de o ft h er i ve r( F ig .4 .1) . L i t t le w o rk w a su nde r taken b y S chu l ten a tt h i sc amp a l though h e e s t ima t ed i t sa r ea t ob e a bou t 5 ha . ( 1 927 ,229 ) . T he c amp s t and s t o day i nw ha t i sa n a r ea o f l i gh t i n du s t ry o n t h e b o rde r s o ft h e m odern t own o fG a r ray .

CAST ILLEJO ( Camp 3 ) T he f l a t t o pped h i l l o fC a s t i l le jo , n ow k nown a sE lJ amön ( The H am ) , l i e s j u s t u nde r o n e k i lome t re n o r th o f N uman t ia , t h e a n c ien t C e l t ibe r ian s t rongho ld ( F ig .4 .1) . T he p r ox im i ty o fC a s t i l le jo t oN uman t ia m a rk ed i to u t a s as t r a t eg ica l ly a dvan tageou s l o ca t ion f o rs u c ce s s ive R oman o pe ra t ion s a ga in s t t h e N uman t ine s . T he r ema in s o f t h r ee R oman c amp sw h ich o ve r l ie e a ch o t he rw e r el o ca ted o nt h e s i t e b y S chu l ten ( 1 927 ) . L ike t h e c amp s o n t h e G r an A ta laya t h ey w e r e c on s t ru c t ed p r ima r i ly o fl i me s ton e

R a za T he c amp a tR aza s t ood i na n a r ea w h ich i sk nown t o day a s E l B adm ( F ig .4 .1) . I tw a s p o s i t ion ed a t t h e e x t r eme s o u the rn e nd o f t h e c i r cumva l la t ion a nd i ta ppea r s n o t t o h ave b een f u l ly i n terv is ib le w i th C a s t i l le jo a tt h e n o r the rn e nd -t h e h i l l f or t o f N uman t ia i t s e lf p a r t ia l ly b l ock s t h e v i ew . R az aw a se xcep t iona l i nt h a ti tw a st h eo n ly c amp o n 8 1

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P ART I I : CHAPTER 4 a l though ac on s ide rab le a moun to fs and s tone w a se mp loyed

ab a r rack b lock i s as i gn if ican td epa r ture f r om a ny th ing p u t

i n t h e c on s truc t ion o f C amp 1 . T he t wo c amp s w h ich p r e ceded C a s t i l le jo 3 a r e n o t c on s ide red h e re a s l i t t le o f t h e ir i n terna l p l an w a s r e cove red . T he f i na l R oman c amp o n t h e h i l l o f C a s t i l le jo i s u sua l ly r e f er r ed t o i n t h e

f o rwa rd b y P o lyb iu s . A l though o ne o r t wo b u i ld ing s , s u ch a s t h ep rae tor ium , a g ranary a nd a f ew b a r rack r ema in s c an b e i d en t if ied o n p l an w i th s ome c onf idence , i t w i l l b e s e en t h a t t h e

l i t e ra tu re a s C a s t i l le jo w i thou t i t s n umer ica l s uff ix . I ti s t h is c amp w h ich c an , w i th l i t t le d oub t , b e a s soc ia ted w i th t h e s i ege a nd f i na l o ver th row o f Numan t ia o r che s t ra ted b y

a l lo ca t ion o f t h e v ar iou s r ow s o f b ar rack s t o d i f f e ren t c l a s se s o f t r oop s o n t h e r e s to red p lan h a s l i t t le t o r e commend i ft h e p lan o f t h e r ema in s i ss ub jec t ed t oa ny

S c ip io i n 1 34 133 B .C . T he w e s tern d ef ence s , w h ich u t i l ised a b r eak i n s l ope o n t h e 1 040m . c on tou r , o ve r look ed a s t eep d rop d own t o t h e R ive r T e ra , a t r ibu ta ry o ft h e D ue ro . T he c amp w a s s omewha t i r r egu la r

d e ta i led s c ru t iny . C a s t i l le jo C amp 3 a s ac amp f or l e g ionar ie s a nd a l l ie s

i ns hape w i th f i ve d i s t in c t s i de s . I t sa r ea w a sc a lcu la ted b y S chu l ten a s7 . 35ha . ( 1927 ,p .189 ) .

I ti sn o t c l ea r w he the r C amp 3 a tC a s t i l le jo c ou ld h ave

T he o r ien ta t ion o ft he c amp

h e ld a lmo s t ac omp le te l e g ion i n c lud ing e qu i te s R oman i a nd ab ody o fe x t raord inar i i i ns em i -permanen tb a r ra ck sa s S chu l ten s ugge s t s o r t h a t i tw a s r e qu i red t od o s o . I ft h e

T he g ene ra l o r ien ta t ion o ft h e s t ree t s a nd b u i ld ing s w i th in

c amp w a s m e r e ly o ne c ompon en t i n t h e b e leaguer ing o f N uman t ia b y S c ip io t h en p a r t o ft h e l e g ion m ay h ave b een

t h e c amp wa s e a s t /we s t . I ft h e b u i ld ing c omp lex o n t h e w e s tern s i de o f t h e c amp h a s b een c or rec t ly i d en t if ied a s

o u t s ta t ion ed a to ne o ft h e o the rc amp s wh ich w e r e l o ca ted

t h e p rae tor ium t h en i tw a s f a c ing e a s t . ' T he b ar ra ck s h oweve rs howed t wo v a r ia t ion so na ne a s t /we s ta l ignmen t .

o n t h e s i ege l ine s a nd a ny a t tendan t c ava lry p l a ced w he r e i tc ou ld b e u sed t ob e s t e f f ec t . S chu l ten h im se lf i d en t if ied w ha t h e b e l ieved w e re l e g iona ry b a r ra ck s a tt h e s ma l l f o r t

T he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f or C a s t i l le jo C amp 3

o f Mo l ino o n t h e b ank s o f t h e D ue ro - a l though t h e g a r r ison t h e r e , i fl e g iona r ies , m ay h ave b een ad e ta chmen t

I tm u s t b e s t a ted a tt h e o u t se t t h a t S chu l ten 's s cheme f o r t h e l a you t o f C a s t i l le jo C amp 3 i s b a sed o n v ery f r agmen ta ry f i nd ing s . A c ompa r ison o f F ig .4 .2 , w h ich s how s t h ea c tua l r e cove red r ema in s , a nd F ig .4 .3 , w h ich i s af a c s im i le o fS chu l ten 's r e s to r ed p l an o ft h ei n ter io ro ft h e

f r om P e i la R edonda . T he r e a son ing b eh ind S chu l ten 's b e l ief t h a t C a s t i l le jo 3 mu s t h ave h e ld a s t rong f o rce w as b a sed o n h i s i d en t if ica t ion o ft h e c amp a s S c ip io 's h eadqua r t e r s :

c amp a nd w h ich s how s t h e b a r rack s a va i lab le f o r aw ho le l e g ion , w i l l i lu s t ra te t h ee x ten t t ow h ich r e s to ra t ion o ft h e p l an h a s t a k en p l a ce .

D ie s t ä r ke re B e sa t zung b e ze ichne t d en V or rang v on C a s t i l l e jo u nd d a s H aup tquar t ie r S c ip io s . ( S chu l ten 1 927 ,p .2 12 ) .

I n s ome c a se s e n t ire r ow s o f

b a r ra cks , s ome f o r i n f an try , o the r s f o r c ava lry , h ave b een r e s to red o n p l an f o r w h ich t h e r e i s n o e v idence w ha t soeve r . H ou se s f o r t h e t r ibune s a nd t h e p rae f ec t i a ppea r e ven t h ough n o t r ace o ft h em w a s d i scove red .

I tm ay w e l l b e t h a t S c ip io d id c ho se C a s t i l le jo a sh i s b a se , i to f f e red t h e b e s t v i ew o f Numan t ia , t h e s i ege -wo rk s , a nd t h e p l a in b eyond a nd i tw a s e v iden t ly c on s ide r ed s e cu r e

S ome o f t h e r ema in s c l ea r ly h ave t h e a ppea ran ce o f b a r ra ck s b u t n o t n ece s sar i ly i n t h e n umbe r s w h ich h ave

e nough f o r t h e p rae tor ium t o b e p l aced n ea r t o t h e s t eep s ided w e s te rn d ef ences . T he s i te h ad a l so b een c ho sen p rev iou s ly b y R oman c ommande r s a s t h e r ema in s

b een a lowed f o r b y S chu l ten . U n for tuna te ly , n one o ft h e r ema in s o ft h e i n te r ior o f t h e c amp a r e v i s ib le t oday a nd t h e f l a t topped h i l l o n w h ich t h e c amp s t ood w a s u nde r p l ough i n 1 989 . T he r ema in s v i s ib le i n 1 908 h ave

o f t h e t wo e a r l ie r c amp s t e s t if y . Wh i ls t t h e b a lan ce o f p robab i l i t ie s p o in t s t owa rd s t h e r e h av ing b een al e g ionar y f o r ce a t C a s t i l le jo C amp 3 n o c omp e l l ing r e a son h a s e me rged w hy S c ip io mu s t h ave r e ta ined a n ea r c omp le te l e g ion , i n c lud ing c ava lry , w i th in t h e c amp .

p r e sumab ly b een d e s t royed . C as t i l le jo C amp 3 a nd t he P o lyb ian c amp p lan F o r t h e p o s tu la ted d ep loymen t o f h i s p ropo sed l e g ion a t

A cco rd ing t oA pp ian ( l ber ica XV ,90 )S c ip io s ubd iv ided h i s o wn a rmy , t h a t i st h e a rmy e xc lud ing n a t ive a ux i l ia r ie s . I f

C a s t i l le jo S chu l ten t o ok t h e b a s ic P o lyb ian c amp ing o rde r f o ro ne l e g ion . T hu s t h e e qu i te s R oman ia r e f ound b ack t o

t h is w a s s o t h en w e m igh t e xpec t t h a t s ome o f t h e l e g iona ry a nd a l l ied t r oop s w e re d ep loyed t oo t he r c amp s

b a ck w i th t h e t r iar i i a nd s o o n f o r t h e r e s t o f t h e o the r c l a s se so ft r oop s( c f . F ig .4 .3 a nd F ig .1 .4 ) . T he re a r es ome

p l a ced o n t h e s i ege l ines .

s ub t le b u t i mpo r tan t d i f f e r ence s h oweve r b e tween S chu l ten 's r e s to red p l an a nd P o lyb iu s ' d e scr ip t ion . T he t e n

I tw i l l b e s e en i n t h e r e s to red p l an ( F ig .4 .3 ) t h a t w e a r e p r e sen ted w i th a p i c tu re o f t wo r ow s o f b a r ra ck s f o r t e n t u rmae o fR oman c ava lry a nd f i ve t u rmae o fa l l ied c ava lr y

m an ip le -ba r rack s o f b o th t h e p r inc ipe s a nd h a s ta t i a r e d oub led u p i nS chu l ten 's s cheme i n s tead o f b e ing i no ne l o ng

l i ne a s P o lyb iu s d e sc r ibe s

t h em

i n o ne r ow o f f i ve b a r ra ck s f l ank ing t h e g rana ry . T he

i n V I ,29 ,8 -9 .

c amp w a s t h e refo re s ugge s ted t o h o ld f i f teen t u rmae o f

S econd ly , t h e v i a p rae tor ia i ss ugge s ted t o s epa ra te t h e o ppo s ing h em i s tr ig ia o ff i ve m an ip le so ft h ep r inc ipe s . F o r

c ava lry w i th a l l t h e moun t s o ft h e se t u rmae s t ab led w i th in t h e b a r rack s . T he b a r rack s o f t h e e qu i te s R oman i a r e s hown o ppo s i te e a ch o the r a nd p o s i t ioned i ns u ch aw ay

s u ch am a jo r s t ree t t or un b e tween t h e t wo h em i s t r ig ia o f 8 4

THE SC IP ION IC S IEGE -CA MPS AT NUMANT IA t h a t h ad t h ey e x is ted i n r e a l i ty i t w ou ld h ave b een

e a r l ie s t k nown e xamp le o f ac ohor t -b lock o fs i x a s soc ia ted b a r ra ck sa nd t h eo n ly e v iden ce o n t h e g round o ft h e I t a l ian a l l ie s h av ing b een d ep loyed i n to b ar rack s i nt h is f a sh ion :

i mpo s s ib le f o ra ny n umbe ro fc ava lry t oh ave m anoeuv red i nt h e v ery r e s tr ic ted s pa ce o fo n ly 1 0 pM w h ich S chu l ten a l low s b e tween t h e o ppo s ing r ow s o f b ar ra ck s o n h i s r e s to red p l an . I t w i l l a l so b e s e en ( F ig .4 .3 ) t h a t t h e p o s i t ion o f s eve ra l o f t h e s ugge s ted c ava lry b a r ra ck s i s

F ür d ie se T e i lung d er i t a l i schen K ohor ten i n 3 Man ipe l i s t C a s t i l le jo d e r e r s te B e leg . ( i b id . ,206 ) .

u nf avou rab le , t h ey a r es hown w i th t h e ir c our tya rd so pen ing f a r t oc l ose t ot h e d ef en ces . I no rder t of i t i nt h e n umbe r s o f l e g iona ry i n f an t ry w h ich h e r e qu ired a tC a s t i l le jo f o r af u l l l e g ionary c omp lemen t i t w a s n ece s sar y f o r S chu l ten t o d oub le u p t h e i n f an t ry b a r ra ck r ow s a nd t o a s sume t h a t t h e se b a r ra ck s h ad o ccup ied s qua re s o f8 0x8OpM . T he m ea su remen t o f8 0p M

U nf o r tuna te ly , o n ly o ne p a r t o ft h e r e a r w a l l o f ab u i ld ing ( 1 3 ' ) s urv ived a nd t h ee n t ir e p ropo s i t ion i s ac on jec tu r e o n S chu l ten 's p a r t . E v idence f or t hree s ided b arracks a tC a s t i l le jo C amp 3

w a s t h e a pp rox ima te w id th a c ro s s a m an ip le -ba r rack i n c lu s ive o f t h e w id th o f b o th t h e h em i s t r ig ia a nd t h e c ou r tya rd o r s t r ee t . T here i sn o e v idence o n t h e g round h oweve rt os how t h a t t h eb a r rack s , i n terpr e ted b y S chu l ten

Ac on s ide rab le p a r t o f t h e f ounda t ion s o f t h e e a s t w ing ,

a s b e ing f o r l e g ionary i n f an try , w e re l a id o u t i n s qua re p l o t s w i th t h e l e ng th o f t h e h em i s tr ig ia a l so a s 8 0p M . O the r m an ip le -bar rack s w i th in t h e c amp w e re c l ea r ly w i th in r e c tangu la rp lo t sw i th t h el e ng th e xceed ing t h ew id th b y ar a t io o fa lmo s t 2 : 1 , a l though S chu l ten b e l ieved t h a t t h e se w e re n o t i n f an try b u t c ava lry b a r ra ck s . S chu l ten p e rhap s b a sed h i s a s sump t ion o n P o lyb iu s w ho s t a te s t h a t t h et e n t so ccup ied b yt h em an ip le so ft h el e g iona ry i n f an try t o ok t h e f o rm o f as qua re ( Po l .V 1 ,28 ,3 )a nd h eh ad h im se lf e xcava ted s qua r e b a r rack s a tR en ieb la s . L e s s c ha r i tab ly , a s qua re b a sed o n 8 0p M a l lowed S chu l ten t o r e s to re t h e r e qu ir ed n umbe r o f b ar ra ck s ( twen ty ) f o r a f u l l c omp lemen t o f t e n man ip le s o f b o th t h e h a s ta t i a nd t h e p r inc ipe s o n h i s r e s to red p l an ( F ig .4 .3 ) .

p a r t o ft h e n or th w ing a nd ap a r t o f w ha t a ppea r s o n p l an t ob e aw e s tw ing o fB a r ra ck 1 8 w er ee xcava ted ( F ig .4 .4 ) . T he e a s t w a l l o f t h is b a r rack ( wh ich w a s a t l e a s t 4 1m .c . 138pM -i n l e ng th ) m ade a r e tu rn a t i t s n o r thern e nd w h ich a ppea r s t oh ave p rov ided t h e r e a r w a l l f o r an or th r ange . T he p a r t ia l s u rv iva l o ft h ew e s t w ing w ou ld s e em t o c onf irm t h a t t h e b a r ra ck w a s a r ranged w i th t h r ee s i de s s u r round ing ac our tya rd w h ich o pened t o t h e s ou th . T he w id th o ft h e b ar rack , o b ta inab le o n ly i no ne s hor t s e c t ion , w a s 2 4m . o rj u s t o ve r 8 0pM . O f t h e f i ve p o s s ib le b a r rack s i n t h e e a s tern p a r t o f t h e c amp ( No s .11 , 1 3 , 1 4 , 1 5 , a nd 1 6 ) , t wo , N o s .11 a nd 1 6 , p roduced o n ly af ew f r agmen ta ry f ounda t ion s . P a r t s o ft h e s i de -w ing s a nd r e a r r a nge s o f t h e o the r t h r ee , N umbe r s 1 3 15 , w e re h oweve r s ucce s sfu l ly u ncove red a nd t h e ir f o rm d oe s a ppea r t o c onf i rm t h e ir i n terp r e ta t ion a s b a r ra ck s w i th t h ree s i de s s e t a round a c our tya rd . T he s ou thern w ing o fB a r ra ck 1 4 w a s f ound t ob e a tl e a s t 4 0m . i nl e ng th w h ich i sc l o se t o 1 36pM a nd i sa pp rox ima te ly t h e s ame l e ng th a st h e s urv iv ing e a s t w a l l o f B a r ra ck 1 8 . T he w id th o f t h e se b ar ra ck s i s mo re d i ff i cu l t t o e s tab l ish . A l though s ome c or r ido r s b e tween t h e b a r ra ck s c an b e o b ser ved o np l an t h e re i sn o ts uff ic ien te v iden ce t op rov ide

C lea r ly t h e r e s tored p l an mu s t b e r e jec ted . When d i s cu s s ing t h ep l an o fC a s t i l le jo K epp ie d raw st h ea t ten t ion o f h i s r e ade r s t owa rd s t h e a c tua l r ema in s ( 1984 ,50 ) . Whe the r t h o se r ema in s o fb a r rack s w e r e f o r l e g iona ry o r o t he r t r oop s s t i l l r e qu ire s t ob e d e term ined . E v idence f o rt he a rrangemen t o f man ip le -barrack s i n to c ohor t b lo ck s

a c l ea r

I tw ou ld b eo fs ome s i gn if icance i fw ec ou ld c ha r t , b y w ay o f t h e a r cha eo log ica l r ema in s , t h e f i r s t a ppea ran ce i n a R epub l ican c amp o f ac oho r t -b lock i . e . ab l ock o f s i x c en tu r ia l b a r r a ck s wh ich w e r e c l ea r ly i na s soc ia t ion -t h is i st h e a r rangemen t wh ich i sc ommon ly f ound i nf o r t re s ses o f t h e Emp i r e . S uch a d i scovery w ou ld g o al o ng w ay t owa rd s s uppor t ing t h e v i ew t h a t t h ec oho r t w a se mp loyed

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c on tubern ia o fb o th t h e s i de -w ing s a nd t h e r e a r r a nge s o f t h e se b ar rack s s how t h a t t h ey w e re d iv ided ; t h ed i v is ion o f t h e c on tubern ium i nt h e b a r ra ck s o ft h is c amp i sd ea l t w i th i ng rea te r d e ta i l b e low . I nt o ta l , o n ly f ou r b a r ra ck s o ft h e t h r ee s ided t ype c ou ld b e c onf i rmed w i th in C a s t i l le jo . T he t hree s ided b arrack s a s b arrack s f or c ava lry S chu l ten p ropo sed t h a t a l l o f t h e t h ree s ided b a r ra ck s w h ich c ou ld b e i d en t if ied w i th in C amp 3w e r e f o r c ava lr y a nd h e p ub l ished a s t y l ised s c heme f o r ac ava lry b a r ra ck b a sed o n e v idence t a ken f r om d i f f er en t s u rv iv ing b a r ra ck s w i th in t h e c amp ( 1927 ,T af .24 ,3 ; r e p roduced h e re a s F ig .4 .5 ) . 3T he f r on t o ro u te r r oom s o fe a ch c on tube rn ium a r e s a id t o b e s t ab le s w i th t h e r e a r o r i n ne r r oom s a c t ing

a nd b ecame o f i n crea s ing i mpor tan ce i nS pa in i nt h e l a s t c en tur ie s B .C . F o r C a s t i l le jo C amp 3 S chuf t en s t a ted : . .h ier . .f inden w ir 6 Man ipe l = 2K ohor ten i n 6 Man ipe l ka sernen . ( 1 927 ,206 ) .

a st h ep ap i l ione s o r l i v ing rooms f o r t h e t r oope r s . T ho se m an ip le -ba r rack s w h ich S chuf t en t h ough t c on s is ted o f t wo p a i red a nd o ppo s ing h em i s t r ig ia , w e r e n umbe red 1 2 '1 7 ' o n t h e r e s to red p l an ( F ig .4 .3 ) a nd w e r e a l loca ted

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8 5

P ART I I : CHAPTER 4

F i g .4 .4 P l an o ft h e r ema in s o fB a r r a ck 1 8a tC a s t i l le jo ( a f t e r S chu l ten 1 9 27 , P l an X XX I 1 ,1 ) . S ca le 1 : 200

8 6

THE S C IP ION IC S IEGE -CA MPS AT NUMA IVT IA

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8 9

P ART 1 1 : CHAPTER 4 b y t h e p l an o f t h e r ema in s o f B a r ra ck 3 w he r e t h e o ppo s ing h em i s t r ig ia w e r ef ound t ol i eo ne i the rs i d eo ft h e g r ave l led a r ea ( s ee F ig .4 .6 ) .

p roof p o s i t ive w a s f o r thcom ing t h a t t h e se b a r ra ck s h ad e ve ra c commoda t ed h o r se s . T he c on tubern ia i nt h e t h r ee s ided b a r ra ck s s how n on e o f t h e s pec ia l isa t ion o f d e s ign w h ich c an b e a s soc ia t ed w i th t h e b a r ra ck s f o r c ava lr yt r oope r sa tR en ieb la sC amp I Ia nd t h ec on tube rn ia

T he p a t chy s u rv iva l o ft h ea r chaeo logy a tC a s t i l le jo C amp 3m ak e sc e r ta in t ie s i mpo s s ib le b u t i td oe s s e em l i k e ly t h a t b o th t h r e e s ided a nd h em i s tr ig ia t y p e b a r ra ck s c ou ld h ave b een f o und t h e r e a l ong s ide e a ch o t h e r .

w i th in t h em d i f f e ri nn om a rk ed w ay f r om t h ec on tuber n ia f o und i n o t he r b a r r a ck s a tC a s t i l le jo . O n t h e se g round s a l on e t h e r e i s n o g ood r e a son f o r b e l iev ing t h a t t h e b a r ra ck s w h ich S chu l ten h ad i n terp r e ted a s c ava lr y b a r r a ck s w e r e a ny th ing o t he r t h an b ar rack s f o r i n f an t ry t r oop s a nd t h e d i v is ion o ft h e c on tubern ia m ay h ave b een i n to p ap i l io a nd a rma r a the r t h an p ap i l io a nd s t ab le .

C ompar i son b e tween t he b arrack sa nd t he t en ts t r iga a s d e scr ibed b y H yg inu s S chu l t en p r odu ced ah i gh ly s t y l i sed v e r s ion o f t h e l a you t f o r am an ip le -ba r ra ck b a sed o n t h o se b a r ra ck s w h ich h e c on s ide r ed w e r e f o r l e g iona ry i n f an t r y a nd w h ich h e

E v idence b ar rack s i nr ow s ( s t r igae ) a t C a s t i l le jo

b e l ieved w e re l a id o u t i n s t r igae ( 1927 ,T af .24 .1 , r e p rodu ced h e r ea sF i g .4 .8 ) . T he m an ip le -ba r r a ck i ss hown w i th t wo o ppo s ing h em i s t r ig ia s e pa r a ted b y ac ou r tya rd . E a ch h em i s t r ig ium h a s s e ven c on tube rn ia w i th e a ch

B a r ra ck s 1 10 w e r e t h ough t b y S chu l ten t ob e p a r t o ft h e a c commoda t ion p rov ided f o r t h e t h r ee m a jo r i n f an try c l a s se so ft h el e g ion ( 1927 ,200 ) . N oc omp le t eb a r r ack -p lan w a s r e cove r ed a nd i ti su n c lea r w he the r t h e w a l ls w h ich w e r e p l ann ed t r u ly r e p re s en t t h e r ema in s o f t e n c omp le t e m an ip le -ba r r a ck s - S chu l ten 's n umber ing s y s t em i s h ow eve r r e ta in ed f o r e a se o f r e f e r ence . P a r t s o f B a r r a ck s 2 , 3 a nd 5a pp ea r t oh ave b een d i v ided i n to c on tuber n ia ; l i t t le r ema in ed o ft h eo t he r s( F ig .4 .6 ) . O nt h er e s to r ed p l an S chu l ten h a s t h e se b a r r a ck s a r ranged i nl o ng s t r igae w i th t h eo ppo s ing h em i s t r ig ia o fe a ch b a r ra ck p l a ced e nd t oe nd ( F ig .4 .7 ) . I nt h i sa r rangemen tt h e r ei sn op l a ce f o rt h er e a r r a ng e w h ich l i nk ed t h e t wo w ing s o ft h e t h r ee s ided t y p e o f b a r r a ck -b lock . T he c our tya rd s a r e i n t h is c a se s a id t o r un t o ge the r p rodu c ing , i ne f f ec t , as t r ee t w h ich r a n t h e e n t i r e l e ng th o ft h e b a r ra ck r ow .

c on tube r n ium d i v ided i n to ap ap i l io ( l iv ing a nd s l eep ing r o om )a nd a na rma ( b aggage r oom ) . I na dd i t ion , o n eo ft h e h em i s t r ig ia i ne a ch p a i ri sp rov ided w i th as e t o fs t a l l s f o r p a ck -an im a l s w h ich r un s a l ong i t s f r on tage . T h is a r rangemen t i ss im i la r i nm any r e sp e c t s t ot h a t d e s cr ibed b yH yg inu si nh i sd em un i t ion ibu sc a s t ror um f o rt h el a you t o f ad oub le r ow o ft e n t sa c commoda t ing t wo c en tu r ie s( c f . F i g s .4 .8 u pp e r a nd l ow e r ) a nd S chu l t en d r aw s d i r e c t c ompa r ison sb e tween t h es c heme g i ven b yH yg inu sa nd t h e b a r ra ck s w h ich h e i d en t if i ed f o r i n f an t ry a t C a s t i l le jo ( i b id . ,203 ) . S u ch d i r e c t c ompa r ison s b ea r r e -exam ina t ion .

. .auf d i e se W e i se b i lde ten d i ea ne inande r s toßend en H öf e d ur ch lauf end e L age r s taßen . . . ( i b id . ,20 1 ) . T he r e s to ra t ion o f t h e p l an h e r e i sl e s s t h an c onv in c ing . A pa r t f r om t h e f a c t t h a t s o l i t t le s u rv ived t ob e r e co rded i t w i l l b e s e en b y c ompa r ison o fF i g .4 .6 w i th F ig .4 .7 t h a t a w a l l w ou ld h ave p r even ted t h em ino re a s t -we s ts t r ee tf r om e me rg ing w e s twa rd s f r om B a r ra ck 7i nt h e w ay i lu s t ra ted o n t h e r e s to r ed p l an ; a n a l t erna t ive a r rangemen t s e em s l i ke ly . O n t h e o t he r h and S chuf t en m ay b e c or r ec t i nh i s b e l ief t h a t t h e s t r ee t r unn ing w e s t t oe a s t d i r ec t ly o ppo s i t e t h e b u i ld ing w h ich h e i d en t if ied a st h ep rae tor ium w a s t h e v i ap rae tor ia . We m igh te xpe c t am a jo rs t r ee tt oh ave b een i nt h i s p o s i t ion r unn ing a pp rox ima t e ly t h rough t h e c en t r e o f t h e c amp a nd t h u s o f f e r ing a p a s sage t o ag a t e s omewhe r e i nt h ee a s t w a l l a nd t ot h e g en t le rs l ope s t ot h e e a s t ern e x t e r io ro ft h ec amp , a ny a c ce s s t ot h e w e s t w ou ld n o t h ave b een v i ab le g i ven t h e s t eep d rop d own t o t h e R ive rT e r a f r om t h e c amp 's w e s tern d ef en ce s . P a r t o ft h i s s t r ee tw a sl a id w i th g r ave l ( i b id . ,203 )a nd t h i ss ugge s t st h a t i tw a s o f s u f f ic ien t i mpo r tan ce t o h ave m er i ted w ha t a pp ea r s t oh ave b een s p e c ia l t r ea tmen t . I ft h i s s t r ee t w a s a m a jo r r o u t e t h rough t h e c amp t h en t h e b a r ra ck s f l ank ing e i the r s i de o f i tm u s t o f n e ce s s i ty h ave b een a r r anged s o t h a t t h ey d i d n o t p r e sen t a ny b a r r ie r t ot h is t h o roughf a r e . T he a r rangemen t h e r e a ppea r s t o h ave b een b a r ra ck s i n . v t r igae l a id p a ra l le l t ot h e s t r ee t . T h is p i c tu r ei ss uppo r t ed

9 0

F i r s t ly , H yg inu s , s ome t ime s r e f e r r ed t o a s P s eudo H yg inu s , w a s a ppa r en t ly w r i t ing o ft h e I mpe r ia l a rmy o n c ampa ign a nd , c e r ta in ly , s ub p e l l ibu s .4H ow eve r , t h e t i me s pan w h ich s e pa ra t e s t h e b a r ra ck s a tC a s t i l le jo f r om t h e w r i t ing s o fH yg inu s s aw , am a jo r c hange i nt h e n umb e r s w h ich c on s t i tu t ed t h ec en tur ia . T he c e n tur ia o ft h es e cond c en tu ry B .C . w ou ld , b y a c cep t ing P o lyb iu s ' f i gu r e s a s c or r e c t , h ave b oa s ted 6 0 m en a t f u l l s t r eng th i n m o s t c l a s s e so ft h ei n f an t ry ( Po l .V 1 ,2 1-24 )a l though t h is n umbe r m ay h ave b e en i n c r ea sed i fn umbe r s o f t h e v e l i t e s w e r e a lo ca t ed t o e a ch c en tur ia ( Po l . V I ,24 ,3 ) . I n t h e l a t e r r e o rgan i sed l e g ion o ft e n c oho r t s t h e n umb e r i sg en e ra l ly a g r eed b y m od e rn c ommen ta to r s t oh ave b een i n c r ea s ed t o 8 0 m en i n ac en tu ry . ' F rom t h e b a r ra ck s w h ich S chu l ten n umbe red 1 10 a t C a s t i l le jo ,o n ly B a r r a ck s2 5s u r v ived i ns u ff i c ien td e ta i lt o b e r e cogn i s ed a s h av ing d i s t inc t c on tubern ia a nd n o c omp le te h e r n i s t r ig ium w a s r e cove r ed i n p l an . C on s equen t ly t h e n umbe r o f c on tube r n ia i n a ny o n e o f t h e se b a r r a ck s r ema in s u nknown . I nH yg inu s ' s c heme ( d em un .ca s t . , 1 ) t h ec en tu r ion 's t e n ti s f o und a tt h e h ead o ft h e h em i s t r ig ium a nd i to ccup ie s t h e s p a ce t a ken b y t wo o rd ina ry t e n t s ; t h e r ea r ee i gh to r d ina ry t e n t s e a ch o f w h ich h o ld s at e n t -pa r ty k nown a s a c on tube rn ium ( F ig .4 .8 ) . T he s ame t e rm c on tube r n ium ' i s a l so a pp l ied t o as i ng le u n i t o f a c commoda t ion i n a b a r ra ck .

THE S C IP ION IC S IEGE -CA MPS AT NUMANT IA

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P ART 1 1 : CHAPTER 4 Wh en d i s cu s s ing B a r ra ck s 1 10 S chu l t en s t a t ed t h a t :

t o ta l a r ea o f 9 x10 p ed e s i st h u s f r a c t iona l ly s ma l le r t h an t h e a r ea o f t h e p ap i l io . I n o n e o r t wo i n s tan ce s , i n B ar r a ck s2 5 ,t h e r ei se v idence f o rc on tubern ia w i th at h ird r oom i n ap o s i t ion i nf r on t o fw ha t c ou ld b e t a ken f o r t h e a rma . S chu l ten w a s o ft h e o p in ion t h a t t h e se t h i rd r o om s w e r e t h e r ema in s o fs t ab le s ( 1927 ,20 3 ) a nd i nh i s s c heme f o r am an ip le -ba r ra ck , h e r e s to r ed ar ow o fs t ab le s a l ong t h e f r on tage o f o ne o f t h e h em i s t r ig ia ( s ee F ig .4 .8 ) . N o c omp le t e e xamp le o f ap u ta t ive s t ab le w a s f ound a nd i ti s c l ea rt h a tt h ee v iden ce o n t h e g round w a s t o o i n con c lu s ive t oj u s t if y ab e l ief t h a t s t ab le s w e r e p r e sen t ; at e ther ing p l a ce f o r b aggage -an ima ls a k in t oH yg inu s ' d e s c r ip t ion i s p e rhap s m o r e o f ap o s s ib i l i ty .

V on d en 7( s ic ) C on tube rn ien d e r C en tur ie k önn ten h i e r 5a uf d i e 3 0 ( s ic ) Mann , j e d a s e r s t e Z e l t a uf d en C en tur io , d a s z w e i te a uf d i e b e id en a nde ren C harg ie r t en g ekommen s e in . ( S chuf t en 1 9 27 ,203 ) . S chu l ten 's f i gu r e o f at o ta l o f s e ven c on tube rn ia p e r h em i s t r ig ium i sa r r ived a t b y t h e e qua l d i v i s ion o f a n a s sumed l e ng th o f 8 0pM f o r t h e h em i s t r ig ium ( 10pM f o r t h e w id th o fe a ch c on tube rn ium p l u s l OpM f o r t h e w a l l s ) b u t i th a s b een s hown e a r l ie r t h a t t h e r e i sn o e v iden ce w ha t soeve r w h ich w ou ld s uppor t t h e s uppo s i t ion t h a t t h e h em i s t r ig ia w e r e 8 0pM i nl e ng th a l though t h i s m ay h ave b e en t h e ir f u l l w id th . S econd ly , i nS chu l t en 's s c heme , t h e c on tuber n ia o fb o th t h eo ff ice r sa nd t h em en a r e o fe xac t ly t h e s ame d imen s ion s b u tt h eo ff ice r sa r e s a id t oh ave t a ken t h ef i r s tt wo c on tuber n ia . I ti sd i ff i cu l tt os e eh ow S chuf t en a r r ived a tt h i sc on c lu s ion . T he e nd o rh ead c on tube rn ia o f B a r ra ck s 2 5 w e r e n o t l o ca ted i n a ny d e ta i l a nd n o c on c lu s ive e v iden ce f o ro ff i ce r s ' q ua r t e r sw a sr e por ted . O f t h e r ema in sw h ich d i ds u rv ive i tc an b es e en ( F ig .4 .6 ) t h a t af ew o f t h e c on tube rn ia d o s how a d i v is ion i n to t wo r o om s w i th o cca s iona l e v iden ce f o r at h i rd r oom . S chu l ten ( 1 927 ,203 ) b e l ieved t h a t t h e se d i v ided c on tuber n ia c o r r e sponded t o t h e p ap i l io ( s leep ing a r ea ) , a rma ( e qu ipmen t s t o r e ) a nd i umen ta ( t he a r ea s e t a s ide f o r b aggage -an ima l s ) f ound i nH yg inu s ' d e s cr ip t ion . T he i n n e r r o om s ( p ap i l ione s ) f o und i n t h e b a r ra ck s n umbe r ed 2 5 a t C a s t i l le jo d i sp layed a v a r ie ty o f s i ze s g en e ra l ly l a rge r t h an t h e o u te r r oom s t ot h e i r f r on t , t h ey r a re ly c on fo rmed h oweve r t o t h e s t anda rd d imen s ion s s hown i n S chu l ten 's s c heme . ' T he r e w e r e o n ly a f ew i n s tan ce s w he r et h e r ema in ss u rv ived s u ff i c ien t ly t oe nab le b o th t h e i n ne r a nd o u t e r r oom s o ft h e c on tubern ium t ob e p l ann ed a nd t h e i r a r ea s d edu ced . T he b e s t o ft h e se w a s i n B a r r a ck 5 w he r e ad oo rway c onn ec t ed t h e t wo r oom s o f t h e m o s t e a s t e r ly c on tube rn ium . I ft h e i n n e r a nd o u t e r r o om s c o r r e sponded t o t h e p ap i l io a nd t h e a rma r e sp e c t ive ly t h en t h e i n t erna l d imen s ion s o f t h e p ap i l io w e r e 3 . 6x2 .4m . ( c .12x8pM ) a nd t h o se o f t h e a rma ) 1 . 8x2 .4m . ( c .6x8p M )T hu s9 6pM2a nd 4 8p e r e spe c t ive ly , ar a t io o f2 : 1 .) . T h is s ame r a t io o f2 : 1 f o rt h ep ap i l io a nd t h e a rma i sf o und i nH yg inu s w he r e t h ed imen s ion so ft h e p ap i l io w e r e 1 0x10 p ed e s a nd t h o s e o f t h e a rma 5 x10 p ed e s ( d e m un .

P EN-A REDONDA T he e l onga t ed a nd f l a t topped h i l lo fP e ll aR edonda i st ob e f ound o n t h e s ou th s i de o ft h e Me rdan cho r i ve r a t ap o in t n o t f a r f r om t h e c onf luen ce o f t h e Me rdancho a nd t h e l a rge r R ive r D ue ro i n to w h ich i tf l ow s . T he c amp w a s l i nk ed i n to t h e w a l l s y s tem w h ich S c ip io e r e c t ed t o s u r round N uman t ia i n 1 34 B .C . a nd p a r t s o f t h e c i r cumva l la t ion a nd t h e f ounda t ion s o fb a r ra ck s a nd o t he r b u i ld ing s s t i l l e x is t c l o se t ot h e n o r th ea s te rn d ef en ce s o f t h e c amp . T he s hape a nd a rea o ft he c amp T he c amp t o ok t h ef o rm o fa ni r r egu la ro va l ( F ig .4 .9 ) . T he w e s t ern d ef en ce s o f t h e c amp c l o s e ly f o l low t h e 1 040m . c on tou r w h i l s t t h e e a s te rn d ef en ce s e n c lo se m u ch o f a p l a teau w i th s l igh t ly h i ghe r g round t o t h e s ou th . T he i n t erna l a r ea o f t h e c amp w a s c a lcu la t ed b y S chuf t en a s 1 .2ha . , a bou t2 71 /a 2 c r e s( 1927 ,95 ) . T he n or thern p o in to f t h e o va l f a ce s N uman t ia w h ich i so n t h e o ppo s i te s i de o f t h e Me rdan cho ; a t ad i s tance , i n ad i r e c t l i n e , o f o n ly 5 00m . T he c amp e n compa s se s s ome a r ea s t o t h e w e s t w h ich w e r e s t eep a nd w h ich w e r e q u i t e u n su i tab le f o r b u i ld ing s . T he s e a r ea s c ou ld h ave b een i n c luded i no r de r t op rov ide r ough g r az ing f o r l i ve s tock ; s im i la r a ppa r en t ly s upe r f luou s a r ea s w e r e n o ted w i th in t h e d ef en ce s o f t h e c amp o fR en ieb la s I . T he o r ien ta t ion o ft he c amp T he s i te o ft h e c amp w a s u pon an a r row f l a t topp ed s pu r w h ich p ro jec t s o u twa rd s t owa rd s N uman t ia i n an o r th w e s t e r ly d i re c t ion f r om t h e r a nge o f h i l ls b eh ind . T he o r ien ta t ion o f t h e c amp w a s t h e r ef o r e f i rm ly d i c ta t ed b y t h e t o pog r aphy o f t h e s i te w i th i t s l o nge r a x is a pp rox ima t e ly n or th -we s t / sou th -ea s t a nd w i th t h e p r a e to r ium s a id b y t h e e xcava to r t oh av e f a ced n o r th -we s t t owa rd s t h e e n emy ( S chu l ten 1 927 ,112 ) .

Many o f t h e c on tube rn ia r e cogn ised i n t h e t h ree s ided b a r r a ck sa tC a s t i l le jo d i sp layed t h es ame p a t t e rn o fd i v is ion a sf o und i nB ar ra ck s 2 5 . Whe r e i tc ou ld b e o b s erved , i t c ou ld b es e en t h a t t h e i n n e r r oom o rp ap i l io w a s o f ten t h e l a rge r r o om w i th in t h e c on tubern ium . Wh i l s t ar e a sonab le c a s e c an b e m ade f o r t h e d i v is ion o f t h e c on tube r n ia i nt h e se b a r ra ck s i n to p ap i l io a nd a rma , t h e p r ov i s ion o f s t ab l ing i n t h e m ann e r s ugge s ted b y S chuf t en m u s t b e c on s ide r ed l e s s l i ke ly . H yg inu s a l low s 9 p ede s f o rt h e t e the r ing o fb aggage -an ima l s i nf r on to fe a ch a rma ; t h i sa r ea h ec a l ls t h ei umen ta ( d em an , c a s t ., 1 ) . T he

9 2

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THE S C IP ION IC S IEGE -CAMPS AT NUMANT IA

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F i g .4 .9 P lan o ft h e r ema in s o fP e t ia R edonda ( a f t e r S chuh en 1 927 P lan X I ) . S ca le 1 : 2500 9 3

P ART I I : CHAPTER 4

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F ig .4 .10 T he l a you t o f P e l la R edonda a c co rd ing t oS chu l ten 's s cheme b a sed o n P o lyb iu s . ( a f te r S chu l ten 1 927 , P l an X I I , 1 ) . S ca le l : 2500 9 4

THE S C IP ION IC S IEGE -CA MPS AT NUMANT IA e x t r eme o ft h e c i r cu i t . T he r ema in s o fm any b u i ld ing s o f t h e i n ter io r o ft h e c amp w e r e v i s ib le i n 1 989 . C lea r ly i n

o pen a pp roa ch t oi ti sf r om t h e n or th w he r e t h e s t ree t ( t he v i ap rae tor ia ) w a s f l anked o n e i the r s i de b y b a r ra ck s . T he

e v iden ce w e r e l o ng b a r ra ck s w i th t h e i r d iv is ion s i n to c on tubern ia . I n 1 927 S chu l ten p ub l ished a p l an w h ich s howed a l l o f t h e r ema in s w h ich w e r e v i s ib le i n 1 909 f o l low ing h i se xcava t ion s ( 1927 , P lan X I ) . A lso v i s ib le i n

p rae tor ium w ou ld t h e r ef o re h ave b een l o ca t ed i n a r e la t ive ly s e cu r e p o s i t ion b u t w ha t o f t h e t r oop s n ea rby? A ny d i rec t e x t rapo la t ion f r om P o lyb iu s w ou ld b e u nw ise

1 909 a nd s t i l l p a r t ly v i s ib le t o day a r e t h e r ema in s o f t h e

d ue t o t h e v ery d i f f e ren t n a tu re o f t h e c amp s i n vo lved . D e sp i te t h is , S chu l ten p roposed , i n h i s r e s to ra t ion o f t h e

e a s t ern d ef en ce s a nd t h e n o r th -ea s tern g a t e o ft h e c amp .

p l an o f t h e c amp o f P ef ia R edonda , ad i s tr ibu t ion o f t h e t r oop s w h ich i se s sen t ia l ly b a sed o n t h e P o lyb ian l a you t ( S chu l ten 1 927 , P lan X I I 1 ,r e p roduced h e re a sF ig .4 .10 ) . S chu l ten r e cogn ised t h a t t h e r e w e re i n suff ic ien t b u i ld ing s t os ugge s t t h a t aw ho le l e g ion h ad b een p re sen t i ns t one b u i l t b ar ra ck s b u t t h e t r oop o rde r a sp r e sen ted f r om n or th

T he r emo tene s s o ft h e s i te h a s l e d a l so t ot h e s u rv iva l o f t h e f ounda t ion so ft h e c i r cumva l la t ion . Whe r e t h ey c an b e o b ser ved c l o s e t o P ef ia R edonda t h ey c on s is t o f t h ree p a ra l le l s t one r ow s w i th at o ta l b read th o fw a l l a t i t s b a se o f 2 . 75m . B o th t h e c i rcumva l la t ion a nd p a r t s o f

t os ou th i si d en t ica l t ot h a td e scr ibed b y P o lyb iu s ( V I , 2 8 3 0 ) e xcep t t h a t t h e p o s i t ion s o f t h ep ed i te s S oc iorum a nd

t h e d ef en s ive w a l l o f P ef ia R edonda w e re r epor ted b y S chu l ten t o h ave b een s im i la r i n t h e i r c on s t ruc t iona l

t h e e qu i t e s S oc iorum a r e r e ve r sed . S chu l ten t h u s s aw t h e a ccommoda t ion f o r t h e g a r r ison a tP ef i a R edonda a sb e ing am ic roco sm o f t h a t p rov ided f o r af u l l l e g ion , a l t h e

t e chn ique ( i b id . ,83 ) . T h i s t e chn ique i n vo lved f i l l ing t h e s p a ce s b e twe en t h e s t one r ow s w i th s ma l le r s t one s a nd e a r th ( t he m ode rn t e rm i n E ng land f o r s u ch a f i l l ing i s h ea r t ings ) , t h e t wo e x ter io r r ow s p rov id ing t h e f r on t a nd r e a r r e ve tmen t s w h i ls t t h e c en t re r ow p rov ided a dd i t iona l s t ab i l i ty . A pp ian ( I ber ica XV ,90 ) r epor t ed t h a t t h e w a l l o f t h ec i r cumva l la t ion a t Numan t ia w a st e nf e e th igh e xc lu s ive o ft h e p a r ap e t s .

e l emen t s w e re t h ough t t ob e p re sen t b u t t h ey w e re s imp ly r e duced i nn umbe r . I tw i l l b e d emon s t ra ted b e low t h a t t h e re a r e s ome g round s o n w h ich t or e jec t S chu l ten 's i d en t if i ca t ion o ft h e b a r ra ck s n o r th o ft h ep rae tor ium a st h o se o ft h ee qu i te s R oman i a nd h i s i n te rp r e ta t ion o f s ome o f t h e o the r r ema in s a t P ef ia R edonda m ay a l so b ea r f r e sh e xam ina t ion .

P ef ia R edonda a nd t he P o lyb ian c amp p lan T he l a you t o f t h e b u i ld ing s w i th in t h e c amp a t P eru R edonda mu s t h ave b een d i c ta ted b y t h e a moun t o f

T he b ar rack s n or th o ft he p rae tor ium a tP e l la R edonda

r e a sonab ly f l a t g round w h ich w a s a va i lab le f o r b u i ld ings , t h is f l a t te r g round w a s c onf ined t ot h e e a s tern s i de o ft h e l o ng o va l o ft h ed ef en s ive c i rcu i t . T h is c i r cu i t w a s i nt u rn

B a r ra ck s f l ank ing b o th s i de s o f t h e v i a p rae tor ia a tP e l la R edonda w e r e r e cogn ised b y t h e e xcava to r a nd w e re p l anned i n 1 909 ( S chu l t en 1 927 ,P lan X I ) . T he se b ar ra ck s

g ove rned p a r t ly b y t h e c on tou r s o f t h e h i l l . T he d ef en ce s o n t h e w e s t s i de c l ose ly f o l lowed t h e 1 040m . c on tou r ( t he s ame c on tou rh e igh t wh ich w a sa dop ted f o rt h ed ef en ce sa t

w e re c e r ta in ly i n e v iden ce o n t h e d e x t ra o f t h e v i a p rae tor ia a nd s ome t r a ce s s urv ived o n t h e s • i n i s t ra w he r e l a te r R oman c i v i l b u i ld ing s h ave o b s cu r ed o r d e s t royed

C a s t i l le jo ) . T he i r regu la r s hape o f t h e c amp a nd t h e r e s t r ic ted a moun t o f f l a t g round f ound w i th in i ts ugge s t

much o f t h e m i l i ta ry e v iden ce w h ich m ay h ave o n ce e x is ted . S chu l ten 's p ub l ished p l an o f 1 927 s how s b o th t h e b a r ra ck s a nd t h e l a te r c i v i l b u i ld ing s t o ge the r . F ig .4 .11

t h a t w e s hou ld n o t n ece ssa r i ly e xpec t t of i nd t h e b a r ra ck s l a id o u t e xa c t ly i n t h e s ame m anne r w h ich P o lyb iu s h ad d e scr ibed f o r a c amp c on s t ruc ted u nde r o p t imum c ond i t ion s .

r e p roduce s t h e d e ta i l o f t h o se b a r rack s t ot h e r i gh t o f t h e v i ap rae tor ia s hown o n S chu l ten 's P lan X IV -XV 4( 1927 ) . T hey w e r e n umbe red 2 5 i n S chu l ten 's s c heme a nd t h is p re suppo se s t h e p a ir ing o ft h e o ppo s ing h em i s tr ig ia , e a ch p a i r i ss a id t of o rm o ne m an ip le -ba r rack . I nt h e f o l low ing

I n t h e c amp a s d ep ic ted b y P o lyb iu s t h e t r oops c amped c l o se s t t ot h ep rae tor ium o n e i the r s i de o fi tw ou ld b e t h e

t e x t e a ch h em i s tr ig ium , o r c en tur ia l -bar ra ck , h a s b een p rov ided w i th i t s o wn l e t te r i no rde r t h a t t h ey m igh t b e mo r e e a s i ly i d en t if ied ( s ee F ig .4 .11) .

e qu i te s e x t raord inar i i a nd t h e e qu i t e s R oman i . T h is d ep loymen ti sh owever , a sw eh ave s e en , f o rt h eh a lf camp o ff ou rl e g ion s . U nfor tuna te ly , P o lyb iu sd i dn o tp rov ide u s w i th t h e a r rangemen ts i n as i ng le l e g ion c amp b u t i na l l l i ke l ihood t h e p rae tor ium w ou ld h ave b een l o ca ted i n a

S chu l ten b e l ieved t h a tt h er ema in s o nt h e r i gh thand s i de o f t h e v i a p rae tor ia r e p re sen ted w ha t w a s l e f t o f f ou r o u t o f

s e cu re p o s i t ion w i th in a ny R epub l ican c amp a sb ef i t t ing t h e s t a tu r e o fi t so ccupan t -t h e c on su l o rg ene ra l c ommand ing t h e l e g ion . T he l og ica l p o s i t ion f o r t h e p rae tor ium w ou ld

f i ve b a r ra ck s f o r f i ve t u rmae o fe qu i te s R oman i a nd t h a t a m a t ch ing s e t o f f i ve b ar ra ck s w ou ld h ave b een f ound i na s im i la r p o s i t ion o n t h e o ppo s i te s i de o f t h e s t ree t

b e a tt h e h ea r t o f t h e c amp w he re t h e b ar ra cks c ou ld b e p l a ced a r ound i ta l though a tC a s t i l le jo t h is a ppea r sn o th ave b een t h e c a se , p erhap s t h e n a tu r a l d ef ence s w e re

( 1927 ,119 -20 ) . S chu l ten w a s p e rhap s c or r ec t i ns e e ing i n

c on s ide r ed s u ff i c ien t .

p ar t icu la r ly c l ea r i nh i s B a r r ack s 4a nd 5 ( S IR a nd Q /P ) .

t h e se r ema in s t h e r emnan t s o f b a r ra ck s w h ich h ad b een l a id o u t i n o ppo s ing h em i s t r ig ia ; t h is a r rangemen t i s Whe the rt h e se w e re b a r ra ck s f o rR oman c ava lry i sa no the r m a t te r . T he r e qu ir emen t s o f c ava lry b a r ra ck s a nd t h e

A t P ef ia R edonda t h ep rae tor ium h a s b een i d en t if ied w i th s ome c e r ta in ty ( S chu l ten 1 927 ,128 -32 ) ; i ti si d en t if ied a s b u i ld ing 1 2( F ig .4 .9 ) . I tw i l l b es e en t h a t t h ep rae tor ium i s i nt h e c en t r e o f ac omp lex o f b u i ld ing s a nd t h a t t h e o n ly

a r chaeo log ica l t r a ce s w h ich m igh t i n d ica te t h e p r e sen ce o f s t ab le s , h ave b een d i s cus sed a ts ome l e ng th a bove . T he r e i sl i t t le w h ich m igh t i n d ica te t h a t t h e b ar rack s u nde r 9 5

P ART I I : CHAPTER 4

F ig .4 .11

D e ta i l o f t h e b ar ra ck s n or th o f t h e pme toh lun a tP ef ia R edonda ( a f ter S chu l ten 1 927 , P l an X IV , 4 ) . S ca le 1 : 500 9 6

THE S C IP ION IC S IEGE -CA MPS AT NUMANT IA O ff icer s ' q uar ter s

d i scu s s ion h e r e w e re f o rc ava lry a nd n o th ing w h ich w ou ld s ugge s t t h a t s t ab le s h ad b een i n corpo ra ted w i th in t h em . T he a s soc ia t ion w i th c ava lry w a s a dvan ced f u r the r b y

O ne o ft h e f i r s t q ue s t ion s w h ich mu s t b e a dd re s sed i nt h e e xam ina t ion o ft h e b a r ra ck s n o r th o ft h ep rae tor ium i st h e

S chu l ten ( 1927 ,165 ) o n t h e f i nd s f r om t h e b a r rack s w h ich i n c luded t wo l a n ce p o in t s a nd as pu r . H oweve r , t h e se a r e n o t i n d ica t ive o ft h ep resence o fh o r se sw i th in t h eb a r ra ck s a nd s pur s w e re a l so f ound i n o the r b u i ld ing s i n terp re ted a sc ava lry b a r ra ck s b y t h e e xcava to r .

w he r eabou t s o f t h e o ff ice r s ' q ua r ter s . T he q uar te r s w h ich a r e a va i lab le t o t h e c en tur ion i n a ny b ar rack , w he the r R epub l ican o r I mper ia l , a r e u sua l ly r e cogn i sab le b y t h e ir

n o t

g r ea te r s i ze -i nc ompar ison w i th t h e c on tube rn ia o f t h e o rd inary t r oop s -o rb yt h e ir e mbe l l ishmen tw i th a dd i t iona l

I t i s p os s ib le t o e xam ine t h e b ar ra ck s n o r th o f t h e p rae tor ium i ng r ea te rd e ta i l , i np a r t icu la rt h o se p a ir s P /Q , R /S , a nd T /U w he re t h e s urv iva l o f t h e f ounda t ion s w a s s u ff ic ien t t ob e a b le t o g a in s ome u nde r s tand ing o f t h e ir

r oom s , i na dd i t ion t h ey a r e g ene ra l ly f ound a tt h e h ead o f

f o rm . B ar ra ck P w a s ah em i s t r ig ium w h ich w a s b u i l t w i th ap a r ty w a l l t ot h e r e a r wh ich a l so p rov ided t h e r e a rp ar ty w a l l f o r as e r ie so fr oom so fa no the rb u i ld ing t ot h es ou th . T he r e a r w a l l o f t h is b ar rack w a s f ound t o b e 5 0m i n l e ng th a nd t h e r ew ere u pwa rd so ft e nr oom ss ome o fw h ich

s ome d amage i n t h e p o s i t ion w he re t h ey w ou ld h ave b o rde r ed o n to t h e v i a p rae tor ia . T he e xcep t ion i s i n

s how s i gn s o fh av ing b een d i v ided i n to p ap i l io a nd a rma .

d i v ided i n to p ap i l io a nd a r ena a l though t h e s pu r s o f t wo w a l ls o n t h e i r f r on tage s ugge s t s t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t t h ey w e re e a ch f u rn ished w i th at h i rd r oom ( F ig .4 .11) . A t t h e e a s tern e nd o f t h is s ame b a r rack t h er e a r e t h e r ema in s o f

t h e b a r ra ck a nd mo s t o f ten a d jacen t t o am a jo r i n t erna l s t r ee tw i th in t h e f o r t re s so rc amp . Unfor tuna te ly , a l o ft h e b ar ra ck s u nde r d i scu s s ion h e re a ppea r t o h ave s u s ta ined

B ar ra ck P w he re t h e r oom s a d jacen t t o t h e v i a p rae tor ia h ave l a rge ly s urv ived a t f ounda t ion l e ve l . T he se r oom s h ave t h e a ppea ran ce o f c on tube rn ia w h ich h ave b een

O ppo s ing B a r ra ck P w a s af u r ther h em i s t r ig ium ( Ba r rack Q ) r e corded a s b e ing 4 3m i n l e ng th a l though s ome r oom s a ti t s w e s tern e nd m ay h ave b een d e s t royed . F rom t h e n umber o fp a r t i t ion w a l ls l y ing a tr i gh t a ng le s t ot h e r e a r p ar ty -wa l l i tc an b e s e en t h a t t h e re w e r e a tl e a s t t e n r oom s b u t l i t t le h a s s urv ived o fa ny d i v is ion i n to p ap i l io a nd a rma ) . T he r e a r p a r ty -wa l l w a s n o t b u i l t a s a c on t inuou s s t r e t ch b u t t h is m ay n o t h ave n ece s sar i ly a f f ec ted t h e r oof l i ne o ft h e b u i ld ing . '

a s e r ie s o f r oom s w h ich o f f e r s ome s c ope f o r t h e ir i d en t if ica t ion a so ff ice r s ' q ua r te r s . A t l e a s t f ou r r oom s a r e v i s ib le o n p l an a nd t h e se a r e s epa ra ted f r om t h e s e r ie s o f r oom so rc on tube rn ia t ot h e w e s tb y an a r row 6 0cm s . w ide g ap . I ft h e e xcava to r 's p l an i sa ccep ted t h en t h e f i r s t t wo o f t h e se r oom s ( i nd ica ted i n F ig .4 .11 a s 1a nd 2 w e r e l i nk ed ; t h i s i s af e a tu r e w h ich i sn o t c ommon i no rd ina ry c on tubern ia . T he o the rt wo r oom s , 3a nd 4 ,c an b es e en t o d i sp lay e v iden ce o f ad iv is ion o ft h e r oom s i n to as ma l le r r e a r a nd al a rge r f r on t a r ea . S uch ad iv is ion i st h e r e ve r se o ft h a t f ound g ene ra l ly i nt h e b a r rack s o ft h is c amp w he re t h e r e a rp ap i l io i su sua l ly a s g rea t i n s i ze a s t h e a r e na i f n o t g r ea te r . T h is s ugge s t s a t l e a s t as pec ia l f un c t ion f o r r oom s 3a nd 4 .

B u i l t b ack t ob a ck w i th B ar rack Q w a s af u r the r s e t o f r ooms c omp r is ing B ar ra ck R . T he r e w e re u pwa rd s o f s e ven r oom s i n t h is b a r ra ck . T he o ppo s ing p ar tne r t o B a r ra ck R w a s B ar rack S ah em i s tr ig ium o fe l even r oom s o r more . T he r e a r p a r ty -wa l l o f t h is b a r ra ck w a s d i scon t inuou s ; i tw a s f ound t ob ej u s to ve r4 1m . i nl e ng th . B u i l t b a ck t o b a ck w i th B a r ra ck S a nd t h u s s har ing t h e

As im i la rg ap a st h a to b served b e tween t h e f i r s t f ou rr oom s o f B a r ra ck P a nd t h e f o l low ing r oom c an a l so j u s t b e e v iden ced i n t h e r oom s a tt h e e a s tern e nd o f B a r ra ck Q ( F ig .4 .11) a nd s ome th ing o f t h e s ame k i nd m ay o ccu r i n B a r ra ck s Sa nd T w he re i n e ach c a se o n ly t h ree r oom s i n s tead o f f ou r m ay h ave b een d i f f e r en t ia ted b y b e ing s epa ra ted f r om t h e r e s t . I ft h e o ff ice r s ' q ua r te r s w e re t ob e

s ame p a r ty -wa l l w a s t h e h em i s tr ig ium o f B ar ra ck T . T h is b a r rack h ad u pwa rds o f t e n r oom s b u t i n o n ly o ne w a s t h e re a ny i n d ica t ion o f ad i v is ion o ft h e r oom s pace . T he p ar tne r t o t h is h e e n i s tr ig ium , B a r r ack U , w a s b ad ly d i s tu rbed a nd t h e l a you to ft h e r oom s c anno t b e p e r ce ived w i th a ny g r ea ta c cu racy . I ti sn o tab le t h a to n e o ft h e r oom s c on ta ined w ha t S chu l ten d e scr ibed a st h e b a se o fa n a nv i l m ade o f s t one w h ich w a s r e por ted ly s u r rounded b y c oa l ( S chu l ten 1 927 ,122 ) . I f t h e u se o f t h is a nv i l w a s

f ound a tt h e e a s te rn e nd o ft h is g roup o fb ar ra ck s t h en t h e p o s i t ion i so ne w h ich i sn o t d i s s im i la r t ot h a t c ommon ly f ound i nf o r t re s se s o ft h e Emp ire w her e t h e b a r ra ck s o f ten

c on tempor a r y w i th t h e o ccupa t ion o f t h e b u i ld ing b y R oman t r oop s t h en i tw ou ld s ugge s t t h a t s ome w o rk shop a c t iv i t ie s w e r e c a r r ied o u t w i th in t h e b a r ra ck s a nd n o t a l l

l i ew i th t h e i rc en tur ia lq uar te r sa d jacen tt ot h e v i as agu lar i s a nd t h u sc l o se rt ot h ed ef en ce s t h an i ft h ey w e r ep o s i t ioned a tt h e o t he r e nd o ft h e b ar rack s .

o ft h e r oom sc an b e c on s ide red t oh ave b een c on tubern ia .

F ur the r w e igh t m igh t b e a dded t o s uppor t t h e b e l ief t h a t t h eo ff icer s ' q ua r te r sw e re i nt h ep o s i t ion ss ugge s ted a bove

O n t h e l e f t -hand s i de o ft h e v i ap rae tor ia o n ly S chu l ten 's B ar rack 1 0s u r v ived i na ny d e ta i l ( t he m i l i ta ry r ema in s i n t h is a r ea h ave b een l o s t t o l a te r R oman a nd p os t -Roman a c t iv i ty ) .

T h is

h em i s tr ig ia .

T he

b a r ra ck

c on s is ted

o f

t wo

o ppo s ing

mo s t s ou ther ly o f t h is p a ir w a s a

i nt h e b a r ra ck s e a s t o ft h e v i ap rae tor ia b y ac on s ide ra t ion o ft h e r e la t ive s pa ce t a ken u p b y t h e o ff ice r sa nd t h e m en . I nt h e c a se o fB ar rack P t h e f ou r r oom s a tt h e e a s te rn e nd

h em i s tr ig ium w i th a r e a r p a r ty -wa l l j u s t o ve r 3 4m . i n

o f t h e h em i s t r ig ium w ou ld h ave o ccup ied i n l e ng th j u s t

l e ng th w h ich a l so p rov ided t h e w a l l f o r an on b a r ra ck l ike

o ve r 1 6m . , t h a t i sa pp rox ima te ly o ne t h ird o f t h e t o ta l l e ng th o f t h e b a r ra ck . T he r e w ou ld s t i l l h ave b een r oom

b u i ld ing t ot h es ou th . I t sc oun terpa r tw a sb u i l tb ack t ob ack w i th a b a r ra ck a d jo in ing i tt o t h e n o r th , t h e r ema in s o f

f o r a bou t n i ne c on tubern ia i n t h e r ema in ing 3 4m a nd c e r ta in e v idence e x is t s f o r f i ve o ft h e se . T he f o u r r oom sa t

w h ich w e r e l a rge ly d e s t royed . 9 7

P ART I l l : CHAPTER 4 t h e e a s tern e nd o f B a r rack Q w ou ld l i kew ise a ccoun t f o r

i n t h is p o s i t ion b u t t h e r emnan t s o f s ome w a l l ing s how s

1 6m o f t h e l e ng th o f t h e b a r ra ck b u t i n t h is c a se t h e w e s tern e nd o f t h e b u i ld ing h a s b een d e s t royed . T he r ema in s o f a t l e a s t f i ve c on tubern ia c an b e r e cogn ised o the r t h an t ho se w h ich h ave b een s ugge s t ed h e r e a sb e ing f o r o f f ice r s ( F ig .4 .11) .

t h a t t h e r oom s a t t h e w e s ter n e nd o f b o th b ar ra ck s e x tended f o rwa rd o ft h e l ong i tud ina l w a l l w h ich m ay h ave r e p re sen t ed t h e f r on tage s o ft h ec on tubern ia . C er ta in ly t h e r e cover ed l e ng th o f B a r rack X a t 3 4m i s c on s iderab ly s ho r te rt h an t h eb ar ra ck o ccupy ing t h es ame p o s i t ion o nt h e o the r s i de o f t h e v i a p rae tor ia . T he d e s t ruc t ion o f t h e

T he s ame o b serva t ion s w h ich h ave b een m ade f o r B ar rack

m a jo r p a r t o f t h e h ead o f t h e b a r r a ck , i ft h a t i sw ha t h a s o ccur r ed , w ou ld a c coun t f o r t h is a ppa ren t s hor tf a l l . I fs o ,

Q c an e qua l ly b e a pp l ied t o B a r rack R e xcep t t h a t t h e p rec ise d i v is ion b e tween t h e s ugge s ted o f f ice r s ' q ua r ter s

t h e 3 0m o f p a r ty -wa l l c ou ld h ave p rov ided t h e r e a r w a l l f o ru pt on i ne c on tubern ia o fw h ich t h er e i ss ome e v idence

a nd t h o se o ft h e m en i sn o t s o a ppa ren t . I n B a r ra ck S t h e t h r ee r oom s , w h ich c an b e s ugges ted o n t h ea na ly s is g i ven a bove t or e p re sen t t h e o ff icer a ccommoda t ion , o ccupy j u s t

f o rf i ve . I n te re s t ing ly , t h er oom c l o se s tt ot h ev i ap rae tor ia e x tend sb eyond w ha tm ay b et h e f r on tw a l l o ft h ea d jo in ing c on tubern ia ; c ou ld t h is h ave b een t h e q uar te r s o f aj un ior o ff ice r ?

o ve r 1 0m . i n l e ng th o f ab ar ra ck w he r e t h e t o ta l l e ng th m ay h ave b een a round 4 1m . , a l though p a r t o ft h e w e s tern e nd m ay h ave b een l o s t . T he re c ou ld h ave b een u p t on ine c on tubern ia i nt h is b ar rack b u t R oom 7 m ay h ave s e rved as pec ia l p urpose .

E v idence f o ru p t os i x c on tubern ia m ay b e f ound a l ong t h e 2 5m l o ng s t r e tch o f w a l l w h ich s e rved a s t h e r e a r p ar ty -wa l l b e tween B a r ra ck Y a nd af u r the r b a r ra ck w h ich

B a r rack T m ay a l so h ave c on s is ted o fa n o ff ice r 's s u i te o f o n ly t h ree r oom so ccupy ing 1 0m . o ft h e t o ta l l e ng th o ft h e

i na l l p robab i l i ty e x is ted t oi t s n or th .

b ar ra ck t o ge ther w i th c on tubern ia f o rw h ich t h e r ei sp a r t ia l e v iden ce f o re i gh t . I ft h e o ff icer s ' q ua r te r s i nt h e b a r ra ck s d e ta i led a bove h ave b een c or rec t ly i d en t if ied t h en t h e r a t io

T he men 's q uar ter s

b e tween t h es pace a va i lab le t ot h em a nd t h es pa ce a va i lab le t ot h e m en i sp e rhap s s i gn if ican t . T he r a t io w ou ld a ppea r t oh ave b een , i nd i f f e ren t c a ses , i nt h e r e g ion o fe i the r 1 : 2 o r 1 : 3 . I tw i l l b e s e en t h a t f o r B a r ra ck P , t h e o ff i ce r s ' s u i te , i f i t c on s is ted o f a l l f ou r r oom s , w ou ld h ave

t h e b ar ra ck s n o r th o f t h ep rae tor ium . T he ir p oo r s t a te o f s urv iva l h ampe r s p rog r e s s i nt h is a r ea a nd i ti sn o te a sy t o d e term ine t h e n umbe r o fc on tube rn ia i na ny o n e b ar ra ck . I ft h e o ff i ce r s ' q uar te r s h ave b een c or r e c t ly i d en t if ied t h en

N o e xamp le s o fc omp le te c on tuber n ia s urv ived i na ny o f

e ach b a r ra ck m ay h ave s uppor ted u p t on ine c on tube rn ia ; i fn o t t h en t h is n umbe r c ou ld i n cr ea se b y t h ree o r f ou r . I t h a s b een s t a ted a bove t h a tn o ta l l t h e r oom s may h ave b een c on tube rn ia p er s e . T he s i zes o ft h ec on tubern ia c ou ld n o t b e d e term ined f r om t h e v er y l i m i ted a moun t o f a r chaeo logy w h ich s urv ived .

c ommanded a bou t 3 2% o f t h e t o ta l l e ng th o ft h e b ar rack ( c .16m . f r om a t o ta l o f c . 50m .) . T he s ame r a t io m ay b e s u spec ted i n B ar rack s Qa nd R b u t t h is c anno t b e s hown a bso lu te ly . I n B ar rack s Sa nd T t h e t o ta l o f o n ly t h ree r oom s a va i lab le t o t h e o ff icer s w ou ld h ave r e duced t h e ir a l loca t ion t o n ea re r 2 5% , c .1 0m f r om a t o ta l o f c . 4 1m , a s sum ing t h a t t h e f u l l l e ng th o ft h e b ar ra ck w a s r e cove red i np l an .

T he o ppo s ing B ar ra ck s P a nd Q w h ich a r e l i ke ly t o r e p r e sen t t h ea ccommoda t ion f o r am an ip le g roup ing s how s i gn s o fh av ing t h e ir c on tube rn ia d i v ided b e tween p ap ila

I n h i s s t udy o f t h e b a r ra ck s o f t h e f i r s t t h ree c en tur ie s

a nd a rma ; t r a ce s o f as im i la r a r rangemen t may b e s e en i n s ome o f t h e o t he r b ar rack s o f t h is g roup . I n t h is r e spec t t h ey b ea r c ompar ison t o t hose b a r r a ck s s ou th o f t h e

A .D . D av ison f ound t h a t t h e re w a s ac l ea r r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e l e ng th s o f t h e c en tur ion s ' q uar te r s a nd t h o se o ft h e m en i nl e g ionary b ar rack s :

p rae tor ium w he r et h is d i v is ion i nt h ec on tubern ia i sw ide ly o b served .

. . the c en tur ion s ' q ua r te r s o f ten t a k ing u pc . 25% o r c . 33% o ft h e t o ta l b ar ra ck l e ng th .

T he b arrack sn or th o ft he p rae tor ium a sa ccommoda t ion

( Dav i son 1 989 ,30 ) .

f or e qu i t es R oman i : p o s s ib le a l terna t ive s

F rom t h e d i scu s s ion w h ich h a s t a ken p l a ce a bove t h e re i s

T he r e a son sw hy t h eb a r rack s n or th o ft h ep rae tor ium w e re u n su i tab le f o rc ava lry s t ab le s h ave b een e xpounded a bove . I na dd i t ion , t h ew isdom o fp l ac ing ab ody o fc ava lr yw i th in as i ege -camp w h ich w a s s oc l o se t ob e league red N uman t ia b u t a t t h e s ame t ime s unde red f r om i tb y ad eep v a l ley

ap r ima f ac ie c a se f o r b e l iev ing t h a t t h e o ff ice r s ' q ua r te r s o ft h e b a r ra ck s t ot h e r i gh t o ft h e v i ap rae tor ia w e re a tt h e e a s te rn h ead o fe ach b a r ra ck . O n ly

o u t i n o ppo s ing h em i s t r ig ia

c ou ld b e q ue s t ioned . I ti sn o t i mmed ia t e ly a ppa r en t w ha t

s urv ived o n t h e s i n is t ra l s i de o ft h e v i ap rae tor ia . B a r rack

t wo b ar ra ck s l a id

s uch a b ody o f c ava lry c ou ld a ch ieve i f b a sed a t t h is l o ca t ion . I n deed t h e u se o fc ava lry m ay n o t h ave f i gu red

Xl a ya l ong s ide o ne o ft h eb u i ld ing s o ft h ep rae tor ium a nd s ha red a p ar ty -wa l l w i th i t . F a c ing B a r rack X a c ro s s a n

h i gh ly i nS c ip io 's c ampa ign i fA pp ian h a s r e por ted m a t te r s

o pen s pa ce w a s B a r rack Y . I ft h e se b ar ra ck s w e re t oh ave

c or r ec t ly a nd S c ip io 's i n ten t ion w a s t oe nc lo se a nd t h u s

m ir ro red t h e a r rangemen t w h ich h a s b een s ugge s ted t o h ave o ccu r r ed o n t h e o the r s i de o f t h e v i a p rae tor ia t h en t h e c en tu r ia l q ua r te r s s hou ld h ave b een l o ca ted a t t h e

s t a rve o u t t h e N uman t ine s ( App ian I b e r ia V I ,XV ,90 ) . O n t h e o t he r h and w e c e r ta in ly h ea r o fc a va lry b e ing e ngaged p r io r t o t h e a r r iva l o f t h e a rmy a t N uman t ia w hen f ou r

w e s te rn h ead o fe ach b ar ra ck . U nfor tuna te ly , l i t t le s ur v ive s

t r oop s ( ? turmae ) o f R oman h o r se w e r e s a id t oh ave b een 9 8

THE SOP ION IC S IEGE -CA MPS AT NUMANT IA a mbu shed e n r ou t e ( App ian l ber ica V I ,X IV ,88 ) . A pp ian m ak e s n o f u r the r m en t ion o fc ava lry a tN uman t ia .

h in te re inander s tehenden Man ipe ln g eb i lde t , d i en te a l so w oh l a l s S turmko lonne . E s l a g n ahe , j e d re i Man ipe la uch i mL ager z u sammenzuf a ssen , d aL age r

I ft h eb a r ra ck sn or th o ft h ep rae tor ium w e r en o tf o re qu i te s R oman i w ho w e r e t h ey f o r ? T h is may n eve rb e k nown b u t

u nd S ch lach tauf s te l lung e i nander e n t spr echen . ( i b id . , 135 ) .

t h e f o rm o f t h e b a r rack s , w h ich f o r t h e m o s t p a r t , s e em s t o h ave c on s i s t ed o f r e la t ive ly n a r row c on tube rn ia , s ome t imes d i v ided , a nd w i thou ta ny o ft h ea dd i t iona l s pace a nd r oom d iv i s ion sw h ich s e em t oc ha rac t er ise t h eb a r ra ck s

T he se c ohor t s w e re n o t h oweve r t h ough t t ob e f a sh ioned l i ke t h e p o s t -Ma r ian c ohor t w h ich a ppea r s i nt h e a rmy o f C ae sa r . S chu l ten p roposed t h a t t h e b a s ic s t ruc tu r e o f t h e m an ipu la r l e g ion a s d e scr ibed b y P o lyb iu s w a s s t i l l i n

o f t h e e qu i te s a tC amp I I R en ieb la s , c ou ld s ugge s t t h a t t h ey w e re i n hab i ted b y i n f an t ry r a the r t h an c ava lry t r oop s .

e x is ten ce i n S c ip io 's a rmy . T hu s i n t h eory , a nd S chu l ten b e l ieved i n p ra c t ice , a l e g iona ry c ohor t w ou ld h ave c omp r ised , i nS c ip io 's t ime , o ft h ree m an ip le s o ft h e s ame c l a s s o f t r oop s . T h is b e l ief , c oup led w i th S chu l ten 's p ropo s i t ion t h a t t h e b a r rack s w i th in P ef ia R edonda w e r e

T he b arrack s s ou th o ft he p rae tor ium a tP e l la R edonda T he b ar ra ck s u n covered s ou th o ft h e b u i ld ing i d en t if ied a s t h e p rae tor ium a t P ef ia R edonda w e r e c l ea r ly q u i te d i f f e r en t f r om t h o se f o r t h e l e g iona ry t r oop s w h ich S chu l ten e ncoun te red a tt h ec amp o fR en ieb la s I I w h ich i s

l a id o u t i n am anne r w h ich c on formed q u i te c l o se ly t ot h a t g i ven b y P o lyb iu s , l e d t ot h e p i c tu r e w h ich i sp re sen ted i n h i s P lan X I I ,1 1 927 ; s hown h e r e a s F ig .4 .10 .

s u spec ted o f b e ing o f as l igh t ly e a r l ie r d a te . S o d i f f e r en t w e r e t h ey t h a t S chu l ten ( 1927 ,163 -4 ) d evo ted ac hap te r t o t h is v ery t o p ic u nde r t h e t i t le N eue r K a sernen typu s . T he m a in d i f f e ren ce b e tween t h e r ema in so ft h e b a r ra ck s f ound a tP e i la R edonda a nd t ho se a t t h e c amp o f R en ieb la s I I w a s t h e a b sen ce i n t h e f o rme r o f t h e r e a r r ange w h ich

I fS chu l ten w e re t o h ave b een c or rec t i n h i s h ypo the s is t h en t h e a r rangemen t o f t h e b ar rack s a t Pa la R edonda m igh t b e t a ken t od emon s t ra t e a n a ccep tan ce f o r t h e r o le o ft h e c oho r ta s at a c t ica l u n i t i nt h e S pan ish t h ea t r e o fw a r d ur ing t h e s e cond c en tury B .C . -s o much s o t h a t i tb egan

c onnec ted t h e t wo s i de -w ing s o rh em i s t r ig ia . S upe rf ic ia l ly a tl e a s t t h e b a r ra ck s a t P e l la R edonda h ave much m o re o f t h e a ppea ran ce o f I mper ia l b a r rack -b lock s . I t w a s t h e g roup ing o ft h e b a r rack s s ou th o f t h e p rae tor ium a tP e l la R edonda h ow eve r wh ich S chu l ten c on s ide red t o b e e ven m o r e s i gn if i can t . H e b e l ieved t h a t h e c ou ld o b serve , i nt h e a r rangemen t o f t h e b a r racks , t h e c omb ina t ion o f t h ree

t o i n f luen ce , u l t ima te ly , t h e l a you t o f t h e b a r rack s . F ur the rmo re , i ft h ec oho r tw a sa tt h is t ime f o rmed o ft h ree m an ip le s o ft h e s ame c l a s s o ft r oop s t h en S chu l ten w ou ld a l so h ec or rec t i ns e e ing t h is p er iod a s at ime o ft r an s i t ion . I ti sn ece ssa ry t o l o ok v ery c a refu l ly a tt h e e v iden ce o n w h ich h e b a se s h i s c a se .

m an ip les o ft h e s ame c l a s s o ft r oop s i n to a n e a r ly f o rm o f t h e c oho r t :

I th a s a l ready b een e s tab l ished t h a t w ec anno t b ec e r ta in o f t h e t r oop o rde r i n t h is c amp ; t h e p i c tu re i s n o t a s c onv in c ing a s t h a t w h ich c an b e p re sen ted f o r t h e d i spo s i t ion o f t h e l e g ionary b a r ra ck s a t C amp I R en ieb la s . I ti st r ue t h a t s ome o f t h e b a r rack s a t P ef i a R edonda m ay w e l l h ave b een f o r l e g ionar ie s . T he c amp o ccup ied as t ra teg ica l ly i mpor tan tp o s i t ion i n terv is ib le w i th

. .d ie d r e i Man ipe l e i ne E inhe i t , e i ne K ohor te , b i lde ten . ( S chu l t en 1 9 27 , 135 ) . F rom S chu l t en 's p l an o ft h e c amp w ec an r e cogn ise , s ou th

C a s t i l le jo a nd e v iden ce f o rb a l l i s tar ia a nd f i nd s o fv ar iou s

o ft h ep rae tor ium , as er ie so fb a r rack s , af ew o fw h ich a r e o f ac on s id e r ab le l e ng th ( s ome i n e xce s s o f 9 0m ) . T he se b a r ra ck sc an b e i d en t if ied o n S chu l ten 's P l an XV I I -X IX o f 1 927 a s N umbe r s 1 4 -34 ( F ig .4 .12 ) . T hey a ppea r t oh ave b een c on s t ru c t ed a s b ack t o b a ck b a r ra ck s w i th a l o ng c on t inuou s o r n ea r c on t inuou s w a l l w h ich a c ted a s t h e

c a l ib re s o f s t one sho t f o r b a l l i s tae a l s ugge s t t h a t l e g ionar ie s a r e l i ke ly t o h ave b een p re sen t . ' T he h igh ly

c en t ra l

s p ine o f t h e b u i ld ing .

s chema t ic p l an o f t h e l e g iona ry i n f an try b ar rack s t h a t S chu l ten p re sen t s i nh i s P lan X I I ,1 c an h oweve r b e s hown t o b e s pur iou s w hen c ompa r ed w i th t h e p l an o f t h e r e co rded r ema in s ( c f . F ig .4 .10 a nd F ig .4 .13 ) .

T h is w a l l a c ted a s a

c ou r tya rd o r s t r ee t ( Schu l ten 1 927 ,134 -5 ) . T h is s e r ie s o f

F o rt h eb ar ra ck ss ou th o ft h ep rae tor ium S chu l ten o p ted f o r t h e d i v is ion o fe a ch p a ir o fs t r igae o r o ppo s ing r ow s , i n to t h ree m an ip le -bar ra ck s . E ach m an ip le -ba r ra ck i ss a id t o c on s is t o f a p a ir o f o ppo s ing h em i s t r ig ia a nd e ach h em i s t r ig ium i st h ough t t o c on ta in a s t anda rd n umbe r o f n i ne c on tubern ia . 9T he o n ly e xcep t ion t ot h is p a t ten io ccu r s

t h ree b a r r a ck s i n al i ne w e re s a id b y S chu l ten t o b e t h e

w i th t h e b a r ra ck s i d en t if ied a s 1 4 19 w h ich a r e s a id t o

a c commoda t ion p rov ided f o r ac ohor t o f t h r ee m an ip le s . S chu l ten 's t h ink ing o n t h is s ub jec t w a s d i c ta ted b y h i s

c on s is t o fs i x h a lf -ba r ra ck s w he re t h e h em i s t r ig ia a r e s a id t o l a y b a ck t o b a ck i n s tead o f o ppo s i te o ne a no the r , a l though t h e d i v is ion o fe a ch h a lf -ba r rack o r h em i s tr ig ium

p a r ty -wa l lw i th c on tube rn ia c on s truc ted o ne i ther s i de o fi t . S chuhen p ropo sed t ha t t h e se l ong b a r ra ck s w e re c ompr i sed e s sen t ia l ly o f t h ree s im i la r b u t n eve r the le s s i n d iv idua l m an ip le -ba r r a ck sp l aced e nd t oe nd a nd w i th t h e o ppo s ing h em i s tr ig ia o fe a ch b a r rack f a c ing i t s c oun terpa r t a c ro s s a

b e l ief t h a t t h e c amp ing o rde r o f t h e t r oop s i n t h e c amp r ef lec ted t h e i rp os i t ion i nb a t t le a nd h e b e l ieved t h a t b y t h e

i sa ga in i n to as t anda rd n i ne c on tube rn ia . T he s uppo r t ing

t i me o fS c ip io 's c ampa ign t h e l e g ion sc ou ld b ed ep loyed i n b a t t le i nc oho r t g roup ings .

e v iden ce f o r s u ch a n a r rangemen t o f b ar ra ck s w i th e a ch

D ie

K ohor te

w urde

d ama l s

a us

h em i s t r ig ium d i v ided i n to n i ne c on tubern ia , i s e n t i re ly l a ck ing . I ns ome c a se s e v idence f o r t h e n umbe r o fr ooms

d re i 9 9

P ART I I : CHAPTER 4

F ig .4 .12 B a r rack s s ou th o ft h e p rae tohum a tP ef ia R edonda s how ing S chu l ten 's i n terp r e ta t ion w i th r e s to red c on tubern ia d i v is ion s ( a f ter S chu l ten 1 927 P l an XV I I -X IX ) . S ca le 1 : 800

1 00

THE SC IP ION IC S IEGE -CA MPS AT NUMANT IA

F ie .4 .13

B ar racks s ou th o f t h e p rae tohum a tP ef ia R edonda t h e r ema in s o n ly a nd w i th t h e r e s to red c on tubern ia d i v is ion s a nd p u ta t ive b ar ra ck n umbe r s r emoved . S ca le 1 : 800

1 0 1

P ART

CHAPTER 4

w h ich S chu l ten p o s tu la te si sn on -ex is ten t . E l sewhe r e , a r ea s w he re n o v i s ib le r ema in s w e r e r e co rded h ave b een d iv ided

a r e p e rhap s mo re n o t iceab le i nt h e c a se o fB a r ra ck 1 9 a nd i t s t wo s ugge s ted a s soc ia ted B a r rack s 1 7 a nd 1 8 t h an t h ey

a rb i t ra r i ly o n p l an i n to t h e n umbe r r equ ir ed t o c omp le te

a r e i n t h e c a se o f B a r ra ck s 1 4 16 . T h is mu s t c a s t s ome

t h e s t anda rd n ine r oom d iv is ion . T h is i sb e s t s e en i nP l an XV I I -X IX ( S chu l ten 1 927 ) w h ich g ive s t h e p l an o f

d oub to nS chu l ten 's i n terpre ta t ion t h a ta l l o ft h e se b ar ra ck s w e r e s im i la r h em i s t r ig ia a nd t h a t e a ch h em i s tr ig ium h ad

B ar rack s 1 4 -34 a nd i n p a r t icu la r t h e s ou thern s t r ip o f

n i ne c on tubern ia .

B a r rack s 2 0 -22 w he re t h e c on tubern ia a r e r e s tor ed i ng rea t n umbe r s ( F ig .4 .12 ) .

A n a l terna t ive i n terpre ta t ion f or B arrack s 1 4 -19 ( A -B ) I ti sp er t inen t t on o te t h a t S chu l ten m ade n o c on ce s s ion i n

B y w ay o f c on t ra s t t o t h is a pp roach t h e b ar ra ck s c an b e e xam ined a new a nd w her e p os s ib le a l terna t ive i n t erp re ta t ion s c an b e p u t f o rwa rd .

h i s i n terp re ta t ion f o r t h e q ua r te r s w h ich a r e l i ke ly t oh ave

B arrack s 1 4 16

b een p rov ided f o r o ff ice r s ; t h ey a r e s ugge s t ed m e re ly t o h ave o ccup ied c on tubern ia w h ich w e r e n o t o u twa rd ly d i f f e ren t f r om t h o se o f t h e o rd ina ry t r oop s . T h is i s

B ar rack s 1 4 16 w e re s a id b y S chu l ten ( 1927 ,134 ) t o b e

s u rp r is ing . Ah em i s t r ig ium i st h ea ccommoda t ion p rov ided f o r o n e c en tury o f t r oops a nd i t s o ff ice r s a nd w e m igh t

t h ree h a lf -bar ra ck s , t h a t i st h ree h em is tr ig ia , l y ing i n a r ow . B a r ra ck 1 6 a ppea r s t o b e ah em i s t r ig ium s epa ra ted f r om i t s n e ighbou rt ot h ee a s t b y ap a s sageway ( F ig .4 .14 ) .

e xpec t t o f i nd t h e c en tur ion 's q uar ter s a s w e l l a s t h e c on tube rn ia f o r t h e m en i ne ach o f t h e h em i s t r ig ia w h ich S chu l ten h a s c l a imed t o i d en t if y . T he o ff ice r s ' q ua r ter s

F rom t h e n umbe r o f c ro s s -wa l ls a t r i gh t a ng le s t o t h e p ar ty -wa l l i tc an b e s e en t h a t i th ad a tl e a s t s i x r oom s o r

s hou ld u sua l ly b e i d en t if iab le i na ny b ar ra ck w he r e t h e w ho le o ft h e g round -p lan s urv ive s .

c on tube rn ia . S chu l ten a r r ive s a t at o ta l o f n ine r oom s f o r t h is h e r n i s t r ig ium b y d iv id ing s ome o ft h e w ide r r ooms t o t h e w e s t a nd a l low ing f o r o ne e x t ra r oom f o r w h ich t h e re w a s n o a r chaeo log ica l e v iden ce .

E xam ina t ion o f S chu l ten 's p l an o f B a r ra ck 1 8 ( F ig .4 .14 ) s how s t h a t a l l o f t h e c on tube rn ia i n t h is s ugge s ted h em i s t r ig ium a r eo fa pp rox ima te ly t h es ame s i ze a nd f o rm ; t h e r e i s n o th ing w h ich m igh t i n d ica te t h e p r e sen ce o f o f f ice r s ' q ua r te r s . T he s ame m ay b e s a id o f t h e a d jo in ing

B a r ra ck s 1 4a nd 1 5a r es a id t ob et wo a d jo in ing h em i s tr ig ia w i th as u spe c ted c or r ido rb e tween t h em . S chu l ten s ugge s t s t h a t t h e r ea r e n ine c on tubern ia i ne ach o ft h e se h em i s tr ig ia s o t h a t t h e d iv is ion b e tween t h em w ou ld o ccu r a t t h e

B a r ra ck 1 7 t ot h e e a s t ( F ig .4 .14 ) a l though ac a se c ou ld b e m ade f o r as pec ia l a r rangemen t i n R oom 5 w h ich h ad a h ea r th . I fB a r ra ck s 1 7 a nd 1 8 b o th s e rved a s h em i s tr ig ia f o r t wo s epa ra te c en tur ie s t h en b o th s e t s o f c en tu r ion s ' q ua r te r s s hou ld b e r e cogn isab le s omewhe r e i nt h e r ema in s . T ha t t h ey w e r e n o t s ugge s t s t h a t B a r ra ck s 1 7 a nd 1 8 m ay i n s t ead h ave c ompr ised o f j u s t o ne l ong r ow o f mo s t ly

c or r ido r a s s hown i n F ig .4 .14 ( Schu l ten 1 927 ,134 ; P l an s XV I I -X IX ) . I ti sc l ea r f r om t h e o r ig ina l p l an s t h a t t h e n umbe r o fc on tubern ia h a s b een a r r ived a ti na n a r t i f ic ia l m an l ie r . I ft h e n umbe ro fc on tubern ia i si n s tead c a lcu la ted f r om ac oun t o ft h e d iv is ion s f o r wh ich s ome e v iden ce o f

u n iform c on tubern ia a nd t h a tt h eo ff ice r sq ua r te r sw ou ld b e f ound a tt h e h ead o f t h e b a r ra ck w he r e t h e r ooms w ou ld

p a r t i t ion d oe s e x is t t h en t h e n umbe r i sr e duced t oa tl e a s t e l even f o r t h e e n t i re l e ng th o f t h e t wo p u ta t ive B ar ra ck s

t a ke ad i f f e ren t f o rm . T h is wou ld a ppea r t ob e t h ec a se a nd i st os ome e x ten t c onf irmed b y r e f e rence t ot h ew a l l w h ich

1 4 15 . I tc an b e o b served f r om a s t udy o f t h e p l an o f B a r ra ck s 1 4 16 t h a t t h e s epa ra ted a nd s hor ter b u i ld ing t o

r a n a lmo s t t h e w ho le l e ng th o f B ar ra ck s 1 7 a nd 1 8 a nd

t h e w e s t( 16 )a nd t h e l onge rb u i ld ing t oi t se a s t( 14 /15 ) , d o n o t s ha re t h e s ame c ha rac t er is t ic s .

w h ich w ou ld h ave p rov ided t h e d iv is ion b e tw een p ap i l io a nd a rma f o r as e r ies o f c on tubern ia . T he w a l l i sn o t a ppa r en t i nt h e r oom s o f B a r ra ck 1 9 .

B arrack s 1 7 -19 A n a l t erna t ive t o S chu l ten 's p ropo s i t ion , i n w h ich h i s B a r ra ck s 1 7 -19 w e re s a id t o r e p r e sen t t h ree h em i s tr ig ia w ou ld b e t oc omb ine a l l o ft h ese e l emen t s a nd t os ugge s t t h a tt h er ema in sw e re t h o se o fj u s to ne h em i s t r ig ium . T hu s ,

A lso s ugge s ted b y S chu l ten t ob e t h ree h a lf -ba r rack s w er e t h o se h e n umbe red 1 7 -19 ( F ig .4 .14 ) . H er e ab e t te r i d ea c an b e o b ta ined o f t h e n umbe r o f c on tubern ia a nd t h e i r f o rm . I nt h e c omb ined B a r ra ck s 1 7 a nd 1 8 t h e n umbe r o f

B ar ra ck 1 9 c ou ld h ave b een t h e o ff icer a c commoda t ion w h i ls t B a r ra ck s 1 7a nd 1 8 c ou ld h ave b een f o r t h e m en . I f t h is p a t tern i sr e pea ted o n t h e n o r th s i de o ft h e p a r ty w a l ls

w a l ls a tr i gh ta ng le s t ot h em a in p ar ty -wa l l s how t h a t t h er e w er e a t l e a s t t h ir teen r oom s a l though n o t a l l m ay h ave b een c on tube rn ia i nt h e s t r ic te s t s en se o ft h e w o rd . Many h oweve rw e r ec l ea r ly d iv ided i n aw ay w h ich s ugge s t s t h a t t h e d i v is ion w a s i n to t h ep ap i l io a nd a rma -ar e cogn ised

w i th B a r ra ck 1 6 a so ff icer s ' q ua r te r s a nd B ar ra ck s 1 4 a nd 1 5 f o r t h e m en t h en t h e r e su l t w ou ld h ave b een ap a ir o f b a ck t o b a ck b a r ra ck s a s i lu s t ra ted i n F ig .4 .15 a nd a s i n d ica t ed b y t h e l e t te r s Aa nd B . T h is i n terp re ta t ion c anno t b e e n t ire ly s e cu r e b u t i tp e rhap s h a s mo re c r ed ib i l i ty t h an

f e a tu r eo fb a r rack so ft h e P r in c ipa te . S chu l ten 's B a r ra ck 1 9 s ha re s ap a r ty -wa l l w i th B a r rack 1 6 a nd i s l i kew ise d e tached f r om t h e b u i ld ing t o i t s e a s t . I tc on s is t s o f a

S chu l ten 's p ropo sa l w h ich d oe s n o t t a ke i n to a c coun t t h e

g roup o f r oom s o ne o f w h ich h ad a l a rge r e c tangu la r

d i f f e r en t ia t ion w h ich w a s

h ea r th w i th t h ed imen s ion so f 1 . 25x .80m . S chu l ten d i v ided t h is b a r ra ck i n to n ine c on tubern ia o n h i s p l an e ven t h ough t h e re w a s n o e v idence o n t h e g round f o r R oom s 8a nd 9 .

a c commoda t ion w h ich w a s p rov ided f o r t h e o f f ice r s a nd

T he d i f f e r en t c ha ra c te r is t ics o f t h e n e ighbour ing b a r ra ck s

b e tween t h e o ff ice r s ' q ua r ter s a nd t h ose o ft h e m en i sa

l i ke ly

t o b e f ound

i n t h e

t h o se o f t h e o rd ina ry t r oop s . l tw a s s hown a bove t h a t a p hy s ica l s epa ra t ion o r s on ic o the r k i nd o f d i f f e ren t ia t ion

1 02

THE S C IP ION IC S IEGE -C A MPS AT NUMANT IA

1 0 3

F ig .4 .15

P roposed n ew a r rangemen t f o r B ar racks A a nd B s ou th o f t h e p rae tor ium a t P e i la R edonda . S ca le 1 : 500

P ART I I : CHAPTER 4

1 04

THE SC IP ION IC S IEGE -CA MPS AT NUMANT IA f e a tu r e w h ich o ccu r s i nR epub l ican c amp s a nd i sf ound i n f o r t s a nd f o r t re s se s o f t h e P r inc ipa te .' S ome th ing o f t h e s ame k i nd h a s b een s ugges ted t o b e o b se rvab le i n t h e b a r ra ck s n or th o ft h ep rae tor ium .

d ra s t ica l ly f r om S chu l ten 's f i gu r e t o am ax imum o f o n ly s i x m an ip le s a nd t h a t i s o n t h e a s sump t ion t h a t e very h em i s tr ig ium w a s ab ar ra ck c apab le o fh o ld ing ac en tur ia . T he re i sn o r e a son h oweve r t ob e l ieve t h a t P e t la R edonda w ou ld h ave b een p oo r ly g a r r isoned i fS chu l t en 's f i gu r e o f

I ft h is n ew i n terp r e ta t ion o f B ar rack s Aa nd B i sa ccep ted i tw i l l b e s een t h a t w ha t a ppea r s t ob e t h e d e ta ched b lock a tt h e w e s tern e nd o f b o th b a r rack s i sa pp rox ima te ly o ne t h i rd o ft h e e n t i re b a r rack l e ng th , t h is i st h e s ame r a t io o f o ff ice r s ' t o m en 's q ua r te r s w h ich h a s b een e n coun te red

e i gh teen m an ip le s i nt h e b a r rack s s ou th o ft h ep rae tor ium

b e fo r e . T hus B a r rack s Aa nd B w ou ld r e p re sen t o n ly t wo b a r ra ck s b u i l t b ack t o b ack i n s tead o f t h e s e r ies o f

r e a r o ft h e r e ten tura m ay h ave h e ld mo re t r oop s .

i sr e jec ted . We h ave s e en t h a t t h e re m ay h ave b een a tl e a s t f i ve man ip le s i nt h e p rae ten tura w i th t h e l i ke l ihood t h a t t h e r e w e re mo r e s t a t ioned i n t h e a r ea s w h ich h ave b een d e s t royed a nd t h e f r agmen tary b u i ld ings r e co rded i n t h e

h em i s t r ig ia p l a ced e nd t oe nd w h ich S chu l ten p ropo sed . I f s o t h en t h e n umbe r o f c on tubern ia i n t h e s i ng le h em i s t r ig ium

o f

B ar rack

B ,

e xc lud ing

t h e

o ff ice r s '

q ua r te r s , w ou ld a ppea r t oh ave b een a tl e a s t t h i r teen w i th t h e l i k e l ihood o fp e rhap s o ne o r t wo mo r e . T he o ther b arracks s ou th o ft he p rae tor ium T he s ame a rgumen t wh ich h a s b een p u t f o rwa rd a bove i n t h ed i scus s ion o fS chu l ten 's B a r rack s 1 4 19 c an b e a pp l ied w i th av a ry ing d eg ree o fs ucce s st ot h e r ema in ing b a r ra ck s w h ich h e i d en t if ied s ou th o f t h e p rae tor ium ; t h e se a r e n umbe red 2 0 -34 o n h i s p l an ( F ig .4 .12 ) . S chu l ten 's i n te rp r e ta t ion o f e ach s t r iga b e ing d i v ided i n to t h ree s e pa ra te h em i s t r ig ia i sr e jec ted ; a n i n terp re ta t ion s im i la rt o t h a tw h ich i sp ropo sed a bove f o rB ar ra ck sA /B i sp r ef er red b y t h e p re sen ta u tho r b u t t h e re i sa n a dd i t iona l p rob lem i n t h a t n o ta l l o ft h eb u i ld ing s s ou th o ft h ep rae tor ium c an b e a s sumed t o b e b a r ra cks . B u i ld ing E ( F ig .4 .13 ) a ppea r s t o b e m uch n a r rowe r t h an s ome o ft h e o the r b a r ra ck s n ea rby a nd t h ere w ou ld n o t h ave b een t h e s pa ce f o r af o rwa rd r o om ( arma i n at wo -room c on tube rn ium ) u n le s s t h e s t ree t b e tween t h is b a r rack a nd i t s o ppos i te n umbe r h ad b een r e s t r ic ted t o am e r e p a ssage . B o th B a r ra ck s Fa nd G l o ok t o b e c omp r ised o f r oom s o the r t h an s t ra igh tforwa rd c on tubern ia a nd t h ee v idence f o r B a r ra ck M i sa lmo s t n on e x i s t en t . B arrack c on f igura t ion s ou th o ft he p rae to r ium : p o s s ib le a l terna t ive s S chu l ten 's g roup ing o ft h eb ar ra ck ss ou th o ft h ep rae tor ium g ave a t o ta l o f t h ir tys ix c en tur ia l b a r ra ck s t h u s e i gh teen m an ip le s f o rmed i n to s i x p ro to type c ohor t s ( s ee F i g .4 .10 ) ." T he g roup ing o f t h e b a r ra ck s i n to p ro to type c ohor t s o f t h ree m an ip le s o f t h e s ame c l a s s o ft r oop s h a s b e en r e jec ted f o r t h e r e a son s e xpounded a bove . N ever the le s s , i ti sc l ea rt h a t s ome g roup ing o ft h eb ar ra ck s h a s t a ken p l a ce . I ft h e b a r ra ck s a r e v i ewed i nt h e l i gh t o f t h e r e in terp re ta t ion w h ich h a s b een o f f e r ed a bove t h en i t i sp o s s ib le t om ake t h e f o l low ing o b ser va t ion s . I n s tead o f t h ir tys ix c en tur ia l b a r ra ck s t h e re w e re a tt h e mo s t t we lve . T he se c an b ep a ired , w i th B a r ra ck s Aa nd B b e ing t h eo n ly p a ir o fb a ck t ob a ck b a r ra ck s w h i ls t a l l o f t h e o the r p a ir s ( C /D , E /F , G /H , J /K a nd L /? M ) f a ce e a ch o t her a c ro s sa n o pen s pace . T he r e su l t ing a r rangemen t c an b e s hown s c hema t ica l ly i n F ig .4 .16 . I n t h is a l te rna t ive a r rangemen t t h e f o r ce h ou sed i n t h e se b a r ra ck s w ou ld b e r e duced 1 05

P ART I I : CHAPTER 4

C on tube rn ia

A

? o f f icer s ' q ua r te r s C on tube rn ia ? o f f i ce r s ' q ua r te r s S t ree t

Y c S t ree t

AD S t ree t

IF VG S t ree t

AF , V i S t ree t o rc ou r tya rd

S t ree t o r c our tya rd

40

80 I m e tres

F ig .4 .16 S chema t ic r epresen ta t ion o ft h e b ar rack s s ou th o ft h ep rae tor iwn a tP e t ia R edonda s how ing ap os s ib le a r rangemen t o f t h e b ar rack s a s s ugge s ted b y t h e p r e sen t a u thor . S ca le 1 : 800

1 06

T HE S C IP ION IC S IEGE -CA MPS AT NUMANT IA EV IDENCE F OR THE OTHER S CIP ION IC S IEGE CAMPS T rave sada s T he c amp a tT rav e sada s w a s t h e o n ly s i ege camp o n t h e c i r cumva l la t ion s u r round ing N uman t ia ( e x c lud ing t h e t wo r i ve r -bank f o r t s ) w h ich e s chewed a ny n a tu ra l d ef en ce s . I t w a s f o und o nl ow ly ing g round a nd p r e sumab ly e x is t ed i n o rde r t o p rov ide a dd i t iona l c ove r o n o ne o f t h e mo s t e xpo s ed p o s i t ion s o n t h e R oman l i n e s ; t h e l o ng t r a c t o f o p en a nd r e la t ive ly f l a t c oun t ry s ide w h ich s t ood b e tw een t h e c amp s o fC a s t i l le jo a nd V a ldevor ron ( F ig .4 .1 ) . S ome t r a ce s o f t h e d e f en ce s w e r e p l o t t ed d u r ing t h e o r ig ina l e x cava t ion s o f 1 906 ( S chu l t en 1 907a ,19 ) b u t i ti sd i f f icu l t t ol o ca t e a ny th ing o ft h e s i te t o day . T he a r ea o ft h e c amp w a s e s t im a ted b y S chu l ten t ob e a bou t 4 h a . ( 1927 ,222 ) . T he r ema in s o f s ome b u i ld ing s w e r e f o und w i th in T r ave sada s w h ich h ad t h e a ppea r an ce o f b a r ra ck s . T he m o s t c onv in c ing o f t h e se w a s t h e b u i ld ing m a rked C o n S chu l ten 's P l an XL I I o f 1 927 . T h is b u i ld ing a lmo s t c e r ta in ly r e p r e s en t s t h e r e a r e nd o f ab a r ra ck w h ich w a s o r ien ta t ed e a s t -w e s t , t h e m a jo r p a r t o f t h e b a r r a ck , i n c lud ing t h e o ff i ce r s ' q ua r t e r s a tt h e w e s t e rn e nd , h av ing b e en d e s t royed . An umbe ro fc on tube rn ia m ay b es e en a nd t wo a r e d i v ided . T he p r e sen ce o f a h ea r th i n t h e s ou the rnmo s t r o om o fo ne o f t h em s ugge s t s t h a t t h i s w a s t h ep ap i l io . T he o t he r r ema in s w e r e t h ough t b y S chuf t en t or e p r e sen t t h eo ff i ce r s ' q ua r t e r so ft wo h em i s t r ig ia l y ing b a ck t ob a ck w i th a g angway b e tween t h em ( 1927 ,224 ) a l though t h e e v iden ce o n t h e g r ound f o r t h is i sr a the rm eag r e .

r e spe c t ive ly . T he b a s is f o rs u ch ab e l ief h a sb een s hown i n e a r l ie r s e c t ion s o f t h is w o rk t ob e u n sound . A l l t h a t t h e e v iden ce f r om T r ave sada s c an r e a l ly t e l l u s i st h a t ab ody o f R oman t r oop s w e re s t a t ioned t h e r e a lmo s t c e r t a in ly d u r ing t h e t i me o fS c ip io 's s i ege o fN uman t ia . Mo l ino I n 1 907 S chu l t en e xcava ted w ha th eb e l ieved w a s aR oman c amp w h ich o ve r look ed t h eR ive rD ue ro d u r ing t h et i me o f S c ip io 's s i ege ( 1907b ,472 ) . I nt h e f i na l r e po r t o f 1 927 h e n amed t h is c amp W a s U f e r ka s te l l Mo l ino ' l i t e ra l ly ' t he ( r ive r )bank f o r t Mo l ino ' ( S chu l ten 1 927 ,232 ) . Wha t w a s a c tua l ly d i s cove r ed w a s t h e r ema in s o fs ome b a r ra ck l ik e b u i ld ing sa ta ne l bow i nt h e R ive rD ue ro c l o se b y t ow he r e t h e Me rdan cho j o in st h em a in r i ve r( F ig .4 .1 ) . S ome o ft h e r ema in sc e r ta in ly a ppea ro n p l an a si ft h ey m ay h ave b e en c on tube rn ia ( F ig .4 .17 ) . A s ma l l f o r ce m ay h ave b e en s t a t ioned i n t h i s p o s i t ion a t t h e p o in t w he r e t h e c i r cumva l la t ion c ame d own t om ee t t h e r i ve r . T h i s f o r ce w a s s a id b y S chu l ten t oc on s i s to ff o u rm an ip le s o ft r iar i i , f o u rm an ip le so fp r inc ipe sa nd at u rma o fe qu i te sS oc iorum ( 1 927 ,238 ) . H ea r r ived a tt h i s f i gu re b y a s sum ing t h a t t h e i n f an t ry c ompon en to ft h eg a r r ison mu s th ave c on s i s t ed o f t h e l e g iona r y m an ip le s w h ich w e r e ' m is s ing ' f r om t h e c amp a tP ef i a R edonda . I n h i s i n t erp r e ta t ion o f t h e b a r ra ck s a t P ef i a R edonda S chu l ten h ad a c coun t ed f o rt h r ee m an ip le so ft h et r iar i ia nd s i x m an ip le s o ft h ep r inc ipe s f r om t h e t h eo r e t ica l t o ta l o f t e n m an ip le s f o r e a ch o f t h e se c l a s se s o f t r oop s w h ich w ou ld n o rma l ly m ak eu p al e g ion . I th a sb e en s hown a bove t h a t t h e t o ta l o fm an ip le s f o r t h e t r iar i i a nd t h ep r inc ipe s t h a t S chu l ten p ropo se s a t P ef i a R edonda c anno t b e s uppo r t ed o t he r t h an b y av e ry j aund iced v i ew o f t h e e v iden ce . I ti sn o t e ven c e r ta in t h a t t h e b a r ra ck s s ou th o f t h e p rae tor ium a t P ef i a R edonda w e r e l e g iona ry n o r o f t h e i r p r e c ise n umb e r .

F o r h i s e s t ima t e o f t h e g a r r ison a tT r ave sada s S chu l t en p r opo s ed a n t h ee x t rao rd ina ry f i gu r e o ff ou rc ohor t s a nd e i gh tt u rmae o fa l ied t r oop s( S chuf t en 1 927 ,225 ) b u ti na n e a r l ie rp a s sage ( i b id .‚ 46 -47 )h ea r r ive sa tt h ef i gu r eo ff o u r a nd a h a lf ( s ic ) a l ied c ohor t s a nd e i gh t a nd ah a lf ( s ic ) a l ied t u rmae a t b o th T r ave sada s a nd V a ldevor ron b y a ppo r t ion ing t ot h e v a r iou sc amp s t h e f o r ce s , e xc lu s ive o f l e g iona ry t r oop s , w h ich a r e m en t ion ed b y A pp ian . T h is m e thod i su n r e l iab le o n m any c oun t sb u tt h ec on sequen ce s w e r e t h a t S chuf t en b e l ieved t h a t t h e r e w a s ac ava lry p r e sen ce a t T r ave sada s . O n t h e s e e x t reme ly d ub iou s g r ound s h e s t a t ed : . .mü s sen d i e d r e i K a sernen a l s R e i te r ka ser nen ge l ten , . . . ( i b id . ,224 ) .

T he s ame l o g ic w a s a pp l ied b y S chu l ten w hen h e a s sumed t h a t t h ec ava lry c ompon en ta t Mo l ino m u s t h ave c on s i s t ed o fa l l ied r a the r t h an l e g iona ry t r oope r s a s h e h ad a l r eady a lowed f o r af u l l f o r ce o f l e g iona ry c a va lry a t P ef i a R edonda a nd C a s t i l le jo a nd t h u s , i nh i s b e l ief , t h e r e w a s n o ' m i s s ing ' l e g iona ry t u rma w h ich c ou ld h ave b e en s t a t ion ed a t Mo l ino ( S chu l t en 1 927 ,236 ) .

A pa r t f r om t h e f a c t t h a t s ol i t t le s u rv ived f r om w h ich s u ch a n i n terp r e ta t ion c ou ld b e d r awn t h e re w a s n o p e r sua s ive e v iden ce i nt h e f o rm o f c l ea r ly i d en t if iab le s t ab le -b lo ck s w h ich m igh th a ve i n d ica ted ac ava lry u n i t . S chu l ten 's c l a im w a s f u r the r c ompounded b y t h e a s sump t ion t h a t t h e ' c ava lry ' b a r r a ck s mu s t h ave b een c on s t ruc ted f o r e qu i te s S oc iorum a sh eb e l ieved t h a tt h ef u l lc omp lemen to ft wen ty t u rmae o f e qu i te s R oman i f o r t wo l e g ion s w e r e a c commoda ted a tC a s t i l le jo a nd P ef ia R edonda

I ti su n c lea r e xa c t ly w hy S chu l ten s hou ld h ave b e l ieved t h a t a n a l ied c a va lry u n i t w a s i ng a r r ison a t Mo l ino , a ny e v iden ce f o r i ti se n t i r e ly l a ck ing . T he b a r ra ck w h ich S chu l ten a s c r ib ed t ot h ec ava lr y w a s t h a tw h ich l a yp a r a l le l a nd n ea r t o t h e s ou the rn d ef ence s o f t h e f o r t b eh ind B a r ra ck s Aa nd C ( F ig .4 .17 ) . T he r e a rw a l l o ft h is b a r r a ck h ad as u rv iv ing l e ng th o f7 4m . Mu ch o ft h ee a s te rn p a r to f t h e b a r r a ck w a sd e s t royed b u t t h e r ema in so fa tl e a s t s e ven c on tuber n ia w e r e l o ca ted a tt h e w e s te rn e nd . T he t wo 1 0 7

P ART I I : CHAPTER 4

F i g .4 .17 P l an o fb ar r a ck b u i ld ing s a t Mo l ino ( a f te r S chu l t en 1 927 , P l an XLV ) . S c a le 1 : 200

I O S

THE S C IP ION IC S IEGE -CA MPS AT NUMANT IA

1 0 9

P ART I I : CHAPTER 4 h ad c omp r i sed a t l e a s t t e n c on tube r n ia ( F ig .4 .18 ) . T he

c on tuber n ia a t t h e e x t r eme w e s te rn e nd o f t h e b a r ra ck a ppea r o n p l an t o b e m a rg ina l ly s ma l le r t h an t h e i r c oun te rpa r t s t ot h e e a s t . T h i s w ou ld s ugge s t t h a t t h i s w a s t h e r e a r e nd o f t h e b a r ra ck a nd t h a t t h e o ff i ce r s ' q ua r te r s w e r e a tt h e o ppo s i te a nd h ead e nd i nt h e a r ea w h ich h ad b een d e s t royed . Ab a r ra ck w i th al e ng th o ft h is m agn i tude m igh t b e t h ough t mo r e l i k e ly t oh ave h ou s ed a l ied -o r p e rhap sa ux i l ia ry -t r oop sr a the rt h an l e g iona r ie sw he r et h e r e la t ive ly l ow n umbe r so fm en i nt h ec en tu r ie s w ou ld h ave d emanded p ropor t iona l ly s ma l le r b a r ra ck s . A l l o f t h e c on tube rn ia i n t h is b a r ra ck s how s i gn s o f h av ing b een d i v ided w i th t h e i n n e r r oom s o r p ap i l ione s g en e ra l ly l a rge r t h an t h e r oom s i n f r on t o f t h em . S ome o f t h e

d i v is ion o f t h e se c on tube rn ia i n to p ap i l io a nd a rma w a s c l ea ri nm o s tc a se sa nd s ome c on tube rn ia s how ed t r a ce so f at h i rd p o s s ib ly o pen -f ron ted r oom s im i la r t ot h o se s e en a t Mo l ino ( c f . F i g .4 .17 ) .T he p ap i l ione so ft h e s ec on tubern ia a ppea r f o r t h e mo s t p a r t t oh ave b e en m a rg ina l ly s ma l le r t h an t h e ir c o r r e spond ing a rma . T he b a r ra ck w a sd eemed t o b e f o r c ava lry b u t t h e r e i sn o th ing w h ich w ou ld s uppo r t t h is . T he a b sen ce o fa ny r e cogn isab le d e f ence s l e d S chu l ten t o b e l ieve t h a t t h i s b a r ra ck w a s f o r p a r t o f ag a r r ison w h ich h ad b een l e f tb eh ind f o l low ing t h ed e s t ru c t ion o fN uman t ia t oe n su re t h a t t h e s i te w a s n o t r e -o ccup ied w i thou t R oman c on sen t .' C e r ta in ly t h e p rox im i ty o f t h e b a r ra ck t o N uman t ia w ou ld s e em t o a rgue a ga in s t i th av ing b een c on s t ru c ted d u r ing t h e s i ege a s i t s p o s i t ion w ou ld h ave b een t o o v u lne rab le t o a t ta ck ; a c on s t ru c t ion d a t e p o s t -da t ing t h e f i na l o pe ra t ion s a ga in s t N uman t ia w ou ld t h u s a ppea r t ob e l i ke ly .

c on tube rn ia d i sp layed e v iden ce o f h av ing h ad a t h ird , p e rhap so pen -f ron ted r oom w h ich w ou ld c or r e spond t ot h e i umen ta o fH yg inu s ' m a r ch ing camp b u t w he the rt h i sa r ea w a s a c tua l ly s e ta s ide f o rb aggage a n ima ls i nt h is i n s tance r ema in su nknown . S chu l ten s ugge s t ed t h a tt h er oom st ot h e f r on t o f t h e p ap i l ione s i nt h e p u ta t ive c ava lry b a r ra ck a t Mo l ino w e r es t ab le sa nd n o ta rma ( S chu l ten 1 927 ,235 a nd P l an XLV I 2 ) . A s w i th o t he r e xamp le s a tb o th C a s t i l le jo a nd P ef la R edonda w h ich w e r e s ugge s ted b y t h e e xcava to r t o b e s t ab le s t h e r e w a s n o c on c lu s ive e v iden ce s u ch a s d r a inage p i t s w h ich w ou ld s uppo r t t h is v i ew ( i b id . ,238 ) . T he r ema in so f af u r the rg roup o fb a r ra ck so r ien ta ted m o r e o rl e s sn o r th sou th a nd t h u so n ad i f f e ren to r ien ta t ion t ot h e b a r r a ck d e s c r ibed a bove w e r e a l so l o ca ted b y S chu l ten ( F ig .4 .17 ) . A ga in v e ry l i t t le s u rv ived a pa r t f r om o ne o r t wo c on tuber n ia a l though t h e p r e sen ce o f an a r row g angway b e tween t wo s e t s o fc on tubern ia ( ma rk ed A a nd C ) s ugge s t s t h a t h e r e w e re t h ep a r t ia l r ema in s o ft wo b a ck t o b a ck h em i s t r ig ia . T he l i n e o f t h i s g angway w a s c on t inued s ome 3 0m . t o t h e n o r th w he r e s ome mo r e f r agmen ta ry b u i ld ing r ema in s w e r e r e co rded . T he c on tube rn ia a tAa nd C s how o n ce a ga in ad i v is ion i n to a t l e a s t t wo a nd i n s ome c a se s t h r ee r oom s . T he e xcava to r i n te rp re ted t h e s e c on tubern ia a s b e ing p a r t o f t h e a c commoda t ion i n b a r ra ck s p rov ided f o r l e g iona ry i n f an t ry . I nt h e a b sen ce o fa ny e v iden ce t ot h e c on t ra ry t h e r e i sn o r e a son w hy t h eg a r r i son a t Mo l ino s hou ld n o th ave b een a n i n f an t ry f o r ce w i thou t ac ava l ry c ompon en t . Wh icheve r w a s t h e c a se i ti su n c lea r w he the r t h e f o r ce s t a t ion ed a t Mo l ino w a s c omp r is ed o f l e g iona ry o r a l l ied t r oop s o r a m ix tu r e o fb o th a nd a n a ux i l ia ry p r e sen ce a l so c anno t b e r u led o u t . S a led i l la Av e ry c u r iou s d i scove ry o f aR oman s t y le b u i ld ing w a s m ade b y S chu l ten o n af l a t t e r ra ce i n a n a r ea k nown a s S a led i l la c l o se b y t ot h e e a s t e rn s l ope s o f N uman t ia i t se lf a nd w e l l i n a dvan ce o f t h e R oman s i ege l in e s . T h i s b u i ld ing a ppea red t o b e t h e p a r t ia l r ema in s o f as i ng le b a r ra ck b e r ef to fa ny a s soc ia ted d ef en ce s . T he f o rm o ft h e c on tube rn ia i n t h is b a r ra ck w a s o f at y p e w h ich w a s f am i l ia r f r om s ome o f t h e S c ip ion ic s i ege camp s ( c f . t h e c on tube r n ia i nt h e b a r ra ck s a t Mo l ino a nd i nB a r r a ck 5a t C a s t i l le jo ) . T he r ema in sw e re p a r to f ah em i s t r ig ium w h ich 10

THE S C IP ION IC S IEGE -CA MPS AT NUMA IVT IA D ISCUSSION OF THE RE -EVALUAT ION OF THE S CIP ION IC CA MPS r e cogn ised a s h av ing b een e mp loyed i nt h e s e t t ing o u t o f

T he S c ip ion ic s i ege -ca mp s a nd t he P o lyb ian c amp p lan

t wo b a se l ine s a t Pa ra R edonda . A l though e l emen t s o f t he R oman c amp p l an a s d e scr ibed T he l e ng th a l ong t h e l o nge s t n or th sou th a x is t h rough t h e c amp o f P e l la R edonda i sa bou t 5 70m . T h is c ou ld b e s a id t o a pprox ima te t h ree l e ng th s o f 6 50pM . I n f a c t S chu l ten

b y P o lyb iu s ( V I ,27 -32 ) w e r e c l a imed b y t h e e xcava to r t o b e i ne v idence a tb o th t he c amp s o fC a s t i l le jo 3a nd P e r ia R edonda , t h is a s se r t ion h a sb een f ound t ob eu n suppor ted . I tm u s t b e c on s ide red u n l ike ly t h a t a ny f r agmen tary p l an s o fw ha t may b e s i ng le leg ion o rp a r t leg iona ry c amp s o fa t o ta l ly d i f f eren tk i nd t ot h e P o lyb ian mode l c an b eo ve r la id o n to aP o lyb ian p l an o ft h e t y pe s e en i nF i g .! ‚ 4w i th a ny g r ea t h ope t h a t t h ey m igh t m a tch ." P o lyb iu s ' d e s cr ip t ion i s o f at e n ted c amp f o r l e g ion s , p e rhap s e r ec t ed u nder o p t imum c ond i t ion s ( s ee t h e

d iv ide s t h is i n to s i x e qua l l e ng th s o f3 25p M . T he w id th o f t h e c amp e a s t -we s t i sa l so s hown o n t h e s ame p l an t ob ea t o ne p o in t a bou t 6 50pM a c ro s s . N one o f t h e b u i ld ing s w i th in t h e c amp c or r e spond i n t h e ir o r ien ta t ion t o t h e se t wo s ugge s ted b a se l ine s a nd t h e e n t ire h ypo the s i s a s e xpounded b y S chu l ten w ou ld s e em t ob e f a nc ifu l . S tandard u n i t s o f mea suremen t a nd t he l a y ing o u t o f b u i ld ing p lo t s

a rgumen ts p ropo sed i n C hap te r 1 ) . T he s i ege -camp s s u r round ing N uman t ia a r e e n t ire ly d i f f e r en t i n t h a t e a ch c amp w ou ld h ave b een t a i lo red t oh o ld ag a r r i son w h ich w a s s pec if ic t ot h ep ar t icu la rr equ iremen t sa c co rd ing t oi t s p o s i t ion o n t h e s i ege l ine s . S uch f a c to r s w ou ld d e te rm ine h ow m any a nd o fw ha t t ype o f t r oop s w e re t ob e h ou sed

F ur the r c l a im s w e re m ade b y S chu l ten r e ga rd ing t h e u s e b y t h e a gr imen sor e s o f ac ane o f 1 00p M i nl e ng th u sed t o s e to u t d imen s ion so n t h e g round . T he b u i ld ing s a nd s ome o f t h e s t r ee t s w i th in P e i ia R edonda w e r e t h ough t b y S chu l ten ( 1927 ,117 ) t oh ave b een l a id o u t b y t h e a dop t ion o fs uch am e thod b y t h e m i l i ta ry s urveyor s . I ti sd i ff icu l t t of i nd a ny c onf irma t ion o ft h is . Many o ft h e b u i ld ing s a t P e t ia R edonda a r e i n comp le te , t h e i rf u l ld imen s ion sa r en o t k nown a nd t h e b oundar ie so fs t ree t sa r eb y n om ean sc l ea r .

r e su l t ing i na ni mpa c to nt h ed e s ign -p lan o fe a ch c amp ; t h e p r imary c on s ide ra t ion s o f af i e ld - o r m a r ch ing camp w er e a lmo s t c er ta in ly n o t u ppe rmos t i n t h e m ind s o f t h e s i ege camp b u i lde r s . I ti sp er t inen tt on o te t ha tp a r to ft h er e a son w hy t h e c amp s w e r ei nS chu l ten 's o p in ion n o tv ery ' Roman ' i na ppea rance w a sa t t r ibu ted b yh im t oP o lyb iu s ' p e r sona lp r e sence a tt h e N uman t ine s i ege a nd t h e i nf luence w h ich h e w a s a b le t o e xe r t : . .er i s t v on d e rs t ark h e rvor t re tend en g r iech i schen

S ome s t ak ing o u t o f t h e b u i ld ing p lo t s mu s t h ave b een n ece s sa ry b u t i ti se v iden t t h a t t h is h a s n o t b een d one w i th t h e s ame c a re a nd c ohe s ion w h ich i sa ppa r en t i nt h e l a you t o f t h e b a r ra ck s i n t h e n or the rn h a lf o f C amp I I a t R en ieb la s . Whe re i n d iv idua l b u i ld ing s h ave b een l a id o u t t h e l i ne o ft h ew a l l s i sn o to f ten t r ue i nd i s tance se xceed ing a bou t 1 5m ; t h is i sw e l l s ho r t o f t h e 1 00pM ( a bou t 3 0m ) w h ich S chu l ten w ou ld s ugge s t w a s a s t anda rd u n i t e mp loyed d ur ing t h e c on s truc t ion o ft h e c amp .

L ehre , w ahr sche in l ich d i rek t v on P o l yb io s , g e le i te t w orden . ( S chuf t en 1 927 ,118 ) . Wa lbank ( 1957 ,6 )h a sp o in ted o u tt h a t t h e re i sn oe v idence t h a t P o lyb iu s h im se lf t ook p a r t i n t h e N uman t ine w a r . E ven i fh e w a s t h e re , t h e re i sn o r e a son t ob e l ieve t h a t h e w ou ld h ave b een a b le t o e xe rc ise s u ch a d egr ee o f i n f luence o ve rt h e R oman m odu s o perand i . I ti s as up reme p i e ce o f i r ony t h a t S chu l ten s hou ld a c cu se P o lyb iu s o f b e ing r e spon s ib le f o r t h e s i ege camp s a r ound Numan t ia f a i l ing t o c or re spond t o t h e p i c tu re o f t h e R oman mode l c amp wh ich P o lyb ius h ad h imse lf r e co rded .

A t C a s t i l le jo , S chu l ten f e l t t h a t h e c ou ld d i sce rn b u i ld ing p lo t s e ven t h ough f a r f ewe r t r a ce s o f t h e b u i ld ing s w e r e r e cove red t h an w a s t h ec a se a tP e r ia R edonda . T he se p l o t s a r e s hown o n h ypo the t ica l ly o n h i s P l an XX IX p ub l ished i n 1 927 ( s ee F ig .4 .7 ) . T he t wo m a jo rs t anda rd p lo t s w h ich S chu l ten f e l t w e r e e mp loyed b y t h e b u i lde r s w er e s qua r e s o f8 0x8OpM f o ri n f an t ry b a r ra ck sa nd r e c tang le s o f 1 40pM i nl e ng th b y 8 0pM w ide f o r c ava lry b a r ra ck s ( 1927 ,199 ) . T he re i sn owhe r e o n t h e p l an o f t h e r ema in s a tC a s t i l le jo w he re e i the r o f t h e se s ugge s ted p l o t s i ze s c an b e f o und w i th a ny c onf iden ce . O n t h e o t he r h and i ti sc er ta in t h a t s ome b a se l ine s w e r e l a id d own a nd t h a t r i gh t a ng le s w e r e

S tandard u n i t s o f mea suremen t a nd t he l a you t o f t he c amp s

t a ken f r om t h e se b a se l ine s . T h is w ou ld a ccoun t f o r t h e s e r ie s o fp a ra l le l w a l ls w h ich f o rmed p a r t o f an umbe r o f

T he a ppea ran ce o f t h e G reek s t ad ion a s a u n i t o f m ea su remen te mp loyed b yt h e R oman s u rveyo r si sc l a imed b y S chu l ten a tP e l la R edonda ( 1927 ,114 15 ) . T he s t ad ion

b a r ra ck s s i tua ted i n f r on t o f t h e p rae tor ium w he r e t h e b a se l ine mu s t h ave b een a tl e a s t 1 75m ( c .592pM ) l o ng . A

w a s b a sed o n amu l t ip le o f t h e G reek f o o t ( pou s ) b u t t h e p ou s c ou ld v a ry a ccord ing t o r e g ion b e tween 0 .27 a nd

l o ng l e ng th s uch a s t h is w a s p re sumab ly s e t o u t w i th a g roma . E xa c t ly h ow t h e b u i ld ing p lo t s w er e a r r ived a ti s

0 . 35m ( D i Ik e 1 989 ,26 ) . T he s t ad ion s a id b y S chu l ten t o

u n c lea r b u t a n i n i t ia l s t ep m ay h ave b een t ol a y o f f r i gh t

h ave b een e mp loyed a tP e i ia R edonda w a s t h a to f6 00 f e e t ,

a ng le sa ti n te rva ls o fa bou t9 0pM . Whe re g angways e x is ted b e tween t h e b a r ra ck s i nt h e w e s t o f t h e c amp t h e d i s tan ce b e tween t h e c en t r e o fo ne g angway t ot h e n ex t w a s f o und

e a ch f oo t b e ing a bou t0 .32m i nl e ng th . T he s t ad ion i nt h is c a se w ou ld t h u s b e t h e e qu iva len t o f c . 650pM . I ti st h is R oman e qu iva len t wh ich S chu l ten b e l ieved c ou ld b e

t ob e a pp rox ima te ly 9 0pM . 1 1

P ART I I : CHAPTER 4 A b a se l ine w i th a d i f f e r en t o r ien ta t ion w a s u sed i n t h e

c or re la t ion b e tween b a r rack a nd t r oop t y pe i s a lmo s t i mpo s s ib le t od i sce rn g i ven t h e s i ngu la r n a tu re o fe a ch o f

l a y ing o u to ft h e b u i ld ing s i nt h ee a s tern a r ea o ft h ec amp . T he r e a r w a l ls o f B a r rack s 1 3 15 w ere i n as t ra igh t l i ne o ve r ad i s tance o f 7 0m ( c .236p M ) a nd t h e r ema in s o f f u r the r w a l l ing t o t h e n or th s how t h a t al i ne mu s t h ave

t h e s i ege camp s a l though i th a s b een s ugge s t ed t h a t t h e b a r ra ck s a t t h e t wo c amps o f C a s t i l le jo 3 a nd P ef i a R edonda a te i ther e nd o ft h e c i r cu rnva l la t ion a r e l i k e ly t o

b een s e t o u t i ne xce s s o f 15m ( c .388p M ) .

h ave b een l e g ionary .'

T he p re sence o fs t ab le s w i th in t he s i ege -camp s

S im i la r i t ie sb e tween t h ev ar iou sb a r ra ck sr e co rded f r om t h e s i ege -camp s a r e d i ff icu l t t o f i nd a nd t h e l a ck o fp o in t s o f

T he c r i ter ia w h ich g overn t h e i d en t if ica t ion o fs t ab le sh ave b een d i scu s sed a tl e ng th e a r l ie r . D e sp i te S chu l ten 's c l a im

c ompa r i son b e tween t h e se b a r rack s a nd t ho s e w i th in t h e c amp a tR en ieb la s I I h i gh l igh t t h e d i f f e r en tc i r cum s tan ce s u nde r w h ich t h ey w e r e b u i l t .

t o h ave l o ca ted c ava lry b ar ra ck s i n c lu s ive o f s t ab le s a t C a s t i l le jo , P ef ia R edonda , T rave sada s , a nd a t t h e r i ve r -bank f o r t o f Mo l ino a n e xhau s t ive s t udy o f t h e e v iden ce h a s r e vea led n o c onf i rma t ion o ft ho se f i nd ing s . N o p os i t ive e v idence e i ther , b aggage -an ima ls , w a s f o r thcom ing

O fp e rhap sg rea te r s i gn if icance i st h a t t h e b a r ra ck sa tP ef i a R edonda d i sp lay a f o rm , b o th i n t h e p a ir ing o f t h e i r h em i s t r ig ia , w i thou ta ny c onnec t ing r e a r -range , a nd i nt h e

o f s t ab les f o r f r om a ny o f t h e

p rov is ion o f d iv ided c on tube rn ia , t h a t , t a ken t o ge the r , p l a ce s t h em much c l o se r t o I mper ia l e xamp le s t h an t h e

s u spec ted i n f an try b a r rack s: 4 T h is i sn o tt os a y t h a th o r se s w e r e c omp le te ly a b sen t f r om a l l o ft h e se c amp s , t h e f i nd s o f h o r se t a ck a tP ef ia R edonda s ugge s t o therw ise , b u t t h e

a tt h e c amp o fR en ieb la s I I . T h is p o in t i sr e tu rn ed t oa nd d i scu s sed i ng rea te r d e ta i l l a te r .

a r rangemen t s f o r t h e c a r e o f t h e se h or se s m ay n o t h ave e x tended t ot h e p rov is ion o fs t ab l ing .

T he s i ze o ft he o f f icer 's q uar ter s

Man ip le -b lock s a nd c ohor t -b lock s

T he o ff ice r s ' q ua r te r s i nb ar rack s o ft h e s i ege camp s h ave

A to n ly o ne o ft h es i ege -camp s , t h a to f Pa la R edonda , w a s

b een g ene r a l ly mo r ed i ff icu l t t or e cogn ise t h an t h o se i nt h e l e g iona ry b a r rack so fR en ieb la sI I . I nt h ed i scu s s ion o ft h e b a r ra ck s a tC amp I I a tR en ieb la s i tw a s a rgued t h a t t h e

b a r ra ck sw h ich w e r e i d en t if ied a sh ou s ing l e g iona ry f o r ce s

s uff ic ien t e v iden ce a va i lab le f o r t h e l a you t a nd t h e c onf igu ra t ion o f t h e b a r ra ck s t o b e c ompa r ed t o t h a t a t C amp I I R en ieb la s .

p r e sen ce o f h ea r th s m igh t b e i n d ica t ive o f o ff i ce r s ' q uar te r s . T he s ame a r gumen t i s n o t s uppor ted b y t h e d i s cover ie s i n t h e S c ip ion ic s i ege -camp s w he r e h ear th s h ave b een f ound i nr oom s wh ich d o n o t a ppea r f r om t h e ir

T he p ropo sa l b y S chu l ten t h a t t h e b a r ra ck s s ou th o f t h e p rae tor ium a t P ef ia R edonda w e re man ip le -bar ra ck s

r e la t ive p o s i t ion i nt h e b ar rack t ob e a ny th ing o t he r t h an o rd ina ry c on tubern ia .

a r ranged i nl i ne s o ft h ree p a ir s o fo ppo s ing h em i s tr ig ia t o f o rm p ro to type c ohor t -b lock s h a s b een r e jec ted b y t h e p r esen ta u tho ra t t ra c t ive a st h a t c l a im m ay b e i np rov id ing a' m is s ing l i nk ' b e tween t h e l a you t o f t h e b a r ra ck s i n m an ipu la r o rde r a ccord ing t o c l a s s a nd t h e l a te r c ohor t g roup ing o f s i x p a i red c en tur ia l -ba r rack s f am i l ia r f r om f o r t r e s se s o ft h e Emp ire .

O n ce a ga in t h e o n ly c ompa rab le b ody o f e v iden ce w a s f r om P ef i a R edonda . W i thou t e xcep t ion t h e r oom s a tt h e h ead o f a l t h e b ar ra ck s a t C a s t i l le jo a nd t h e o t he r s i ege -camp s h ave b een d e s t royed o r a r e u n re co rded . A t P e l la R edonda a l terna t ive i n te rpr e ta t ion st ot hos ep r e sen ted b y t h ee xcava to rh ave b een p ropo sed f o rt h ep o s i t ion o ft h e

B arrack t ype s

o ff i ce r s ' q ua r te r s i n t h e b ar rack s b o th i n f r on t o f a nd b eh ind t h ep rae tor ium ; i nb o th c a se s t h e o ff ice r s ' q ua r te r s a r e t h ough t t oh ave b een r e cogn isab ly d i s t inc t a nd t ot a ke a pp rox ima t e ly o ne t h ird o ft h e t o ta l l e ng th o f t h e b a r rack

B o th t h ree s ided a nd h em i s t r ig ia t ype b a r ra ck s a ppea r t o h ave b een i ne v idence a tC a s t i l le jo 3 . T he re i sn o r e a son w hy t h is s hou ld n o t h ave b een t h e c a se . A t R en ieb la s I I ,

a l though s ome o ft h o se n o r th o ft h ep rae tor ium m ay h ave t a ken o n ly o ne q ua r te r . T he amoun t o fs pace w h ich w ou ld

w h ich m ay h ave b een e a r l ie ri nd a te b y o n ly s ome 2 0 y ea r s f r om C a s t i l le jo , t h e m a jor i ty o f b ar rack s w e re o f t h e t h ree s ided t y pe b u t t h e re w e re s ome o cca s iona l d i sp la ced

b e a va i lab le t ot h e o ff ice r s i ft h is s c heme i sc o r r ec t w ou ld h ave b een m uch g r ea te r t h an t ha t s e en i n t h e b a r ra ck s a t R en ieb la s . T he o n ly w ay i n w h ich t h is c ou ld b e

h em i s tr ig ia i n t h o se p a r t s o f t h e c amp w he re t h e t h ree s ided b ar ra ck s c ou ld n o t b e f i t ted . I n t h e a nnexe o f R en ieb la s I t h e b ar ra ck s w e re m ixed , w i th s ma l l

r a t iona l ised w ou ld b e t o s ugges t t h a t t h e q ua r t e r s i n t h e b a r ra ck s a t P ef ia R edonda p rov ided a c commoda t ion f o r b o th t h e s e n io r a nd j un io r o ff ice r s b u t g iven t h e l i m i ted a nd u nce r ta in n a tu re o f t h e e v iden ce i ti sb e s t t or e ser ve

t h ree s ided b a r rack s p l a ced b e tween o ppo s ing h em is tr ig ia . A t P ef ia R edonda a nd t h e o the r s i ege -camp s , a par t f r om

j udgemen t o n t h is p o in t .

t h a t o f C a s t i l le jo , o n ly h em i s t r ig ia t ype b a r ra ck s w e re r e cogn ised . T he b a r rack s a tP ef ia R edonda w er e f ound t o

Number a nd s i ze o ft he c on tubern ia

h ave b een o fd i f f e ren t l e ng th s d epend ing o n t h e ir p o s i t ion e i the r f o rwa rd o fo r t ot h e r e a r o ft h ep rae tor ium a nd t h e

T he i n comp le te n a tu re o f t h e e v iden ce p r even t s a ny

d i f f e r en t l e ng th s o fb a r rack a r e a lmo s t c e r ta in ly i n d ica t ive o fd i f f e ren t t r oop t ype s . I th a s b een a rgued e a r l ie r t h a ta ny

d e ta i led d i s cu s s ion o n t h e n umbe r o f c on tuber n ia i n t h e b a r ra ck s o f t h e s i ege camps . T h is h a s a l ready b een 1I 2

THE S C IP ION IC S IEGE -CA MPS AT NUMANT IA c ommen ted o n f o r t h e b ar ra ck s a t C a s t i l le jo . A t P ef i a

T he s i ege l ine s

R edonda i ts hou ld b ec l ea r t h a t S chu l ten 's i d en t if ica t ion o f i n d iv idua l c on tube rn ia d iv is ion s a s p r e sen ted o n h i s P lan XV I I -X IX ( F ig .4 .12 )i ss e r iou s ly f l awed . F ur the rmo r e t h e r oom d iv is ion s s hown b y t h ed o t ted l i ne so nh i sp l an o f t en

N o f i e ld -wo rk w a s c a r r ied o u t b y t h e p re sen t a u tho r o n d e term in ing t h e e x ten t o f s urv iva l o f t h e c i r cumva l la t ion a round N uman t ia . I n t h e l ow ly ing a r ea s b o th t ot h e e a s t

o we mo re t o am a thema t ica l e xe r c ise b a sed o n ac on s tan t

a nd w e s t o f N uman t ia a l l v i s ib le t r a ces o fs uch w o rk s a r e l i ke ly t oh ave d i sappea red d ue t oa gr icu l tu ra l o r i n du s tr ia l p ra c t ice s . E l sewhe r e , o nh igh a nd i n a cce s s ib le g round , t h e

t h eo re t ica l n umbe r o f c on tube rn ia ( s ee t h is c hap te r , f o o tno te 1 3 ) t h an t oa ny v i s ib le i nd ica t ion s o n t h e g round a nd t h e ir i n c lu s ion o n t h e p lan c anno t b ej u s t if ied .

f ounda t ion so ft h ec i r cumva l la t ion c an s t i l l b es e en c l ea r ly , m o s t n o tab ly a round P e l la R edonda .

T he n umbe r o f c on tubern ia i n t h e b a r ra ck s a t P ef ia R edonda i sd ependen tu pon t h ec or rec t i d en t if ica t ion o ft h e

R oman R epub l ican s i ege -wo rk s , o fw h ich , t h a ts ur round ing

o ff ice r s '

I f t h e i n terpr e ta t ion s g i ven i n t h is

N uman t ia i sa ne a r ly e xamp le , a r e p erhap s w or thy o fs ome

p r esen t w o rk a r e a ccep ted t h en t h e b a r ra ck s n or th o f t h e

f u r the r c ompa ra t ive s t udy . T ho se a tA le s ia h ave b een t h e s ub je c t o f s ome i n t en s ive i n ve s t iga t ion b y S t of f e l f o r N apo leon I I ( 1865 -66 ) a nd t h o se a t D yr rhach ium w h ich

q ua r te r s .

p rae tor ium w ou ld e a ch a ppea r t o h ave c ompr ised u p t o n i ne c on tube rn ia , t ho se s ou th o f t h e p rae tor ium p e rhap s t h ir teen o r mo r e i n al onge r b a r rack l e ng th ; n o s t anda rd b a r rack p l an w a s a ppa ren t .

C ae sa rc on s truc t ed t oe n c ir c le P ompey h ave b een e xam ined b y V e i th ( 1920 ) . CONCLUS IONS

T he s i ng le b a r ra ck a tS a led i l la mu s th ave s uppor ted a tl e a s t t e n c on tuber n ia i n ab a r rack w h ich e xceeded 4 5m i n l e ng th . T he r e a r s even c on tube rn ia o f t h e s ou thernmo s t b a r rack a t Mo l ino o ccup ied 2 7m o f at o ta l b ar rack l e ng th o fa tl e a s t 7 4m s o t h ere w a s r oom a va i lab le f o r f our teen o r

T he m a in f a c to r w h ich h a s e me rged f r om t h is s t udy i st h e d i s s im i la r i ty b e tween t h e i n terna l p l an o f C amp I I a t R en ieb la s a nd t h e i n te rna l p l an s o f t h e s i ege -camp s , e ven t h ough t h e t wo e ven t s , t h e e s tab l ishmen to f aw in te r -camp o n t h e G ran A ta laya a nd t h e s i ege o f Numan t ia , m ay h ave

m o re c on tubern ia p lu s ag ene rou s a l lowance f o r o ff ice r s ' q ua r te r s .

b een s epa ra ted i n t ime b y a s l i t t le a s t wen ty y ea r s . T he r e a son s w hy t h e l a you t s s hou ld b e d i f f e ren t c ou ld b e e xp la ined b y t h e d i f f er ing n a tu r e o f t h e t wo t y pe s o f e n terpr ise -o ne e s sen t ia l ly d ef en s ive t h e o t he r e s sen t ia l ly o f f en s ive .

T he s i ze o ft h e c on tubern ia a nd t h e l i v ing s pa ce a va i lab le t o t h e t r oop s i n t h e b a r ra ck s o f t h e s i ege -camp s p r e sen t g r ea t p rob lem s . Whe re c on tubern ia c an b er e cogn ised t h ey m ay v a ry i nl e ng th f r om a bou t 6 10m . I n terna l w id th s c an b e a s l i t t le a s2 .5m o r a s much a s 5 m . T he d i v is ion o ft h e c on tubern ia i n to p ap i l io a nd a rma i ss e en t h roughou ti na l l

T he d i f f e ren ce s i n t h e s t y le s o f b a r rack b u i ld ing a r e l e s s e a sy t oe xp la in . I tm ay b e t h a t t h e t o pography a tt h e s i te s o fm any o ft h e s i ege -camp s m ay h ave m i l i ta ted a ga in s t t h e

o f t h e b a r ra ck s w h ich w e re e xcava ted w i th t h e p ap i l io u sua l ly g r ea te r t h an t h ea rma ; a tR en ieb la s I I t h is f e a tu re w a s f ound o n ly i n t h e i n f an try b ar ra ck s o f t h e a l l ie s .

t h r ee s ided t y pe o f b a r ra ck o n t h e g round s o f s pa ce . A ga in s t t h is w e h ave t h e e v idence f r om C a s t i l le jo w he r e t h ree s ided b a r rack s w e re i ne v idence p robab ly a l ong s ide

T ra ce s o f at h ird r oom f o rwa rd o f t h e p ap i l io a nd a rma w e r e s e en i nt h e r ema in so ft h e b ar ra ck sa tC a s t i l le jo , P ef i a R edonda , Mo l ino , a nd i nt h e b ar ra ck a tS a led i l la . Whe the r t h e se w e r e i n f a c t r oom s o r s ma l l o pen -f ron ted a r ea s r ema in s u n cer ta in a nd t h e i r f unc t ion i su nc lea ru n le s s t h ey d o i ndeed r e p r e sen t t h e i umen ta s e en i nH yg inu s ' s cheme

b ar ra ck s o ft h eh em i s tr ig ia t ype . A t C amp I l a tR en ieb la s i tw ou ld s e em t h a t d ev ia t ion f r om t h e t h ree s ided f o rma t w a s r a r e , i n t h e s i ege -camps t h e r e ve r se i st h e c a se , s o mu ch s o t h a t t h e b a r rack s a tP e l la R edonda a l a ppea r t o h ave b een l a id o u t i np a ra l le l r ow s .

( d e n um .ca s t . . , 1 ) . U n i t s t ruc ture

S chu l ten 's a rgumen t t h a t t h e t h ree -s ided b a r rack f o rm w a s i n e v idence a t t h e y e t l a te r f i r s t c en tury B .C . c amp o f

T he d i ff icu l ty i n i d en t if y ing b a r rack s t o u n i t t y pe m ake s d i scu s s ion i nt h is a r ea v i r tua l ly i mpo s s ib le . T he m an ipu la r s t ruc tu re o f t h e l e g ion s , a s r ef lec ted i nt h e l a you t o f t h e

R en ieb la s Vw ou ld s ugge s tt h a tb o th t y pe s ,h em i s tr ig ia a nd t h r ee s ided , c o -ex is ted i n to t h e f i r s t c en tu ry B .C . H oweve r , i tw i l l b e s hown i n t h e f o l low ing c hap te r t h a t

b a r ra ck sa tR en ieb la sC amp I I , n eed n o th ave b een r i g id ly m a in ta in ed i n t h e s i ege camp s w he re , i n a ny c a se , t h e l e g ions m ay h ave b een s p l i t b e tween an umbe r o fc amp s . T he re w ou ld a l so , h ave b een l i t t le l i ke l ihood , a nd

S chu l ten 's a rgumen t o n t h is p o in t m ay b e a tf a u l t . I ft h is i st h e c a se t h en t h e l a s t s urv iv ing e v idence f o r b a r ra ck s b u i l t a r ound t h ree s i de s o f ac our tya rd w ou ld b e t h a t s e en a tC a s t i l le jo C amp 3a l though t h e f o rm i t se lf o ccu r s m any

a c co rd ing t oA pp ian ( l ber ica XV ,90 ) n o i n ten t ion o f t h e l e g ion s e ngag ing t h e Numan t ine s i n o p en b a t t le . O n t h e

c en tur ie s l a te r i lt h e t e n t se t t ings a t Ma sada .

o t he r h and , t h e re i s n o e v idence , e i the r f r om P ef i a R edonda o r f r om t h e o the rs i ege camp s a r ound Numan t ia ,

NOTES

f o r c oho r t -b lock s o f s i x a s soc ia ted b a r ra ck s a r ranged i n p a ir s ( a l though a t e n ta t ive c a se c ou ld b e m ade f o r t h e b a r ra cks s ou th o ft h ep rae tor iu tn a tP ef ia R edonda .

1 N umbe r s o f t r oop s g i ven b y a nc ien t h i s to r ian s f o r b a t t le s a nd c a sua l t ie s mus t b e t r ea ted w i th c i r cum spe c t ion a nd , f o r t h e mos t p ar t , c on s ide r ed

13

P ART I I : CHAPTER 4 u n r e l iab le . A pp ian 's s ou rce f o r t h e c ompo s i t ion o f

p a r t s o f mo r e o r l e s s i d en t ica l l e ng th s . T h is h ad

S c ip io 's a rmy m ay h ave d er ived f r om R u t i l iu s R ufu s

r e su l ted f r om h i s o b serva t ion t h a t t h e B ar rack s 1 6

w ho A pp ian s t a te s h ad w r i t ten ah i s tory o fS c ip io 's c ampa ign a ga in s t t h e N uman t ine s ( I be r ica X IV ,88 ) .

a nd 1 9 a ppea red t ob e s epa ra ted f r om t h e a d jo in ing b a r ra ck s i nt h a ts t r iga b y ac or r ido r . T he l e ng th o f

2 T he p rae tor ium a tC a s t i l le jo a nd t h ose o ft h e o the r

a bou t 3 0m o r 1 00pM , t hus 1 / 3rd . a pp rox ima te ly o f

R epub l ican c amp s i nS pa in a r e c ompa r ed a l ong s ide e ach o the r a nd w i th t h e p rae tor i i o f I mper ia l m i l i ta ry e s tab l ishmen t s i n av ery u sefu l c hap te r b y F e l lman ( 1958 ,89 -92 ) .

t h e t o ta l l e ng th o f t h e r ow . F rom t h is , S chu l ten w a s l i kew ise d iv ided i n to b a r ra ck s o fa bou t 1 00pM i n l e ng th a nd t h a t t h is a r rangemen t h e ld g ood a l so

3 S chu l ten 's t o ta l f o r t h e n umbe r o f t h r ee s ided b a r ra ck s w a s f i f t een , T he se b e ing N o s . 1 7 -2 1 ; 1 7 '-21 ' ; 1 a nd 1 3 16 .

f o rt h eo t he rs t r igae , a l though i nn ea r ly a l l t h eo t he r c a se s t h eb ounda r ie s b e tween i n d iv idua l b ar rack s , i f t h ey e x is ted , c ou ld n o t b e c l ea r ly d ef ined . S chuh en t o ok B a r ra ck 1 4 a s amode l i no rde r t oe xp la in t h e

t h e se t wo b a r rack s , w h ich l a y b a ck t o b ack , w a s

r e ckoned t h a t t h e r ema in ing 2 /3rd s . o f t h e s t r iga

p ro cedu re s b y w h ich e ach b a r rack w a s d iv ided i n to 4 T he r e i ss ome u nce r ta in ty a s t o w hen p rec ise ly d e m un i t ion ibu s c as t rorum w a s w r i t ten . T h is p rob lem

n ine c on tubern ia . H e p u t s f o rwa rd a c i r cu la r a rgumen t . S chu l ten d i v ide s t h e s u spec ted l e ng th o f

h a s b een a dd res sed b y F re re ( 1980 ) a nd L eno ir

t h e

( 1979 )a mong o ther s . D av ison 's r e cen ti n ve s t iga t ion s h ave l e d h im t o s ugge s t t h a t aD om i t ian ic d a te f o r H yg inu s i sl i ke ly ( Dav ison 1 989 ,57 ) w h i ls t M i l le r

c on tubern ia w h ich h e w ishe s t oa r r ive a t . F rom t h i s

b a r ra ck

( c .30m )

b y

n ine ,

t h e

n umbe r o f

f i gu r e af u r the rs ub t ra c t ion i sm ade f o r t h e w id th o f t h e w a l ls ( s ugge s ted b y S chu l ten t o b e as t anda rd 0 .40m w ide ) . H e t h en made t h e f o l low ing s t a temen t b a sed o nh i s a s sump t ion t h a t t h e re w e r e t e n w a l ls o f

a nd D eVo to ( 1994 ,62 ) s ugge s t ad a te c . 110 d ur ing t h e r e ign o fT ra jan .

e qua l w id th f o r t h e b a r ra ck : Div id ie r t m an f erne r 5 T he c en tur ia o ft h e s e cond c en tu ry B .C . w ou ld , b y t a k ing P o lyb iu s f i gu re s , h ave b oa s ted 6 0m en a tf u l l s t reng th i n mos t c l a s se s o f t h e i n f an try ( Po l .V I , 2 1-24 ) . I nt h el a te rr e o rgan ised l e g ion o ft e nc ohor t s

d i e K a se rnen länge , 3 0m d urch d i e Z ah l d e r C on tubern ien , 9 ,s o e rhä l t m an 3 .30m . Davon s i nd 1 0 x0 .40 f i ir d i e z ehn Wände , a l so Ar j ede s C on tubern ium 0 .40m a b zu z iehen , s odaß a l s l i ch t e B re i te d e s C on tubern ium s 3 .30 -0 .40 = 2 .90m ' ( S chu l t en 1 927 ,135 ) . T he r e su l t w a s at h eo re t ica l

t h e n umbe r i s g ene ra l ly a g reed b y moder n c ommen ta to r s t o h ave b een i n cr ea sed t o8 0 m en i n ac en tu ry e xcep t f o r t h e c en tur ie s o ft h e f i r s tc ohor t w h ich , f o r a c er ta in r e s tr ic ted p er iod f r om V e spa s ian 's t ime , a ppea r t o h ave b een d oub le s t r eng th .

c on tube rn ium w id th o f 2 .90m o r n ea r ly

l OpM ,

w h ich S chu l ten b e l ieved w a s t h e n o rm : ' E s i s t , w ie w ir s ehen w erden , d as C on tube rn ium s . ' ( i b id . ,135 ) .

N orma lmas

d e s

6 S chu l ten g i ve s t wo s e t s o f s t anda rd d imen s ion s f o r

1 0 P hy s ica l s epa ra t ion o ft h e c en tur ion s ' q ua r te r s f r om

t h e p ap i l io i n h i s s cheme o f am an ip le -ba r ra ck ( T af .24 .1 . 1 927 ) ; o ne o f 1 0x l OpM , t h es ame a st h a t f ound i nH yg inus , a nd o ne o f 1 2x l OpM .

t h o se o f t h e m en i s r e corded a t O be raden ( von S chnu rbe in 1 981 ,12 a nd Abb .3 )a nd I n ch tu th i l( P i t t s a nd S t .Joseph 1 985 ,156 a nd f i g .40 ) a mong o the r s . D av ison ( 1989 ,224 ) l i s t s n ume rou s e xamp le s o f b a r rack s o f t h e I mper ia l p er iod w he r e e i ther t h e

7 I n h i s s t udy o ft h e b a r ra ck s o ft h e Emp i re D av ison f ound t h a t t h e l i ne o f t h e c en t ra l w a l l o f m any I mper ia l b a r ra ck s w a s o f ten i n ter rup ted o ne o r mo r e t ime s ( Dav ison 1 989 ,224 ) . F o r t h is t o h ave b een c ommon t h e re mu s t h ave b een m in ima l o r n o r e su l t ing d e tr imen ta le f f ec ti nt h ec on s truc t ion o ft h e

f ounda t ion s , t h e c on s truc t ion t e chn ique , o r t h e m a ter ia l s e mp loyed f o r t h e o ff ice r s ' q uar te r s w e r e s uper io r t ot h o se o ft h e o rd inary t r oope r . 1 I nt h e f o l low ing d i spo s i t ion f r om n o r th t os ou th : 1 c ohor t o f t r iar i i , 2c ohor t s o f p r inc ipe s a nd 3

r oof ing . T he l ong i tud ina l w a l ls o f B ar ra ck I a t L ong thorpe s how a n umbe r o f d ev ia t ion s o ve r a l e ng th o f a bou t 7 0m ( F re re a nd S t .Jo seph 1 974 ,32 a nd f i g .17 ) .

c oho r t s o fh a s ta t i . 1 2 T he r e a r e r e a son s t h a t c ou ld b e b rough t f o rwa rd t o e xp la in a R oman m i l i ta ry p re sen ce i n t h e a r ea o f

8 I ti su n l ike ly t h a tt r oop so t he rt h an l e g iona r ie s w ou ld

N uman t ia f o l low ing t h e s i ege i . e . p e rhap s f o r a t empo r a ry g a r r ison l e f t t o w a t ch o ve r t h e r u in s o f Numan t ia t oe n su re t h a t i tw a s n o t r e inhab i ted i n

h ave b een e n tru s ted w i th t h e t a sk o f m ann ing t h e b a l l is tae . C e r ta in ly , i nt h e I mper ia l p e r iod t h e re i s n oe v iden ce o ft h eu se o fa r t i l lery -p iece so ft h is k i nd

t h e a f terma th . L ike C a r thage , N uman t ia w a s r e po r ted ly r a zed f o l low ing t h e c ap i tu la t ion o f t h e

b ya ux i l ia r ie sb efo re t h es e cond c en tu ry A .D . ( Bu tz 1 966 ,166 ) .

i n hab i tan t s ( App ian I b er ica , XV ,98 ) .

9 S chuhen h ad a ppa ren t ly a r r ived a t t h e n i ne r oom

1 3 S chu l ten e x t rapo la t e s h eav i ly f r om P o lyb iu s ' d e sc r ip t ion i no rde rt op ropo se t h er e la t ive p os i t ion s o ft h e t r oop s i nt h e b a r rack s o fC a s t i l le jo ( S chuhen

d i v is ion o n t h e b a s is t h a t e ach o ft h e s t r igae w h ich c ompr ised B a r rack s 1 4 -34 w e re d iv ided i n to t h r ee 14

THE S C IP ION IC S IEGE -CA MPS AT NUMANT IA 1 927 ,212 13 )a nd P eüa R edonda ( i b id . ,116 19 )b o th o fw h ich a r eo n ly p ar t leg ion o rs i ng le leg ion c amps a tb e s t . 1 4 A pp ian t e l l s u s t h a t S c ip io , o n h i s a r r iva l i nS pa in , o rde red a l ls up e rf luous w agon sa nd p a ck -an ima ls t o b e s o ld o f f( l be r ica X IV ,85 ) a l though A pp ian m ay h ave b een e nhanc ing S c ip io 's r e pu ta t ion b y e xagge ra t ing h i s a ch ievemen t s i n c r ea t ing a d i sc ip l ined a rmy f r om t h e a ppa ren t ly d emo ra l ised l e g ion s i nS pa in . F ron t inu s a l so m ake s m en t ion o f S c ip io 's d e te rm ina t ion t o r i d t h e a rmy o f i d le r s ( F ron t . S t r a tagems I V .1 .1) a nd t h is c ou ld m ean t h a t r e l iance o n p a ck -an ima ls w a s k ep t o n ly t o t h a t w h ich w a se s sen t ia l . 1 5 Weapon f i nd sf r om t h eb a r ra ck sc ou ld b eu t i l ised a s a n a dd i t iona l s ou rce o fe v iden ce a nd t a ken a ss ome g u ide t ot r oop t ype b u tt h e c u r ren ts ho r tcom ing s o f s uch e v idence r ende r s i t u n tru s two r thy i n t h is r e spec t . I th a sa l ready b een s t a ted t h a tn o tt o o much r e l ian ce c an b e p laced o n t h is b ody o fe v idence .

P ART I I : CHAPTER 5

F i g .5 .1

P l an o f t h e o u te r w a l ls o fC amp s I V a nd V a tR e tneh la s ( a f te r S chuf ten 1 9 13 ) . S ca le 1 : 10000 11 6

P ART I I : CHAPTER 5

CA MPS I V AND V AT RENIEBLAS I NTRODUCT ION T he a b sen ce o fb a r r a ck s f o r t h e S oc i i i nC amp V c an b e n e i the r p roved n o r d i sp roved a st h is w ou ld h ave r e qu i r ed t h e e x cava t ion o f t h e w ho le c amp a nd t h e r e cover y o f a c omp le te p l an o ft h e i n ter io r . I n f a c t o n ly as ma l l p a r t o f t h e l a you t o fC amp V w a s r e cove r ed b y e x cava t ion .

T he l a t e r a rmy c amp s a nd f o r t r e s se s o f t h e R epub l ic , e s pe c ia l ly t h o se o ft h e f i r s t c en tu ry B .C . , a r e t h o se w he r e t h ep rog r e s s ive c hange si nt h eo rgan isa t ion o ft h ea rmy a nd t h e l e g ion sa r em o r e l i k e ly t op rov ide e v id en ce o fc hange , b o th i nt h e l a you t o f t h e c amp s a nd t h e b a r ra ck s w i th in t h em . U n f o r tuna t e ly t h e a moun t o f e x cava t ion a nd i n ve s t iga t ion w h ich h a s t a k en p l ace i n s ide c amp s a nd f o r t r e s s e s o f t h i s p e r iod i sl i m i ted . T ha t w h ich h a s t a k en p l a ce i s , o nce a ga in , l a rge ly t h e w o rk o f A do lf S chu l ten w ho p ub l i shed t h e r e su l t s o fh i s e xcava t ion s a tR en ieb la s C amp s I V a nd V i n af i na l r e po r t i n 1 929 . N o i n t erna l b u i ld ing s w e r e r e por t ed f r om C amp I V b u t t h e r e r ema in s c on s ide r ab le s c op e f o r t h e r e in t e rp r e ta t ion o f S chu l t en 's f i nd ing s a tt h e f i na l c amp ( Camp V ) a tR en ieb la s .

Af u r th e re x t r apo la t ion w a s m ade b y S chu l t en i nt h eb e l ie f t h a t C amp V m u s t h ave d a ted f r om a f t e r 9 0 B .C . H e p ropo sed t h a t t h e b a r ra ck s a tC amp V c ou ld b e s hown t o b eg r ouped i nn umb e r s c on s is ten t w i th t h e i n t roduc t ion o f t h e c oho r t p rope r i n to t h e R epub l ican a rmy : .grupp ier tZ uer s t e r sche in t d i e K ohor t e i m L age r Pa la R edonda , d a s a u s S t r e if en v on j e 3Man ipe ln b e s t eh t , d ann i mL age r V ,w o w ir s t a t tS t r e if en v on 20 s o lche v on 2 x6 Man ipe ln = 2K ohor t en h aben . ( S chu l t en 1 929 ,128 ) .

CAMP I V RENIEBLAS T h ed a t eo fc on s t ru c t ion o fC amp I V i su n ce r ta in a l though i tp r ed a t ed C amp V ( s ee T ab le 2 . 3 i n C hap t e r 2 ) . T he s h ape o f t h e c amp m ay h ave b een a pp rox ima t e ly r e c tangu la r ( F ig .5 .1 ) . A l though h e c l a imed n o t t o h ave f o und a ny e v iden ce f o rt h es ou th w a l l S chu l t en ( 1929 ,139 ) e s t ima t ed t h e a r ea o f t h e c amp t ob e a bou t 5 8 .9ha . T he o u t s id e w a l ls w he r e t h ey w e r e f ound w e r e 3 m i nt h ick a t t h e i r b a se . T he a b sen ce o f a ny i n t erna l b u i ld ing s l e d S chu l t en t o b e l ieve t h a t t h e c amp w a s as umme r camp ( c a s t ra a e s t iva ) .

S chu l t en c on c luded t h a tt h eb a r ra ck si nC amp V m u s th ave b e en c on s t ru c t ed a t at i me a f t e rw h ich t h e c oho r th ad b e en a dop t ed b y t h e l e g ion o ft h e l a t e R epub l ic a st h e p r in c ipa l t a c t ica l u n i t . I ti si l u s t r a t ive t o d e t e rm ine b y w ha t m e thod S chu l t en a r r ived a t h i s c on c lu s ion s . A n i n i t ia l r e ad ing o f t h e e xcava t ion r e po r t( S chu l t en 1 929 ,146 -84 )s u gge s t s t h a tt h e i n t e rp r e ta t ion o f C amp V d er ived f r om ap o s i t ion w he r e S chuf t en h ad d ec ided b y t h e t ime o fp ub l ica t ion t h a t t h e c amp m u s th ave d a t ed f r om t h ey ea r7 5 /74 B .C . I nf a c t , a s h a s b e en s t a t ed a bove , t h e d a t ing o f C amp V i sn o t a s s e cu r e a sS chu l t en b e l ieved a nd h i s h ypo th e s e s c on ce rn ing t h i s c amp w ou ld s e em t o s t em f r om a n i n jud ic iou s a pp l ica t ion o f t h e d a t ing e v idence c oup led w i th a v er y s e le c t ive a pp ra isa lo ft h ea r chaeo log ica le v iden ce ; t h is w i l l b e d emon s t ra t ed b e low .

CA MP V RENIEBLAS T he p r ob lem s s u r round ing t h e d a t e o f c on s t ruc t ion o f C amp V h ave b een d i s cu s sed e a r l ie r . T h e b e s t d a t e r a nge w h ich c an b e p ropo sed o n t h e p r e sen t e v iden ce f o r i t s c on s t ru c t ion i ss omewhe re i nt h e l a t e s e cond t oe a r ly f i r s t c e n tu r y B .C .

T he l a you t o f C amp V a t R en ieb la s

S chu l t en , h oweve r , w a s o ft h e o p in ion t h a t C amp V m u s t h ave b e en b u i l t a f t e r t h e a dop t ion b y t h e R oman a rmy o f t h e c oho r t p rop e r a nd a t at i me a f t e r w h ich t h e a l ied c on t ingen t s h ad b een a ma lgama ted i n to t h e l e g ion s . S chu l t en s t a ted :

I ti sp o s s ib le t oa g ree w i th S chu l t en ( 1929 ,180 ) t h a tC amp V w a s b u i l t a f t e r t h e f a l l o f N tunan t ia i n 1 33 B .C . I t o ve r l ie se a r l ie rc amp so nt h es ame s i te o ft h e G ran A ta laya b u to c cup ie sm uch m o r eo ft h e l owe ra nd f l a t t e rg round t o t h e s ou th o fC amp I V ( F ig .5 .1) . T he i r r egu la rw a l l s o ft h e e a r l ie rC amp s I I I , w h ich f o l lowed n a tu r a l c on tou r s s oa s t ot a k e a dvan tage o ft h e h i l l s l ope , a r e n o t s o a ppa r en t i n C amp V w he r e t h e w a l ls , a r e r e la t ive ly s t ra igh t a nd a pp rox ima t e ly p a ra l le l t oe a ch o t he r . A l l t h i s s ugge s t s t h a t t h e u nd isgu ised d ef en s ive c on s ide ra t ion s o f t h e e a r l ie r w a l l c i r cu i t s w e r e n o t p a ramoun t i nt h e s i t ing o ft h e w a l l s o ft h i sc amp . T he r ew a s ad e s i r eo nt h ep a r to ft h eb u i ld e r s o fC amp V n one the le s s t oi n c lude t h e h i ghe s t p o in t o ft h e G r an A ta laya w i th in t h e c amp d ef en ce s a nd f o r t h e n o r th w a l l t og ua rd a ga in s t a ny h o s t i le i n ten t ion s a ga in s t t h a t l o ca t ion . T o t h is e nd t h e n o r th w a l l w a s p r ov ided w i th a c on s ide rab le n umbe r o fa r t i l le ry p l a tf o rm s ; n one w a s

. . sowoh ld i ei t a l i schen S oc i iw ie d i ee qu i te sR oman i z uf eh len s c he inen , a nd d aa l le d i e se Ä nde rungen d i e R e f orm d e s Mar iu so de rd i eA uf nahme d e rI t a l ike ri n d i e L eg ionen i m J ahr e 9 0 v .C hr . v o rau s se t zen , s o m uß L age r Va u sd e rZ e i tn ach 9 0v .C hr . s t ammen . ( 1 929 ,180 ) . S chu l t en s aw t h es uppo sed a b sen ce o ft h eS oc i i i nC amp V a s b e ing r e a sonab le p roof t h a t t h e c amp p o s t -da t ed t h e p r ov i s ion so ft h eL e x J u l ia . I ne f f ec t S chu l ten t o ok t h eL e x J u l ia a s at e rm inu sp o s t q uem f o r t h e c on s truc t ion d a te o f C amp V . S chu l t en 's a r gumen t o n t h is p o in t i ss e r iou s ly a t f a u l t a si ti sb a sed o n s uppo sed n ega t ive e v idence .

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C A MPS I V AND VAT REN 1EBLAS S e r to r iu s i n 1 926 , t h r ee y ea r s b ef o re p ub l ica t ion o f t h e r e por t o n t h e c amp s a tR en ieb la s , i n w h ich h e r e f er r ed t o T he H i s tor ie s o fS a l lu s t , w h ich d ocumen t t h em a jo re ven t s w h ich t o ok p l a ce d u r ing t h e S er tor ian Wa r . S chu l ten

r e cogn ised a l ong t h e e x tan t s t re tch o ft h e s ou th w a l l . S chu l ten b e l ieved t h a t h e c ou ld i d en t if y t h e p rec ise l a you t o fC amp V a nd t h a t i t s i n ter io r p l an p a ra l le led t h e i n ter io r p l an s o fi mp e r ia l f o r t res se s ( Schu l ten 1 929 ,181) .

d evo ted s e ve ra l c hap te r s t o t h e e ven t s o f 7 5 /74 B .C . ( S chu l ten 1 926 ,108 -29 ) . S a l lu s t h ad r e por t ed t h a t p a r t o f t h ea rmy o fP ompey w a s l e f t t oo verw in te ri nt h er e g ion o f t h e r i ve r D ue ro a tt h e e nd o f t h e c ampa ign s e a son o f 7 5

I tmu s tb es a id t h a ti nt h is r e spec t t h e e v idence s upp l ied b y t h e a r chaeo logy i ss ad ly l a ck ing . O n ly a f r ac t ion o f t h e s u spec ted t o ta l n umber o f b u i ld ing s i n C amp V w ere r e co rded ( o n t h e a s sump t ion t h a t t h e c amp h ad b een

B .C . ( Sa l lu s t H i s t . I 1 ,93 ) . S a l lu s t f u r the r s t a te s t h a t t h is a rmy u nde r t h e c ommand o fT i tur iu s w a s o n ly 1 5 c ohor t s

f u rn ished w i th af u l lc omp lemen to fb u i ld ing s ) . I d en t if iab le w er e ar ow o f t r ibunes h ou se s a nd s ome g ranar ie s i n t h e s ou th o f t h e c amp a nd s ome f r agmen ta ry b u i ld ing s e l sewhe re . Two b u i ld ing s w ere t e n ta t ive ly i d en t if ied a s c omp r is ing t h e q uae s tor ium ( Schu l ten 1 929 ,170 ) .

( 11 2 l / e g ion s ) s t rong :

T he o n ly a c commoda t ion f o r t r oop s w h ich s urv ived w a s a

I n 1 926 S chuf t en h ad w r i t ten t h a t a tR en ieb la s t h e re w a s :

T i tur ium l e ga tum c um c ohor t ibu s q u indec im i n C e l t iber ia . ( i b id . , I 1 ,94 ) .

g roup o f b a r ra ck s wh ich S chu l ten e xcava ted i n t h e n or th -ea s t ern c o rne r o f t h e c amp . T he p l an wh ich w a s p ub l ished b yS chu l ten ( 1929 , P lan XX , r e p roduced h e re a s F i g .5 .2 ) i nw h ich t h e w ho le c amp i sr e s to r ed o n p ape r t o

. .e in g roße s W in ter lage r f i ir 11 2 L / eg ionen , d a s s e iner g anzen B e schaf f enhe i tn ach i nd i e se Z e i tp aß t . ( 1 926 ,12 1 ) .

s how a ccommoda t ion f o r af o r ce i ne xce s so fo ne l e g ion i s t h e r efo re , p u re ly i mag ina r y . H ow d id S chu l ten a r r ive a t t h is p l an? F rom as t udy o fh i s p ub l ished w o rk s i ti sc l ea r

T he t ime t o w h ich h e w a s r e f er r ing t o w a s t h a t o f t h e S e r tor ian Wa r a nd S chu l ten c on s trued t h a t t h e r ema in s o f

t h a t h e a t temp t ed t of i nd ah i s tor ica l c on t ex t f o r a l l o ft h e R oman c amp s w h ich h e e xcava ted . I nt h e c a se o fC amp V h e b e l ieved t h a to n ly t h ew a r so fD id iu s i n9 9 -93 B .C . a nd t h e w a r b e tween P ompe iu s a nd S er tor iu s i n 7 7 -72 B .C . w ou ld h ave p rov ided t h e o cca s ion f o r aw in te r -camp b u i l t i n t h e y ea r s f o l low ing t h e f a l l o f N uman t ia ( Schu l ten 1 929 ,180 ) .

C amp V a tR en ieb la s w e r e t h o se o ft h e w in te r -quar te r s o f T i tur iu s . We m ay o b ser ve t h a t i nh i s P l an XX ( F ig .5 .2 ) S chuf t en r e s to r ed t h e p l an o fC amp V t oa c commoda te 1 6 c ohor t s o r j u s t o ve r 11 / l 2 e g ion s . P roof p o s i t ive t h a t S chu l ten b e l ieved t h a t C amp V w a s t h a t o f T i tu r iu s i s f ound i nt h e t e x t . F erner p aß t L age r V , d a e s e i ne F läche f t ir 2 L eg ionen , a be r , d ad i ew e s t l iche H ä lf t ev e rkü r z t i s t , K a sernen n ur f t ir e twa 11 2 L / eg ionen h a t , z ud en 1 5 K ohor ten d e s T i tur iu s . . .1ch m öch te a l so g lauben ,

C ruc ia l t o t h e a rgumen t t hough i sw he the r t h e re i sa ny e v iden ce t os ugge s t t ha t t h e c amp w a sc on s truc ted a f te r 9 0 B .C . I tm ay h ave b een t h en um isma t ic e v idence w h ich w a s a va i lab le t oS chu l ten wh ich w a s as i gn if i can t f a c to r w h ich l e d h im i n to b e l iev ing t h a t t h e c amp mu s t h ave p o s t -da ted t h e y ea r t h e s i te a s cr ibed 8 2 B .C .

d aß P ompe iu sE nde 7 5d a sL age r V e rbau tu nd d ann h i er d en T i tur iu s m i t 1 5 K ohor ten z urüc kge la s sen h a t . ( S chu l ten1929 ,182 -3 ) .

9 0 B .C . H aebe r l in , w ho s t ud ied t h e c o in s f r om a nd p roduced a r epo r t o n t h em f o r S chu l ten , o n ep a r t icu la r c o in t o am in to fS u l la d a t ing f r om ( S chuf t en 1 929 ,247 ) . T he c o in w a s n o t f ound i n

T h is w ou ld e xp la in w hy S chu l ten ( 1929 ,180 ) f e l t a b le t o

t h e c on s t ru c t ion l e ve ls o f t h e c amp b u t i n s ide o ne o f t h e b u i ld ing s ( S chu l ten 1 929 ,foo tno t e 1 , 182 ) . I t s d a t ing v a lue

s t a te t h a t t h eS oc i ia nd t h ee qu i te sR oman i w e re a ppa ren t ly m is s ing f r om t h ec amp e ven t h ough s ol i t t le o ft h e r ema in s o fC amp V w e r e d i scove red . H e mu s t h ave b e l ieved , b y v i r tue o f t h is r e a son ing , t h a t t h ey c ou ld n o t h ave b een p r e sen t i n ac amp b u i l t a s l a te a s 7 5 B .C . a nd w h ich p o s t -da ted t h ep rov is ion so ft h eL ex J u l ia . S chu l ten p e rhap s

i s s eve r e ly r e duced a s ac on sequence a nd i td oe s n o t t h e refo r e p rov ide as e cu r et e rm inu sp o s tq uem f o rt h e d a te o ft h e c on s t ru c t ion o ft h e c amp . I na dd i t ion , w e h ave s e en a bove , w he re t h e s i gn if icance o f t h is c o in w a s d ea l t w i th i ns ome d e ta i l , t h a t i ti sn ow t hough t t ob e e a r l ie r i nd a te t h an 8 2 B .C . A d a te o f a bou t 10 B .C . i s g iven b y

f e l t t h a t h e w a s j u s t if ied i n r e s tor ing t h e p l an o f t h e b a r ra ck -b lock s i nt h e n or th ea s tern c or n e r o ft h e c amp t o

C rawford ( 1 969 ,5 ) S chu l ten , h oweve r , a ccep ted t h e o r ig ina l d a t e f o r t h e c o in o f 8 2 B .C . w h ich h ad b een p ropo sed b y H aebe r l in a nd p roceeded o n t h e b a s is , n o t o n ly t h a tC amp V mu s t h ave b een b u i l t a f te r 9 0 B .C . , b u t t h a t i tmu s th ave b een b u i l ta f te r 8 2 B .C . a nd t h a t t h e mo s t

s how ac ohor ta l a r rangemen t . S uch a n a r rangemen t w ou ld f i tt h e s i tua t ion w h ich w ou ld mo s t l i ke ly h ave b een f ound i n al e g iona ry c amp o f t h e p o s t -Ma r ian p er iod . S uch

l i ke ly c on t ex t f o r i t s c on s truc t ion w a s t h e S e r tor ian Wa r . '

d i ff icu l t ie s i nt h e i n terp r e ta t ion o f C amp I I o n t h e s ame

r e l iance o n ap r econce ived n o t ion o fh ow ap a r t icu la rc amp s hou ld l o ok i np l an h ad h owever l e d S chu l ten i n to i n i t ia l s i te .

T he S e r to r ian Wa r g a ined i t s n ame f r om t h e s t rugg le i n w h ich t h e f o r ce s o ft h e R epub l ic u nde r P ompey w e re s en t

F rom t h e d i scu s s ion w h ich h a s t a ken p l ace a bove i tc an b e s e en t h a t w e a r e n o t o b l iged t o a c cep t t h e d a te o f c on s truc t ion a f te r 9 0 B .C . u pon w h ich S chu l ten a ppea r s t o h ave b a sed h i s w ho le h ypo the s is r e la t ing t oC amp V .

a ga in s t t h e r e be l S er to r iu s w ho h ad g a ined a s t rong f o o tho ld i nS pa in . S chu l ten w ou ld h ave b een f am i l ia r w i th t h e s t ory o ft h e S er tor ian Wa r . H e h ad w r i t ten ab ook o n 19

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F ig .5 .3 D e ta i l o fS chu l ten 's r e s tor ed p l an o ft h e b ar rack s i nt h e e a s tern p a r t o fC amp V s how ing t h e a r rangemen t i n to c ohor t g roup ing s ( a f te r S chu l ten 1 929 , P lan XX ) . S ca le 1 : 2500

1 20

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C A MPS I V AND VAT R EN IEBLAS M i t te lgebäude ) . 3T he e i gh teen b a r rack s m a rk ed l ' 12 ' a nd

C on sequen t ly , i ti sp o s s ib le t oc ha l lenge t h e r e s to r ed p l an o f C amp V w h ich w a s p ropo sed b y S chu l ten a nd h i s

1 " -6 " w ou ld h ave h e ld s i x c ohor t s a cco rd ing t oS chu l ten

c onv ic t ion t h a t t h e c amp mu s t h ave b een l a id o u t t o c onf orm t o t h e ' n ew ' o rgan isa t ion o f t h e a rmy i n to c oho r t s . I n p a r t icu la r , t h e l a you t o f t h e b a r ra ck s i n t h e n o r th -ea s tern c o rne r o f t h e c amp s hou ld b e c l ose ly e xam ined . T he r e mu s t b e as t rong s u sp ic ion t h a t S chu l ten t a i lo red h i s i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e se b ar ra ck s i n o rde r t o s uppo r t h i s i d ea s c once rn ing t h e p re sen ce o f l e g iona ry

a nd t h ese w e re i na dd i t ion t ot h e t we lve b a r ra ck s w h ich h e b e l ieved h ec ou ld i d en t if y i nt h en o r th -ea s te rn c o rne ro ft h e c amp ( No s . 1 12 ) w h ich w e re t h ough t t oh o ld a no the r f o u r c ohor t s . T he t o ta l o f t e n c oho r t s w ou ld b e t h e c o r rec t n umbe r r e qu ired f o r o ne l e g ion ; t h e l e g ion i n t h is c a se b e ing t hough t t oo ccupy much o f t h e e a s tern h a lf o f t h e c amp .

c ohor t s i nC amp V ; t h is a spec t i sc on s ide r ed n ex t . I nt h e r e s to red s cheme B a r ra ck s l ' 12 ' w ou ld h ave t oh ave b een b u i l t o n t h e v ery s t eep s l ope o f t h e h i l ls ide . T h is w ou ld h ave m ean t ad rop o fa pp rox ima te ly 5 0m f r om n o r th

C amp V : t he n or th -ea s tern b arrack g roup '

t os ou th o ve r t h e 6 00pM ( c .177m ) w h ich S chu l t en a l lowed

T he g roup o fb a r rack s wh ich w a s e xcava ted a nd r e co rded b y S chu l ten i n t h e n or th -ea s tern p a r t o f C amp V i s d e serv ing o f t h e c l o se s t a t ten t ion . S chu l ten c l a imed t h a t

f o r t h is r ow o f b a ck t o b a ck b ar ra ck s . T he a r ea a l lowed f o rt h e f ou rc ohor t sw h ich S chu l ten m a in ta ined w ou ld h ave o ccup ied t h e r e s to r ed B ar rack s 1' 12 ' w a s 6 00 x 1 3l OpM

t h e se b a r ra ck s w e re l a id o u t , n o t i n l i ne s o f t e n m an ip le -bar ra ck s i nt h e m anne r d escr ibed b y P o lyb iu s b u t i na c co rdance w i th t h e l a te r f a sh ion o f ac ohor t g roup ing

i . e . 7 86 ,000 0 /2.T he a r ea a va i lab le f o r B a r r ack s 1 12 , a l so b e l ieved b y S chu l ten t o a c commoda te f ou r c oho r t s , w a s c on s ide rab ly l e s s t h an t h is a nd w a s n o t much m o re t h an t h e a r ea o f 2 80 x 1 3 10pM o r 3 66 ,800pM2 w h ich

( S chu l ten 1 929 ,155 ) , o f t h e t ype w h ich i sr e cogn ised i n f o r t r e s ses o ft h e P r inc ipa te . I nt h e p rev iou s s e c t ion i tw a s a r gued t h a t S chu l ten h ad a s sumed t h a t t h e c amp h ad b een c on s truc ted f o r t h e 11 / l 2 e g ion s o f T i tu r iu s a t ad a te , 7 5 B .C . , w hen t h e R epub l ican l e g ion w a s mo re l i ke ly t oh ave b een f o rmed o f t e l l c oho r t s a nd t h a t a s ar e su l t S chu l ten c on c luded t h a tt h eb a r rack s mu s th ave b een a r ranged i nt h e ' n ew ' c ohor t o rde r a nd n o o t he r .

S chu l ten h ad a lowed f o r t h e t wo c ohor t s i nt h e r e s to r ed B a r ra ck s 1 " -6 " ( F ig .5 .3 ) . I ti sp er t inen t t on o te t h a t t h e o n ly w ay i nw h ich S chu l ten c ou ld a ccommoda te ac omp le te l e g ion i nh i s r e s tor ed p l an o ft h ee a s te rn h a lf o fC amp V w a s t op o s tu la te f ou rc oho r t s i nt h e p o s i t ion a d ja cen t t ot h e n or thern w a l l i na dd i t ion t o

S chu l ten 's r e s to r ed p l an o f t h e n or th -ea s te rn p a r t o f t h e c amp ( s ee F ig .5 .3 ) s how s at o ta l o ft h ir ty b a r ra ck s i nt e n c oho r t g roup ing s o f t h ree b a r ra ck -b lock s e ach . B a r ra ck s 1 3 a nd 7 -9 o ft h ee x t reme n o r th -we s te r ly c ohor tg roup ing s

t h es i x c ohor t s w h ich h ea l r eady m ade p rov is ion f o r . T od o t h is h e w ou ld h ave n eeded t of i nd t h e e v idence f o r t we lve b a r rack s e ach h o ld ing o ne m an ip le .

a r e s hown l y ing b ack t o b a ck f a c ing n o r th a nd s ou th

A n e xam ina t ion o ft h e p l an o ft h e r ema in s i nt h e n or the rn

r e spec t ive ly . B a r ra ck s 4 -5 a nd 1 0 11 a r e s hown l i kew ise , w h i ls t B a r ra ck s 6a nd 1 2 , a r e i n b o th c a se s s hown a s t h ough t u rned t h rough 9 0 ° t o f a ce e a s t . T he p i c tu re

p a r to fC amp V ( s ee F ig .5 .4 ) r e vea ls n o c l ea re v iden ce f o r t h e r e a r r ange s w h ich w ou ld i n d ica te t h a t t h e r e h ad e ve r b een t wo r ow s o ft h r ee s ided b ar rack s p l a ced b ack t ob a ck a nd f a c ing i no ppo s i te d i re c t ion s ( t hu s t o ta l l ing t h e t we lve m an ip le -ba r ra ck s w h ich S chuf t en r e qu ir ed t o b e i n t h is p o s i t ion ) . R a the r , t h e e v iden ce , w her e i te x is t s , a ppea r s t o

c onveyed i n t h e r e s to red p l an i sd rawn s o a s t o p re sen t e a ch i nd iv idua l b a r ra ck a r ranged a round t h ree s i de s o f a c ou r tya rd ( t he b a r ra ck t ype w h ich i sr e cogn ised a tC amp I I a tR en ieb la s . T he t o ta l f o r ce s ugge s ted b y S chu l ten t o o ccupy B a r ra ck s 1 12 w a s f ou rc ohor t s , o ne c ohor t i ne a ch g roup o f t h ree b a r rack s .

s how t h a tS chu l ten 's p u ta t ive B a r rack s 1 5a nd 7 11 c on s is t i n s tead o f as e r ie s o f h em i s t r ig ia w i th s ome e v iden ce o f f u r the r r ooms t ot h e s ou th . F o ri n s tance B a r rack 7h a sp ar t o f aw a l l a nd a r oom i n ap o s i t ion i n t h e c en t re o f w ha t

T he r e a r e an umbe ro fd i ff icu l t ie s w i th S chu l ten 's r e s to red p l an o f t h is p a r t o f t h e c amp . B y f a r t h e mos t s e r iou s o b jec t ion i st h e s ugge s ted d i v is ion o f B ar r ack s 1 12 i n to

l o ok s o the rw ise o n t h e r e s to red p l an t o b e ac our tya rd w h ich o pened t o t h e s ou th . R ef e r en ce t o S chu l ten 's p ub l ished r e por td ea l ing w i th t h is p a r to ft h ec amp s upp l ie s

f o u r c oho r t -b lo ck s . S chu l ten 's r e s to red p l an o f t h e w ho le c amp , i sd rawn t os how a c commoda t ion f o r 1 6 c ohor t s o r j u s t o ver 11 2 l / e g ion s . T he p o s i t ion so fc e r t a in b u i ld ing s i n t h e c amp w e re k nown a s w a s t h e a pp rox ima te s hape o ft h e

s ome s urpr is ing i n f orma t ion w h ich i sn o tg i ven f u l l w e igh t e i the ro n t h e r e s to r ed p l an o ro n t h e mo r e d e ta i led p l an s o f t h e b a r r ack s t h em se lve s . A b road w a l l w a s e xcava t ed w h ich S chu l ten d e scr ibed a sb e ing c on t inuou s :

c amp . G iven t h is , S chuhen c onc luded t h a t t e n c oho r t s w ou ld h ave b een p l a ced i n t h e e a s te rn h a lf o f t h e c amp w h i ls t t h e re w ou ld o n ly h ave b een r oom f o r s i x c ohor t s i n t h e w es te rn h a lf . F o r t h is a r rangemen t t o w o rk i tw a s

N ach S üd w e rden s i ed ur ch e i ne f or t lauf ende Mauer b egrenz t . . . ( S chu l ten 1 929 ,154 ) .

n e ce s sary f o r h im t o r e s to re t h ir ty b a r ra ck b lock s o n t h e p l an o f t h e e a s te rn h a lf o f t h e c amp ( t he se b e ing t h e

T h is w a l l w a s s a id t ob o rde r t h e s ou thern e dge o ft h e r ow

B a r rack s 1 12 , l ' 12 ' a nd I " -6" s hown i nF i g .5 .3 ) . A l l o f t h e se b a r ra ck s h ave b een r e s to red o n p l an a s b e ing o ft h e t h ree s ided t y pe w i th t wo w ings ( o rh em i s t r ig ia ) c onne c ted b y ar e a r r a nge o f r ooms ( t he r e a r r a nge o f r oom s i n a t h r ee -s ided b a r ra ck i sa lway s r e f e r red t ob y S chu l ten a sa 1 2 1

o fB a r ra ck s 7 12 a nd t oh ave p rov ided t h e s ou thern w a l l o f t h es ou th w ing o fB a r rack 1 2( S chu l ten 1 929 ,154 a nd 1 57 ) . S chu l ten d es cr ibe s t h is w a l l a s a n ' Ab sch lußmaue r ' ( l i te ra l ly ' bo rde r -wa l l ' ) . I ft h is w a s t h e c a se t h en B a r ra ck s 7 11 c ou ld n o t b e f a c ing t ot h e s ou th w i th a n o pen

F ig .5 .4

D e ta i l o f t h e p l an o f t h e r ema in s i nt h e n or th -ea s tern p ar t o f C amp V a tR en ieb la s ( a f ter S chuhen 1 929 , P l an X IX ) .

P ART I I : CHAPTER 5

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C A MPS I V AND VAT R EN IEBLAS

P ART I I : CHAPTER 5

F ig .5 .6

P lan o fC amp V a tR en ieb la s s how ing t h e A bsch lußmauer , s ugges ted b y t h e p r e sen t a u thor t o h ave b een t h e s ou thern p e r ime ter w a l l o fC amp I V , S ca le 1 :1 0000

1 24

C A MPS I V AND VAT R EN IEBLAS c ou r tya rd i n t h e w ay wh ich c ou ld b e i mp l ied f r om a n

w ou ld n o t p r ec lude i tf r om h av ing b een a t o ne s t age a p er ime te r w a l l o fa n e a r l ie r c amp w h ich h ad s ub sequen t ly

i n i t ia l v i ew o ft h e r e s to red p lan . I nf a c t t h e w a l l i ss hown o n t h a t p lan b y m ean s o f ab roken l i ne b u t t h is d ev ice i s

b een e nc lo sed w i th in t h e c onf ine s o f C amp V . I t s t o ta l l e ng th w a s n o t g iven b y S chuhen b u t i te x tended f r om

s omewha t c on fu s ing a s i to b scu re s t h e p l a ce s w he r e t h e w a l l w a s a c tua l ly r e corded ( c f F ig s . 5 .4 a nd 5 .5 ) . I n

c l o se t ot h e e a s ter np e r ime te r w a l l a s f a r a sB ar rack 7 :

a dd i t ion t ob lo ck ing t h e s uppo sed c our tya rd o fB a r ra ck 7 , t h e w a l l w a sa l so r e corded t ot h e s ou th o f , a nd t h e ref o r ea t l e a s t p a r t ia l ly b lock ing , t h e s ugge s ted c ou r tya rd s o f

. .auf d er S üd S e i t e v on K aserne 7 a n d e r A b sch lußmauer C on tuber n ien z u l i egen s che inen , . . . ( 1929 ,157 ) .

B a r ra ck s 8a nd 9 . I n o rde r t o o ve rcome t h e p rob lem p r e sen ted b y t h e p os i t ion o f t h e ' bo rde r -wa l l ' , S chu l ten c on s t ruc ted a n a rgumen t w h ich s aw t h e c our tya rd o fe ach

T h is l e ng th ( c .400m ) i sc l ea r ly w e l l b eyond w ha to ne c ou ld e xpe c t f o r t h e w a l l o f as i ng le b u i ld ing a nd w i th t h i s i n m ind i ti sw or th n o t ing t h a t t h e s ou th w a l l o f C amp I V ,

s ou th -f ac ing b ar rack p rov ided w i th ap a s sageway : D ad i es üd l ichen K ase rnen d e sS t re if ens ( 7 -11 )F ron t

w h ich w a s n o t l o ca ted b y S chu l ten , w ou ld f i t w e l l i nt h i s p o s i t ion a nd o nt h is a l ignmen t( s ee F ig .5 .6 ) . T he p er ime te r w a l ls o fC amp I V a r e h oweve r r e co rded a sb e ing 3 m w ide

u nd A usgang n ach S üd h aben , m uß d i e Maue r b e i j eder K a serne e i nen Durch laß g ehab t h aben . ( S chu l t en 1 929 , 154 ) .

( S chu l ten 1 929 ,139 ) t hu s s omewha t w ide r a ga in t h an t h e w a l l i n q ue s t ion . F ur the r e xcava t ion m igh t d e te rm ine w he the r t h e w a l l h ad o r ig ina l ly c on t inued b eyond t h e e a s t

T h is e xp lana t ion i ss omewha t u n sa t isf a c tory . A ny t r oop s i s su ing f r om t h e se b a r rack s w ou ld , o n t h e b a s is o f t h is r e con s truc t ion , h ave h ad n o a l terna t ive b u t t oh ave p a s sed t h rough a p a s sage i n t h e ' b o rde r -wa l l ' . A cce s s t o t h e p er ime te rn or th w a l l wou ld h ave b een d en ied u n les s t h e r e w a sa l so ap a s sage t h rough t h e r e a rr ange s l e ad ing i n to t h e c ou r tya rd s o f t h e b a r rack s t o t h e n or th ; t h i s p o in t i sn o t

w a l l o f C amp V a nd i fs o w he the r i tw a s c on tempo ra ry w i th C amp I V .5 I ft h e ' b o rde r -wa l l ' w a sa ne a r l ie rp er ime te r w a l l , w he the r o fC amp I V o r o fs ome u nknown e a r l ie r p u rpose , t h en i t m ay h ave b een r e ta ined i nC amp V . I nt h is r e spec t i tc ou ld h ave b een u t i l ised a s ar e ady -made r e ta in ing w a l l f o r a

a cknow ledged b y S chu l ten . S ome o b jec t ion c an b e r a ised a l so a st ot h ep ra c t ica l i t ie so ft h ea r rangemen ts ugge s t ed b y

s e r ie s o f r oom s a d jo in ing i t s n or the r n f a ce . T he s l ope e x tend ing s ou thwa rd s f r om t h e s ou thern e dge o f t h e ' b o rde r -wa l l ' i s q u i te c on s ide rab le . I f t h e w a l ls o f t h e r oom s a d jo in ing i to n t h e n o r th f a ce ( t he s ou th w ing o f S chu l ten 's B ar ra ck 1 2 ) c ou ld b e s hown t oa bu t r a the r t h an i n teg ra te w i th t h e b u i ld o f t h e ' b o rde r -wa l l ' t h en s ome s uppor t m igh t b e e l ic i ted f o r t h e a rgumen t t h a t t h e

S chu l ten . I t w ou ld s eem u n l ike ly i n t h e e x t reme t h a t R oman m i l i ta ry p l ann ing o f a ny p er iod w ou ld h ave c oun tenanced as i tua t ion i nw h ich t h e t r oop s h ad t om a s s a nd t h en d ep loy t h rough ap a ssageway . T he c our tya rd s o r s t r ee t s b e tween o ppos ing b a r ra ck -b lock s a r e af e a tu r e o f b o th R epub l ican a nd I mpe r ia l c amp sw h ich mu s th ave b een d e s igned t op r even tj u s ts uch at ime -wa s t ing a nd p o ten t ia l ly d ange rou s m anoeuvre . '

' b orde r -wa l l ' w a sa l ready s t and ing w hen t h e se r oom s w e r e b u i l t . Un for tuna te ly S chu l t en p rov ide s l i t t le i nt h e w ay o f ad e ta i led d e scr ip t ion a nd n o d raw ing s o t he r t h an i n a r a the r s c hema t ic w ay w h ich w ou ld i lu s t ra te t h is c r uc ia l r e la t ion sh ip . T he r e i sh oweve r at e l l ing c l ue i nt h e r e por t

T o a l i n ten t s a nd p u rpo se s S chu l ten a ppea r s t o h ave i g no r ed t h e r am if ica t ion s o ft h e n a tu re a nd p o s i t ion o ft h e ' b o rde r -wa l l ' a nd h e d oe s n o t d i scu s s i t s r e levance . T he w a l l i sn o t aw a l l f o r ab a r rack p er s e ; i ti sf a rt oo w ide t o h ave s e r ved t h a t p urpose a l one . T he c ommon ly f ound w id th f o r t h e w a l ls o ft h e b ar rack -b lo ck s i nC amp V w a s 2 pM ( S chu l ten 1 929 ,156 ) w he rea s t h e ' b o rde r -wa l l ' h ad a v a ry ing

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f o r S chu l ten d i d n o te t h a t B a r rack 1 2 w a s i n s ome w ay a t ta ched t ot h e ' b o rde r -wa l l ' : D er S üd -F lüge l d er K a se rne i s t a n d i e A b sch lußmauer a ngebau t . ( S chu l ten 1 929 ,157 ) . H is u se o ft h e t e rm A b sch lußmauer w heneve r h e r e f er red t ot h is w a l l c onf irm s t h a tS chu l ten v i ewed i ta sh av ing h ad as pec ia l f un c t ion . I ns p i te o ft h is , a nd i ns p i te o ft h e f a c t

w h ich h e h ad r e cogn ised e l sewhe r e i n t h e R en ieb la s c omp lex .

t h a tS chu l ten h ad r e co rded t h ew a l l a sb e ing u pt o2 m t h ick i np l a ce s , i tw a s n ever the le s s r e p re sen ted o n t h e d e ta i led p l an s o f t h e b a r rack s , w h ich a ppea red i n t h e f i na l p ub l ica t ion , a s b e ing o f t h e s ame w id th a s t h e mu ch n a r rowe rb ar ra ck w a l ls ( s ee S chu l ten 1 929 ,P lan XX I ) . T he s ame e r ro r o ccu r s o n t h e s ma l le r s c a le p l an o f t h e w ho le

I h r e B re i te i s t 1 .50 -2m D ie Mauer b e s teh t , w ie a l le b r e i teren Maue rn , a u s z we i F ron ten v on 0 .40 -0 .50 u nd d e r m i t t le ren F ü l lung . ( i b id . ,154 ) . T h i s t y pe o fc on s t ruc t ion w a s t h roughou ta l o ft h e R oman

c amp ( i b id . ,P lan X IX ) .

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f o r

v i ew ing

S chu l ten 's r e s tor ed p l an o f t h e b ar ra ck s i n t h e n o r th -ea s te rn p a r t o fC amp V . w h ich p o r t ray s b a r ra ck s i n

C lea r ly t h e ' b o rde r -wa l l ' h ad f u lf i l led as pe c ia l p u rpo se . I ti sw or th n o t ing t h a t i t s p o s i t ion , a bove as harp s l ope t o

c oho r ta l o rde r , w i th ag rea t d ea l o fr e serva t ion . I tm u s t b e r e i te ra ted t h a t S chuhen f o und n o e v iden ce f o r t h e r e a r

t h e s ou th a nd w i th s omewha t f l a t te r g round t ot h e n o r th , 1 25

S ca le 1 : 500

P ART I I : CHAPTER 5

1 26

C A MPS I V AND VAT REN IEBLAS r a nge s wh ich h e b e l ieved h ad d iv ided t h e o ppo s ing

e a s tern e nd . I ti sd i s s im i la r t ot h e a d ja cen t b a r r ack s a nd i t

h em i s tr ig ia a nd w h ich h ad t hu s c r ea ted B a r ra ck s 1 5 a nd 7 11 . G iven t h e p os i t ion o f t h e ' b o rde r -wa l l ' a nd t h e p rox im i ty o ft h eo u te rp er ime te rw a l l , i tm igh tm ake b e t te r s e n se t os ugge s t t h a t t h e r e a r r ange s h ad n eve r e x is ted a nd

c anno t h ave s e rved a s ad oub le h em i s tng ia f o rm ing b o th t h e n or th w ing o fB ar ra ck 6a nd t h e s ou th w ing o fB a r ra ck

t h a t a cces s t o t h e n or th w a l l o f t h e c amp w a s u n impeded f o r a ny t r oop s w h ich i s sued f r om t h e se b a r ra ck s . A

B u i ld ing C ( F ig .5 .8 ) s e em s t oc on s is t o n ly o f s i ng le -ce l l

1 2 i nt h e w ay w h ich S chu l ten s ugge s t ed .

r ooms , t h e e xa c t n umbe r o fw h ich i su n cer ta in . I ti st h e se r ooms w h ich S chu l ten d e scr ibe s a s b e ing a t ta ched t ot h e

d e ta i led e xam ina t ion o ft h ea r chaeo logy l e nd sw e igh tt ot h e v i ew t h a t a l l t h e c our tya rd s o r o pen a r ea s b e tween t h e b a r ra ck s i n t h e n or th -ea s tern p a r t o f t h e c amp w e re

` Ab sch lußmaue r ' ( 1929 ,157 ) . T he se m ay h ave b een s t o re r ooms . I f t h ey w e r e c on tube rn ia t h en t h ey w e r e n o t

u nob s t ruc ted a nd t h a t t h e b ar rack s w e re n o ta st h ey w ou ld a ppea r o n S chu l ten 's r e s to red p l an . I n f a c t i t i s n o t

d iv ided i n to p ap ila a nd a rma l i k e t h o se f ound i nB a r ra ck Aa nd t h o se i nt h e o t he r b a r ra ck s .

u nchar i tab le t ob e l ieve t h a t S chu l ten h a s r e s to red o n p l an t h e r e qu ir ed n umbe ro fb a r ra ck s i nt h en o r th -ea s tc o rne ro f C amp V wh ich w ou ld f i t h i s h ypo the s i s c on cern ing t h e g ar r ison o f t h e c amp a nd t h u s i t s i d en t if ica t ion w i th t h e f o r ce s o fT i tu r iu s . I ft he b ar ra ck s w e r e n o t a r ranged i nt h e m anne r wh ich S chu l ten c l a im s , h ow w e r e t h ey a r ranged? T he n or th -ea s tern i n terpre ta t ion

b arracks ;

a n

S chu l ten

i n te rp re ted

t h e

l o ng

b u i ld ing

w h ich

l a y

i mmed ia te ly t o t h e w e s t a nd a t 9 0° t o t h o se m en t ioned a bove , a s b e ing t h e r e a r r a nge s f o r B a r ra ck s 6a nd 1 2 r e spec t ive ly ( 1929 ,156 -7 ) . I ft h er ema in sw e r e t h o se o fo ne s i ng le b a r ra ck t h en i t s l e ng th ( c .1 00m ) w ou ld a ppea r t o h ave b een e xce s s ive . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t al a rge p ar t o ft h e

a l terna t ive

b a r rack m ay h ave b een g i ven o ve r t oa n e x ten s ive s u i te o f r ooms f o r o ff ice r s b u t t h is d oe s n o t a ppea r t ob e t h e c a se . I n s tead i tc ou ld b e s ugge s ted t h a t t h e b u i ld ing p rov ided a ccommoda t ion f o r t wo s epa ra te c en tu r ie s a nd t h a t i t

O nt h e r e s to r ed p l an S chu l ten s how s h i sB a r rack s 6a nd 1 2 a sc omp le te t h ree s ided o r h o r se shoe type b a r ra ck s w h ich

r ep re sen ted t wo b a r ra ck so fw h ich t h e n or the rnmo s tw ou ld b e B a r rack D . T he re i ss ome e v idence f o r s pec ia l q ua r te r s f o r o ff ice r s , p e rhap s ac en tur ion , a tt h e n or thern e nd o f

h ave a n o pen s i de t o t h e e a s t ( s ee F ig .5 .5 ) . A cco rd ing t o S chu l ten t h e r e a r r ange s o f B a r ra ck s 6a nd 1 2 w e re r ough ly p a ra l le l t o t h e e a s t w a l l o f t h e c amp w i th a l l t h e

t h is b a r rack w he r e t h e r oom s w e re s omewha t l a rge r t h an

f o u r s upposed w ings o ft h e se t wo b a r ra ck s a tr i gh t a ng le s t ot h e e a s t w a l l . T he mo s t u nu sua l a spec to ft h is s cheme i s t h a t o ne s i ng le b u i ld ing ( s hown b y m ean s o fa n a r row o n F i g .5 .5 ) i ss a id t os er ve a sb o th t h e s ou th w ing o fB a r rack 6a nd t h e n or th w ing o fB ar ra ck 1 2( S chu l ten 1 929 ,156 -7 ) . E xam ina t ion o ft h e p lan s o ft h e r ema in s o ft h e se b ar rack s r e vea ls t h a ta l terna t ive i n terp r e ta t ion s c an b e p u t f o rwa rd . T he t h ree e a s t -we s t o r ien ta ted b u i ld ings a r ea l d i f f e ren t i n c ha ra c te r . B u i ld ing A ( F ig .5 .7 ) h a s t h e a pp ea rance o f a c omp le te c en tur ia l b ar ra ck . ' O n t h e r e s to r ed P lan XX ( s ee F i g .5 .5 ) t h is b ar rack i s s hown w i th a c on jec tu ra l w a l l l i nk ing i tt o t h e w es tern o r r e a r r a nge o f r oom s . T he p r e sence o fd i s t in c t ive r oom s a te i the re nd o ft h e b u i ld ing m ake i t mo r e l i ke ly t h a t S chu l ten h ad r e cove red t h e c omp le te g round -p lan o f ac en tu r ia l b a r ra ck w i th e v iden ce f o r c en tur ia l q ua r te r s a nd aS ch lußbau .7S chu l t en h im se lf r ema rked o n t h e g ap b e tween t h e e nd o f h i s p ropo sed b a r ra ck a nd w ha t h e t ook t ob e i t s r e a r r a nge b u t h e s t a ted t h a t t h is s i tua t ion w a s n o t u nknown e l s ewhe r e :

t ho se t ot h e s ou th . ( F ig .5 .7 ) . T he r e s t o ft h e b a r ra ck h ad as e r ie s o fp a ired r oom s ( c on tubern ia ) p e rhap s n umber ing 1 4 o r 1 5 a l though i ti sd i ff icu l t t oe s tab l ish e xa c t ly w he re t h is b ar ra ck e nd s a nd t h e n ex t o ne , B ar ra ck E , b eg in s . T he e v idence i sc l ea r e r i nt h e a d jo in ing B ar rack s Fa nd G . T he n or thern s e c t ion , B a r ra ck F ( F ig .5 .7 ) , w a s b u i l t b a ck t ob a ck w i th i t s n e ighbou ra nd s ha red ac ommon r e a r w a l l . S pec ia l q ua r te r s a r e i n e v idence a t t h e e x t r eme n or the rn e nd o fB ar rack F , t h e se a r e b e s t i n terp r e t ed a sb e ing f o r a c en tur ion ; t h ey c on s is t ed o f o ne l a rge r oom m ea sur ing 7 .2x4m ( 25x14pM a nd a s ma l le r d i v ided r oom b eh ind . F o l low ing t h is t h e re w e r e f i ve r oom s i nd e scend ing o rde r o f s i ze w h ich s howed s ome e v iden ce o f h av ing b een d iv ided . T he r ema in s i nt h em idd le p a r t o fB ar rack F w e re r a the r f r agmen ta ry b u t a t t h e s ou thern e nd t h ree o f t h e r oom s s how b y t h e i r s i ze i n r e la t ion t o t h e i n terven ing c on tube rn ia t h a t t h ey m ay h ave b een o ff ice r s q ua r te r s , p e rhap st h o se o ft h ep r inc ipa le s o ft h e c en tu ry . I tc ou ld b e s ugge s ted t e n ta t ive ly t h a t B a r ra ck F w a s a c omp le te b a r rack w i th c en tu r ion 's q ua r te r s , as e r ie s o fc on tubern ia a nd aS ch lußbau . L y ing i mmed ia te ly t o t h e s ou th o f t h is

. .da s a uch i m L ager I I m i tun ter f i nde t . ( S chuf t en 1 929 ,156 ) .

b ar ra ck w a s a f u r the r s e r ie s o f c on tube rn ia . T he se c on tubern ia f o rmed p a r to f ab a r rack ( G s hown o n F ig .5 .8 )

T he c l ea r i mp l ica t ion i st h a t S chu l ten r e cogn ised t h a t t h is b a r ra ck h ad n o t b een j o ined t ot h e b a r r a ck t ot h e w e s t ( h is

t o t h e e a s t . T h is m igh t s ugge s t t h a t t wo s epa ra te w o rk

s o -ca l led r e a r r a nge ) . T h is m ake s t h e a ppea rance o f t h e

g ang s w e r e i n vo lved i nt h e c on s truc t ion o f t h e b ar r a ck s ,

w h ich h ad ag angway t h a t s epa ra ted i tf r om i t s n e ighbou r

c on jec tu red w a l l l i nes o n t h e r e s to r ed p l an s omewha t p uzz l ing .

p e rhap s

t h e

s epe ra te

c en tu r ie s

w h ich

w e re

t o

b e

B u i ld ing B ( F ig .5 .7 ) l i kew ise , a ppea r s t ob es e lf con ta ined

a ccommoda ted . I ft h e e xcava to r 's g round -p lan i sa c cep ted t h en ag ap m ay h ave e x is ted b e tween t h e e nd o f B a r ra ck F a nd t h e b a r ra ck i mmed ia te ly b e low i t . ' S i gn if ican t ly t h e

a nd h a s ag ap s epa ra t ing i tf r om t h e b a r ra ck r ow t o t h e w e s t . I t c on s is ted , f o r t h e mo s t p a r t , i n s e t s o f t h r ee a d jo in ing r o om s b u t w i th a d i f f e r en t a r rangemen t a t i t s

b u i ld ing c omp lex r e sume s w i th w ha tc ou ld b e aS ch lußbau w h ich m igh t m a rk t h e r e a r e nd o f B ar ra ck G . T he b a ck w a l l o fB ar ra ck G c ou ld b e t r a ced s ou thwa rd sa lmo s ta sf a r 1 27

P ART I I : CHAPTER 5

? s to re room s

o

a

z z 1

1

gut _ 4 .44 ' 1 '

B ITH IH : ikr

1 28

C AMPS I V AND VAT R EN IEBLAS d i s t in c t ive r oom s a te i the re nd o ft h e b a r r a ck m ay b e b e s t

a st h e ' b o rde r -wa l l ' w h ich s ugge s t s t h a t i tt o o c ou ld h ave b e en a c en tu r ia l b a r ra ck . I fs o , t h e c en tu r ion 's q ua r t e r s w ou ld h ave a bu t ted t h e ` Ab sch lußmaue r ' a nd t h e t wo b a r r a ck s ( F a nd G ) w ou ld h ave s t ood e nd t oe nd p e rhap s w i th as ma l l g ap b e tween t h em .

i n t e rp r e t ed a s t h e c en tu r ion 's q ua r t e r s a nd a S ch lußbau . T he c en tu r ion 's q ua r te r sw e r ep e rhap sa tt h ee a s t e rn e nd o f t h e b a r ra ck w he r e s ome o ft h e r oom s a ppea r t oh ave b e en e x tended t o t h e s ou th ; t h is w ou ld h ave p rodu ced a g round -p lan v ery s im i la r i fn o t i d en t ica l t ot h e ' 1 . ; s h ap e g round -p lan t h a t i ss e en i nm any p l an s o ft h e b a r r a ck s o f t h e Emp i r e . S andw iched b e tw een t h eo ff i ce r s ' q ua r t e r sa nd t h e p o s s ib le S ch lußbau w e r e an umbe r o f c on tube rn ia , p e rhap s 1 4 o r 1 5 , i n t o ta l , s ome o f w h ich w e re d i v ided i n to p ap i l io a nd a rma . T he r e w e r e p e rhap s 1 3 o r 1 4 o rd ina r y c on tube rn ia w i th w ha ta ppea r st ob ea nu nd iv ided s p e c ia l c on tuber n ium a tt h e w e s t ern e nd o f t h e r ow o f c on tuber n ia . S u ch s p e c ia l c on tube rn ia , w he re t h ey h ave b e en r e cogn i sed i nI mpe r ia l b a r ra ck s , a r eu sua l ly f o und a s t h e f i r s tc on tube rn ium b eh ind t h ec en tu r ion 's q ua r t e r sa nd an umbe r o f t h eor ie s e x is t a s t o t h e r e a son f o r t h e i r p r e sen ce ( s e e D av i son 1 9 89 ,34 -5 ) .

T he r ema in s o f t h e o t he r p u ta t ive b a r ra ck s , 1 4 a nd 7 10 a r e t o o f r agmen ta ry f o r d e ta i led c ommen t . I ft h ey w e r e b a r r a ck s t h en t h ey c l ea r ly b ecame p rog r e s s ive ly s hor t e ri n l e ng th . T h is w a sw ou ld h ave b een c au sed b y t h er e s t r ic t ion i nt h e d imen s ion s a va i lab le c au sed b y t h e c onve rgen ce o f t h e ' b o rd e r -wa l l ' w i th t h e o u t e r w a l l o f C amp V . T he s p a ce b e tween t h e o ppo s ing ? hem i s t r ig ia w a s a l so v er y m u ch n ar rowe r t h an t h a t f o und b e tw een t h e b a r ra ck s t o t h e i r e a s t . I n h i s r e s to r ed P l an XX ( S chu l t en 1 929 ) t h e c our tya rd so fe a ch b a r r a ck a r eg i ven a sb e ing 2 00pM w ide b u t i n P l an X IX t h e m ax imum d i s tan ce b e tween t h e o ppo s ing ? hem i s t r ig ia o fB a r r a ck 4i s3 0m ( c .10 1pM ) a nd b e tween t h o s e o fB a r ra ck 9 ,3 5m ( c .118pM ) .

O f f icer s ' q uar ter s I n t h e a l t ern a t ive a r rangemen t w h ich h a s b e en p ropo sed a bove , e a ch s e r ie s o fb ar r ack s a nd o t he r b u i ld ing s w ou ld f a ce e a ch o t he r a c ro s s a n o pen s pa ce w i th p e rhap s s t o r e r o om s b u i l t a ga in s t t h e ' b o rde r -wa l l . ' T he r e i s n o a lowan ce m ade f o r t h e ' M i t te lgebäude ' w h ich S chu l ten r e s to r e s i n ap o s i t ion d i v id ing t h e c ou r tya rd s o f h i s B a r r a ck s 1 5 a nd 7 11 , i n s t ead , a c ce s s t o t h e p er ime te r w a l l w ou ld h ave b een u nob s t ru c ted f o r a ny t r oop s i s su ing f r om t h e s e b a r ra ck s . D ISCUSS ION OF SO ME OF THE F INDINGS F RO M THE EXA M INAT ION OF THE ARCHAEOLOG ICAL RE MA INS OF CA MP V AT REN IEBLAS C ohor t -b lo ck c on f igura t ion a nd b arra ck t ype l th a s b een a r gued a t l e ng th i n t h e a bove p age s t h a t S chu l t en 's g roup ing o f t h e b ar ra ck s i n to c ohor t -b lo ck s a t R en ieb la s Vd oe s n o t h o ld u p t o s c ru t iny . I th a s b een s h own t h a t m o r e t h an o n e i n terp r e ta t ion c an b e p o s tu la ted f r om t h e a va i lab le a r cha eo log ica l e v iden ce a nd i th a s b een d emon s t ra t ed i n t h is p r e sen t w o rk t h a t t h e r e w a s n o e v iden ce t os ugge s t t h a t i n d iv idua l b a r r a ck s w e r e o f t h e t h r ee s id ed t y pe a l though t h ey m ay h ave b e en g roup ed i n s u ch a w ay a s t o r e semb le a g r and t h r ee s ided a r r angemen t . O nt h ec on t ra ry , i th a sb een s ugge s t ed b y t h e p r e sen t a u tho r t h a t t h e b a r ra ck s a t C amp V w e r e h em i s t r ig ia a l though i ti sn o t p o s s ib le t om ak e a ny c l ea r s t a temen t a bou t t h e b a r r a ck -b lock c on f igu r a t ion w h ich w ou ld s e em t oh ave b een a noma lou s . I tc an b e s e en t h a t a f u l le rp l an i sr e qu i r ed b ef o r ea ny d ef in i t ec on c lu s ion sc ou ld b e d r awn . S ome o f t h e b a r ra ck s w e r e , i n d iv idua l ly , n o t a t a l d i s s im i la r t oI mp e r ia l t y pe s n o tab ly B a r ra ck A ( F ig . 5 . 7 ) w h ich i sd i s cu s sed i nf u r the r d e ta i l l a t e r . T h is b a r ra ck h ad al e ng th o fa pp rox ima te ly 7 1m a nd aw id th w h ich v a r ied b e twe en 7 a nd a bou t 9 m . I th a s t h e a ppea ran ce o f a c omp le t ec en tu r ia lb a r ra ck , p e rhap st h ea c commoda t ion f o r o ne c en tu ry , a c en tu r ion a nd h i s p r inc ipa le s . T he 1 2 9

I tw a s o b ser ved t h a t r oom s a tt h e h ead o fs e ve r a l b a r r a ck s i n C amp V w e r e m a rk ed ly d i f f e r en t f r om t h e m o r e u n if o rm s e t s o f c on tube rn ia b eh ind t h em . T he c l ea r i mp l ica t ion h e r e i s t h a t t h e r oom s a t t h e h ead o f t h e b a r ra ck s w e r e f o r o ff i ce r s w i th in c en tu r ia l b a r r a ck s a nd t h a t t h e se r oom s w e r e l i k e ly t oh ave b e en o ccup ied b y a c en tu r ion . T he p r e sen ce o fi n t erna l w a l l sm ak e si td i ff i cu l t t oc a lcu la t e t h e a moun t o fl i v ing s p a ce w h ich ac en tur ion m igh th ave c ommanded . T he r o om sa tt h e h ead o fB a r ra ck Ah ad a t l e a s t 6 5m 2 a tt h e i r d i spo sa l b u t t h is t o ta l m ay h ave b e en a dded t o ; t h e r e a r e t r a ce s o f f u r the r r o om s a t ta ched t ot h o se w h ich w e r e f o und . T he r o om sa tt h eh ead o fB a r ra ck D h ad 6 3m 2 a va i lab le a nd t h o se a tt h e h ead o f B a r r a ck F a pp rox ima t e ly 3 2 s tn 2 ( 70m 2 i ft h e f i r s t t h r e e r o om s a r e c on s ide r ed t o ge the r ) . S pe c ia l r o om s ( S ch lußbau t en ) a t t h e r e a r o f t h e b a r r a ck , v i s ib le i n B a r ra ck A , a nd h i n t ed a ti ns ome o f t h e o t he r b a r r a ck s , o f f e r t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t o ff i ce r s ( p r inc ipa le s ) w e r e s t a t ion ed i nt h e e nd r o om s o fe a ch b ar ra ck . T he m en 's q uar ter s S ome o f t h e b a r r a ck s a tC amp V d i sp lay a v er y r e gu la r s e r ie s o f c on tube rn ia n ea r ly a l w i th t h e d i v is ion i n to p ap i l io a nd a rma .T he l e ng th so ft h ei n d iv idua lc on tube rn ia w e r e m o s t ly i nt h e r e g ion o f 7 m , w id th s v a r ied b u t m o s t w e r e b e tw een 2 . 5 a nd 3 m w ide i n te rna l ly . T he p ap i l ione s w e r e a l i nt h e r e g ion o f3 m o r o ve r i nl e ng th w h i l s t t h e a rma , w he r e t h ey c ou ld b e r e cogn is ed , w e r e a l u nde r 3 m i n l e ng th . T he p ap i l io t h u s t o ok t h e g r ea te r p a r t o f t h e c on tube rn ium i na l c a s e s w he re t h e d i s t in c t ion c ou ld b e m ade a l though i nt h ec a s e o fB a r ra ck D t h e d i f f e r en ce w a s m in ima l , t h ep ap i l ione sb e ing o f ten b e ing o n ly 0 .2 o r0 . 3 tu l o nge r t h an t h e a rma . T he n umbe r o f c on tube r n ia i nt h e b a r rack s i sd i ff icu l t t o e s t ima t e g i ven t h e p oo r s t a te o f s u rv iva l o f mo s t o f t h e r ema in s . I f t h e b a r ra ck s a r e a c cep ted a s b e ing o f t h e h em i s t r ig ia t y pe r a the r t h an t h e t h r ee s ided a r r angemen t t h en i nB a r r a ck A t h e n umbe ro fc on tube rn ia c an b ep u ta t

P ART I I : CHAPTER 5 1 3 o r 1 4 t o ge the r w i th o ne s pec ia l c on tube rn ium .

5 I ft h e ` Ab sch lußmauer ' d id o r ig ina l ly s e r ve a s t h e

I n

B ar ra ck D t h e re w ou ld b e p os i t ive e v iden ce f o r 6 c on tubern ia a nd p a r t ia l e v idence f o r a t l e a s t t h e s ame

s ou ther n w a l l o fC amp I V t h en t h e i n terna l a r ea o f t h e c amp c ou ld b e c a lcu la ted a s h av ing b een a bou t

n umbe r a ga in . B a r ra ck G w ou ld h ave e v iden ce f o r 1 0

5 5ha . T h is c ompa re s w i th t h e S chu l ten e s t ima ted ( 1929 ,139 ) .

c on tube rn ia i n a dd i t ion t o t h e p os s ib le S ch lußbau . T he m is s ing a r ea s i n s ome o f t h e se b a r ra ck s m igh t h ave h e ld

5 8 .9ha .

w h ich

6 I tw a s n e ce s sa ry t oi n t roduce m y o wn n o ta t ion f o r

mo re c on tubern ia i nw h ich c a se t h e 1 3 o r 1 4 c on tubern ia w h ich a r e f ound w i th B ar ra ck A m igh t r ep re sen t at y p ica l

e ach s ugge s ted b ar rack . S chu l ten r e f e r s t o t h e b ar ra ck s i n t h e n or th -ea s t p ar t o f C amp V o n ly i n

n umbe r .

t e rm s w h ich a r e r e la t ive t ot h ree s ided b a r ra ck s e . g . CONCLUS IONS

S üd -F lüge l , N ordF lüge l a nd M i t te lgebäude . T he i d ea t h a t t h e b a r ra ck s a r e c omp r ised o ft h ree w ing s

T he m a jo r p o in t w h ich h a s e me rged f r om t h e r e app ra isa l

i sr e jec ted d u r ing t h e c ou r se o f t h i s c hap te r a nd , c on sequen t ly , S chu l ten 's n umbe r ing s y s tem a nd t e rm s b ecome m ean ing le s s .

o f t h e e v iden ce a tC amp V R en ieb la s i st h a t t h e e v idence f o r t h ree s ided b a r rack s , w h ich w e re s o c l o se ly a s soc ia ted b y S chu l ten w i th t h e R epub l ican a rmy o f t h e s e cond c en tu ry B .C . a tt h ee a r l ie rC amp I I , i sn o t f ound w i th a ny

7 S ch lußbau ten i st h e G erman t e rm n ow i nc ommon u sage g i ven t o t h e t wo o r t h ree r oom q ua r te r s t h a t a r e f ound a tt h e r e a ro fs ome l e g ionar y a nd a ux i l ia ry

d eg ree o fc er ta in ty a tC amp V d e sp i te S chu l ten 's a t temp t s t o d emon s t ra te i t . I n s tead t h e a r rangemen t s e em s t o b e

b a r ra ck s o ft h e I mpe r ia l p e r iod .

q u i te u n l ike t h a tw h ich h a sb een s of a rr e corded e l sewher e . T he i n d iv idua l b ar rack s c an b e s ugge s ted t o h ave t h e

8 A l though t h e r ema in s s t i l l e x is t o n t h e g round t h is a r ea o ft h e h i l l top a tR en ieb la s w a so ve rg rown a nd s t rewn w i th r ubb le i n1 989 . T h is s t ood i nc on t ra s tt o t h e r u in so fC amp I I w h ich c ou ld b e i d en t if ied w i th r e la t ive e a se w i th t h e a i do ft h e s i te p l an s . P l an XX I

a ppea rance o f I mper ia l r a the r t h an R epub l ican t y pe s b u t t h e i r c on f igu ra t ion i sq u i te c l ea r ly n o t i nc ohor t -b lock s a s w a sp o s tu la ted b y S chu l ten . I ft h ep re sen ta u tho r 's f i nd ing s c on cern ing t h e n a tu r e o f t h e b ar rack -b lock s i sa c cep ted t h en t h ey w e r e a r ranged i n av ery u nu sua l m anne r . T h is a r rangemen t m ay h ave b een d i c ta ted t os ome e x ten t b y t h e s e em ing ly p re -ex is t ing w a l lo rAb sch lußmauer w h ich , i th a s

( S chu l ten 1 929 ) s how s ad i s tu rban ce a tt h is p o in t .

b een a rgued , s t ood b efo re t h e b ar rack s w e re e r ec ted . T he s i gn if ican ce o ft h eA b sch lußmauer h a sb een b rough tt o t h e a t ten t ion o f t h e r e ade r a nd i th a s b een d emon s t ra ted h ow S chu l ten c ho se t oi gno re t h ea noma ly s u r round ing t h is s t ruc tu r e p e rhap s i no rde r t os t reng then h i s t h eor y w h ich a t tr ibu ted t h e c amp t o T i tu r iu s a nd h i s o ne a nd a h a lf l e g ion s . NOTES 1 F o r a n a l terna t ive v i ew s e e H i ldeb ran t 's c l a im s f o r t h e n um isma t ic e v iden ce a nd a l so F ab r ic iu s ( 19 11 ,379 ) , w ho b e l ieved t h a t t h e c amp c ou ld h ave s e rved a s a b a se -camp f o r S c ip io 's o pe ra t ion s a ga in s t N uman t ia i n 1 34 133 B .C . 2 N .b . S chu l ten 's n o ta t ion f o r t h e b a r rack s i si n i t ia l ly r e ta ined f o r c onven ien ce . 3 T h is i si n t h e s en se t h a t t h e r e a r r a nge o ccup ie s a m idd le p o s i t ion b e tween t h e h em i s tr ig ia , h en ce M i t te lgebäude .

t wo

o ppo s ing

4 C ommen t ing i ng ene ra l u pon t h e s a f egua rd s w h ich w e re f ound a s a n i n teg ra l c on s t i tuen t o ft h e R oman c amp L u t twak ( 1976 ,56 ) s t a te s : . . the b road r o adway s w ou ld e n su re t h a t i ft h e c amp c ame u nde r a t tack , t h e t r oop s c ou ld b e mu s te red i na n o rde r ly m anne r , a vo id ing t h e c e r ta in c onfus ion a nd p o s s ib le p an ic e a s i ly c au sed b y m en r u sh ing a bou t i n as ma l l s pa ce s t r ewn w i th i mped imen ta . '

1 30

P ART I I : CHAPTER 6

THE LEG IONARY BASE AT CÄCERES EL V IEJO I NTRODUCT ION T he r ema in s o f aR oman l e g ionary ' f or t re s s ' 3 I cm n or th o f t h e mode rn S pan ish t own o f C äce re s ( Roman N orba

U lber t g oe s o n t os t a te t h a t t h e v a r iou s b u i ld ing s ( wh ich w e re p rov ided w i th s t one f ounda t ion s ) , w h ich m ade u p

C ae sar ina ) w e r e e xam ined b y S chu l ten d ur ing h i s e a r ly p e r iod i nS pa in a tt h e s ame t ime t h a t h e w a s i n ve s t iga t ing

S chu l ten 's s uppo sed p rae tor ium , a ppea red t o h ave h ad a v a r ie ty o fd i f f e ren t f unc t ion s i n c lud ing ab u i ld ing , B au te i l

t h e s i te s a round N uman t ia . ' S ome e xcava t ion t o ok p l a ce a t C äce re s e lV ie jo i n1 9 10 u nde r S chu l ten 's d i rec to r sh ip b u t h e w a s n o t t oc onduc t f u r the r e xcava t ion s a tt h e s i te u n t i l s e ven teen y ea r s l a te r d ur ing t h e p er iod 1 927 1930 .

E( U lber t 1 984 , A bb .9 ) w h ich m ay h ave b een a g rana ry w h ich w a s c on s truc ted a t s ome t ime a f t e r t h e i n i t ia l b u i ld ing s . A ny s ugge s t ion t h a tt h ec omponen t sw h ich m ade u p b u i ld ing c omp lex V w e re i ns ome w ay r e la ted a sp a r t o f p rae tor ium w ou ld b e d i ff icu l t t o p rove ( U lbe r t

C on sequen t ly af i r s tr epor ta ppea red i nt h eJ .D .A .I . ( 19 18 , V o l . x xx i i i ,75 106 ) f o l lowed b y s ubsequen t r e por t s i nt h e

1 984 ,35 ) . 5N ever the le s s , U lber td id a c cep tt h a tt h el o ca t ion w h ich S chu l ten h ad s ugge s ted f o r t h e p o s i t ion o f t h e

s ame j ourna l ( 1928 ,Vo l .x l i i i ,1-30 ; 1 930 ,Vo l .x lv ,37 -87 ; 1 932 ,Vo l .x lv i i ,334 -87 ) . T he c amp w a s b e l ieved b y S chu l ten t o h ave b een t h e w o rk o f Me te I lu s P iu s a nd t o h ave b een c on s t ru c ted i n 7 9 B .C . T he l e g iona ry b a se a t C ä ce re s e l V ie jo h a s mo re r e cen t ly r e ce ived r e newed a t ten t ion f r om P rof e s sor U lber t( 1984 )a nd S chu l ten 's w o rk h a sb een t h o rough ly r e -exam ined . U lber tw a sa b le t oa r gue

p rae tor ium ( on an a tu ra l r i se w h ich w ou ld h ave o ve r looked t h e c amp ) w a s t h e mo s t l i ke ly p l ace f o r t h ep rae tor ium t o h ave l a in ( i b id . ,35 a nd s e e a l so T af e l 1 ) . A t A ugu s tan O be raden t h e h eadqua r t e r s b u i ld ing s l a y a t t h e h i ghe s t p o in t w i th in t h e c amp o n t o p o f t h e h i l l . T he se b u i ld ing s

t h a t t h e b a se w a s o ccup ied d ur ing t h e 8 0 's B .C .

i n c luded o ne w h ich w a s i d en t if ied a s t h e p rae tor ium ( Küh lborn 1 989 ,47 -8 a nd A bb .31) b u t a tO be raden , l i ke

CÄCERES EL V IEJO : t he l a you t o ft he b a se

s ome o t he r A ugu s tan i n s ta l la t ion s , t h e v i ap r inc ipa l i s w a s o nt h e l o ng a nd n o tt h es hor ta x is . I fS chu l ten w er e c or re c t i nh i s a s se s smen t t h a t t h e p rae tor ium a tC ä ce r e s e lV ie jo w a s l o ca ted o n t h e n a tu ra l h i l lock w i th in t h e c amp t h en i t w ou ld a lmos t c er ta in ly h ave f a ced n o r th . T he v i a

T he d ef ence s o f t h e c amp c on s is ted o f a n e a r th r ampa r t w i th a s t one r e ve tmen t f r on ted b y t wo d i t che s . T he se d ef ence se n c lo sed a na r ea o f2 4ha . ( 59 a c r e s ) w i th in a lmo s t ap e r f ec t r e c tang le ( F ig .6 .1) .2 T he l o ng w e s tern a nd e a s tern s i de sb e ing 6 52m a nd 6 47m i nl e ng th r e spec t ive ly ,

p r inc ipa l i s w ou ld h ave r un i nf r on t o ft h is b u i ld ing a c ro s s t h e s ho r t a x is ( a ny o t he r a r rangemen t w i th t h e v i a p r inc ipa l i s o n t h e l o ng a x is w ou ld h ave m ade t h e i n terna l p l an s o u nba lanced a s t o b e u n l ike ly ) .6 G iven t h a t t h e

w h i ls t t h e s hor te r n or the rn a nd s ou the rn e nd s m ea su re 3 72m a nd 3 64m ( U lber t 1 984 ,45 ) . C ruc ia l t o t h e u nde r s tand ing o ft h e i n terna l l a you t o fC ä ce re s e lV ie jo i s t h e c o r r ec t i d en t if ica t ion a nd o r ien ta t ion o f a ny o f t h e m a jo r b u i ld ing s o r s t ree t s w i th in i tb u t u nfo r tuna te ly t h e i n terna l p l an i sf a r f r om c omp le te . O ne e l emen t w h ich c an h oweve r b e r e cogn ised w i th s ome c onf idence i st h e m a jo r s t ree t w h ich c r o s sed t h e s hor t a x is o f t h e c amp ( F ig .6 .1 ) .

i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e b u i ld ing s i n s ide t h e f o r t re s s , p a r t icu la r ly t h ep rae tor ium , m ay n o t b e s e cu r e i ti sw ise t o t r ea t S chu l ten 's i d en t if ica t ion s w i th s ome c au t ion . B arrack s a t C äcere s e lV ie jo Whe the ra l o ft h e l e g ion w a s g a r r isoned w i th in t h e b a se a t C äce r e s e lV ie jo a ta ny o ne t ime i sn o t k nown . P ar t o ft h e l e g ion m ay h ave b een s t a t ioned e l sewhe re o r c onve r se ly

I ft h e e xcava to rh a s c or rec t ly d e term ined t h e e x ten t o ft h e s ou the rn d ef en ce s t h en t h is s t ree t w ou ld h ave b een c en t ra l ly p l a ced i nt h e m idd le o ft h e l o ng a x is a nd w ou ld h ave s e rved t od i v ide t h e c amp i n to t wo e qua l p a r t s . ' A

s ome p a r t o f t h e b a se m ay h ave b een g i ven o ve r t o a ux i l ia ry t r oop s . T he p r e sen ce o f s ub s tan t ia l n umbe r s o f I b er ian b rooche sw i th in t h ec amp p e rhap si n d ica t e s t h a tt h e l e g iona r ie ss ha r ed t h es i te w i th S pan ish a ux i l iar ie s( Kepp ie 1 987 ,p .401) b u t s upp l ie s o f i nd igenou s g ood s m ay h ave e n te red t h e c amp f o r R oman u se . T he e xcava t ion s a r ound N uman t ia r e vea led t h a t t h e p ecu l ia r ly I b e r ian h and -m i l l s w e re u sed n o t o n ly i n t h e n a t ive t own b u t a l so i n t h e R oman c amp s ( Cu rch in 1 990 ,p .296 )7

g a te , o rr a the r ab r eak ( 'Un terbrechung ' ) i nt h eo u t e rw a l l , w a s l o ca ted i n t h e w e s ter n d ef ence s w h ich w ou ld h ave g i ven a c ce s s t oa nd f r om t h is s t ree t( Schuf ten 1 930 ,38 ) . A f u r the rt wo ' g a teway s ' ( no e v idence o ff l ank ing t owe r sw a s d i scove red ) w e r e l o ca ted i nt h ew e s tern a nd n or the rn w a l ls a nd S chu l ten , s omewha ta mb i t iou s ly , i d en t if ied t h e se g a te s a s t h e P or ta p r inc ipa l is s i n i s t ra a nd t h e P or ta p rae tor ia r e spec t ive ly ( S chu l ten 1 930 ,38 ) .4

F ew b u i ld ing s w e re t h ough t b y S chu l ten t oh ave b een t h e T he i d en t if ica t ion o f t h e p rae tor ium a tC ä ce re s e l V ie jo

r ema in s o f b a r ra ck s . B u i ld ing X I w a s o ne s u ch , b u t t h is

w ou ld p robab ly a l low t h e o r ien ta t ion o f t h e c amp t o b e e s tab l ished b u t U lber t c ommen t s :

b u i ld ing , l i t t le mor e t h an t h e r ema in s o f af ew r oom s , r e ce ive s s c an ta t ten t ion f r om U lber t ( 1984 ,43 a nd A bb .12 ) a nd i t s f unc t ion i ss t i l l u n cer ta in . U lbe r t c onc luded t h a t S chu l ten h ad f ound n o p o s i t ive p roof o fa ny b a r ra ck :

Man w ürde d i e B aure s te o hne S chu l tens S ehwe i se z unächs t k e ine sweg s a l s T e i le e i ne s P rae tor ium s e r k lär en . ( U lbe r t 1 984 ,35 ) .

. . t ro t z

g roßer

Mühen

u nd

t r o t z

z ah l re iche r

» Suchgräben« v e rgeben s . ( U lb e r t 1 9 84 ,194 ) .

1 3 1

P ART I I : CHAPTER 6

. 2 p o r ta p rae tor ia

? por ta p r inc ipa l i s s i n i s t ra

L . ? praetor ium r

v

I -—

V I

V I I s t ree t

'I .I "j i l

77 -

? v ia q u in tana V I I I

X

j

X I I

X I

P l

X I I I

—1 . 0

5 0

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T he l e g ionary b a se a t Cke res e lV ie jo ( a f ter U lber t 1 984 ,Abb .

1 32

1 00m

THE L EG IONARY B ASE AT CACERES E L V IEJO T he r ema ins w h ich mos t c l o se ly r e semb led a R oman b a r rack w e re t h o se wh ich w e r e f ound i nt h e B u i ld ing V I

h ave n o o pen ing o n to t h e s t ree t w h ich l a y t ot h e ir n or th :

c omp lex i mmed ia te ly a d jacen t t o t h e s t ree t w h ich i n

E s f ä l l t a l le rd ing s a uf , d aß S chu l ten k e ine r ege lrech ten E ingänge v on d er S t raßen se i te h er

U lber t 's p l an r e ta in s S chu l ten 's i d en t if ica t ion o ft h is s t r ee t a st h e v i a q u in tana . T he s ou thern p ar to ft h is b u i ld ing h ad s t on ef ounda t ion sa nd i tc on s is ted o f as t r ip ,4 2m i nl e ng th , w h ich f l anked t h e ma in s t r ee t t ot h e s ou th . I tw a s d i v ided

b eobach te t h a t . ( U lber t1 984 , 3 9 ) . I nt h i s r e spec t t h ey s t and i nc on t ra s t t ot h e t a bernae w h ich h ave b een r e cogn ised o n t h e ma in s t r ee t s i n s eve ra l f o r t re s se so ft h e Emp ir ei n c lud ing I n ch tu th i l ( s ee d i scu s s ion

i n to an umbe r o fr ooms , t h e mo s t e a s te r ly o fw h ich h ave t h e a ppea rance o fc on tube rn ia . I ts e em s h oweve r t h a t t h i s s t r ip m ay h ave b een b u t p a r t o f al a rge r b u i ld ing . A s e ven teen y ea rg ap b e tween t h e t wo p er iod s o fe xcava t ion r e su l t ed i n ac e r ta in amoun t o fc on fu s ion i nt h e p l an ( s een

i nP i t t sa nd S t .Jo seph 1 985 ,180 -81) a nd i tm igh tb e b e s tt o d i sca rd t h e t e rm t a be rnae f o r t h e r ooms o fB u i ld ing V I I I .

i n t h e m isma t ch ing o f t h e o u ter e a s tern w a l ls o f t h is

T ha t t h e i n d iv idua l r oom s o f B u i ld ing V I I I w e re e n te red

b u i ld ing o nt h e f i na l p lan ) a nd U lber t( 1984 ,46 ) s t a te st h a t

f r om t h e s ou th i sc onf i rmed b y t h e p re sen ce o f as ma l l t emp le w h ich w a s s i tua ted i nt h e ir m id s t , t h e g round -p lan

i t i s d i ff icu l t t o b e p rec ise o n t h e q ue s t ion o f t h e i n te rp r e ta t ion o fB u i ld ing V I .

o fw h ich c l ea r ly s how s t h e m ean s o fa pp roa ch . T he f i nd s f r om t h e r oom s w h ich c ompr ised B u i ld ing V I I I ( no t i n c lud ing t h et emp le b u i ld ing ) i n c luded l o om -w e igh t s , i r on t o ng s a nd s t on e w e igh t s o f v a r ious c a l ibr e . S chu l ten h ad o r ig ina l ly i d en t if ied B u i ld ing V I I I a st h e n or th r ange o ft h e

U lber t h a s s ugge s ted t h a t t h e b a r rack s a tC ä ce re s e lV ie jo m ay h ave b een c on s truc ted o f t imbe r ; ac on s ide rab le n umbe r o f i r on n a i ls w e re f ound a t t h e s i te a nd o n e i s r em inded o f t h e v a s t s t ock o f u nu sed n a i ls wh ich w er e b ur ied a tI n ch tu th i l where a l l t h eb u i ld ing sw h ich h ad b een c on s t ruc ted t h e re p r io r t o i t s a bandonmen t w e re t i mb e r -f ramed ( P i t t s a nd S t J o seph 1 985 ,276 ) . U lbe r t

f orum , a n o pen a r ea w h ich w a s e nc lo sed o n a tl e a s t t h ree s i de s b y B u i ld ings V I I I , I X a nd X ( S chu l ten , 1 932 ,343 ) . B u i ld ing s I X a nd X w e r e n o t f u l ly r e cove r ed i np l an a nd

f u r the rs ugge s t ed t h a tt h em e thod s o fe xcava t ion e mp loyed b y S chu l ten a nd h i s t e am w ou ld n o t h ave b een s oph i s t ica ted e nough t or e cove rt r ace so fw ooden b u i ld ing s a nd t h a t t h e se m ay h ave b een m is sed ( 1984 ,46 ) . C er ta in ly . i ti sn o tu nknown i nt h eI mper ia l p er iod f o rs ome b u i ld ing s o f af o r t re s s t ob e e rec ted i n s t one w h i l s t o t he r s w e re o f

a r e o f u nknown f unc t ion b u t t h e f i nd s w h ich w e r e a s soc ia ted w i th t h em , i n c lud ing s p ind lewho r ls a nd w e igh t s , s ugge s t t h a t , l i ke B u i ld ing V I I I , an umbe r o f s uppor t a c t iv i t ie s w e re b e ing c onduc ted . P re sumab ly , a s i n l a te r t ime s , c r af t smen w ou ld h ave b een a t tached t o t h e l e g ion a nd w ou ld h ave b een e mp loyed i ns upp ly ing a nd r e pa ir ing t h e c l o th ing a nd w eapon ry o f t h e s o ld iery . O ther r oom s

w ood . A t t h e N e ron ian f o r t re s s a t E xe t e r t h e b a th -hou se w a s a ppa ren t ly t h e o n ly s t one b u i ld ing i n w ha t w a s

w i th in t h is c omp lex o fb u i ld ing sm ay h ave s e rved a ss t o re s

o t he rw ise a t i mbe r f o r t re s s ( B idwe l l , 1 979 ,56 -7 ) a nd a s im i la r m ix o f s t one a nd w ooden b u i ld ing s e x is ted a t N e ron ian U sk ( Mann ing 1 981 ,11) . O n t h e o the r h and K epp ie h a sp o in ted o u t t h a tb a r ra ck si ns t one o rw i th s t one s i l ls c ou ld y e t l i e i n t h e u nexcava ted a r ea s o f t h e f o r t r e s s ( 1 987 ,40 1) . A t A ugu s tan O be raden t h e o ff i ce r s ' q ua r te r s w e r e o fs t one w h i ls t t h e m en m ay h ave r ema ined i nt e n t s o r , i th a s b een more r e cen t ly s ugge s ted , i n t e n t -ba r ra ck s ( t en t s w i th w ooden -f ramewo rk s he l te r s -s e e Mo re l 1 99 1) . Wha teve r f o rm t h e b ar ra ck s t ook , i tc ou ld b e s ugge s ted t h a t t h er e w a s al a rge a moun t o f f l ammab le m a te r ia l , a nd t h is p robab ly t i mber , w i th in t h e b u i ld ing so ft h e l e g ionary b a se a t C ä ce r e s e l V ie jo i n i t s f i na l s t age s . T h is c ou ld a c coun t f o rt h e b urn t d epo s i t w h ich w a s f ound o ve r much o ft h es ou thern a r ea o ft h ec amp , t h e b u rn td epo s i t w a st h e r e su l to f ac onf lagra t ion w h ich s pe l t t h e e nd o fo ccupa t ion o ft h e f o r t r e s s . '

o r o ff ice s . I fo ccup ied f o r a ny l e ng th o ft ime ( a nd t h e r e i s n ow s ome e v idence t h a t i tw a s ) , t h e b a se a t C ä ce re s e l V ie jo w ou ld h ave r e qu ir ed t h e k ind o fa dm in is t ra t ive a nd w o rk shop b u i ld ing s w h ich w ou ld n orma l ly b e a s soc ia ted w i th f o r t r e s se so ft h e H igh Emp i re . I nB u i ld ing s V I I I -X a t C ä ce re s e l V ie jo a r e w e s e e ing , s ome e a r ly a t temp t a t p rov id ing t h e b a se w i th a c omb ined f abr ica/ f orum a nd p e rhap s p r inc ip ia? I n l a te r f o r t re s se s t h e se b u i ld ing s a r e c l ea r ly s epa ra te b u t a s P e tr ikov i t s h a s p o in ted o u t : J ede s L eg ion s - u nd A ux i l iar lager h a t te e i n L age rf orum . I n d en S t and lagern u m sch loß d a s H aup tgebäude , d i e P r inc ip ia , d en F orump la t z . ( von P e t r ikov i t s 1 974 ,68 ) . B y t h e t ime t h a t t h e l e g iona ry b a se a t H a l tern w a s c on s t ruc ted u nde rA ugu s tu st h ep r inc ip ia h a s ag round -p lan w h ich m ake s i ti n s tan t ly r e cogn isab le . I ti st ob e r e g r e t ted

O ther b u i ld ing s

t h a t t h e g round -p lan o f t h e a dm in is t ra t ive b u i ld ing s a t C äce r e s e lV ie jo i sa tp re sen ts o i n comp le te . T he h ope t h a t

U lb e r tc on cede ss ome p o in t so fa greemen t w i th S chu l ten i n

e xcava t ion m igh t c on t inue a ts ome f u tu r e s t age ( U lbe r t i n l i t t .) i sh ea r t i ly e ndo r sed b y t h e p re sen t a u tho r .

t h e i n terp r e ta t ion o fs ome o ft h eo the rb u i ld ing s i na dd i t ion t ot h ep rae tor ium b u t h e i sc au t iou s n o t t oc a tegor ise t h e ir t y pe

t oo

s t r ic t ly .

H e

e xp r es sed

g r ave d oub t s a bou t

CONCLUS IONS

S chu l ten 's i d en t if ica t ion o f B u i ld ing X I I a s t h e Q uae s tor ium a l though h ew a sw i l l ing t oa l low t h a tB u i ld ing

T he re i s l i t t le w h ich c an b e a dded t o t h e a bove b u t

V I I I s ou th o ft h e ' v ia q u in tana 'c ou ld h ave b een ag roup o f t a bernae ( U lber t 1 984 ,38-42 ) . T he se t abernae a r e w o r thy o f s ome f u r the r c ommen t . T hey w e r e r e por ted t o

c ommen t u pon t h e s t ra teg ic f unc t ion o ft h e l e g iona ry b a se a tC ä ce re s e lV ie jo i so f f e r ed i nC hap te r 8 .

1 33

P ART I l l : CHAPTER 6 NOTES 1 T he t e rm ' f or t r e s s ' h a sa r ou sed s ome d i squ ie ta mong c ommen ta to r s o n t h e s ub jec t o ft h e R oman a rmy i n t h a t t h e t e rm i mp l ie s s ome i n tended p ermanen ce o f o ccupa t ion a nd a n i n he r en t ly d e f en s ive r o le ( s ee K epp ie 1 984 ,19 1 ) . Iu se t h e t e rm c au t iou s ly w i th r e ga rd t o C ä ce r e s e l V ie jo w h ich s hou ld m o r e a c cu ra t e ly b e d e scr ibed a s al e g iona ry b a se .

o f d i sman t l ing t h e f o r t r e s s b y t h e i n cumben t g a r r i son . A l a rge n umbe r o f w eapon s , p e r sona l ia a nd e ven s a cr if i c ia li mp lemen t sw e r e l o s ti nt h e f i r e ; t h i s w ou ld n o t h ave b een t h e c a se i n ac on t ro l led f i r e . I n a dd i t ion , r e -u seab le m e ta l , s u ch a s t h e m o l t en l e ad f r om t h e r oof o ft h e f o r t r e s s chap e l w a s l e f t w he r e i tl a y . T he b e l ief t h a t Cke r e s e lV ie jo w a s d e s t royed i nw a r f a r e m ay t h e r ef o r e h ave s ome

2 T he p l an o fC ä ce r e se lV ie jo i nF i g .6 .1 ( a f te rU lbe r t 1 984 , A bb .6 ) s how s e a ch o f S chu l t en 's b u i ld ing s m a rked w i th R oman n ume ra ls . U lbe r t 's s y s tem i s r e ta ined i nt h is p r e sen t w o rk .

s ub s tan ce .

3 I d en t if ied b y S chu l t en a st h e v i a q u in tana b u tt h i si s d ependen t o n t h e o r ien ta t ion o f t h e f o r t r e s s b e ing k nown , i n p a r t icu la r t h e d i r ec t ion i n w h ich t h e p rae tor ium i sf a c ing . 4 T he p or ta p rae tor ia i sr e co rded b yS chu l ten a sb e ing n o t c en t ra l ly p l a ced i n t h e n or the rn d ef en ce s b u t I 60m f r om t h e n o r th -ea s tern c orn e ra nd 1 95m f r om t h e n or th -w e s tern c orne r ( 1930 ,38 -40 ) . 5 S chu l ten 's b e l ief t h a t t h e p rae tor ium w ou ld h ave o ccup ied t h ep o s i t ion s hown i nh i sf i na lp l an o f1 932 ( Abb .1) i sc omp rom ised b y t h e f a c t t h a t h e a r r ived a tt h is o p in ion f r om ap r e con ce ived n o t ion o fw he re t h ep rae tor ium w ou ld b e s i tua t ed . T he p l an o f 1 928 ( Abb .! ) g i ve s t h e p o s i t ion o ft h ep rae tor ium i nt h e e xa c t s po t w he r e i tw a s l a te r c l a imed t oh ave b een f ound b u t b ef o r e a ny e xcava t ion h ad t a k en p l a ce t h e r e a nd w h i ls t t h e l a you t o f t h e f o r t r e s s w a s s t i l l u nde t erm in ed . U lbe r t ( 1984 ,35 ) n o ted t h a t S chu l ten h im se lf h ad e xp r e s sed s ome d oub t o ve r t h e p o s i t ion o ft h ep rae tor ium . 6 l it h e p o s i t ion w a s a s S chu l ten p r e sumed t h en t h e p rae t en tura i n t h is c a se w ou ld h ave o ccup ied a r e la t ive ly s ma l l a r ea w i th in t h e c amp a nd w ou ld h ave t a k en o n ly j u s t o ve r o ne f i f th o f t h e l e ng th ( c .140m f r om at o ta l o f6 52m ) . 7 O ne o ft h e m o s t f amou s e xamp le s o f t h e l o ng te rm a dop t ion o f n a t ive a c cou t r emen t b y t h e R oman a rmy o ccu r r ed i n S pa in w i th t h e a rm ing o f t h e l e g ion s , p e rhap s f r om t h e t h ird c en tu ry B .C . w i th t h e g l ad iu s h i span ien s i s . 8 C ommen ta to r s ( e .g . B r eeze a nd D ob son 1 976 ; H an son 1 978 ) h ave d r awn a t ten t ion t ot h eo cca s ion s w hen t h ee xcava t ion so fR oman m i l i ta ry i n s ta l la t ion s i nS co t land h ave r e vea led f i re d epo s i t s w h ich m igh t i n i t ia l ly b e t a k en a ss i gn so fd e s t ru c t ion w rough t b y f o r ce s h o s t i le t o R ome w hen i nf a c t am o r e l i ke ly e xp lana t ion i st h a t t h e f i r e d epo s i t s r e su l t f r om a c on t ro l led t i r ing o fu s e le s s t i mbe r so nt h ep a r to ft h e R oman a rmy . ( Fo rf u r the rd i scu s s ion a nd r e f e r en ce s s e e H an son 1 980 ,34 ) . I n t h e c a se o f C ä ce r e s e l V ie jo t h ed e s truc t ion w a sn o t p a r to f ad e l ibe ra te a c t 1 34

P ART I V : CHAPTER 7

TRANS IT ION FROM MAN IPLE TO COHORT I N THE REPUBL ICAN L EG ION I NTRODUCT ION :t he emp loymen to ft he c ohor t i nt he R epub l ican l e g ion t oc onque rb ecau se t h ey d id n o t b r ing t h e i rf o r ce st o ge the r

T he a rmy wh ich h ad s t ood R ome i ng ood s t ead d ur ing t h e

i nl a rge n umb e r s ( IV ,4 ,2 ) a nd t h a t t h ey e ngaged i n at y pe o fa t tr i t ion ( wh ich i nt o day 's t e rm sw ew ou ld c a l l g uer r i l la

l a t te r c en tur ie s B .C . f o l low ing t h e a bandonmen t o f t h e p ha lanx , w a st h em an ipu la ra rmy . T h is a rmy w a sb a sed o n t h e l e g ion o ft h ir ty m an ip le s m ade u p o fd i f f e r en t c l a s se s

w a rf a re ) .

o fi n f an t ry . E a ch man ip le c ompr ised o ft wo c en tu r ie s b u t t h e n umbe r o f m en i n ac en tury c ou ld d i f f e r d epend ing

I no pen b a t t le , t h eC e l t iber ian m e thod o fc ha rg ing f o rwa rd i n aw edged f o rma t ion ( known t o t h e R oman s a s t h e c uneu s ) i sm en t ioned m o r et h an o nce b y L ivy ( XXX IX ,31 , 3 ; XL ,40 ,2 ) . C a e sa r g i ve s a n e xamp le , d u r ing t h e e a r ly

u pon t h e c l as so fi n f an try i nw h ich i tw a s t ob e f ound . ' B y t h e t ime o fC ae sa r t h a t a rmy h ad g iven w ay t ot h e l e g ion o ft e n c ohor t sb y w ay o f ap roce s s o fc hange w h ich i ss t i l l b eyond o u r c omp le te u nde r s tand ing .

y ea r s o f t h e C iv i l Wa r , i n w h ich t h e se n a t ive S pan ish t a c t ic s w e re a dop t ed w i th s ome d eg r ee o f s u cce s s b y t h e

I th a s s ome t ime s b een a rgued t h a t Mar iu s w a s r e spon s ib le

t r oop s o f P ompey ( Cae sa r C iv i l W ar . I ,44 ) . O n t h e o t he r h and T rev ino ( 1986 ,7 -8 ) t h ough t t h e C e l t iber ian s t o b e

f o r t h e i n troduc t ion o f t h e c oho r t a s t h e m a in s ub -un i t w i th in t h e R oman l e g ion d ur ing t h e f i na l y ea r s o f t h e s e cond c en tury B .C . -t h is t h eory w a s p u t f o rwa rd b y Ma rqua rd t ( 1878 ) . I tw on s ome s uppo r t f r om P a rke r w ho w ro t e t h a t t h e i n t roduc t ion o ft h e c ohor t :

c apab le o f much mo r e s ub t le p loy s ; t h e mo s t s oph is t ica t ed b e ing af e igned r e t rea t( c oncur sare ) w h ich w a s d e s igned t o l u r et h eR oman sf r om t h e ir f o rma t ion st h u sr e nder ing t h em a t ad i sadvan tage d ur ing a c oun te r -a t ta ck . P e rhap s t h e c ohor t w ou ld h ave b een l e s s e a s i ly d i s lodged t h an t h e m an ip le b y t h is l a s t t a c t ic a nd w ou ld h ave p r e sen ted a l a rge r f o r ce i fi s o la ted b u t , w he the r f o r o n e o r a l l o f t h e

. . i s u sua l ly a s s igned t o Mar iu s o n t h e g round t h a t t h e l a s t t ime w e h ea r o f m an ip le s b e ing d e f in i te ly e mp loyed i nb a t t le i sb y Me te l lu s a ga in s t J ugur tha . ( P a rk e r 1 928 ,28 ) .

r e a son s g iven a bove , B e l l b e l ieved t h a t : . . su i tab le t h ough t h em an ip le w a s i no the rt h ea t re s ,

P a rke rd i d h oweve r r e cogn ise t h a t t h ec ohor ti n ad i f f e ren t f o rm h ad e x is t ed l ong b efo re t h e t ime o f Mar iu s i n t h e c on t ingen ts o fS oc i i ; t h e a l l ied f o r ce s w h ich a ccompan ied t h e l e g ion s i nt h e a rmy o ft h e R epub l ic p r io r t ot h e S oc ia l Wa r . P re sen t d ay c ommen ta to r s a r e g ene ra l ly a g reed t h a t t h eS oc i i w e r eo rgan ised i nc ohor t s -u n i t so f4 00 -500 m en ( Conno l ly 1 989 ,155 ) . E a ch a l l ied c ohor t c on s is ted o f a t r oop o f i n f an t ry ( ped i te s ) p lu s ac omp lemen t o f c ava lry ( e qu i t e s ) k nown a s at u rma . T he c oho r t , ac on cen t ra ted f o r ce w h ich w a s l a rge e nough t oa c t i n as em i -au tonomou s c apa c i ty , m ay w e l l h ave b een c on s ide red t h e mo s t s u i tab le

t h e m an ipu la r l e g ion w a s n e i the r c oncen t ra ted e nough n o r c ompo sed o f s uff ic ien t ly l a rge u n i t s t o p i t s u cce s sfu l ly a ga in s t S pan ia rd s . ( Be l l1 965 .4 11) . T he e mp loymen t o f t h e c ohor t a s at a c t ica l u n i t i nS pa in a ppea r s t ob e s uppo r ted i nc l a s s ica l l i t e ra tu r e . B e l l l i s t s 1 7 r e f e rence s t o t h e c ohor t i n S pa in b e tween 2 10 a nd 1 95 B .C . g i ven b y L ivy ( Be l l 1 965 ,405 ) b u t i ti sn o t a lway s p o s s ib le t o d e term ine w he the r L ivy i s s p eak ing o f l e g iona ry o r a l l ied c ohor t s . I no ne i n s tance h owever L ivy a ppea r s t om ake ac l ea rd i s t inc t ion b e tween R oman , t h a t i s l e g iona ry c ohor t s , a nd c ohor t s o ft h e a l l ie s :

u n i t f o ro pe ra t ion s i n moun ta inou sa r ea s . I ft h ec ohor t w a s ar e cogn ised u n i tf am i l ia ri nt h e f o r ce so ft h eS oc i i t h en t h e a dvan tages o f ac ohor ta l d ep loymen t m ay w e l l h ave b een e x tended t ot h e l e g ion s w hen t h e o cca s ion d emanded .

. . the c on su l l e d t ot h e a t ta ck u pon t h e i rc i tade l ( t he L a ce tan i ) n o to n ly t h e R oman c oho r t sb u t t h e y oung m en o f t h e a l l ie s . . .

B e l l ( 1965 ) h a s a rgued f o r a n e a r ly i n t roduc t ion o f t h e i n f an t ry c ohor tb y t h e l e g ion s i nS pa in ; p e rhap sa se a r ly a s t h e f i na l y ea r s o ft h e S econd P un ic Wa r . T h is h e s ugges t s

( L ivy XXX IV ,20 ,3 ) .

w a s ar e su l t o f t h e n eed o f t h e R oman a rmy t o r e spond w i th a mo r e f l ex ib le f o r ce t o c oun te r t h e m e thod o f

B e l l 's c on ten t ion t h a t t h e u se o f t h e c ohor t b y t h e l e g ion s i n S pa in w a s i n r e spon se a t o p a r t icu la r s e t o f

f i gh t ing e mp loyed b y t h eC e l t ibe r ian s . B e l l a rgued t h a tt h e c oho r t n eed n o t h ave b een r e qu ired e l sewhe r e a ga in s t

c i r cum s tan ce s

w h ich

t h e

R oman s

h ad

n o t

b efo r e

e n coun te red i sa r guab le a nd R aw son a dv ised c au t ion :

o pponen ts w ho e ngaged t h e R oman s i n mo r e t r ad i t iona l w a r f a re , s u ch a s t h a t e ncoun te red i n t h e E a s t . T h is , h e

B e l l 's m a in a rgumen t d oes n o t h o ld ; i fL ivy ( w i th o t he r a nna l is t ic w r i te r s ) , m en t ion s c oho r t s i nS pa in

s ugge s ted , e xp la in s t h ec on t inued r e co rd ing o ft h e m an ip le i n G reece a nd e l sewhe re d u r ing t h e s e cond a nd f i r s t

b u t n o t i nt h e E a s t , t h is m ay b e b ecau se i ti so n ly f o r t h e We s t t h a t l i e u se s n o t P o lyb iu s b u t l a te

c en tu r ie s B .C . , w h i ls t f o r t h e s ame p e r iod t h e a n c ien t

a m ia l is t ic a u tho r s , w ho b e l ieved t h a t c ohor t s h ad

s ou r ce s r e gu la r ly s peak o ft h e c oho r t i nS pa in ( Be l l

e x is ted f r om t h e r e ga l p er iod o n a nd o fw hom l i t t le

1 965 ,409 ) .

n o t ice n eed t h e r ef o r e b e t a ken -C oe l iu s , h oweve r , a l so u sed b y L ivy , m igh t b e b e t te r e v iden ce . ( Raw son 1 9 7 1 ,19 ) .

S t rabo r epo r t s t h a t t h e I b e r ian s w e r e p a r t icu la r ly d i ff icu l t

1 35

P ART I V : CHAPTER 7 1 7 r e f e ren ce s t o c ohor t s g iven b y L ivy , s i x

I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t s uch ar e serve f o r ce a tt h e b eg inn ing o f

o r ig ina te f r om C oe l iu s ( s ee K lo tz i n S chu l ten 1 935 ,52 ) . T he se s i x r e f e r en ce sa r et a ken f r om C oe l iu s ' a ccoun to ft h e

t h e s e cond c en tury B .C . c ou ld h ave c on s is ted e n t ir e ly o f t r iar i i . P a rke r h a s p o in ted o u t t h e d ua l r o le w h ich t h e

S e cond P un ic Wa ra nd a l l r e la te t oe ven t sw h ich t o ok p l ace i n2 06 B .C . C oe l iu s ' h i s tory o ft h e S econd P un ic Wa rw a s

t r iar i i w e r e c apab le o fp erform ing :

O f t h e

. . the r e ten t ion o ft h e h a s ta a st h e o f f en s ive a rm o f

w r i t ten i nt h ep e r iod a f t e r 1 2 1 B .C . a nd , a sB e l l p o in t s o u t ( 1965 ,405 ) , i t i s l e s s l i ke ly t o c on ta in t h e p o s s ib le a nach ron ism s o f p o s t -Mar ian w r i te r s .

t h e t r iar i i . . .show s t h a t R ome w a s n o t y e t e n t ir e ly

I f C oe l iu s w a s

c onv in ced o f t h e s uper ior i ty o f t h e p i lum i n a l c i r cum s tance s , b u t p ref er red s t i l l t o d epend o n t h e

c or rec t ly r e por ted t h en , a s R aw son s ugge s t s , h e p rov ide s s omewha t b e t te r e v idence t h an t h e A nna l is t s .

t h ru s t ing s pea r f o r t h e f i na l r e in for cemen t s i n t h e a t ta ck , a nd c onve r se ly , i n t h e e ven t o f t h e h a s ta t i

I ft h ec oho r tw a si n deed ar e cogn ised u n i te mp loyed b y t h e l e g ion s i nS pa in i nt h e s e cond c en tury B .C . t h en i tm igh t

a nd p r inc ipe s b e ing d r iven b a ck , f o r t h el a s t s t and a t t h e t h ird l i ne .

b e t h ough t o dd t h a t P o lyb iu s f a i ls t o m en t ion i ti n h i s d e scr ip t ion o f t h e r a is ing o f ac on su la r l e g ion . T h is

( Pa rker 1 928 ,19 ) .

a ccoun t , w h ich a l so t e l ls o ft h ed iv is ion o ft h el e vy i n to t h e v a r iou s c l a s se s o f t r oop s , w a s w r i t ten , a s f a r a s w e c an

T he u se o ft h e t r iar i i a s ar e se rve f o r ce i nt h e a rmy o ft h e

t e l l , i nt h e m idd le y ea r s o ft h e s e cond c en tury B .C . b u t i t h a s b een a rgued i n ap rev iou s c hap te r t h a t P o lyb iu s w a s d ependen t u pon a s ou rce f o r t h is i n forma t ion wh ich m ay h ave d a ted f r om a s e a r ly a s t h e l a t te r y ea r s o f t h e t h ird c en tury B .C . A l though t h e c ohor t w ou ld n o t b e u nknown

s e cond c en tury B .C . w ou ld a ppea r t o b e a l o g ica l p rog re s s ion f r om t h e ir e a r l ie r f un c t ion . C onno l ly w r i te s : T hey w e re t h e l a s t r emnan t s o f t h e s t rong ly d ef en s ive l e g ion . S ome t ime st h ey w ere n o td ep loyed o n t h e b a t t lef ie ld b u t w e re l e f t t og ua rd t h e c amp . ( Connoly 1 9 89 , 155 ) .

f r om a round t h is p er iod i t s om is s ion b y P o lyb iu s ' i nh i s d e scr ip t ion o ft h e s t and ing a rmy i su nde r s tandab le a nd i s e xp la ined b y R aw son :

E ven i ft h e l e g ionary c ohor t a s at a c t ica l u n i td id a ppea r i n S pa in a ta n e a r ly d a te i n wha teve r f o rm , t h is w ou ld n o t n e ce s sa r i ly m ean t h e i mmed ia te d em i se o f t h e m an ipu la r

P robab ly t h e r e a son i st h a t t h e c ohor t w a s a t t h is t ime at a c t ica l b u tn o t y e ta na dm in is t ra t ive u n i t , a nd i n as t a t ic d e scr ip t ion o f t h e a rmy c ou ld f i nd n o p l a ce . ( 1 9 7 1 ,19 ) .

l e g ion . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t man ip le a nd c ohor t e ndu r ed a l o ng p er iod i nw h ich e i the rm igh th ave b een c on s ide red t h e b e s t f o r a c t ion d epend ing u pon t h e c i r cum s tan ce s i n w h ich t h e l e g ion f ound i t se lf .

I tw a s a rgued e a r l ie r t h a t P o lyb iu s w a s f o l low ing as ou rce s omewha t e a r l ie r t h an h i s o wn t ime , as ou r ce w h ich i s

I tm ay b e t h a t t h e t wo f o rm s -m an ip le s a nd c oho r t s -c oex is ted f o r s ome t ime a s a l terna t ive t a c t ica l

e x t r eme ly u n l ik e ly t o h ave m en t ioned t h e c oho r t a s a n

f o rma t ion s . . .

o rgan isa t iona lu n i t . P o lyb iu sd oe sh oweve rm en t ion c ohor t s i nb a t t le . I nh i s a ccoun t o fS c ip io A f r icanu s ' c ampa ign i n S pa in i nt h ey ea r2 06 B .C . , h em en t ion s t h em t w ice a nd h e i mp l ie s t h a t t h is t y pe o f u n i t h ad b een a dop ted b y t h e l e g ion s ( Po l .X 1 ,23 ,1; X I ,33 ,1) . I n t h e f i r s t o f t h ese p a ssage s P o lyb iu se ven p rov ide sh i s G reek r e ade r sh ip w i th

( Kepp ie 1 984 ,63 ) . T he

m an ip le

a s

a b a t t le

g roup ing

n eed

n o t

h ave

d i sappea r ed e ven t h ough t h e p e rf orman ce o ft h e l e g iona ry c ohor t m ay h ave b een w e l l t e s ted i nS pa in . I fP lu ta r ch h a s a c cu ra te ly t r an sm i t ted h i s s ou r ce s t h en t h e l e s son s o f

ab r ief e xp lana t ion o ft h e c ompo s i t ion o ft h e c ohor t :

f i gh t ing i nS pa in w e re a ppa ren t ly s t i l l b e ing l e a rn tb ys ome R oman g ene ra ls i nt h e e a r ly f i r s t c en tu ry B .C .

. . th ree m an ip le s -t h is b ody o fi n f an tr y t h e R oman s c a l l ac oho r t -

H e ( Me te l lu s ) w a s c ar ry ing o n w a r w i th a m an

( P o l .X 1 ,23 ,1 ) .

( S er tor iu s ) . . .w ho m ade a l l m anne r o f s h if t s a nd c hange s o w ing t ot h e l i gh t e qu ipmen t a nd a g i l i ty o f h i s I b e r ian s o ld ie r s ; w he rea s h e h imse lf h ad b een t r a ined i nr e gu la r c on te s t s o f h eav i ly a rmed t r oop s a nd w a s w on t t o c ommand a p onde rou s a nd

S ad ly P o lyb iu s d oe s n o t s pec if y f r om w h ich l i ne t h e t h ree m an ip le s w e re d rawn . T h is p o se s ac ruc ia l q ue s t ion . Wa s t h e c ohor t i n i t s e a r ly f o rm , m ade u p o f t h r ee m an ip le s f r om t h e s ame c l a s s o f t r oop s? A pp ian ( l ber ica V I I I ,40 )

i mmob i le p ha lanx .

g i ve s a n a c coun t o f t h e u se b y C a to , i n 1 95 B .C . , o f a r e serve f o r ce o f t h ree c oho r t s w h ich w e re p re s sed i n to s e rv ice a t ad ec is ive momen t . T he s ugge s t ion t h a t A pp ian

( P lu ta r ch L iv e sS e r tor iu sX I I ,5 ) . T he S pan ish a r ena i s p rec ise ly t h a t w here t h e s ma l le r

h ad u sed t h e w o rd f o rc oho r t i ne r ro ra nd t h a t h e i n tended t ow r i te m an ip le i sc oun ter ed b y B e l l :

s e lf -con ta ined u n i tc ou ld b e mos te f f ec t ive . I ti sp e rhap so f s ome s i gn if ican ce t h a t i tw a s S e r to r iu s a nd n o t M e te l lu s w ho h ad s e en s e r v ice u nde r t h e g ene ra l Ma r iu s ( P lu ta r ch

.a p r ior i , t h r ee m an ip le s i sr a the r as ma l l f o r ce f o r ad ec is ive r e serve . . .

L ive s S e r to r iu s 1 1 ,1-3 ) .

( 1965 ,406 ) .

C e r ta in ly , a ts ome p o in tp r io r t oJ u l iu sC aesa r 's c ampa ign s

1 36

T RANS IT ION F ROM MAN IPLE T O COHORT i ti sl i ke ly t ha t t h ec ohor tw a s a dop ted a sa na dm in is t ra t ive

p ha se a rgued f o rb y S chu l ten i nt h ed eve lopmen to ft h e u s e o ft h ec oho r tb y t h el e g ion s , i nw h ich t h r ee m an ip le so ft h e

a s w e l l a s at a c t ica l u n i t b y t h e l e g ion s . ' K epp ie b e l ieve s t h a t Ma r iu s ' c ampa ign s a ga in s t t h e C imbr i a nd T eu tone s c ou ld h ave p romp ted t h e i n t roduc t ion o ft h e c ohor t a st h e

s ame c l a s so ft r oop sc ome t o ge the rt of o rm ap ro to -cohor t , i sn o t e v iden ced b y t h e r ema in s o f t h e b ar rack s s ou th o f

s t anda rd u n i t a round 1 04 102 B .C . ( 1984 ,63 ) .

t h ep rae tor ium a tP eru R edonda a sh e p ropo sed .

I tw a s p robab ly o n ly a f t e r t h e a dop t ion o ft h e c oho r t a sa s t anda rd u n i t t h a tt h ec onf igu ra t ion o ft h eb a r ra ck so rt e n t s w ou ld h ave b een c hanged i n o rder t o r ef lec t t h e n ew a r rangemen t . T he a dop t ion o f t h e c ohor t b y t h e l e g ion a s

I na dd i t ion , af u l l c ohor ta l o rde rh a s b een a rgued n o t t ob e i ne v idence i nt h ec onf igu ra t ion o ft h e b a r ra ck s a tC amp V

a n o rgan isa t iona l u n i t w ou ld h ave r e qu ired af undamen ta l c hange i n c amp d e s ign a nd i n t h e c onf igu ra t ion o f t h e

a tR en ieb la s a nd t h is a ga in c on t ra s t s w i th t h e v i ew s o ft h e e xcava to r , a l though i n d iv idua l c en tu r ia l b a r ra ck ss im i la rt o l a te r I mper ia l t y pe s d o a ppea r t oh ave b een c on s truc ted .

b a r ra ck s . T he b ar ra ck s o f t h e m an ipu la r l e g ion w e re o f

T he r e su l t o f t h e se i n ve s t iga t ion s i st h a t t h e re i sn o c l ea r

d i f f er ing s i ze d epend ing u pon w h ich c l a s s o f t r oop s t h ey w e r e t o h ou se . T hose o f t h e c ohor t s w ou ld , a t l e a s t i n

e v idence f r om t h e k nown R epub l ican c amp s i nS pa in f o r t h e a dop t ion o f t h e l e g iona ry c oho r t a s a n o rgan isa t iona l

t h eory , b e u n if orm . T he o ld m an ipu la rg roup ing o f al i ne o f t e n m an ip le -ba r rack s d iv ided i n to t wo b lock s o f f i ve b a r ra ck s e ach , a sd e scr ibed b y P o lyb iu s , w ou ld h ave b een d on e a way w i th . A c ohor t -b lock , i n t h e f o rm w h ich i t e me rge s i n t h e I mper ia l p er iod , c on s is t s o f s i x b a r r ack s , n orma l ly l a id o u t i nt h ree p a ir s o r h em i s tr ig ia , w i th e ach p a i r o fb ar ra ck s f a c ing e a ch o t he r .

u n i t a nd f o r t h e b a r ra ck s t oh ave b een a r ranged s o a s t o r ef lec t t h is . A s ar e su l t t h e e a r l ie s t c l ea r e xamp le s o f

E v idence o f c on f igura t ion

man ip le -b lock

a nd

c ohor t -b lock s s t i l l r ema in s t h o se a tt h e l e g iona ry b a se a t H a l tern ( s ee v on S chnu rbe in 1 981 ,Abb .12 ) a nd t h o se a t D ang s te t ten ( F i l tz inge r , P lanck a nd C ämme re r A bb .302 ) b o th f r om t h e A ugu s tan p er iod .

1 986 ,

T ha t t h e v ery l im i ted a r chaeo log ica l e v iden ce s hou ld n o t s how a c l ea r c hange f r om a m an ipu la r t o ac ohor ta l s t ruc tu re w i th in t h e l e g ion i sn o tp e rhap s s urpr is ing . T he re m ay h ave b een a n i n i t ia l r e lu c tance t oc hange t h e t r ied a nd t e s ted o rde r . T h is w ou ld s e em t ob e c onf i rmed b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e o ld m an ipu la r p a ir ing o ft h e c en tur ie s s urv ive s i n t h e a rmy o f t h e Emp ire . A s Web s te r h a s r ema rked :

c ohor t -b lock

l th a s b een s hown ( i n C hap te r 3 ) t h a t t h e f o rm a nd t h e l a you t o ft h e b a r ra ck s a tC amp I I R en ieb la s , w h ich d a te s f r om t h e m id s e cond c en tu ry B .C . , w ou ld s e em t or ef le c t t h e o rgan isa t ion o f t h e R oman R epub l ican a rmy a s b e ing e s sen t ia l ly t h e s ame a s t h a t d e s cr ibed b y P o lyb iu s .

T he p a ir ing o f c en tur ie s i n t h e c amp a nd f o r t c on t inued a nd t h is o ld u n i t p robab ly h ad s ome

T he l e g ion s w h ich a ccompan ied S c ip io i n h i s s i ege o f

a dm in is t ra t ive a nd t a c t ica l s i gn if ican ce .

N uman t ia i n 1 34 133 B .C . s hou ld h ave b een o rgan ised o n ab a s i s n o t d i s s im i la rt ot h a t d e scr ibed b y P o lyb iu s f o r t h e d i s t in c t ion b e tween a l l ied a nd l e g iona ry t r oop sw a st ol a s t , a tl e a s t o ff ic ia l ly , u n t i l 9 0 B .C . a nd t h e c l a s s s t ru c tu r e w i th in t h e l e g ion w a s p robab ly s t i l l e f f ec t ive t owa rd s t h e e nd o f t h e t h ird q ua r te r o f t h e s e cond c en tury B .C . H oweve r , S c ip io 's a rmy a t N uman t ia w a s a ccord ing t o

( 1 985 ,109 ) . Whe the r a r chaeo log ica l e v idence w i l l e ve r c on ic t o l i gh t w h ich w ou ld s how t h a t t h e l e g ionary c oho r t h ad b een a dop ted b y t h e R oman a rmy a s a n o rgan isa t iona l u n i t a t l e a s t b y t h e e a r ly f i r s t c en tu ry B .C . i nS pa in i su nknown .

A pp ian ( l ber ica X IV ,84 ) s ome th ing o f a n a d h oc f o r ce . S c ip io i sr epo r ted t oh ave t a ken n o l e g ion s w i th h im f r om R ome b u t t oh ave e mba rked w i th 5 00 f r iend sa nd an umbe r o f v o lun tee r s . T o t h e m en w h ich h e t ook w i th h im f r om

I nt h is r e spec t C ä ce r e s e lV ie jo a ga in s t and s o u t a st h e s i t e w he r e s ome e v iden ce o f t h e b ar ra ck s a nd t h e ir c onf igu ra t ion w ou ld b e mo s t w e lcome a st h e d a t ing o ft h e s i t e a sp re sen t ly u nde r s tood ( c .90 -c .80 B .C .) p l a ce s i ti na p i vo ta l p o s i t ion i n t ime , j u s t p o s t -da t ing t h e s o ca l led

R ome S c ip io i ss a id t oh ave a dded t h e e x is t ing l e g ion s i n S pa in p lu s ac on s ide rab le n umbe r o f a ux i l ia r ie s ( App ian l b er ica XV ,90 ) . T he re i s n o c er ta in ty t h a t t h e l e g ion s w h ich S c ip io f ound i n S pa in w e re a t f u l l s t reng th ; t h ey w e r e a ppa ren t ly u nd isc ip l ined o n h i s a r r iva l ( App ian l b e r ica ,X IV 8 5 ) .

Ma r ian r e fo rm s d ur ing w h ich t h e c oho r t m ay h ave b een f o rma l ly a dop ted b y t h e l e g ion , a nd w hen t h er am if i ca t ion s o ft h e L ex J u l ia m ay h ave s t a r ted t oc ome i n to e f f ec t . '

NOTES I th a s b een s ugge s ted b y t h e p re sen t a u tho r t h a t t h e a rmy a va i lab le t o S c ip io m ay h ave b een d i s tr ibu ted a mong t h e

1 F o r e xamp le t h e t h eo r e t ica l n umbe r o f m en i n a c en tury o ft r iar i iw ou ld b e t h ir ty w h i ls t ac en tur y o f

s i ege camp s i n aw ay w h ich m ake s i td i ff icu l t t od i sce rn h ow e a ch m igh th ave b een g a r r isoned . t oa g ree w i th t h e e xcava to r ( S chu l ten ) o fC a s t i l le jo 3a nd P eru R edonda w e re b a se s b u t i th a s b een d emon s t ra ted ,

I th a s b een p o s s ib le t h a t t h e t wo c amp s p robab ly l e g iona ry i n c on t ra s t t o t h e

h a s ta t i o rp r inc ipe s w ou ld n umbe r s i x ty . 2 C ae sa r , w ho a r r ived a sp roconsu l i n U l te r ior i n6 1 B .C . , mu s tp re sumab ly h ave l e arn t s ome th ing o ft h e R oman e xpe r ience o fw a r f a re i nS pa in a nd f r om h i s

c l a ims o ft h e e xcava to r , t h a t n e i the r i sl i ke ly t oh ave h e ld af u l l l e g ion w i th i t s c omp lemen t o f l e g ionary c ava lry . Mo r e i mpo r tan t ly i th a s b een s hown t h a t t h e t r an s i t iona l

o wn w r i t ing s w e k now t h a t t h e c ohor t w a s l a te r t h e s t anda rd u n i t o fh i s a rmy . 1 37

P ART I V : CHAPTER 7 3 T he a ppea semen t o f t h e L a t in s a nd a l ie s b y R om e f o l low ing R oman s e tba ck s i nt h e S oc ia l Wa r o f 9 1 B .C . w a s f o rma l ised b y t h e L ex J u l ia . T h i s w a s a s t a tu te o f 9 0 B .C . i n w h ich t h e f r an ch i se o f c i t izen sh ip w a s e x t ended t oc ove r a l o fI t a ly s ou th o f t h e P o . A l l t h o se r e cru i t s f r om w i th in t h a t b ounda ry w ho w ou ld f o rme r ly h ave e n l is ted i n to t h e a l ae S oc iorum w e r e n ow c i t izen s a nd t h e r ef o r e b y e x t en s ion l e g iona r ie s ; t h e a l l ied c on t ingen t s , a s a c onsequence , c ea sed t o e x is t . S epara te a c commoda t ion w i th in t h e l e g iona ry c amp f o r t h e se t r oop sw ou ld a l so d i sappea r f r om t h ea r cha eo log ica l r e co rd a f te r t h i s d a t e .

1 3 8

P ART I V : CHAPTER 8

REPUBL ICAN CA MP TYPES AND FUNCT IONS I NTRODUCT ION R ome , ar e cogn i t ion t h a tt h eb a se s r e a l ly w e re p erman en t .

T he e nd o f t h e R epub l ic a nd i t s r ep la cemen t b y t h e n ew o rde rw a s t oh ave g r ea tp o l i t ica lc on sequen ce sb u ti nt e rm s o f R oman c a s t rame ta t ion t h is c hange w a s n o t s o i mmed ia te ly s i gn if ican t . T he re a r e t h r ee m a jo r e ven t s w h ich d id h oweve r g rea t ly i nf luence t h e a r rangemen t s f ound w i th in al e g ionary b a se o r ma r ch ing -camp . Two o f t h e se

e ven t s

o ccu r red

w e l l

b efo re

t h e

i mpe r ium

( We l l s1 9 72 ,249 ) .4 I t s hou ld b e i mpor tan t t o d i f f e ren t ia t e b e tween t h o se p e rmanen tl e g iona ry b a se sw h ich h ave o f t en b een g i ven t h e a ppe l la t ion ' f or t re s s ' a nd s em i -permanen t c amp s a l though t h is i s n o t a lway s e a sy ; e xa c t c r i ter ia a r e d i ff icu l t t o i d en t if y a nd r e spon se t o c hang ing c i r cum s tance s e i the r l o ca l ly o r a t I mper ia l b ehe s t w ou ld a nd d i d l e ad t o

o f

A ugu s tu s , t h e o t he r f o l lowed A ugu s tu s ' d ea th . T he t wo e a r l ie re ven t sa r ep e rhap st h e mo r e s i gn if ican ta nd b o th h ave b een d i scu s sed i n t h e p r ev iou s c hap t er . T he

r e dep loymen t s a nd d i f f e r ing p er iod s o fo ccupa t ion w i th in d i f f e r en t f o r t re s se s . T h is k i nd o f s i tua t ion i se v idenced i n s pec ta cu la r f a sh ion i n B r i ta in w i th t h e c omm is s ion ing o f

a dop t ion o ft h e c ohor t a s t h e m a in t a c t ica l u n i t w i th in t h e l e g ion a nd t h ep rov is ion so ft h eL e x J u l ia s aw am a jo rs h if t i nt h e c ompo s i t ion o ft h e R oman l e g ion f r om i t s p r ev iou s

t h e f o r t re s s a t I n ch tu th i l i n S co t land w h ich w a s a lmo s t c er ta in ly d ue t ob e g a r r isoned b yL eg io XX b u t w h ich w a s

m an ipu la r s t ruc ture t o t h e l e g ion o f t e n c oho r t s i n co rpo ra t ing i n to t h e l e g ion t h e p rev iou s ly s epa ra t e a lae o ft h e a l l ied t r oop s . T he se c hange s t ook p l ace a ta bou t t h e e nd o f t h e s e cond c en tu ry B .C . A ny l e g ionar y c amp e r ec ted p r io rt ot h e se d eve lopmen t s mu s th ave h ad al a you t

l ef t u nf in ished w hen L eg io I A d iu tr ix w a s t r an sf er red t o t h e D anube t h u s n e ce s s i ta t ing amove b a ck b yL eg io XX t o r e p la ce I A d iu t r ix i nt h e v a can t f o r t r e s s a tC he s te r . T h is l e ad s , c on sequen t ly , t o af u r the r i mpor tan t f a c to r i n

p a lpab ly d i f f e ren t , a tl e a s t i ni t sa r rangemen t sf o rt h e t e n t s o r b a r racks o f t h e l e g iona r ie s a nd a l l ie s , f r om t h e l a te r l e g iona ry c amp o rf or t re s so ft h eu n if o rm c ohor ta l l e g ion .

d ea l ing w i th t h e i n s ta l la t ion s o ft h e R oman a rmy a nd t h a t i st h eq ue s t ion o ff unc t ion . When K epp ie ( 1987 ,40 1) w r i te s t h a tt h e p l an o ft h eo ft h e R epub l ican f o r t r e s sa tC ä ce r e se l V ie jo s hou ld b e c ruc ia l f o r o u r u nde r s tand ing o f t h e d eve lopmen t o f R oman m i l i ta ry i n s ta l la t ion s ; f o r i tl i e s m idway ( i n t ime ) b e tween t h e s i ege -camp s o f Numan t ia

T he t h ird e ven t wh ich w a sa l so t ob r ing c hange t h ough n o t s o f undamen ta l i nt e rm s o f o rgan isa t ion w a s t h e d e c is ion f r om t h e m id -f i r s t c en tury A .D . t o b a se l e g ion s a tf i xed p o s i t ion s w i th in p ermanen t f o r t re s se s o n t h e R h ine a nd e l sewhe r e .

a nd t h eA ugu s tan -pe r iod i n s ta l la t ion so nt h eR ive rL ippe h e i s o f c ou r se c or rec t i n t h e c h rono log ica l s e nse ; b u t i t

T he l e g ion s u nde r b o th t h e R epub l ic a nd e a r ly Emp ire

s hou ld b e r emembe red t h a t t h e s i ege -camp s a tN u rnan t ia w e r e b y d ef in i t ion b u i l t f o r as pec if ic p u rpo se a nd , a sh a s

e nab led R ome e xpand h e rs phe r eo fi nf lu ence ( a nd t h u st h e p o ten t ia l a r ea l i ab le t o p ay t r ibu te ) b y c ampa ign , a s i n S pa in , G au la nd G ermany . E lsewhe re p o l i t ica ls ua s ion a nd t h e t h r ea t o fc ampa ign c ou ld a ch ieve t h e s ame r e su l t . ' I n n ew ly p a c if i ed a r ea st h el e g ion sc ou ld b ep o ised f o rf u r the r a dvan ce o r r e ady t o d ea l w i th a ny r e be l l ion b eh ind t h e R oman l i ne s . F o rt h is p o l icy t ow o rk e ff ic ien t ly t h el e g ion s

b een s ugge s ted a bove , p e rhap sg ar r isoned b ya dh oc f o r ce s a nd w i th t h e l e g ion s d i s tr ibu ted i n mo r e t h an o ne c amp . T he i n s ta l la t ion s o n t h e L ippe o n t h e o t he r h and w e r e c ampa ign b a se s , u sua l ly f o r l a rge t r oop c oncen t ra t ion s o f o ne o r t wo l e g ion s , e ngaged u pon a n a l toge the r d i f f e ren t k i nd o fm i l i ta ry u nder tak ing .

h ad t or ema in e s sen t ia l ly mob i le . I n o rde r t oa ch ieve t h is

H ow v a l id a r e c ompar i son s m ade a c ro s s t i me b e tween l e g ionary e s tab l ishmen t s w h ich w e re i n tended t o s e rve

s t a te o f r e ad in e s s w hen o pe ra t ing a t a ny d i s tan ce f r om R ome i tw ou ld h ave b een n ece s sa ry t h a t t h e a rmy w a s

d i f f e r en t p u rpo se s?

a c commoda ted i n s em i -permanen t c amp s ( a e s t iva o r h i ber na ) o r i n ma r ch ing -camp s w hen a c t ive ly o n c ampa ign .' S uch c amp s a r e af e a tu r e o f t h e R epub l ican a rmy a nd t h a t o f t h e e a r ly P r in c ipa te ( s ee L u t twak

C er ta in ly , i n d iv idua l f a ce t s s uch a s t h e d eve lopmen t o f b a r ra ck t y pe s a r e r e la ted mo re t o o rgan isa t iona l c hange s a nd c an b e s t ud ied s epa ra te ly ( s ee C hap te r 1 0 ) ; ag ene ra l c ompar ison o f R epub l ican c amp s a s ab ody w i th t h o se o f t h e Emp ire w ou ld n o t b e p ar t icu la r ly i lu s t ra t ive . I n s tead , o f f e r ed b e low i ss ome a t temp t a tp l ac ing t h e R epub l ican c amp s w h ich h ave b een d i scu s sed i nt h is p re sen t w ork i n to

1 976 ,55 ) . I tw a s o n ly a f te r t h e d ea th o fA ugus tu s t h a t t h e r o le o ft h e l e g ion s b egan t oc hange p e r cep t ib ly a nd t h en o n ly s l ow ly , c u lm ina t ing i n G ermany i n t h e s t one -bu i l t l e g ionary

t h e f r amewo rk o f t y pe s i te s . I n t h is m anne r t h ey c an b e

f o r t r e s se s o n t h e R h ine o f t h e C laud ian -Ne ron ian p er iod . I tw a s t h e e s tab l ishmen t o ft h o se s t one -bu i l t f o r t re s se s o n

c ompa red t o s i te s o f t h e s ame t ype f r om t h e I mper ia l p e r iod a nd a ny s im i la r i t ie s o r d i f f e ren ce s i n t h e R oman

t h e R h ine w h ich We l ls v i ew sa s ac l ea rs i gn o ft h ed ef ac to s i tua t ion o ft h e t ime :

a pp roa ch t o a ny g i ven s i tua t ion i n t h e f i e ld a r e mo re s h a rp ly b rough ti n to f o cu s . T he i mmed ia te d rawback i st h e p auc i ty o f s u i tab le i d en t if iab le e xamp le s o f e a ch t y pe a t d i f f e r en t p er iod s .

. .pe rhap s t h en ow ing t o ac en t ra l i n i t ia t ive f r om

1 39

P ART I V : CHAPTER 8 L eg ionary c amp so ft he R epub l ic a nd t he l a te R epub l ic a nd t he ir c ompar i son w i th s im i lar i n s ta l la t ion s o f t he e ar ly Emp ire Win te r -camp ( h iberna )

p rae tor ia , o ne f o r e a ch o f t h e l e g iona ry c ommande r s , i n

C amp I I a t R en ieb la s i st h e o n ly r e a sonab ly d a ted f u l l l e g iona ry c amp o f t h e s e cond c en tu ry B .C . w h ich h a s

a dd i t ion t ot h ep rov is ion o ft h ep r inc ip ia ab u i ld ing w h ich w a s n o t , a sf a ra si sk nown , af e a tu r eo fR epub l ican c amp s ( p lan i n O e lmann , 1 934 , A bb .!) . T he b a r ra ck s a t V e tera

s ome th ing o f ac l ea r g round -p lan a nd w h ich p r eda te s t h e

w ou ld h ave b een a r ranged i nc ohor t -b lock s ( a l though l i t t le o f t h e ir p l an h a s b een r e cove r ed t o d emon s t ra te t h is ) i n

t wo s i gn if ican t e ven t s i d en t if ied a bove w h ich mu s t h ave

c on t ra s t t o t h e m an ipu la r b ar r a ck l i ne s o f C amp I

c hanged r a d ica l ly t h e i n terna l a pp ea rance o f al e g ionary c amp . R en ieb la sI I w a sa lmo s tc er ta in ly aw in te r -c a mp f o r

R en ieb la s .

t wo m an ipu la r l e g ion s t hough n o t n ece s sa r i ly a t f u l l s t reng th . I nt e rm s o ft h e d i scu s s ion w h ich h a s t a k en p l ace

S iege -camp

a bove i tc an b e s e en t h a t t h is c amp g oe s a ga in s t s ome o f t h e t e ne t s w h ich c ou ld b e s a id t ob e a s soc ia ted w i th u sua l R oman c amp b u i ld ing ; i tl i e s o n h i gh , n o t m e re ly r a ised g round a nd h a s ap o lygona l r a the r t h an a r e c tangu la r s hape , s ugge s t ive o f t h e f a c t t h a t c on s ide ra t ion s w e r e t a ken i n to a ccoun t .

s ome

T he s i ege camp s o f C a s t i l le jo a nd P e l la R edonda a t N uman t ia f o rl e g ion so fu nknown c ompos i t ion a r et hough t t o d a te f r om t h e t ime o f S c ip io 's b e leaguer ing o f t h e h i l lfor t i n 1 34 B .C . T he d i ff icu l ty o fi d en t if y ing t h e t r oop

d ef en s ive

t ype sa te a ch o ft h ev a r iou ss i ege camp sh a sb een d i scu s sed e a r l ie r . J u l iu sC ae sa r e r ec ted as e r ie s o fc amp s c l o se b y t o

F or c ompar ison f r om t h e I mpe r ia l e poch t h e re i s t h e

h i s c i r cumva l la t ion w hen h e i nve s ted A le s ia i n 5 2 B .C . ,

t wo leg ion b a se o f A ugu s tan d a te f ound a t O be raden i n G ermany b u t v ery l i t t le h a s b een r e cove r ed o f i t s g round -p lan ( Küh lborn 1 989 , A bb .27 ) .

u nfor tuna t e ly l i t t le i sk nown o ft h e ir i n ter io rb u tt h ey w e r e c er ta in ly n o t p rov ided w i th t h e k i nd o f b u i ld ing s wh ich c ha ra c ter ise t h e s i ege -camp s a t Numan t ia . T he o n ly r e a l ly c ompa rab le s i t e o f l a te r d a te t o t h a t o f t h e N uman t ine s i ege -camp s i st h a t a t Ma sada w he r e as e r ie s o f c amp s w e re e r ec ted a round t h e J ew ish s t rongho ld i nA .D . 7 3 f o r ac omb in ed l e g iona ry a nd a ux i l iar y a rmy .

T he o n ly t wo leg ion c amp o f t h e e a r ly Emp ir e w i th a r e cogn i sab le i n terna l p l an i s t h a t o f C laud ian /Ne ron ian V e te ra b u t t h e f unc t ion o f t h e b a se a t V e te ra Iw ou ld a ppea r t oh ave b een q u i te d i f f e ren t t ot h a t o fC amp I I a t R en ieb la s . V e tera w a s r e c tangu la r i n s hape a nd s i ted o n r e la t ive ly l ow g round c l o se t ot h eR h ine . T he p rov is ion , i n

L eg ionary b a se

N e ron ian t ime s , o f s t one -bu i l t b ar ra ck s w ou ld , a s We l ls h a s s ugge s ted , i nd ica te s ome d eg ree o fp e rmanen ce a nd a n i n i t ia l a c cep tan ce t h a t t h e l e g ion s w ou ld b eb a sed f o rs ome t ime a tt h a t s t ra teg ic p os i t ion o ppo s i te t h e r i ve r L ippe ( a r i ve r w h ich c ou ld s e rve a s a n i n va s ion r ou te i n e i the r d i re c t ion ) w h ich V e tera t h en c ommanded .

T he l e g iona ry b a se a tC ä ce res e lV ie jo f o r al e g ion o f? 10 c ohor t s s t and s a s ap recu r sor o f t h e f o r t r e s se s o f t h e m id f i r s t c en tury A .D . w i th w h ich i t c an b e c ompa r ed , a l though , a s K epp ie ( 1987 ,401) h a s s t a ted , t h e p l an i s t a n ta l is ing ly i n comp le te . S o i n comp le t ei si tt h a tw e d o n o t k now h ow t h e a ccommoda t ion f o rt r oop s w a sa r ranged b u t t h ed a t ing o ft h eo ccupa t ion o ft h eb a se p ropo sed b y U lber t ( i n t h e 8 0 's B .C . ) a l low s u s t o s uppo se t h a t t h e l e g ion

Ap o in to fa ppa ren t c on t rad ic t ion h e re i st h a t t h e b a r rack s o ft h e s uppo sed w in te r -camp a tR en ieb la s I I w e r e a l so o f s t one o r c e r ta in ly o f s t one f oo t ing s b u t t h e c amp w a s a lmo s t c e r ta in ly n o t i n tended t o b e h e ld f o r a n i n def in i te l e ng th o ft ime . T he s o lu t ion t ot h is w ou ld a ppea r t ol i e i n t h e a bundance o fa va i lab le a nd e a s i ly q ua r r ied s t one l y ing

w h ich o ccup ied i tm ay w e l l h ave b een o rgan ised o n t h e b a s is o f t h e c ohor t r a the r t han t h e m an ip le a nd t h e refo r e n o t d i s s im i la r i nc ompo s i t ion t ot h e I mper ia l l e g ion . ' A s w a s s t a ted a bove , t h e re i ss ome u n cer ta in ty a s t oh ow t h e t r oop sw e re h ou sed a tC ä cere se lV ie jo . Wha ti sc e r ta in i s t h a t t h e re w a s e nough r oom f o r t h e b a r ra ck s o f a

u ndern ea th o n ly a t h in c ove t ing o f t o p so i l o n t h e G ran A ta laya a tR en ieb la s w h ich w ou ld h ave m ade i t an a tu ra l b u i ld ing m a ter ia la ta ny p er iod . S chu l ten ( 1929 ,26 a nd n . 1) n o ted t h a t n i ne teen th c en tu ry b u i ld ing s i nt h e r e g ion w er e

c omp le te l e g ion -i ft h ey w e re o rgan ised i nc oho r t s i nt h e s ame m anne r a sa n I mper ia l l e g ion w i th in t h e 2 4ha w h ich w a s a va i lab le . B aa tz ( 1962 ,80 ) h a s l i s t ed t h e c ompa ra t ive

c on s t ruc ted o fs t one a nd w i th v e ry mu ch t h e s ame m e thod s a s t h o se e mp loyed b y t h e R oman s t wo t h ou sand y ea r s p r ev iou s ly .

a r ea s o f m any o f t h e k nown l e g ionary c amp s f r om A ugu s tan t ime s o nwa rd s . C äce re s e lV ie jo i so f as im i la r s i ze t o t h e V e spa s ian ic f o r t res s a tC he s ter w he re as i ng le

T he o rgan isa t ion o ft h e R oman a rmy b y t h e t ime t h a t t h e i n ter io r o f C laud ian /Ne ron ian V e te ra w a s c on s t ruc ted

I mper ia l l e g ion w a s h ou sed b u t w he r e t h e f i r s t c ohor t m ay h ave b een d oub led ( Ca r r ing ton 1 985 ,37 -44 ) . H ende r son ( 1984 ) h a sd emon s t ra ted t h a tt h e 1 6 .6ha . N e ron ian f o r t r e s s a tE xe ter i ns ou th -we s t E ng land w a sc apab le o fh o ld ing n o t

w ou ld h ave b een v ery d i f f e ren t t ot h a t o ft h e m id se cond c en tu ry B .C . H en ce t h e t wo l e g ion s a tV e tera w ou ld h ave b een e a ch c ommanded b y al e g iona ry l e ga te a so ppo sed t o t h e o ne c on su l o r p ro con su l w ho w ou ld u sua l ly h ave l e d

o n ly t h e t e nc ohor t so ft h e l e g ion , a dm i t ted ly i ns omewha t

at wo leg ion R epub l ican a rmy . T he c on sequen ce s f o r t h e

a dd i t iona l t wo mo r e c oho r t -b lock s .

u nde r s ized b a r ra ck s , b u t a l so t h a t t h e r e w a s r oom f o r a n

g round -p lan a t V e tera a r e a to nce o bv iou s ; t h e re a r e t wo 1 40

R EPUBL ICAN C A MP T YPES AND FUNCT IONS f o re a ch y ea r f r om 1 33 -80 B .C . ) . I nH ispan ia U l t er io rt h e s i tua t ion w a s a ppa r en t ly s omewha td i f f e r en t . T he L u s i tan i w e re ap owe r fu l p eop le c en t r ed l a rge ly i n modern P or tuga l b eyond t h e R ive r G uad iana a nd b eyond R oman c on t ro l i n t h ee a r ly s e cond c en tu r y B .C . T he ir r a id si n to U l t er io r l e d A em i l iu s P au l lu st ol e ad ap un i t ive e xped i t ion i n1 90 B .C . ( L ivy 3 7 .46 .7 -8 ) . T he L u s i tan i r ema in ed h oweve r u npa c if ied a nd t h e R oman s h ad l a t e r a dvan ced a ga in s t L u s i tan ia i n t h e l a t e 1 40 's B .C . u nde r Q u in tu s S e r v i l iu s C aep io i nr e spon s e t ot h e u pr i s ing o fV i r ia thu s ; C a ep io i s s a id t oh ave f o r ced t h e L u s i tan ib a ck i n to t h e i rs t rongho ld s ( App ian I b er ica X I -X I I ) . B ru tu s ( l a te r B ru tu sC a l la icu s ) i s s a id b y S t rabo ( 1 1 .3 .1-4 ) t oh ave s e cu r ed t h ec oa s ta r ound modern L i sbon a nd t oh ave e s tab l i shed ab a se a t Moron ( p e rhap s mode rn A lme ir im ) , a bou t9 0 1 cm u pt h er i ve rT a jo ( t he R oman T agu s ) f r om t h ec oa s t , i nt h ee a r ly 1 30 's B .C .

Wh a t m u s t c ommand a t ten t ion a tC ä ce r e s e lV ie jo i st h e f u n c t ion o f t h e b a se . P e rhap s t h e m o s t i mpor tan t o b s e r va t ion w h ich e me rges f r om U lb e r t 's r e v iew o ft h es i te i st h a t n one o ft h e e v idence p o in t s t owa rd s i th av ing b een a ni n s ta l la t ion w h ich w a si n i t ia l ly c on s t ru c t ed a nd o ccup ied u nde r c ond i t ion s o f w a r o r p r iva t ion . T he r e c tangu la r s h ape o ft h e b a se i sn o t o ve r t ly d ef en s ive -ar e c tangu la r c i r cu i t i s mo r e d i ff i cu l t t o d ef end t h an ac i r c le o r s qua r e ( Lu t twak 1 976 ,81 ) . I n f a c t , i t s p l ay ing -ca rd s h ape i s s t r ik ing ly s im i la r t o m any f o r t r e s se s o f t h e P r in c ipa t e w h ich w e r es i ted f i rm ly w i th in R oman t e r r i tory . S e cond ly , t h e s i t ing o ft h e c amp , o n g en t ly r i s ing g round , i so n t h e p l a in o n r e la t ive ly l ow l y ing l a nd . T he l a te r R oman t own o fN o rba C ae sa r in a ,j u s tt ot h e s ou th , i so ve r 1 00m h i ghe r o nt h eS i er i l la h i l l sw he re n a tu ra l d e f en ce sc ou ld h ave b een u t i l i s ed i f r e qu i r ed . Two i mpo r tan t c r i t er ia f o r a n e s s en t ia l ly d ef en s ive s i te w e r e n o t t h e r e f o re m e t i n t h e c on s t ru c t ion a nd s i t ing o fC ä ce re s e lV ie jo . T he a dm in is t r a t ive b u i ld ing s , w o rk shop s , a nd m any o t he r b u i ld ing sa tC a ce r e se lV ie jo h ad s t on e f o o t ing sb u to n eo f t h em o s t s pec ta cu la ra spec t s o ft h e b a se w a s t h e q ua l i ty o f t h e i n t erna l f u rn i sh ing s . T he r e cove ry , d u r ing t h eo r ig ina l e x cava t ion , o f c l ay s qua r e s f o r f l oo r ing i n m any o f t h e b u i ld ing s , a nd t h e u se o f l e ad f o r s om e o f t h e r oof s , p r omp t ed U lb e r t t oc ommen t t h a t t h e r i ch f a c i l i t ie s w i th in t h e b a se w e r e c on s t ruc t ed w i th c a r e a nd w i th l a v ish a ten t ion ( U lbe r t 1 984 ,46 ) . T he e v iden ce f o r m e ta l a nd t e x t i le w o rk shop ss ugge s t s t h a tt h eb a se m ay h ave a c ted a s as u pp ly d epo t f o r t h e c l o th ing a nd w eapon r y o f s o ld ie r s b eyond j u s t t h o s e w i th in t h e c amp . T h i s w a s s u r e ly n o t a c amp w h ich w a s i n tended o n ly a s aw in t e r c amp o r t empo ra r y b a se . I n deed , U lbe r tw a s a b le t oa r gue f r om t h e c o in e v iden ce , a nd f r om t h e i n f orma t ion i n S chu l t en 's d aybook a nd o r ig ina l s k e t che s , w h ich i lu s t ra t e t h a t a n umb e ro ft h eb u i ld ing s w e re o fm o r e t h an o n ep h a s e , t h a t t h e b a se h ad b een o ccup ied f o r m o r e t h an a d ecade , p r obab ly f r om a r ound 9 0 -c . 80 B .C . a l though w e s t i l l d o n o t k now p r e c i s e ly w hen i tw a s c on s t ru c t ed . C ä ce r e s e lV ie jo t h u s , o n t h e e v iden ce g l ean ed , w a sq u i t e u n l ik e t h e e a r l ie r t empo ra ry c amp s w h ich h ave b een r e cogn ised i nS pa in a nd , a s U lbe r tp e r ce ived , i th ad s ome f e a tu r e s w h ich w e re mo r e c on s i s t en t w i th a n I mper ia l f o r t r e s s : .und b e s i t z t E lemen t e , d i e m an e he r b e i e i nem k a i se r ze i t l ichen S t and lage r . . . ( i b id . ,20 1 ) . A t temp t st or e con c i le a r chaeo log ica la nd h i s to r ica le v iden ce a r e f r augh t w i th d i ff icu l ty , n eve r the le s s i ti sn e ce s sa ry t o t r y t od e te rm in e f r om t h e l im i ted h i s to r ica l s ou r ce s , u nde r w ha t c i r cum s tan ce s t h e b a se a tC ä ce r e se lV ie jo m ay h ave b e en c on s t ru c t ed a nd w hy i tw a s s i t ed w he r e i tw a s . I ft h e v a r iou s h i s to r ica l s ou rce sa r et ob e b e l ieved , f o l low ing t h e s ub juga t ion o fN uman t ia i n1 33 B .C . , t h en a t ive r e s i s tan ce o f t h e C e l t ib er i w a s e f f e c t ive ly c r u shed a nd H ispan ia C i te r io r a ppea r s t o h ave e n joyed a r e la t ive p ea ce , w i th u n r e s t b u t n o w a r s r epo r ted , u n t i l t h e a r r iva l o fS e r to r iu s ( s e e B rough ton 1 951 a nd 1 952 f o r ar e sume o ft h es ou r ce s

O n ce e s tab l i shed i n L u s i tan ia t h e R oman s w e r e a b le t o e x t end t h e i rc on t ro l t ot h eD ue ro a nd b eyond b y t h ee nd o f t h es e cond c en tur yB .C . H ow eve r , t h ep rob lem o fb and i t r y f r om t h e moun ta in a r ea s e v iden t ly r ema ined a c co rd ing t o D iodoru s S i cu lu s ( 5 .34 .7 ) a s d i d t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t t h e L u s i tan i w ou ld r e be l a ga in . Ac ampa ign d e ep i nL u s i tan ia i t se lf w a s u nder taken i n 1 09 B .C . b y a no the r S e rv i l iu s C a ep io f o r w h ich h e w a s a wa rd ed a t r iumph ( Deg r a s s i 1 947 ,56 1 ) . Ma r iu s , b ro th e ro ft h eg r ea t Ma r iu s , f o ugh tt h e L u s i tan ii n1 02 B .C . w i th t h ea i do fs ome C e l t ib e r ian a l ie s ( App ian , l b er ica XV I ,100 ) a nd D o labe l la w a s a wa rded a t r iumph f o r ac ampa ign a ga in s t t h e L u s i tan i i n 9 8 B .C . ( Deg r a s s i 1 947 ,562 ) . L i c in iu s C ra s su s w a s a ppo in t ed c on su l t o H ispan ia U l t e r io r i n 9 7 B .C . a nd s t ayed f o u r y ea r s i n L u s i tan ia u n t i l h e t o o w a s a wa rded a t r iumph ( i b id . ,562 ) . D y son ( 1985 ,224 ) h a s n o t ed t h a t an umbe ro fp l a ce -name s w i th a d er iva t ion f r om L i c in iu s i n c lud ing a C a s t r a L i c in iana a r e t ob e f o und i nt h e a n c ien t i tn e ra r ie s a nd a r e t ob e l o ca ted i nt h e a r ea b e tween t h e r i ve r s G uad iana a nd T a jo m o r e p a r t icu la r ly i nt h e n a r rowe r a r ea s b e twe en t h e t wo r i ve r s w he r e C ä ce r e se lV ie jo i t se lf i sl o ca ted . D y son p ropo sed t h a t t h e se p l a ce -name s s ugge s t ac omb in a t ion o f m i l i ta r y c amp s a nd s e t t lemen t s f r iend ly t o R ome w h ich w e r e i n tended t oh e lp s e cu r e t h e r ugged c oun t ry b e tw een t h e G uad iana a nd t h e T a jo ( i b id . ,224 ) . I fD y son i sr i gh t a nd t h e r e g ion b e tween t h e se t wo r i ve r s t ot h e e a s t o f t h e L u s i tan ian h ea r t land w a s s u ff i c ien t ly R oman ised , i tm igh t h ave b e en c on s ide r ed t h el o g ica lp l a ce f o r al e g iona ry b a se w h ich c ou ld c ove r t h e g ap b e tw een t h e T a jo a nd t h e m oun ta in s t ot h e s ou th a sw e l l a sb e ing h and i ly p l a ced t o h o ld af o r ce w h ich c ou ld m ove n o r th o rw e s ti n to L u s i tan ia s hou ld t h e o cca s ion a r is e . T he v o la t i le n a tu r e o f t h e L u s i tan i , a s p r oved b y t h e i r s e ve ra l r e vo l t s , m ay h ave d emanded o f t h e R oman s t h a t t h ey e s tab l i shed as t rong m i l i ta r yp o s i t ion f r om w he r et h ey c ou ld a n t ic ipa te a nd d ea l w i th f u r the rt r oub le . Ah i s tor ica l c on t ex tf o rt h ee s tab l ishmen to fs u ch ap o s i t ion i nt h e f o rm o f al e g iona ry b a s e t oo ve r s ee L u s i tan ia m igh t b ep rov ided b y t h e r e tu rn o f C ra s su s t o I t a ly i n 9 3 B .C . a f te r h i s e v iden t s u cce s se s i nt h a t a r ea .

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P ART I V : CHAPTER 8

F ig .S . IT he l o ca t ion o ft h e l e g ionary b a se a tC äce res e lV ie jo i ni t s g eograph ica l s e t t ing a nd s how ing i t s s t ra teg ic p os i t ion i n r e la t ion t o t h e L u s i tan i

1 4 . 2

R EPUBL ICAN C A MP T YPES AND FUNCT IONS T he l e g iona ry b a s e a tC ace r e s e lV ie jo s t ood a s tr ide t h e V ia d e l aP la ta t h em i l i ta ry r ou te f r om t h e s e apo r ta tC ad iz ( Roman G ad e s ) t ot h eT a jo w h ich , a f t e rc r o s s ing t h eT a jo , l e dn o r th t a k ing a dvan tage o ft h eg ap b e tween t h eS i e r r ad e G a ta a nd t h e S i e r r a d e G r edo s i n to t h e t r iba l a r ea o f t h e V a c ca e i f o rm e r a l ie s o f t h e L u s i tan i . I tw a s a l so w e l l p l a ced f o r a ny f o r ce t o s t r ike w e s twa rd s a l ong t h e T a jo i n to w e s te rn L u s i tan ia . T he b a se w ou ld a ppea r t o h ave b e en l o ca t ed a t an a tu ra lg eog raph ica lc r o s s road sb o th e a s t w e s t a nd n o r th sou th y e t w i th in w ha t w a s p robab ly a s u ff i c ien t ly R oman i sed a r ea f o r s u ch a b a s e t o o p e ra t e w i thou t t o o m u ch f e a r o f as u rp r ise a t ta ck ( F ig .8 .1) .

t h a t i tw a s o ccup ied f o r mo r e t h an j u s t af ew y ea r s . T h is h a se nab led a na r gumen tt ob ed eve loped w h ich , w h i ls tn o t c on c lu s ive , h a s s e rved t o d emon s t r a t e t h a t t h e R oman c on cep t o f p l a c ing al e g iona ry b a se i n a' f i xed ' s t ra t eg ic p o s i t ion m ay h ave al o nge r c u r r en cy t h an h a s p r ev iou s ly b een a pp r e c ia t ed . C e r ta in ly , t h e b a s e a t C a ce r e s e l V ie jo s hou ld n o t b e o ve r look ed i n f u tu r e r e sea r ch s u r round ing t h e l e g iona ry b a s e s o r ' f o r t r e s se s ' o n t h e R h in e a nd t h e d eve lopmen t o f R oman I mp e r ia l m i l i ta r y s t ra tegy . NOTES

S u ch a s t ra t eg ic p l a c ing o f al e g iona r y b a se , i fi tw a s i n tended t oh ave b e en o ccup ied f o ra ny l e ng th o ft ime , a nd t h e e v iden ce p roduced b y U lbe r t s how s t h is t oh ave b een t h e c a se , w ou ld r e p re sen t as im i la r k i nd o f m i l i ta r y t h ink ing a nd r e spon se t ot h a te mp loyed a t amu ch l a t e rd a t e o n t h e R h in e a nd e l sewhe r e . A s U lbe r t s t a t ed : .J edenf a l l s m uß C äce re s e l V i e jo e i n f ur e i nen l ä nge r en Z e i t raum e i nge r ich t e te s , s o l ideau sgebau te s > >S t and lage r< < o d er B a s i s lage rg ew e sen s e in ( U lb e r t1 984 ,20 1 ) . I f t h e b a se a t C a ce r e s e l V ie jo h ad n o t s u f f e r ed a c a ta s t roph ic f i r e a r ound 8 0 B .C . , e i the r a tt h e h and s o f S e r to r iu s o r a s ar e su l t o fa n a c c iden t , i tm ay h ave b een o c cup ied f o r e ven l onge r t h an t h e p e r iod w h ich i s a t p r e s en t a t te s t ed . P ro f e s so r U lb e r t h a s b een r i gh t ly c au t iou s i na s cr ib ing a p r e c i se f un c t ion t ot h e b a s e . We a r e i nt h e d a rk a bou t t h e m i l i ta r y f o r ce s t a t ioned t h e r e . I n deed t h e l a ck o fe v idence f o r b a r ra ck s o n t h e s i te w he r e w o rk shop s a r e p l en t if u l c ou ld l e ad u st ob e l ieve t h a tt h es upp ly e l emen to ft h eb a se w a sa si mpo r tan ta sa ny p u r e ly s t r a teg ic m i l i ta ry f un c t ion . T he s upp ly r o le o fI mper ia l f o r t r e s se s i sa l so w e l l a t t e s ted w i th n umerou se xamp le so ff a b r ica eh av ing b een e xcava ted w i th in f o r t r e s se s . T he m i l i ta ry s t a tu s o f t h e b a se i sa s U lb e r t a g re e s n o t i na ny d oub t h ow eve r . A n I mpe r ia l p a r a l le l t o C a ce r e s e lV ie jo i n t e rm s o f i t s p o t en t ia l f u n c t ion c ou ld b e s e en i n t h e T ibe r ian f o r t r e s s b u i l ta bou t 1 00 y ea r s l a te ra tS t ra sbou rg w h ich g ua rded t h e S av e rne g ap . S yme ( 1936 ,125 )p o in t ed o u t t h a tt h eb a se a t S t r a sbou rg h ad n eve r b een u s ed a s ab a se f o r t h e g r ea t i n va s ion so fA ugu s tan d ay s , r a the r , t h el e g ion p l a ced t h e r e w a sr e ady t op en e t ra te w e s twa rd i n to R oman G au l t h rough t h eg ap s n o r th a nd s ou th o ft h ec ha in o ft h e V o sge ss hou ld t h e n e ed a r i s e . I f as t ra teg ic m i l i tary e l emen t f o r t h e l e g iona ry b a se a t C a c e r e s e l V ie jo i s a ccep ted i tc ou ld b e v i ew ed a s a f o r er unne r i ns t r a teg ic t e rm s o ft h e f o r t r e s se s w h ich w e r e l o ca t ed a t ' f i xed ' p o s i t ion s d ur ing t h e f i r s t c en tu ry AD p o i sed , a s i tw ou ld h ave b een , f o r i n t e rven t ion w e s twa rd i n to ap o ten t ia l ly v o la t i le R oman L u s i tan ia , o rn or thwa rd . I th a sb e en a r gued t h a t t h ec r u c ia l f a c to ri nd e t e rm in ing t h e f u n c t ion o ft h e b a se a tC a ce r e s e lV ie jo w a s t h e e v iden ce 1 4 3

1T o w ha t e x ten t C a e sa r a c t ed u nde r t h e a u sp ice s o f t h e S ena te a nd i nt h e b e s t i n t e r e s t s o f R ome a nd t o w ha t e x ten t h e w a s mo t iva ted b y t h ough t s o f p e r sona l g l o ry a nd a gg rand i semen t i s as ub je c t w h ich h a s e ngaged t h e a t ten t ion o f s c ho la r s ( s e e A d co ck 1 940 ,92 ) . C oup led w i th t h i s t h e r e i st h e a c cu s tomed q u e s t ion o f t en a sked b y h i s to r ian sw hen a dd r e s s ing t h e s ub jec t o f t h e e xpan s ion o f R ome ; w a s t h e a cqu is i t ion o fa n Emp i r e b y R ome ar e su l t o f o ppo r tun ism o r d e l ib e r a t ion ? S ome d eba t e o n t h e se t wo r e la ted t o p ic s i sf ound i n F r ank ( 19 14 ) ; F u l le r ( 1 965 ) ; L u t twak ( 1 976 ) a nd Momm sen ( 1 862 -75 ) . I th a s b een s ugge s t ed , m o s t r e cen t ly b y K ing ( 1990 ,58 ) ,t h a tR oman g eog r aph ica lk now ledge a tt h e t i me o ft h e R epub l ic a nd e a r ly Emp ir e w ou ld n o th ave b een c ogn isan to ft h ee x ten to ft h eE u r a s ian l a ndma s s ; t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o f aw o r ld -w ide R oman Emp i r em ay h ave b een c on s ide r ed w i th in t h e r e a lm s o f p o s s ib i l i ty u p u n t i l t h e t i me o f t h e V a r ran d i sa s t e r . 2 L u t twak s ugge s t s t h a t t h e s oph i s t ica t ed c l ien t s t a t e s o f t h e E a s t w e r e a wa r e o f t h e t h r ea t p o sed b y R oman m i l i ta ry p owe r a nd h e r a b i l i ty t o d ep loy l e g ion s w he r e n e ce s sa ry a nd t h a t c on sequen t ly a l a rge p hy s ica l p r e sen ce o f f o r ce w a s n o t u sua l ly r e qu i r ed i n t h e E a s t a tl e a s t i n t h e e a r ly c en tur ie s A .D . ( Lu t twak 1 976 ,47 ) . 3 L ivy r e por t s ( Book X ,XXV ,10 ) t h a t t h e C on su l F ab iu s ( 295 B .C . ) h ad n o u s e f o r t h e p e rman en t c amp a nd t h a t h e m a in ta ined t h a t b y m a r ch ing a nd s h if t ing i t sp o s i t ion t h ea rmy g r ew m o r em ob i le a nd m o r e h ea l thy . T he i d ea t h a t b y f r equen t ly s t r ik ing c amp a nd t h en ce e r ec t ing a n ew o n e , a n a rmy r ema in s h ea l thy , i s ac on cep t w h ich i sc ommon t h roughou t h i s tor y . U n le s s ac amp i sp rov ided w i th v e ry g ood s an i ta t ion a nd d ra inage i t q u ick ly b e come s al i ab i l i ty . T h i s m ay e xp la in w hy s ome c amp s , s u ch a s N eu s s a nd V e t e ra , w e r e r e bu i l t s e ve ra l t i me s o ve r o n s l igh t ly d i f f e r en t l o ca t ion s a l though i ft h e o ccupa t ion o ft h e se s i t e s w a s a tf i r s t p er iod ic t h en i tm igh t b e e xpe c ted t h a t t h e c amp w ou ld b e d i sman t led a nd t h e d ef en ce s l e ve l led a s w a s s t anda rd R oman a rmy p r a c t ice o n w i thd rawa l ; t h i s w ou ld h ave r e qu i r ed t h e e r e c t ion o f an ew c amp w hen t h ey r e turned .

P ART I V : CHAPTER 8 4 I no t he ra r ea sw he r ep ro spe c t s w e r ed i f f e r en t , o rf o r p o l i t ica l e xped ien cy , a s i n B r i ta in , t h e p o l icy o f e xpan s ion w a sc on t inued ; a l though t h es e ed so ft h a t o pe ra t ion h ad b een s own b y J u l iu s C a e sa r ( Ga l l ic W ar I V ,20 -V ,24 ) ) a lmo s t ac en tury p r ev iou s ly a nd , j u s t p r io r t o C laud iu s ' c ampa ign , i n a n a bo r t ive o p e r a t ion b y C a l igu la ( Ba r r e t t 1 989 ,125 -29 ) . 5 T he c i r cum s tan ce s s u r round ing t h e f o rma l a dop t ion o f t h e c oho r t a tt h e t u rn o f t h e f i r s t c en tu ry B .C . , p e rhap s t e n y ea r s o rs o b efo r e C ä ce r e s e lV ie jo w a s b u i l t , w e r e d i scu s sed i n t h e p r eced ing c hap te r . S pa in , w i th i t s r ugged t e r ra in a nd t h e g uer i l la typ e w a r f a re f a vou r ed b yi t si n d igenou st r ibe s , w a s much m o r e s u i ted t ot h e m o r e f l ex ib le R oman c oho r tt h an t h ec l a s s ica la nd p onde rou sm an ip le ( Be l l 1 965 ,4 11) .

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P ART I V : CHAPTER 9

PLANNING ELE MENTS OF THE LEGIONARY CA MP I NTERNAL L AYOUT , S IT ING , AND CA MP S HAPE T he E t ru s can i nf lu en ce o n R ome i nm any i mpo r tan t a r ea s o fs o c ia l , l e ga l , r e l ig iou s a nd m i l i ta r y l i f e h a s b een w e l l d o cumen ted ( Og i lv ie 1 976 ; C rawf o rd 1 978 e ta l ) . R oman t own p l ann ing t o oo wed much t ot h eE t ru s can sa nd G r eek s ( Bo e th iu s 1 978 ; S ea r 1 982 ) . T he r e gu la r g r id p a t te rn o f p a r a l le l a nd r i gh t a ng led s t ree t s f o rm ing i n su lae w i th t wo d om inan t a nd i n t e r se c t ing a xe sa nd o ppo s ing g a teway sa r e e l em en t s w h ich m ay b e s e en i n t h e G r e ek f o unda t ion a t P o s e idon ia ( Pae s tum ) a nd a t t h e E t ru s can t own o f M a r z abo t to n ea r B o logna ; t h e se e l emen t s w e r e t ob e come a f e a tu re o f R oman m i l i ta ry a nd c i v i l a r ch i te c tu ra l p l ann ing . '

I a tR en ieb la s d i scu s s ed e a r l ie r . A l though t h ec o lony a tC o sa w a sp l a ced o nv e ry d ef en s ib le s i t ei tmu s tb er emembe r ed t h a ti tw a s af i xed l o ca t ion . B y w ay o f c on t ra s t i tw a s n o t t h e u sua l p r a c t ice o f t h e R epub l ican R oman a rmy t o s e ek o u t h i gh d e f en s ib le p o s i t ion s f o rt h e ir m a r ch ing camp so rt empo ra ry c ampa ign b a se s . P o lyb iu s , w ho h ad f o ugh t t h e R oman s a t P ydna , m ake s much o f t h e d i f f e r en ce s o f a pp roa ch b e twe en t h e G r eek s a nd t h e R oman s c on ce rn ing t h is a s p e c t o f c a s t rame ta t ion :

I ta ppea r s c e r ta in t h a t t h e p l ann ing e l emen t s w h ich a r e v i s ib le i nt h e R oman m i l i ta r y s i te s o ft h e R epub l ic w e r e a b y -p roduc to ft h ee xper t ise w h ich R ome h ad a cqu i r ed f r om t h ef o und ing o ft own sa nd t h e l a y ing o u to fl a nd d i v i s ion s , a nd i np a r t icu la rf r om t h e f o und ing o fc o lon iae w h ich h ad ad ua l c i v i l a nd m i l i ta ry r o le . T he s t r eng th o f t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tw een R oman m i l i ta ry a nd c i v i ls u rveyo r si s c ommen ted u pon b yD i Ike ( 1971 ,40 ;42 ;66 ;86 ) . O n eo ft h e e a r l ie s t R oman c o lon ie s w a s t h a t e s t ab l i shed a tO s t ia b y R oman c i t iz en s i n t h e f ou r th c en tu ry B .C . w h ich w a s i n t ended a s ap ro te c t ion a ga in s t m i l i ta r y e n c roa chmen t s r a th e r t h an t o o pen u p a n o ve r sea s t r ade ( Ca ry a nd S cu l la rd 1 983 ,106 ; Me igg s 1 973 ,11-27 ; 1117 ) . S ea r ( 1 982 ,120 ) n o t e st h a tt h eo r ig ina lo u t l in eo ft h er e c tangu la r c a s t rum c an s t i l l b e s e en . T he t wo s t r ee t s w h ich d i v ided t h e c a s t rum , t h e d ecumanu s ma x imu s a nd t h e c ardo m ax imu s , r a n o u t t og a te s o n a l l f o u r s i de s ( t he se s t r ee t s w e r et h ee qu iva len to ft h ev i ae p rae tor ia/d ecumana a nd t h e v i ap r inc ipa l i so ft h em i l i ta ry c amp ) .T h ed ev ice o fm ak ing t h e s t r ee t s i n t e r s e c t a tr i gh t a ng le s t oe a ch o t he r a nd t h e s u b s equen t g r id p a t te rn w h ich e vo lved a ppea r t ob e t h e r e gu la t ing f a c to r s i ne a r ly R oman c o lon ia l p l ann ing a s i s c l e a r ly d emon s t r a t ed a t t h e s i te s o f N orba , A lba F ucen s a nd C os a a l o f w h ich d i sp lay s i gn s o f a n o r thogona l l a you t . Ow en s h a s d rawn a t t en t ion t ot h e o ve r t ly m i l i ta ry n a tu r e o ft h e R oman c o lon iae : C er ta in ly i nl a t e rc o lon ie st h em i l i ta r yc on s ide ra t ion s u nde r ly ing t h e i r p l an b e come i n c r ea s ing ly c l ea r . ( Owen si nB a r ton e d . 1 989 ,14 ) .2 I ti st h e g r id p l an o f s u ch c o lon ie s w h ich e me rge s a s a n o ve r r id ing p l ann ing e l emen t . Whe r ea s a tO s t ia t h e g r id i s f o und w i th in an e a rp e rf e c tr e c tang le , a tt h e R oman c o lony o fC o sa , f o unded i n2 73 B .C . , t h e t own w a l ls u t i l is ed t h e c on tou r s o ft h e h i l l t h u s p rodu c ing a n i regu la r p e r ime te r w h i ls t t h e i n t e r io r s t ree t s y s tem w a s l a id o u t i n ag r id p a t t e rn ( Brown 1 9 80 ,9 13 ) . T h is g r id o w ed n o th ing t ot h e c a rd ina l p o in t s o f t h e c ompa s s b u t w a s d i c ta t ed a lmo s t c e r ta in ly b y t h en e ed t oh ave t h es t r e e t sa l igned t ot h e m o s t m ode r a te g r ade p o s s ib le a nd i ss t r ik ing ly s im i la ri nc on cep t t ot h em isa l ign ed g r id s f o und i nt h e n o r the rn a nd s ou thern h a lve so ft h el a t e rm id se cond c en tu ry B .C . m i l i ta ry C amp

1 4 5

T he G r eek s i n e n camp ing t h ink i t o f p r ima r y i mpo r tan ce t o a dap t t h e c amp t o t h e n a tu ra l a dvan tage s o f t h e g round T he R oman s o n t h e c on t ra ry p r ef e r t o s ubm i t t o t h e f a t igu e o f e n t r ench ing a nd o t he r d ef en s ive w o rk . . . ( P o l .V 1 ,42 ) . H yg inu s r e commended t h e t y pe o f l o ca t ion w h ich b e s t s u i ted t h e I mp e r ia l R oman m i l i ta ry s u r veyo r s w hen t h ey c ame t o c hoo se t h e s i te f o r t h e c amp , t h i s w a s u pon a s l igh t p rom inen ce a nd p r ef e rab ly c l o s e b y t o ar i ve r o r w a t e r s upp ly ( Hyg inu s d e . m un . c a s t . 5 6 -57 ) . Whe r eve r ac amp w a s s i t ed a nd w ha t eve r i t s s h ape i t w ou ld a ppea r t h a t i tw a s t h e i n t e rna l p l an b a s ed u pon i n te r sec t ing s t ree t s a t r i gh t a ng le s w h ich w a s n ea r i n v io lab le , t h es hap eo ft h ec i r cu i to fw a l l so rd ef en ce sl e s s s o , a s af a c to r i nt h e d e s ign . ' T ha t t h eg r id -p lan s hou ld b e s u ch a n i mpo r tan t p a r t o ft h e R oman m a r ch ing camp ( a c co rd ing t oP o lyb iu s )s hou ld n o t t h e r ef o r e s u rp r ise u s . T he c onn e c t ion b e tw een m i l i ta ry a nd c i v i l p l ann ing i sf u r the rc onf i rmed b y P o lyb iu sw ho s t a t e s t h a t w hen t h e t r oop s c ome i n to a c amp i ts omewha t r e semb le s t h e r e tu rn o fa n a rmy t oi t s n a t ive c i ty : F o r t h en t h ey b r eak u p a t t h e g a te a nd e ve r yon e g oe s s t r a igh t o n f r om t h e r e a nd r e a che s h i s o wn h ou se w i thou t f a i l , a sh ek now sb o th t h eq ua r t e ra nd t h e e xa c t s po t w he r e h i s r e s iden ce i ss i tua t ed . I ti s v ery mu ch t h e s ame t h ing i n aR oman c amp . ( P o l .V 1 ,4 1 , 11 ) . T he r e a son sw hy t h e R oman c amp s hou ld b es oo rde r ly a r e s e ve r a l . When t h e a rmy w a s o n t h e m a r ch q u i t e al a rge p a r t o ft h e s e cond h a lf o ft h e d ay w ou ld b e g i ven o ve r t o t h ec on s truc t ion o ft h e m a r ch ing camp ( Adco ck 1 9 8 1 ,13 ) . P o lyb iu s s t a t e s t h a t t h e s i t e f o r t h e c amp w a s c ho sen a nd s t re e t s m a rked o u t b y a n a dvan ce p a r ty ( Po l .V 1 ,4 1) . T hu s t h et r oop sc ou ld a r r ive a nd d epo s i tt h e ir t e n t sa tt h ea lo t t ed p l a ce s a nd b eg in t h e t a sk o f e r e c t ing t h e c amp d ef en ce s w i th t h e m in imum o fd e lay . T he n eed t oa vo id c onf u s ion w i th in a m i l i ta ry e s tab l i shmen t w a s n o d oub t p a ramoun t a nd m ay e xp la in w hy t h eg r id s y s tem a nd t h ep rov is ion o f

P ART I V : CHAPTER 9 a d equa te s t r ee t s b e tween t h e t e n t s w a s s uch a n i mpor tan t f a c to r i nm any R oman c amp s -i tw ou ld h ave e nab led t h e t r oop s t o m ob i l is e i n c o r r e c t o rde r i n a ny e me rgency w i thou tt h ed ange ro fp an ic w h ich m igh th ave a r i sen i ft h e c amp ing w a s h apha za rd . O n amo r e mundane l e ve l i ta l so m ade f o rt h eh a rmon iou s w i thd rawa l f r om t h ec amp a st h e r a nk s c ou ld b e d r awn u p w i th in t h e c amp t o a wa i t t h e s i gna l t oj o in t h e o u t -ma r ch w he the r i n m a r ch ing o r i n b a t t le o rde r . T ha t t h e c amp s a nd f o r t r e s se s o f t h e Emp i r e o w e s om e th ing i nt h e i rp l ann ing t ot h eR epub l ican c amp sw h ich p r e ceded t h em i sn a tu ra l a nd h a s l o ng b een r e cogn i sed ; t h e ' T ' j un c t ion f o rmed b y t h e v i a p rae tor ia a nd t h e v i a p r inc ipa l i s a nd t h e p l a c ing o fs t r ee t s a tr i gh t a ng le s t ot h e m a in s t r ee t s a r e a s much ap a r to ft h e P o lyb ian c amp p l an a s t h ey a r e o f t h e p e rman en t f o r t re s se s o f t h e f i r s t a nd s e cond c en tu r ie s A .D .4 I ti sr a re n o t t os e e s ome th ing o f t h i s i nt h e g round -p lan o fa ny R oman m i l i ta ry i n s ta l la t ion o f t h e P r in c ipa te w he r e e nough o f t h e i n t e r io r h a s b een r e vea led . E ven C laud ian V i ndon i s sa , w i th i t s i n terna l b u i ld ing s a td i f f e r en t o r ien ta t ion s , r e ta ined t wo m a in a nd i n t e r se c t ing s t r ee t sw h ich w e r ec l o se t ob e ing a t9 0 ° t oo n e a no the r . '

w ou ld a l so a c coun t f o r t h e p o lygona l o r i r r egu la r c i r cu i t s o ft h e l e g iona ry i n s ta l la t ion s o ft h e l a te f i r s tc en tu ry B .C . t oe a r ly f i r s tc en tury A .D . w h ich e x i s t ed o no rc l o s et ot h e R oman f r on t l i n e a tf i r s t a t D ang s te t t en b e f o r e 1 2 B .C . , t h en a t N eu s s ( Camp s Ba nd C ) a nd a t V e t e ra ( Camp s A /C ) . T he s ame f e a tu r e i s r e cogn i sed i n m any o f t h e A ugu s tan l e g iona ry c amp si nf o rw a rd p o s i t ion si na dvan ce o ft h eR h ine ; f o ri n s tan ce a tt h em a r ch ing camp a tH a l t ern , a tO be raden a nd a tA n r eppen o n t h e L ippe ( a l l p robab ly f o unded b e tw een 1 2 . B .C . a nd A .D .6 ) ; a tR ödg en a nd B ad N auhe im o n t h e We t t e r a nd a t Ma rk tb re i t o n t h e Ma in .' I tm u s t b e s a id t h a t t h e t h eor y t h a t a n i r r egu la r c amp s h ape , m o r e c ondu c ive t o d ef en ce , w a s e mp loyed o n c ampa ign i n u n secu r ed a r ea s d o e s n o t h o ld f o r t h e A ugu s tan m a r ch ing camp o f H o l s t e rhau sen w h ich i s r ough ly r e c tangu la r( b u tn ever the le s sh a s ar e en t r an ta tt h e s ou th -ea s t c orn e r ) n o r f o r t h e A ugu s tan l e g iona r y b a se a t H a l t e rn u n le s st h ea r ea w a s i n de ed c on s ide r ed s e cu r e . B o th c amp s w e r e c on s t ru c t ed e a s t o f t h e R h in e a ta r ound t h e s ame g en e ra lp e r iod a st h e o the rc amp so n t h eL ipp e l i s ted a bove ." S ma l le ri n s ta l la t ion ss u ch a sa ux i l ia ry f o r t sa r ec on s i s t en t ly f o und t oh ave b een s qua r e o r r e c tangu la r i ng r ound -p lan e ven w hen i n a dvan ced p o s i t ion s , c e r ta in ly f r om t h e C laud ian p er iod o nwa rd s .'

T he p o s i t ion ing o fa tl e a s t t h e m a in i n te r sec t ing s t r ee t s a t r i gh t a ng le s w ou ld h ave b rough t as en se o fo rde r t ow ha t w e r e a f t e r a l m i l i ta ry e s tab l ishmen t s w h ich , w i th in t h e R om an m i l i ta ry s phe r e , c ou ld h ave o n ly o pe ra ted e ff i c ien t ly u nde r c ond i t ion s o fw e l l r egu la ted c on t ro l .

T ha tt h e r ew a sn ot y po log ica l s e qu en ce i nt h ed eve lopmen t o f t h e l e g iona ry c amp s hape f r om i r regu la r t o r e gu la r f o rm s s hou ld b ec l ea rf r om t h ed i s cu s s ion w h ich h a st a k en p l a ce a bove . S hou ld f u r the rp roof b e n e ed ed w eh ave o n ly t ol o ok a tt h e e xamp le p rov ided b y t h ec l ea r ly r e c tangu la r s h ape o ft h e R epub l ican l e g iona ry b a se a tC ä ce r e se lV ie jo w h ich p r eda t e ss ome o ft h ep o lygona le s tab l i shmen t so nt h e L ippe a nd i nt h e We t t e r au b y u p t o7 0 y ea r s a nd m o re . T he r e c tang le o r s qua r e w a s af e a tu r e o f m i l i ta ry c amp s h ap e f r om f o ur th .cen tur y B .C . O s t ia , t h rough t h e P o lyb ian m ode l t o C ä ce re s e l V ie jo , t h e n ume rou s e xamp le s i nt h e P r in c ipa t e a nd u l t ima t e ly r i gh t t h rough t o t h et h i rd c en tu ry A .D . f o r t r e s so fA lbano i nI t a ly a nd e ven b eyond . v on P e t r ikov i t s n o t ed t h a t i n l a t e R oman f o r t if ica t ion s o ft h e t h i rd -f if th c en tu r ie s A .D .

I tm u s t b e s t a ted t h a t i tw ou ld n o t h ave b een t h e i n t en t ion o f t h e R oman s t o f i gh t as a v ing b a t t le f r om a p o s i t ion p inn ed d own w i th in t h e r ampar t s o f am a r ch ing -camp e xcep t i nt h e m o s t u n f o r e seen o fc i r cum s tan ce s . ' R a the r , t h e d i t ch , r ampa r t a nd p i la m ura l ia , a nd a w ide s pa ce b e tw een t h e r ampa r t a nd t h e f i r s t t e n t s w ou ld h ave s e rved a s ac heck t oa ny s u rpr i s e a t ta ck a nd a n e f f ec t ive b a r r ie r a ga in s ti nf i l t r a to r s . 'T he g r ea t e rp u rpo se o ft h ed e f en ce so f am a r ch ing camp m ay t h e r efo r e h ave b een t o p rov ide e nough o f ad eg re e o f s e cu r i ty f o r t h o se i n s ide w h ich w ou ld e nab le t h em t or e s ta nd r e lax , a ni mpo r tan tf a c to ri n p r e s er v ing t h em o ra le o ft r oop so nt h e ma r ch i np o t en t ia l ly h o s t i le c oun t ry . I n deed , s od ependen td i dt h eR oman A rmy b e come o n i t s a b i l i ty t oe n t r en ch t h a t t h e R oman g ene r a l C o rbu lo , p e rhap s f o r p ropaganda p u rpo se s , i sr e por t ed t o h ave s a id t h a t v i c tory w a s t ob e w on b y u s ing t h ed o labra ( F ron t inu s S t ra tagem s I V ,7 ,2 ) .

. t rad i t iona lw ay so fb u i ld ing w e r er e ta in ed t os ome e x ten t t h roughou t t h e p er iod , a s i n s qua r e a nd r e c tangu la rg round -p lan s . . . ( v on P e t r ikov i t s 1 9 7 1 ,203 ) .

I ft h e d ef en ce s o f R oman l e g iona ry i n s ta l la t ion s o n t h e m a r ch a nd i n w a r t ime w e r e e s sen t ia l ly a c on t ingen cy e l emen tt h en ,d epend ing u pon t h es i tua t ion w h ich w a st ob e f a ced , s ome a dap t ion o f t h e d ef en s ive c i r cu i t c ou ld b e p o s s ib le . T hu s , w he r e t h e r e r e a l ly w a s s ome p e r ce ived t h r ea to fa na ta ck u pon t h e c amp i t se lf t h ep o s i t ion ing a nd t h e s h ape o ft h e c amp m ay h ave b een a d ju s ted a c co rd ing ly a nd an ea rc i r c le o ro va l m ay h ave b een e mp loyed f o r t h e d ef en s ive c i r cu i t i np r ef e r en ce t ot h e r e c tang le o r s qua re . ' T h i sw ou ld p rov ide ap o s s ib le e xp lana t ion f o rt h ec ho ice o f s i te a nd t h e p o lygona l s h ape o f t h e m id second c en tu ry B .C . R en ieb la s C amp 1 1 .9 C on s ide ra t ion s o f t h i s k i nd

A t a l o f t i me s i tw ou ld a ppea r t h a t t h e r e c tangu la r o r ' p lay ing ca rd ' s h ape ( o r l a te r s om e t ime s t h e s q ua r e ) w a s t h ep r ef er r ed o p t ion a nd t h a td ev ia t ion f r om t h eo r thogona l c amp s h ape w a s p e rhap s o n ly u nder tak en i n t h o se c i r cum s tan ce s w h ich a b so lu te ly d emanded i ts u ch a s o pe ra t ion s u nde r tak en i n p o ten t ia l ly h o s t i le c oun t ry . E xamp le s o f t h e l a t t e r w ou ld i n c lude t h e e a r ly s e r ie s o f c on tou r c amp s a t R en ieb la s ( I I I I ) b u i l t p r io r t o t h e s ub juga t ion o f N uman t ia a nd t h e c amp s w i th p o lygona l d ef en ce s i d en t if ied b y v on P e tr ikov i t s ( 196 1 ,470 1 ) a s b e ing t y p ica l o ft h e A ugu s tan /T ibe r ian p er iod .

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P LANN ING E LEMENTS OF THE L EG IONARY C A MP f r om w h ich o pe ra t ion sc ou ld b el a un ched a nd b a t t le , w hen a n t ic ipa t ed , w ou ld b ee xpe c t ed t ot a ke p l a ce i n t h eo pen a way f r om t h ec onf in e s o ft h ec amp w h ich w ou ld o n ly b e u t i l ised i n ad ef en s ive m ea su r e a sa

C oup led w i th t h e p r ef e r en ce f o r ad ef en s ive ` e nve lope ' o f af o u r s ided c i r cu i t w a s t h e a ppa r en t t e nden cy o f t h e R oman a rmy t oa dop tw he r ep o s s ib le ag r id o fr i gh ta ng led s t r ee t s w i th in t h ec amp . I ng en e ra l t h e l e g iona ry c amp w a s s i t ed n o t o n v e r y h i gh g round b u t i fp o s s ib le o n ar a ised s pu r o r p l a teau w h ich w ou ld o f f e r as ound v an tage p o in t f r om w h i ch t o s u rvey t h e s u r round ing c oun tr y s ide a nd w h ich w ou ld h ave t h e n a tu ra l a dvan tage o fg ood d r a inage .

l a s t r e so r t . 7 T he d ev ice o f a low ing a w ide s p a ce b e tw een t h e d ef en ce s a nd t h e n ea r e s t b a r ra ck s o r t e n t s w ou ld m in im i se t h ee f f e c t s o fa ny m i s s i le s t h rown i n to t h e c amp a nd w e r a r e ly h ea r i nt h e h i s to r ie s o fd amage b e ing i nf l ic t ed i nt h is w ay . O n ef amou se xcep t ion t o t h i s i st h e o cca s ion i n w h ich C a esa r ( G a l l ic W ar . V ,40 ) r e po r t s t h a tt h e t h a t ched r oof so ft h eb a r r a ck s o ft h e c amp o f Q u in tu s C ice ro w e r e s e t o n f i r e b y d a r t s t h a t w e r e h u r led i n to t h e c amp w i th t h e a i d o f as t rong w ind b y t h e b e s ieg ing N e rv i i .

NOTES 1T he l o cu sg romae , t h es po tw he r et h eg roma w a ss e t u p , w a s f o und i ne xcava t ion a t Ma r zabo t to . I tw a s i n d ica t ed b y as t one l o ca ted a tt h e j un c t ion o f t h e c en t ra l c r o s s r o ad w h ich w a s i n s cr ibed w i th t wo l i ne sc or r e spond ing t ot h ed i r ec t ion o ft h e t wo m a in s t ree t s ( Ow en s i nB a r ton e d . 1 989 ,10 ) .

8 An ea r c i r c le i sb e s t a ch ieved i nl o ng w a l l c i r cu i t s b y m ean s o fj o in ing u p s t ra igh t s t r e t che s o fw a l l t o f o rm p o lygona l o r s im i la r s hape s r a the r t h an t r u e c i r c le s . T he r e la t ive m e r i t s o f t h e p rox ima t e c i r c le a nd t h e r e c tang le a sd ef en s ive c i r cu i t s a r e d i scu s s ed i nL u t twak ( 1 976 ,135 ;163 ) .T he r e c tangu la r' p lay ing c a rd ' s h ap e o f af o r t r e s s o f t h e f i r s t a nd s e cond c en tu r ie s A .D . w ou ld h ave p rov ided a p e r im e te r w h ich i sl i k e ly t oh ave b e en l o ng i np ropo r t ion t o t h e g a r r ison w i th in i to w ing t ot h e s p a c iou s i n te rna l l a you t ; am in imum p er ime t e rc i r cu la ro ro va lc i r cu i t p rov ide s a b e t t e r d ef en s ive p er ime t e r i f t h a t c on s ide ra t ion i su pp e rmo s t .

2 T he r o le o f t h e m i l i ta ry i n t h e i n i t ia l p l ann ing o f R omano -Br i t i sh t own s w h ich s t ood o n f o r t r e s s s i te s h a s b e en r e cogn ised a nd d i scu s sed e x t en s ive ly b y a n umb e r o f a u tho r s i n Web s t e r e d .( 1988 ) . M i l le t t ( 1984 ,65 -74 )i n ar e v iew o ft h er e la t ion sh ip b e twe en t h e R oman a rmy a nd t h ed eve lopmen to ft h et own i n s ou the rn B r i ta in h a s c ha l lenged s ome o ft h ee x is t ing m ode l s . 3 J one s ( 1 975 ,28 ) b e l ieve s t h a t i n t h e f o r t s o f t h e Emp ir e t h e p l an o f t h e i n te rna l b u i ld ing s h ad p robab ly b een o rgan ised o n t h e b a s is o f t h o s e b u i ld ing s w h ich i tw a s p l ann ed t oe n c lo se a nd t h a t t h e s h ap e o ft h e d ef en ce s w a s a dop t ed a c co rd ing ly . H end e r son ( i n Web s t e re d . 1 988 ,103 )s t a t e st h a t : ` I n t h e p r e -F lav ian p er iod t h e r e t en t ion o f ar e gu la r s t ree t g r id w a s p e rhap s a c co rded ah i gh p r ior i ty i n t h e p r epa ra t ion o ff o r t r e s s d e s ign s . '

9 A cco rd ing t o A pp ian ( l be r ica I X ,47 ) t h e G en e ra l N ob i l io ra nd h i s l e g ion s w en t i n to aw in te r camp i n 1 53 B .C . a f t e r s u f f er ing as e r ie s o fd ef ea t s a nd t h e l o s s o ft h e i r s t o r e s . C amp I a tR en ieb la s h a s b e en s ugge s ted b yt h ee xcava to r( S chu l ten 1 929 ) t ob et h e r ema in s o f t h i s c amp a nd i ft h is w a s s o t h en a d e f en s ive c i r cu i t m igh t b e e xpe c t ed f o r ac amp w h ich w a s w i th in e a sy r e a ch o f t h e C e l t ibe r ian s t rongho ld a tN uman t ia .

4 T he w ho le q ue s t ion o f t h e t e rm ino logy u s ed t o d e s cr ibe v a r iou s R oman m i l i ta ry i n s ta l la t ion s i sa t p r e sen ti n ac on s ide rab le s t a te o fc on f u s ion . T h is h a s a r isen m a in ly b y t h e t o ou n r e s t r ic t ed u s eo ft h et e rm ' f or t r e s s ' at e rm w h ich i n i t s t r ue s e n se s e ldom c onveys t h et r ue p u rpo s e o f aR oman l e g iona r y b a se b ef o r e t h e t i me o f C laud iu s a nd i ti s d eba tab le w he the rt h et e rm i sr e a l ly a p t f o r aR om an l e g iona r y b a se o f a ny p er iod . I n t h i s p r e sen t w o rk t h e t e rm f o r t r e s s i su s ed i ni t s g en e ra l ly a c cep ted s e n s e a s a l e g iona r y b a se w h ich mu s t h ave p roduced s ome e v idenc e o f l e ng thy o ccupa t ion , t h ough n o t n e ce s sa r i ly b y t h e s ame l e g ion .

1 0 P l an s o fm o s t o ft h e d ef en s ive c i r cu i t s o f t h e s i t e s m en t ioned c an b e f o und i n We l l s ( 1 972 ) . Mo r e d e ta i led p l an sc an b e f o und a sf o l low s : D ang s te t t en ( F inge r l in 1 972 , B e i l . 2 7 ) ; H a l t ern - F e ld lage r ( Aßka rnp 1 989 , A bb .12 ) N eu s s -C amp s Ba nd C ( Mü l le r 1 984 , A bb .31 ) ; V e te ra - C amp s A /C ( L ehne r 1 9 30 , T af e l I ) ; O be r aden ( Küh lbo rn 1 989 ,A bb .27 . ) ; A n r eppen ( i b id . ,A bb .40 ) ; R ödgen ( S chönbe rge r a nd S imon 1 976 , B e i l .! ) ; B ad N auhe im ( Suß , 1 966 ,Be i / .1) ; Ma rk tb re i t ( P ie t s ch 1 99 1 , A bb .33 .2 ) .

5 F o r ap l an o f C laud ian V i ndon i s sa s e e W iede rme r ( 1966 /67 , A bb .2 ) . T he i r r egu la r i ty o f t h e b u i ld ing p l an a tV i ndon i s sa a lmo s t c e r ta in ly s t em s f r om t h e f a c t t h a t t h e C laud ian b u i ld ing s w e r e c on s t ru c t ed w i th in aT ibe r ian f ounda t ion o f s ome t wen ty y ea r s s t and ing .

1 P l an o fH o ls te rhau s en ( S t .Be rke 1 9 89 ,A bb .9 ) . P l an o fH a l t er n -H aup t lage r s ( Aßkamp 1 9 89 , A bb .2 1 ) . 1 2 O n e o f t h e b e s t k nown e xcep t ion s i st h e f o r t o f H o fhe im , a ppa r en t ly c on s t ruc ted e a r ly i nt h e r e ign o fC laud iu s . T h i si so n eo ft h e f ew k nown f o r t se a s t o ft h e R h in e f r om t h is r e la t ive ly l a te d a t e . ( f o rp l an o fH o f he im s e e R i t te r l ing 1 9 13 , T af e l 1 ) .

6 I ti sl i k e ly t h a t i tw a s n eve r t h e i n t en t ion o f t h e R oman l e g ion t os i t i nc amp a nd a wa i t a ta ck . B o th t h e m a r ch ing camp a nd t h e f o r t re s s w e r e ab a s e 1 4 7

P ART I V : CHAPTER 1 0

BARRACKS AND S TABLES : TYPES , S IZE , AND CONST ITUENT ELE MENTS BARRACK TYPES T he b ar ra ck s w h ich a re r e co rded f r om t h e R epub l ican p er iod s how e s sen t ia l ly o n ly t wo d i s t in c t t y pe s -t ho se

p o s i t ive t h a t p a ck -an ima ls w e r e e i the r s t ab led o r t e the red i nt h is p o s i t ion a tt h e r e a r o ft h e c our tya rd i nt h e b ar ra ck s

w h ich a r e a r ranged i n h em i s tr ig ia a nd t h o se w h ich a r e a r ranged a round t h ree s i de s o f ac our tya rd . '

a tC amp I I R en ieb la s .

T he m an ipu la r s t ruc ture o ft h e R epub l ican l e g ion , a tl e a s t d own t o t h e e a r ly f i r s t c en tury B .C . , w ou ld s e em t o d emand t h a t i n i n f an try b a r ra ck s o ne c en tury o f t h e m an ip le s hou ld o ccupy e a ch o ft h e o ppo s ing b a r rack s i na p a ir o fh em i s t r ig ia -t h e s ame c oup l ing w h ich i sf ound i n I mp e r ia l b a r ra ck s . N o te h oweve rt h a tD av ison ( 1989 ,45 -6 ) f o und t h a tv a r ia t ion f r om t h ea r rangemen tw i th t h ep a ir so f c en tur ia l b ar ra ck s f a c ing e a ch o the r w a s h i ghe s t i n t h e A ugu s tan /T iber ian p er iod w hen t h e l i nger ing t r ad i t ion o f t h e m an ip le o ugh t t o h ave b een a t i t s s t ronge s t b u t h e

F o r w ha teve r r e a son i t i s t h e c en tur ia l b ar r a ck o f t en g rouped i n o ppo s ing p a ir s w h ich b ecome s t h e c ommon f o rm o f b a r ra ck w h ich i s r e co rded i n a l l m i l i tar y i n s ta l la t ion s o ft h e Emp ir e w i th o ne n o tab le e xcep t ion . A t Ma sada , i nt h e s i ege camp s o f F lav iu s S i lva e r ec ted s ome t wo c en tur ie s l a te r t h an C a s t i l le jo , b o th a r rangemen t s a r e s e en s i de b y s i de w i th t e n t s e t t ing s a round t h ree s i de s o fa c ou r tya rd a l ong s ide l o ng r ow s o ft e n t s e t t ing s w h ich s t and o ppo s i te e a ch o the r . T h i s i ss e en p a r t icu la r ly w e l l i nC amp Ba t Ma sada ( R ichmond 1 962 ,148 a nd F ig .6 ; H awke s 1 929 ,209 a nd F ig .2 ) . T he l a you t o f t h ree s i de s a round a

e mpha s ised t h a t t h e n orm s t i l l p redom ina t ed . E ven w her e t h e b a r rack sa r e f o rmed a round ac ou r tya rd , s uch a si st h e c a se a tC amp I I a tR en ieb la s , i th a s b een a rgued t h a t t h e u sua l a r rangemen t w a s t h a t t h e c en tu r ie s o ccup ied t h e

c ou r tya rd , a tl e a s t i nt empo rary c amp s , c an s t i l l t h e r efo r e b er e cogn ised a sl a te a st h e f i r s tc en tury A .D . a l though t h e a r rangemen td i d n o te v iden t ly f i nd f a vou ri nt h ep ermanen t c amp so ft h a t p er iod . Ap o s s ib le e xp lana t ion m igh t b e t h a t

o ppo s ing w ing s a nd f a ced e ach o t he r w h i ls t t h e r e a r b u i ld ing may h ave f u lf i l led av a r ie ty o fo t he rf unc t ion sa nd

t op l ace t h e t e n t s a r ound t h ree s i de s w ou ld h ave p rov ided ac oo le r a nd s he l te red a r ea u nde r t h e ir l e e i nc ond i t ion s o f e x t reme h ea t b u t i ft h i s w a s t h e c a se o ne w ou ld e xpec t t o h ave f ound a l l o ft h e t e n t sa r ranged i nt h is w ay w h ich w a s p a ten t ly n o t t h e c a se . T he s ugges t ion t h a t t h e a rmy i nt h e E a s t w a s mo r e c on serva t ive a nd t h u s r e ta ined v e s t ige s o f t h e o ld w ay s a l ong s ide t h e n ew i so ne p o s s ib i l i ty b u t a n e xp lana t ion f o r t h is a ppa r en t a na ch ron ism i ss t i l l a wa i ted .

p e rhap s o n ly i n e xcep t iona l c i r cums tan ce s w e re c on tubern ia p l a ced t he re . O n t h e o t he r h and , i n t h e b a r ra ck s o ft h ea l l ied i n fan t ry a tC amp I I R en ieb la s i tw a s p o s s ib le t o s ugge s t t ha t t h e r e a r r ange w a s l i k e ly t oh ave b een o ccup ied b y t r oop s i nt h e s ame m anne r a st h e w ings . T h i s o bserva t ion c oup led w i th t h e g rea t s i ze o ft h e a l l ied b a r ra ck s i n c ompa r ison w i th t h e i r l e g iona ry c oun terpar t s s ugge s t s t h a t t h e a l l ied t r oop s w e re n o t d iv ided i n to m an ip les i n t h e m anne r o f t h e l e g iona r y t r oop s b u t w e re o r gan ised i nl a rge r u n i t s .

S chu l ten 's c l a im t h a t t h et h ree s ided t ype o fb ar rack w a si n e v iden ce a tC amp V R en ieb la s h a s b een s ound ly r e fu ted . T h is i sp a r t icu la r ly s i gn if ican t . C a r r ing ton ( 1985 ,45 ) h a s s t a ted t h a t t h e b a r rack l a you t a t t h e l a te r R epub l ican c amp s , i n c lud ing C amp V R en ieb la s , b ea r s ac l o se r

T he r e a ppea r s t o b e n o e vo lu t iona ry d eve lopmen t i n t h e f o rm o f t h e b ar rack s f r om t h ree s ided b ar ra ck s a r ranged

r e la t ion sh ip t oR epub l ican t r ad i t ion s t h an I mper ia l o ne s . I f t h ep re sen ta u thor 's a l terna t ive c l a ims a r ea ccep ted t h en t h e r e ve r se w ou ld a ppea rt ob e t h e c a se a nd t h is i sr e -en fo r ced b e low .

a r ound a c our tya rd t o h em i s t r ig ia t y pe s . A t C amp Ia t R en ieb la s i tw a s s hown t h a t b ar ra ck s t h e r e m ay w e l l h ave b e en a r ranged i n h em i s t r ig ia a nd C amp I , a l though u nda ted , c e r ta in ly u nde r l ie s t h e m id s e cond c en tu ry B .C . C amp I I o n t h e s ame s i te w he re t h e m a jor i ty o f t h e b a r ra ck s w e r e o f t h e t h ree -s ided t y pe . S chu l ten p ropo sed t h a t b o th t y pe s w ere p re sen t a t C a s t i l le jo C amp 3 ( 1 927 ,213 ) . I tm ay b e t h a t t h e t wo t y pe s o f b a r ra ck c o -ex is ted f r om s ome u ndef ined t ime i nt h e p a s t a l though i ti su nc lea r e xa c t ly wha t d e term ined t h e c ho ice o fo ne o r

S ome s im i la r i t ie s b e tween o ne o f t h e b a r ra ck s a tC amp V R en ieb la s ( Bar ra ck A ) a nd I mpe r ia l t ype s h ave p rev iou s ly b een c ommen ted u pon . T he p l an o fB a r ra ck A a tC amp V b ea r s a r ema rkab le r e semb lance t o t h e p a r t ia l ly e xcava ted /pa r t ia l ly r e s to r ed p l an o f ab a r ra ck , k nown a sa F orm Ib a r ra ck , f r om a l i me s f o r t o f t h e l a te f i r s t -ea r ly s e cond c en tury A .D . e xcava ted a t E chze l l i n G ermany ( Baa tz 1 968 ,40 ; B e i l .2 ) a nd s ha re s m any o f t h e s ame

o t he r o r b o th t y pes . C er ta in ly as av ing i ns pa ce c an r e su l t f r om t h e l a y ing o u t o ft h e b a r ra ck s i np a ra l le l r ow s r a the r t h an b e ing d i v ided b y b road c our tya rd s . S chu l ten

c ha ra c ter is t ics a s ac ompa r ison o f b o th i n F ig .10 .1 w i l l s how . A l though p l a ced w i th in a f o r t t h e re i s s ome s u sp ic ion t h a t t h e F orm 1b ar ra ck s a t E chze l l m ay h ave

( 1 927 ,164 )c l a imed t h a t t h e d ep loymen t o ft h eh em i s tr ig ia t y pe b a r ra ck sw ou ld b ej u s t s uch as pa ce s av ing d ev ice b u t

h e ld al e g iona ry c oho r t ( Dav ison 1 989 ,195 ) . B a r ra ck A a t

i f s o t h e t h r ee s ided b a r rack w h ich h e e xcava ted a t C a s t i l le jo C amp 3 , w he re s pa ce f o r b u i ld ing s w ou ld h ave

C amp V R en ieb la s m ay p robab ly b e t h ough t o f a s l e g iona ry a l though t h is i sn o t c er ta in . A s t h e t wo b ar ra ck s a r e s epa ra t ed i n t ime b y a s much a s t wo c en tu r ies i ti s p e rhap s u nw ise t o e x t rapo la te t oo g rea t ly f r om o ne t o a no the r . N eve r the le s s t h e g ene ra l p o in t c an b e m ade t h a t

b e en r e s t r ic ted , i sd if f icu l t t o r e conc i le . S chu l ten f u r the r c l a imed t h a t t h e r e a rr ange w h ich c onn ec ted t h e t wo w ing s o f at h ree s ided i n f an t ry b a r rack b ecame r e dundan t w hen p a ck -an ima ls w e re n o l o nge r k ep t t h e r e ( i b id . ,164 ) . T h is i d ea i si ngen iou sb u t a sw a s s hown e a r l ie rt h e r e i sn o p roof

t h e b a r ra ck s o ft h e Emp ir e m ay w e l l c on ta in i nt h e ir

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B ARRACKS AND S TABLES : T YPES , S IZE , AND CONST ITUENT E LEMENTS g round -p lan m u ch o f ad e s ign c on cep t w h ich m u s t h ave b e en d eve loped i nt h e R epub l ican p er iod a nd t h e b a r ra ck a tC amp V m ay w e l l r e p r e sen ta dvan ce s i nb a r r a ck d e s ign w h ich w e r e t ob e come f am i l ia r i nl a te r p e r iod s .

s ame c an b e s a id o ft h e s u sp ec t ed o ff i ce r s ' q ua r te r s a tt h e h ead o fB a r ra ck A i nC amp V a tR en ieb la s w he r e a tl e a s t 1 00m . 2w ou ld h ave b een a va i lab le . T h is i ss t i l l w e l l b e low t h e a ve r age a r ea s w h ich D av i son i d en t if ied a s b e ing a s so c ia t ed w i th l e g iona ry c en tu r ion s ' q ua r t e r s i n t h e I mper ia l p er iod - t h a t i s b e tween 2 00 a nd 3 50m .2 ( 1989 ,32 ) .

S tandard b ar rack s i ze s I n d i s cu s s ion s c on ce rn ing t h e p l ann ing c r i t e r ia w h ich d i c ta t ed t h e s i ze o f b a r ra ck s w i th in t h e f o r t r e s se s o f t h e I mp e r ia l p e r iod t h e r e i s s ome d oub t a s t o w he the r t h e m i l i ta ry p l ann e r sc on s ide r ed t h ed imen s ion so ft h es camna o r t h e d imen s ion s o f t h e i n d iv idua l b a r r a ck a s t h e mo s t i mpo r tan td imen s ion s f r om w h ich t op ro ceed . I nh i ss t udy o ft h ep l ann ing c on s ide ra t ion sw h ich d e t e rm ined t h es i z eo f t h e b u i ld ing s w i th in f o r t r e s se s o ft h e Emp i r e , C a r r ing ton w a s u nab le t o d ec ide w he the r i tw a s t h e s i ze o f t h e b a r ra ck s w h ich i n f luenced t h e d imen s ion so ft h es camnum o rt h e r e ve r s e w h ich w a s t h e p r edom inan t f a c to r ; h e c i te s e xamp le so fb o th ( 1 985 ,28 ) . D av ison i so ft h eo p in ion t h a t i nf o r t r e s se s o fi r r egu la r s h ape t h e b a r ra ck s w e r e b u i l t t o f i l l t h e s pa ce a va i lab le r a the r t h an a c co rd ing t o p r e -o rda ined d imen s ion s ( 1989 ,2 10 ) . C rummy w a s u nequ ivo ca l i nh i s o p in ion t h a t :

Ag en e ra l t r end t owa rd sm o r es p a c iou sa c commoda t ion f o r t h e o ff i ce r s mu s t h ave b een an a tu ra l r e su l t o ft h e l e g ion s s p end ing l o nge r i n t h e f i e ld a nd o verw in t er ing i n t h e p rov in ce i nw h ich t h e l e g ion w a s c ampa ign ing . H ow t h e a r ea s o f s u ch q ua r te r s w e r e d i v ided b e twe en s e n io r a nd j un io r o ff ice r s i s u nc lea r . I t w a s a r gued t h a t i n t h e l e g iona ry b a r ra ck s a t C amp I R en ieb la s o n ly o ne c en tu r ion o f t h e m an ip le m ay h ave b een a c co rded s p ec ia l q ua r t e r s . A tP e i ia R edonda a nd C amp V R en ieb la s t h e r e i s e v iden ce t os ugge s t t h a tj un io ro ff ice r sm ay h ave o c cup ied t h e r e a r r oom s o ft h e b a r r a ck s i n an umbe r o fc a se s . A pa r t f r om e n joy ing ab e t t e r s t anda rd o fc on s t ru c t ion a nd a men i ty t h e o ff ice r s ' q ua r te r s m ay s ome t ime s h ave b een d i f f e r en t ia ted b y b e ing p hy s ica l ly s e pa r a ted f r om t h o se o f t h e m en . S ome th ing o ft h is k i nd h a s b een s ugge s t ed t ob e o b ser vab le i n t h e b a r ra ck s b o th n o r th a nd s ou th o f t h e p rae tor ium a tP erm R edonda . P a ra l le ls t ot h is s i tua t ion a r e r e co rded f o r t h e i mpe r ia l p e r iod . O ne o f t h e c l ea r e s t e xamp le s i sa t C he s te r i n t h e f i f th b a r r a ck o f t h e l e f t r e t en tura ( S t r ick land 1 9 82 ,F ig .1 ) . T he r e i s av e r y c l ea r s e g r ega t ion r e po r t ed a t I n ch tu th i l w he r e t h e c en tu r ion s ' q ua r te r sw e r er e gu la r ly s e pa r a ted f r om t h o se o ft h em en b y a n a ley -way w h ich v a r ied i n w id th b e twe en 1 . 52 a nd 3 . 66m . ( P i t t s a nd S t . J o seph 1 985 ,155 ) . I nt h e A ugu s t an l e g iona ry b a se a tO b e raden t h e c en tu r ion s ' q ua r t e r s w e r e f a c ing t h e d ef en ce s a nd h ad s t on e f o unda t ion s w h i l s t t h e m en w e r eh ou sed i nt e n tl i ne sb eh ind t h em ( Ho rn 1 9 87 .357 a nd A bb .302 ) , o ri nt e n t -ba r r a ck si f Mo r e l i sc o r r e c ti nh i s i n t e rp r e ta t ion ( 199 1 ,376 -83 ) , a nd a c on s ide r ab le s p a ce s e pa r a t ed t h e t wo . T he h i ghe r s t a tu s o ft h e s en io r o ff i ce r o ve rt h em en u nde rh i sc ommand w ou ld t h u sb er e in f o r ced b y t h is v i s ib le b enef i t o fl i v ing s p a ce a nd e x c lu s ivene s s .

t h e b u i ld ing s ( w i th in t h e C o lche s te r f o r t r e s s ) w e r e m ade t of i tt h e s t r ee t p l an r a the r t h an v i ce v e r sa . ( i n Web s t e re d . 1 9 88 ,29 ) . I nt h e f o r t r e s se s o ft h e Emp i r e , w he r e i tm igh t h ave b een e xp e c t ed t h a tc oho r t -ba r ra ck s w ou ld b e o f am o r e s t anda rd s i ze , w ide v a r ia t ion i sr e co rded i nt h e i rd imen s ion s , a ga in s ome t ime s w i th in t h e s ame c amp ( Dav ison 1 989 ,247 ) . H ende r son ( 1 99 1 ,73 -75 a nd f i g . 1 3 .6 ) b e l ieve s t h a t b o th t h eb a r r a ck sa nd t h ec oho r t -b lock sa tN e ron ian E xe te r , a nd e l s ewhe r e i n B r i ta in w e r e d e s igned a c co rd ing t o f i xed m odu le s . I tw a s a r gu ed a bove t h a t s ome f o rm o fo ve r a l l d e s ign w a s v i s ib le i n t h e s t r ee t l a you t w h ich b ounded t h e l e g iona ry b a r r a ck sa tC amp I I R en ieb la s e ven t h ough t o pog raph ica l c on s t r a in t s t h e r e w e r e m u ch g r ea t e r t h an o n t h e s i t e s o f m any o ft h e I mpe r ia l f o r t r e s se s . I nt h e R epub l ican c amp s i nS pa in t h e l e ng th a nd f o rm o f t h e b a r ra ck s c ou ld v a ry m a rk ed ly e ven w i th in t h e s ame c amp ; t h i s w a s c e r ta in ly t r ue a tC amp I Ia tR en ieb la s w he r e s t anda rd b a r r a ck s i ze s w e re n o t d i s ce rn ib le .

S ch lußbau t en T he G e rman t e rm S ch lußbau t en h a sb een a pp l ied t os p e c ia l e nd c on tube rn ia r e cogn ised i nt h e b a r ra ck s o ft h e Emp ire . T he se q ua r te r s a r e p l au s ib ly t h e a c commoda t ion w h ich i s s ome t ime sp rov ided f o rj un io ro ff i ce r s( Dav ison 1 9 89 ,34 ) . S u ch r oom s a t t h e o ppo s i te e nd o f t h e b a r r a ck t o t h e c en tu r ia lq ua r te r sh ave b een s ugge s ted i nt h is w o rk t oh ave o ccu r r ed i n B a r ra ck P n o r th o f t h e p rae tor ium a t P e i ia R edonda a nd t h ey a r e q u i t e c l ea r ly i ne v iden ce i nB a r ra ck Aa tC amp V R en ieb la s . O n ce a ga in i tc an b e s t a ted t h a t ad e s ign f e a tu r e w h ich o ccu r s w i th r e gu la r i ty i n t h e b a r ra ck s o f t h e I mpe r ia l p e r iod o we s i t s o r ig in t o R epub l ican t i me s .

C on s t i tuen t e l emen ts o ft h e b arrack s Of f i ce r s ' q uar ter s O ff i ce r s ' q ua r t e r s w e re c l ea r ly i ne v iden ce i nt h e b a r r a ck s o f C amp I l a t R en ieb la s a nd i tw a s n o t ed t h a t t h ey o c cup ied s im i la r a r ea s t o t h o se w h ich m ay h ave b een c u s toma ry i n at e n ted c amp i . e . a r ound 3 5m .2A l l o f t h e o ff i ce r s ' q ua r te r s w h ich c an b e i d en t if ied o r s u spec ted i n t h e R epub l ican c amp s o f l a te r d a te t h an C amp I I w e r e a pp r e c iab ly l a rge r . F o r i n s tan ce , i ft h e p r e sen t a u tho r 's i n te rp r e ta t ion o f t h e b a r ra ck s s ou th o f t h e p rae tor ium a t P ef ia R edonda i sa c cep ted t h en t h eo ff ice r 's q ua r t e r sw ou ld h ave c onunanded a tl e a s t 1 00m .2a nd p r obab ly m o r e . T he

C on tubern ia T he b a r ra ck s o ft h e t h r ee s ided t y pe r e co rded a tC amp I l R en ieb la s s how c l ea r d i f f e r en ce s i n t h e n umb e r a nd t h e 1 5 1

P ART I V : CHAPTER 1 0 d imen s ion s o f t h e c on tube rn ia w hen c ompa r ed w i th t h e b a r r a ck s o f t h e h em i s t r ig ia t y pe . T he l e g iona ry i n f an t ry b a r r a ck so ft h ep r inc ipe sa nd h a s ta t ia tC amp I I R en ieb la s w e r e f o und t oh ave b e tween 8a nd 1 0c on tube rn ia o ne a ch w ing ( t hu s b e tween 1 6 -20 c on tubern ia f o r t h e m an ip le ) . S om e o f t h e b a r ra ck s a tP eüa R edonda a nd a tC amp V R en ieb la s , i f t h e p r e sen t a u tho r 's i n te rp r e ta t ion s a r e c o r r e c t , d i sp lay , i nt h e i r n umbe ro fc on tube rn ia , ag r ea t e r a ff in i ty t oI mper ia l t y pe s t h an t ot h e t y pe o fb a r ra ck f ound a tR en ieb la s C amp I I w h ich c an b e s o c l o se ly a s soc ia t ed w i th t h e o l d s ty le m an ipu la r l e g ion . D av ison f ound t h a t m o s tl e g iona ry b a r r a ck so ft h eI mpe r ia lp er iod h ad b e tw een 1 a nd 1 3 c on tuber n ia w h i l s t b a r ra ck s f r om t h e A ugu s tan /T iber ian p e r iod e xh ib i ted a t r end t o s l igh t ly h i gh e r v a lu e s , a r ound 1 4 o r 1 5 c on tuber n ia ( Dav i son 1 989 ,35 ) .2 T he s u sp ec t ed l e g iona ry i n f an t ry b a r r a ck s a t P e r ia R edonda ( Bar ra ck s A /B s ou th o ft h ep rae tor ium ) a nd a tC amp V R en ieb la s( Ba r r a ck A ) , w h ich w e r ea l a r guab ly h em i s t r ig ia , h ad a t l e a s t 1 3 c on tube rn ia i n e a ch c a se . A l though a ny c on c lu s ion s f r om s u ch c ompa r i son s mu s t r ema in t e n ta t ive , i tc ou ld b e s ugge s ted t h a t t h e l owe r n umbe r s o f c on tube rn ia i n a s i de -w ing ( i .e . i n t h e e qu iva len t o f ah em i s t r ig ium ) o f t h e t y pe o f t h r ee s ided b a r r a ck r e co rded a tC amp I I R en ieb la s r ef le c t s t h e l owe r n umbe r s o ft r oop s i n ac en tu ry o ft h e o l d s ty le m an ipu la r l e g ion . I fP o lyb iu s i sc or r ec t t h en t h e r e w e r e 1 20 m en i n e a ch m an ip le o ft h ep r inc ipe sa nd h a s ta t i( Po l .V I ,21 ,9 )a nd t h u s 6 0 m en t ot h e c en tur y i nt h e se t wo c l a s se s o ft r oops a l though t h i s n umbe r c ou ld h ave b een s we l led b y t h e a dd i t ion o fn umbe r s o ft h e v e l i t e s . T he g r ea te r n umbe r o f c on tube r n ia v i s ib le i nt h e p l an o f B a r ra ck B s ou th o ft h e p rae tor ium a tP e l la R edonda m igh ts ugge s tt h a tt h ec en tu ry w a s c e r ta in ly i ne xce s s o f6 0 m en b u t w he the r t h is w a s a r e su l t o f t h e a ma lgama t ion o f s ome o f t h e c l a s se s o f i n f an t ry i n to l a rge r c en tu r ie s o n ac oho r ta l b a s i s i s u n ce r ta in . L ik ew i se B a r r a ck A a tC amp V R en ieb la sc ou ld e a s i ly h ave h e ld e i gh ty t oo n e h und r ed m en i n i t s 1 3 o r m o r e c on tubern ia . O f p a r t icu la r i n t e r e s t a tC amp I I R en ieb la s i st h e f i r s t k nown a ppea ran ce o ft h ed i v i s ion o ft h ec on tube rn ium i n to t wo p a r t s , r e cogn isab le i nH yg inu s( d em un . c a s t . ,1) a st h e d i v is ion b e tween t h e p ap i l io , t h e l i v ing a nd s l eep ing q ua r t e r s a nd t h e a rma , t h e w eapon s o r s t o r e s a r ea . I n H yg inu s t h e p ropor t ion s o f e a ch a r e l a id d own ; t h e s e

w e r ee xam in ed h e r e . 'A lmo s tw i thou te xcep t ion t h ep ap i l io w a s l a rg e r t h an t h e a rma i nt h e e xamp le s s t ud ied , b u t n o t b y a sm u ch a s 2 : 1 ; i nt h e c a se o f B a r ra ck B a tC amp V R en ieb la s t h e r a t io w a s c l o s e r t o 1 : 1 . I tm ay b e t h a t t h e d i v i s ion o f t h e c on tubern ium w a s ar e su l t o f ag row ing p r ed i lec t ion t owa rd s h em i s t r ig ia t y p e b a r r a ck s w h ich , b y t h e t i m e o ft h e c on s t ru c t ion o ft h e S c ip ion ic s i ege camp s , w e r e i ne v iden ce f a r m o r e t h an t h e t h ree s ided t y pe . T he a b s en ce o f a r e a r r a nge c onne c t ing t h e o ppo s ing h em i s t r ig ia p rov ide s ar a t iona le f o rt h e c on s equ en ts t o r ing o fa rm sa nd e qu ipmen tw i th in t h e c on tube rn ia r a the r t h an i nt h e s e pa ra t e r o om s o ft h e r e a r r a nge a sm ay o t herw i se h ave b e en t h e c a se . S tab le s F rom t h es t udy w h ich h a st a k en p l a ce a bove i tw ou ld s e em t h a t i d en t if iab le s t ab le s a r e a s e l u s ive i n t h e R epub l ican a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd a st h ey a r e i nt h a t o ft h e Emp i r e . I t h a s b een s hown t h a t n o h a rd e v iden ce f o r s e pa r a t e s t ab le -b lock s o r s t ab le s w i th in b a r ra ck s e x i s t s f o r a ny o f t h e c amp s w h ich h ave b een e xam ined i nt h e c ou r s e o ft h i s p r e sen tw o rk . I ti sw o r th q uo t ing We l ls w ho se c ommen t s , a l though c on ce rn ed p r ima r i ly w i th t h et ime o ft h e Emp i r e , a r ep e rhap sj u s ta sr e levan t f o rt h ep e r iod o ft h e R epub l ic , i fn o t m o r e s o g i ven t h e l e s s p e rmanen t n a tu r e o f m o s t R epub l ican c amp s : P e rhap s t h e h o r se s w e re p u t o u t t og ra s s m o r e t h an w e s uppo se , i n w h ich c a s e i ti sn o t n e ce s sa r y t o a t t emp t r e con s t ru c t ion s a imed a t p rov id ing e a ch b ea s t i n ag i ven u n i t w i th i t s o wn s t a l l . ( W e l l s1 9 77 ,662 ) . T he p rob lem w a s a l so c on s ide r ed i n t h e r e po r t o f t h e f o r t r e s s a t I n ch tu th i l ( P i t t s a nd S t .Jo seph 1 985 ) . I tw a s t h ough t n o t i n con ce ivab le t h a t t h e h o r se s o ft h e l e g iona r y c ava lr y w e re k ep t i n ac or ra l w h ich w a s e x t er io r t o t h e f o r t r e s s d e sp i te t h e s e ve r i ty o ft h e S co t t i sh c l ima t e . I tw a s a r gu ed t h a t t empo r a r y s h e l te r s c ou ld h ave b een p r ov ided w i th in t h e c or ra l s a nd t h a t i n t i me s o f d ange r t empo ra r y c or ra l s c ou ld h ave b een c on s t ru c ted w i th in t h e f o r t r e s s d ef en ce s ( P i t t s a nd S t .Jo seph 1 985 ,182 ) . I t h a s b een s ugge s t ed t h a t s ome th ing o f t h e s ame k i nd m ay h ave o ccu r r ed a tt h e R oman R epub l ican c amp s i nS pa in . CONCLUS IONS

p r opor t ion sa r e i nt h e r a t io o f2 : 1 , t h u s t h ep ap i l io h ad 1 0 p ed e sa nd t h ea rma 5p ed e s( Hyg inu s/ o c .c i t .) . T h i sf e a tu r e o ft h e c on tube rn ium i ss e en a tC amp I I R en ieb la so n ly i n t h e b a r ra ck s o f t h e a l ied i n f an t ry w he r e t h e p ap i l ione s w e r e r e co rded a sb e ing g ene ra l ly l a rge r t h an t h e a rma . I n h i s s t udy o f t h e b a r ra ck s i n a l t y pe s o f m i l i ta ry i n s ta l la t ion s u nde r t h e e mp ir e D av ison f o und t h a t t h e p ap i l ione s u sua l ly t o ok t h eg r ea te rp a r to ft h e c on tube r n ia a nd t h a t t h e p ropo r t ion s o f 2 : 1 w e r e o f ten a ppa r en t i n l e g ion a ry b a r ra ck s a l though a r a t io o f 1 : 1 w a s n o t u n common ( Dav ison 1 989 ,14 15 ) .

I th a s b e en r e vea led d u r ing t h ec ou r se o ft h is p r e s en tw o rk t h a t , w he r e t h ey c an b e l o ca t ed , t h e r ema in s o f t h e b a r r a ck s o f t h e R epub l ican a rmy a r e w or thy o f g r ea te r s t udy a nd f u r the r a r cha eo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ion . T he v a lue o fC amp I a tR en ieb la s c anno t b e o ve r s ta ted f o r i th a s b een c onf i rmed t h a t h e r e w e h ave t h e o n ly s u rv iv ing r ema in s o f t h e b a r r a ck s o f t h e l e g ion o f t h e R epub l ic o rgan ised i nm an ipu la r f a sh ion . T he r a nk ing o f t h e t r oop s , a se v iden ced b y t h e c l ea rd i f f e ren ce si nb a r ra ck t y pe a nd r e la t ive p o s i t ion , p rov ide s ag enu in e c ommen t u pon t h e s i gn if ican ce o fs t a tu s i nt h e R oman a rmy o f t h e m idd le y ea r s o f t h e s e cond c en tu ry B .C . a t at i me j u s t

A l though t h ed i v is ion o ft h ec on tube rn ium i sn o te v iden t ly f o und i nt h e l e g iona ry b a r r a ck s a tC amp I I R en ieb la s i ti s n o ted i n t h e b a r ra ck s o f m o s t o f t h e l a te r c amp s w h ich 1 52

B ARRACKS AND S TABLES : T YPES , S IZE , AND CONST ITUENT E LEMENTS b e f o r e s u ch s t a tu sc ea sed t ob e s u ch a ni mpo r tan tc r i t er ion i nt h e s e le c t ion o ft r oop s . T he e v iden ce f r om t h e r ema in so ft h eb ar ra ck s s ou th o ft h e p rae tor ium a tt h e s i ege -camp a tP ef i a R edonda h a s s hown t h a to n ly as hor t t i me a f te r t h e c on s t ru c t ion o fC amp I I a c a se c an b e m ade f o r t h e a ppea ran ce o fc en tur ia l b a r ra ck s s im i la rt ot h o se o ft h e Emp i r e , a nd , l e s sc e r ta in ly , t h a t t h e b a r r a ck sm ay h ave b een a r ranged i n ac ohor t -b lo ck . T he s e a r ep e rhap st h ef i r s t man if e s ti n d ica t ion st h a tc hange sw e r e a l r eady u nde rway i nt h e l a t te r s e cond c en tu ry B .C . w h ich w e r et oc u lm in a te i n ar e o rgan i sa t ion o ft h es t ru c tu r eo ft h e R epub l ican a rmy a r ound t h ir ty o rs oy ea r s l a t e ra tt h e t u rn o ft h e f i r s t c en tu r y B .C . T he r a the r s t e r eo typed p i c tu r e o f a l o f R epub l ican b a r r a ck s w h ich h a s c ome d own t o u s f r om S chu l t en 's p ub l i ca t ion s h a s b een c ha l lenged a nd i t h a s b een d emon s t ra ted , m o s t n o tab ly a tC amp V R en ieb la s , t h a t a r a d i ca l r e in te rp r e ta t ion c an b e o f f e r ed w h ich , w h i l s t p o s ing p rob lem so fi t so wn , m igh te nab le c ommen ta to r st o v i ew t h e b a r r a ck s t h e r e a s t r ue a n t eceden t s o f I mper ia l t y pe s . NOTES 1T he b ar r a ck s w i th in t h e a nnexe o f C amp I I a t R en ieb la sd on o tf i ts or e ad i ly i n to t h e s et wo d i s t in c t t y p e s a nd a r e s omewha t a noma lou s . T hey a r e t h e b a r ra ck s t h a t S chu l ten s ugge s t ed m igh t h ave b een o c cup ied b y I b er ian a ux i l ia r ie s ( 1 929 ,111 f . ) . 2 T h i s i ft h e e v iden ce f r om R ödgen i sd i s coun ted o n t h e b a s i s t h a t t h e R ödgen b a r r a ck s m ay h ave b een f o r a ux i l ia r ie s ( s ee D av ison 1 989 ,248 ) . 3 T h i s o b se r va t ion d oe s n o t e x t end t o t h e b a r ra ck s t h ough t t oh ave h ou sed t h e e qu i t e s R oman i a nd t h e t r iar i ia tC amp I I R en ieb la s ; t h e s eb a r ra ck s w e r eo f ad i f f e r en t f o rm w i th d i v ided r o om s . T hey w e r e m o re i n k e ep ing w i th o ff ice r s ' q ua r t e r s , p e rhap s r e f lec t ing t h e s t a tu s o f t h e o ccupan t s , r a the r t h an s imp le d i v ided c on tubern ia .

P ART I V : CHAPTER 1

CONCLUDING RE MARKS CONCLUDING RE MARKS l e g ionary c ohor t i nw h ich m an ip le s o ft h e s ame c l a s s o f t r oop s c ame t o ge the rt of o rm ap ro to -coho r t . O n t h e o t he r

A t t h e o u t se t o f t h is p resen t w o rk t h ree a r ea s w i th in t h e f i e ld o f R oman R epub l ican c a s t rame ta t ion w e re i d en t if ied

h and i tw a s a rgued t h a t c er ta in o f t h e b ar rack s a t P ef i a

a sb e ing w or thy o f f r esh a nd d e ta i led s t udy . T he se w e re : t h e P o lyb ian d e s cr ip t ion o f aR oman m a r ch ing -camp , t h e

R edonda w e re c l o se r i nd e s ign t oI mper ia l t y pe s t h an h ad p r ev iou s ly b een a pp rec ia ted .

w o rk o f r e cen t c ommen ta to r s o n t h e d a t ing o f t h e R epub l ican c amp s , a nd , l a s t ly , t h e p ub l ished e v idence o f A do lf S chu l t en 's e xcava t ion s . I tc an b ec l a imed , w i th s ome j u s t if ica t ion , t h a t d i scover ie s a nd o b se rva t ion s w er e m ade i na l o ft ho s e a r ea s , s ome o fs i gn if ican t m agn i tude .

T he c onnec t ion b e tween a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s a nd t h e h i s tor ica l a c coun t , af a vour i te t h eme o f S chu l ten 's , w a s c l o se ly i n ve s t iga ted i nr e la t ion t oC amp V a tR en ieb la s . I t w a s d emon s t ra ted , c on t ra S chu l ten , t h a t t h e c amp c anno t b e s o f i rm ly a t tr ibu ted t o t h e R oman g en e ra l T i tur iu s . I t

T he m a jor h i s to r ica ls ource d ea l ing w i th R epub l ican c amp s

w a sa l so a rgued , f r om as t udy o ft h e b a r ra ck c onf igu ra t ion a tt h e s ame s i t e t h a t t h e c amp c anno t b e d emon s t ra ted t o

w a s e xam ined a f re sh a nd an ew h ypo the s is w a s p ropo sed c on cern ing t h e p r ec ise n a tu re o f P o lyb iu s ' s ou rce . T h is p ropo s i t ion , i fc or rec t , w ou ld r e so lve a l ong s tand ing p rob lem s u r round ing t h e P o lyb ian c amp p l an . T he s ub s tance o ft h ea rgumen tw a st h a tt h eP o lyb ian d e scr ip t ion o f ac amp m ay b e v i ewed a s h av ing b een amode l l a you t b a sed o n am i l i tary ' b luepr in t ' f o r ac amp ( a lbe i t o f a n

h ave h ad a t e rm inu s p o s t q uem o f 9 0 B .C . T he a r rangemen t o n p l an o ft h e b a r rack s i n to c ohor t -b lo ck s a s g i ven b y t h ee xcava to rw a ss hown t ob ea tb e s t i mag ina t ive a nd a tw o r s ti n ven t ive . I na dd i t ion , c o in e v iden ce f r om t h e s i te w a s s omewha tm is rep re sen ted i nt h eo r ig ina l l i t e ra tu r e a nd e ven t oday c anno t p rov ide a c l o se d a t ing f o r t h e

a nach ron is t ic a nd s i ngu la r t ype ) , r a the r t h an , a s i s s ome t ime s s ugge s ted , as chema t ic r e p r e sen ta t ion o f a n i d ea l ised c amp w h ich h ad n eve r e x is ted i na c tua l i ty .

o ccupa t ion o fC amp V . O ne o f t h e s t range s t d i scove r ie s f r om t h e i n ve s t iga t ion s i n to S chu l ten 's p ub l ished r e co rd s w a s t h e a t temp t t o d ownp lay t h e s i gn if icance o f am a jo r w a l l w h ich w a s l o ca ted b y t h e e xcava to r w i th in t h e c onf ine so fC amp V a t R en ieb la s . I n s p i te o f i t s g r ea t t h ickne s s t h is w a l l w a s

T he e s tab l i shed d a t ing a nd a t tr ibu t ion o f m any o f t h e R epub l ican c amp s i n S pa in , w h ich i so f t en g iven v ery p r ec ise ly i ne x i s t ing l i te ra tu re , w a s c ha l lenged a nd i tw a s s hown t h a tm any o ft h ec amp sc an o n ly b ed a ted i nr e la t ive r a the r t h an a b so lu te t e rm s . Ac ompa ra t ive ly n ew s t udy o f t h e c o in s f r om C amp V a t R en ieb la s ( H i ldeb rand t 1 979 ) w a sc on te s t ed a nd i th a sb een a rgued t h a tt h e r e su l t so ft h is s t udy c anno t b e a c cep ted w i th g rea t c onf iden ce .

r e p r e sen ted o np ub l ished s c a le -p lan sa sb e ing o fn o g r ea te r t h ickne s s t h an o rd inary i n terna l w a l ls . I ti st h e p re sen t a u tho r 's b e l ief t h a t t h e n a tu re a nd t h ickne s s o f t h e w a l l s ugge s t t h a t i tw a s p robab ly t h e p er ime te r w a l l o f t h e e a r l ie r C amp I V .

T he r e -exam in a t ion o ft h ea r chaeo log ica l e v idence f r om a l l T he r e v iew o ft h e r e co rded a r chaeo log ica l r ema in s o ft h e

o f t h e m a jo r e xcava t ion s w h ich w e r e u nder taken b y S chu l ten o n t h e s i tes o f t h e R oman R epub l ican c amp s i n S pa in , c oup led w i th s ome n ew f i e ld -wo rk c onduc ted b y t h e p r e sen t a u tho r , p rov ided aw ea l th o fm a ter ia l f r om w h ich i tw a s p os s ib le t oo f f er s ome n ew o b serva t ion s a s w e l l a s

m a jo r R epub l ican c amp s i nS pa in w a s u nder taken w i th t h e i n ten t ion o f m ak ing s ome c ompar ison b e tween c a s t rame ta t ion u nde r t h e R epub l ic w i th t h a t u nde r t h e Emp ire p a r t icu la r ly w i th r e la t ion t o b a r ra ck a nd s t ab le a ccommoda t ion . I tw a sa rgued t h a t i ti se qua l ly d i ff i cu l t t o f i nd c l ea r ly r e cogn isab le s t ab le s o r s t ab le -b lock s i n t h e r ema in s o f R epub l ican c amp s a s i ti si n t h e r ema in s o f I mper ia l m i l i ta ry i n s ta l la t ion s .

s ome r e in t e rp r e ta t ion s o f t h e e xcava to r 's o r ig ina l c on c lus ion s . I th a s t hu s p roved p o s s ib le t o a dvan ce t h e d eba te i ns e ve r a l k ey a r ea s . B y w ay o fe xamp le , i th a s b een d emon s t ra ted t h a t n one o f t h e c ava lr y b ar ra ck s i d en t if ied b y t h e e xcava to r ( S chuhen ) a tC amp I I a tR en ieb la sc ou ld h ave h e ld l a rge n umbe r s o f h o r se i ni n t eg ra l s t ab le s i nt h e w ay w h ich h e e nv isaged . I t w a s p os s ib le t oa rgue , f r om e v idence f r om t h e s ame c amp ,

B a r ra ck s w e r e mo r e e a s i ly i d en t if ied b u t t h e g rea te r m a jor i ty o ft h e ir r ema in s a r e t ob e f ound w i th in C amp I

t h a t o ne c en tur ion may h ave h e ld t h e f o r ce d e i u r e i nt h e m an ip le a nd t h a t t h e s t one -bu i l t C amp I I w a s l i k e ly t o

a t R en ieb la s w he re t h e c or re sponden ce w i th P o lyb iu s ' l a you t f o r t h e t e n t s o f al e g ion a nd a l ie s a ppea r s c e r ta in a nd t h e se b a r ra ck s t h e ref o re r e f le c t al e g ion o f av er y d i f f e ren t o rgan isa t iona l b a s is t o t h a t w h ich c ame l a te r .

h ave m ir ro r ed q u i te c lo se ly t h ea r rangemen t s w h ich w ou ld h ave b een f o und i n at e n ted m a r ch ing camp .

O the rb a r ra ck sf r om t h e s i ege -camp sa round N uman t ia a nd f r om C amp V a tR en ieb la s a r e d i ff icu l t t oa pp rec ia te f r om

I nt h er e -eva lua t ion o ft h ea r chaeo log ica le v idence f r om t h e s i ege -camp s a r ound N uman t ia i t w a s s hown t h a t t h e

d emon s t ra ted t h a t , i ft h e e xcava to r 's r e s to r ed p l an s a r e r e jec ted , t h e se b a r ra ck s a r e much c l o se r t oI mpe r ia l t y pe s t h an h a s b een p r ev iou s ly t h ough t . T he l a s t r e cogn isab le

o n ly

b a r ra ck s s ou th o ft h ep rae tor ium a tP e f ia R edonda d i d n o t , c on t ra ry t o t h e e xcava to r 's e xp lana t ion , p rov ide p roof

f r agmen ta ry

g round -p lan s

b u t

i t

h a s

b een

e xamp le s o f t h r ee s ided b a r rack s w e re t ob e f ound a tt h e S c ip ion ic c amp a tC a s t i l le jo n o t a tC amp V R en ieb la s a s

p o s i t ive o f at r an s i t iona l s t age i nt h e d eve lopmen t o ft h e

t h e e xcava to r h ad s ugge s ted . 1 55

P ART 1 V : CHAPTER 1 N o c on c lu s ive e v idence w a s f ound f r om a ny o f t h e s i te s i n ve s t iga ted w h ich w ou ld d emon s t ra te t h a t t h e c ohor t f o rma t ion h ad b een f o rma l ly a dop ted b y t h e l e g ion s . S uch e v iden ce i fi te x is ted w ou ld i na ny c a se a lmo s t c e r ta in ly h ave b een r e s t r ic ted t o t h e f i na l t wo c amp s a t R en ieb la s a nd t h e b a se a tC äce re s e lV ie jo . N o tw i th s tand ing t h e l a cuna w h ich e x is t s a r chaeo log ica l e v iden ce ,be tween t h e l a te s t R epub l ican c amp s w i th v i s ib le i n terna l r ema in s e a r l ie s tr e co rded I mper ia lc amp sw i th r e cogn isab le

i n t h e k nown a nd t h e i n te rna l

p l an s , i ti sa ppa ren t t h a t t h e re i s as t rand o fc on t inu i ty i n R oman c a s t rame ta t ion w h ich r un s t h e c ou r se o f m any c en tu r ie s . A t i t s mo s t b a s ic t h is c on t inu i ty i ss e en i n t h e a ppa ren t r e l iance o n t h e p a r t o f b o th t h e R epub l ican a nd t h e I mper ia l m i l i tary s urveyo r o n as ys tem b a sed o n r i gh t a ng le s i n t h e l a y ing o u t o f t h e m a in a xe s o f l e g ionary c amp s ; i nt h e p a ir ing o f t h e c en tur ia l b ar rack s a nd i nt h e g ene ra l b ar ra ck d e s ign . O n ah i ghe r l e ve l t h e r e i s as t rong p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t t h e l e g ionary b a se a tC ä ce re s e lV ie jo , m igh t r ep r e sen t af i r s t k nown e xamp le o ft h e p u t t ing i n to p rac t ice o f ap o l icy o f t h em i l i ta ry d ep loymen to f al e g ion i n as t ra teg ica l ly p l a ced c amp , ap o l icy w h ich d i d n o t e v iden t ly f i nd e xp re ss ion e l sewhe r e u n t i l amuch l a te rd a te . I ti st ob e h oped t h a t i n f u tu r e d eba te c oncern ing t h e d eve lopmen t o f R oman m i l i ta ry s t ra tegy u nde r t h e Emp ir e i tw i l l b e r e cogn ised t h a t t h e s e ed s o fs uch t h ink ing m ay h ave b een e ngende red i nS pa in u nder t h e R epub l ic . A s af i na l p o in t , t h e e s sen t ia l r a i son d 'e t re o ft h is p re sen t w o rk h a s b een t o d emon s t ra te t h a t s ome i n terp re ta t ion s p romu lga ted b y S chuf t en h ad b ecome f o s s i l ised i n t h e l i t e ra tu re . L ooked a ta f r e sh i th a s b een s hown t h a t ac l o se s c ru t iny o f t h e p ub l ished w o rk s , a l l ied i n t h is c a se t o a s hor t a moun t o f f i e ld -wo rk , c an a l low t h e d eba te t o b e r eopened i nc er ta in a r ea s . As e cond mo t iva t ing f o r ce w a s t h e d e s ire t ob r ing t h e R oman R epub l ican c amp s i nS pa in t ot h ea t ten t ion o f amuch w ide ra ud ience t h an h a s h i ther to b een t h e c a se .

1 56

APPEND IX

THE RO MAN MIL ITARY S YSTE M ACCORD ING TO POLYB IUS 1 B ook V I ,19 . Af t e r e l e c t ing t h e c on su ls , t h ey a ppo in t m i l i ta ry t r ibune s , f o ur teen f r om t h o se w ho h ave s e en f i ve y ea r s s e rv ice a nd t e n f r om t hose w ho h ave s e en t e n . A s f o r t h e r e s t , a c ava l ry s o ld ie r mu s t s e rve f o r t e n y ea r s i n a l l a nd a n i n f an try s o ld ie r f o r s i x teen y ea r s b efo r e r e a ch ing t h e a ge o f f o r ty s ix , w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f t h ose w ho se c en su s i s u nde r f ou r h und red d rachmae , a l l o fw hom a r e e mp loyed i nn ava l s e rv ice . I nc a se o fp r es s ing d ange r , t wen ty y ea r s s e rv ice i sd emanded f r om t h e i n f an try . N o o n e i se l ig ib le f o r a ny p o l i t ica l o ff ice b efo r e h e h a s c omp le ted t e n y ea r s s e rv ice . T he c on su ls , w hen t h ey a r e a bou t t o e n ro l l s o ld ie r s , a nnoun ce a t am ee t ing o f t h e p opu la r a s semb ly t h e d ay o n w h ich a l l R oman c i t izen s o fm i l i ta ry a ge mu s t

t h e ir o rde r s a sf a ra si si nh i sp owe r . T hen t h eo t he r sc ome f o rwa rd a nd e a ch i nh i s t u rn t a ke s t h e o a th s imp ly t h a t h e w i l l d o t h e s ame a s t h e f i r s t m an . A t t h e s ame t ime t h e c on su ls s end t h e i r o rde r s t ot h e A l l ied c i t ie s i nI t a ly f r om w h ich t h ey w ish t oc on t r ibu te t r oop s , s t a t ing t h e n umbe r s r e qu ir ed a nd t h e d ay a nd p l a ce a tw h ich t h e m en s e lec ted mu s t p re sen t t h emse lve s . T he m ag is t ra te s , c hoo s ing t h e m en a nd a dm in is te r ing t h e o a th i nt h e m anne r d e scr ibed , s end t h em o f f , a ppo in t ing ac ommande r a nd ap ayma s te r . T he t r ibune s i nR ome , a f te r a dm in is ter ing t h eo a th , f i x f o r e a ch l e g ion a d ay a nd a p l a ce a t w h ich t h e m en a r e t o p re sen t t h em se lve s w i thou t a rm s a nd t h en d i sm is s t h em . When t h ey c ome t or e ndezvou s , t h ey c hoo se t h e y ounge s t

p r e sen t t h em se lve s , a nd t h is t h ey d o a nnua l ly . O n t h e a ppo in ted d ay , w hen t ho se l i ab le t o s e rv ice a r r ive i n

a nd p oo re s t t of o rm t h e v e l i te s ; t h e n ex t a r e m ade h a s ta t i ; t h o se i n t h e p r ime o f l i f e p nnc ipe s ; a nd t h e o l de s t o fa l l

R ome , a nd a s semb le o n t h e C ap i to l , t h e j un io r t r ibune s d i v ide t h em se lve s i n to f our g roup s , a s t h e p opu la r a s semb ly o r t h e c on su ls d e term ine , s i n ce t h e m a in a nd o r ig ina l d iv is ion o f t h e ir f o r ce s i si n to f ou r l e g ion s . T he f o u r t r ibune s f i r s t n om ina ted a r e a ppo in ted t o t h e f i r s t l e g ion , t h e n ex t t h ree t ot h e s e cond , t h e f o l low ing f ou r t o t h e t h i rd , a nd t h e l a s t t h r ee t o t h e f ou r th . O f t h e s en io r t r ibune s t h e f i r s t t wo a r e a ppo in ted t ot h e f i r s t l e g ion , t h e n ex t t h ree t ot h e s e cond , t h e n ex t t wo t ot h e t h ird , a nd t h e l a s t t h r ee t ot h e f ou r th .

t r iar i i , t h e se b e ing t h e n ame s a mong t h e R oman s o f t h e f ou r c l a s se s i ne a ch l e g ion d i s t in c t i na ge a nd e qu ipmen t . T hey d iv ide t h em s o t h a t t h e s en io r m en , t h e t r iar i i , n umber s i x h und red , t h e p r inc ipe s a nd h a s ta t i t we lve h und red e ach , t h e r e s t , c on s is t ing o f t h e y ounge s t , b e ing v e l i te s . I ft h e l e g ion c on s is t s o f mo r e t h an f o u r t h ou sand m en , t h ey d iv ide a c co rd ing ly , e xcep ta sr e ga rd st h e t r iar i i , t h e n umbe r o fw hom i sa lways t h e s ame . V I ,22 . T he y ounge s t s o ld ie r s o r v e l i te s a r e o rde r ed t o c a r ry a

V I ,20 .

s wo rd , j ave l in s , a nd a t a rge t ( parn ia ) . T he t a rge t i s

T he d i v is ion a nd t h e a ppo in tmen t o f t h e t r ibune s h av ing t h u s b een s om ade t h a te ach l e g ion h a s t h es ame n umbe ro f o ff i ce r s , t ho se o fe ach l e g ion t ake t he ir s ea t s a par t , a nd t hey d raw l o t s f o r t he t r ibe s , a nd s ummon t hem s i ng ly i nt he o rder o ft he l o t tery . F rom e ach t r ibe t hey f i r s to f

s t rong ly m ade a nd s uff ic ien t ly l a rge t oa f fo rd p ro tec t ion , b e ing c i r cu la r a nd m ea su r ing t h ree f e e t i nd i ame te r . T hey a l so w ea r ap l a in h e lme t , a nd s ome t ime s c ove r i tw i th a w o lf ss k in o rs ome th ing s im i la r b o th t op ro te c ta nd a c t a s ad i s t ingu ish ing m a rk b y w h ich t h e ir o ff ice r sc an r e cogn ise t h em a nd j udge i ft h ey f i gh t p l uck i ly o r n o t . T he w ooden s haf to ft h ej ave l in m ea su re sa bou t t wo c ub i t s i nl e ng th a nd

a l l s e lec t f our l ad s o f more o r l e s s t he s a me a ge a nd p hys ique . When t he se a re b rough t f orward t he o ff icer s o ft he f i r s t l e g ion h ave f i r s t c ho ice , t ho se o ft he s e cond , s e cond c ho ice , t ho se o ft he t h ird , t h ird , a nd t ho se o ft he

i sa bou t af i nge r 's b r ead th i nt h icknes s ; i t s h ead i s as pan l o ng , h amme red o u t t o s u ch a f i ne e dge t h a t i t i s n ece s sa r i ly b en t b y t h e f i r s t i mpac t , a nd t h e e nemy i s u nab le t or e tu rn i t . I ft h is w e re n o t s o , t h e m iss i le w ou ld b e a va i lab le f o r b o th s i de s .

f our th l a s t . A no the rb a tch o ff ou ri sn ow b rough tf o rwa rd , a nd t h is t ime t h e o ff ice r s o f t h e s e cond l e g ion h ave f i r s t c ho ice a nd s o o n , t h o se o ft h e f i r s t c hoo s ing l a s t . At h ird b a tch h av ing b een b rough t f o rwa rd t h et r ibune so ft h e t h ird l e g ion c hoo se f i r s t , a nd t h o se o f t h e s e cond l a s t . B y t h u s c on t inu ing t og i ve e a ch l e g ion f i r s t c ho ice i n t u rn , e a ch

V I ,23 . T he n ex t i ns en io r i ty c a l led h a s ta t i a r e o rde r ed t ow ea r a c omp le te p anop ly . T he R oman p anop ly c on s is t s f i r s t ly o f

g e t s m en o ft h e s ame s t anda rd . When t h ey h ave c ho sen t h e n umbe r d e t erm ined o n t ha t i sw hen t h e s t reng th o f e a ch l e g ion i sb rough t u p t o f ou r t h ousand t wo h undr ed , o r i n

as h ie ld ( s cu tum ) , t h e c onvex s u rf a ce o f w h ich m ea su r e s t wo a nd a h a lf f e e t i n w id th a nd f ou r f e e t i n l e ng th , t h e t h ickne s s a tt h e r im b e ing ap a lm 's b read th . l ti sm ade o f

t i me s o f e xcep t iona l d anger t o f i ve t h ou sand -t he o ld

V I ,2 1.

t wo p l ank s g lued t o ge the r , t h e o u te r s u r f a ce b e ing t h en c ove red f i r s t w i th c anva s s a nd t h en w i th c a lf sk in . I t s u ppe r a nd l owe r r im s a r e s t eng thened b y a n i r on e dg ing w h ich p ro tec t s i tf r om d e s cend ing b l ow s a nd f r om i n ju ry w hen r e s ted O n t h e g round . I ta l so h a sa n i r on b o s s (mho ) f i xed t oi tw h ich t u rn s a s ide t h e mo re f o rm idab le b l ow s o f

T he e n ro lmen t h av ing b een c omp le ted i n t h is m anne r , t h o se o ft h e t r ibune s o n w hom t h is d u ty f a l ls c o l lec t t h e

s t one s , p i ke s a nd h eavy m is s i le s i n g ene ra l . B e s ide s t h e s h ie ld t h ey a l so c a r ry as wo rd , h ang ing o n t h e r i gh t t h igh

n ew ly -enro l led s o ld ie r s , a nd p i ck ing o u to ft h ew ho le b ody as i ng le m an w hom t h ey t h ink t h e m os t s u i tab le m ake h im C a ke t h e o a th t h a t h e w i l l o bey h i s o ff ice r s a nd e xecu te

a nd c a l led aS pan ish s wo rd . T h is i se xce l len t f o r t h ru s t ing , a nd b o th o f i t s e dge s c u t e f f ec tua l ly , a s t h e b l ade i sv e ry

s y s tem wa s t o c hoose t he c ava lry a f ter t he f our t hou sand t wo h undred i n fan try , b u t t hey n ow c hoo se t hem f i r s t , t h e c en so r s e lec t ing t h em a c co rd ing t o t h e ir w ea l th ; a nd t h r ee h undr ed a r e a s s igned t oe a ch l e g ion .

s t rong a nd f i rm . I na dd i t ion t h ey h ave t wo p i la , ab r a s s

1 57

APPEND IX h e lme t a nd g r eave s . T he p i la a r e o f t wo s o r t s s t ou t a nd f i ne . O ft h es t ou to ne s s ome a r e r ound a nd ap a lm 's l e ng th i nd i ame t e r a nd o t he r s a r e ap a lm s qua re . T he f i n ep i la , w h ich t h ey c a r ry i n a dd i t ion t o t h e s t ou t o n e s , a r e l i k e m ode r a t e s iz ed h un t ing spea r s , t h e l e ng th o ft h e h af t i na l l c a se s b e ing a bou tt h r ee c ub i t s . E a ch i sf i t t ed w i th ab a rbed i r on h ead o ft h e s ame l e ng th a s t h e h af t . T h i s t h ey a t ta ch s os e cu r e ly t ot h eh af t , c a r ry ing t h ea t ta chmen th a lfway u p t h e l a t t e ra nd f i x ing i tw i th n ume rou s r i ve t s , t h a ti na c t ion , t h e i r on w i l l b r eak s oone rt h an b ecome d e ta ched , a l though i t s t h ickne s s a tt h e b o t tom w he r e i tc ome s i nc on ta c t w i th t h e w ood i s af i nge r 's b r ead th a nd ah a lf ; s u ch g r ea t c a r e d o t h ey t a k ea bou ta t ta ch ing i tf i rm ly . F ina l ly t h ey w ea ra s a n o rnamen t ac i r c le o ff e a the r s w i th t h r ee u p r igh t p u rp le o r b l a ck f e a the r s a bou t ac ub i t i nh e igh t , t h e a dd i t ion o f w h ich o nt h eh ead s u rmoun t ing t h e i ro t he ra rm s i st om ak e e ver y m an l o ok t w ice h i s r e a l h e igh t , a nd t og i ve h im a f i ne a pp ea r an ce , s u ch a sw i l l s t r ike t e r ro r i n to t h e e n emy . T he c ommon s o ld ie r s w ea r i n a dd i t ion a b r ea s tp la te o f b r a s s as p an s qua r e , w h ich t h ey p l a ce i nf r on t o ft h e h ea r t a nd c a l l t h e h ea r t p ro t ec to r ( p ec tora le ) ,t h i s c omp le t ing t h e i r a c cou t r emen t s ; b u t t h o se w ho a r e r a t ed a bove t e n t h ou sand d r a chma s w ea r i n s tead o f t h is a c oa t o f c ha in -ma i l l o r ica . T he p r inc ipe s a nd t r iar i i a r e a rmed i n t h e s ame m ann e r e xcep t t h a t i n s tead o ft h ep i la t h e t r iar i i c a r ry l o ng s p ea r s ( h a s tae ) . V I ,24 . F rom e a ch o ft h ec l a s se se xcep t t h e y ounge s tt h ey e l e c tt e n c en tur ion sa c co rd ing t om er i t , a nd t h en t h ey e l ec t as e cond t e n . A l l t h e se a r e c a l led c en tu r ion s a nd t h e f i r s t m an e l ec ted h a s as e a t i nt h e m i l i ta ry c oun c i l . T he c en tu r ion s t h en a ppo in t a n e qua l n umbe r o f r e a rgua rd o ff i ce r s ( o p t ione s ) . N ex t i nc on jun c t ion w i th t h e c en tu r ion s , t h ey d i v id e e a ch c l a s s i n to t e n c ompan ie s , e xcep t t h e v e l i t e s , a nd a s s ign t o e a ch c ompany t wo c en tur ion s a nd t wo o p t ione s f r om a mong t h e e l e c ted o f f ice r s . T he v e l i t e s a re d i v ided e qua l ly among a l l t he c o mpan ie s ; t h e se c ompan ie s a r e c a l led o rd ine s o r t n an ipul i o r v e x i l la a nd t h e ir o ff i ce r s a r e c a l led c en tur ion s o r o rd inum d uc tor e s . F i na l ly t h e s e o ff ice r s a ppo in t f r om t h e r ank s t wo o f t h e f i n e s ta nd b r ave s tm en t ob es t anda rd -b ea r e r s( v ex i l lard ) i n e a ch m an ip le . I ti sn a tu ra l t h a t t h ey s hou ld a ppo in t t wo c ommande r s f o re a ch m an ip le ; f o r i tb e ing u n cer t a in w ha t m ay b e t h e c ondu c t o fa n o ff ice r o r w ha t m ay h appen t o h im , a nd a f f a i r s o f w a r n o t a dm i t t ing o f p r e t ex t s a nd e xcu s e s , t h ey w ish t h e m an ip le n eve r t o b e w i thou t a l e ade ra nd c h ief . When b o th c en tu r ion sa r eo nt h es po t , t h e f i r s t e l e c t ed c ommand s t h e r i gh t h a lf o f t h e m an ip le a nd t h e s e cond t h e l e f t , b u ti fb o th a r e n o tp r e sen t , t h eo ne w ho i sc ommand s t h e w ho le . T hey w ish t h e c en tur ion s n o t s o m uch t ob e v en tu r e some a nd d a r e -dev i l , a s t o b e n a tu r a l l e ade r s , o f as t eady a nd s e da te s p ir i t . T hey d o n o t d e s ir e t h em s om u ch t ob e m en w ho w i l l i n i t ia t ea t tack s a nd o pen b a t t le , b u t m en w ho w i l l h o ld t h e ir g round w hen w o r s ted a nd h a rd -p r e s sed a nd b e r e ady t od i e a tt h e ir p o s t s . V I ,25 . I nl i k e m ann e r t h ey d i v ide t h e c ava lry i n to t e n s quad ron s ( t urmae )and f r om e a ch t h ey s e le c t t h r ee o ff ice r s ( d ecur ione s ) , w ho t h em s e lve s a ppo in t t h re e r e a r rank 1 5 8

o ff i ce r s( o p t ione s ) . T he f i r s tc ommande rc ho sen c ommand s t h e w ho le s quad ron , a nd t h e t wo o t he r s h ave t h e r a nk o f d ecu r ione s , a l l t h r ee b ea r ing t h i s t i le . I ft h e f i r s t o ft h em s hou ld n o t b e p r e sen t , t h e s e cond t a ke s c ommand o f t h e s quad ron . T he c ava lry a r e n ow a rmed l i ke t h a to fG r ee ce , b u t i no l d t i me s t h ey h ad n o c u i ra s se s b u t f o ugh t i nl i gh t u nde r -ga rm en t s , t h e r e su l t o f w h ich w a s t h a t t h ey w e r e a b le t o d i smoun t a nd moun t a ga in a t o n ce w i th g r ea t d ex t e r i ty a nd f a c i l i ty , b u t w e r e e xpo s ed t og r ea t d ange r i n c l o se c omba t , a st h ey w e re n ea r ly n ak ed . T he i r l a n ce s t o o w e r e u n s er v iceab le i nt wo r e spe c t s . I nt h e f i r s t p l a ce t h ey m ade t h em s o s l ende r a nd p l ian t t h a t i tw a s i mpo s s ib le t o t a k e as t eady a im , a nd b ef o r e t h ey c ou ld f i x t h e h ead i n a ny th ing , t h e s hak ing d ue t ot h e m e r e mo t ion o ft h e h o r se c au sed m o s to ft h em t ob r eak . N ex t , a st h ey d i dn o tf i x t h e b u t t -end s w i th s p ike s , t h ey c ou ld o n ly d e l ive r t h e f i r s t s t roke w i th t h ep o in ta nd a f t e rt h i s i ft h ey b rok e t h ey w e r e o fn o f u r the r s e rv ice . T he ir b u ck le r w a s m ade o fo x -h ide , s omewha t s im i la r i ns h ape t ot h e r o und b o s sed c ake s u s ed a ts a cr i f ice s . T hey w e r e n o t o f a ny u s e f o r a t ta ck ing , a s t h ey w e r e n o t f i rm e nough ; a nd w hen t h e l e a the rc over ing p ee led o f fa nd r o t t ed o w ing t ot h e r a in , u n s er v iceab le a s t h ey w e r e b ef o r e , t h ey n ow b e cam e e n t i r e ly s o . S i n ce t h e r ef o r e t h e i r a rm s d i d n o t s t and t h e t e s t o fe xp er ien ce , t h ey s oon t o ok t om ak ing t h em i nt h eG r eek f a sh ion , w h ich e n su r e s t h a t t h e f i r s ts t roke o ft h e l a n ce -head s h a l l b e b o th w e l l a imed a nd t e l l ing , s i nce t h e l a n ce i ss oc on s t ru c t ed a s t ob es t eady a nd s t rong , a nd a l so t h a ti tm ay c on t inu e t ob e e f f ec t ive ly u s ed b y r e ve r s ing i ta nd s t r ik ing w i t h t h e s p ik e a tt h e b u t te nd . A nd t h e s ame a pp l ie st ot h e G r eek s h ie ld s , w h ich b e ing o fs o l id a nd f i rm t e x tu r ed og ood s e r v ice b o th i n d ef en ce a nd a t ta ck . T he R oman s , w hen t h ey n o t iced t h i s , s oon l e a rn t t oc opy t h e G re ek a rm s ; f o r t h i s t o o i s o n e o ft h e i r v i r tue s , t h a t n o p eop le a r e s o r e ady t oa dop t n ew f a sh ion s a nd i m i ta t e w ha t t h ey s e e i sb e t te r i no t he r s . V I ,26 . T he t r ibun e s h av ing t h u so rgan i sed t h e t r oop sa nd o r de r ed t h em t oa rm t h em se lve s i n t h i s m ann e r , d i sm i s s t h em t o t h e i r h ome s . When t h e d ay c ome s o n w h ich t h ey h ave a l s worn t oa t t end a tt h e p l a ce a ppo in t ed b y t h e c on su ls e ach c on su l a s ar u le a ppo in t ing as epara te r ende zvou s f o r h i s o wn t r oop s s i nce e ach h a s r e ce ived h i ss hare o f t he A l l ie s a nd t wo R oman l e g ion s -n one o ft h o s eo n t h e r o l l e ve r f a i l t oa ppea r , n o e xcu s e a ta l b e ing a dm i t ted e xcep ta dve r se o men so ra b so lu t ei mpo s s ib i l i ty . T he A l l ie s h av ing n ow a s semb led a l so a t t h e s ame p l a ce s a s t h e R oman s , t h e i r o rgan isa t ion a nd c onunand a r e u nde r taken b yt h eo ff i ce r sa ppo in ted b yt h ec on su ls k nown a sp rae f ec t i s oc iorum a nd t we lve i nn umbe r . T hey f i r s to fa l s e lec t f o r t h e c on su ls , f r om t h e w ho le f o r ce o fA l l ie sa s semb led , t h e h o r semen a nd f o o tmen m o s t f i t t ed f o ra c tua l s e r v ice , t h e se b e ing k nown a se x t raord inar i i , t h a t i s" s e lec t " . T he t o ta l n umb e r o f A l l ied i n f an t ry i su sua l ly e qua l t ot h a t o f t h e R oman s , w h i le t h e c ava l ry a r e t h r ee t i me s a s m any . O f t h e se t h ey a s s ign a bou t at h ird o ft h ec a va lry a nd af i f th o f t h e i n f an t r y t ot h e p i cked c o rp s ; t h e r e s t t h ey d i v ide i n to t wo b od ie s , o n e k nown a st h e r i gh t w ing a nd t h e o t he ra s t h e l e f t . When t he se a rrangemen t s h ave b een made , t h e t r ibune s t ake b o th t he R oman s a nd A l l ie s a nd p i tch t he ir c amp , o ne s imp le p l an o fc amp b e ing a dop ted a t

THE ROMAN M ILITARY S YSTEM ACCORD ING T O POLYB IUS t r iar i io fb o th l e g ion s i n as im i la ra r rangemen t , ac ompany n ex t e a ch t r oop , b u t w i th n o s pa ce b e tween t h em , a nd f a c ing i nt h e c on t rary d i rec t ion t ot h e c ava lry . T hey m ake

a l l t ime s a nd i na l l p lace s . It h ink , t herefore , i tw i l l b e i np lace h ere t o a t temp t , a s f ar a s w ord s c an d o s o , t o c onvey t o my r eader s an o t ion o ft he d i spo s i t ion o ft he f o rce s when o n t he march , when e ncamped a nd when i na c t ion . F o r w ho i ss o a ve r se t oa l l n ob le a nd e xce l len t p e r forman ce a s n o t t o b e i n c l ined t o t a ke a l i t t le e x t ra

t h e d ep th o f e a ch c ompany h a lf i t s l e ng th , b ecau se a s a r u le t h e t r iar i i n umbe r o n ly h a lf t h e s t r eng th o f t h e o t he r

t r oub le t ou nde r s tand ma t te r s l i ke t h is , o fw h ich w hen h e h a s o n ce r e ad h e w i l l b e w e l l i n fo rmed a bou t o ne o f t h e t h ing s r e a l ly w or th s t udy ing a nd w o r th k now ing ' ?

c l a s se s . S o t h a t t h e man ip le s b e ing o f t en o f u n equa l s t r eng th , t h e l e ng th o ft h ee n campmen t s i sa lway s t h es ame o w ing t ot h ed i f f e r ence i nd ep th . N ex ta t ad i s tance o ff i f ty f e e t o n e a ch s i de , t h ey p l ace t h e p r inc ipe s f a c ing t h e

V 1 ,27 . ( s ee F ig . A pp .1)

t r iar i i , a nd a s t h ey a r e t u rned t owa rd s t h e i n terven ing s pace , t wo mo r e s t ree t s a r e f o rmed , b o th s t ar t ing f r om t h e

T he m anner i nw h ich t h ey f o rm t h e ir c amp i sa s f o l lows .

s ame b a se a s t h a t o f t h e c ava lry , i . e . t h e h und red f oo t s pace i n f r on t o f t h e t r ibune s ' t e n t s , a nd b o th i s su ing o n

When t h e s i te f o r t h e c amp h a s b een c ho sen , t h e p o s i t ion i n i tg i v ing t h e b e s t g ene ra l v i ew a nd mo s t s u i tab le f o r i s su ing o rde r s i s a s s igned t o t h e g ene ra l 's t e n t ( p rae tor ium ) . F i x ing a ne n s ign o n t h e s po t w he re t h ey a r e a bou t t o p i t ch i t , t h ey m ea su re o f f r ound t h is e n s ign a s qua re p l o t o f g round e ach s i de o f w h ich i so ne h und red f e e t d i s tan t , s o t h a t t h e t o ta l a r ea m ea su re s f ou r p l e th ra . A long o n e s i de o ft h is s qua re i nt h e d i rec t ion w h ich s e em s t og i ve t h eg r ea te s tf a c i l i t ie s f o rw a ter ing a nd f o rag ing , t h e R oman l e g ion s a r e d i spo sed a s f o l low s . A s Ih ave s a id , t h e re a r e s i x t r ibune s i ne a ch l e g ion ; a nd s i nce e a ch c on su l h a s a lways t wo R oman l e g ion s w i th h im , i ti se v iden t t h a t

t h es i de o ft h ec amp w h ich i so ppo s i te t ot h et r ibune s ' t e n t s a nd w h ich w e d ec ided t oc a l l t h e f r on t o ft h e w ho le . Af t e r t h ep r inc ipe s , a nd a ga in b a ck t ob ack a ga in s tt h em , w i th n o i n te rva l t h ey c amp t h e h a s ta t i . A s e ach c l a s s b y v i r tue o f t h e o r ig ina l d i v is ion c on s is t s o f t e n m an ip le s , t h e s t ree t s a r e a l l e qua l i nl e ng th , a nd t h ey a l b reak o f fo n t h e f r on t s i de o ft h e c amp i n as t ra igh t l i ne , t h e l a s t m an ip le s b e ing h e re s o p l a ced a st of a ce t h e f r on t . V I ,30 .

t h e r e a r e t we lve t r ibune s i nt h e a rmy o fe a ch . T hey p l ace t h en t h e t e n t s o ft h ese a l l i no ne l i ne p a ra l le l t ot h e s i de o f t h e s qua r e s e lec ted a nd f i f ty f e e t f r om i t ,t og ive r oom f o r t h e h o r se s , mu le sa nd b aggage o ft h e t r ibune s . T he se t e n t s a r e p i t ched w i th t h e ir b ack s t u rned t ot h e p rae tor ium a nd f a c ing t h e o u te r s i de o f t h e c amp , ad i r ec t ion o f w h ich I w i l l a lways s p eak a s " t he f r on t " . T he t e n t s o ft h e t r ibune s a r e a ta n e qua l d i s tance f r om e a ch o the r , a nd a t s u ch a d i s tan ce t h a t t h ey e x tend a l ong t h e w ho le b r ead th o f t h e s p a ce o ccup ied b y t h e l e g ion s . V I ,28 . T hey n ow m ea su re a h und r ed f e e t f r om t h e f r on t o f a l l

A t ad i s tan ce a ga in o ff i f ty f e e t f r om t h eh ava t ia nd f a c ing t h em , t h ey e ncamp t h e A l l ied c ava lr y , s t a r t ing f r om t h e s ame l i ne a nd e nd ing o n t h e s ame l i ne . A s Is t a ted a bove , t h e n umbe r o ft h e A l l ied i n f an try i st h e s ame a st h a t o ft h e R oman l e g ion s , b u t f r om t h e se t h e e x t raord inar i i mu s t b e d educ ted ; w h i le t h a t o f t h e c ava lry i s d oub le a f t e r d educ t ing t h et h i rd w ho s e rve a se x t raord inar i i . I nf o rm ing t h e c amp , t h e r efo re , t h ey p ropor t iona te ly i n cr ea s e t h e d ep th o f t h e s pa ce a s s igned t o t h e A l l ied c ava lr y , i n t h e e ndeavou rt om ake t h e ir c amp e qua l i nl e ng th t ot h a to ft h e R oman s . T he se f i ve s t ree t s h av ing b een c omp le ted , t h ey p l a ce t h e m an ip le s o f t h e A l l ied i n f an try , i n c rea s ing t h e d ep th i n p ropor t ion t o t h e ir n umbe r s ; w i th t h e ir f a ce s t ur n ed a way f r om t h e c ava lry a nd f a c ing t h e a gge r a nd b o th t h e o u te r s i de s o ft h e c amp . I ne a ch m an ip le t h e f i r s t t e n t a te i the r e nd i so ccup ied b y t h e c en tur ion s . I nl a y ing t h e w ho le c amp o u t i n t h is m anne r t h ey a lway s l e ave a

t h e se t e n t s , a nd s t ar t ing f r om t h e l i ne d rawn a t t h is d i s tan ce p a ra l le l t ot h e t e n t s o f t h e t r ibune s t h ey b eg in t o e ncamp t h el e g ion s , manag ing m a t te r sa sf o l low s . B i sec t ing t h e a bove l i ne , t h ey s t a r t f r om t h is s po t a nd a l ong a l i ne d r awn a tr i gh t a ng le s t ot h e f i r s t , t h ey e n camp t h e c ava lry

s pace o f f i f ty f e e t b e tween t h e f i f th t r oop a nd t h e s i x th , a nd s im i la r ly w i th t h e c ompan ie s o f f o o t , s o t h a t a no the r

o f e a ch l e g ion f a c ing e a ch o the r a nd s epa ra ted b y a d i s tan ce o ff i f ty f e e t , t h e l a s t m en t ioned l i ne b e ing e xa c t ly h a lf -way b e tween t h em . T he m ann e r o f e n camp ing t h e c ava lry a nd t h e i n f an try i sv ery s im i la r , t h e w ho le s pace o ccup ied b y t h e man ip le s a nd s quad ron s b e ing a s qua r e .

p a s sage t r ave r s ing t h e w ho le c amp i s f o rmed , a t r i gh t a ng le s t o t h e s t ree t s , a nd p a ra l le l t o t h e l i ne s o f t h e t r ibune s t e n t s . T h is t h ey c a l led q u in tana , a s i tr un s a l ong t h e f i f th t r oop s a nd c ompan ie s .

T h is s qua r e f a ce s o ne o f t h e s t ree t s o r v i ae a nd i so f a f i xed l e ng th o fo ne h und red f e e t , a nd t h ey u sua l ly t r y t o

V I ,31 . T he s pa ce sb eh ind t h e t e n t so ft h e t r ibune s t or i gh ta nd l e f t

m ake t h e d ep th t h e s ame e xcep t i nt h e c a se o f t h e A l l ie s . When t h ey e mp loy t h e l a rge r l e g ion s t h ey a dd p ropo r t iona te ly t ot h e l e ng th a nd d ep th .

o ft h ep rae tor ium , a r e u sed i nt h e o ne c a s e f o r t h e m a rke t a nd i n t h e o t he r f o r t h e o ff ice r o f t h e q uae s to r a nd t h e s upp l ie s o f w h ich h e i si nc ha rge . B eh ind t h e l a s t t e n t o f t h e t r ibune s o n e i ther s i de , a r e t h e q ua r te r s o ft h e c ava lry

V 1 ,29 .

p i cked o u t f r om t h e e x t raord inar i i a nd ac e r ta in n umbe ro f

T he c ava l ry c amp i st h u s s ome th ing l i ke a s t ree t r unn ing d own f r om t h e m idd le o f t h e t r ibune s ' t e n t s a nd a tr i gh t

v o lun tee r s s e rv ing t o o b l ige t h e c on su ls . T he se a r e a l e ncamped p a ra l le l t ot h e t wo s i de s o ft h ea gger , a nd f a c ing

a ng le s t ot h e l i ne a l ong w h ich t h e se t e n t sa r ep l a ced a nd t o t h e s p a ce i nf r on to ft h em , t h e w ho le s y s tem o fv i ae b e ing i n f a c t l i k e an umber o f s t ree t s , a s e i the r c ompan ie s o f

i n t h e o ne c a se t h e q uae s to r s • d epo t a nd i n t h e o t he r t h e m a rke t . A s ar u le t h e se t r oop s a r e n o t o n ly t h u s e n camped n ea r t h e c on su ls b u t o n t h e m a r ch a nd o n o t her o cca s ion s a r e i nc on s tan ta t tendance o nt h ec on su l a nd q uae s to r . B a ck

i n f an try o rt r oop s o fh o r se a r e e n camped f a c ing e a ch o t he r a l a l ong e a ch . B eh ind t h e c ava lry , t h en , t h ey p l a ce t h e

t ob a ck w i th t h em , a nd l o ok ing t owa rd s t h ea gge r a r e t h e 1 59

APPENDIX

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T he R oman c amp a c cord ing t o P o lyh iu s s how ing t h e p o s i t ion o f t h e l e g ion s i n r e la t ion t ot h e p rae tor ium ( a f ter F ah r ic iu s 1 9 32 ,F i tL12 )

1 60

THE ROMAN M ILITARY S YSTEM ACCORD ING T O POLYB IUS s e le c ti n f an try w ho p e r fo rm t h es ame s e rv ice a st h ec ava lr y j u s t d e s c r ibed . B eyond t h e se a n e mp ty s p a ce i s l ef t a h und r ed f e e t b road , p a ra l le l t o t h e t e n t s o f t h e t r ibun e s , a nd s t r e t ch ing a l ong t h e w ho le f a ce o f t h e a gger o n t h e o t he rs i d eo ft h em a rk e t ,p rae tor ium a nd q uae s tor ium , a nd o ni t sf u r the rs i de t h er e s to ft h e e qu i t e s e x t raord inar i i a r e e n camp ed f a c ing t h em a rk e t ,p rae tor ium a nd q uae s tor ium . I nt h em idd le o ft h i sc ava lr yc amp a nd e xa c t ly o ppo s i t e t h e p rae tor ium ap a s sage , f i f ty f e e t w ide , i sl e f tl e ad ing t ot h e r e a r s i de o f t h e c amp a nd r unn ing a tr i gh t a ng le s t o t h e b r oad p a s sag e b eh ind t h e p rae to r ium . B a ck t ob a ck w i th t h e s ec a va lry a nd f r on t ing t h e a nd t h er e a rwa rd f a ce o ft h e w ho le c amp a r e p l a ced t h e r e s t o f t h e p ed i te s e x t raord inar i i . F i na l ly t h es p a ce sr ema in ing e mp ty t or i gh t a nd l e f t n ex t t h e o ne a ch s i de o ft h e c amp a r e a s s igned t o f o r e ign t r oop s o rt oa ny A l l ie s w ho c han c e t oc ome i n . T he w ho le c amp t h u s f o rm s as qua r e , a nd t h e w ay i n w h ich t h e s t r ee t s a r e l a id o u t a nd i t s g en e ra l a r r angemen t g i ve i tt h ea ppea rance o f at own . T he a gg er i so na l ls i de s a t ad i s tanc e o f2 00 f e e t f r om t he t en t s , a nd t h i s emp ty s pace i so f i mpor tan t s e rv ice i n s e ve ra l r e spe c t s . T o b eg in w i th i tp rov ide st h ep rope rf a c i l i t ie sf o rm a r ch ing t h e t r oop s i na nd o u t , s e e ing t h a t t h ey a l m a r ch o u t i n to t h is s p a ce b y t h e i r o wn s t r ee t s a nd t h u s d o n o t c ome i n to o n e s t r ee t i n am a s s a nd t h row d own o r h u s t le e a ch o t he r . A ga in i ti sh e r et h a tt h ey c o l le c t t h ec a t t le b rough ti n to t h e c amp a nd a l b oo ty t a k en f r om t h e e n emy , a nd k eep t h em s a f e d u r ing t h e n i gh t . B u t t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t t h ing o fa l i st h a t i n n i gh t a t tack s n e i the r f i r e c an r e a ch t h em n o r m i s s i le s e xcep t av ery f ew , w h ich a r e a lmo s t h a rm le s s o w ing t ot h e d i s tance a nd t h e s pa ce i nf r on t o ft h e t e n t s . V I ,32 . G iven t h e n umbe r s o fc ava lry a nd i n f an t ry , w he the r 4 000 o r 5 000 , i n e a ch l e g ion , a nd g i ven l i k ew ise t h e d ep th , l e ng th , a nd n umbe r o f t h e t r oop s a nd c ompan ie s , t h e d imen s ion s o ft h e p a ssage s a nd o pen s p a ce s a nd a l l o t he r d e ta i l s , a nyon e w ho g i ve s h i s m ind t oi tc an c a lcu la t e t h e a r ea a nd t o ta l c i r cumf e r en ce o f t h e c amp . I ft h e r e e ve r h app en t ob e a n e x t ra n umbe r o f A l l ie s , e i the r o f t h o se o r ig ina l ly f o rm ing p a r t o ft h e a rmy o ro fo t he r s w ho h ave j o in ed o n as p ec ia l o cca s ion , a c commoda t ion i sp rov ided f o r t h e l a t t e r i nt h e n e ighbou rhood o ft h ep rae tor ium , t h e m a rk e t a nd q uae s tor ium b e ing r e du ced t o t h e m in imum s i z e w h ich m e e t s p r e s s ing r e qu i remen t s , w h i le f o r t h e f o rm e r , i ft h ee x ce s s i sc on s ide rab le , t h ey a dd t wo s t r ee t s , o ne a te a ch s i d e o ft h e e n campmen to ft h e R oman l e g ion s . Wh enever t h et wo c on su l sw i th a l lt he ir f our l e g ion sa r e u n i ted i no ne c amp , w eh ave o n ly t oi mag ine t wo c amp s l i ke t he a bove p l aced i nj ux tapo s i t ion b ack t ob ack , t he j un c t ion b e ing f ormed a t t he e ncampmen t s o f t he e x t r aord inar i ii n fan try o fe ach c amp w hom w ed e scr ibed a s b e ing s t a t ioned f a c ing t he r e arward a gg er o f t he c amp . T he s hape o f t he c amp i sn ow o b long , i t s a rea d oub le w ha t i tw a s a nd i t s c i r cumf er ence h a lf a s much a ga in . Whenever b o th c on su l s e n camp t oge ther t hey a dop t t h i s a r rangemen t ; b u t w hen t he t wo e ncamp a par t t he o n ly d if e rence i s t ha t t he marke t , q uae s tor ium a nd p rae tor ium a re p l a ced b e tween t he t wo c amp s . '

V I ,33 . Af t e r f o rm ing t h e c amp t h e t r ibun e s m e e t a nd a dm in i s te r a no a th , m an b ym an , t oa l i nt h ec amp , w he the r f r eemen o rs l ave s . E a ch m an s w ea r st os t ea l n o th ing f r om t h ec amp a nd e ven i fh e f i nd s a ny th ing t ob r ing i tt ot h e t r ibun e s . T hey n ex t i s sue t h e ir o rde r s t ot h e m an ip le so ft h e h a s ta t i a nd p r inc ipe s o f e a ch l e g ion , e n t ru s t ing t ot wo m an ip le s t h e c a r eo ft h eg round i nf r on to ft h e t e n t so ft h e t r ibun e s ; f o r t h i s g round i st h e g en e ra l r e so r t o ft h e s o ld ie r s i nt h e d ay t ime , a nd s o t h ey s e e t o i t s b e ing s w ep t a nd w a t e r ed w i th g r ea t c a r e . T h r e e o ft h e r ema in ing e i gh t een m an ip le s a r e n ow a s s igned b y l o t t o e a ch t r ibun e , t h is b e ing t h e n umbe ro fm an ip le so fpr inc ipe sa nd h a s ta t ii ne a ch l e g ion , a nd t h e ir b e ing s i xt r ibun e s . E a ch o ft h e s em an ip le si nt u rn a t t end s o n t h e t r ibun e , t h e s e rv ice s t h ey r e nd e rh im b e ing s u ch a s t h e f o l low ing . When t h ey e n camp t h ey p i t ch h i s t e n t f o r h im a nd l e ve l t h e g round r ound i t ;a nd i ti st h e i r d u ty t of e n ce r ound a ny o fh i s b aggag e t h a t m ay r e qu i r e p ro te c t ion . T hey a l so s upp ly t wo g ua rd s f o rh im ( ag ua rd c on s i s t so ff ou rm en ) ,o fw h ich t h eo n e i ss t a t ion ed i nf r on t o ft h e t e n ta nd t h eo t he rb eh ind i tn ex tt h e h o r s e s . A se a ch t r ibun e h a s t h r ee m an ip le sa th i ss e rv ice , a nd t h e r e a r e n o t m o r e t h an ah und r ed m en i ne a ch m an ip le ; n o t c oun t ing t h et r iar i ia nd v e l i te s w ho a r en o tl i ab le t ot h i s s e rv ice , t h e t a sk i s al i gh to n e , a se a ch m an ip le h a s t os e rve o n ly e ve ry t h i rd d ay ; a nd w hen t h e n e ce s sa ry c omf o r t o ft h e t r ibun e i sw e l l a t tended t ob y t h i s m ean s , t h e d i gn i ty d ue t oh i s r a nk i sa l so a mp ly m a in ta in ed . T he m an ip le s o ft r iar i i a r e e xemp t f r om t h i s a t t endan ce o n t h e t r ibune ; b u t e a ch m an ip le s upp l ie s ag ua rd e ve ry d ay t o t h e s quad ron o f h o r se c l o se b eh ind i t . T h i s g ua rd , b e s ide s k eep ing a g en e ra l l o okou t , w a t che s e s pec ia l ly o ve r t h e h o r se s t o p r even t t h em f r om g e t t ing e n tang led i nt h e i r t e the r s a nd s u f f er ing i n jur ie s t h a t w ou ld i n capa c i ta t e t h em , o r f r om g e t t ing l o o se a nd c au s ing c on fu s ion a nd d i s tu rban ce i nt h e c amp b yr unn ing a ga in s to t he rh o r se s . F i na l ly e a ch m an ip le i ni t st u rn m oun t s g ua rd r ound t h ec on su l 's t e n t t op ro te c t h im f r om p l o t s a nd a tt h e s ame t i me t oa dd s p lendou r t o t h e d i gn i ty o fh i s o ff i ce . V I ,34 . A s r e ga rd s t h e e n t r en chmen t a nd s t o ckad ing o ft h e c amp , t h e t a sk f a l l s u pon t h e A l l ie s c on cern ing t h o se t wo s i de s a l ong w h ich t h e i r t wo w ing s a r e q ua r t e r ed , t h e o t he r t wo s i de s b e ing a s s ign ed t ot h e R oman s , o n e t oe a ch l e g ion . E a ch s i de h av ing b e en d i v ided i n to s e c t ion s , o ne f o re a ch m an ip le , t h e c en tur ion s s t and b y a nd s up er in tend t h e d e ta i l s , w h i le t wo o f t h e t r ibune s e xe r c is e ag en e ra l s uperv is ion o ve r t h e w o rk o n e a ch s i de ; a nd i ti st h e s e l a t te r o ff i ce r s w ho s upe r in tend a l o t he r w o rk c onne c t ed w i th t h ec amp . T hey d i v ide t h em se lve si n to p a ir s , a nd e a ch p a i r i s o n d u ty i n t u rn f o r t wo m on th s o u t o f s i x , s uper v i s ing a l f i e ld o pe r a t ion s . T he p r ef e c t s o ft h e A l l ie s d i v ide t h e i rd u t ie so n t h e s ame s y s t em . E ve ry d ay a td awn t h ec ava lry o ff i ce r sa nd c en tur ion sa t t end a tt h e t e n t so ft h e t r ibune s , a nd t h et r ibune sp roceed t ot h a to ft h ec on su l . H e g i ve s t h e n e ce s sa r y o rde r s t ot h e t r ibun e s , a nd t h ey p a s s t h em o nt ot h ec a va l ry o ff i ce r sa nd c en tu r ion s , w ho c onvey t h em t ot h e s o ld ie r s a tt h e p rope r t i me .

1 6 1

APPEND IX T he w ay i n w h ich t h ey s e cu r e t h e p a s s ing r ound o f t h e w a t chwo rd f o r t h e n i gh t i sa s f o l low s : f r om t h e t e n th m an ip le o fe a ch c l a s s o fi n f an t ry a nd c ava lr y , t h e m an ip le w h i ch i se n camped a tt h e l owe re nd o ft h e s t r ee t , am an i s c ho sen w ho i sr e l ieved f r om g ua rd d u ty , a nd h e a t t end s e ve ry d ay a ts un se ta tt h e t e n to ft h et r ibune , a nd r e ce iv ing f r om h im t h e w a t chwo rd tha t i s aw ooden t a b le t w i th t h e w o rd i n scr ibed o n i t tak e s h i s l e ave , a nd o n r e tu rn ing t o h i s q ua r te r s p a s se s o n t h e w a t chwo rd a nd t a b le t b ef o r e w i tne s se s t ot h e c ommande r o f t h e n ex t man ip le , w ho i n t u rn p a s s e s i tt ot h e o n e n ex t h im . A l l d o t h e s ame u n t i l i t r e a che s t h e f i r s t m an ip le s , t h o se e n camped n ea r t h e t e n t s o f t h e t r ibun e s . T he se l a t t e r a r e o b l iged t o d e l ive r t h e t a b le tt ot h et r ibune sb efo r ed a rk . S o t h a ti fa l t h o s ei s sued a r e r e turned , t h e t r ibune k now s t h a t t h e w a t chwo rd h a s b een g i ven t oa l l t h e m an ip le s , a nd h a s p a s sed t h rough a l l o n i t sw ay b a ck t oh im . I fa ny o ne o ft h em i sm i s s ing , h e m ak e s i n qu ir y a to n ce , a s h e k now s b y t h e m a rk s f r om w ha t q ua r t e r t h e t a b le t h a s n o t r e turn ed , a nd w hoeve r i s r e spon s ib le f o rt h e s t oppage m ee t s w i th t h ep un ishmen th e m er i t s . V I ,35 . T hey m anage t h e n i gh t g ua rd s t h u s : t h e m an ip le o n d u ty t h e r e g ua rd s t h e c on su l a nd h i s t e n t , w h i le t h e t e n t s o ft h e t r ibune s a nd t h e t r oop s o f h o r se a r e g ua rded b y t h e m en a ppo in t ed f r om e a ch m an ip le i n t h e m ann e r Ie xp la ined a bove . E a ch s e pa r a t e b ody l i kew is e a ppo in t s ag ua rd o fi t s o wn m en f o ri t se lf . T he r ema in ing g ua rd sa r ea ppo in ted b y t h e c on su l ; a nd t h e r e a r e g en e ra l ly t h ree p i ck e t s a t t h e q uae s tor ium a nd t wo a tt h e t e n t so fe a ch o ft h e l e ga t e sa nd m emb e r so ft h ec oun c i l . T he w ho le o u te rf a ce o ft h ec amp i sg ua rded b y t h e v e l i t e s , w ho a r e p o s t ed e very d ay a l ong t h e v a l lum -t h i s b e ing t h e s p ec ia l d u ty a s s ign ed t ot h em a nd t e n o f t h em a r e o n g ua rd a te a ch e n t ran ce . O f t h o se a ppo in t ed t op i ck e t d u ty , t h e m an i ne a ch m an ip le w ho i s t o t a ke t h e w a t ch f i r s t i sb rough t t o t h e t r ibun e i n t h e e ven ing b y o n e o f t h e o p t ione s o f h i s c ompany . T he t r ibune g i ve s t h em a l l l i t t le t a b le t s , o ne f o r e a ch s t a t ion , q u i t e s ma l l , w i th as i gn w r i t t en o n t h em , a nd o n r e ce iv ing t h is t h ey l e ave f o r t h e p o s t s a s s ign ed t ot h em . T he d u ty o fg o ing t h e r ound s i se n t ru s t ed t ot h e c ava lr y . T he f i r s tp rae f ec tu s o ft h ec ava lry i ne a ch l e g ion m u s tg i ve o rde r s e a r ly i nt h e mo rn ing t oo ne o fh i s o p t ione s t os end n o t ice b e f o r e b r eak f a s t t o f o u r l a d s o f h i s o wn s quad ron w ho w i l l b er e qu ir ed t og o t h er ound s . T he s ame m an m u s t a l so g i ve n o t ice i nt h ee ven ing t ot h ep raef ec tu s o ft h en ex t s quad ron t h a t h e mu s t m ak e a r rangemen t s f o r g o ing t h e r ound s o n t h e f o l low ing d ay . T h i s p raef ec tu s , o n r e ce iv ing t h e n o t ice , m u s t t a ke p r ec i s e ly t h e s ame s t ep s o n t h e n ex t d ay ; a nd s o o n t h rough a l t h e s quad ron s . T he f o u r m en c ho sen b y t h e o p t ione s f r om t h e f i r s t s quad ron , a f te r d r aw ing l o t s f o r t h e i r r e spec t ive w a t che s , g o t ot h e t r ibune a nd g e t w r i t ten o rde r s f r om h im s t a t ing w ha t s t a t ion s t h ey a r e t ov i s i t a nd a tw ha t t i me . A f te r t h a t a l f o u r o f t h em g o a nd s t a t ion t h em s e lve s n ex t t h e f i r s t m an ip le o f t r ian i , f o r i ti st h e d u ty o f t h e c en tu r ion o f t h is m an ip le t o h ave a b ug le s ounded a tt h e b eg inn ing o fe a ch w a tch .

1 62

When t h is t i me c ome s , t h e m an t ow hom t h e f i r s t w a t ch f e l l b y l o t s m ak e sh i sr ound sa c compan ied b y s ome f r i end s a nd w i tn e s s e s . H ev i s i t s t h ep o s t sm en t ion ed i nh i s o rde r s , n o t o n ly t h o s e n ea r t h e v a l lum a nd t h e g a t e s , b u t t h e p i ck e t s a l so o f t h e i n f an t ry m an ip le s a nd c ava lr y s quad ron s . I fh e f i nd s t h e g ua rd s o ft h e f i r s t w a t ch a wak e h e r e ce ive s t h e ir t e s se ra , b u t i fh e f i nd s t h a t a nyon e i s a s leep o r h a s l e f t h i s p o s t , h e c a l l s t h o s e w i th h im t o w i tne s s t h e f a c t , a nd p roceed s o n h i s r ound s . T ho se w ho g o o nt h er o und si nt h e s u cceed ing w a t che sa c t i n as im i la r m anne r . A s Is a id , t h e c ha rge o fs ound ing ab ug le a tt h e b eg inn ing o fe a ch w a t ch , s o t h a t t h o se g o ing t h e r ound s m ay v i s i t t h e d i f f e r en t s t a t ion s a tt h e r i gh t t i me , f a l l s o n t h e c en tu r ion s o f t h e f i r s t m an ip le o f t h e t r iar i i i n e a ch l e g ion , w ho t a k e i tb y t u rn s f o r ad ay . E a ch o ft h em en w ho h ave g one t h er o und sb r ing sb a ck t h e t e s serae a td ayb reak t ot h e t r ibun e . I ft h ey d e l ive rt h em a l t h ey a r e s u f f e r ed t od epa r t w i thou tq u e s t ion ; b u t i fo n e o f t h em d e l ive r s f ewe r t h an t h e n umbe r o f s t a t ion s v i s i t ed , t h ey f i nd o u t f r om e xam in ing t h e s i gn s o n t h e t e s se rae w h ich s t a t ion i sm is s ing , a nd o n a s ce r ta in ing t h is t h e t r ibune c a l l s t h e c en tur ion o f t h e m an ip le a nd h e b r ing s h im b ef o r e t h em en w ho w e r e o np i ck e td u ty , a nd t h ey a r e c on f ron t ed w i th t h ep a t ro l . I ft h e f a u l ti st h a to ft h ep i ck e t , t h e p a t ro l m ak e s m a t te r s c l ea r a to n ce b y c a l l ing t h e m en w ho h ad a c compan ied h im , f o r h e i sb ound t od o t h i s ; b u t i fn ot h ing o ft h e k i nd h a sh appened , t h ef a u l t r e s t so nh im . V I ,37 . Ac our t -ma r t ia l c ompo sed o fa l t h e t r ibun e sa to n ce m e e t s t ot r y h im , a nd i fh e i sf o und g u i l ty h e i sp un i shed b y t h e b a s t inado ( f u s tuar ium ) . T h is i si nf l ic t ed a s f o l low s : t h e t r ibune t a k e s ac udge l a nd j u s t t o u che st h ec ondemn ed m an w i th i t , a f t e r w h ich a l i nt h e c amp b ea t o r s t one h im , i n m o s t c a se s d e spa t ch ing h im i n t h e c amp i t s e lf . B u t e ven t h o se w ho m anage t o e s cape a r e n o t s a ved t h e r eby ; i mpo s s ib le ! f o r t h ey a r e n o t a l low ed t o r e tu rn t o t h e i r h ome s , a nd n on e o ft h e f am i ly w ou ld d a re t or e ce ive s u ch am an i nh i sh ou s e . S o t h a tt h o se w ho h ave o n ce f a l len i n to t h is m isf o r tun e a r eu t t e r ly r u ined . T he s ame p un i shmen t i s i nf l ic ted o n t h eo p t io a nd o n t h ep rae f e c t o ft h e s quad ron , i ft h ey d o n o t g i ve t h e p rope r o rde r s a tt h e r i gh t t i me t o t h e p a t ro l s a nd t h e p rae f ec t o f t h e n ex t s quad ron . T hu s , o w ing t o t h e e x t r eme s e ver i ty a nd i n ev i tab len e s s o f t h e p ena l ty , t h e n i gh t w a t che s o f t h e R oman a rmy a r e m o s t s c rupu lou s ly k ep t . Wh i ls tt h es o ld ie r sa r es ub je c tt ot h et r ibun e s , t h e l a t te ra r e s ub jec t t o t h e c on su ls . At r ibune a nd i n t h e c a s e o f t h e A l l ie s ap rae f ec t , h a s t h e r i gh t o f i n f l ic t ing f i n e s , o f d emand ing s u r e t ie s , a nd o f p un ish ing b y f l ogg ing . T he b a s t inado i sa l so i nf l ic ted o nt h o se w ho s t ea la ny th ing f r om t h ec amp ; o nt h o se w ho g i ve f a lse e v iden ce ; o ny oung m en w ho h ave a bu s ed t h e ir p e r son s ; a nd f i na l ly o na nyon e w ho h a s b een p un i shed t h r ice f o r t h e s ame f a u l t . T ho se a r e t h e o f f en ce sw h ich a r ep un i shed a sc r ime s , t h e f o l low ing b e ing t r ea ted a su nman ly a c t s a nd d i sg ra cef u l i n as o ld ie r -when am an b oa s t s f a l se ly t o at r ibune o fh i s v a lou r i nt h e f i e ld i no rde r t og a in d i s t in c t ion ; w hen a ny m en w ho h ave b e en

THE ROMAN M ILITARY S YSTEM ACCORD ING TO POLYB IUS p l a ced i n ac over ing f o rce l e ave t h e s t a t ion a s s igned t o

n o to n ly t h em en w ho a r ep r e sen ta nd l i s ten t ot h e ir w o rd s ,

t h em f r om f e a r ; l i kew ise w hen a nyone t h row s a way , f r om

b u t t ho se w ho r ema in a th ome a l so . F o r t h e r e c ip ien t s o f

f e a r , a ny o f h i s a rm s i n t h e a c tua l b a t t le . T he ref o re t h e m en i nc over ing f o r ce so f t en f a ce c er ta in d ea th , r e fu s ing t o l e ave t h e ir r ank se ven when v a s t ly o u tnumbe red , o w ing t o d r ead o ft h e p un ishmen t t h ey w ou ld m ee t w i th ; a nd a ga in i nt h e b a t t le m en w ho h ave l o s t as h ie ld o r s wo rd o r a ny o t he r a rm o f ten t h row t h em se lve s i n to t h e m id s t o f t h e e n emy , h op ing e i the rt or e cove rt h e l o s to b jec to rt oe s cape b y d ea th f r om i n ev i tab le d i sgra ce a nd t h e t a un t s o f t h e ir r e la t ion s .

s uch g if t s , q u i te a pa r t f r om b ecom ing f amou s i nt h e a rmy a nd f amou s t oo f o r t h e t ime a tt h e ir h ome s , a r e e spec ia l ly d i s t ingu ished i nr e l ig iou s p roce s s ion sa f t e r t h e i rr e turn , a s n o o ne i sa l lowed t o w ea r d eco ra t ion s e xcep t t h ose o n w hom t h ese h onou r s f o r b ravery h ave b een c onf er red b y t h ec on su l ; a nd i nt h e ir h ou se s t h ey h ang u p t h es po i ls t h ey

V I ,38 . I ft h e s ame t h ing e ver h appen s t o l a rge b od ie s , a nd i f e n t i r e m an ip le s d e ser t t h e ir p o s t s w hen e xceed ing ly h a rd p r e s sed , t h eo ff i ce r sr e f ra in f r om i nf l ic t ing t h eb a s t inado o r t h ed ea th p ena l ty o na l l , b u t f i nd as o lu t ion o ft h ed i ff icu l ty w h ich i s b o th s a lu tary a nd t e r ror s tr ik ing . T he t r ibune a s semb les t h el e g ion , a nd b r ings u p t ho se g u i l ty o fl e av ing

w onde r t h a t t h e w a r s i nw h ich t h e R oman s e ngage e nd s o

w on i nt h e mo s tc on sp icuou sp l a ce s , l o ok ing u pon t h em a s t o ken s a nd e v idence s o ft h e ir v a lou r . C on s ider ing a l l t h is a t ten t ion g iven t ot h e m a t te r o fp un ishmen t s a nd r ewa rd s i n t h e a rmy a nd t h e i mpor tance a t tached t o b o th , n o s ucce s sfu l ly a nd b r i l l ian t ly . A s p ay t h e f oo t so ld ie r r e ce ive s t wo o bo ls a d ay , a c en tu r ion t w ice a s much , a nd ac ava lry so ld ie r ad rachma . T he a l lowance o fc orn t o af oo t so ld ie ri sa bou t t wo t h ird s o fa n A t t ic m ed imnu s amon th , ac ava lry so ld ie r r e ce ive s s e ven m ed imn i o fb a r ley a nd t wo o fw hea t . O ft h e A l l ie s , t h e

t h e r ank s , r e p roa che st hem s ha rp ly , a nd f i na l ly c hoo se sb y l o t s ome t ime s f i ve , s ome t ime s e i gh t , s ome t ime s t wen ty o f t h e o f f ende r s , s o a d ju s t ing t h e n umbe r t h u s c ho sen t h a t t h ey f o rm a sn ea ra sp os s ib le t h e t e n th p a r to ft h o se g u i l ty o fc owa rd ice . T ho se o n w hom t h e l o t f a l ls a r e b a s t inadoed

i n f an try

r e ce ive t h e s ame ,

t h e c ava lry o ne a nd

o ne th ird m ed imnu s o f w hea t a nd f i ve o f b a r ley , t h e se r a t ion s b e ing af r ee g i f t t ot h e A l l ie s ; b u t i nt h ec a se o ft h e R oman st h eq uae s to rd edu c t sf r om t h e ir p ay t h ep r ice f i xed f o r t h e ir c orn a nd c l o the s a nd a ny a dd i t iona l a rm t h ey r e qu ir e .

m e r c i le s s ly i nt h em anner a bove d e scr ibed ; t h er e s tr e ce ive r a t ion s o f b a r ley i n s tead o f w hea t a nd a r e o rde r ed t o e n camp o u t s ide t h e c amp o n a n u np ro te c ted s po t . A s t h e r efo re t h e d ange r a nd d read o f d raw ing t h e f a ta l l o t a f f e c t s a l l e qua l ly , a s i ti su ncer ta in o n w hom i tw i l l f a l l ; a nd a st h e p ub l ic d i sgrace o fr e ce iv ing b a r ley r a t ion s f a l ls o n a l a l ike , t h i s p rac t ice i st h a t b e s t c a lcu la ted t oi n sp ir e f e a r a nd t oc or r e c t t h e m isch ief .

V I ,40 . T he f o l low ing i s t h e ir m anne r o f b r eak ing u p c amp . I mmed ia te ly u pon t h e s i gna l b e ing g i ven t h ey t a ke d own t h e t e n t s a nd e veryone p a ck s u p . N o t e n t , h oweve r , m ay b e e i the r t a ken d own o rs e t u p b ef o re t h o se o ft h e t r ibune s a nd c on su l . O n t h e s e cond s i gna l t h ey l o ad t h e p a ck a n ima ls , a nd o n t h e t h i rd t h e l e ade r s o f t h e c o lumn mu s t a dvance a nd s e t t h e w ho le c amp i n m ovemen t . T hey u sua l ly p l a ce t h e e x t raord inar i i a tt h e h ead o ft h e c o lumn . N ex t c ome s t h e r i gh t w ing o ft h e A l l ie s a nd b eh ind t h em t h e ir p a ck a n ima l s . T he f i r s t R oman l e g ion m a r che s n ex t w i th i t s b aggage b eh ind i ta nd i ti sf o l lowed b y t h e s e cond l e g ion , w h ich h a s b eh ind i tb o th i t s o wn p a ck a n ima ls a nd

V I ,39 . T hey a l so h ave a n a dm irab le m e thod o f e n cou rag ing t h e y oung s o ld ie r st of a ce d ange r . A f te r ab a t t le i nw h ich s ome o ft h em h ave d i s t ingu ished t h em se lve s , t h eg en e ra l c a l ls a n a s semb ly o ft h e t r oops , a nd b r ing ing f o rwa rd t h o se w hom h ec on s ider st oh ave d i sp layed c on sp icuou s v a lou r , f i r s to f a l s p eak s i nl a uda tory t e rm s o f t h e c ou r ageou s d eed s o f e a ch a nd o fa ny th ing e l se i nt h e ir p rev iou s c ondu c t w h ich

a l so t h e b aggage o f t h e A l l ie s w ho b r ing u p t h e r e a r ; f o r t h e l e f t w ing o f t h e A l l ie s f o rm s t h e e x t r eme r e a r o f t h e c o lumn o n t h e m a r ch . T he c ava lry s ome t ime s ma r che s i n t h e r e a r o f t h e r e spec t ive b od ie s t o w h ich i tb e long s a nd s ome t ime s o n t h e f l ank s o f t h e p ack t r a in , k eep ing t h e a n ima ls t oge the r a nd a f fo rd ing t h em p ro tec t ion . When a n a t ta ck i s e xpec ted f r om t h e r e a r , t h e s ame o rde r i s

d e serves c ommenda t ion ,and a f terwa rd s d i s t r ibu te s t h e f o l low ing r ewa rd s . T o t h e m an w ho h a s w ounded a n e nemy , as p ea r ; t o h im w ho h a s s l a in a nd s t r ipped a n e nemy , ac up i fh e b e i nt h e i n f an try a nd h o r se t r app ing s i fi nt h e c ava lr y , a l though t h eg if th e re w a s o r ig ina l ly o n ly as p ea r . T he s e g i f t s a r e n o t m ade t o m en w ho h ave w ounded o rs t r ipped a n e nemy i n ar e gu la r b a t t le o r a tt h e s t o rm ing o f ac i ty , b u t t ot ho se w ho d ur ing s k irm ishe s o r

m a in ta ined , b u t t h e A l l ied e x t raord inar i i , n o t a ny o the r p or t ion o ft h e A l l ie s , m a r ch i nt h e r e a r i n s t ead o ft h e v an .

i ns im i la r c i r cum s tance s , w he re t h e r e i sn o n ece s s i ty f o r e ngagemen t i n s i ng le c omba t , h ave v o lun ta r i ly a nd

O f t h e t wo l e g ion s a nd w ing s e a ch t a ke s t h e f r on t o r r e a r p o s i t ion o n a l terna te d ays , s o t h a t b y t h is c hange o fo rde r a l l m ay e qua l ly s ha r e t h ea dvan tage o f af r e sh w a te rs upp ly

d e l ibe ra te ly t h rown t h em se lve si n to t h ed ange r . T ot h e f i r s t m an t o moun t t h e w a l l a tt h e a s sau l t o n ac i ty , h e g ive s a

o fm a r ch ing o rde ra tt ime s o fd ange r w hen t h ey h ave o pen

c r own o fg o ld . S o a l so t h o se w ho h ave s h ie lded a nd s aved

g round e nough . F o r i nt h is c a se t h eh a s ta t i , p r inc ipe s , a nd

a ny o f t h e c i t izen s o r A l l ies r e ce ive h onou ra ry g i f t s f r om

t r iar i i f o rm t h ree p a ra l le l c o lumn s , t h e p ack t r a in s o f t h e l e ad ing m an ip le s b e ing p l a ced i nf r on t o fa l , t h o se o f t h e

t h ec on su l , a nd t h em en t h ey s aved c rown t h e ir p r e serve r s , i fn o t o f t h e i r o wn f r ee w i l l u nde r c ompu ls ion f r om t h e

a nd af r e sh f o rag ing g round . T hey h ave a l so a no the r k i nd

s e cond m an ip le s b eh ind t h e l e ad ing m an ip le s , t h ose o ft h e

t r ibune s w ho j udge t h e c a se . T he m an t h u s p r eser ved a l so r e ve r ence s h i s p r e serve r a s af a the r a l t h rough h i s l i f e , a nd mu s t t r ea t h im i n e very w ay l i ke a p a r en t . B y s uch i n cen t ives t h ey e xc i te t oe mu la t ion a nd r i va lry i nt h e f i e ld

t h ird b eh ind t h e s e cond a nd s oo n , w i th t h e b aggage t r a in s a lway s i n terpo sed b e tween t h e b od ie s o ft r oop s . W i th t h is o rde r o f m a r ch w hen t h e c o lumn i st h r ea tened , t h ey f a ce n ow t ot h e l e f t n ow t ot h e r i gh t , a nd g e t t ing c l ea r o f t h e 1 6 3

APPEND IX b aggage c on f ron t t h e e n emy f r om w ha t eve r s i de h e a ppea r s . S o t h a t v er y r a p id ly , a nd b y o n e m ovemen t t h e i n f an t ry i sp l a ced i no rde ro fb a t t le ( e xcep tp e rhap st h a tt h e h a s ta t im ay h ave t ow hee l r ound t h eo t he r s ) , a nd t h ec r owd o fb aggage a n ima ls a nd t h e i ra t t endan t s a r e i nt h e i rp rope r p l a ce i nt h e b a t t le , b e ing c ove r ed b y t h e l i n e o ft r oop s .

t o u n su i tab le s i tua t ion s , t h e c on s equen ce b e ing t h a t e ve ryon e i sq u i te u nce r ta in w he r eabou t s i n t h e c amp h i s o wn p l a ce o rt h ep l a ce o fh i s c o rp s i s .T he R oman so n t h e c on t ra r yp r ef e rt os ubm i tt ot h e f a t igu e o fe n t r en ch ing a nd o t he r d e f en s ive w o rk f o r t h e s a k e o f t h e c onv en ien ce o f h av ing as i ng le t y pe o f c amp w h ich n eve r v a r ie s a nd i s f am i l ia r t oa l .

V I ,4 1 . When t he a rmy o n t he mar ch i s n ear t he p l ace o f e ncampmen t , o ne o ft he t r ibune s a nd t ho se c en tur ion s w ho a re s pec ia l ly c harged w i th t h i s d u ty g o o n i n a dvance , a nd a f ter s urvey ing t he who le g round o n w h ich t he c amp i st o b e f o rmed , f i r s t o fa l l d e term ine f r om t he c on s idera t ion s Imen t ioned a bove where t he c on su l ' st en ts hou ld b ep laced a nd o n wh ich f r on to ft he s pace r ound t h i st en t t he l e g ion s s hou ld e ncamp . When t h ey h ave d ec ided o n t h i s , t h ey m ea su r e o u t f i r s t t h e a r e a o f t h ep rae tor ium , n ex t t h e s t ra igh t l i ne a l ong w h ich t h e t e n t s o ft h e t r ibune s a r e e r e c ted a nd n ex t t h e l i n e p a ra l le l t o t h is , s t a r t ing f r om w h ich t h e t r oop s f o rm t h e i r e n campmen t . I nt h es ame w ay t h ey d raw l i ne so n t h eo t he r s i de o f t h e p rae tor ium , t h e a r rangemen t o f w h ich I d e sc r ib ed a bove i nd e ta i l a nd a ts ome l e ng th . A l l t h i s i s d one i n av ery s hor t t ime , a st he mark ing o u t i s aq u i te e a sy ma t ter , a l l t he d i s tance s b e ing f i xed a nd f am i l iar ; a nd t hey n ow p lan t f l ag s , o ne o n t he s po t i n tended f o r t he c on su l s t e n t , a no ther o n t ha t s i de o f i tt hey h ave c ho sen f o r t he c amp , at h ird i nt he m idd le o ft he l i ne o nw h ich t he t r ibune s t en t s w i l l s t and , a nd af ou r th o n t he o ther p ara l le l l i ne a l ong wh ich t he l e g ion s w i l l e ncamp . T he se l a t ter f l ag sa re c r im son , b u tt he c on su l s i s w h i te . O n t he g round o n t he o ther s i de o f t he p rae tor ium t hey p lan t e i ther s imp le s pear s o r f l ag s o f o the r c o lour s . A f ter t h i s t hey g o o n t o l a y o u t t he s t re e t s a nd p l an ts pear s i ne ach s t ree t . C on sequen t ly i t i so bv iou s t ha t w hen t he l e g ion s march u p a nd g e t a g ood v i ew o f t he s i te f o r t he c amp , a l l t he p ar t s o f i t a re k nown a t o nce t o e veryone , a s t hey h ave o n ly t o r e ckon f r om t he p o s i t ion o ft he c on su l 's f l ag . S o t ha t , a s e veryone k now s e xac t ly i n wh ich s t re e t a nd i n wha t p ar t o f t he s t ree t h i s t en t w i l l b e , s i nce a l l i n var iab ly o ccupy t h e s ame p lace i n t he c amp , t he e ncamp ing s omewha tr e semb le s t he r e turn o fa na rmy t oi t sn a t ive c i ty . F or t hen t hey b reak u p a tt he g a te a nd e veryone g oe s s t ra igh t o n f r om t here a nd r eache s h i s o wn h ou se w i thou tf a i l ,a sh ek now sb o th t he q uar ter a nd t he e xac t s po tw he re h i sr e s idence i ss i tua ted . I ti sv ery much t he s ame t h ing i n aR oman c amp . V I ,42 . T he R oman s b y t h u s s t udy ing c onven ience i nt h i s m a t t e r p u r su e , i ts e em s t om e , ac ou r se d i ame tr ica l ly o ppo s i te t o t h a t u sua l a mong t h e G r e ek s . T he G r eek s i n e n camp ing t h ink i to f p r ima ry i mpo r tan ce t oa dap t t h e c amp t o t h e n a tu r a l a dvan tage s o ft h e g round , f i r s t b e cau se t h ey s h irk t h e l a bou r o f e n t r en ch ing , a nd n ex t b ecau se t h ey t h ink a r t if ic ia l d e f en ce s a r e n o t e qua l i n v a lue t o t h e f o r t if i ca t ion sw h ich n a tu r ep rov ide su na ided o nt h es po t . S o t h a t a sr e ga rd s t h e p l an o f t h e c amp a s aw ho le t h ey a r e o b l ig ed t oa dop ta l k i nd so fs h ape st os u i tt h e n a tu r eo ft h e g round , a nd t h ey o f ten h ave t os h if t t h e p a r t s o ft h e a rmy 1 64

S u ch a r et h e mo s t i mpo r tan t f a c t sa bou t t h e R om an a rm ie s a nd e sp e c ia l ly a bou t t h e m e thod o fe n campmen t NOTES 1T he L oeb t r an s la t ion o fP o lyb iu s ' R oman M i l i ta ry S y s t em ' f r om B ook V I i s r e p roduced w i th k i nd p e rm i s s ion o fH a rva rd Un ive r s i ty P r e s s . S e c t ion so f p a r t icu la ri mpor tan ce r e f er r ed t oi nt h e ma in t e x ta r e e mpha s is ed b y b o ld t y pe . 2 T he L oeb t r an s la t ion o fP o lyb iu s g i ve s ' c amp s ' f o r ` c y r par cn ra in,'i n P o l .V I ,32 ,8 b u t P o lyb iu s h ad o f t en u s ed t h is s ame w o rd f o r l e g io a nd s om e t ime s f o re x e r c i tu s o rc a . s.t r a . T he p rob lem w a s e xam ined b y Wa lbank w ho s t a t ed t h a t : ' I f h oweve r t h e l a s t w o rd ` c 7pc c r o I r tö c ov ' i s t r an s la t ed ' c amp s ' o r ' a rm ie s ' , t h e s en s e i s f a n ta s t ic , . . . I f , h ow eve r , ' c r rpar or t ö c kw ' i s ' l eg ion s , ' m any s c ho la r s h ave b een w or r ied b y w ha t t h ey h ave t a k en t ob e ac l ea r a c coun to f ac amp f o r as i ng le c on su la ra rmy o ft wo l e g ion s f o l lowed b y t h e s t a t em en t t h a t t h i s i si n r e a l i ty h a lf t h ec amp o f ad oub le c on su la ra rmy , a nd t h a t w hen as i ng le c on su la r a rmy i se n camp ed , t h e p a t t e rn i s d i f f e r en t . . . ' (Wa lbank 1 957 ,711 ) . T he a r gumen t c on ce rn ing t h e P o lyb ian c amp p l a n a nd w ha te xa c t ly P o lyb iu sw a st r y ing t oc onvey h a sb e en f u l ly a i r ed i nC hap t e r 1 .I ft h i sa r gumen t i sa c cep ted t h en t h e c once rn t h a t w a s h i gh l igh t ed b y Wa lbank n eed n o t b e p rob lema t ica l . P o lyb iu s d i d n o t g i ve a c l ea r a c coun t o f ac amp o f as i ng le c on su la r a rmy . I n a n i n dependen t m a r ch ing c amp f o r as i ng le c on su la r a rmy t h ep rae tor ium w ou ld l o g ica l ly , a nd i n a l p robab i l i ty , h ave b een p l a ced b e tw e en t h e l e g ion s . C on sequen t ly t h e re s hou ld b e n o d i ff i cu l ty i n a c cep t ing ` c r rpe r r o i r tö c ov ' a s ' l eg ion s ' i n 3 2 ,8 w he r e P o lyb iu s h a s r e f er red t o ac amp o f as i ng le c on su la ra rmy w hen t h ec on su l se n camp a pa r t . T h i s i st h e p o s i t ion a dop t ed b y t h e p r e s en t a u tho r w ho w ou ld r e p la ce ' l eg ion s ' f o r ' c amp s ' i n t h e L oeb t r an s la t ion o fP o l . V I ,32 ,8 .

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ABBREV IAT IONS AND ANC IENT AUTHORS ABBREV IAT IONS A .I .I .N . A rc / i . A n z .

B .A .R . B o t i l l . . 1 ) . J .D .A .I .

A nna l i d e l I s t i tu to l t a l iano d iN um i sma t ica . A rchäo log i sche r A n ze ige r ( as e c t ion c on ta in ed i ne a ch b and o ft h eJ .D .A .I . t h a t d e ta i l s t h e r e su l t s o fe xcava t ion s o ft h e p r ev iou s s e a son ) . B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica l R epor t s B onne rJ ahrbüche r . J ahrbuch d e s K a i se r l ich D eu t schen A r chäo log i schen I n s t i tu t s .

J .R .S . J .V .T . P l u t . P o l . S .H .A .

J ourna l o fR oman S t ud ie s . J aar v er s lag v an d e V e r een ig ing v oor T e rpenond er zoe k . P lu ta r ch P o lyb iu s . S cr ip tor e s H i s tor iae A ugu s tae .

A NC IENT AUTHORS S pa r t ianu s , A e l iu s ( A t t r ibu t ed ) H ad r ian . I n S c r ip tor e s H i s tor iae A ugu s tae . T ran s . Mag ie D . ( 1 922 ) . L ondon : L oeb C la s s ica l L ib ra ry . S t rabo T he G eography o f S t rabo . T ran s . J on e s H .L . ( 1969 ) . L ondon : L oeb C la s s ica l L ib ra ry . V a r ro D e R e R u s t ica . T ran s . H oope r W .D . , r e v ised A sh H .B . ( 1936 ) . L ondon : L oeb C la s s ica l L i b ra r y .

A pp ian R oman H i s tor y . T ran s . Wh i te H . ( 1 972 ) .London : L oeb C la s s ica l L ib r ary . C a e sa r T he C iv i l W ar . T ran s . P e sk e t t A . J . ( 1979 ) . L ondon : L o eb C la s s ica l L ib ra ry . C a e sa r T he G a l l ic W ar . T ran s . E dwa rd s H . J . ( 1 970 ) . L ondon : L o eb C la s s ica l L ib ra ry . C a e sa r ( A t t r ibu t ed ) A lexand r ian , A f r ican a nd S pan i sh W ar s . T r an s . Way A .G . ( 1978 ) . L ondon : L oeb C la s s ica l L ib ra ry . C i ce ro D e R e P ub l ica . T ran s . Wa lk e r K eye s C . ( 1 988 ) . L ondon : L oeb C la s s ica l L ib ra ry . C oe l iu s D e L . C oe l io A n t . Me l t ze r 0 . ( 1 867 ) . D io C a s s iu sD io ' sR oman H i s to ry . T ran s . C a ry E .( 1 969 ) . L ondon : L oeb C la s s ica l L ib ra ry . D iodoru s S i cu lu s D iodoru s o f S i c i l y . T r an s . O ldf a the r C .H . ( 1968 ) . L ondon : L oeb C la s s ica l L ib r a r y . D iony s iu so fH a l ica rna s su s T he R oman A n t iqu i t ie s . T ran s . C a ry E . ( 1 968 ) . L ondon : L oeb C la s s ica l L ib r a ry . F ron t inu s S t ra tagem s . T ran s . B enn e t t C .E . ( 1969 ) . L ondon : L oeb C la s s ica l L ib ra ry . G e l l iu s , A u lu s T he A t t ic N igh t s o fA u lu s G e l l iu s . T ran s . R o lf e J .C . ( 1 967 ) . L ondon : L oeb C la s s ica l L ib r a ry . H yg inu s( A t t r ibu ted )D e Mun i t ione C a s t ro r u i n . G r i l lone A . e d . ( 1977 ) . L e ipz ig . J o sephu s T he J ew i sh W ar . T r an s . T ha ck e ray H .S t .J . ( 1967 ) . L ondon : L oeb C la s s ica l L ib r a r y . L i vy L iv y . T ran s . S age E .T . ( 1967 ) . L ondon : L oeb C la s s ica l L ib ra ry . P l u ta r ch P lu tar ch ' s L iv e s . T ran s . P e r r in B . ( 1968 ) . L ondon : L oeb C la s s ica l L ib ra ry . P o lyb iu s T he H i s tor ie s . T ran s . P a ton W .R . ( 1972 ) . L ondon : L oeb C la s s ica l L ib ra ry . P t o lemy G eography o fC laud iu s P to lemy S t even son E .L . ( 1932 ) . N ew Y o rk . S a l lu s t F ragmen t s o ft h e H i s to ry o fS a l lu s t . I nS a l lu s t , F loru s a nd V .P a ter cu lu s . T ran s . Wa t son R ev . J .S . ( 1 852 ) . L ondon .

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B IBL IOGRAPHY B IBL IOGRAPHY G enera l w ork s o f r e f erence C a ry M . a nd S cu l la rd H .H . AH i s tor y o fR ome . L ondon . C orn e l l T . a nd Ma t thew s J .( 1982 ) . A t la s o ft h e R oman W or ld . H ammond N .G .L . a nd S cu l la rd H .H . ( 1970 ) . O xf ord C la s s ica l D ic t ionar y . ( Oxf o rd ) . L idde l l H .G . a nd S co t t R . ( 1987 e dn . a br idg ed f o rm ) . G r eek -Eng l i sh L ex icon . O xf o rd . P a lme rR .C . e d . ( 1968 ) O xf ord L a t in D ic t ionar y . O xf o rd . S i tw e l l R . e d . ( 1976 ) T he P r ince ton E n cyc lopaed ia o f C la s s ica l S i t e s . P r in ce ton . W i s sow aG .e d . ( 190 1) R ea l -En cyc lopäd ie d e rC la s s i schen A l te rum sw i s senschaf t B and 4 . S t u t tga r t . O the r w ork s A dco ck F .E . ( 1940 r e p r in t ed 1 981) T he R oman A r to fW ar U nde r t h e R epub l ic . C amb r idge . A ga che R . ( 1978 ) L a S omme p r e -roma ine e t r oma ine d 'apr e s l e sp ro spec t ions a e r ienne s ' ab a s se a l t i tud e . Am ien s . A lb r e ch t C . e d . ( 1938 ) D a s R öm er lage r i n O be rad en . V e röf f en t l ichungen a u s d em S t äd t i schen Mu seum f ü r V o r - u nd F rühge sch ich te . D or tmund I , i . A lca r cäo J . de ( 1988 ) R oman P or tuga l . Wa rm in s t e r . A ßkamp R . e d . ( 1989 ) 2 000 J ahr e R öme r i n W e s tf a len . Ma inz . A ßkamp R . ( 1989 ) H a l t e rn . I n A ßkamp R . (ed . ) 1 9 89 , 2 1-43 . A s t in A .E . ( 1 967 ) S c ip io A em i l ianu s . O xf o rd . A s t in A .E . ( 1 978 ) C a to t h e C en so r . O xf o rd . B aa tz D . ( 1 962 ) Mogon t iacum : N eue U n t e r su chungen a m r öm is chen L eg ion s lage ri n Ma inz . I nL ime sf or schungen B and 4 . B aa t z D . ( 1 966 ) Z u r G e s chü tzwaf fnung r öm is che A ux i l ia r t ruppen i nd e rf r ühen u nd m i t t le ren K a i se r ze i t . B onne rJ ahrbüche r 1 66 , 1 94 -207 . B aa t z D . ( 1 968 ) R öm is che Wandma le r e ien a u s d em L ime ska s t e l lE chze l lK r . B üd ingen ( He s sen ) . G e rman ia 4 6 , 4 0 -52 . B aa tz D . ( 1 973 ) K a s te l l H e s se lba ch u nd a nde r e F o r s chungen a m O denwa ld l i rne s . L ime sf or schungen B and 1 2 . B a r re t t A .A . ( 1989 ) C a l igu la T he C o r rup t ion o f P owe r . L ondon . B a r ton I .M . e d . ( 1989 ) R oman P ub l ic B u i ld ing s . E xe t e r . B edoye r e d e l a G . ( 199 1) T he B u i ld ing s o f R oman B r i ta in . L ondon . B e l l M . J .V . ( 1965 ) T a c t ica l r e f orm i n t h e R oman R epub l ican A rmy . H i s tor ia 1 4 , 4 04 -422 . B e rke S t . ( 1 989 ) B eck inghau sen . I nA ßkamp R . e d . 1 9 89 , 5 2 -54 . B idw e l l P .T . ( 1979 ) T he L eg ionar y B a th -hou se a nd B a s i l ica a nd F orum a t E xe te r . E xe te r A r cha eo log ica l R epo r t s V o l .1 .

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B l agg T .F .C . a nd K ing A .C . e d s . ( 1984 ) M i l i ta ry a nd c i v i l ian i nR oman B r i ta in : C u l tu r a l r e la t ion sh ip s i na f r on t ie rp rov in ce . B .A .R . 1 36 . B l äzque zJ .M . ( 1986 ) L uf tb i lde r r öm ische r L ag e r i m Z en t rum S pan ien s . I nU nz C . e d . 1 986 , 6 8 1-688 . B l e c lanann F .( 1907 )D ei n scr ip t ion ibu s q uae l e gun tur . i n v a scu l i s R hod i s . P ub l i shed d i s se r ta t ion . G o t t inga e . B oe th iu s A . ( 1978 ) E t ru scan a nd E ar l y R oman A r ch i t e c tur e . B reez e D . a nd D ob son B . ( 1976 r e v ised e d i t . 1 9 78 ) H ad r ian ' s W a l l . B r eeze D . a nd Maxf ie ld V . e d s . ( 1 989 ) S er v i c e i n t h e R oman A rmy b y R .W . D av ie s . E d inbu rgh . B r ink C .O . a nd Wa lbank F .W . ( 1954 )T he c on s tr u c t ion o f t h es i x th b ook o fP o lyb iu s . C la s s ica lQ uar t e r l y V o l . IV n o .3 /4 , 9 7 122 . B r i sco e J .( 1 981 ) Ac ommen tar y o nL iv y , B ook s 1 00 ( 1V t o ) ( XXV I I . O xf o rd . B rough ton T .R .S . ( 1951) T he Mag i s t ra t e s o ft h e R oman R epub l ic . N ew Y o rk . B rough ton T .R .S . ( 1959 )T he R oman iza t ion o fS p a in : T he p rob lem a nd t h e E v iden ce . P roceed ing s o f t h e Ame r ican P h i lo soph ica l S oc ie ty V o l . 1 03 , N o .5 , 6 45 -651 . B rown F .E . ( 1 980 ) C o sa : t h e m ak ing o f aR oman t own . A nn A rbo r . B run t P .A . ( 1 971) I t a l ian Manpow e r 2 25B .C .- A .D .I4 . L ondon . B u rne t t A .M . ( 1982 ) T he c ur r en cy o f I t a ly f r om t h e H ann iba l ic Wa r t ot h e r e ign o fA ugu s tu s . A .I .I .N . N o . 2 0 . B u rne t tA .M . a nd C r awf o rd M .H . e d s . ( 1987 )T he c o in age o f t h e R oman w o r ld i n t h e l a t e R epub l ic . B .A .R . I n te rna t iona l S er ie s 3 26 . C a r r ing ton P . ( 1 985 ) T he P lan o ft h e L eg iona ry F o r t r e s s a tC he s t e r : Ar e con s ide ra t ion . C he s t er A rchaeo log ica l J ourna l V o l .68 , 2 3 -43 . C han t ra in e H . e t a l . ( 1984 ) D a s r öm i sche N eu s s S t u t tga r t . C he e s eman G .L .( 19 14 ) T he A u x i l ia o ft h eR oman I mpe r ia l A rmy . O xf o rd . C onno l ly P . ( 1 98 1 r e p r in t ed 1 988 ) G r ee ce a nd R ome a t W ar . L ondon . C onno l ly P . ( 1 989 ) T he R oman A rmy i n t h e a g e o f P o lyb iu s . I nH a cke t t G en . S i rJ .e d . 1 989 , 1 49 168 . C o r t e F . d e l la ( 1949 ) C a tone C en sore L a V i ta e l a F o r tuna . T u r in . C raw fo rd M .H . ( 1 969 ) R oman R epub l ican C o in H oa rd s . L ondon . C raw fo rd M .H . ( 1974 ) R oman R epub l ican c o inage . C amb r idge . C raw fo rd M .H . ( 1978 ) T he R oman R epub l ic . G la sgow . C rummy P .( 1 984 ) E xcava t ions a tL ion ' s W a l k , B a l ke rne L ane a nd M idd leborough , C o lche s te r , E s sex .

R EFERENCES V o l .11 , 5 1 -60 . F u l le r J . F .C . ( 1965 ) J u l iu s C ae sar . N ew Y o rk . G abba E . ( 1976 ) R epub l ican R ome , T he a rmy a nd t h e a l l ie s . O xfo rd . G ame r G . u nd y F r fa s T .O . ( 1969 ) N eue B eoba ch tungen a m r öm is chen L age r b e i A lma zän ( P rov . S o r ia ) . Mad r ide r M i t te i lungen V° Li° , 1 72 184 . G a r c ia y B e l l ido A . ( 1976 ) E l E j e r c i to R omano e n H ispan ia . A r ch ivo E spano ld eA rqv eo log ia V o l .49 . N o .133 134 , 5 9 10 1 . G en t ry A .P . ( 1976 ) R oman M i l i ta ry S t one -bu i l t G r ana r ie s i nB r i ta in . B .A .R . B r i t i sh S e r ie s . 3 2 . G if f en A .E .van ( 1 950 ) I n heem se i n R ome in se t e rpen : o pg rav ingen i n d e D orp sw ie rde t e E z inge e n d e R ome in se t e rpen v an U t r e ch t , V a lk enbe rg Z .H . , e n V e ch t en . 2 9 -32 J aar v e r s lag V e r T e rpenonder zoe k , 1 944 -1948 . G la sbe rgen W . ( 1 972 )D eR ome in se C a s t e l la t eV a lkenburg Z .H . d e O pgrav ingen i n d e D orp sheuv e l i n 1 962 . U n ive r s i taa t v an Am s te rdam , I n s t i tuu t v oo r P r a e - e n P ro toh i s tor ie , C ingu la 1 . Goguey R . ( 1968) De l 'aviation a l ' ar cheo log ie . . .Re che r che s s ur l e s t e chn ique s e t l e s m e thode s d e l ' ar cheo log ie a e r ienne A l é s ia , V i x e t q ue lque s s i t e s a r cheo log ique s e n B ourgogne . P a r i s . G ren ie r A . ( 1960 ) Manue l d 'Ar cheo log ie g a l lo -roma ine , I V , L e s Monumen t s d e s E aux . P ar is . G r i l lone A . e d . ( 1 977 )H yg inu s :D e Me ta t ione C a s t rorum . L e ipz ig . G u i l len J .( 1980 ) V RBS ROMA V i da y C u s tumbr e s d e l o s R omano s . V o l . I R e l ig ion yE j e r c i to . S a laman ca . H a ck e t t G en S i r J . e d . ( 1989 ) W a tf ar e i n t h e A nc ien t W or ld . L ondon . H an son W .S . ( 1 978 ) T he O rgan i sa t ion o fR oman M i l i ta ry T imbe r supp ly . B r i tann ia V o l .9 , 2 93 -307 . H an son W .S . ( 1980a ) T he F i r s t R oman O ccupa t ion o f S co t land . B .A .R . I n t e rn a t ion a l S er ie s 7 1 ( i ) , 1 5 -43 . H an son W .S . ( 1 980b ) R oman F ron t ie r S t ud ie s 1 9 79 : P ape r sp r e s en t ed t ot h e 1 2 th . I n t erna t iona l C ong r e s so f R oman F ron t ie r S t ud ie s . B .A .R . I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s 7 1 ( i i i i ) . H annand J .( 1967 ) L 'A rmee e tl eS o lda t aR ome d e 1 07 ä5 0a van t N o t r e e r e . P a r is . H a r r is W .V . ( 1 979 ) W ar a nd I mpe r ia l i sm i nR epub l ican R ome 3 27 -70 B .C . O xf o rd . H awke sC .F .C . ( 1 929 ) Ar e v iew o fS chu l ten A . 1 9 27 a nd 1 929 i nJ .R .S . V o l .19 , 9 9 10 1 . H ende r son C .G . e d . ( 1 984 ) T he p l an o f t h e R oman L eg iona ry F o r t r e s s . I nA rchaeo logy i nE xe te r 1 983 /4 . R epo r t o f t h e E xe t e r Mu seum s A r chaeo log ica l F i e ld U n i t , 1 8 -2 1 . H ende r son C .G . ( 1988 ) E xe t e r ( I sm D umnon iorum ) . I n Web s te r G . e d . 1 988 , 9 1 119 . H i ldeb rand t H .J . ( 1 979 ) D ie R öme r lage r v on N uman t ia . D a t ie rung a nhand d e r Münz f unde . Mad r id e r M i t te i lungen V o l .20 , 2 38 -27 1 . H y land A . ( 1 990 ) &pu s . T he h o r se i na t e R oman w or ld . L ondon . J ohn son A . ( 1 983 ) R oman F or t s o f t h e 1 s t . a nd 2 nd . c e n tur ie s AD . i nB r i ta in a nd t h e G e rman P rov ince s .

C rummy P . ( 1 988 ) C o lche s t e r ( Camu lodunum /Co lon ia V i c t r ic ien s i s ) . I n Web s te r G . e d . 1 980 ,24 -27 . C u r ch in L .A . ( 1 990 ) L iv ing c ond i t ion s o ft h e R oman S o ld ie r i nS pa in . I n V e t t e r s H . a nd K and le r M . e d s . 1 990 , 2 95 -299 . C u r ch in L .A . ( 1 99 1) R oman S pa in : C onque s t a nd A s s im i l ia t ion . L ondon . D av ie s R .W . ( 1 969 ) T he s upp ly o fa n ima l s t ot h e R oman a rmy a nd t h e r emoun t s y s tem . L a tomu s 2 8 , R evue d ' e tude s L a t in e s , 4 29 -459 . D av ie sR .W . ( 1 989 )S erv ic e i nt h eR oman A r t t ly . I nB r eeze D . a nd Maxf i e ld V . e d s . 1 989 . D av ison D . ( 1 989 )T he b a r ra ck s o ft h e R oman a rmy f r om t h e 1 s t . t o3 r d . c en tu r ie s A .D . , ac omp a ra t ive s t udy o f t h e b a r r a ck s f r om f o r t r e s se s , f o r t s a nd f o r t le t s w i th a n a na lys is o fb u i ld ing t ype sa nd c on s t ruc t ion ,s t ab l ing a nd g a r r ison s . B .A .R . I n terna t iona l S e r ie s 4 72 . D eg ra s s i A . ( 1 947 ) F a s t i c on su lar e s e tt r iumpha le s I n l n scr ip t ione s l t a l iae V o l . 1 3 , f a sc .l . R om e . D e s sau H . e d . ( o r ig ina l p ub .1892 19 16 r e p r in t ed 1 955 ) I n scr ip t ione s L a t inae S e l ec tae V o l s . I I I I . B e r l in . D i lk e O .A .W . ( 1 971) T he R oman L and S urve yor s . A n i n t rodu c t ion t ot h e A gr imen so r e s . N ew ton A bbo t . D i lk e O .A .W . ( 1989 2 nd .ed i t ion ) M a thema t ic s a nd M ea sur em en t . L ondon . D ixon K .R . a nd S ou the rn P . ( 1992 ) T he R oman C ava lr y . F rom t h e f i r s t t ot h e t h ird c en tu ry AD . L ondon . D oma szew sk i A .von ( 1908 r e p r in t ed 1 967 2 nd . e d i t ion D ob son B . ) D ie R angordnung d e s r öm i schen H ee re s . C o logn e . D y son S .L . ( 1 985 ) T he C r ea t ion o ft h eR oman F ron t ier . P r in ce ton . F ab r ic iu s E . ( 1 911) Ü be r d i e A u sg rabungen i n N uman t ia .J .D .A .I . B and XXV I , A r ch . A n z . , 3 70 -382 . F ab r ic iu s E .( 1 932 ) S ome n o te s o n P o lyb iu s 's d e scr ip t ion o f R oman c amp s . J .R .S . V o l .XX I I P a r t I , 7 8 -87 . F e l lman R . ( 1 958 ) D ie P r inc ip ia d e s L eg ions lager s V i ndon i s sa u nd d a s Z en t ra lgebäud e d e r r öm i schen L ager u nd K a s t e l le . B rugg . F e rn ie E .C . ( 1 985 ) A ng lo -Saxon l e ng th s : T he ' Nor the rn ' s y s t em , t h ep e r ch a nd t h ef o o t .A r chaeo log ica lJ ourna l 1 42 , 2 46 -254 . F i l t z inge rP . , P l an ck D . a nd C ämme r e rB .e d s . ( 1 986 )D ie R öme r i nB ad en -W ür t t embe rg . S t u t tg a r t . F i nge r l in G . ( 1 972 ) D ang s te t t en , e i n a ugu s te ische s L eg ion s lage r a m H o ch rhe in . V o rb e r ich t ü be r d i e G r abung en 1 967 1969 .D e r . R öm -G e rm . K omm . 5 1-53 , 1 97 -232 . F i tz J .e d . ( 1 977 ) L ime s : A k t en d e s X II n t e rna t iona len L ime skongr e s se s . B udap e s t . F o r re rR .( 1 935 )L 'A l sace R oma ine :E tud e sd 'ar chaeo log ie e td 'h i s t o ir e . P a r is . F r a cca ro P . ( 1 934 ) P o l ib io e l ' a ccampamen to R omano . A thenaeum . Vo l .X 1 I , 1 54 16 1 . F r a cca ro P .( 1 956 ) L iv io eR oma . O pu scu la V o l .' . P av ia . F r ank T . ( 1 9 14 ) R oman I mper ia l i sm . N ew Y o rk . F r e r e S .S . a nd S t . J o seph J .K . ( 1974 )T he R oman F o r t re s s a tL ong tho rp e . B r i tann ia V o l .5 , 1 129 . F r e r e S .S . ( 1 980 ) H yg inu sa nd t h e F i r s tC oho r t . B r i tann ia

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ADDENDA TO THE B IBL IOGRAPHY F o r a l terna t ive H yg inu s :

t r an s la t ion s o f P o lyb iu s a nd

P seudo -

G i l l ive r C .M . ( 1993 ) T he d e mun i t ion ibu s c a s t rorum : T ex t a nd t r an s la t ion . J ourna l o f R oman M i l i tar y E qu ipmen t S t ud ie s V o l . 4 , 3 3 -48 . O xfo rd . M i l le r M .C .J . a nd D eVo to J .G . e d s . ( 1994 ) P o lyb iu s a nd P seudo -H yg inus : T he F or t if ica t ion o ft h eR oman C amp . C h icago .

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