Revenge in Attic and Later Tragedy [Reprint 2020 ed.] 9780520919952

Citation preview

T h e Joan Palevsky

Imprint in Classical Literature

In honor of beloved Virgil—

" O degli altri poeti onore e lume .

—Dante, Inferno

Revenge in Attic and Later Tragedy

SATHER CLASSICAL LECTURES Volume Sixty-Two

Revenge in Attic and Later Tragedy

Anne Pippin Burnett

U N I V E R S I T Y OF C A L I F O R N I A PRESS BERKELEY

•

LOS ANGELES

•

LONDON

The publisher gratefully acknowledges the contribution to this book provided by the Joan Palevsky Endowment in Classical Literature. This book is a print-on-demand volume. It is manufactured using toner in place of ink. Type and images may be less sharp than the same material seen in traditionally printed University of California Press editions. University of California Press Berkeley and Los Angeles, California University of California Press, Ltd. London, England © 1998 by The Regents of the University of California

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Burnett, Anne Pippin, 1 9 2 5 Revenge in Attic and later tragedy / Anne Pippin Burnett. p. cm. — (Sather classical lectures ; v. 62) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-520-21096-7 (cloth) l. Greek drama (Tragedy)—History and criticism. 2. Revenge in literature. I. Title. II. Series. PA3136.B79 1997 882'.oiog—dc2i 97-22677

Printed in the United States of America The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of ANSI/NISO Z 3 9 . 4 8 - 1 9 9 2 (R 1 9 9 7 ) (Permanence of Paper).

for Ralph and for Michael

"You will see the characters of the true story clearly, as if luminous and on a higher plane, and at the same time they may not look quite human, and you may well be a little afraid of them. ..." "0 God," said the lady. "What you call the divine art seems to me a hard and cruel game, which maltreats and mocks its human beings." ISAK D I N E S E N ,

" T H E C A R D I N A L ' S F I R S T T A L E , " LAST

TALES

On this visit di Grasso played King Lear, Othello, Civil Death, Turgenev's The Parasite, confirming with every gesture that there is more justice in outbursts of noble passion than in all the joyless rules that run the world. ISAAK BABEL, "DI G R A S S O , "

TALES

OF

ODESSA

Contents

N O T E ON A B B R E V I A T I O N S PREFACE

/

/

xi

xiii

l. Huge Frenzy and Quaint Malice: Seneca and the English Renaissance 2. Odysseus, Pindar's Heracles, and the Tyrannicides

/

3. Festival Vengeance: Euripides' Cyclops and Sophocles' Ajax 4. Ritualized Revenge: Aeschylus' Choephori / 5. Delphic Matricide: Sophocles' Electra /

/

53 /

65

99 119

6. Women Doing Men's Work: Euripides' Children of Heracles and Hecuba / 7. Child-Killing Mothers: Sophocles' Tereus / 8. Connubial Revenge: Euripides' Medea /

777 192

9. The Women's Quarters: Euripides' Electra /

225

10. Philanthropic Revenge: Euripides' Orestes /

247

APPENDIX:

MEDEA'S MONOLOGUE

/

273

INDEX OF CLASSICAL AUTHORS AND TITLES AND BIBLICAL CITATIONS GENERAL INDEX

/ /

2 89 293

i

142

Note on Abbreviations

Names of authors and titles of works are abbreviated in accordance with the list in The Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3d ed. (1996), pp. xxix-liv.

xi

Preface

Men and women of our century tend to endow the people of ancient Athens with moral concerns almost identical with our own, imposing qualities we like best in ourselves upon Greeks unable to resist. Athenians must have repudiated private violence, 1 we say, must have valued trust and warm pity and close candid relationships, for to think otherwise would be to suppose the people of Athens inferior to ourselves. From which it follows that the tragedians must have worked to enhance these attitudes, and so Greek drama, for all its apparent exoticism, is read as if it were trying to be like ours, a staged presentation of social or moral problems in a mode of instructive realism. Because it was a state theater, the Attic stage is supposed to have offered lessons in the peaceable virtues that the city required, 2 and should a given action seem to praise violence or vindictiveness, we are urged to 1. R. Girard has made "violence" a catchword and has propagated the idea that Greeks, horrified by their own violent tendencies (and especially those leading to vengeance), used sacrifice as a kind of sublimation; see, among other works, La violence et le sacré (Paris, 1972), pp. 29-32; Des choses cachées (Paris, 1978), p. 20. For criticism of Girard's position, see R. Verdier in La vengeance, ed. R. Verdier, vol. 1 (Paris, 1981), p. 14: "il y aurait lieu bien plutôt de se demander si cette conception de la vengeance sans fin et destructrice, loin de se rapporter à la 'fondation du monde,' ne procède pas d'une vision moderne postérieure à l'instauration de l'Etat, qui en fait une 'affaire privée' quand il s'arroge le monopole de la contrainte et de la sanction. Au plan théorique, Girard nous reporte un siècle en arrière." Criticism from another standpoint comes from Sarah Pierce, "Death, Revelry and Thysia," CI. Ant. 12 (1993) 219-66. 2. See, e.g., J. Winkler, "The Ephebes' Song," in Nothing to Do with Dionysus? ed.]. Winkler and F. Zeitlin (Princeton, 1990), pp. 20-62, who speaks of "elaborate symbolic play on themes of proper and improper civic behavior" and "lessons about the trials of manhood" (pp. 20-21). The absurdity of the notion that tragedy is didactic is exploited in the debate at Ar. Ran. 1004 ff.: the Seven makes a man eager to fight; the Stheneboea rouses illicit passions in virtuous women; ragged characters teach rich men how to avoid liturgies, etc. xiii

xiv

PREFACE

discover "irony" or, in the most stubborn cases, a work that is unsuccessful, youthful, or enslaved to a primitive tradition. Meanwhile the plays that survive from ancient Athens steadily resist such moral colonialism. They remain categorically unlike what has been seen in the Western theater for the past five hundred years because their action occurs in a legendary Time/Place distinct both from reality and from the ethics of ordinary life. What is staged are moments in which the discrete realms of gods and men come into contact, then once more separate with their mutual exclusions a little more carefully defined. Outsized and essentially impossible deeds are performed by generalized figures, and human individuality is expressed only as characters at once magnificent and helpless resist or fit themselves into a pattern determined by dominant nonhuman powers. And whether there is conflict or collaboration, the events depicted in these mythic dramas are by definition distorted and extreme because the infinite supernatural cannot break into a finite creation without disturbing whatever order the world has to show. Which means that this theater is in essence a theater of timeless, nonpsychological, extra-moral violence. The Attic theater, moreover, developed in the ambience of a violent god; its aim was to produce an effect something like that of a Dionysiac epiphany, while its irreducible material was not civic virtue but its opposite, excess and disruption. We who live among tired and demystified political institutions are afraid that individual violence may outrun the restraining violence of the community. Those who gathered into the early Greek cities, however, seem to have felt an opposite fear—that the new and vigorous social units might sap or even suppress those anarchic individual forces that meant survival, freedom, and fertility. That is why, even in the sixth and fifth centuries B.C., fossilized bits of hunter's ritual were preserved in urban cults, and that is why in hundreds of regular celebrations, great and small, emblems of wild nature were carried through the city streets of Greece. In particular, that is why the Athenians, after the establishment of the Greater Dionysia, went every year to the theater to watch costumed figures who (with mixed success) attacked or resisted replicas of the orderly structures and institutions that each citizen valued. 3 This was not a lesson; the theater did not lead the Attic audience, either toward subversion or toward obedience. It did, however, send more vital men back into a more vital city because all had, in unison, vicariously exercised the fullest stretch of isolated human force. 4 3. Myth, ritual, and festival all allow a man participation in the impossible and the proscribed. It does not matter to this participation whether the Active outcome is success or failure; the essential is simply that the act be put in motion. See R. Caillois, Le mythe et I'homme (Paris, 1 9 3 8 ; reprint, 1 9 8 1 ) , pp. 2 2 - 3 4 . 4. A Marxist would say that this theater enforced statist ideology by containing and dispelling what might challenge the city's power, so as to create acquiescence in oppression and

PREFACE

Order, luxury, and culture might be expected to make men submissive, cowardly, and soft (as Pericles suggested in the Funeral Speech), but Athenians maintained their strength because in their city symbolic transgressions, wrought by spectacular figures, annually charged the air with a passionate and healthy extremity of violent action.5 Ancient tragedy is thus fundamentally resistant to the imposition of contemporary social ethics or notions of psychology, and this is particularly true of the revenge plays, for their central action—the private deed of violent retaliation—is almost universally condemned by modern moralists and social scientists. As a rule, at the end of an Attic vengeance play a principal whom we would call a criminal has triumphed over a victim whom he or she has attacked by trickery and who is now, if not dead, at least maimed or grotesquely disempowered. The critic in search of modern "goodness" and moral didacticism finds this dramatic achievement radically distasteful and goes to work to show that, though it is represented as success, the central action is somehow dispraised by the poet who staged it.6 In 1880 Sir Richard Jebb asked himself whether Sophocles intended, in his Electra, to "condemn or condone" the murders depicted, and though he was convinced that the dramatist thought much as he himself did, he was hardheaded enough to admit that there was no sign in the play of any condemnation. He therefore somewhat sadly concluded that the drama must have been an experimental return to a more archaic value system which was certainly not the poet's own. Recent scholarship, however, has not been able to allow even this much otherness to a Sophocles so commonly thought of as wise and gentle (like ourselves). Efforts have been made to unearth buried hints of punishment for the avenger, to find depraved neurosis in his sister,7 and to reverse what the stage shows as a heroic deed into a shameful action.

exploitation; see P. W. Rose, "The Case for Not Ignoring Marx," in Feminist Theory and the Classics, ed. N. Rabinowitz and A. Richlin (New York, 1993), pp. 2 1 1 - 3 7 . Such theories, however, overlook the extreme youth of the Athenian city-state, overestimate the intentionality of its "dominant group," and fail to notice how often tragedy reaffirms antistatist or extrastatist structures like hero cult, supplication, and sanctuary. 5. In Praise of Folly, Erasmus said of carnival that it revitalized fundamental impulses of love and belief by momentarily dissolving the authoritative claims of temporal institutions such as Church and State; see M. D. Bristol, Carnival and Theater: Plebeian Culture and the Structure of Authority in Renaissance England (New York and London, 1985), p. 1 3 3 . 6. So, when the chorus offers a rationale for vengeance at Eur. Bacch. 8 7 7 - 8 1 , E. R. Dodds reported (ad loc.) that they are "uneasy" in thus taking a position "against their natural feelings" and added, "It is certainly not the poet's own position." 7. For example, S. Said, locating "une attitude moderne" in Sophocles and making reference to Girard, describes an Electra debased by her own violence: "La tragédie de la vengeance," in La vengeance, ed. R. Verdier, vol. 4, La vengeance dans la pensée occidentale (Paris, 1 9 8 1 ) , pp. 47-90.

xvi

PREFACE

T h e play itself, however, remains an obdurate whole, the imitation of a goddriven, considered, and successful killing that refuses to repudiate even an act of matricide. Apollo has asked a man to do more than any mortal can, to break society's most fundamental law, and the man has done it with no concern for what we want to call "goodness." In dealing with such plays, critics of our own time tend to ask, l i k e j e b b , how a certain poet has treated the "problem of revenge," 8 but among early Greeks revenge was not a problem but a solution. It was a form of necessary repayment, the opposite twin to the gracious return of favors that was called charts,9 Repayment, moreover, was an outward expression of the regularity (dike) that supported both society and the cosmos. 1 0 A man offered pleasure or advantage to a fellow and so made a friend from whom would come the eventual return of a similar b o o n 1 1 — n o t merely gratitude but gratitude's objective expression. 1 2 A n d in the same way an initial offer of injury created an enemy from whom could be expected an unlovely return, not merely anger but an externalized work of enmity. 1 3 Making that return, the injured party could be said to repay the harm done him, or he might be described as collecting a reparation that was owed. 1 4 Either way, the nonmythic model was a money transaction and the general governing principle was equivalence, whether of benefit or harm. A n d the negative exchange of evil for evil, like the exchange of coin, was a m o d e of behavior recognized, regulated, and sometimes implemented, by an orderly city. Private vengeance had once been the only form of justice, or so Greeks of the fifth

8. E.g., H. D. F. Kitto, Greek Tragedy (London, ig66), p. 330. 9. As Mentor/Athena makes clear by promising a single act (ôototiveiv) that will serve as a repayment both of Odysseus for benefactions enjoyed and of enemies for evils suffered (Od. 22.235). 10. Reciprocity was themis, the initial rule fixed by Dike; see D. Saintillan, "Le discours tragique sur la vengeance," in Anthropologie et théâtre antique: Actes. . . Montpellier, Cahiers GITA, 3 (Montpellier, 1987), pp. 1 7 9 - 9 6 , where it is argued that the reversibility of charis and vengeance is the essential Dionysiac truth. 11. See G. Herman, Ritualised Friendship and the Greek City (Cambridge, 1987), p. 41. 12. Moderns tend to think that a benefaction that expects return is somehow corrupt or at least opportunistic; Jesus tells the man who would be good to call others to his table but not to invite equals because they might repay him. In the same way we at least pretend to think that injuries are best left unrepaid: "Turn the other cheek." These attitudes are directly contrary to those of fifth-century Athens. 13. "La vengeance est un dû que l'un des partenaires est tenu d'acquitter, l'autre d'exiger" (Verdier, La vengeance 1:17). 14. T h e active voice of the verb Tivw can be used of the injured party's repayment of evil for evil (as at Soph. Phil. 959), though it more often indicates the original offender's payment of a punishment, a poine or dike. T h e middle voice is more commonly used for the revenger's act of extracting repayment from an enemy for a misdeed. Another favorite verb for the act of taking vengeance is à|Tûvco (in the middle voice), where the essential meaning is to fight off, or get rid of, something: the avenger puts the original injury/dishonor away from himself.

PREFACE

xvii

century believed, and revenge still supplied the pattern for punishments now given out by the state. Meanwhile myths and tales continued to treat this action in its most extreme form, that of blood vengeance, and to recount repayments of exaggerated cruelty, because men wanted to believe that one law at any rate would always prevail: gratuitous outrage would ever be returned in kind, and generously. 15 Revenge was thus not a problem for Athenian society in the early fifth century, but for precisely that reason it was an action full of difficulties for a dramatist. Stories of achieved retaliation showed that injury and scorn were not without their cures and that men could create a balance among themselves. Their tendency was consoling and also powerfully secular, for the act of repayment was in itself of no interest to the gods: it did not bring its agent to the edge of the fearsome abyss separating men from the divine. Nor did such tales provide serious tension on the secular level; in an act of simple revenge the impulse of raw passion coincided with that of self-definition, so that the avenger could act with his whole being, untroubled by inner conflict. What was worse, a plot of active mortal retaliation was a fictional antidote to the fear induced by examples of divine force in application. When he treated a successful revenge, a dramatic poet might arouse incidental fears along the way, since an avenger ordinarily struck from a position of weakness; but the finished deed was an assertion of mortal self-rule and ingenuity, especially when it was brought about by trickery, 16 and so the emotions stirred up were those proper to what we call comedy. 17 Revenge was not suited to the purposes of Attic tragedy (though it made good satyr-drama), and yet its characteristic passion—anger—cried out for poet and actor, while its plots and deceptions and disguises invited a kind of metatheater. The Attic dramatists could not resist, and as they 15. Dumas puts the following reflections into the mouth of his Count of Monte Cristo, come to the end of his adventures: "L'humanité malheureuse se soulage, depuis des millénaires par quelques mythes réparateurs. Les plus populaires des personnages mythiques sont l'Enchanteur et le Justicier. Humiliés et offensés attendent avec une espérance que nul échec ne peut affaiblir, tantôt le dieu, tantôt le héros qui viendra redresser les torts, écraser les méchants et mettre enfin les bons à sa droite. Ce justicier fût longtemps l'homme fort au sens physique du mot: Hercule." 16. The inscription on one of Hipparchus' herms was reported as, "Trick not your friend," a rule that supposes the propriety of tricking an enemy ([Pl.] Hipparch. 228c-22gb). Such trickery could be extremely ugly, as was that of Odysseus when he planted a forged letter in the tent of Palamedes, thus causing him to be stoned to death; see F. Stoessl, "Die Palamedes Tragödien der drei grossen Tragiker," Wien. Stud. 79 (1966) 9 3 - 1 0 1 . 17. In Aristotelian terms there was no overturn in such an action since the avenger did not experience a change of fortune but instead wrought for himself a recovery of whatever his condition had been before he suffered injury. However, if the principal is shown as escaping from the alienation of his temporary dishonor, there will be in effect a positive overturn from bad fortune into good; see A. P. Burnett, "Medea and the Tragedy of Revenge," CPhil. 68 (1973) 1-24.

xviii

PREFACE

applied a tragic sensibility to this essentially reassuring and secular fiction, they contrived certain disruptive dodges that have persisted through the intervening centuries of Western drama. Revenges that failed or were interrupted made their appearance, as did ghosts, c o m m a n d i n g divinities, skewed ceremonies, and female agents who took the place of males. In addition, motifs such as kin-killing, madness, incest, cannibalism, and dismemberment were attached to the justice-bringing tale by way of disorderly decoration. These have made the theater of revenge what it is, but this very continuity of superficial generic characteristics has masked an ethical and moral breach between the Attic revenge plays and those more familiar to moderns. In later contexts, Stoic or Christian, these baroque structures and distorted embellishments served to label all revenge as unnatural and morally perverse. In Athens, on the other hand, they had a precisely opposite function, for there they brought the necessary taste of Dionysiac dissolution and terror to a fictional action that was ordinarily considered just and admirable. O r so I shall argue in the chapters that follow, where for reasons of economy the discussion is limited to tragedies in which a principal character performs a deed of vengeance that constitutes his play's major action.

I want to thank the members of the Classics Department of the University of California, Berkeley, for their invitation to join them as Sather Professor in the spring of 1994. And I should also like to thank Canadian writer Bruce Barber, who was companion and guide in explorations of revenge on film. Anne Pippin Burnett February 1997

CHAPTER ONE

Huge Frenzy and Quaint Malice Seneca and the English

Renaissance

i E v e r y o n e k n o w s s o m e t h i n g a b o u t r e v e n g e . 1 T h e a n g r y i m p u l s e to " r e b i t e h i m o f w h o m t h e h e a r t is b i t t e n " 2 is m o r e u n i v e r s a l p e r h a p s t h a n a g g r e s s i o n itself, w h i c h is w h y S h y l o c k c a n b o a s t o f it as a m a r k o f h u m a n i t y : " H a t h n o t a J e w e y e s ? . . . if y o u p r i c k us, d o w e n o t b l e e d ? . . . if y o u w r o n g us shall w e n o t r e v e n g e ? " ( M e r c h a n t of Venice

3 . 1 ) . T h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f this i m p u l s e

b r i n g s its p r a c t i t i o n e r a d e e p p l e a s u r e that S e n e c a ' s M e d e a calls voluptas

(cf.

De Ira 2 . 3 2 . 1 ) , a n d C o l e t t e s p e a k s o f " l a t e n t a t i o n la p l u s p o i g n a n t e , la p l u s suave, la p l u s p a r é e d e tous les a t t r a i t s — c e l l e d e se v e n g e r " {La vagabonde)

?

T h e a n g e r itself is s w e e t : " A g r é a b l e c o l è r e ! D i g n e r e s s e n t i m e n t , à m a d o u l e u r b i e n d o u x ! " is h o w D o n D i e g u e salutes t h e rise o f his o w n p a s s i o n

1. In 1 7 7 3 Samuel J o h n s o n wrote, "Revenge is an act of passion; vengeance is justice," but h e n o t e d that the distinction was n o t always observed, n o r is it here. In what follows, b o t h terms will be used for a passionate act that returns injury for gratuitous injury, p e r f o r m e d by a private individual with what h e believes to be justice. 2. P. La Primaudaye, The French Academie, Second Part, trans. T. Bowes ( L o n d o n , 1614), P- 3253. T h e joy of revenge is a c o m m o n p l a c e . Amphitryon, going to have a look at the body of Lycus, says, "The e n e m y w h o dies paying f o r his c r i m e s is a p l e a s u r e to see" (Eur. HF 7 3 2 - 3 3 ) . Congreve gives neat expression to the same n o t i o n in the libretto for H a n d e l ' s Semele when, in act 3, J u n o sings, "Above measure / is the pleasure which my revenge supplies." As Walter Scott's Ulrica leapt f r o m the flames of Torquilstone, "the inebriating delight of gratified vengeance c o n t e n d e d in h e r eyes with the fire of insanity" (Ivanhoe, chap. 32). For t h e King, in Isak Dinesen's "The Fish" (Winter's Tales), the delight of vengeance stands with that of hunting, dancing, tournaments, friends, a n d w o m e n . But c o m p a r e the revisionist version of Charlotte B r o n t ë : " S o m e t h i n g of v e n g e a n c e I h a d tasted f o r t h e first time; as a r o m a t i c wine it seemed o n swallowing, warm a n d racy; its after flavor, metallic a n d corroding, gave m e a sensation as if I h a d b e e n p o i s o n e d " (Jane Eyre 1.4). 1

R E V E N G E IN A T T I C A N D L A T E R T R A G E D Y

in Corneille's Le Cid (1.6.262-64). Inversely, its frustration leaves a person incomplete, as if he were maimed, and so a whole lifetime may be given over to the recovery of self in a vengeful consummation that will finally, as Shakespeare's Titus says, "ease the gnawing vulture of thy mind" (Titus Andronicus 5.2.30-33). O n e who cannot eventually return evil for evil feels that he has become a slave (Arist. Eth. Nic. 1 1 3 3 a ) , and if he is proud he may run mad. 4 In the pages that follow, this universal impulse will be considered only as it supplies the central action to certain Western tragedies, and consequently the terms "vengeance" and "revenge" will be used with a restricted sense. By Aristotle's definition, revenge is a self-engaged and retrospective action taken privately against an equal who has injured one's honor. Its purpose is not to get rid of someone who is in the way, or to harm someone who succeeds where the avenger has failed, for it is not a mode of advancement or even of selfrdefense. Its intention is rather to restore the broken outline of self suffered in an unprovoked attack from a m e m b e r of one's own class or group. 5 It occurs in cases where an instantaneous and open return of blow for blow is impossible, 6 so that a debt of hatred remains to be coverdy repaid to him w h o has unfairly injured y o u or s o m e o n e close to you. Such vengeance is the correction of an imbalance rooted in the past, a calculated harm returned for an intentional, shameful injury or insult gratuitously given by an unrepentant equal. 7 This return is wrought in time, by the disciplined will of an angered individual, and according to its own rules it is g o o d when it is appropriate and timely. 8 It will end as sharply as it began,

4. Like the Messenian Olympic victor Polychares whose son was murdered by his Spartan friend; unable to take vengeance, he began to kill every Spartan that he met (Paus. 4.4.4-8). 5. Response to attack from outside one's group becomes vendetta or war. Injury from an inferior is answered with punishment; from a superior, with assassination, revolt, or curse; see O. Murray, "Solonian Law of Hybris," in Nomos: Essays in Athenian Law and Society, ed. P. Cartledge, P. Millett, and S. Todd (Cambridge, 1990), pp. 139-45. 6. Battle retaliation, being an immediate and public response to publicly organized injury, is an action of another sort entirely, though there are points of contact: cf., e.g., II. 14.482-85, where Acamas, whose brother Ajax has killed, goes out to kill Ajax's companion. The aristocratic duel was an alternative to, not a version of, revenge. 7. See the long discussion on the use and misuse of anger (defined as a desire for vengeance) at Arist. Rh. 1378330-13808. The initial provocation is understood as an act of contempt, oArytOpia or ÌSPpiq, which publicly blocks a legitimate impulse or action. An answering revenge will be admirable if it is appropriate and timely (Eth. Nic. 1125030) because retaliation, Ti|i(opia, puts an end to anger, replacing pain with pleasure ( i i 2 6 a 2 o ) ; an angry response to injury is often considered a sign of courage and leadership (1 i 2 6 b i ; cf. 1108a, i n 6 b 2 5 ) . If, however, ignorance, accident, or anger has entered into the initial slight, the agent of that slight is not an unjust man; only when the provocation comes as a cool, insulting choice, while the response is dictated by anger, is retaliation just (Eth. Nic. 1135b25~i 136a). See G. Courtois, "Le sens et la valeur de la vengeance chez Aristote et Sénèque," in La vengeance, ed. R. Verdier, vol. 4, La vengeance dans la pensée occidentale (Paris, 1981 ), pp. 91 ff.

HUGE FRENZY AND QUAINT

MALICE

once the debt is paid in full, but it will be ideally complete only when its victim knows by whom and for what he is injured (Arist. Rh. 138ob22). At that point the avenger's joy will be equal to that which the enemy felt in performing his initial outrage (Rh. 1378b; cf. i 3 7 o b g - i 2 ) , and this satisfactory emotion will be at its highest if he can watch his enemy suffer (Rh. 138239). "Je ne me vange pas, si j e n'en voy l'effet," says the Medee of Corneille, calling the sight "un si doux spectacle" (Medee4.5.1288-89). The present discussion, then, concerns staged representations of this controlled, delayed, individual, honor-imposed, and finally restorative repayment— actions dictated not by petty malice or by a desire to thrust oneself into an advantageous position, but rather by what Stendhal called "la passion italienne . . . la passion qui cherche a se satisfaire" (La Duchesse de Palliano). In its ideal, balancing form, revenge is a disciplined activity that stretches human capacities to their fullest. Stuffed though he is with anger, the revenger is forced not just to scheme but to think; indeed, he faces an intellectual task that is essentially impossible, since he must equate one man's experience with that of another. 9 His is an act that mixes memory with representation because for the most part he cannot return a suffering that is exactly like his own and must be satisfied with something proportionate and similar (cf. Arist. Eth,. Nic. 1133b, on punishment). Primitive justice assumed that one could take an eye for an eye, but such precision is generally not possible: the man who raped one's sister may not have a sister to be raped in return. A substitute action has to be devised, perhaps one that reconstitutes the original offense only symbolically, 10 and so the avenger necessarily becomes an artist who both imitates and invents. Inherent in this definition of revenge are characteristics that are already strongly theatrical. Thus when she tells herself, "II faut faire un chef-d'oeuvre," Corneille's Medee (Medee 1.4.249) reminds us that every revenge is an imitation of action with action, and consequently very much like the staging of a play. 1 'The avenger needs an audience, if his self-reinstatement is to be complete, and he himself becomes author and director of an improvised

8. So Plutarch praises the revenge killing of Callipus because it was accomplished with the weapon used in the initial murder that was avenged (Mar. 553D). 9. Cf. the discussion at Arist. Eth. Nic. 1132(321, where the difference between reciprocity and justice is assessed. 10. There is a special category of revenges that are entirely symbolic; for example, when an enemy of the dead athlete Theagenes took to attacking his statue at night, the statue fell upon him and crushed him, after which the dead man's kinsmen threw the statue into the sea, plague came upon Rhodes, and Delphi directed that the statue be fished up and made the focus of a hero cult (Paus. 6.11; Dio Chrys. Or 31; Euseb. Praep. Evang. 5.34). 11. T h e congruence of revenge with drama is a commonplace in Jacobean plays; so, for example, Chettle's Hoffman, speaking of the author of the crime that enrages him, says, "He

R E V E N G E IN A T T I C A N D L A T E R T R A G E D Y

episode in which he plays the chief role. 12 In particular, because he has to approach an enemy who is, or should be, on guard against him, the avenger must use deception and in particular must wear some form of disguise. 13 He may literally dress up, like the heroine of Wilkie Collins' No Name, who never stops pulling costumes on and off, or he may simply put on false attitudes or emotions, like Euripides' Medea when she does her devastating "take" on the Submissive Little Woman. All of which means that the avenger, like anyone who belongs to the theater, operates on the verge of madness. 14 It is all too easy for him to be taken in by his own illusions, to think that his creative powers have no limits, and to suppose that his revenge plot has been shaped by fate. He will be tempted to create excessive effects, but in the end his "piece" will succeed only if he maintains an exact and accurate memory of the injury done, and a conscious limitation of purpose. The true avenger is to replicate the act of another and by so doing restore his own state to what he once knew as normalcy. If he goes beyond this in doing harm, he is a villain, not a man of vengeance. In the course of his "plot" the avenger will seize a random moment and transform it into a controlled performance, as if he were a creator of street theater. He thus stands in a peculiarly active relation to accident and time as, like a Pindaric athlete, he toys with kairos (cf. Soph. El. 22, 75-76) and waits for the signal instant when he can take opportunity as his accomplice—"that bald Madame, Opportunity," in the cynical Jacobean phrase (Tourneur, Revenger's Tragedy 1.1.55). When he has seized this moment, however, he parts from the dedicated athlete, because the man of revenge means to challenge a basic rule of the cosmos. Neither mortal nor immor-

was the prologue to a Tragedy / That if my destinies deny me not / Shall passe those of Thyestes, Tereus, / Jocasta, or Duke Jason's jealous wife" (Hoffman 1.3.18-21). Compare Soph. El. 1333, where the Tutor refers to the "performance" they are about to give in the palace as t a 8p kLfchxaxq," A f t W 15 ( i g i 2 ) 642; the inscribing of doors with invitations to Heracles to enter, as at Thasos (BCH 86 [1962], 608-g). For an early poetic version of such a ritual, see Thgn. 3 5 1 - 5 4 , where Penury is ordered out of the singer's door and into someone else's house. In general, see W. Burkert, Structure and History in Greek Myth and Ritual (Berkeley, 1979), pp. 64-67; J. N. Bremmer, "Scapegoat Rituals," Harv. Stud. 87 (1983) 299-320. 12. For Odysseus' present baldness, note 13.430-37, 18.355, a n d for the baldness of the satyrs, Aesch. Dictyoulkoi 474 Supp. Aesch., where the sense is probably obscene; cf. Soph. fr. 171 TrGF= 173a TGF.

58

R E V E N G E IN A T T I C A N D L A T E R T R A G E D Y

T h e bored suitors encourage the performance with jovial delight, and the poet takes the opportunity to show how blind they are and how foolish. W h e n Telemachus announces that he will be the enemy of any man who strikes the "new beggar" ( 1 8 . 6 1 - 6 5 ) , he uses conscious irony, 1 3 but Antinoos is made to propose, without knowing what he says, that the winner shall have a permanent and exclusive place in the house (18.48-49). T h e n the suitors, with a broader effect, curse themselves by praying that Zeus will grant the victor "all that his heart desires" ( 1 8 . 1 1 1 - 1 2 ) , and Odysseus marks the d o u b l e sense of these words by hailing them as an o m e n ( 1 8 . 1 1 7 ) . Finally, when he, the upstart, fells the resident glutton with his first punch, the malicious poet reports almost with a wink that the suitors all "die laughing" (Y£A,CP £K6OCVOV, 100). They continue to hoot when Iros is d r a g g e d out and set u p in the courtyard as the deposed B e g g a r King ( 1 0 0 - 1 0 7 ) , not understanding that this carnivalesque figure represents themselves as they soon will be. Their laughter, indeed, resounds throughout this book (at 35, 40, 1 1 1 , 350; e c h o e d by the women at 163, 320; cf. 21.376, the suitors' last laugh), an oxymoronic prelude to their c o m i n g slaughter. T h e Belly War of b o o k 18 comes to its appropriate e n d with eating ( 1 1 8 - 2 1 ) , dancing ( 3 0 4 - 5 ) , saucy words from a lewd maid called Black Girl, child of Trickster (321), 1 4 and a final cup of wine (418). Furniture is clumsily tossed about (394), but Odysseus, the Beggar Victor, stands quietly beside a torch that makes his bald head shine out over the brawl, looking for all the world, as Eurymachus notes with truth-telling scorn, as if a god had sent him ( 3 5 1 - 5 5 ) . T h e whole episode thus has the shape as well as the mood and the grotesque look of a satyr play. Here in the epic narrative, however, it comes before the tragic deed instead of after, and as a result the killings to follow are invested from the start with its crude statement that the bad must bleed while the overweening hero gets his reward. T h e Iros episode is perhaps a low form of audience reassurance, but encouragement of a more elevating sort comes from the sequence of recog-

13. Conscious irony is characteristic of stage avengers as they make their final preparations for the act of violence—e.g., Soph. El. 1451 ff., Eur. Hec. 1022. 14. Some deny that her name carries any such sense; see, e.g., H. Erbse, Beiträge zum Verständniss der Odyssee (Berlin, 1972), pp. 238-40, where it is argued that there are three men named Dolios, all with slave status rather than trickery indicated in their names. T h e derivation from dolos was reasserted by A. Heubeck, BiOr 30 (1973) 481, and recent opinion admits that the man so called may be proposed by the poet as the father, both of Melantho and Melanthios, and also of the six stalwart sons of book 24; see Fenik, Studies, p. 192. T h e sharply differentiated sets of children, the disloyal and the loyal, are usually explained on the grounds of realism, i.e., g o o d fathers do sometimes have wicked children (so Fenik, Studies, p. 192). It would seem possible, however, that in archaic thought Dolos was like Eris or Elpis, a concept whose good and bad aspects might be described through good and bad offspring.

ODYSSEUS, PINDAR'S HERACLES, TYRANNICIDES

nitions that defines Odysseus' progress toward ultimate satisfaction. 15 T h e report of a meeting of friends long separated is a fictional event that naturally produces j o y in an auditor; a g o d is proverbially present in such a moment, and the world seems to be on the right track. Recognition is moreover particularly important in tales of revenge because it is the opposite of disguise, the d r o p p i n g of a mask, or in this case of wrinkles and rags (21.221; 22.1). By making himself known, the agent signals that he is about to return to the ordinary world that is not controlled by his plot, there to reclaim his original self, as it was before he suffered injury. Knowing all this, the Odyssey poet gives the central d e e d of bloody vengeance a double wrapping of reunions, as if in this way to absorb the gore. Two great recognitions, o n e with his son and the o t h e r with his wife, flank the avenger's killings so that the palace mayhem is both prepared and followed by powerful emotions of love and delight. In parallel fashion two lesser recognitions, those with Euryclea a n d Eumaeus, mark and sweeten the i n n e r moments of the intrigue as Odysseus makes sure of his intimate allies. 16 A n d finally there is the fifth recognition, the greatest of all, which is kept to the end so that the revenger's ugly revelation of himself to his enemies in the moment of violence (22.35-41) may be capped by the kiss he gives to his father when at last he says to him, "Here I am, it is I" (24.321). In this ultimate recognition scene the p o e t produces the e m b l e m of orchard trees counted and standing in cultivated order; 1 7 the literal trees are among the recognition tokens (24.336-44), but the tranquil image also works to counteract the powerful previous image of wounded men stampeding in confusion (22.299-309). A n d in confirmation of this recovered order the poet brings divinity directly into the ultimate recognition by making A t h e n a supervise the bath that rejuvenates Laertes while it marks the end of his selfimposed exile (24.367-69). 1 8 As the avenger's god-given disguise has let Odysseus kill the enemy suitors, so now its removal brings this old king who longed for death ( 1 5 . 3 5 3 - 5 5 ) back to a rich life, and the singer, by noting Laertes' brief loss of consciousness (24.345-48), gives this return a look almost of resurrection. T h e paternal recognition that comes after the killings suggests that the vengeance was somehow life-giving, and this notion is related to a second positive motif. H o m e r has shown how Odysseus passed, by way of domestic

15. O n the sequence, see C. Whitman, Homer and the Heroic Tradition (Cambridge, Mass., 1958), pp. 301-5. 16. Mumaghan, Disguise, p. 19, notes these recognitions as bringing "metaphorical kinship" to Euryclea and Eumaeus. 17. See W. B. Stanford, "The Ending of the Odyssey," Hermathena 100 (1965) 7-8, 13. 18. Cf. 16.194-200, where the recognition between Odysseus and Telemachus works like a rejuvenation.

R E V E N G E IN A T T I C A N D L A T E R T R A G E D Y

violence, from the condition of city-sacker to that of city-ruler. And he has also shown how Telemachus has concurrently changed from the boy who dodged his mother's eye, from the youth who was checked by aidos in Nestor's presence, to one who could serve as his father's ally. Telemachus learned a shared adult secret in the dark storeroom when Athena's golden lamp 1 9 appeared among the arms ( 1 9 . 3 3 - 3 5 ) , and under that goddess' eye he later received a token wound, a cut on the wrist (23.277), during the melee in the hall. Now, in the sequel to the final recognition, he puts on full armor and is formally received as a member of his genos, a man who is trusted now to stand in open warfare beside the patriarch of his family (24.506-9, 5 1 0 - 1 2 , 5 1 4 - 1 5 ) . Odysseus' recovery of his own full honor and identity thus coincides not only with Laertes' revival but also with Telemachus' advance to manhood. 2 0 His act of vengeance, in other words, is seen to restore to his father the power to kill enemies (note 2 4 . 5 2 2 - 2 3 ) , while it also promises that same power to his son, bringing the one from senility, the other from boyhood, into the fighting band. 2 1 And it increases the numbers of that band in another way as well, for the two herdsmen who helped exterminate the suitors have been promised brides, houses in the polis, and the rank of companion and brother to Telemachus ( 2 1 . 2 1 3 - 1 6 ; cf. 1 4 . 5 6 - 7 1 ) . In some sense, then, the killing of the intruders has worked like the killing of a bogey in an initiation trial, for it has confirmed the status of all concerned as members of the warrior class. Odysseus' revenge was necessary to his private identity: only when it was done could he lie in his marriage bed and mean "I, Odysseus" when in his tale-telling he said "I." It was also necessary to the preservation of his genos and its position in Ithaca. The Iros episode adds the sense that these massive killings were likewise required for a return of Plenty to the land, and the image of the orchard enhances this effect. Nevertheless, if revenge was to be attached only to the survival of a nobleman and his clan in physical security and well-being, the Odyssey would surely have ended with the sweet, caredispelling sleep into which the hero sinks at the close of book 23 ( 3 4 2 - 4 3 ) .

19. H. Lorimer, Homer and the Monuments (London, 1950), p. 429 n. 1, held that this lamp was anachronistic and so a proof that the storeroom scene was an Attic interpolation. In answer, R. Pfeiffer, "Die goldene Lampe der Athene," Stud. Ital. 28 (1956) 426-33, argued that here, as at Batrachomyomachia 180, the lamp is a Mycenaean actuality remembered in the Geometric period and associated especially with the cult of Athena. If this is true, its mention will enhance the already heavily ritualistic air of Telemachus' visit to a dark place filled with symbols of war. 20. Some of these notions are discussed by C. W. Eckert, "Initiatory Motifs in the Story of Telemachus," CJ54 (1963) 49-57. 2 1 . Compare D. Wender, The Last Scenes of the Odyssey, Mnemos. Suppl. 52 (Leiden, 1978), p. 68: "The third purpose of the battle episode is to show the three generations . . . fighting side by side."

ODYSSEUS, PINDAR'S HERACLES, TYRANNICIDES

41

A n d it does not. T h e Odyssey that we h a v e — t h e p o e m the fifth century knew 2 2 —goes on to raise and answer questions about the political and social organization of the Ithacan community before its bard strikes his last chord. Good omens and positive ritual models are all very well, but violent retaliation in any but a fairy-tale world will probably produce an answering act of violence. T h e pick of Ithaca's young men were destroyed by the avenging Odysseus ( 2 3 . 1 1 1 - 4 0 ) , and unless these victims can somehow be rendered beyond revenge (vr|7toivoi, as promised at 1.378-80 and 2 . 1 4 3 - 4 5 ) , there will be no rest for the returned hero. A counter-revenge is the immediate prospect at the end of book 23, and an endless cycle of violence threatens here in Ithaca just as it does at the b e g i n n i n g of Aeschylus' Eumenides. Homer sees the prospective chaos as secular civil war, not invasion by underworld demons, but the problem in both cases is essentially the same. A distinction is needed by which crimes that are gratuitous, unjust, and open to revenge can be separated from answering crimes, acts that restore balance and therefore are not to be returned. T h e listener has known all along that Odysseus' slaughter of the suitors was a just and god-sponsored return of wrong for wrong, but he needs to know also that the world of this fiction has recognized it as such—that the killing of the suitors will be allowed to stand as a terminal crime, not as a new provocation. Such reassurance is the burden of b o o k 24, where a demonstration very m u c h like that of the later Aeschylean tragedy is offered. Homer, like Aeschylus, brings his tale of revenge to an end with a threephased j u d g m e n t r e n d e r e d in the u n d e r w o r l d , in the city, and a m o n g the Olympians. First, in Hades, the complaints of the dead suitors (who parallel the later Furies) are rejected by an A g a m e m n o n j u d g e who candidly admires Odysseus' violent return and, with his praise of P e n e l o p e

22. T h e ending of the Odyssey seems to have been revised in the sixth century, probably at Athens in connection with the Panathenaic performances. This means that book 24 as we have it must reflect attitudes of that time. Whether or not the changed ending was meant to enhance the power of Pisistratus, the new version would not have found acceptance, would not have become canonical, unless it provided the close that audiences wanted. Thus the argument of S. West, "Laertes Revisited," PCPS 35 (1989) 1 1 3 - 4 3 , seems inconsistent: that book 24 was added in the sixth century; that sixth-century opinion demanded punishment for vengeance; that book 24 pleased an Athena-sponsored tyrant by giving divine confirmation to vengeance! The weak link is the assumption that consumers of epic poetry "could not tolerate supermen pursuing private vengeance" (132); the existence of book 24 would seem to prove the opposite. C. Catenacci, "II finale dell'Odissea," Quaderni Urbinati di Cultura Classica 44 (1993) 7-22, notes Else's suggestion (Hermes 87 [1957] 36 ff.) that book 24 may have been in position early in the century, ready to be imitated by Pisistratus. Catenacci extends this idea by arguing that a traditional Tale of Return existed, one that always ended with violent punishment of enemies, reconciliation, purification, and the beginning of a new Golden Age; this was the shape claimed by propagandists for the return of Pisistratus, and also the shape that determined the new ending for the Odyssey.

42

R E V E N G E IN A T T I C A N D L A T E R T R A G E D Y

(24.194-202), gives implicit recognition to the husbandly act of punishing would-be adulterers. Next, a b o v e g r o u n d in Ithaca, the citizens divide (24.463-64) like the jurors of the Eumenides, some supporting the fathers of the suitors (24.426-37), others arguing that Odysseus' action was both encouraged by gods and provoked by crimes that were large-scale and outrageous (24.443-49, 454-60). Finally Athena puts the case to Zeus, and he determines that the revenge she has sponsored must not lead to retaliation or punishment of any kind. Instead it is to become the foundation of a new civic order based on reciprocal friendship and productive of riches and peace (24.479-86). A n d so the Odyssey ends, much as the Oresteia does, as A t h e n a stops an earthly conflict between those w h o would punish an avenger and those who see his crime as a necessary and valuable action. She sets the terms of agreement, fixes the oaths on which the institutions of the city will depend (24.531-48), and arranges that Vengeance, with the gods' help, shall have given Ithaca an enduring political order. 23

II

In the Odyssey, v e n g e a n c e completes and confirms a return f r o m war to peace. It is initiatory and congruent with a rite of Driving O u t Want; it is approved by Zeus, and its heap of corpses produces a rich, orderly, and aristocratic city. W h e n revenge is figured by Heracles instead of Odysseus, this same act is at once more primitive and more sublime, its effects reaching downward to establish rules for ordinary behavior, upward to describe a scheme of heavenly order. T h e Heracles of folktale was a picaresque and often vicarious avenger who worked outside both house and city, answering assaults on any man's plainest rights: to strike back when struck, to keep one's property, to rest, to be paid for work, to sacrifice correcdy, and to be purified. Many of the Heraclean retaliations are brutish and not technically revenge, such as returning the blow w h e n his music teacher hit him (Apollod. Bibl. 2.4.9), 24 o r tying up the Kerkopes when they would not let

23. What is forbidden, at the poem's close, is not vengeance but any retaliation against this act of revenge. This is not, however, the c o m m o n report; see, for example, J. Svenbro, "Vengeance et société en Grèce archaïque," in La vengeance, ed. R. Verdier, vol. 4 (Paris, 1981 ), pp. 4 7 - 6 3 , who claims that the end of the Odyssey envisions a simple interdiction of all vengeance which, he believes, is now definitely situated in the past (53-54). It may be noted that Svenbro nevertheless supposes that Odysseus' killing of the suitors would have been classified as justifiable homicide in sixth 7; Resp.: 451a, i 3 i n . 3 i ; 57ic-d, i88n.44; 609b, 7; Symp.: 182c, 60; 183a, 202n-59 Plutarch: Mar.: 299E-300A, i78n.3; 553D, 3n.8; 555B, 59 Porphyry: Abst.: 2.55, i78n.3 Proclus, i o i n . 5 Psalms: 10.13, i g 5 n . i 5 ; 58.10, 20 Pythagoras, 8n.24 Quintus Smyrnaeus, gin.80; 3.739-41, i75n.i20 Romans: 12.19-20, 20

29/

Sappho, I42n.5, I79n.g; 1.26-27 V, 5 i n . 5 2 Seneca: Ad Marciam de ccmsolatione: 10.1, ion.27; Delra, 8-10; 1.16, 98; 2.32.3, 2 55 n - 2 5i «-36-5> 8 5; EP•• 80.6-8, 10; 108.8-9, ion.27; Medea, 10; 833-43, 2 1 5 n - 9 4 ! 8 9 3 - 9 5 8 ' 2ogn.84, 2 1 1 ^ 8 7 ; 958-66, 2i6n.g7; Thyestes, 10-18; Tranq., 13; Troades-. 1153-54, 1 6 2 ^ 7 9 Simonides: 131 PLG, 57 Sophocles: Aj., 8o-g8; 627-30, igon.52; 683, 257n.3o; Amphiaraos: fr. 121 TrGF, i86n.34; Ant.: 369, 197; 758, 9 0 ^ 7 3 ; 1091-116, 286; 1099-107, 281; 1242-43, 282; 1305, 88n.67; El., 1 2 0 - 4 1 , 185; 22,4; 75-76,4; 113, g o n -791489, 20in.49; 619, 1 0 7 ^ 3 4 ; 680-763, 88n.68; 824-26, 222n.i 19; 975-83. 2 5 5 n - 2 2 ; l 333> 4 n l 1 ; »374. 8gn.73; 1415, 25g; 1424, 263; Ichneutae, 25g; Inachos, 78n.5o; Kedalion, 73n.32; OC: 228-32,51; 230, i i 5 n , 5 5 ; 610-11, i g 7 n . i g ; 869, 223; 1375-92, g3n.go; 1389, gon.75; 1632-34, i84n.25; 1654, 13111.31; OT: 142, i56n.5g; 660, 222; 906-10, i25n.2o; Phil., 128; 776, 1 3 l n - 3 1 ! 797. g m . 8 4 ; 826-64, 253nn.i6, l g ; 923, 252n.i3; 959, xvi 11.14; 1241, 281; 1409-10, 265^62; Phrixos, i 4 3 n . i 1; Polyxena: fr. 523 Radt, i58n.67; Tereus, 180-91; Truck.: 752, 45n-35;971"8®. 2 5 3 n l 6 Sositheos, 43n.27 Stesichorus, 103, 104, 1 1 3 ^ 5 0 ; Oresteia, 102; 209 PMG, i 6 i n . 7 4 ; 217 PMG, 103 Strabo, i88n.44 Thebais: 2 EGF, 86n.63 Theocritus: 10.41,43 Theognidea: 1137-42, 196 Theognis, 51; 218, 276, 287^52 Thucydides: 1.41.8, 1 7 9 ^ 7 ; 3.66.2, 153n-48'

3-8»-3> 2 2 5 ! 3- 8 *-6-7. 2 5 7 ;

3.82.7, 56; 4.69, 56; 6.53-59, 58". 6.53-5. 6111.91; 6.58.2, 63^99; 7.68.1, 55 Tyrtaeus: 10.18 W, 256^26; 12.18 W, 277 Tzetzes, 18111.13, i 8 2 n . i 6 ; ad Hes. Op. 568, 180 Xanthus of Locri, 103; Oresteia, 1 4 0 ^ 6 7 Xenophon: An.: 2.5.5-7, 1 9 8 ^ 2 7 , 20in.4g; 3.1.22, 2o6n.78; Hell.: 6.5.47, 1 4 8 ^ 3 0

General Index Including Renaissance and modern authors and tides. Line numbers of texts cited are given in italics.

Achilles, 65, 20411.66; arms of, 8011.53, 95-96; ghost of, 15811.67, 159-60, 16311.85; mistreatment of Hector's corpse, 3411.5; shield of, 245; thymos of, 28011.2g Acrobatic dances, 9 1 ^ 8 5 Adultery, 5 5 ^ 6 9 , 122; blinding as punishment, 169; as source of pollution, 122n.l2 Aedon, 1 7 8 ^ 5 , 1 7 9 ^ 7 Aegeus, 205, 207, 209; as Medea's husband, 224n.i30 Aegis thus: in Aesch. Cho., 1 1 1 - 1 2 in Eur. EL, 228n.i 1; corpse of, 242^62; depravity of, 237; murder of, 229, 230, 235-36, 238; pollution of, 233; sacrifice of, 233-35 in Soph. El., 125, 132, 141; corpse of,

134-35 Agamemnon: in early Orestes tales, 102, 107,108 in Eur. El., 245 in Eur. Hec., 159, i6on.72, i 6 2 n . 8 i , 164-66, 168 in Eur. IA, 286^49 in Soph. Aj., 94 in Soph. El., 130,132,133-34, 136 Agriona, Dionysian, 1 8 7 ^ 3 7

Aianteion (Salamis), 97n.g8 Aidesis, 53n.62, 267 Aidos: of Telemachus, 40 in Eur. El, 236^43 in Soph. El., 122, 125 Aithra, 2 2 4 ^ 1 3 0 Ajax, igon.52; anger of, 83, 91, 93, 96, 98; burial of, 94, 96-98; cult of, 96, 9 7 ^ 9 8 , 98; death leap of, 9 1 - 9 2 ; deception speech of, 88-89,93; decision speech of, 85, 86; madness of, 8n.25, 80-81, 94, 1 i7n.6o; revenge curse of, 86, 87-g3, 96, 97; revenge of, 81, 82-83, 94; suicide of, 80, 85-87, 92-93; tent of, 8in.54; voice of, 90 Alastor (oath demon), 164, 201, 2o6n.77 Alcibiades, 67n.6; parodies of, 7 4 ^ 3 5 Alcmaeon, i03n.20 Alcmena, 145, 146, 149-50; revenge of, 1 5 1 - 5 6 , 177 Alektra (Fury), 140-41 Allies, discovery of, 59 Althaia, 86n.63, 1 4 4 ^ 1 2 , I78n.6 Amphidromia, 240^56 Ananke, 1 9 5 ^ 2 2 , 244 Andreia, of women, 125 Andromache, 143n.11, 212 Anger: of Ajax, 83, 91, g3, 96, g8; Aristotle on, 8; of Atreus, 1 2 - 1 4 , 17; as defective

2 93

GENERAL INDEX

Anger (continued) energy, 8; as defense, 7n.23; disempowerment of, 1 0 - 1 1 ; divine sanction of, 272; of English revenge heroes, 25; of Heracles, 5 0 - 5 1 ; of Homeric heroes, 7; as madness, 8-9; of Medea, 195-96, 2og, 276-79; misuse of, 2n.7; noble, ign.39, 138, 2550.25; of Odysseus, 34-35; of Orestes, 107-8; Plato on, 7; psychic meanings of, 277; as reverse of gratitude, 65; role in revenge, 7, 33, 270; Seneca on, 8-10; Socrates on, 7; of Sophoclean Electra, 122, 127, 141; sweetness of, 1; and thymos, 276-79 Antigone, 85, 1240.17, 1840.25 Antimasques, 22 Apollo: as divine sponsor in Orestes tales, 103, 104; killing of Linos, 420.24; as lover of Hecuba, 174; purity of, 119; revenge by, 470.40, I42n.2 inAesch. Cho., 106, 109; curing of disease, 117; as divine sponsor, 112, 115 in Aesch. Eum., 110 in Eur. El., 23m.20, 238; as divine sponsor, 230, 244 in Eur. Or., 248, 252-53, 268-69, 270; rescue of Helen, 265-66 in Soph. El., 127, 130, 140, 141; trickery of, 130, 131, 138 Apornithosis, 180 Ara (oath demon), 201 Areopagus, trials in, 560.73 Ares, 55, 272; Thracian, 183^21 Arion, 66n.2 Aristogeiton, 56-61; as icon, 64; statue of, 57 Amott, P., 2270.7 Arnott, W. G., 226^4, 234^36 Artaud.Jean, 310.85 Artemis, 158^69; Medeias, 203^64 Assembly (Orestes), 251-53, 255 Ate, 244; in Choephori, 108 Athena: as vengeance patroness to Odysseus, xvi n.9, 35-36, 39, 40, 42 in Aesch. Eum., n 8 n . 6 3 , 165 in Eur. Heracl., 148 io Soph. Aj., 81-85 io Soph. Ter., 1830.21, 185 Atheos: authority of, 70; moral concerns of, xiii n . i ; political clubs in, 225, 257; revenge in, xvii-xviii; youth of state, xv n.4. See also Tragedy, Attic Atreidai: in Soph. Aj., 83, 86, 87, 88, 90, 94, 95. See also Agamemnon; Menelaus

Audience: internal, 30, 37, 82; modern, 31-32; of Renaissance revenge drama, 29-31;Senecan, 31 of Eur. Or., 266-67, 272 Augeas, Heracles' victory over, 46-48 Avengers, 31-32; audience of, 3-4; dissatisfaction of, 152^46; intellectual task of, 3; legal rights of, 52; narcissism of, 32n.86; pattern, 105, 119; pollution of, 26; prayers of, 510.52, 76, 89, 900.77, 1310.32, 2440.69, 257-58; as priests, 5; primary, 100, 255; Renaissance, 23-24; secondary, 99, ioon.3; Senecan, 5n.i6; use of irony, 38n. 13; villains as, 24n,61, 272 Axe: Clytemnestra's, 102, 103, 112, 172; io Etruscan art, 1 0 3 ^ 1 7 Bacchantes, 143^9; spies on, 670.6 Baif, Lazare de, 1380.59 Bain, D., 1550.55, 200n.42 Baiting of the Bully, 152 Bakhtin, M. M., 68n.i2, 750.37, 7 8 ^ 5 0 Ballentioe, F. G., 2340.34 Balzac, Honore de, 5 n . i 8 Battle retaliation, 2n.6, 340.5 Baudelaire, Charles, 194 Baudrillard,J., 710.25 Beaumont aod Fletcher: Maid's Tragedy, 210.50, 230.58, 300.84, 145 Beazley.J. D., i o i n n . 8 - g Becket, Thomas a, 2340.36 Belly War (Odyssey), 37-38, 11 in.45 Benveniste, E., l g g n ^ g , 2om.53, 2040.71 Bereblock, John, 189^48 Bernard, St., 190.41 Beroardini, P. Angeli, 470.39 Bethe, E., 275 Bickermao, E.J., 2020.58 Bieber, M., 182ml. 1 6 - 1 8 Bjork, G., 660.3 Blake, William, 96 Blinding, i6gn. 101; symbolism of, 172 Blundell, M. W., 1200.3 Boardman, J., 1280.24 Boltoo, Robert, 2211.52 Bond, W., 23m.22, 232n.24 Bornmann, F., 490.48 Bouzyges, i g 7 Bowers, F. T., igo.42, 290.77 Bowra, C. M., 920.89, 1360.51, 1370.56, 26gn.73 Braden, G., 180.37, 190.40

GENERAL INDEX

Brelich, A., 21 gn. 106 Bremer, J . M., 24411.68 Bremmer.J., 17811.6 Brinkmann, A., 18211.16 Brommer, F., 4311.28, 15111.42 Brontè, Charlotte: JaneEyre, in.3 Brulé, P., 18611.35 Brygos cup, 9111.85 Burgess, D. L., 4711.38 Burial: of Aegisthus, 1 3 5 - 3 6 ; of Ajax, 94, 96-98; of Eurystheus, 156; nomosof, 172; in Pindar, 49; of Polyxena and Polydorus, 1 6 3 ^ 8 5 , 166; refusal of, 163; as return to order, 25 Burial urns, i28n.24 Burian, P., g6n.g6, 1 4 5 ^ 1 7 , 1 5 0 ^ 3 7 , i54n-5° Burkert, W., 44n-33,48n.42, i87n.37, 200n.40, 247n.2, 257n.2g, 263n.53, 264n.59 Burnett, A. P., ioon.3, 1 7 3 n . u a Busiris, 43 Byron, George: Childe Harold, 64 Caillois, R., 72n.26 Calder, W., 1 8 0 n . 1 1 , 1 8 3 ^ 2 1 Calvin, John, 2 0 - 2 1 Cannibalism, xviii, 1 6 3 ^ 8 2 , 2 i g n . i 0 3 ; of the Cyclops, 7 8 ^ 5 2 , 79; in English revenge drama, 27; in female revenge, 144; as incest, 188; of tyrants, i68n.g6, 187-88 in Sen. Thy., 1 1 - 1 2 , 14 in Soph. Ter., 1 8 1 - 8 2 , 184, i87~8g Carawan, E., 53n.6o Carnival, 70-73, 7 5 ^ 3 7 ; function of, xv n.5; sword dances in, g2n.85 Cassandra, 164, 172, 223, 252; murder of, ìoin.io Castaldi, F., i6on.73 Castor and Pollux, 43 in Eur. EL, 22g, 244 Catenacci, C., 4 m . 2 2 Cazzaniga, A., i 8 2 n . i 6 Censorship, in English revenge plays, 22n.52 Ceremonies: exploitation of, 47n.3g; mock, 5; perverted, 233; in tyrannicide, 5g in Eur. Cyc., 76, 7g in Horn. Od., 35 Chaos, in Dionysiac festival, 65, 7 1 - 7 3 Chapman, George: Revenge of Bussy D 'Ambois, 2in.50, 26, 27, 28, 2gn.7g, 1 4 5 ^ 1 6

Chariot, Medea's, 1 9 6 ^ 1 7 , 218, 219, 220-21, 223-24 Charis: acharitos, 1 1 4 ; of Aphrodite, 164; as opposite to revenge, xvi; repayment of, 45 in Eur. Hec., 161 in Soph. Aj., 95 Charites, 1 9 7 ^ 1 9 Chastity, 142; renewal of, 16 Chelidon, 1 7 9 ^ 7 Chettle, Henry: Hoffman, 3n.i 1, 26 Child-murder: in female revenge tales, 144; by mothers, 177-78, 180; by Thracians, i63n.82 in Eur. Hec., 164-66, 1 7 1 in Eur. Med,., i g 2 n . i , ig3, 207, 208, 2 1 1 , 2 1 6 - 2 0 , 278-79, 286 in Soph. Ter., i7g-8o, 183, 185 Chiron, as inventor of oath, ig7 Choral celebrations, interruptions to, 66-68 Chorus: as emotional guide, 16g; presence during violence, 76-77, 258, 263 inAesch. Cho., 106-8 in Eur. Cyc., 77, 7g, 25gn.36 in Eur. El., 228 in Eur. Med., 194, i g s n . 1 2 , ig6, 277, 286 in Eur. Or., 258-59, 2 6 1 - 6 2 , 26gn.74, 27in.78, 281 Chronos, 5, 7on.ig, 221 Chrysothemis (Sophoclean Electro), i22n.8, 1 2 3 - 2 7 , i3gn.64 Clover, Carol, 6n.21 Clytemnestra: dream of, 102; Hofmannsthal's, 5; in early Orestes tales, 1 0 1 - 5 ; tomb of, 1 3 6 ^ 5 2 , 267-68; in vase painting, 1 0 1 ; vengeance prayer of, 5 1 ^ 5 2 in Aesch. Ag., 5 1 ^ 5 2 , 144, 1 9 9 ^ 3 4 inAesch. Cho., 144; dream of, 108, 1 1 2 , 1 1 3 ; as monster, 1 0 9 - 1 0 , 1 1 2 ; murder of, 1 1 1 , 1 1 5 , 1 3 1 ; pollution of, 1 1 6 in Eur. El., 228n.g, 22g; murder of, 237, 2 3 8 - 4 1 ; murder of Agamemnon, 240, 245-46; sexual corruption of, 236,240-41 in Eur. Or., 267-68 in Soph. EL: adultery of, 122, 138; corpse of, 1 3 2 , 1 3 6 ^ 5 0 ; debate with Electra, 136-38; dream of, 1 2 3 , i26n.22, i3on.28, 1 3 1 ^ 3 2 , 1 3 4 ^ 4 3 ; murder of, 132; murder of Agamemnon, 1 3 3 , 1 3 4 - 3 5 , 136—38; pollution of. 1 3 3 - 3 4 Codrus Painter, 2 2 4 ^ 1 3 0 Collins, Wilkie: No Name, 4

296

GENERAL INDEX

Colloquialisms: in Eur. El., 229; in Eur. Heracl., 1 5 6 Comedy: Aristotelian analysis of, 3 7 n . i 1; in Odysseus' revenge, 3 6 - 3 7 , 38 in Eur. El., 2 3 1 - 3 3 in Eur. Heracl., 1 4 9 - 5 0 , i 5 6 n . 6 i in Eur. Or., 249, 260 Conacher, D. J., 1 6 4 ^ 8 6 , 226n.4, 2 3 6 ^ 4 6 Congreve, Richard, i n . 3 Connor, W. R., 6 7 n . i o , 20511.75 Contracts, breaking of, 163 Copreus, 148, 1 5 1 , 1 5 2 ^ 4 7 , 1 5 3 , 1 5 6 ^ 6 1 Comeille, Pierre: Le Cid, 2; Mèdie, 3, 36 Corpses: display of, 18, 29, 236, 243; lack of, 163; revelation of, 1 3 2 Creon: in Antigone, 88n.67, 9 0 ^ 7 3 , 223; in Medea, 208, 2 1 4 , 2 1 5 , 2 1 6 , 283 Cropp, M., 233n.32 Cruelty, physical, 1 6 7 - 6 9 Cults: of Ajax, 96, 9 7 ^ 9 8 , 98; of Artemis, 1 5 8 ^ 6 9 ; of Athena, 4on.ig; of Eurystheus, I56n.57; of Helios, 222; hero, xv n.4; urban, xiv Curse: Helios' role in, 2 2 3 ^ 1 2 7 ; law-enforcing, i g 9 n . 3 5 ; as oath sanction, 2 0 5 - 7 ; prayers, 9 0 ^ 7 7 , 92, 121; revenge, 50n.50, 56n.63; suicide's, 87n.66; in tragedy, g3n.go; treaty, i 8 8 n . 4 i in Soph. Aj., 86, 8 7 - 9 3 , 9 6 . 97: Curse tablets, 79, 8 7 ^ 6 5 , 9 o n n . 7 4 , 79 Cypselus, chest of, 202n.58 Dale, A. M., 2 6 o n . 4 i Davies, G., 2 0 4 ^ 6 9 Davies, M., 34n.3, 44n.33, i o i n n . 8 , 1 0 Death cry: of A g a m e m n o n , 2 4 2 ^ 6 3 ; of Medea's children, 220 in Eur. EL, 243 in Eur. Or., 262 Deception: in H a r m o d i u s songs, 63; as p a r t of revenge, 4, 2 7 - 2 8 , 99. See also Dolos; Trickery in Eur. El., 2 3 3 , 241 in Eur. Hec., 1 6 7 in Soph. Aj., 82, 88-89, 93 in Soph. El., 1 2 4 , I 2 5 n . i 9 Delcourt, Marie, 8 7 ^ 6 7 Delphi, 15; p u n i s h m e n t function of, 1 1 7 - 1 8 ; purification at, 104 in Eur. El, 227, 242 in Eur. Heracl., 1 5 4 in Eur. Or., 271 in Soph. El., 120, 121, 1 2 8 - 3 0 , 1 3 3 , 1 3 4

Delphinion, 138; trials at, 56 Demons, 268n.6g; oath-, 164, 2 0 1 , 2 0 6 ^ 7 7 ; oaths against, i g g n . 3 4 D e m o p h a n t u s , d e c r e e of, 1 6 5 ^ 8 8 , ig8n.2g D e m o p h o n , 148, 1 5 2 ^ 4 7 , 1 5 7 ^ 6 5 D e n n i s t o n , J . D., 2 2 g n . i 3 , 26gn.73 d e Romilly,J., 2 3 6 ^ 4 5 Deubner, L., 2 4 0 ^ 5 6 Devereux, G., i 6 o n . 7 3 Devine, A. M., 226n.3 Dialect: in choral celebrations, 66; in tragedy, 6g Di Benedetto, V., 2 5 m . 1 2 , 25gn.3g Diggle.J., i54 n -5 1 > 2 5 3 n l 8 Dihle, A., 276, 279, 280, 282 Dike, xvi; aikeias, 55; in Children of Heracles, 1 5 2 ; in Choephori, 1 0 5 ^ 2 4 , 108, 1 1 5 Diller, H., 275 Dinesen, Isak: "The Fish," i n . 3 Dingel.J., 232n.27 Diomedes, 4g Dionysus, 65; as divine sponsor, 7g; Eleuthereus, 6g; Omadius, i 7 8 n . 3 ; Theater of, 223; Thracian, i 8 2 n . i 6 in Eur. Cyc., 7 4 - 7 9 Dioscuri. See Castor a n d Pollux Disguise: in revenge d r a m a , xvii, 4, 3 0 - 3 1 , 67, 99; weapons of tyrannicides, 59, 63. See also Deception; Trickery in Eur. Cyc., 74, 76 in Eur. Med., 4 in Horn. Od., 3 5 D i s m e m b e r m e n t , xviii, 1 7 - 1 8 ; by Diomedes' mares, 49. See also Cannibalism Divine ally: in early Orestes tales, 103; for revenge, 51, 59. See also Apollo in Eur. Med., 2 1 6 in Horn. Od., 3 5 - 3 6 in Soph. Aj., 80, 84 Dobrov, G., 1 8 0 n . 1 1 , i 8 2 n . i 6 , 1 8 3 ^ 2 3 Dodds, E. R., xv n.6 Dokimasia Painter, 1 0 4 ^ 2 3 Dobs, 3 8 n . i 4 ; Heracles' use of, 4 5 ^ 3 4 . See also Deception; Trickery in Eur. Cyc., 79 Doricisms, 66n.4 Dover, K.J., 2 2 m . 1 1 7 Doyle, A. C.: The Return of Sherlock Holmes, 6n.20 Draco, 52, 1 3 3 ^ 4 0 Driving O u t Want (ritual), 37, 42 Drunkenness, in Eur. Cyc., 7 5 - 7 6

GENERAL INDEX

Dumas, Alexandre, xvii n. 15; The Count of Monte Cristo, 6n.21 Dumb shows, 30 Dunn, F. M., 2 i g n . i o 6 Durand,J.-L., 2 3 5 ^ 3 8 Durkheim, E., 7 i n . 2 5 Easterling, P., 233n.32 Eitrem, S., 2 2 2 ^ 1 2 4 Electra: in Aesch. Cho., 106, 107-8; revenge prayer of, 1 1 4 in Eur. EL, 228-29; denunciation of Clytemnestra, 2 4 1 ; entrapment of Clytemnestra, 2 3 8 - 4 1 ; fictitious child of, 239-40; irony of, 2 4 2 ^ 6 2 ; marriage of, 227, 229, 23in.20, 236-37, 242, 243; marriage to Pylades, 243; purification of, 245; recognition of Orestes, 2 3 1 - 3 2 , 242-43; revenge of, 236-37, 2 4 0 - 4 1 ; virginity of, 243 in Eur. Or., 248, 250, 252, 258-59; and Helen, 267; love of Orestes, 253-54, 256; marriage to Pylades, 265 in Soph. EL, 214; alienation of, 1 2 1 - 2 2 , 1 4 1 ; anger of, 122, 127, 1 4 1 ; curse prayer of, 9 3 ^ 9 0 , 1 2 1 , 244n.6g; debate with Clytemnestra, 136-38; reunion with Orestes, 127-30; revenge of, 1 2 3 - 2 7 , 1 3 4 - 3 5 , 140; as secondary avenger, 127; significance of name, 140 Elektra (Hofmannsthal), 12111.7, 1 2 3 ^ 1 5 , 140, 242n.64 Elgin Throne, 5 7 ^ 7 7 Elvira, Donna, 1 9 4 ^ 7 Empedocles, 3 3 n . i , 197 Enguesis, 163, i 6 g n . i o i , 2 0 2 ^ 5 8 , 204n.68 Ephebes, 146; at festivals, 70; oath of, ig8n.27, 200^44; at theatrical performances, 72n.i8 Ephetai, 52 Erasmus, Desiderius, xv n.5 Erbse, H., 3 8 ^ 1 4 , 1 5 5 ^ 5 5 , i6on.73; on Medea's monologue, 27511.10 Erinyes: Ajax's invocation of, 90, 9 1 , 97 in Aesch. Cho., 1 1 5 , 1 1 7 in Aesch. Eum., 1 1 8 in Eur. EL, 2 2 9 ^ 1 3 in Eur. Or., 268, 272n.8i in Soph. El., 138, 140 Euorkia, igg, 205 Eurysaces, 87, g4, g6n.g6, 97, 98

Eurystheus, 147, 1 7 2 n . n o , 197; defense of, 153; as enemy-hero, 1 5 4 - 5 5 ; tomb of, 1 5 5 - 5 6 ; on vase paintings, 1 5 1 ; vengeance on, 1 5 2 - 5 3 Evadne (Maid's Tragedy), 2 i n . 5 0 Evans, G. L., i6n.34 Exile, sentence of, 5 3 - 5 4 Exoleia, 200, 2 1 9 Faraone, C., 86n.63, 2 0 0 ^ 4 5 , 2 2 3 n . i 2 7 Faulkner, T. M., I 4 5 n . i 7 , i5on.37 Fenik, B., 36n.8 Ferguson, W. S., i46n.25 Festivals, 66; choral, 66-73; Dionysian Agriona, 1 8 7 ^ 3 7 ; function of, 72nn.26, 29; Panathenaic, 59, 62, 63, 7on.2o; of Sparta, 66. See also Carnival; Greater Dionysia festival Fitton.J. W., i 4 5 n . i 7 , 1 4 7 ^ 3 0 , i57n.63; on Hecuba, 167^91 Florio,John, 19 Flory, S., 2o8n.8i Foce del Sele reliefs, i o 2 n n . i 2 , 16 Foley, H., 1 9 3 ^ 5 , 235n.39 Folktales: disorder in, 156; Heracles in, 42 Fontenrose,J., 2 0 9 ^ 8 3 Ford, John: Broken Heart, 25 Fornara, C., 58n.82, 6 i n . g i Fortenbaugh, W. W., 27gn.25 Fourth plays, 145, 156, 2 4 8 ^ 3 Fraenkel, E., 8in.57, 2 3 m . 2 2 , 2 5 m . 1 2 Fromm, Erich, 6 Funeral laments, 5 2 ^ 5 4 Furies. See Erinyes Fury: in English revenge plays, 28; in Thyestes, 10, 17 Gagarin, M., 5 7 ^ 5 6 Garner, R., i28n.25, i79n.6 Garvie, A. F., io6n.28, io8n.34, i i 2 n . 4 7 , 1 i5 n -55

Ge, in Hes. Theog., 3 3 - 3 4 , 1 7 1 Gellie, G. H., 1 6 4 ^ 8 7 , i7on.io7, 1 9 3 ^ 3 Gelzer, T., i8on.i2 Gentili, B., ig3n.3 Gephyraioi, 58, 5gnn.84-85 Gemet, L., i07n.33 Ghosts, xviii, 17; in English revenge plays, 28; in festivals, 7 1 ; popular belief in, 28n.76 in Eur. Hec., 158 and n.67, 159-60, 163^85 Girard, R., xiii n.i

2ç8

GENERAL INDEX

Gods: enforcement of oaths, 201 and n.54; interest in revenge, xvii. See also Divine ally in Sen. Thyestes, 14, 17 Goff, B., 2 3 2 ^ 2 6 Golden Lamb, song of, 245, 246 Goldhill, S., 72n.25, I05nn.26, 27, 23m.20; on Orestes, 2 3 3 ^ 3 2 Gorgons, 1 1 0 , 1 1 6 Gortyn pinax, 101 Graf, F., 1 0 8 ^ 3 5 Grantley, D., 3on.84 Greater Dionysia festival, xiv, 99; audience of, 7 1 ; chaos in, 65, 7 1 - 7 3 ; choral festival in, 69-73; c ' v ' c society during, 7 0 - 7 1 ; leveling function of, 73 Greenberg, N., 2 4 9 ^ 6 Gregory, St., 1 9 ^ 4 1 Greifenhagen, A., i4gn.34 Grief, as cause of madness, 2711.72 Griffith, J . G „ 2 6 5 ^ 5 9 Grossmann, G., 8in.55 Grube, G. M. A., i7on.io6 Gyges, 6on.8g Hall, E., i7on.io4 Hallett, C. A., 4n.i4 Hammond, N. G. L., 2 2gn.i2 Handshakes, 2041111.66-70; betrayal by, 59n.87 Harbage, A., I2n.32 Harmateion melos, 26on.45 Harmodius, 5 6 - 6 1 ; as icon, 64; statue of, 57 Harmodius songs, 6 1 - 6 4 Harpalyce, i7gn.8 Harrison,J., iogn.37, 1 7 8 ^ 5 , igon.4g, 222n.l24 Harry, J., 2 1 7 ^ 9 8 Haslam, M., i8on.i2 Hearth, crimes against, 54 Heath, M., i67n.g2, 226n.6 Hebe, 50, 153, 266 Hector, 2 1 2 , 285-86 Hecuba, 1 1 3 ^ 5 0 ; Homeric, 187; in Ovid, 173-74 in Eur. Hec., 1 5 7 - 7 2 ; cruelty of, 167-69; death of, 173; as demon dog, 173-76; dream of, 160, 176; funeral speech of, 162; as Priam's surrogate, 167, 1 7 1 ; revenge of, 163-66, 177; tomb of, 174-75; violence °f> ' 6 6 Heiderich, B., loon. 1, 1 0 7 ^ 3 2

Heitsch, E., 2 2 3 ^ 1 2 9 Helen, 1 1 3 ^ 5 0 ; luxuriousness of, 2 5 i n . i 1; in Stesichorus, i6in.74; suitors of, 204n.66 in Eur. Hel., 204n.70 in Eur. Or., 253, 267-69; murder plan against, 255, 262-63; rescue of, 265-66; as surrogate victim, 265 Helenus, 174 Helios, 203, 216; chariot of, 218, 219, 2 2 0 - 2 1 , 223-24; priestess of, 223; priest of, 222 Henrichs, A., g6n.g6, 228n.io Hephaistion, friezes of, 57n.7g Hera, 266; Akraia, 2 i g ; Homeric, 28on.2g; opposition to Heracles, 44, 154; protection of Medea, 21 gn. 105, 2 23 in Eur. El., 227, 228 Heracles, 153; anger of, 5 0 - 5 1 ; as avenger, 42-50, 169; bow of, 128; and Diomedes, 49; divinity of, 146; Eurystheus' persecution of, 154; in folktales, 42; infant, 5; madness of, 8 1 ^ 5 6 , 1 i7n.6o; and Medea, 2 0 2 ^ 5 7 ; Pindar on, 45-48; sanctuary of, 146; trickery of, 44, 49; Twelve Labors of, 1 s6n.61 ; victory over Augeas, 46, 47. 48 in Soph. Phil., 2 6 5 ^ 6 2 Heraclids, 146; sanctuary for, 147-48, i4g, 156 Heralds, 148 Herman, G., 5 5 ^ 7 2 , 204n.66, 2o6n.76, 225n.2 Hermann, G., 2 8 4 ^ 4 2 Hermes: in Aesch. Cho., 132; in Soph. Aj., 9°. 92 Hermione (Orestes), 2 5 3 ^ 1 5 , 254, 259-60, 262, 263-64; marriage to Orestes, 265, 269; offerings to Clytemnestra, 267-68; philia of, 269 Heroes: of English revenge plays, 23-28; mortality of, 7 3 ^ 3 1 ; sacrifices to, 58n.8i; tribal, 97n.g8 Hetaireia, 257 Heubeck, A., 38n. 14 Hierosulia, 148, 1 7 8 ^ 4 Hillers, D. R., 2 0 0 ^ 4 4 Hipparchus, xvii n.16, 60, 6 1 ; death of, 58n.82, 63, 7on.2o; vision of, 5g Hippias, 58n.82, 6 1 ; death of, 5gn.87 Hippocoòn, 43, 235 Hippocoóntids, 43, 44

GENERAL INDEX

Hippocratic oath, 198 Hippodameia, 14311.10 Hofmannsthal, Hugo von, 5, 12 in.7, I22n.i3, I 2 3 n . i 5 , 140, 242^64 Hölderlin,Johann, 73n.3i Holt, P., i46n.20 Homicide, 52-54. See also Child-murder; Murder Honor: in definition of revenge, 2-3, 8, 21 n.48; effect of guile on, 51; feudal, 24; of husbands, 142; injuries to, 3 4 ^ 5 ; Renaissance, 19; women's lack of, 2in.50, 142-43 Honor plays, Spanish, 26n.68 Horkion, 204 Horkos (oath demon), 201, 2 i 8 n . i o i Hospitality: ceremonies of, 76, 79; laws of,

45 Hourmouziades, N., i 8 o n . i 1 Hübner, U., 2 7 5 ^ 7 Husband-killing, 104, 109, 119, 1430.6 Hybris, 2n>7, 1330.41; adultery as, I22n.i2; of Eurystheus, 1 4 7 ^ 3 0 , 1480.30; Jason's, 218 Hyllus, 149, 151, i52n.47 Hypermestra, 284^45 Ichnaia, 222 Incest, xviii, 1630.82; analogous to cannibalism, i i , 188; in English revenge plays, 23, 28; in female revenge, 144 Infanticide. See Child-murder Initiation, 15,40, 7 5 - 7 6 , 105-9 Injury: repayment of, xvi; to women, 210.50, 142 Ino, 143 Interpolation: in Eur. Med., 275; in Eur. Or., 247, 2 5 i n . i 2 Intrigue (plot), xvii, 4, 59, 99, 123; lack of, in Eur. Hec., 164 in Aesch. Cho., 1 1 3 in Eur. El., 230-33, 238-42 in Eur. Heracl., 152 In Eur. Med., 207, 213, 216, 278-79 In Eur. Or., 254-57 in Soph. A;., 86-88 in Soph. Ter., 181-85 , Iolaus, 49, 146, 147, 149; rejuvenation of, i 5 ° - 5 ! . !53 Iphigeneia, i o 2 n . i 4 , 137, 286; disappearance of, 262 Iphitus, death of, 44

Irony (double entendre), xiv; Ajax's use of, 88; Atreus' use of, 15; avengers' use of, 38n.i3, 167^93; Electra's use of, 242n.62; Orestes' use of, 234^38; Sophoclean, 1390.65 Iros (Odyssey), 36-37, 38, 40 Ismene, 1240.17, 1 8 4 ^ 2 5 Isonomia, 64 Itylus, i78n.5, 1 7 9 ^ 7 Itys, i 8 o n . i 8 , 181, 183, 187; statue of, 190 Jacobson, H., 2000.46 Jacoby, F., 580.82 Jason, 192, 193, 202-9, «77; beguilement of, 208; hybris of, 218; marriage to Medea, 202-4; peijury of, 195-97, 202, 203-4, 2 1 5> 2 1 6 - 2 l 9 - 2 2 1 Jebb, Richard, xvi, i22n.8, 133^38, 1 3 9 ^ 6 5 ; on violence, xv Jeffrey, L., 2000.45 Jonson, Ben: Sejanus, 2 i n . 4 g Jordan, D., 8 7 ^ 8 5 Judges, tribal, 52 Just, R., ig2n.2, 2000.42 Justice: Attic, utilized revenge, 5 1 - 5 5 , 64; io English revenge plays, 22; Heracles as agent of, 48-49; Olympian system of, 105, 119, 197; primitive, 3; private, ign.40, 54; and reciprocity, 3n.g; aod retaliatioo, 50, 64; Rhadamanthioe, 5 1 , 55, 270; uoderworld system of, 105 io Horn. Od., 35 in Sen. Thy., 12 Kairos, 4 Kamerbeek, J., 1390.61 Kassel, R., 276 Kearos, E., 1900.49 Kells,J„ 1370.57, 1390.61 Kerkopes, 42 King, J. R„ 560.73 Kiog, K. C., 2450.72 Kitto, H. D. F., i6n.8, 257n.3i Kneeling, 1310.31; by men, 890.73 Knox, B., ig3nn.5, 6, 226n.4 Koenen, L., 1820.16 Kolasis, 7 Kommos, in Aesch. Cho., 106, 108, 1 1 4 Kontos, in Eur. Cyc., 75, 228 Kovacs, D., i g 6 n . i 8 , 244n.67, 27511.8 Krappe, A. H., 2ogn.83 Krieg, W., 2 5 m . ! 1

G E N E R A L INDEX

Kromer, G., 4811.41 Kronia festival, 71 Kronos, 221; scythe of, 7011.19 Kubo, M., 23911.55 Kurtz, D. C., 12811.24 Kyd, Thomas: Spanish Tragedy, 24, 31, i2in.6; 3.3.3, si; 3.14.139-69, 28; 4.3.194, 22; 4.3.310, 29; 4.4.193, 25-26

24nn.6i, 62, 25n.64, 26-27, 29^79, 232n.23; 2.3.125, 300.83; 3.2.7S-79, 27; 3.3.62, 28; 4.3.103-5,

4n.i2;

5.1,

48^43; 5.6.29, 26 Marti, B., i2n.3i Maschalismos, i33n.38,

20in.49

Massinger, Philip: Duke of Milan, i7n.35, 26n.67 Kynossema, 173, 174-75 Mastronarde, D., 24gn.5, 265n.6o, 28m.33 Matricide, 101-5 Laertes: Odysseus' recognition of, 39, inAesch. Cho., log, 115-16 i57n.64, 2320.27; revival of, i28n.25 in Eur. El., 230, 237, 243-44 La Fontaine, Jean de, 220 in Eur. Or., 271 Lambin, G., 62n.g5 Landwehr, C., ^•jnn.'jy, 78 in Soph. El., xvi, 125-27, 130, 140 Lang, M., 58n.82 Maurois, André, 68n.i2 Latte, K., ig7n.23 Mayer, M., 179^7 Mayhem: in Odysseus's revenge, 3g; in Law: as substitute for revenge, 54-56 Senecan tragedy, 17 Lebeck, A., I03n.20, 105^27, 10611.29, in Soph. Aj., 80 H5 n -5 6 Medea (Euripides): amechaniaof, 213; anger Lesky, A., i5on.39, 255^26, 278 of, ig5-g6, 209, 276-79; at Athens, Lityerses, 43 223-24; bouleumata of, 210, 273, 276, Lloyd, M., 23on.i7, 238n.50 278-79, 282; child-killing of, ig2n.i, Lloyd-Jones, H., 48^42, I25n.i9, i43n.7, 193, 207, 208, a n , 216-17, 278-79, 278n.i8, 280 286; children of, 2050.72, 210-14; cowLohmann, H., 2i4n.g3 ardice of, 211, 281, 283, 284; encounter Lord, A., 3Ön.9 with Aegeus, 205; identity of, 195; kardia Lorimer, H., 40n.ig of, 2840.46; marriage contract of, 202-4; Luria, S., i82n.i6 maternal love of, 211-14, 274, 278, 281, Luther, Martin, ig 283, 284; monologue of, 209, 210-13, Lycaon, i88n.42 273-87; motivation of, 194-95; nous of, Lycurgus, madness of, 7on.ig, 8in,56 283; oath-curse of, 204-7, 209; phren of, 277; as poisoner, 215; and Procne, 192; Macaria, 146, 149, 153 revenge plans of, lgsn.i 1, 207-11, MacDowell, D. M., 52n.56, i95n. 12 Madness, xviii; anger as, 8-9; feigned, 27; of 217-ig, 274, 278n.i8, 287;righthand of, 203-4, 208; thymos of, 211-12, misperception, 8in.56; in revenge 2i3n.gi, 273, 275-78, 282, 284-85; drama, 4, 27 trickery of, 4, 207, 208 inAesch. Cho., 116-18 Medea (Seneca), 1, ig4n.7, 209^84, in Eur. Or., 247, 253nn.i5, 18, 2640.59, 21 in.87, 2i5n.94 27°n-75 Medusa, 110, 112 in Soph. Aj., 8n.25, 80-81, 94 Meissner, B., 279 Maenads, 66n-5, 178^3, i87n.37 Menelaus: Homeric, 212 Magic: assistants to, gon.78; Medea's, in Eur. Hel., 204^70 2i5nn.g4, 95; misdirected, 2ogn.83; in in Eur. Or., 248, 250-52, 253^15, 255, oath-taking, 200; similarity to revenge, 5; 263-66, 268-6g victims' curses, 86n.63 in Soph. Aj., g4 March,J., i78n.6 Marlowe, Christopher: Jew of Malta, 210.48, Meredith, George: The Ordeal of Richard Fever2Ön.Ö7 el, 142 Marston, John: Antonio's Revenge, i8n.36, Meridor, R., i64n.86

GENERAL INDEX

Meriones, 235 Meritt, B., 5711.80 Merkelbach, R., 3711.9 Messenger: in Eur. El, 2 3 6 ^ 4 0 , 2 3 7 ^ 4 9 ; in Eur. Med., 2 1 4 - 1 6 , 284^42; in Eur. Or., 2 5 2 - 5 3 , 260-63, 264, 266, 268, 269, 2 7 1 ; in Sen. Thy., 14; in Soph. Ant., 282; in Soph. Ter., 182 Meton, 2 2 3 n . i 2 g Miasma. See Pollution Michelini, A., 19211.1, 226n.6, 2 3 4 ^ 3 6 Middleton, Thomas: Changeling, 2 1 ^ 4 8 Midsummer pageants, 7511.37 Mikalson, J. D., g2n.8g Mills, S. P., 2ogn.83 Minyads, 66n.5, 1 7 8 ^ 3 , 1 8 7 ^ 3 7 Mirto, M. S., 2 5 m . 12 Moira, in Eur. Or., 244 Moirae, in Aesch. Cho., 107, 108 Molione, sons of, 46-47, 64, 1 4 4 ^ 1 2 Monsters: avengers as, 18; female, 109-10, 193; in festivals, 7 1 ; punishment of, 74n-32; revenge on, 65; slaying of, 62 Montaigne, Michel de: Essais, 19 Mossman.J., 1 5 7 ^ 6 6 , 2 3 9 ^ 5 3 MoulinierL., 1 3 3 ^ 4 0 , i35n.4g, 233n.33 Muhl, M., 55n.7i Mullens, H. G., 2 4 7 ^ 2 Mûller, G., 27511.7 Murder: Demosthenes on, 5 3 ^ 6 2 ; of fathers, 103; of husbands, 104, 10g, n g ; justifiable, 4 2 ^ 2 3 , 53, 56, 1 3 3 ^ 3 9 , 137; in the Old Testament, 20; social prohibitions against, 4 ^ 1 4 ; unintentional, 5Ôn.74, 2 6 7 ^ 6 7 ; vindictive, 53n.6o; of wives, i03n.20. See also Child-murder; Homicide Mumaghan, S., 35n.6, 3 g n . i 6 Murray, Gilbert, 32n.87, 7 4 ^ 3 5 , 22on.i 10 Mutilation, 5; in English revenge drama, 18, 25; Philomela's, 183, 184-85 in Sen. Thy., 17 Mylonas, G., 3 4 ^ 5 Myrtilus, 135nn.47.48 Myrde, symbolism of, 62-64 Mystai: Eleusinian, 6 3 ^ 9 7 ; oaths, î g g Nature, in Sen. Thy., 13, 14, 17 Nauplius, 14211.3 Neoptolemus, 1 3 1 ^ 3 1 , i6on.72, 162 Nestor, 3 4 ^ 5 , 100

Neumann, G., 204n.66 New Music, 260-61 Nietzsche, Friedrich: Genealogy of Morals, 6 Nightingales, i7gn.8, 1 8 7 ^ 3 7 . See also Procne Niobe, i2gn.27 Nomos: Basileus, 48; of burial, 172; of personal retaliation, 137; of return, 1 6 3 ^ 8 4 , 164; revenge as, 7g; of trust, 161 n.74. See also Law in Eur. Cyc., 78 Nurse: in Aesch.CAo., 111-12; in Eur. Hipp., 253n.ig; in Eur. Med., i g 5 n . i 2 , 207n.7g, 2i7n.g8, 276n.i3 Nussbaum, M., i67n.go, i 7 3 n . i i 5 Nymphs, sacrifice to in Eur. El, 2 3 3 - 3 4 , 240 Oath-curses, 216; Medea's, 204-7, 2 ° 9 Oath-demons, ig6n.i8, 2 0 0 - 2 0 1 , 223 Oaths, ^ 7 - 2 0 5 ; Aegeus', 205; of Amphictyons, 200n.44; of citizens, 1 9 5 ^ 2 4 ; Hellenic, igg; ofPlataea, ig8; women's, iggn.36, 200n.42. See also Horkion; Horkos O'Brien, M., 228n.8, 2 3 9 ^ 5 4 Odysseus (Odyssey), xvi n.g, 212; as avenger, 34-42, 56, 235; baldness of, 3 7 n . i 2 ; selfdiscovery of, 36; trickery of, xvii n . i 6 , 35 in Eur. Cyc., 74-79 in Eur. Hec., 15g-6i in Soph. Aj., 80-81, 82, g4~g6 Oedipus, gg, i g 7 n . i g ; curse of, 222n.i 19 Oikonomides, A., 2 0 3 ^ 6 4 Oistros (oath d e m o n ) , 201 Oldenziel, R., 1 7 7 ^ 2 Old Tutor (Eur. El), 2 3 1 - 3 2 , 233, 2 3 8 ^ 5 2 Olympian system of justice, 197; revenge in, 105, 1 ig; underworld in, 105 Onians, R. B., 21 i n . 8 6 Oracles, in Eur. Hec., 1 7 2 - 7 3 Order: basis in vengeance, 33, 56, 64; restoration of, 25, 50, 65, 73, 104; role of oaths in, ig7~200; subversion of, 71-73 Orestes, 104; Homeric, gg, 100, 124; later life of, i3gn,62; purification of, 24g; Stesichorean, 102, 103 in Aesch. Cho., 1 0 5 - 1 8 ; anger of, 107-8; as avenger, 108; disguise of, 1 1 6 ; as double avenger, 1 og; madness of, 1 1 6 - 1 8 ; matricide of, log, 1 1 5 - 1 6 ; as

GENERAL INDEX

Orestes, in Aesch. Cho. (continued) monster-slayer, 1 0 9 - 1 0 ; as oathdemon, 2om.52; obedience to Apollo, 109; purification of, 11611.58, 1 1 7 ; recognition of, 1 1 4 ; as secondary avenger, 99; separation from mother, 1 1 1 ; transformation of, 106-7 in Eur. El., 227, 230-38; disguise of, 235; purification of, 244; reluctance of, 238; revenge of, 233-36; scar of, 232 in Eur. IT, 204n.68 in Eur. Or., 11611.57, 248, 263-66; as avenger, 250, 2 5 1 , 270-72; bow of, 253n.ig; Electra's love for, 253-54; madness of, 247, 253nn.i5, 18, 264^59, 27011.75; marriage to Hermione, 265, 269; pollution of, 269-70; purification of, 268; selfdefense of, 252-53, 254; as servant of Delphi, 271 in Soph. El.: as avenger, 1 2 0 - 2 1 ; matricide of, 134; obedience to Apollo, 127; purification of, 132, 139; reunion with Electra, 127-30; use of trickery, 120 Orphics, 22in. 1 1 3 Ostwald, M., 48n.42, 4 9 ^ 4 5 , 6in.92 Otis, B., i8on.io Ouranus, 3 3 - 3 4 , 1 7 1 Padel, R., 272n.8i, 2 8 4 ^ 4 4 Page, D. L., ig6n.i6, 2 5 m . 12 Paley, E, 1 5 0 ^ 4 1 Panathenaic festival, 59, 62, 7on.2o; rituals of, 63 Pandion, 190, 191 Pan Painter, 5 7 ^ 7 8 Parker, R., 5 2 ^ 5 6 , 2 3 3 ^ 3 0 Parody, in Eur. Or., 248-49 Parry, H., 2 5 6 ^ 2 8 Parsons, P., i8on.i2 Paternal love, 177n. 1 Patriarchy, 1 0 3 - 4 in Aesch. Oresteia, 105 in Horn. Od., 1 3 9 Patricide, 103 Pavese, C., 4 9 ^ 4 6 Payne, H., 1 7 9 ^ 7 Peacock, Thomas Love, 228n,9 Peele, George: Battle of Alcazar, 2 8 ^ 7 5 Pelekidis, C., 1 4 6 ^ 2 4 Penelope, 142, i58n.69

Peretti, A., 1 ion.42 Peijury, 1 9 5 ^ 1 5 , iggn.35, 200n. 4 i, 2 i8n. 1 0 1 ; Jason's, 195-97, 202, 203-4, 2 1 5 , 216, 219, 221; victims of, 205 Perotta, G., 1 3 6 ^ 5 5 Perseus, Orestes as, 1 1 0 Phaedra, 142, 286 Philia: in Eur. Med., 196; in Eur. Or., 254-55, 256, 269 Philip of Macedon, as oath-breaker, ig8n.28 Philoctetes, 1 3 m . 3 1 , 2 5 2 ^ 1 3 Philomela: rape of, 180, 184, 188; reunion with Procne, 185; "speaking" robe of, 1 8 1 , 1 9 m . 5 3 ; transformation of, 183 in Soph. Ter., 1 8 0 - 9 1 Phobos, 199 in Aesch. Cho., 1 1 6 , 1 1 7 , 1 1 8 Phonos dikaios, 56^74 Pico della Mirandola: Heplaplus, ign.39 Pisistratids, 56-61 Pisistratus, return of, 4111.22, 67n.io, 68n.i4 Play-within-the-play (masque), 16, 2 4 ^ 6 3 , 3° in Eur. EL, 232 in Horn. Od., 37 in Soph. Aj., 81 Plescia.J., i97n.23 l g g n ^ g Podlecki, M., 6in.g2 Poine, in Aesch. Cho., 1 1 5 Pollution: adultery as, 122n. 12; by killer's presence, 52, 1 3 3 in Aesch. Cho., 1 1 5 - 1 6 in Eur. El., 233 in Eur. Or., 269-70 in Soph. EL, 1 3 3 - 3 4 in Soph. Ter., 189 Polydorus (Eur. Hec.), i6on.72, 164 Polymestor (Eur. Hec.), 163-66, 1 8 9 ^ 4 7 ; anguish of, 168-69; blinding of, 165, 166, 167, 169, i 7 i ; f u r y o f , i 7 2 ; s o n s o f , 165, 168, i6g, 170, 1 7 1 Polyphemus (Eur. Cyc.), 74-79, 1 5 4 ^ 5 3 , 157, 1 7 2 n . n o Polyxena (Eur. Hec.), 1 5 8 ^ 6 7 ; burial of, 166; sacrifice of, i5g, 160-62, 166, 172, 175 Pope, Alexander: Rape of the Lock, 2 6 7 ^ 6 5 Porter,J., 2 2 6 ^ 4 , 2 3 5 ^ 3 9 Pozzi, D. C., 1 4 5 0 . 1 7 Prag, A., i o i n n . 6 - 1 1 Praxidikai, 50

GENERAL INDEX

Priam, 165, 167 Procne, 12911.27; Seneca on, 13; statue of, 190 Procne (Terms), 179-91; reunion with Philomela, 185; revenge of, 181-83, >85. 189-90; transformation of, 179, 183, »9« Prynne, William, 22n.5i Psephos, 161 Pucci, P., 19311.5 Purification, 43; at Delphi, 104; pseudoritual of, 89 inAesch. Cho., n 6 n . 5 8 , 117 in Eur. El., 244, 245 in Eur. Or., 268, 269-70 in Soph. EL, 136, 139 Pyanopsia, 222 Pylades, i2on-3; Homeric, 103 in Aesch. Cho., 111 in Eur. Or., 202^59, 216, 248, 2 5 3 ^ 1 5 , 264, 271; marriage to Electra, 265; revenge scheme of, 254-57 Rabinowitz, N., 109^39 Radermacher, L., 248^3, 260^42 Ram Jug Painter, 101, 132 Rape, 6n.2i; Philomela's, 180, 184; Seneca on, 9 Rape-revenge: in film, 6n.2i; in Hesiod, 33-34 Ratliff.J. D., 29n.77 Reciprocity: and justice, 311.9; as themis, xvi n.10 Reckford, K., i66n.90, i93n.4, 287n.5i Recognition: in Aesch. Cho., 114; in Eur. Cyc., 74; in Eur. EL, 127-30, 140, 231-32, 243-44; ' n Eur. Med., 205n.73; in Eur. Or., 254-56; in Horn. Od., 35, 36n.g, 39; in Soph. El., 127-30 Regenbogen, O., 21 in.89 Rehm, R., i93n.6 Reinhardt, K., i06n.30, 26on.43 Rejuvenation, 157^64; of Iolaus, 150-51, •53 Reparation, in Ajax, 95, 96 Rescue, of female relative, 35, 59, 113 Return, traditional tale of, 4in.22 Revenge, 2n.7, 42-43; abstention from, 65; in Aesopic fables, 5 1 ^ 5 1 ; Apolline, ign.3g, 105; Aristotle on, 2; in Athenian society, xvii-xviii, 225; Christian beliefs on, 18-22, 25; comic, 36-37, 38,

75^40, 79; corruption of, 243; cunning and deception in, 4, 167; dissatisfaction in, 13, 15211.46; divine aid for, 35, 42, 51, 59; effect on civil society, 22; in Elizabethan era, 19^42; erotic, 5in.52; gratitude for, 47; on husbands, i43n.6; "indecency" of, 226; intention in, 119, 120, 127; Italianate, 138^59; for kin-slaughter, 52-54, 99-100; literary traditions of, 5; as magical rite, 5; masculine/feminine paradigm of, 117; masculine principle of, 2in.50, 120, 123; modern audience of, 6; Montaigne on, 19; as nomos, 79; oath-based, 1 9 5 ^ 2 1 ; in the Old Testament, 20; personal, 137-38; Pindar on, 45-50; Plato on, 7, 54; preIslamic, 53^63; in preservation of order, xvi-xvii, 6, 50, 52, 54, 56, 64, 73; primary, 242, 255; purpose of, 2; rationale for, xv n.6; role of anger in, 7, 33, 270; in romanticism, 5n.i8; Samuel Johnson on, m . i ; secondary, 99, ioon.3, 127; Seneca on, 255n.25; symbolic, 3n.io; theatrical qualities of, 3-4; by women, 143-44, 177-78, 186, 193 in Eur. Cyc., 74, 79 in Eur. El., 227 in Eur. Hec., 163-66, 177 in Horn. Od., 34-42 Revenge drama: English, 3n.3, 5, 6; authority in, 25; deception in, 27-28; licensing of, 22; mutilation in, 18 Renaissance, 2, 18; audience of, 29-31 ; Seneca's influence on, 17; tricksters of, 4n.i3 Revengers. See Avengers Rhadamanthys, 42^24, 51, 55, 270 Ridgeway, W., 66n.3 Rigg, Diana, 6 Bigoktto (Verdi), 6, 132^34 Rituals: cannibalistic, 187^37; changes in, 68n.i2; initiation, 7 2 ^ 2 7 ; of oaths, iggn.4o; of Panathenaic festival, 63; participation in, xiv n.3; of placation, 161; of transformation, 106-8; of xenia, 20211.56 Rivier, A., i g 6 n . i 7 , 278^23 Robert, C., 224^130 Robertson, M., 1 7 9 ^ 7 Robertson, N., i46n.20 Rollant, N., î g g n ^ g Ronnet, G., 23gn.54

GENERAL INDEX

Rosenmeyer, T. G., 411.12; on Seneca, ion.26, 1 in.30 Rumor, in Soph. Aj., 83 Sacrifice, 2 i g n . i o 6 ; of children, 1 7 8 ^ 3 ; to heroes, 58n.8i; human, 23, 144, 1 6 1 - 6 2 ; in Pindar, 49; as sublimation, xiii n.i; in treaties, iggn.40 Said, S., xv n.7, 1 9 3 ^ 5 , 207n.80 Salaminians, in Soph. Aj., 82 Salingar, L. G., 2 9 ^ 7 8 Samter, E. L., 2 4 0 ^ 5 6 Sanctuary, xv n.4; violation of, 147, 148 Satyr-drama, 7 3 ^ 3 2 , 74-79, 156-57; effects in Horn. Od., 18, 38; revenge in, xvii, 43 Satyrs: baldness of, 37n. 1 1 in Eur. Cyc., 77, 79, 2 5 9 ^ 3 6 Schadewaldt, W., 13611.53 Schefold, K., 8 9 ^ 7 3 Schein, S., 203n.63 Schlesier, R., i6on.73, i63n.82 Schlesinger, E., 2 78n.2 2 Schmidt, M„ 215n.g4, 2 24n. 1 3 0 Scott, Walter: Ivankoe, in.3 Seaford, R., 72n.27, 75n.4i, 77n.4g, 88n.68, i3on.2g, i 3 6 n . 5 i Seale, D., 1 3 2 ^ 3 7 Sealey, R., 5 2 ^ 5 5 Seeck, G., 247n.i, 26sn.5g Segal, C., i2on.2, i4on.66, I 7 3 n . i i 5 Seidensticker, B., 1 5 0 ^ 3 7 , 24gn.7, 26on.42; on Helen, 2 6 2 ^ 5 2 Seleucus, 57n.76 Sexuality: in English revenge plays, 23; in Medea, 194-95 Shakespeare, William: Hamlet, 6, 23; 3.1, 3on.82; 3.2.248, 5; 3.2.408-10, 27; 5.2.279, 26; Merchant of Venice, 1; Richard III, 187; Titus Andronicus, 23; 1.1.136, 1 6 7 ^ 9 2 ; 2.4.38, 186; 3.1.130, 2 1 , 24; 4.3, 2 7 ^ 7 2 ; 5.1.141-44, 1 5 2 ^ 4 6 ; 5.2, 3 0 - 3 1 ; 5.2.30-33, 2; 5.3.72, 26; 5.3.120, 21; 5.3.203-4, 25 Shefton, B., 2 2 4 ^ 1 3 0 Shuttles, 185-86 Silenus: in Eur. Cyc., 74-79, 200^43; in Soph. lehn., 259 Sleep scenes, 253n. 16 Smith, W. D., 247n.2, 2 4 9 ^ 6 Snell, B „ 282 Socrates, on anger, 7

Solmsen, E, 2 8 3 ^ 4 1 Solon, 68n.i4, 2oin.54 Sophrosyne, 89, g5, i g 7 n . i g Sourvinou-Inwood, C., i04n.22 Spells: magical, gon.78, gin.82; Orphic, 77 Spranger.J.A., i54n.50 Stadtmuller, H., 275 Steidle, W., 226n.3, 232n.28 Stendhal: La Duchesse de Palliano, 3 Stephanopoulos, T., 1 7 4 ^ 1 1 6 Stephens, L., 226n.3 Stevens, G. P., 1 9 0 ^ 5 0 Stheneboea, 143, ig4n.7 Stoicism, anger in, 8 - 1 0 , i g Strohm, H., 24in.58 Stroud, R. S., 53nn.6o, 62 Suicide: in English revenge plays, 30 in Soph. Aj., 80, 85-87, g2-g3 Suppliants, i56n.5g in Eur. Heracl., 147, 1 5 1 Supplication: hand in, 204^67 in Eur. Heracl., 1 6 1 in Eur. Med., 204, 208 in Eur. Or., 255 Sutton, D. F., 77n.4g, i68n.g5 Svenbro, J., 4 2 ^ 2 3 Symonds, J . A., 1 5 8 ^ 6 7 Szilagyi,J. G., 2 i6n.g6 Taillardat.J., 204n.66 Talthybius, i o 2 n . i 5 , i6on.72, 1 6 1 , 162 in Eur. Or., 252 Tantalus: in Eur. Or., 24g; in Sen. Thy., 1 1 Taplin, O., g2n.8g, 1 1 2 ^ 4 8 , 2 3 8 ^ 5 0 Tarkow, T. A., 1 6 4 ^ 8 7 , 23on.i8, 235n.3g Tarrant, R.J., i 2 n . 3 i Tecmessa, 82, 83n.6o, 87, 88n.68, 89, 97; as suppliant, 94, 96n.g6 Telemachus {Odyssey), 38, 50, 100; as initiate, 40, 105; plot against, 36; recognition of Odysseus, 3gn. 18 Tereus: in legend, i7gn.7; pollution of, 189; transformation of, 183 in Soph. Ter., 1 8 0 - g i , ig7 Teucer, go, 94, 95; curse of, 96 Thargelia, 222 Theagenes, 3 n . i o Theiler, W., 4 9 ^ 4 5 Themis, xvi n.10, 126, 203 Themisto, 178 Theseus, 1 3 1 ^ 3 1 , 1 3 6 ^ 5 1 ; in Medea legend, 224

GENERAL INDEX

Thespis, 66, 67, 68 Thettalus, 6on.88 Thrasyboulus, 54 Thyestes, 13511.47, 2460.75; curse of, 144 in Sen. Thy., 1 1 - 1 2 ; banquet of, 1 4 - 1 7 ; criminality of, 13 Thymos, 279-80; in the Iliad, 285; Medea's, 2 1 1 - 1 2 , 2 1 3 ^ 9 1 , 273, 275-78, 282, 284-85; pity and, 280-81 Tisamenos, 139^62 Titans, in Hes. Theog., 33-34 Tourneur, Cyril: Atheist's Tragedy, 21, 2 8 ^ 7 5 ; Revenger's Tragedy, 25^64, 3 1 ^ 8 5 , 240^57; 1./.59-40, 20; 1.1.55, 43.1.6-7, 23; 5.5./SS, 24; 5.2, 27; 5.5, 30; 5-3-42-47, 29; 5-3-I04~5< 26 Tragedy, Attic: xiii-xv; audience of, 272; as form of carnival, 69-73; chariot mechanism in, 22on.io7; conventions of, 249; effect of civic disorder on, 225-26; origins of, 65-69; parody of, 248; portrayal of violence in, 76; suicides in, 85 Trickery: of Apollo, 130, 131, 138; of Athena, 81, 82; effect on honor, 51; of Heracles, 44, 47, 49; of Medea, 4, 207, 208; Orestes' use of, 120, 230, 257; in Renaissance revenge, 4 ^ 1 3 ; in revenge, xvii, 35. See also Deception; Dolos Trickster, 5, 38, 232 Tripatores, 222, 2 2 3 ^ 1 2 4 Trollope, Anthony, 78 Tucker, T. G., io8n.34 Turner, V., 7 m . 2 4 Tydeus, 188 Tyndareus, in Eur. Or., 251, 2 5 3 ^ 1 5 , 254, 267-68, 2 7 0 ^ 7 6 Tyrants: cannibalism of, i68n.g6, 187-88; in English revenge plays, 24n.6i

Vickers, B., I24n.i6, i g s n . 1 4 Vickers, M., 7 4 ^ 3 5 Victims: as enemy of culture, 43, 78-79, 163, 184, 197; of magic, 86n.63; of murder, 52-54; repulsive, 17; surrogate, 265; of vengeance, display of, 116, 243, 263 Vindice (Revenger's Tragedy), 23, 24, 27, 30, 98, 272 Vines, pruning of, 70 Violence: Athenian attitude toward, xiii-xiv; organized, 6; staging of, 76 Visser, M., 1 5 4 ^ 5 0 Voigtlander, H. D., 1 9 3 ^ 5 , 2 7 4 ^ 5 Wade-Gery, H. T., 5 8 n . 8 i Walton,J., i i 2 n . 4 8 A Warning for Fair Women, 28 Weaving, text as, 185, i86n.33, 1 9 m . 5 3 Weber, Max, 72n.28 Webster, John: Duchess of Malfi, 2 1 ^ 4 8 ; White Devil, i7n.35, 2in.49, 24n.6i, 28n.75 Webster, T. B. L., i36n.55, 1 4 5 ^ 1 7 Wender, D., 4on.21 West, M., 6 g n . i 7 , i84n.24, 22 in. 113, 23in.22 West, S., 4in.22 Wet nurses, i n n . 4 4 Whipping, 83n.6i Whitman, C., 1 2 7 ^ 2 3 Wife-killing, i03n.20 Wilamowitz-MoellendorfF, Ulrich von, 148^32, i6on.73, 2o8n.82, 2 2 m . 1 1 4 ; o n A e g e u s , 224n.i3o Wilkins.J., i46n.2o, i 5 4 n . 5 i , 1 5 5 ^ 5 6 Willetts, R. E., i97n.24 Willink, C. W., 248n.4, 258n.33, 259^39,

Usener, H., 2 o m . 5 4

263n.56; on Hermione, 268n.68 Wine, mixed, 76, 7 8 ^ 5 2 Wine flask, in Eur. Cyc., 74, 128 Winkler, J., xiii n.2, 72n.28 Winnington-Ingram, R. P., i 2 6 n . 2 i , i38n.6o Wolff, H.J., 5 2 n . 5 3

Vanderpool, E., 146^22 Van Leeuwen,J., 183^22 Vendettas, 2n.4; culture of, 107^32; largescale, 53; Nestor's, 3 4 ^ 5 Vengeance. See Revenge Vengeance-groups, ioon.1 Verdier, R., 1 4 4 ^ 1 5 , 1 9 3 ^ 5 Vermeule, E., io2n. 12, 104^23 Verrall, A. W., 260^43

Women: abandoned, 1 9 4 ^ 7 ; andreia of, 125; as avengers, 143-44, 177—7®> '86, 193; barbarian, 192; child-rearing by, 178; at the Dionysia, 7111.22; as ergatis, i86n-35; in Hecuba, 158-59, 168, 169-70, 1 7 1 - 7 2 ; injury to, 2in.5o; kinduty of, 127; oaths of, 1990.36, 200n.42; reputation of, 142-43; rescue of, 35, 59; tongues of, 185; in vendetta culture, i07n.32; violence by, 1 7 1 - 7 2

Urn, Delphic, in Soph. El., 128-30, 131, 140, 141

3O6

GENERAL

INDEX

Woodart, T. M., 121 n.4

sion o n Odysseus' revenge, 42; D e f e n d e r

W o o d f o r d , S., 14611.24

o f Oaths, 196, 203; and H e r a c l e a n revenge, 4 4 - 4 9 ; Horkios, 2 0 i n . 5 3 ; thy-

Xenia: law of, 163; misuse of, 4511.34; rituals of, 20211.56 Xenos, killing of, 16311.83

mos of, 28on.2g; o f Trophies, 152; U n d e r w o r l d , 108 Zinserling-Paul, V., 2 2 4 ^ 1 3 0 Zuntz, G., I 4 5 n . i 7 , 1 5 0 ^ 3 7 , 1 5 2 ^ 4 7 ,

Zeitlin, F., 7211.27, 22911.12, 24811.3 Zeus: Agoraios, 1 4 7 ; Areios, 10711.33; deci-

154n-5°> i55n-55 Zwierlein, O . , 274n.6, 2 7 g n . 2 4 , 280