Remote Fieldwork Supervision for BCBA® Trainees [1 ed.] 0128159146, 9780128159149

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REMOTE FIELDWORK SUPERVISION FOR BCBAs TRAINEES

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REMOTE FIELDWORK SUPERVISION FOR BCBAs TRAINEES LISA N. BRITTON Britton Behavioral Consulting, Pinole, CA, United States

MATTHEW J. CICORIA Behavioral Consultant, Positive Behavioral Outcomes, LLC, Newbury, NH, United States

Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier 125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, United Kingdom 525 B Street, Suite 1650, San Diego, CA 92101, United States 50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom Copyright r 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions. This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein). Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility. To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN: 978-0-12-815914-9 For Information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Publisher: Nikki P. Levy Acquisition Editor: Emily Ekle Editorial Project Manager: Barbara Makinster Production Project Manager: Mohanapriyan Rajendran Cover Designer: Matthew Limbert Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India

Contents

Preface

ix

Section I ARE YOU PREPARED TO SUPERVISE? 1. Introduction

3

The Importance of Effective, Competent Supervision Reasons Not to Supervise Why We Wrote This Book References

4 4 5 6

2. The Logistics of Supervision

7

Is This a Side Gig? Are You Protected? Communicating Securely Media Creation Final Thoughts References

7 8 9 9 10 10

Section II A SCOPE AND SEQUENCE TO STRUCTURE SUPERVISION 3. Measurement, Data Display, and Interpretation

13

Introduction Identification of the Problem Measurement Interobserver Agreement Visual Display of Data References

13 13 16 21 22 26

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CONTENTS

4. Concepts and Principles

27

Introduction Basic Principles of Behavior Analysis Schedules of Reinforcement Motivating Operations Rule Governed Behavior Verbal Operants Derived Stimulus Relations References

27 27 29 30 30 31 33 33

5. Behavior Assessment

35

Introduction Conducting Assessments of Skill Strengths and Deficits Preference Assessments Functional Behavior Assessment References

35 35 37 41 49

6. Behavior Change Procedures

53

Introduction Interventions to Increase Skills Interventions to Decrease Behaviors of Concern References

53 53 58 62

7. Personnel Supervision and Management

63

Introduction References

63 65

8. Beyond the Task List

67

Acceptance and Commitment Therapy Precision Teaching Executive Function Curriculum-Based Measures Direct Instruction References

67 68 69 70 71 72

Section III IMPLEMENTING SUPERVISION EFFECTIVELY 9. Supervisory Interpersonal Skills

77

Using Positive Reinforcement in Supervision Correcting Inadequate Performance References

77 78 80

CONTENTS

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10. Ethics in Supervision

81

Introduction Conclusion References

81 87 87

11. Putting It All Together

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Appendix A: List of Recommended Videos to Develop Appendix B: Target Behavior Labels Appendix C: Graphing in Excel Appendix D: Behavior Analytic Principles Scenarios Appendix E: Schedules of Reinforcement Scenarios Appendix F: Motivating Operations Versus Discriminative Stimuli Appendix G: Conditioned Motivating Operations Appendix H: Rule Governed Behavior Appendix I: Verbal Behavior Scenarios Appendix J: Stimulus Equivalence Examples Appendix K: Determining Potential Functions of Behavior Appendix L: Professional and Ethical Compliance Code for Behavior Analysts Index

91 93 95 101 103 109 113 117 119 123 139 141 165

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Preface The field of Applied Behavior Analysis is growing at an unprecedented rate. The combination of advocacy for, and insurance funding of, behavior-analytic services has created an environment where just about anywhere in the world students are able to take classes online, receive supervision, and sit for the Board Certified Behavior Analyst (BCBA) exam. Access to behavior-analytic curricula is no longer bound by geographic or occupational factors that have traditionally served as barriers to training. Given the societal needs for behavioral services in the world, we see this as largely a positive development in our profession. However, obtaining board certification in a remote or distance-based context presents challenges, particularly in the area of supervision, which is often the last hurdle trainees clear before sitting the exam. While most people would agree that onsite supervision with frequent feedback from mentors is ideal, we also recognize that in many cases, distance-based supervision is the only option for trainees. This book is aimed at BCBAs who are considering adding supervision to their professional repertoires. It will also be helpful to BCBAs who are already supervising, but are looking for additional materials to best support their trainees. The purpose of this book, therefore, is to provide supervisors a clear framework with which to mentor their trainees. More broadly speaking, we want to help readers become outstanding supervisors. Having noted this, as we began working on this book, we realized very quickly that we didn’t just want to write a “how-to” book on supervision. Although we cover plenty of topics that are of this nature, we decided to include additional content to cover some aspects of supervision that are rarely discussed. For example, we begin this book by asking the question, “is supervision right for you?” and walk readers through the pros and cons of deciding whether to provide supervision services. We also discuss many practical considerations for providing supervision, such as the logistical requirements of supervising in a secure manner, and how to interact with your trainee in a way that maximizes skill development. We have also included a chapter that discusses behavior-analytic topics that are not on the current version of the task list, but we feel are nonetheless important for trainees to have exposure to.

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PREFACE

Beyond these less tangible areas of supervision, the real value of this book comes from the detailed guides to reviewing the fifth edition task list skills. Specifically, we break down the components of the task list and provide a structure for reviewing them with your trainees. In order to maximize the success of your trainees, these instructional strategies are arranged in a Behavioral Skills Training format. With each task list area, we include a discussion of the elements of the BACB Code of Responsible Conduct that are germane to those sections. At this stage of our profession’s development, providing high quality supervision cannot be overstated. We hope this book plays a small part in ensuring that trainees receive the outstanding supervision they deserve.

S E C T I O N

I

ARE YOU PREPARED TO SUPERVISE?

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C H A P T E R

1 Introduction The phone call went really well. The potential trainee seemed like a bright person with a promising future. He not only wanted to accrue supervision hours, but was interested in conducting applied research with a population that was near and dear to my heart. The director of his program was a professional acquaintance of mine who would support the supervision process wholeheartedly. I felt like I could help him become an effective clinician, and the work we would do together would also have positive, collateral effects in the program that he worked in. After some agonizing consideration, I turned down the opportunity to supervise.

The societal need for behavior analytic services has led to an incredible period of growth for our young field. In response to these needs, higher education institutions have developed behavior analytic training programs to fulfill the demand at a rapid pace (LeBlanc & Luiselli, 2016). As of this writing, there are over 300 training programs that offer the Behavior Analysis Certification Board’s Verified Course Sequences around the world. From Beijing to Birmingham, and from New Hampshire to New Zealand, one can participate in a graduate program that meets the course requirements for board certification. Moreover, numerous programs are offering these programs in formats that are completely online. The growing number of students pursuing graduate education in Applied Behavior Analysis creates a corresponding increase in supervision needs. If you are reading this book, the chances are good that you already understand this dynamic quite well. If you have gone through the board certification process, you probably also know that coursework alone does not adequately prepare someone for clinical practice, and therefore the need to have effective, competent supervision is integral to developing our young field. The chances are also good that if you are reading this book, you are either contemplating providing supervision, or you have already done so, and are looking for additional resources.

Remote Fieldwork Supervision for BCBA® Trainees DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815914-9.00001-8

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Before diving into the latter, we feel it is important to talk about the nature of supervision itself, reasons why you should consider providing supervision, and circumstances in which it makes sense to decline supervision opportunities.

THE IMPORTANCE OF EFFECTIVE, COMPETENT SUPERVISION The case for accepting a request to provide supervision is quite straightforward. Providing supervision, when done effectively, helps prepare the future practitioners of our field. Because the mission of Applied Behavior Analysis is to, in part, help solve social problems, having competent Board Certified Behavior Analysts in the workforce provides direct benefits to the consumers they serve. However, there are oftentimes more direct contingencies of reinforcement that are derived from providing supervision. Some of these reinforcers include the intellectual stimulation that goes along with helping candidates master concepts and solve problems, financial compensation (when BCBAs provide supervision outside of their day jobs), and contributing to the growth of an organization (when BCBAs provide supervision as part of their employment). In addition to these more obvious reasons for providing supervision, there are some less tangible benefits that are worth considering. Providing supervision requires fairly broad knowledge in all areas of the BACB Task List. Committing to supervising a candidate can help either maintain knowledge in these areas, or brush up on areas that are rusty. In other words, providing supervision can push you to become a more well-rounded practitioner. Providing supervision can also help you practice important interpersonal skills in the course of providing feedback and shaping desired supervisee responding, which will most likely translate into other areas of practice. Lastly, providing supervision is an excellent way to nurture and grow your personal network. This may not result in immediate reinforcing consequences, but developing a strong personal network can pay dividends in the future, as these relationships can result in occupational, research, or other professional collaborations (Bailey & Burch, 2010).

REASONS NOT TO SUPERVISE This is a book about supervision, so you might be wondering why there is a section with this title. Let us go back to the vignette at the beginning of this chapter. This was an actual scenario that we are

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familiar with. On paper, this was a perfect match, and just about all of the reinforcers for providing supervision we just described were in place. Unfortunately, this supervision request came just when the supervisor-to-be was taking on several other projects and ultimately could not carve out the time necessary to provide the experience the candidate deserved. Another reason to reconsider a request to supervise lies on your knowledge of the task list. Are there areas in which you do not have a lot of experience? For example, if all of your experience is in providing early intervention for toddlers with autism, and a potential supervisee works with a population of adults with intellectual disabilities who engage in severe problem behaviors, you may want to refer the candidate to someone with the relevant expertise. Likewise, if you have little to no supervisory experience, you may want to decline requests to supervise candidates while you undertake some professional development in this area. Taken together, when considering a request to supervise, it is wise to keep in mind the Behavior Analysis Certification Board’s Code of Responsible Conduct, especially code element 1.02 (a), which states, “All behavior analysts provide services, teach, and conduct research only within the boundaries of their competence, defined as being commensurate with their education, training, and supervised experience” (Behavior Analysis Certification Board, 2014). On the whole, none of these considerations are permanent dealbreakers. The good news is that if you really want to provide supervision, you can take steps to remedy many of these conditions. This perhaps underscores how the process of supervision is an opportunity for growth.

WHY WE WROTE THIS BOOK In an ideal world, all supervision would take place in the context of a Concentrated Supervised Fieldwork model (Behavior Analysis Certification Board, 2017). Common sense would suggest that frequent supervision occurring in situ should, on average, provide better opportunities for shaping clinical skills. However, given the nature of our rapidly expanding field, many candidates will not have that opportunity. Instead, many candidates will pursue their coursework through online programs, and if they cannot find supervisors in their local communities, they will obtain supervision via a distance-based model. This may be especially true for candidates living in rural or otherwise underrepresented areas of the world. In short, we wrote this book to support BCBAs who are providing supervision in this remote fashion. If you have ever participated in

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distance-based supervision, whether as a trainee or supervisor (for some, maybe both), you probably already understand some of the challenges that are involved in this process. Even with the advances in video-conferencing platforms, it can be a struggle to interact in a non face-to-face format. A more significant set of challenges include the difficulties associated with a supervisee being able to demonstrate key behavior analytic competencies. As such, we aim to provide strategies and tactics for overcoming these obstacles, so you can provide the best experience possible for your supervisee. To do this, we provide guidelines for the use of the various teleconferencing tools and practices that are out there, and specific activities that you can use with your supervisees that will help them master the skills in the 5th edition BACB task list. Beyond these basic domains, we want to provide you with an array of additional resources in areas of supervisory practice that we think are likewise very important. These include identifying business and insurance needs for those providing supervision outside of their current employment, and improving how to provide effective feedback to your supervisees. Finally, we provide some guidance on how to incorporate areas of behavior analytic practice that, at this stage of our field, can be considered “beyond the task list.” These include acquainting supervisees with important topics like Acceptance and Commitment Therapy, Executive Functioning Skills, Standard Celeration Charting, and more. In short, we want to provide you with as many resources as possible in order to help you provide outstanding supervision.

References Bailey, J., & Burch, M. (2010). 25 Essential skills and strategies for the professional behavior analyst. New York, NY: Routledge. Behavior Analysis Certification Board. (2014). Professional and ethical compliance code for behavior analysts. Littleton, CO: Behavior Analyst Certification Board. Behavior Analysis Certification Board. (2017). Online newsletter, October issue. Littleton, CO: Behavior Analyst Certification Board. LeBlanc, L. A., & Luiselli, J. K. (2016). Refining supervisory practices in the field of behavior analysis. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 9, 271 273.

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C H A P T E R

2 The Logistics of Supervision Let’s do a thought experiment: You have been approached by a trainee who is seeking supervision. After some discussion with this person, you feel it is a great match. You have run through the considerations that we discussed in the previous chapter, and before too long, you are daydreaming about the types of supervision activities that you can do as well as the various ways you can help this individual become an exceptional behavior analyst. You have agreed to a supervision contract, so that means that you are good to go, right? Maybe not. Before you schedule your first supervision session, there are a few logistical or organizational questions that, in our opinion, need to be addressed.

IS THIS A SIDE GIG? If you are providing supervision as part of the duties assigned to you by your employer, you can probably go ahead and skip to the next section. However, if you are providing supervision outside of your current job, there are some important legal and tax related issues that you will want to consider. With regard to the latter, in the course of a trainee paying you for supervision, you will be earning what is essentially self-employed income. We both practice in the United States, and here, there are very different tax rules as it relates to reporting this income, and of course, paying taxes on it. Neither of us are experts in accounting, so if you plan on doing supervision as a side gig, it would be worthwhile to sit down with an accountant to get some expert advice. Important issues to consider include: • How to document payments from trainees • How much of this income to set aside for taxes

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• How this income will affect your overall tax situation (you may go from getting refunds back to paying quarterly estimated taxes) • What supervision-related expenses you can deduct Let us reiterate two points here: First, we are speaking from our experience as practitioners in the United States, but we assume that the tax considerations for self-employment income will be different than being employed conventionally in most countries. Second, we strongly believe whatever it might cost to seek out professional advice in this area will save both money and headaches down the road. Google is a wonderful resource, but you really want professional advice in these circumstances.

ARE YOU PROTECTED? “From what?” you may ask. If you are currently employed by a school or ABA provider, there is a high probability that your professional activities are insured by these organizations. In other words, these organizations most likely pay for some type of insurance policy that protects you and the organization from claims of malpractice (though it cannot hurt to double check this too). However, if you are providing supervision on your own, these employer policies will not protect you. You may be thinking, “Hey, I’m only providing supervision. It’s not like I’m developing a behavior support plan for a highly self-injurious individual.” This may be true, but your trainee might be involved in these activities. And, if they get into a situation where a legal action takes place, savvy lawyers could go after every link in the “chain of command,” of your trainee. While some may point out that the model supervision contract suggested by the BACB (Behavior Analysis Certification Board, n.d.) has an indemnity clause, that clause may not be sufficient to protect you in the event of a legal action. On one level, this may sound a little paranoid, but just like with the risk/reward considerations for paying for tax advice, paying for an inexpensive insurance policy is probably a responsible route to take. Lastly, while your wallet is still open, if your plans involve doing a lot of supervision, it may behoove you to speak with an attorney to see if setting up some legally-defined business structure, such as a Limited Liability Corporation or some other business entity, is right for you. The pros and cons for doing this are beyond the scope of this book, but it is worth doing some homework to figure out if doing so fits into your overall plans for professional activity.

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MEDIA CREATION

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COMMUNICATING SECURELY So, let’s imagine that you have agreed to provide remote supervision to a trainee, and to the extent that it is necessary, you have your tax, insurance, and legal ducks in a row. Let us take a minute to review some technological and logistical needs that will help make your supervision sessions as secure and productive as possible. For remote supervision, you will obviously need some type of video conferencing solution. While there are free platforms out there, such as Skype and FaceTime, many of these are not secure. In fact, you should assume that from a privacy perspective, discussing specific clients on unsecure platforms is tantamount to talking about them publicly (Cavalari, Gillis, Kruser, & Romanczyk, 2015). As far as secure video conferencing platforms are concerned, we have found good luck with Go-To-Meeting (https://www.gotomeeting.com), but there are many others out there, like VSee (https://vsee.com; Cicoria, 2017). It is also important to note that given how quickly technologies change, you will want to verify security standards of any platform you decide to use on your own. Usually this information is located on a video-conferencing company’s website. As an aside, one tip for communicating securely is to choose a platform that enables screen sharing. By doing so, when trainees share videos or data, they can do so without that information being stored on your computer. However, your trainees will posses information that needs protection, so you will still need to coach them on how to manage those data appropriately. For a great review of best practices in digital communication and service delivery, we highly recommend referring to Cavalari et al. (2015), as well as Rios, Kazemi, and Peterson (2018). The last bit of advice in this section has to do with where you choose to hold your remote supervision meetings. As noted above, you should treat a video-conference meeting the same way you would a face-to-face one as it relates to conducting these sessions in private. In other words, do not hold remote supervision meetings in commonly accessed areas of your place of business or home. The same thing goes with the local coffee shop. While this may sound like common sense, if you spend some time hanging out at the local Starbucks or Panera Bread during the workday, you are likely to overhear all sorts of sensitive conversations!

MEDIA CREATION In various sections of this book, we mention assigning trainees to watch videos for various purposes, such as developing operational

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definitions, practicing data collection, and so on. In order to facilitate these activities, we recommend creating a library of videos in advance. Appendix A contains a list of suggested videos to make in advance. As far as tools are concerned, most modern smartphones will do an adequate job in creating them, but ensure that there is sufficient picture and sound quality before distributing them to your trainees.

FINAL THOUGHTS If you’re new to supervision, it can be quite exciting to embark in the journey of preparing tomorrow’s BCBAs. It is important to reiterate that we are not lawyers, accountants, Internet security experts, or videographers. Instead, what we have presented here are meant as prompts for you to: (1) take these issues seriously; and (2) seek assistance from experts in these areas. While it is tempting to start the supervision process right away, we cannot overstate the importance of making sure you get off on the right foot. Our recommendations in this chapter will hopefully help you do just that.

References Behavior Analysis Certification Board (n.d.). Sample Supervision Contract for BCBA/BCaBA Trainees. Retrieved from the Behavior Analyst Certification Board website: ,https:// www.bacb.com/wp-content/uploads/Sample-Supervision-Contract-1.docx.. Cavalari, R. N. S., Gillis, J. M., Kruser, N., & Romanczyk, R. G. (2015). Digital communication and records in service provision and supervision: Regulation and practice. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 8, 176 189. Cicoria, M.J. (Producer). (2017, May 14). Session 26: Wendy Machalicek Talks Telemedicine [Audio Podcast]. Retrieved from ,https://www.behavioralobservations.com/session26-wendy-machalicek-discusses-telemedicine-and-aba/.. Rios, D., Kazemi, E., & Peterson, S. M. (2018). Best practices and considerations for effective service provision via remote technology. Behavior Analysis: Research and Practice, 18 (3), 277 287.

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3 Measurement, Data Display, and Interpretation

INTRODUCTION The cornerstone of our practice is our ability to define, measure, and analyze socially relevant behavior. The consequences for not adequately preparing trainees in these skills cannot be overstated. Therefore, a significant amount of time should be devoted to the area of measurement, data display, and interpretation. There are four main areas of focus for this chapter. We begin with identifying target behaviors, developing operational definitions, and working with stakeholders to determine a plan for support. The second section focuses on both continuous and discontinuous data collection systems with an emphasis on practicing a variety of data collection procedures to determine which system is appropriate based on the target behavior in question. The third area covers various forms of interobserver agreement based on the data collection system used. The final area of this chapter includes methods for practicing graphing in Excel with an emphasis on the appropriate visual display of data and graphing conventions within the field of behavior analysis. This area concludes with an emphasis on interpreting data through visual inspection.

IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM A common challenge we see with identifying clinical problems is that many trainees come with a narrow history in terms of the population of individuals they have served. Trainees’ fieldwork settings could

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include early intervention services, classroom instruction, or behavior reduction. As such, supervisors should work toward broadening the scope of their trainees’ perspective to encompass a variety of needs within the area of problem identification. There are three main areas of focus related to identification of the problem: working with the stakeholder to identify priorities, identifying target behaviors, and developing operational definitions. Many trainees will need assistance expanding their skills to multiple contexts within this area.

Working With Stakeholders It is important to involve stakeholders when determining targets for intervention for social validity and to ensure you are meeting their expectations. Stakeholders include the client, parents, care providers, and teachers. Provide training to trainees regarding methods to involve stakeholders in the process, including providing a sample of questions asked. Discuss the importance of taking cultural differences into account when determining targets for intervention. Some cultures may identify a particular behavior as problematic which others do not (Fong, Catagnus, Brodhead, Quigley, & Field, 2016). For example, in some cultures eating with your hands is considered inappropriate while in others it is customary.

Identifying Target Behaviors Provide instruction for your trainees regarding the topic of target behaviors. We have found it helpful to emphasize that behavior analysis can target behaviors in a variety of settings and populations beyond what is typical within the field, including early intervention services for children with autism and behavior reduction. The key here is to focus on an adequate assessment of the needs for the client in question. Some topics to include within this arena are the relevance of behavior rule, habilitation, and normalization (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, pp. 56 59). It is also helpful to focus on what to call the target behavior within this section of skill development. This can be done by providing examples and nonexamples of labeling target behaviors (e.g., disrobing as opposed to stripping or taking food from others as opposed to food stealing). Target behavior labels should be age-appropriate and culturally sensitive. This simple language change can produce a higher level of social acceptability from stakeholders including parents and care providers. Appendix B includes a list of examples and nonexamples as a point of reference.

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Developing Operational Definitions Start by providing a training on this topic. Although developing operational definitions is frequently a topic that is covered early within most course sequences, many trainees forget the key elements related to this topic. Discuss the characteristics of a good operational definition as well as how to test an operational definition once developed (Cooper et al., 2007, pp. 68 69). Focus on the three criteria for defining behavior; an operational definition should be objective, clear, and complete (Cooper et al., 2007, pp. 67 68).

Modeling, Rehearsal, and Performance Feedback Include a video model of you interviewing a “client” and a second video model of you interviewing another “stakeholder.” We recommend using a colleague or someone else who is not actually a client or stakeholder for these purposes to limit the transmission of potentially sensitive information. The goal is to develop a high-quality example of what the interview should look like as a model for the trainees to ensure best practices within the behavioral skills training (BST) process. After answering any questions that trainees may have, provide an assignment for them to practice interviewing someone related to potential targets. Review the interview during an individual supervision session and provide feedback. The next step within the BST process is to show your trainees a series of videos depicting different behaviors each time. Show the first video and model for the trainees what terms you would use to label the target behavior. Then follow the label with an operational definition of the target behavior. Again, you will answer any questions the trainees may have. When the trainees view the next video, they will come up with their own answers and you will facilitate a discussion regarding the answers they provided. Give feedback on ways to make their operational definitions more observable and discuss potential pitfalls such as determining the offset of a behavior. Ensure that trainees have a variety of types of behaviors to use for practice including skill acquisition behaviors, behaviors one would target for reduction, episodic behaviors, behaviors occurring for longer durations, and across a variety of populations. Use a rubric such as the example provided in Table 3.1 to evaluate and provide feedback to the trainees regarding the target behaviors and operational definitions they develop. Continue this process until they reach a previously determined criterion for mastery.

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TABLE 3.1 Rubric for Evaluating Target Behaviors and Operational Definitions 6

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Target behavior label is age-appropriate Target behavior label is culturally sensitive Operational definition is objective Operational definition is clear Operational definition is complete Operational definition is measurable An observer can see or hear the occurrence of the target behavior The target behavior is broken down into the smallest behavioral components possible

Ethics Related to Target Behaviors and Operational Definitions Discuss with trainees some of the common ethical dilemmas associated with this topic, especially as it relates to a behavior analyst’s responsibility to clients. Ask the trainees to come up with some examples of ethical dilemmas they have personally experienced or that they can envision happening. Areas of focus include: • Clarification regarding the hierarchy of parties defined as a client (e.g., the child, parent, school district) • Identifying targets based on the best interest of the primary client (Bailey & Burch, 2016, pp. 85 86) • Ensuring that targets take into account the cultural diversity of the client

MEASUREMENT Measurement is an area that will require considerable focus. As you can imagine, your trainees’ ability to identify the correct data collection system is imperative to assessing baseline levels of a target as well as determining the effectiveness of an intervention. Imagine the challenges one would face if an individual was not collecting the relevant measures for someone who was engaging in self-injurious behaviors or pica. Due to the high level of importance placed on measurement, there are several goals tied to this area. We recommend that supervisors focus on building their trainees’ repertoires in the following steps: • Collecting data through a variety of data collection methods • Determining which data collection to use in various contexts

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MEASUREMENT

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• Developing appropriate data collection systems based on the data one is attempting to gather • Training others on the data collection method identified for a client Review the various types of data collection systems and divide them under the umbrella of continuous and discontinuous data collection measures (Cooper et al., 2007, p. 106). Provide information regarding the conditions under which each system may be most appropriate. In addition, explain the advantages and disadvantages of each system. Focus on the differences among direct, indirect, and product-based measures of behavior. Describe when one may choose to use an indirect measure and when product measures are an effective alternative (Cooper et al., 2007, p. 98). Focus on the following data collection systems to ensure appropriate coverage of the task list within this area (BCBA/BCaBA Task List Fifth Edition, Behavior Analyst Certification Board, 2017): • Occurrences • Frequency • Rate • Percentage • Temporal dimensions • Duration • Latency • Interresponse time • Strength of a behavior • Magnitude • Trials to criterion • Sampling procedures • Partial interval recording • Whole interval recording • Momentary time sampling

Rehearsal and Performance Feedback Using the same videos from the activities around developing target behaviors and operational definitions, have the trainees practice collecting data. After viewing the video and collecting data, compare the trainees’ results to an established rubric. Continue having the trainees collect data until they achieve a predetermined criterion. Use this criterion across all data collection systems to ensure competence in data collection regardless of the system used. Tables 3.2 through 3.8 are sample datasheets to use to practice data collection.

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TABLE 3.2 Sample Form to Practice Collecting Data on Occurrences Frequency

Time

Opportunities

Rate:

Percent:

TABLE 3.3 Sample Form to Practice Data Collection on Duration 1st occurrence

TABLE 3.4

2nd occurrence

3rd occurrence

Total duration

Average duration

Sample Form to Practice Data Collection on Latency

1st occurrence

2nd occurrence

3rd occurrence

4th occurrence

Average latency

TABLE 3.5 Sample Form to Practice Data Collection on Interresponse Time R1 R2

R2 R3

R3 R4

R4 R5

R5 R6

TABLE 3.6 Sample Form to Practice Collecting Data on Magnitude (e.g., Number of Occurrences of Yelling in the Classroom That Are Audible in the Hallway) Frequency

Time

Rate: _______

TABLE 3.7 Sample Form to Practice Collecting Data with Partial Interval and Whole Interval Recording 0 14 s

15 29 s

30 44 s

45 59 s

1 m 1:14

1:15 1:29

1:30 1:44

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1:45 2 m

19

MEASUREMENT

TABLE 3.8 Sampling 15 s

Sample Form to Practice Collecting Data with Momentary Time

30 s

TABLE 3.9

45 s

1m

1:15

1:30

1:45

2m

Sample Rubric for Correctly Identifying Number of Trials to Criterion 6

6

6

6

Correctly identifies number of trials to criterion

TABLE 3.10 Rubric for Identifying Appropriate Data Collection Systems Based on the Dimensions of the Behavior 6

6

6

6

6

Data collection system selected Appropriate choice given behavior Correct explanation for choice

To assess mastery of trials to criterion, provide examples of a preexisting criterion and data for the trainees to determine the number of trials required to reach criterion for each of the examples provided. Provide multiple exemplars for the trainees to practice this skill. Table 3.9 is a sample rubric for determining mastery of this skill. Use the same videos across multiple data collection systems and have the trainees determine which data collections system(s) are most appropriate for that specific behavior and explain why. This is a critical piece to developing trainees’ skills around selecting the correct data collection system based on the dimensions of the behavior that are most relevant. Provide feedback on their analyses and continue this process until the trainees reach the previously determined criterion. Use a rubric such as the one provided in Table 3.10 to assess trainees’ skills around selecting appropriate data collection systems. Once the trainees have demonstrated competence with collecting data and selecting an appropriate data collection system, the next step is to practice developing a datasheet that will be effective in capturing the data effectively. This skill oftentimes does not get utilized as more companies are transitioning to electronic data collection systems with datasheets already created. However, many companies have not made

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3. MEASUREMENT, DATA DISPLAY, AND INTERPRETATION

this transition and behavior analysts will still need to be able to develop datasheets that are effective in capturing data accurately. Even if behavior analysts are not responsible for datasheet development, they will be responsible for understanding what components are necessary for an effective one. They will need these skills to assess the datasheets available within an electronic system to ensure that the system will be effective for the clients they serve. Have the trainees submit samples of datasheets with each one demonstrating data collection of a different dimension. Provide feedback to the trainees regarding each of the datasheets. Continue this process until the trainees reach the previously established criterion. Table 3.11 is a sample rubric to use to evaluate the datasheets developed by trainees. To ensure that the trainees have the skills to teach others to collect data, instruct the trainees to submit recordings of them training someone else to collect data with the datasheets they previously developed. Continue providing feedback to your trainees on this skill until they reach the previously established criterion. Table 3.12 is an example of a rubric to assess trainees’ skills around training others through the use of BST.

TABLE 3.11

Rubric for Developing Datasheets 6

6

6

Contains all of the necessary components Is user friendly for data collector

TABLE 3.12

Rubric for Training on Data Collection 6

6

Provides a visual of the datasheet Explains datasheet Answers all questions Demonstrates use Provides an opportunity for rehearsal Provides positive and corrective feedback Repeats process until trainee meets competency

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INTEROBSERVER AGREEMENT

21

Ethics Related to Measurement There are many ethical considerations associated with measurement and data collection. Ask the trainees to provide examples from their coursework or personal experiences related to this topic. With each issue, work with the trainees to determine antecedent strategies to prevent ethical dilemmas in the first place. Areas of focus include: • Ensuring accuracy of data collection • Data-based decision making (Bailey & Burch, 2016, pp. 269 270) • Storing and disposing of data (Bailey & Burch, 2016, p. 93)

INTEROBSERVER AGREEMENT Most clinicians do not receive much exposure to interobserver agreement (IOA). As a result, they oftentimes forget the information covered on this topic in their coursework. Provide instruction on the various ways to calculate IOA based on the measurement system used, in addition to explaining which IOA system is the most conservative in specific situations. Focus on the clinical relevance of using IOA, including the advantages of shoring up one’s operational definitions, as well as the fact that it is an excellent tool to assess whether trainees have reached mastery when training them in a new data collection system (Cooper et al., 2007, p. 111).

Rehearsal and Performance Feedback Use the data the trainees collected throughout the measurement activities and use those in comparison to the previously established rubrics. Have the trainees select which IOA formula to use and calculate IOA for each of the data collection systems. If the trainee has 100% agreement in the majority of situations, provide some additional samples where there is a higher level of disagreement to ensure a full understanding of the topic. Continue instruction on this topic until the trainees meet the previously established criterion. Table 3.13 provides a structure for assessing trainees’ competency around IOA.

Ethics Related to IOA The area of focus for ethics as it relates to IOA is regarding ensuring accuracy of data collection (Bailey & Burch, 2016, p. 101). Behavior analysts have a responsibility to ensure that staff are collecting accurate

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3. MEASUREMENT, DATA DISPLAY, AND INTERPRETATION

TABLE 3.13

Rubric for Calculating IOA 6

6

6

6

6

Selects appropriate IOA equation Calculates IOA correctly

data for use in data-based decision making. Likewise, we are aware of the likelihood of observer drift over time (Cooper et al., 2007, p. 109). As a result, IOA is not something that we just implement during initial trainings. This practice needs to occur throughout the data collection process to ensure continued accuracy of data collected.

VISUAL DISPLAY OF DATA Your trainees will have varying levels of comfort in terms of graphing data. Most will have limited exposure with graphing, especially as it relates to graphing correctly for single subject research designs. In addition, several trainees may not have participated in their research design course at the time that this topic comes up in supervision. If this is the case, you many want to postpone your focus on graphing research designs until they have a better understanding of them. Regardless, it is still important to set the foundation for visual inspection of data to prepare your trainees to understand how to determine progress from baseline to intervention for practical application in clinical settings. It is critical to ensure that trainees understand the importance of developing graphs to the correct y to x axis ratio from 5:8 to 3:4 (Katzenberg, 1975). In fact, a review of published articles in behavior analytic journals indicated that a shocking number of line graphs published do not meet this standard of practice, which makes this a real issue to discuss (Kubina, Kostewicz, Brennan, & King, 2017). It is also important to explain when to use a bar graph instead of a line graph. Examples of this include stimulus preference assessment data and descriptive assessment data or other instances when one is attempting to summarize information. Once your trainees are proficient at graphing data, the next area of focus is related to determining effects through visual inspection of the data across the different research designs. Discuss number of data points, level, trend, and variability with your trainees to ensure a thorough understanding of visual inspection prior to implementing practice strategies on the topic (Cooper et al., 2007, pp. 150 154).

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VISUAL DISPLAY OF DATA

TABLE 3.14

Rubric for Line Graphs 6

6

6

Correct labels used for title and axes Gridlines removed Data points are equidistance apart Percent does not exceed 100 Correct y to x axis ratio is used

TABLE 3.15

Rubric for Reversal Graphs 6

6

6

Correct labels used for title and axes Gridlines removed Data points are equidistance apart Percent does not exceed 100 Correct y to x axis ratio is used Dotted line for phase changes Data path does not extend across phase change line Appropriate labels for phases

Modeling, Rehearsal, Performance Feedback Provide your trainees with a task analysis of how to graph in a typical graphing system such as Excel. Ensure the task analysis includes all of the typical types of graphs your trainees need to know how to use. A sample task analysis is available in Appendix C. When going through each example, discuss when each graph will be most appropriate. Develop a spreadsheet that has multiple data sets already established for each graph you are demonstrating. Model the process for developing each graph and answer any questions the trainees have. Alternatively, you can have your trainees watch a video on YouTube related to graphing. If you chose this method, ensure that you select a video that is not copyrighted and one that accurately reflects the correct graphing conventions for behavior analytic graphs. Save the remaining data sets for your trainees to use to practice developing each of the graphs. Provide feedback on each graph they develop until they meet the previously established criterion. Use a rubric such as Tables 3.14 through 3.18 to ensure proficiency in graphing based on each type of graph.

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3. MEASUREMENT, DATA DISPLAY, AND INTERPRETATION

TABLE 3.16

Rubric for Multielement Graphs 6

6

6

Correct labels used for title and axes Gridlines removed Data points are equidistance apart Percent does not exceed 100 Correct y to x axis ratio is used Each data series has line connecting data points

TABLE 3.17

Rubric for Bar Graphs 6

6

6

Correct labels used for title and axes Gridlines removed Percent does not exceed 100 Correct y to x axis ratio is used

TABLE 3.18

Rubric for Multiple Baseline Graphs 6

6

Correct labels used for title and axes Gridlines removed Data points are equidistance apart Percent does not exceed 100 Correct y to x axis ratio is used Dotted line for phase changes Data path does not extend across phase change line Appropriate labels for phases Graphs stacked so they are connected Single x axis for multiple graphs Phase change lines extend to next graph Each graph is labeled properly

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6

25

VISUAL DISPLAY OF DATA

TABLE 3.19

Sample Rubric for Line Graph 6

6

6

Number of data points impact on visual inspection Overall level of data described correctly Accurate description of variability Accurate description of trend

TABLE 3.20

Sample Rubric for Reversal Graph 6

6

6

6

6

6

Number of data points impact on visual inspection Overall level of data described correctly Accurate description of variability Accurate description of trend Correctly determines if experimental control is achieved

TABLE 3.21

Sample Rubric for Multielement Graph

Number of data points impact on visual inspection Overall level of data described correctly Accurate description of variability Accurate description of trend Correctly determines if experimental control is achieved

In addition to establishing competency with developing graphs, it is also critical to establish competency related to visual inspection. Show examples of various types of graphs and explain how to observe for experimental control. Explain how you are using the number of data points, level, trend, and variability to determine the level of experimental control that is in place. Then show the trainees graphs and have them describe the features of visual inspection and whether or not experimental control is demonstrated in each of those examples. Continue this process until the trainee reaches the predetermined criterion. Tables 3.19 through 3.22 are sample rubrics to assess competence in the area of visual inspection.

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3. MEASUREMENT, DATA DISPLAY, AND INTERPRETATION

TABLE 3.22

Sample Rubric for Multiple Baseline Graph 6

6

6

Number of data points impact on visual inspection Overall level of data described correctly Accurate description of variability Accurate description of trend Correctly determines if experimental control is achieved

Ethics Related to Visual Display of Data There are two areas of focus related to ethics for the visual display of data. The first is that it is critical for behavior analysts to graph their data for the purposes of data-based decision making (Bailey & Burch, 2016, p. 115). In other words, it is insufficient to just collect the data. The second area of importance is correctly scaling graphs for an accurate visual display of the data. It is unethical to manipulate the graph in a way that may alter the conclusions that one would make regarding the data.

References Bailey, J., & Burch, M. (2016). Ethics for behavior analysts (3rd ed.). New York: Routledge. Behavior Analyst Certification Board. (2017). BCBA/BCaBA task list (5th ed.). Littleton: Behavior Analyst Certification Board. Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Fong, E. H., Catagnus, R. M., Brodhead, M. T., Quigley, S., & Field, S. (2016). Developing the cultural awareness skills of behavior analysts. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 9, 84 94. Katzenberg, A. C. (1975). How to draw graphs. Kalamazoo, MI: Behviordelia. Kubina, R. M., Kostewicz, D. E., Brennan, K. M., & King, S. A. (2017). A critical review of line graphs in behavior analytic journals. Educational Psychology Review, 29, 583 598.

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C H A P T E R

4 Concepts and Principles

INTRODUCTION We cannot overstate the importance of making sure trainees have a solid foundation in the concepts and principles, as this will have a significant bearing on their ability to develop programs for their clients. Trainees will need to have a firm understanding of these concepts first, then they will demonstrate their skills in applying these principles competently. The areas of focus within this chapter include: • • • • • •

Basic principles of behavior analysis Schedules of reinforcement Motivating operations Rule governed behavior Verbal operants Derived stimulus relations (BCBA/BCaBA Task List Fifth Edition, Behavior Analyst Certification Board, 2017)

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS Although trainees will receive instruction on the basic principles of behavior analysis, these concepts can be difficult for some people and it will require further instruction for them to truly understand these principles. During this instruction, provide a training differentiating positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, negative punishment, and extinction (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007). Many trainees will confuse negative reinforcement and punishment

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4. CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES

(Cooper et al., 2007, p. 293). In addition, many trainees struggle with identifying when extinction is in effect when looking at examples. Provide explicit instruction as to how extinction is based on the function of the behavior (Cooper et al., 2007, pp. 458 460). Spend a significant amount of time differentiating among these principles.

Rehearsal and Performance Feedback Provide your trainees several examples in order for them to determine which principle is in play for each one. If you are providing this instruction in a group format, you will need to use a technology that allows all of the trainees to answer each question. This is critical for determining mastery. We utilize GoToTrainingt as this feature works well within their program, but others are available. If you are providing this instruction individually, you can collect data either through the same technology or by hand as the trainee answers each question. Provide feedback for each scenario and explain why a specific answer is the correct answer. Then communicate with each of the trainees individually to inform them of their score for this activity. Establish a competency criterion prior to delivering the training. In the event that your trainees do not reach competency the first time, provide additional instruction, assign readings on the topic, and continue providing examples for them to determine which principle is in effect until they achieve competency. Continued instruction on this topic may need to occur during individual supervision sessions if the majority of the trainees have mastered this concept and are ready to move to the next topic. Appendix D includes sample scenarios for you to use within your instructional sessions.

Ethics Related to Basic Principles of Behavior Analysis If trainees are not careful, they can easily misapply the basic principles of behavior analysis in a way that is inconsistent with the BACB’s Code of Responsible Conduct, therefore it is critical to provide support to them within this context. When talking about ethics as it relates to the basic principles, focus on the dangers of using extinction (Bailey & Burch, 2016, p. 130). Ensure that your trainees understand the need for delivering the functional reinforcer for appropriate behavior when using an extinction procedure. In addition, ensure that your trainees understand that one should always attempt reinforcement procedures prior to using a punishment procedure (Bailey & Burch, 2016, p. 132). In the event that a punishment

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SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT

29

procedure is necessary, one should always include reinforcement systems simultaneously (Bailey & Burch, 2016, p. 133).

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT Schedules of reinforcement are very challenging for many trainees to grasp. Your instruction in this area should include the following topics: • Continuous reinforcement • Intermittent schedules of reinforcement • Fixed ratio schedule • Variable ratio schedule • Fixed interval schedule • Variable interval schedule • Compound schedules • Concurrent schedule • Multiple schedule • Chained schedule • Mixed schedule • Tandem schedule • Alternative schedule • Conjunctive schedule (Cooper et al., 2007, pp. 305 320)

Rehearsal and Performance Feedback Provide examples of various schedules and have the trainees determine which schedule is in effect with each of the examples. Provide feedback regarding which answer is correct and why. Give the trainees feedback on their score individually. Continue providing instruction, assigning readings, and presenting more examples until the trainees achieve the previously established criterion with this activity. Appendix E includes examples for you to use within your instruction.

Ethics Related to Schedules of Reinforcement Emphasize with your trainees that we have an ethical obligation to thin schedules of reinforcement to the natural reinforcers available in the environment. It is also critical for us to refrain from using reinforcers that may be harmful for our clients even when they may be effective (Bailey & Burch, 2016, p. 135).

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MOTIVATING OPERATIONS Provide instruction to your trainees regarding the following topics related to motivating operations: • Motivating operations • Establishing operations • Abolishing operations • Unconditioned motivating operations • Conditioned motivating operations • Surrogate conditioned motivating operations • Transitive conditioned motivating operations • Reflexive conditioned motivating operations • Differentiating motivating operations from discriminative stimuli (Cooper et al., 2007, pp. 375 389)

Rehearsal and Performance Feedback The first area of focus for reaching competency is related to differentiating motivating operations from discriminative stimuli. Provide scenarios for the trainees to determine if an establishing operation, abolishing operation, or discriminative stimulus is present for each scenario. Continue instruction until the trainees reach the previously determined criterion on these scenarios. Appendix F includes scenarios for you to use within your instruction. Then provide scenarios for the trainees to determine which conditioned motivating operation is in place for each scenario. Again, continue instruction until the trainees reach the previously established criterion on these scenarios. Appendix G includes scenarios for you to use within your instruction.

Ethics Related to Motivating Operations Ensure the trainees understand the ethics around contriving an establishing operation for certain stimuli such as food, water, sleep, and access to the restroom (Bailey & Burch, 2016, p. 135). Utilizing naturally occurring establishing operations for these stimuli is appropriate.

RULE GOVERNED BEHAVIOR Provide instruction on the difference between rule governed and contingency shaped behavior (Skinner, 1976, pp. 138 143). Discuss the prerequisite skills that need to be in place for someone to have rule governed behavior. Focus on the clinical applications that are

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VERBAL OPERANTS

31

available when someone has the generalized operant of rule governed behavior. Discuss methods for teaching rule governed behavior to individuals who do not currently have that skill within their repertoire (Tarbox, Zuckerman, Bishop, Olive, & O’Hora, 2011). In addition, discuss strategies for intervention when someone continues following rules that are no longer effective (i.e., rigid rule following).

Rehearsal and Performance Feedback Provide scenarios for the trainees to determine if they are examples of rule governed or contingency shaped behaviors. Continue providing instruction until the trainees reach the previously determined criterion with this concept. Appendix H provides scenarios for you to use with your instruction.

VERBAL OPERANTS Provide instruction to the trainees on the following verbal operants and how to teach them: • • • • •

Mands Echoics Tacts Intraverbals Autoclitics (Cooper et al., 2007, pp. 529 532, 539 546)

Rehearsal and Performance Feedback Provide scenarios for the trainees to determine which verbal operant is in place. Continue the process until the trainees reach the previously determined criterion on this concept. Appendix I provides scenarios for you to use within your instruction. Once the trainees demonstrate mastery with verbal operants, model the skill of teaching each of the verbal operants. Have the trainees record themselves teaching each operant. Use the rubrics displayed in Tables 4.1 through 4.4 to assess their ability to teach verbal operants. Continue this process until they meet the previously determined criterion for each operant.

Ethics Related to Verbal Operants When discussing ethics related to verbal operants, stress the importance of utilizing evidence-based practices for teaching (Bailey & Burch, 2016, p. 65), including teaching the verbal operants in the correct order and refraining from teaching intraverbals too soon (Cooper et al., 2007, p. 545). II. A SCOPE AND SEQUENCE TO STRUCTURE SUPERVISION

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TABLE 4.1 Sample Rubric for Teaching Mands 6

6

6

Assesses presence of motivating operation Uses appropriate prompting procedure based on topography of response Uses within session prompt fading Uses differential reinforcement to shape response Transfers control from the nonverbal stimulus to the motivating operation

TABLE 4.2 Sample Rubric for Teaching Echoics 6

6

6

Uses appropriate prompting procedures given topography of response Uses within session prompt fading Uses differential reinforcement to shape response Places echoic trial in mand frame if necessary Fades motivating operation and nonverbal stimulus Uses access to preferred stimulus if necessary and pairs with generalized conditioned reinforcer

TABLE 4.3 Sample Rubric for Teaching Tacts 6

6

6

Uses appropriate echoic prompts Uses within session prompt fading Fades presence of motivating operation when using a mand frame Transitions to the use of a generalized conditioned reinforcer

TABLE 4.4 Sample Rubric for Teaching Intraverbals 6 Uses previously established response forms Uses with a child with a well-established repertoire with other verbal operants Fades presence of motivating operation when using a mand frame Transitions to the use of a generalized conditioned reinforcer

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6

6

REFERENCES

33

DERIVED STIMULUS RELATIONS Many of the course sequences do not provide the depth of discussion necessary to allow for a true understanding of derived stimulus relations. Therefore, plan on spending considerable time focusing on these concepts. Within the fourth edition task list, the focus was on stimulus equivalence; however, as we transition to the fifth edition task list, these concepts have expanded to include derived stimulus relations (i.e., relational frame theory). As a result, many supervisors will need to gain additional training to prepare to teach others within the field on this topic. We encourage you to attend workshops and symposia in the area of relational frame theory to gain the level of knowledge necessary to speak to these topics with your trainees if this concept was not covered in your coursework. This also may be a time to seek guidance and supervision from someone with more training in this area. In Chapter 8 we reference some resources on the topic of relational frame theory that may also be helpful in acquiring the prerequisite knowledge to support trainees in this concept. Provide instruction to the trainees on the following points within this area: • Stimulus equivalence • Reflexivity • Symmetry • Transitivity (Cooper et al., 2007, pp. 398 400) • Relational frame theory (Friman, Hayes, & Wilson, 1998; Rehfeldt & Barnes Holmes, 2009)

Rehearsal and Performance Feedback Provide scenarios for trainees to determine if each one is an example of reflexivity, symmetry, or transitivity. Continue this instruction and assessment until the trainees reach the previously determined criterion. Appendix J provides scenarios for you to use within your instruction.

References Bailey, J., & Burch, M. (2016). Ethics for behavior analysts (3rd ed.). New York: Routledge. Behavior Analyst Certification Board. (2017). BCBA/BCaBA task list fifth edition. Littleton: Behavior Analyst Certification Board. Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Friman, P. C., Hayes, S. C., & Wilson, K. G. (1998). Why behavior analysts should study emotion: The example of anxiety. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 31(1), 137 156.

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Rehfeldt, R. A., & Barnes Holmes, Y. (2009). Derived relational responding applications for learners with autism and other developmental disabilities: A progressive guide to change (1st ed.). Reno, NV: Context Press. Skinner, B. F. (1976). About behaviorism. New York: Random House. Tarbox, J., Zuckerman, C. K., Bishop, M. R., Olive, M. L., & O’Hora, D. P. (2011). Rulegoverned behavior: Teaching a preliminary repertoire of rule-following to children with autism. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 27(1), 125 139.

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C H A P T E R

5 Behavior Assessment

INTRODUCTION Behavior assessment is the hallmark of applied behavior analysis. Our ability to determine baseline levels of behavioral excesses and deficits is critical for our ability to identify areas of focus. In addition, we need to determine potential reinforcers to increase socially appropriate behaviors and gain an understanding of the function of problem behavior so we can develop function-based interventions. Within behavior assessment, we recommend focusing on the following areas: • Conducting assessments of skill strengths and deficits • Preference assessments • Functional behavior assessment

CONDUCTING ASSESSMENTS OF SKILL STRENGTHS AND DEFICITS Many of your trainees will be working with young children with autism or clients with intellectual disabilities. These trainees will need to know how to conduct a variety of assessments designed to determine areas of focus for skill acquisition. While it is impossible to teach your trainees to conduct all of the assessment tools available, it is important to provide them with exposure to some of these assessments. Teaching trainees to implement the entirety of a given assessment (e.g., the VB-MAPP, PEAK) may be beyond the scope of independent fieldwork supervision, and some trainees may use proprietary assessments that

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5. BEHAVIOR ASSESSMENT

you may not have access to. However, you can review the assessments they do conduct. Even before an assessment is initiated, provide guidance regarding general best practices for conducting these assessments. These can include things like determining a beneficial time to conduct the assessment, using reinforcers to gain cooperation during the assessment, taking breaks during the process in order to prevent ratio strain, and so forth. While this is hardly an exhaustive list, some of the common assessments for these purposes include: • Verbal Behavior Milestones Assessment and Placement Program (VBMAPP) (Sundberg, 2008) • Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills (ABLLS-R) (Partington, 2006) • PEAK Relational Training System (Dixon et al., 2017) • Essential for Living (EFL) (McGreevy, Fry, & Cornwall, 2014) • Assessment of Functional Living Skills (AFLS) (Partington & Mueller, 2012). For each assessment, provide an overview of the assessment including the philosophical underpinnings from which the assessment is based, the population for which it is appropriate, and the basics on use. In the event that you have trainees who are proficient at conducting these assessments, use this as an opportunity for them to practice their behavioral skills training repertoire by recording themselves teaching others to conduct one of these assessments.

Modeling, Rehearsal, and Performance Feedback Provide a model of how to conduct the assessment that covers the various domains and levels. Also model how to explain assessment results to teachers, parents, and/or other stakeholders. Then have your trainees record themselves implementing the assessment. Provide performance feedback on their ability to conduct the assessment, score the assessment, and determine targets based on the results. Once they have these components in place, have your trainees practice explaining the assessment results to you. Table 5.1 is a sample rubric to use to evaluate your trainees’ skills related to conducting assessments of skill strengths and deficits. For those trainees who are focusing on their ability to utilize behavioral skills training to teach others on these assessment procedures, use a rubric such as the one available in Table 5.2 to assess their skills in developing the skills of others within the field.

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PREFERENCE ASSESSMENTS

TABLE 5.1

Rubric for Conducting Assessments of Skill Strengths and Deficits 6

6

6

Conducts assessment with fidelity based on directions provided Accurately scores assessment Effectively determines targets based on gaps identified Explains results without using behavioral jargon

TABLE 5.2 Rubric for Assessing Behavioral Skills Training Competency Related to Training Others on Conducting Assessments of Skill Strengths and Deficits 6

6

6

Provides verbal description of the assessment Provides succinct written description of assessment Models the process for conducting assessment Provides opportunity for rehearsal of conducting assessment Provides positive feedback Provides corrective feedback Repeats process until trainee reaches competency

Ethics Related to Conducting Assessments of Skill Strengths and Deficits Code 3.0 focuses exclusively on the ethics related to assessing behavior. Areas to focus on with your trainees include: • • • • • •

Obtain written consent prior to starting the assessment process Always include direct observation of behavior Obtain a baseline level of skills Utilize behavior analytic assessments Always conduct assessments prior to developing a program Explain assessment results in an understandable manner (Bailey & Burch, 2016, pp. 109 119)

PREFERENCE ASSESSMENTS The ability to conduct preference assessments is necessary to ensure that we are maximizing skill acquisition programs by making sure that we have the highest preferred items available to use as potential

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reinforcers for new skills. In addition, highly preferred items can assist with behavior reduction procedures when behaviors are maintained by positive automatic reinforcement. We like to use the preference assessment literature as an opportunity to focus on our trainees’ skills with teaching others about how to engage in behavior analytic procedures. We recommend assigning each trainee with a specific type of stimulus preference assessment to teach the other trainees to be able to utilize. You have been modeling the process to them through the groups that you have been completing with them. Provide a written description of the behavioral skills training components that you would like to see them implement during the training. They will be responsible for providing a verbal description of the skill, a written description, a model of the skill, data collection process, graphing the data, and explaining the results. You will be responsible for providing the rehearsal and performance feedback portion during your individual sessions with your trainees. The specific stimulus preference assessments that you will assign to your trainees include: • Single stimulus preference assessments (Pace, Ivancic, Edwards, Iwata, & Page, 1985) • Paired (forced) choice preference assessment (Fisher et al., 1992) • Multiple stimulus with replacement (Windsor, Piche, & Locke, 1994) • Multiple stimulus without replacement (DeLeon & Iwata, 1996) • Duration and concurrent operant preference assessments (DeLeon, Iwata, Conners, & Wallace, 1999)

Modeling, Rehearsal, and Performance Feedback Provide feedback to each of your trainees regarding their skills at providing training to others related to the stimulus preference assessment they were assigned. Table 5.3 is a sample rubric for you to use to assess these skills and deliver feedback. TABLE 5.3 Rubric for Assessing Training on Stimulus Preference Assessments 6 Provides an accurate description of the skill Provides a succinct written description of the skill Provides a clear model that depicts the specific behaviors necessary to engage in the skill Provides a clear description of the data collection process Provides an accurate graph of the data Explains the results without using behavioral jargon

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PREFERENCE ASSESSMENTS

Assign your trainees to demonstrate each type of stimulus preference assessment to assess their ability to conduct these assessments. In Tables 5.4 through 5.8, you will find sample rubrics to assess your trainees’ skills related to each stimulus preference assessment.

Ethics Related to Preference Assessments The Codes that will be relevant to preference assessments include Code 3.0 which is related to assessing behavior as well as the Codes that focus on utilizing reinforcement properly. Areas to focus on with your trainees include: • Utilize behavior analytic assessments • Always conduct assessments prior to developing a program TABLE 5.4

Rubric for Assessing Implementation of Single Presentation Method 6

6

6

Each stimulus is presented separately Trainee scores an approach or nonresponse for each stimulus Trainee allows for 5 s access to the stimulus before removing the item and presenting the next trial Trainee graphs data as percent of opportunities selected Trainee explains results without using behavioral jargon

TABLE 5.5

Rubric for Assessing Implementation of Paired Choice Method 6

Presents stimuli two at a time Trainee says, “Pick one” or something similar Records which item is selected from the two available Trainee allows for 5 s access to the stimulus before removing the item and presenting the next trial Blocks attempts to select both items and represents the trial Each stimulus is presented with every other stimulus Stimuli are counterbalanced to account for side preference Trainee graphs data as percent of opportunities selected Trainee explains results without using behavioral jargon

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6

6

TABLE 5.6 Rubric for Assessing Implementation of Multiple Stimulus With Replacement 6

6

6

Trainee presents an array of stimuli Trainee says “Pick one” or something similar Records which item is selected from the array Trainee allows for 5 s access to the stimulus before removing the item and presenting the next trial Blocks attempts to select multiple items and represents the trial The stimulus selected is included in the next array presented Trainee graphs data as percent of opportunities selected Trainee explains results without using behavioral jargon

TABLE 5.7 Rubric for Assessing Implementation of Multiple Stimulus Without Replacement 6

6

Trainee presents an array of stimuli Trainee says “Pick one” or something similar Records which item is selected from the array Trainee allows for 5 s access to the stimulus before removing the item and presenting the next trial Blocks attempts to select multiple items and represents the trial The stimulus selected is removed and the array has one less stimulus than before Assessment continues until there are no stimuli left or the individual stops making a selection Trainee graphs data as percent of opportunities selected Trainee explains results without using behavioral jargon

TABLE 5.8 Rubric for Assessing Implementation of Duration/Concurrent Operant Method 6 Baits the environment with the stimuli Provides a relevant instruction such as “Go play” Collects duration data for the amount of time that the individual interacts with each item available Trainee graphs data as duration of engagement Trainee explains results without using behavioral jargon

6

6

6

FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOR ASSESSMENT

41

• Explain assessment results in an understandable manner (Bailey & Burch, 2016, pp. 113 119) • Avoiding harmful reinforcers (Bailey & Burch, 2016, p. 135) • Client’s right to effective treatment (Bailey & Burch, 2016, p. 95)

FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOR ASSESSMENT There are many environments in which one will be faced with clients exhibiting challenging behaviors, and as such, the functional behavior assessment (FBA) process is a critical one for your trainee to master. The trainee will likely be charged with the responsibility of conducting an FBA and developing a function-based intervention. The first step in this process will be to ensure your trainees have an understanding of the typical functions of behavior. We suggest probing your trainees’ knowledge in the area of functions of behavior to determine if they are in need of remediation in this area. If necessary, provide some instruction in this area followed by scenarios in which they are required to identify the function. Once they have reached the criterion you have established in correctly identifying function, they are ready to proceed to learning about the FBA process. Appendix K includes some sample scenarios for identifying functions of behavior. There is a great deal of controversy within the field at this time regarding what should and should not be included in an FBA. Your responsibility to your trainee is to provide as much information as possible regarding the evidence related to each step within the assessment process so they can be armed with the knowledge necessary to conduct quality assessments themselves. The focus for the FBA process should include the following: • Indirect assessment • Descriptive assessment • Functional analysis Indirect Assessment: The indirect assessment process includes record reviews, interviewing the client (if appropriate), interviewing parents/ care providers, and interviewing staff who are familiar with the client. There are several surveys/rating scales available for the interview process. The research on these rating scales has demonstrated questionable reliability and validity with them (e.g., Duker & Sigafoos, 1998; Zarcone, Rodgers, Iwata, Rourke, & Dorsey, 1991). However, many universities continue to teach students to utilize them. It is critical to provide trainees with knowledge about how to use these instruments and the level of caution they should have related to them.

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We recommend using the indirect assessments as another opportunity for your trainees to teach others about behavior analytic skills. You can do this by assigning each trainee to explain how to use the following indirect assessments: • Motivation Assessment Scale (MAS) (Durand & Crimmins, 1988) • Functional Analysis Screening Tool (FAST) (Iwata, DeLeon, & Roscoe, 2013) • Questions About Behavioral Function (QABF) (Paclawskyj, Matson, Rush, Smalls, & Vollmer, 2000) • Problem Behavior Questionnaire (PBQ) (Lewis, Scott, & Sugai, 1994) Another area to emphasize within the interview process is the advantage of conducting an open-ended interview with the stakeholders involved. By asking open-ended questions, we can often find information that is idiosyncratic to the issues related to that specific client (Hanley, Jin, Vanselow, & Hanratty, 2014). Indirect assessments on their own do not yield acceptable functional assessment results. Instead, indirect assessments should be used to inform and guide how to proceed with subsequent descriptive and experimental analyses. Ensure the trainees understand that best practices indicate that it is critical to incorporate direct observation procedures in an FBA. We should never draw a conclusion regarding function based solely on an indirect assessment. Descriptive Assessment: The descriptive assessment process is a common step within the FBA process. One of the challenges with descriptive assessments is accurately analyzing our data. When looking at the consequences in isolation, it is likely that we will erroneously identify attention as the function of the behavior (Thompson & Iwata, 2007). The reality is that when problem behavior occurs in the natural environment, there is a high probability that attention will follow this occurrence. However, this does not mean that every problem behavior is maintained by access to attention. Therefore, it will be critical to teach your trainees to analyze their data in terms of the three term contingency as opposed to looking at the consequences in isolation if they choose to use descriptive assessments. Even when looking at the three term contingency through a conditional probability analysis, research indicates that the results can be substantially different from the results of a functional analysis (Pence, Roscoe, Bourret, & Ahearn, 2009). Given these concerns, many professionals refrain from utilizing descriptive assessments within their FBA process or only use them to refine the functional analysis process.

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When examining descriptive assessments, focus on the following: • Scatter plots (Touchette, MacDonald, & Langer, 1985) • Structured antecedent, behavior, consequence (ABC) data collection (O’Neill, Albin, Storey, Horner, & Sprague, 2015) • Interval recording (e.g., Mace & Lalli, 1991) • Conditional probabilities and background probabilities (Vollmer, Borrero, Wright, Van Camp, & Lalli, 2001) • Trigger analysis (Cipani & Schock, 2011) We recommend assigning trainees to teach the rest of the group about scatter plots, structured ABC data collection, interval recording, and trigger analysis. This is especially effective if you have trainees who are currently conducting FBAs. If you chose to cover conditional probabilities within this context, it is likely that you will need to lead this discussion. This is a complex concept that will require further instruction from you for full understanding. Functional Analysis: Functional analysis (FA) is considered the gold standard for the FBA process. Many trainees will be familiar with functional analyses, but few of them will have conducted a functional analysis. Provide them with information regarding the traditional functional analysis conditions (Iwata et al., 1994/1982) including the tangible condition (Vollmer, Marcus, Ringdahl, & Roane, 1995). Then have your more experienced trainees teach the rest of the group about variations in functional analyses, including: • Brief functional analyses (Derby et al., 1992) • Progressing from a brief to an extended functional analysis (Vollmer et al., 1995) • Conducting the analysis on precursor behaviors (Smith & Churchill, 2002) • Interview informed synthesized contingency analysis (Hanley et al., 2014) While there is consensus in the field about FA being the superior functional assessment technique, there is also research suggesting that the majority of practitioners do not use FAs in their practice (Oliver, Pratt, & Normand, 2015; Roscoe, Phillips, Kelly, Farber, & Dube, 2015). It is imperative that your trainees do not follow suit, and that they are able to confidently use the most effective functional assessment procedures in order to best serve their clients. Based on this, your job as a supervisor is to help trainees identify perceived barriers to conducting FAs so they can more accurately assess

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repertoires of challenging behaviors, and develop accurate functionbased treatments. One place to start this conversation is having trainees review the article “Functional Assessment of Problem Behavior: Overcoming Implementation Obstacles, Dispelling Myths, and Developing New Lore” (Hanley, 2012). In this article, Dr. Hanley describes common challenges to conducting FAs, and suggests practical solutions that allow the use of this important clinical tool in real-world settings. Trainees could read this article and identify what, if any, barriers they currently face in conducting FAs, and identify a variant of the “standard” functional analysis that would be feasible in their practice.

Modeling, Rehearsal, and Performance Feedback Plan on spending a significant amount of time building the skills of your trainees around the area of conducting FBAs. As we all know, this is a critical and complex skill that will take time to acquire. Indirect Assessment: Provide feedback to your trainees regarding their ability to teach others about the indirect assessment that you assigned to them. Table 5.9 is a rubric designed to assess your trainees’ skills in this area. Then provide performance feedback regarding your trainees’ ability to utilize a variety of indirect assessments. Table 5.10 is a rubric for you to utilize to assess their skills in this area. Descriptive Assessment: Provide performance feedback regarding your trainees’ skills with respect to teaching others about the descriptive assessment assigned to them. Utilize a rubric such as Table 5.11 to assess this skill and provide feedback. You will notice that analyzing and discussing the results are not included within this rubric. This is because you will be demonstrating this skill when you are training the

TABLE 5.9 Rubric for Assessing Training on Indirect Assessments 6 Provides an accurate description of the assessment Provides a succinct written description of the assessment Provides a clear model that depicts how to utilize the assessment Provides a clear description of the process for analyzing the results Explains the results without using behavioral jargon

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TABLE 5.10

Rubric for Completing Indirect Assessments 6

6

6

Conducts assessment based on directions Analyzes results correctly Presents results within report accurately Explains results without using behavioral jargon

TABLE 5.11

Rubric for Assessing Training on Descriptive Assessments 6

Provides an accurate description of the assessment Provides a succinct written description of the assessment Provides a clear model that depicts how to utilize the assessment

TABLE 5.12

Rubric for Descriptive Assessment Data Collection 6

6

6

Correctly collects scatter plot data Accurately records structured ABC data Accurately utilizes interval data

trainees on conditional probabilities. Most trainees will not be prepared to teach others about the correct way to conduct data analysis. Provide video clips for your trainees to practice collecting descriptive assessment data for scatter plots, structured ABC data collection, and interval recording. Provide feedback on the accuracy of their data collection utilizing a rubric such as the one provided in Table 5.12. Using a sample data set, model the process for how to analyze the data for a scatter plot, conducting a conditional probability analysis for ABC data, conditional/background probability analysis for interval data, and trigger analysis results. Then demonstrate how to graph these data in excel or other appropriate graphing systems. Have your trainees analyze sample data sets and provide feedback on this skill. Tables 5.13 through 5.16 are sample rubrics for assessing this skill. Functional Analysis: Provide a video model for each of the traditional functional analysis conditions. Then have your trainees record

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TABLE 5.13

Rubric for Assessing Scatter Plot Analysis and Graphing Skills 6

6

6

Analyzes scatter plot data correctly Graphs scatter plot data correctly Explains results without using behavioral jargon

TABLE 5.14 Skills

Rubric for Assessing Structured ABC Data Analysis and Graphing 6

6

6

Analyzes settings in which problem behavior occurs for structured ABC data collection correctly Analyzes antecedents associated with problem behavior for structured ABC data collection correctly Analyzes conditional probability for structured ABC data collection correctly Graphs structured ABC data correctly Explains results without using behavioral jargon

TABLE 5.15 Rubric for Assessing Conditional and Background Probabilities and Graphing Results for Interval Data Collection Systems 6

6

6

Analyzes conditional probability for interval data correctly Analyzes background probability for interval data correctly Graphs conditional and background probability data correctly Explains results without using behavioral jargon

TABLE 5.16

Rubric for Assessing Trigger Analysis and Graphing Results 6

6

Analyzes trigger analysis data correctly Graphs trigger analysis data correctly Explains results without using behavioral jargon

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themselves conducting each of the functional analysis conditions and provide feedback on their performance. Tables 5.17 through 5.21 are sample rubrics for assessing these skills. Using the video models that demonstrate each condition, have your trainees practice collecting data on these conditions. Then have them graph the data and explain the results after you have provided a model for how to do so. Tables 5.22 and 5.23 provides a sample rubric to assess and provide feedback on this skill. Many trainees will not have experience using visual inspection to evaluate the results of a functional analysis when the data are in graphical form. We recommend developing this skill by taking graphs from the functional analysis literature and having your trainees determine the function of each behavior (or determine that the data are undifferentiated) by presenting several graphs to your trainees. After they make TABLE 5.17

Rubric for Alone/No Interaction Condition 6

6

6

Individual is alone in an environment without stimuli present No social contingencies delivered when target behavior occur

TABLE 5.18

Rubric for Attention Condition 6

6

6

6

6

6

Individual is engaging with a neutral stimulus Trainee appears to be busy with a task Each time the target behavior occurs, the trainee delivers attention relevant to the behavior

TABLE 5.19

Rubric for Escape From Demands Condition

Trainee places demands on the individual Trainee provides prompting if the individual does not comply with the demands Demands are removed for 5 s contingent on the occurrence of the target behavior Demands resume when the target behavior is not occurring for 5 s

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TABLE 5.20

Rubric for Tangible Condition 6

6

6

Individual receives access to a preferred stimulus prior to the start of the session Stimulus is removed but is still in visual range at the start of the session Each time the target behavior occurs, the individual receives 5 s access to the item The stimulus is removed when the individual is not engaging in the target behavior for 5 s

TABLE 5.21

Rubric for Play/Control Condition 6

6

6

Individual is alone engaging with a preferred activity Trainee is delivering high rates of attention noncontingently The environment is free of demands

TABLE 5.22

Rubric to Assess Data Collection During Functional Analyses 6

6

6

Accurately collects data in the alone/no interaction condition Accurately collects data in the attention condition Accurately collects data in the escape from demands condition Accurately collects data in the access to tangibles condition Accurately collects data in the play/control condition

TABLE 5.23

Rubric for Graphing and Explaining Results 6

6

6

Data are graphed correctly Trainee explains results without using behavioral jargon

their determination, explain the results and how you came to that determination. Continue this process through your individual sessions as much as necessary for your trainees to reach competency in this area.

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Ethics Related to Functional Behavior Assessment There are several ethical issues that you should cover with your trainees in relation to the FBA process. These areas include: • Obtain consent prior to starting the FBA process • Obtain specific consent before accessing client records and before providing access to others • Assess for the function of a behavior prior to developing a plan for behavior reduction • Use behavior analytic assessments • Obtain medical consultation when necessary • Explain results without using behavioral jargon (Bailey & Burch, 2016, pp. 113 119) • Conduct a risk-benefit analysis prior to conducting a functional analysis (Bailey & Burch, 2016, pp. 221 235).

References Bailey, J., & Burch, M. (2016). Ethics for behavior analysts (3rd ed.). New York: Routledge. Cipani, E., & Schock, K. M. (2011). Functional behavioral assessment, diagnosis, and treatment (2nd ed.). New York: Springer Publishing Company. DeLeon, I. G., & Iwata, B. A. (1996). Evaluation of a multiple-stimulus presentation format for assessing reinforcer preference. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 29, 519 533. DeLeon, I. G., Iwata, B. A., Conners, J., & Wallace, M. D. (1999). Examination of ambiguous stimulus preferences with duration-based measures. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 32, 111 114. Derby, K. M., Wacker, D. P., Sasso, G., Steege, M., Northup, J., Cigrand, K., & Asmus, J. (1992). Brief functional assessment techniques to evaluate aberrant behavior in an outpatient setting: A summary of 79 cases. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 713 721. Dixon, M. R., Belisle, J., McKeel, A., Whiting, S., Speelman, R. C., Daar, J. H., & Rowsey, K. E. (2017). An internal and critical review of the PEAK Relational Training System for children with autism and related intellectual disabilities: 2014 2017. The Behavior Analyst, 40, 493 521. Duker, P. C., & Sigafoos, J. (1998). The motivation assessment scale: Reliability and construct validity across three topographies of behavior. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 19, 131 141. Durand, V. M., & Crimmins, D. B. (1988). Identifying the variables maintaining selfinjurious behavior. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 18, 99 117. Fisher, W., Piazza, C. C., Bowman, L. G., Hagopian, L. P., Owens, J. C., & Slevin, I. (1992). A comparison of two approaches for identifying reinforcers for persons with severe and profound disabilities. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 491 498. Hanley, G. P. (2012). Functional assessment of problem behavior: Dispelling myths, overcoming implementation obstacles, and developing new lore. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 5, 54 72. Hanley, G. P., Jin, C. S., Vanselow, N. R., & Hanratty, L. A. (2014). Producing meaningful improvements in problem behavior of children with autism via synthesized analyses and treatments. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 47, 16 36.

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Iwata, B. A., DeLeon, I. G., & Roscoe, E. M. (2013). Reliability and validity of the functional analysis screening tool. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 46, 271 284. Iwata, B. A., Dorsey, M. F., Slifer, K. J., Bauman, K., & Richmond, G. S. (1994/1982). Toward a functional analysis of self-injury. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 197 209. Lewis, T. J., Scott, T. M., & Sugai, G. (1994). The problem behavior questionnaire: A teacher-based instrument to develop functional hypotheses of problem behavior in general education classrooms. Assessment for Effective Intervention, 19, 103 115. Mace, F. C., & Lalli, J. S. (1991). Linking descriptive and experimental analyses in the treatment of bizarre speech. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 24, 553 562. McGreevy, P., Fry, T., & Cornwall, C. (2014). Essential for living: A communication, behavior and functional skills curriculum, assessment and professional practitioner’s handbook for children and adults with moderate-to-severe disabilities (2nd ed.). Orlando, FL: Patrick McGreevy. Oliver, A. C., Pratt, L. A., & Normand, M. P. (2015). A survey of functional behavior assessment methods used by behavior analysts in practice. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 48, 817 829. O’Neill, R. E., Albin, R. W., Storey, K., Horner, R. H., & Sprague, J. R. (2015). Functional assessment and program development for problem behavior: A practical handbook (3rd ed.). Stamford, CT: Cengage Publishing Company. Pace, G. M., Ivancic, M. T., Edwards, G. L., Iwata, B. A., & Page, T. J. (1985). Assessment of stimulus preference and reinforcer value with profoundly retarded individuals. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 18, 249 255. Paclawskyj, T. R., Matson, J. L., Rush, K. S., Smalls, Y., & Vollmer, T. R. (2000). Questions about behavioral function (QABF): A behavioral checklist for functional assessment of aberrant behavior. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 21, 223 229. Partington, J. W. (2006). The assessment of basic language and learning skills (Revised). Walnut Creek, CA: Behavior Analysts. Partington, J. W., & Mueller, M. M. (2012). Assessment of functional living skills. Walnut Creek, CA: Behavior Analysts. Pence, S. T., Roscoe, E. M., Bourret, J. C., & Ahearn, W. H. (2009). Relative contributions of three descriptive methods: Implications for behavioral assessment. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 42, 425 446. Roscoe, E. M., Phillips, K. M., Kelly, M. A., Farber, R., & Dube, W. V. (2015). A statewide survey assessing practitioners’ use and perceived utility of functional assessment. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 48, 830 844. Smith, R. G., & Churchill, R. M. (2002). Identification of environmental determinants of behavior disorders through functional analysis of precursor behaviors. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 35, 125 136. Sundberg, M. L. (2008). Verbal behavior milestones assessment and placement program. Concord, CA: AVB. Thompson, R. H., & Iwata, B. A. (2007). A comparison of outcomes from descriptive and functional analyses of problem behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 40, 333 338. Touchette, P. E., MacDonald, R. F., & Langer, S. N. (1985). A scatter plot for identifying stimulus control of problem behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 18, 343 351. Vollmer, T. R., Borrero, J. C., Wright, C. S., Van Camp, C., & Lalli, J. S. (2001). Identifying possible contingencies during descriptive analyses of severe behavior disorders. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34, 269 287. Vollmer, T. R., Marcus, B. A., Ringdahl, J. E., & Roane, H. S. (1995). Progressing from brief assessments to extended experimental analyses in the evaluation of aberrant behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 28, 561 576.

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Windsor, J., Piche, L. M., & Locke, P. A. (1994). Preference testing: A comparison of two presentation methods. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 15, 439 455. Zarcone, J. R., Rodgers, T. A., Iwata, B. A., Rourke, D. A., & Dorsey, M. F. (1991). Reliability analysis of the motivation assessment scale: A failure to replicate. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 12, 349 360.

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C H A P T E R

6 Behavior Change Procedures

INTRODUCTION Once a behavior analyst has completed an assessment, the next step is to develop a plan for intervention. Many factors need to be considered as one determines which interventions are going to be appropriate based on the skill in question, the setting, and the unique learning characteristics of the client. This chapter focuses on interventions designed to increase skills and to decrease behaviors of concern.

INTERVENTIONS TO INCREASE SKILLS There are many topics to cover when we are teaching new skills. We recommend focusing on the following areas: • Stimulus and response prompts and prompt fading (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007, pp. 401 404) • Imitation (Cooper et al., 2007, pp. 413 418) • Shaping (Cooper et al., 2007, pp. 421 432) • Chaining (Cooper et al., 2007, pp. 435 451) • Discrete trial teaching (Grow, Carr, Kodak, Jostad, & Kisamore, 2011) • Naturalistic teaching strategies (e.g., Hart & Risley, 1975; Koegel & Koegel, 2012) We recommend providing didactic instruction on these topics during your group supervision meetings. The focus of the instruction should include information regarding what skills are most amenable to that teaching strategy and which clients these interventions will be most effective with. For example, a distinct skill such as color identification

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would be appropriate to teach through discrete trial teaching or naturalistic teaching strategies, whereas a program designer would likely select a chaining procedure to teach handwashing. Include recommendations regarding data collection procedures that will allow the trainees to determine the effectiveness of the intervention proposed. Be prepared for a high level of discussion during these sessions. Many trainees have received specific training regarding how to conduct discrete trials, appropriate prompting procedures, and data collection methods that may differ from what you are teaching them to do. Study the current literature so that you can talk about the variety of ways that each method can be used as well as the advantages and disadvantages of each (e.g., Geiger et al., 2012; Grow et al., 2011; Libby, Weiss, Bancroft, & Ahearn, 2008).

Modeling, Rehearsal and Performance Feedback Consistent with the BST approach that we are recommending, your instruction should include video models demonstrating someone performing the particular intervention, and you will answer questions related to the content you provide, after which your trainees will demonstrate their skills with each of these interventions and you will provide performance feedback accordingly. This process will continue until your trainees meet the previously identified criterion. Tables 6.1 through 6.10 are sample rubrics to use to assess your trainees’ skills in teaching through the use of these strategies.

Ethics Related to Developing Interventions to Increase Skills There is an entire section of the code related to the behavior change program. Focus on the following areas when working with your trainees on this topic: • • • •

Select behavior analytic and conceptually consistent interventions Involve clients and stakeholders in the planning process Obtain consent for interventions and significant changes to a plan Individualize treatments

TABLE 6.1 Utilizing Stimulus Prompts Effectively 6

6

Selects a prompt that highlights the discriminative stimulus Effectively implements within session prompt fading

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TABLE 6.2

Utilizing Response Prompts Effectively 6

6

6

6

6

6

6

6

6

Selects prompt that is appropriate based on the skill taught and the skill level of the client Effectively implements within session prompt fading

TABLE 6.3

Utilizing Imitation Training Effectively

Provides an effective discriminative stimulus (e.g., “Do this” followed by a model) Provides an appropriate prompt if necessary Provides a reinforcer within 3 s for a correct response Repeats the instruction and provides a correction for an incorrect response Ends session with a correct response even if prompting is required to achieve the correct response Collects data accurately

TABLE 6.4

Utilizing Shaping Effectively

Develops a plan for successive approximations to reinforce Sets up an effective learning opportunity with the discriminative stimulus Provides reinforcement when a successive approximation occurs Provides reinforcement on a variable schedule of reinforcement in preparation for the next successive approximation to occur Utilizes differential reinforcement procedures when transitioning to the next successive approximation Collects data accurately

• • • •

Describe interventions without using behavioral jargon Explain the conditions necessary for program success Avoid harmful reinforcers Set a criterion for the discontinuing of interventions and services (Bailey & Burch, 2016, pp. 126 136)

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TABLE 6.5 Utilizing Backward Chaining Effectively 6

6

6

6

6

6

Completes steps up to the training step for the client Utilizes the appropriate prompt for the training step Builds the training step to independence before introducing the next training step Allows each mastered step to occur independently on each opportunity Provides reinforcement for completing the training step Collects data accurately

TABLE 6.6 Utilizing Forward Chaining Effectively

Allows each mastered step to occur independently on each opportunity Utilizes the appropriate prompt for the training step Builds the training step to independence before introducing the next training step Completes all remaining steps for the client once training step occurs Provides reinforcement for completing the training step Collects data accurately

TABLE 6.7 Utilizing Total Task Presentation Effectively 6 Client engages in each step within the task analysis Trainee provides appropriate prompt for each step Trainee allows for independent responding when appropriate Trainee provides reinforcement at the conclusion of the task analysis Collects data accurately

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6

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TABLE 6.8

Utilizing Discrete Trial Teaching Starting with a Simple Discrimination 6

6

6

6

6

Teaches one stimulus at a time in massed trial format Completes simple discrimination with one distractor Conducts conditional discrimination trials with a two stimulus array Conducts massed trial with third stimulus Conducts conditional discrimination trials with a two stimulus array that includes the third stimulus Conducts three stimulus array conditional discrimination trials Provides appropriate discriminative stimulus (instruction) Provides appropriate prompts for the skill Uses within session prompt fading Provides reinforcement within 2 s of a correct response Provides appropriate correction trial when incorrect response or no response Conducts transfer trial after correction trial Returns to acquisition item after transfer trial Collects accurate data

TABLE 6.9 Utilizing Discrete Trial Teaching Starting with a Conditional Discrimination 6 Conducts multi stimulus messy array conditional discrimination trials Provides appropriate discriminative stimulus (instruction) Provides appropriate prompts for the skill Uses within session prompt fading Provides reinforcement within 2 s of a correct response Provides appropriate correction trial when incorrect response or no response Conducts transfer trial after correction trial Returns to acquisition item after transfer trial Collects accurate data

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TABLE 6.10

Utilizing Naturalistic Teaching Strategies 6

6

6

Allows client to initiate interaction with a stimulus Prompts a more complex communicative response Provides access to the stimulus contingent on response Sets up opportunities to request a needed item Utilizes shaping procedures to improve successive approximations Takes advantage of establishing operations to increase motivation

INTERVENTIONS TO DECREASE BEHAVIORS OF CONCERN A major component of behavior analysis is related to developing interventions to decrease problem behaviors. These interventions include: • Differential reinforcement procedures (Cooper et al., 2007, pp. 469 480) • Time based reinforcement procedures (Cooper et al., 2007, pp. 489 492) • Extinction (Cooper et al., 2007, pp. 456 467) • Positive and negative punishment (Cooper et al., 2007, pp. 325 371) • Token economies (Cooper et al., 2007, pp. 560 567) • Group contingencies (Cooper et al., 2007, pp. 567 573) • Contingency contracting (Cooper et al., 2007, pp. 550 559) • Self-management strategies (Cooper et al., 2007, pp. 575 610) Provide instruction regarding focusing on function based interventions for individualized interventions. This includes a focus on utilizing differential reinforcement procedures and extinction procedures based on the function of the behavior. In addition, focus on developing individualized behavior plans that include antecedent based interventions, teaching an alternative response, and consequence based intervention to reinforce appropriate behavior and decrease the problem behavior. Spend time talking about how a pure extinction procedure is not always feasible in the natural environment. Provide examples when it would be unsafe to implement extinction (e.g., a child running toward the street and his elopement behavior is maintained by access to attention) and highlight the importance of antecedent interventions in these situations. Also provide instruction on strategies that are reinforcement based, but not necessarily based on function. This would include token

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economies, group contingencies, and contingency contracting. When using these interventions, we are able to use a combination of function based consequences as well as arbitrary stimuli that may compete with the functional reinforcer. Finally, provide information regarding the use of punishment and the conditions under which these interventions should be used.

Modeling, Rehearsal and Performance Feedback Provide models for each of the above-listed interventions. Review these videos with your trainees and answer any questions they have regarding the process for implementing these interventions. When ready, your trainees will submit their own videos for your review. Many of these demonstrations may need to be completed in a roleplay format as opposed to working directly with clients, due to the sensitive nature of recording clients exhibiting problem behavior. Continue the feedback process until the trainees meet your previously established criterion. Tables 6.11 6.19 provide sample rubrics for assessing these skills. TABLE 6.11

Implementing Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior 6

6

6

Watches for the occurrence of the target behavior for the identified interval Delivers reinforcement when target behavior does not occur during each interval Resets the interval when target behavior occurs

TABLE 6.12 Extinction

Implementing Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior with 6

Identifies an alternative behavior to reinforce (ideally a communicative response) Provides the functional reinforcer when the alternative behavior occurs Implements an extinction procedure when target behaviors occur Prompts the alternative behavior when establishing operation is in place prior to the occurrence of target behaviors

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6

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TABLE 6.13 Implementing Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible Behavior with Extinction 6

6

6

6

6

6

Identifies a response that is incompatible with the target behavior Delivers the functional reinforcer contingent on the occurrence of the incompatible response Uses an extinction procedure when target behaviors occur Prompts the occurrence of the incompatible response when the establishing operation is in place and prior to the occurrence of the target behavior

TABLE 6.14

Implementing Time Based Schedule of Reinforcement

Identifies the initial time based schedule based on the inter-response times during baseline Delivers the functional reinforcer at the appropriate times Increases the amount of time between reinforcer delivery once response suppression is achieved

TABLE 6.15

Implementing a Token Economy with Response Cost 6

6

6

Identifies an appropriate token to use Identifies appropriate target behaviors to reinforce Identifies effective backup reinforcers Identifies specific target behaviors for response cost Implements intervention with fidelity

TABLE 6.16

Developing a Group Contingency 6

6

Identifies target behaviors to reinforce Identifies backup reinforcer Explains contingency to the group Implements contingency with fidelity

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TABLE 6.17

Developing a Contingency Contract 6

6

6

Contract contains the target behaviors stated in positive terms Contract includes the criteria necessary to access reinforcement Contract includes information regarding the reinforcement to access

TABLE 6.18

Developing a Self-Management Program 6

6

6

6

6

6

Target behavior identified and operationally defined Program includes a plan for training the client on self-recording Program includes a self-reinforcement component Program includes a plan for initial oversight to ensure fidelity of implementation

TABLE 6.19

Developing a Behavior Intervention Plan (BIP)

Antecedent interventions appropriate based on function Alternative behavior is appropriate based on function Procedures to teach alternative behavior are appropriate based on the response selected Reinforcement procedures are appropriate based on function Extinction procedures are appropriate based on function and are safe given the target behaviors addressed

Ethics Related to Interventions Designed to Decrease Behaviors of Concern When examining the ethics behind interventions designed to decrease problem behaviors, focus on the following areas: • Develop and recommend behavior analytic interventions • Involve the client and stakeholders in the process of selecting interventions and obtain consent prior to starting interventions • Recommend function based interventions that are individualized to the needs of that client

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• Assess the environmental conditions necessary for the recommended interventions to be successful • Recommend reinforcement based procedures prior to recommending punishment procedures • When recommending punishment procedures, ensure reinforcement procedures are also included within the intervention package • Ensure that staff are properly trained to implement interventions effectively • Recommend the least intrusive procedures that will be effective (Bailey & Burch, 2016, pp. 126 135)

References Bailey, J., & Burch, M. (2016). Ethics for behavior analysts (3rd ed.). New York: Routledge. Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Geiger, K. B., Carr, J. E., LeBlanc, L. A., Hanney, N. M., Polick, A. S., & Heinicke, M. R. (2012). Teaching receptive discriminations to children with autism: A comparison of traditional and embedded discrete trial teaching. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 5, 49 59. Grow, L. L., Carr, J. E., Kodak, T. M., Jostad, C. M., & Kisamore, A. N. (2011). A comparison of methods for teaching receptive labeling to children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 44, 475 498. Hart, B., & Risley, T. R. (1975). Incidental teaching of language in the preschool. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 8, 411 420. Koegel, R. L., & Koegel, L. K. (2012). The PRT pocket guide: Pivotal response treatment for autism spectrum disorders. Baltimore, MD: Brookes. Libby, M. E., Weiss, J. S., Bancroft, S., & Ahearn, W. H. (2008). A comparison of most-toleast and least-to-most prompting on the acquisition of solitary play skills. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 1, 37 43.

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7 Personnel Supervision and Management

INTRODUCTION Although the Fifth Edition Task List contains eight items in Section I, in this chapter we will focus on two of them: • Item I-6, Use a functional assessment approach (e.g., performance diagnostics) to identify variables affecting personnel performance • Item I-7, Use function based strategies to improve personnel performance We will cover item I-8: Evaluate the effects of supervision in Chapter 10, and I-1: State the reasons for using behavior-analytic supervision and the potential risks of ineffective supervision in Chapter 9 (Behavior Analyst Certification Board, 2017). Since we have embedded a Behavior Skills Training Model throughout the book, we feel the remaining task items in Section I have been adequately covered.

Assessing Variables Impacting Personnel Performance and Developing Function Based Interventions When encountering performance challenges in the workplace, it is tempting to go straight to brainstorming specific interventions to remedy the situation. However, before doing so, it is worth asking yourself the question, “Would I treat a client’s behavioral needs this way?” In other words, would you implement a behavior intervention plan without first conducting some sort of functional assessment? These might be helpful questions to put to your trainees when you cover this section of the task list.

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Instead of guessing why performance problems occur, teach your trainees to use an assessment such as the Performance Diagnostic Checklist-Human Services (PDC-HC; Carr, Wilder, Majdalany, Mathisen, & Strain, 2013). If you are not already familiar with the Performance Diagnostic Checklist-Human Services, it is an interviewbased assessment in which respondents answer several questions about the specific performance problem. The outcome of the PDC-HC is to narrow down the functions of performance problems into four broad categories, which include insufficient training, ineffective consequences, competing contingencies, and inadequate materials. The assessment also suggests interventions that are specifically indicated based on the function of the performance problem (Ditzian, Wilder, King, & Tanz, 2015; Wilder, Lipschultz, & Gehrman, 2018).

Modeling, Rehearsal and Performance Feedback Perhaps the first step in introducing the PDC-HS to your trainees is to demonstrate the process of completing one, and then to show how you would develop an intervention based on the results. Include a system for data collection of staff behavior, a graphical display of the results, and how you would analyze the data to determine the effectiveness of your intervention. Answer any questions your trainees have regarding this process. Once the PDC-HS has been adequately explained and demonstrated, have your trainees complete the same process with a staff performance problem that they have identified. If they are not currently in a position of supervision, or if they have the good fortune of working in a setting with few performance problems, ask them to recall performance challenges that they may have had in other settings, or even other occupations. Table 7.1 is a sample rubric to use to assess your trainees’ skills related to developing a function based intervention to address employee performance issues.

Ethics Related to Assessing Variables Impacting Personnel Performance and Developing Function Based Interventions In the beginning of this chapter, we made the point that treating an employee performance problem should follow a similar model to the behavioral interventions we would develop for clients. In the context of examining ethical considerations for Section I of the task list, the ethical concerns are also similar. As such, when discussing the ethics related to intervening with personnel performance problems, we recommend focusing on the following areas: • Assessment prior to intervention (Bailey & Burch, 2016, pp. 109 116) • Developing the most effective intervention (Bailey & Burch, 2016, p. 84) II. A SCOPE AND SEQUENCE TO STRUCTURE SUPERVISION

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REFERENCES

TABLE 7.1 Rubric to Assess Trainees’ Skills Related to Assessing Variables Impacting Personnel Performance and Developing Function Based Interventions 6

6

6

Completes the Performance Diagnostic Checklist-Human Services accurately Determines the potential function of employees’ performance problems based on results of checklist Develops an appropriate intervention based on potential function Develops an appropriate data collection system for identified behavior Develops an appropriate graph to analyze the impact of intervention Analyzes the results through visual inspection Makes changes to intervention based on the data

• Continue data collection to assess the effectiveness of interventions (Bailey & Burch, 2016, p. 115) • Only working within one’s area of competence (Bailey & Burch, 2016, p. 58) • Developing an ethical culture within the workplace (Bailey & Burch, 2016, p. 167)

References Bailey, J., & Burch, M. (2016). Ethics for behavior analysts (3rd ed.). New York: Routledge. Behavior Analyst Certification Board. (2017). BCBA/BCaBA task list (5th ed.). Littleton, CO: Behavior Analyst Certification Board. Carr, J. E., Wilder, D. A., Majdalany, L., Mathisen, D., & Strain, L. A. (2013). An assessment-based solution to a human-service employee performance problem: An initial evaluation of the performance diagnostic checklist—Human services. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 6, 16 32. Ditzian, K., Wilder, D. A., King, A., & Tanz, J. (2015). An evaluation of the performance diagnostic checklist-human services to assess an employee performance problem in a center-based autism treatment facility. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 48, 199 203. Wilder, D. A., Lipschultz, J., & Gehrman, C. (2018). An evaluation of the performance diagnostic checklist—Human services (PDC-HS) across domains. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 11, 129 138.

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C H A P T E R

8 Beyond the Task List Unlike the previous sections of this book, the general idea is not to assess or develop competency in the topics we explore below. These topics may be new to many readers, and we cannot replace in-depth training and professional development. However, we want to introduce these areas to you, make the case as to why they are important, and point you toward resources for self-study. We also make suggestions for activities that you and your trainee can do together to practice these new concepts. After acquainting yourself with these areas of practice, you can decide whether it is worthwhile to share these topics with trainees.

ACCEPTANCE AND COMMITMENT THERAPY Acceptance and commitment therapy, or ACT as it is commonly referred to, is based on the principles of Relational Frame Theory, and can be thought of as an intervention that blends mindfulness and behavioral practices into a coherent treatment model (Harris, 2009; Stoddard & Afari, 2014). Specifically, ACT involves teaching skills that allow learners to manage private events in productive ways, identify values that are important to them, and engage in specific responses in order to live more consistently with those values (Dixon, 2014). ACT has been demonstrated to help individuals with a wide variety mental health conditions (Harris, 2009), but has also been used to improve burnout in mental health counselors (Hayes et al., 2004), as well as to develop safer working conditions (Moran, 2013). While the majority of ACT applications have been in the mental health field, many practitioners have begun using ACT to help children with autism and other emotional behavioral disorders (Dixon, 2014; Dixon & Palilunas, 2017). Studies have also suggested that ACT can be helpful in supporting caregivers of children with autism (Blackledge & Hayes,

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2006; Gould, Tarbox, & Coyne, 2017). The development of the application of ACT to the fields of developmental disabilities and organizational behavior management suggests that practitioners should be conversant in the basic ACT terms. Reviewing the ACT principles in more detail is beyond the scope of this chapter, but there are several ways to learn more about this area on your own. First, the Association for Contextual Behavioral Science (ACBS) maintains a website (www.contextualscience.org) that is a repository for hundreds of ACT and RFT related peer reviewed articles, book chapters, videos, listservs, and PowerPoints. Membership is required to access these materials, but can be purchased for as little as $10 per year. Second, as noted earlier, Dr. Mark Dixon and his colleagues have published two manualized curricula for using ACT with children with a variety of behavioral and developmental disorders (Dixon, 2014; Dixon & Palilunas, 2017). Third, there are a variety of self-help books that convey ACT principles in an accessible manner. Popular texts in this category include “Get Out Of Your Mind And Into Your Life” (Hayes & Smith, 2005) and “The Happiness Trap” (Harris, 2008). Finally, ACT is becoming an popular topic at more and more behavior analytic conferences, and specialized workshops that teach ACT for Behavior Analysis practitioners are increasingly common. In order to begin using some ACT concepts, you and your trainees could complete some of the experiential exercises that are described in Hayes and Smith (2005) or Harris (2008), such as Eating Mindfully or Attending Your Own Funeral. As noted, this could be a great opportunity to model continuing professional development. However, it is important to note that it is essential to obtain the appropriate training before attempting to implement any type of ACT intervention on clients. Also, because ACT was originally developed to address mental health challenges, practitioners need to be aware of, and practice within, their own scope of competence, and it is worth mentioning that “Accept, Identify, and Move” (Dixon & Palilunas, 2017) has a section that helps behavior analysts navigate these boundaries.

PRECISION TEACHING Precision Teaching (PT) was on previous task lists but has been removed as the list evolved (as an aside, for a discussion of how task list items are added or removed from task list revisions, see Cicoria, 2018). PT is a method of instruction that rests on four principles: 1. Focusing on directly observable behavior 2. Frequency as a measure of performance

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3. Graphing pinpointed targets on a Standard Celeration Chart (SCC) 4. The learner knows best Actually, PT can be thought of as not a method of instruction per se, but rather a method of evaluating instruction in a fast, precise manner so that instruction can be modified in order to maximize the success of the learner (hence the principle that “the learner knows best”). PT also involves reframing operational definitions into more specific “pinpoints” that describe physical movements (e.g., writes word on paper), and, as noted above, plotting those data on the SCC. While it can be argued that PT occupies a “boutique” or niche area of behavior analysis, programs that use these procedures are able to generate incredible learning outcomes. For example, through the use of PT, students working with companies such as Fit Learning, and schools such as Morningside Academy, are able to achieve one grade level of learning in 40 hours of instruction (http://fitlearners.com/40-hourslater/). In fact, Morningside Academy offers a full tuition refund to parents if their child does not make 2 years of growth in the areas of their greatest need in one school year (Johnson & Street, 2012). A final rationale for exploring PT is the use of the SCC. The SCC uses the same layout or display to graph data. Conversely, the equal interval graphs in our flagship journals tend to vary, not just in terms of the X and Y axes, but also the proportions of those axes. In fact, a recent analysis of 4313 graphs from 11 behavior analytic journals yielded numerous construction errors (Kubina, Kostewicz, Brennan, & King, 2017). There are several online resources where you can learn more about PT. These include The Standard Celeration Society’s website and associated Facebook group (www.celeration.org, https://www.facebook.com/ groups/6125768559/), as well as commercial PT education and software providers such as Precision Teaching University (http://www.precisionteachinguniversity.com/) and Chartlytics (https://www.chartlytics. com/). If you decide to cover this area with your supervisee, there are plenty of potential exercises. Some potential areas of application include converting an operational definition into a pinpoint, graphing the same data set on both an equal interval graph and a SCC and comparing the differences, collecting and graphing data about personal habits (e.g., minutes spent exercising, viewing social media, etc.), and so on.

EXECUTIVE FUNCTION We fully acknowledge that the umbrella term of Executive Function is as mentalistic as it gets. In fact, if you use words such as “attending,”

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“problem-solving,” “inhibiting,” and “organizing” with your trainees, they should be able to point out that these are not just mentalistic, but insufficiently precise to be useful in clinical practice. So why should you care about this neuropsychological concept? Well, many individuals diagnosed with conditions that are commonly treated with behaviorally based interventions also demonstrate deficits in executive function skills (e.g., Happe, Booth, Charlton, & Hughes, 2006). Also, as Brodhead (2015) correctly points out, many BCBAs are members of multidisciplinary teams that support learners in a variety of settings. As such, there is a high probability that BCBAs are going to encounter this term, and they should not only be conversant in the underlying concepts, but also have sufficient background to develop effective interventions. Fortunately there are a few books that have been written that provide accessible content for supervisors and trainees who are interested in learning more on this subject. First, Executive Skills in Children and Adolescents: A Practical Guide to Assessment and Intervention (Dawson & Guare, 2010) reviews the key concepts of executive functioning, and provides sample assessments and lessons for skills such as completing daily routines, completing homework, and studying for tests. Another great resource is the book, Flexible and Focused: Teaching Executive Function Skills to Individuals with Autism and Attention Disorders (Najdowski, 2017). As the title suggests, this text addresses the autism spectrum population directly, and it operationally defines many executive function concepts, and provides related lessons and task analyses. As such, if your trainee provides services to individuals with executive functioning needs, chances are that between these two resources, there are interventions that are applicable, thereby providing an opportunity to develop these skills.

CURRICULUM-BASED MEASURES You will find that many of your trainees are working in schools and several of them specifically as special education teachers. Because of this, it will be important to assist them in utilizing effective ways for them to assess their students’ progress. One common method for this is curriculum-based measures (CBMs). CBMs consist of brief assessments tied directly to the curriculum that are typically one to three minutes in length. They are designed to assess incremental levels of progress for students in the areas of math, reading, writing, and spelling. The idea is to focus on fluency of basic skills to prepare students to be more successful with advanced skills, and CBMs are a great way to determine if a student is making progress on those basic skills (Deno, 2003).

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One resource that is available which is related to CBMs is AIMSweb (https://www.aimsweb.com/), where teachers can access reading and math measures that are aligned to standards. Teachers are able to monitor student progress by entering results into their system allowing for efficient data-based decision making. Another great resource is Intervention Central (www.interventioncentral.org). This website is useful for helping teachers to gain information regarding specific assessments to use and to obtain recommendations for teaching strategies. It is considered a CBM warehouse with a wealth of information available.

DIRECT INSTRUCTION Direct instruction (DI) is an evidence based curriculum that has been researched heavily within the field for several decades. It is an intervention curriculum that is designed for rapid increases in skills to catch students up with peers of the same age. DI focuses on core skills such as decoding, comprehension, math, writing, and spelling. DI curricula are carefully scaffolded and include repetition of content through the daily lessons and slowly introducing new content to the student. The curriculum is scripted and provides specific methods for the delivery of content with an emphasis on choral responding, active student responding, specific methods for correcting errors, and a high level of reinforcement for correct responding (Gersten, Woodward, & Darch, 1986). Due to the scripted nature of the curriculum, some people feel that DI takes the art out of teaching. Others would argue that DI puts the science into teaching given the degree to which it has been researched. Several metaanalyses have confirmed that DI is one of the most effective teaching strategies (Hattie, 2009). It is important to note that there are two generally accepted meanings behind the term “direct instruction.” Many people in the field refer to the difference as capital DI versus little di. When talking about the first, we are referring to a specific curriculum that is scripted and has been heavily research and determined to be effective. When we are talking about the latter, we are referring to a teaching methodology in which the instructor is actively engaging the students with the instructional materials. Direct instruction as a teaching strategy can be incorporated within any curriculum including DI and, as such, many people see these concepts as synonymous even though they are not. Highlight these differences with your trainees to ensure they have a full understanding of these nuances. There are several resources available to learn more about DI. One such resource is the National Institute for Direct Instruction (https://

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www.nifdi.org/). This website includes tutorials on how to implement DI with fidelity. The institute also hosts an annual national conference on DI. Information regarding regional conferences is also available on this website. The DI curriculum can be purchased from the publisher, McGraw Hill (https://www.mheducation.com/prek-12/explore/directinstruction.html). Many teachers combine CBMs and DI together to form an effective assessment and instruction package that allows them to measure progress and adjust instructional practices to meet the needs of their students. These concepts should be examined in this light.

References Blackledge, J. T., & Hayes, S. C. (2006). Using acceptance and commitment training in the support of parents of children diagnosed with autism. Child & Family Behavior Therapy, 28, 1 18. Brodhead, M. T. (2015). Maintaining professional relationships in an interdisciplinary setting: Strategies for navigating nonbehavioral treatment recommendations for individuals with autism. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 8, 70 78. Cicoria, M. J. (2018, April 10). Session 49: The state of behavior analysis Part 2 with Jim Carr. Retrieved from ,https://behavioralobservations.com/session-49-the-state-of-behavioranalysis-part-2-with-jim-carr/.. Dawson, P., & Guare, R. (2010). Executive skills in children and adolescents: A practical guide to assessment and intervention (2nd ed.). New York: Guildford Press. Deno, S. L. (2003). Developments in curriculum-based measurement. The Journal of Special Education, 37, 184 192. Dixon, M. R. (2014). ACT for children with autism and emotional challenges. Carbondale, IL: Shawnee Scientific Press. Dixon, M. R., & Palilunas, D. (2017). AIM: A behavior analytic curriculum for social-emotional development in children. Carbondale, IL: Shawnee Scientific Press. Gersten, R., Woodward, J., & Darch, C. (1986). Direct instruction: A research-based approach to curriculum design and teaching. Exceptional Children, 53, 17 31. Gould, E. R., Tarbox, J., & Coyne, L. W. (2017). Evaluating the effects of acceptance and commitment training on the overt behavior of parents of children with autism. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 7, 81 85. Happe, F., Booth, R., Charlton, R., & Hughes, C. (2006). Executive function deficits in autism spectrum disorders and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Examining profiles across domains and ages. Brain and Cognition, 61, 583 598. Harris, R. (2008). The happiness trap: How to stop struggling and start living. Boston, MA: Trumpeter Books. Harris, R. (2009). ACT made simple: An easy-to-read primer on acceptance and commitment therapy. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications. Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. London and New York: Routledge. Hayes, S. C., Bissett, R., Roget, N., Padilla, M., Kohlenberg, B. S., Fisher, G., . . . Niccolls, R. (2004). The impact of acceptance and commitment training and multicultural training on the stigmatizing attitudes and professional burnout of substance abuse counselors. Behavior Therapy, 35, 821 835. Hayes, S. C., & Smith, S. (2005). Get out of your mind and into your life: The new acceptance and commitment therapy. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger.

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Johnson, K., & Street, E. M. (2012). From the laboratory to the field and back again: Morningside Academy’s 32 years of improving students’ academic performance. The Behavior Analyst Today, 13, 20 40. Kubina, R. M., Kostewicz, D. E., Brennan, K. M., & King, S. A. (2017). A critical review of line graphs in Behavior Analytic Journals. Educational Psychology Review, 29, 583 598. Moran, D. J. (2013). Building safety commitment. Joliet, IL: Valued Living Books. Najdowski, A. C. (2017). Flexible and focused: Teaching executive function skills to individuals with autism and attention disorders. London: Academic Press. Stoddard, J. A., & Afari, N. (2014). The big book of ACT Metaphors: A practitioner’s guide to experiential exercises and metaphors in acceptance and commitment therapy. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications.

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9 Supervisory Interpersonal Skills

USING POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT IN SUPERVISION When students are preparing to become behavior analysts, a good amount of time is spent on learning the role reinforcement plays in developing repertoires in our clients. Whether writing a skill acquisition program or conducting a functional behavioral assessment, great care is taken to ensure students appreciate how the use of reinforcement procedures can radically improve the lives of the individuals they serve. On the other hand, our anecdotal perspective is that very often, less care is taken to instruct students on using positive reinforcement in nonclinical applications. We contend, however, that using these performance management strategies with your trainees will make the supervision process more successful for all parties involved. This last statement is not terribly controversial, but by itself, it is too general to be helpful. So if you’re wondering how best to use this advice, taking some baseline data on the frequency of positive and negative statements you make during supervision may be a good place to start (in this case, we will construe “negative” as any statement that is corrective in nature). How many positive interactions do you need to have? Well, it is recommended that using four positive statements for every corrective one is helpful in the management context (Daniels, 1989). Likewise, married couples whose positive to negative interactions occur in an approximate ratio of 5:1, respectively, are less likely to divorce (Gottman & Levenson, 1992). While we are not aware of any research that demonstrates the efficacy of using a 4:1 or 5:1 ratio in the context of trainee supervision, these findings may provide a good rule of thumb. When using praise during supervision (and for convenience, we’re assuming that praise in the supervision context has some reinforcing value), we recommend using Daniels’ SSIP model (1989). This acronym

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stands for sincere, specific, immediate, and personal. As a BCBA, the attributes of specificity and immediacy should be obvious, so we will take a closer look at the remaining two. On its face, the recommendation of providing praise sincerely seems almost laughable (who really wants to come off as insincere?). However, if you are providing supervision in a distance context, this may hamper the ability to interpret the prosodic features of speech as well as nonverbal mannerisms that help communicate genuine appreciation. As such, it may be helpful to take the time to ensure that your trainees understand what you are trying to convey. With regard to making reinforcement personal, this simply means avoiding the use of blanket statements (e.g., “good job”), or at least relating the praise statement to a broader repertoire that needs strengthening (e.g., “That was a great job of explaining the concept of symmetry! I know the equivalence material is challenging to master, and I appreciate the time you’ve taken to master it!”). A final word on using positive reinforcement involves group supervision meetings. In these contexts, you want to ensure that your reinforcing statements are roughly equally distributed across all trainees. Moreover, it will be even more important to have some variety in the statements that are used to provide reinforcement. In other words, you want to avoid saying, “great job!” 30 times in a supervision meeting!

CORRECTING INADEQUATE PERFORMANCE We have been very fortunate to have amazing trainees who are, almost always, highly motivated to learn and apply behavior analytic skills. So our need to correct inadequate performance has been thankfully infrequent. That said, when faced with a trainee who does not complete assignments, arrives to supervision meetings late, or engages in any other negative behaviors, we recommend the following strategies, which we have amalgamated from the Reid, Parsons, and Green (2012), Daniels (1989), and Bailey and Burch (2010) texts, as well as a journal article authored by Sellers, LeBlanc, and Valentino (2016): 1. Reflect on whether the trainee’s performance is at least partially due to unclear expectations set by you, the supervisor. If so, retraining the trainee on the desired performance could be a good place to start. 2. Determine the potential function of the behavior. Is this behavior maintained by accessing attention or escaping an aversive stimulus? 3. When providing corrective feedback, do it during individual, not group supervision meetings.

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4. Operationalize the behavior of concern, as well as the desired alternative, in precise terms, just as you would the target behavior of a client. 5. When broaching the performance deficit, cite specific instances (e.g., “You were more than 5 minutes late on the 1st, 14th, and 28th of this month.”). 6. Determine if there is a skill deficit related to time management skills or prioritizing skills. The trainee may benefit from support related to executive function skills. 7. Avoid the “feedback sandwich,” in which the corrective statement is stated between two compliments (Cohn, 2017). While difficult to do so, it is better to start the conversation by getting right to the problematic issue. 8. Continue reinforcing other desired behaviors, or in other words, do not forget the 4:1 ratio! 9. Provide feedback at the first sign of a problem. Do not wait for an issue to get worse before addressing it. Keep in mind that our behavior is also maintained by negative reinforcement and we are likely to avoid conversations that can be aversive and difficult. Don’t let those contingencies prevent you from being a good supervisor. If the trainee’s performance does not improve, consider implementing a corrective action plan. A corrective action plan should involve the following steps: Stating the desired performance; referencing the baseline data regarding the performance; identifying steps for retraining; articulating a review cycle; and setting criteria for removing the plan or possible termination of supervision services. Even when things aren’t looking good, you’ll want to exhaust all options before terminating the supervision relationship. This is important for several reasons. First, this can be a great opportunity for you to grow as a supervisor. A supervisor who is able to improve the skills of a trainee who is struggling is of great value to the field as a whole. Second, another supervisor might miss the signs of these skill deficits and as a result, the trainee’s skills will not improve (Sellers et al., 2016). If the corrective action plan proves to be ineffective in changing the behavior of the trainee, communicate in writing about the discontinuation of the relationship. Ensure that you are following the expectations that are outlined within the supervision contract and the corrective action plan. To summarize, we are all subject to the fundamental principles of behavior, and as such, it is important that we bring these performanceenhancing tools that we use every day in clinical settings to our supervision practice. Moreover, as with any behavior analytic endeavor, the more attention that is paid to proactive measures (setting clear expectations, using effective reinforcement practices, etc.), the less need there will be for correcting inadequate trainee performance.

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References Bailey, J., & Burch, M. (2010). 25 Essential skills and strategies for the professional behavior analyst. New York: Routledge. Cohn, A. (June 2017). Please stop using the feedback sandwich. Forbes. Retrieved online ,https://www.forbes.com/sites/alisacohn/2017/06/20/please-stop-using-the-feedback-sandwich/2/.. Daniels, A. C. (1989). Performance management: Improving quality productivity through positive reinforcement (3rd ed.). Tucker, GA: Performance Management Publications. Gottman, J. M., & Levenson, R. W. (1992). Marital processes predictive of later dissolution: Behavior, physiology, & health. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 221 233. Reid, D. H., Parsons, M. B., & Green, C. W. (2012). The Supervisor’s Guidebook: Evidencebased strategies for promoting work quality and enjoyment among human service staff. Morgantown, NC: Habilitative Management Consultants, Inc. Sellers, T. P., LeBlanc, L. A., & Valentino, A. L. (2016). Recommendations for detecting and addressing barriers to successful supervision. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 9, 309 319.

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10 Ethics in Supervision

INTRODUCTION With every task list area covered thus far, we have attempted to outline important ethical standards not only to maintain, but also to teach to your trainees. As such, having a standalone chapter on ethics may seem like overkill, however the focus of this chapter is on the supervisor’s responsibility for ethical conduct throughout the supervision process. The rationale for this choice is compelling because the staff at the Behavior Analyst Certification Board (BACB) analyzed the data regarding ethics violations during 2016 17, and they found that the greatest violation reported to the BACB was improper or inadequate supervision. These violations included: • Not following the supervision contract • Being disorganized with paperwork and not following through with meetings, to the detriment of the trainees • Not following the supervision requirements outlined by the BACB, including not having a supervision contract in place • Not following the BACB Experience Standards (Behavior Analyst Certification Board, 2018) When the BACB adopted the Professional and Ethical Compliance Code for Behavior Analysts, one of the most significant changes was around the area of supervision. The Code provided more clarity around the expectations for supervisors who are undertaking the responsibility of supervising trainees. In addition, there are other areas of the Code that are relevant when considering the supervision relationship. In this chapter, we will be focusing on the following Codes: • Code 1.0—Responsible conduct of behavior analysts • Code 2.0—Behavior analysts’ responsibility to clients

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• Code 5.0—Behavior analysts as supervisors • Code 8.0—Public statements • Code 10.0—Behavior analysts’ ethical responsibility to the BACB (Behavior Analyst Certification Board, 2014)

Code 1.0—Responsible Conduct of Behavior Analysts Anyone who has taught or received instruction within an ethics course is well aware of the concerns regarding multiple relationships (Code Element 1.06). Most of the examples used in those courses are related to multiple relationships that can occur with the families of our clients. However, it is important for supervisors to assess risks related to multiple relationships with their trainees (Bailey & Burch, 2016, p. 71). The most obvious is refraining from establishing a friendship with a trainee through social media. A less obvious one is related to other multiple relationships that can develop such as teaching a course that a trainee is taking. In this case, the supervisor could be receiving financial compensation from someone whom they will be providing grades to throughout the semester. In a case such as this, might the instructor’s grading be influenced by this relationship? Since many supervisors are engaging in behavior analytic activities in multiple ways, it is critical to understand the potential for a multiple relationship to emerge across these activities and to take steps to prevent this from happening. In the event that a multiple relationship does develop, it is the supervisor’s responsibility to address the issue immediately by terminating one of those relationships as soon as it is identified. Another area of concern as it relates to the relationship between supervisors and trainees is the risk of exploitation (Code Element 1.07). Anyone who has gone through the process of gathering their fieldwork hours understands just how vulnerable the trainees feel within this context. Supervisors wield a high level of control over trainees when it comes to signing the final verification form at the end of the relationship. This inequity in power can make trainees feel like they need to agree to do whatever a supervisor asks of them to ensure that they obtain the verification form. Watch out to ensure that you are not asking too much of your trainees or that you are the sole beneficiary of the work your trainees are producing. An example of this would be having trainees develop a workshop on a particular topic in the event that the trainees do not present the workshop, they do not get credit with their names listed on the workshop, and you charge money for attendees to receive continuing education units for attending.

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Code 2.0—Behavior Analysts’ Responsibility to Clients The first thing you as a supervisor need to realize is that your trainees are now your clients, and therefore Code 2.0—Behavior Analysts’ Responsibility to Clients applies to your interactions with your trainees. One area to consider is third-party involvement in services (Code Element 2.04). There may be times when employers will pay for your supervision. When this is the case, employers may want information regarding how their employee is performing within the supervision relationship. This directly impacts our responsibility around maintaining confidentiality (Code Element 2.06). We recommend having this conversation at the outset of the relationship. In addition, you should document within the contract who will be paying for the supervision, what information will be provided to the employer, and at what frequency. Clearly communicate with both the employer and the potential trainee about this component and don’t make any changes to that commitment without obtaining written approval. Another area to consider is maintaining records (Code Element 2.07). The supervisor is responsible for maintaining appropriate confidentiality of all records related to trainees and the trainees’ clients. This includes data related to the trainees’ performance (Code Element 2.11). Have a plan for how you will retain and store this information for at least seven years (Bailey & Burch, 2016, p. 100). Since supervisors are hard to find at times, it is likely that a current trainee will refer others who are looking for supervision to you. Although you may be incredibly grateful for this referral, it is critical that you do not give a discount or any other enticement for this referral (Code Element 2.14). Trainees may not understand the reason for this if they have not taken their ethics course yet. We recommend including this information at the beginning of the relationship so there is no confusion later. As you start the supervision relationship, you may find that you and the trainee are not a good fit. This could be due to a number of factors including your inability to meet the trainee’s expectations or the trainee’s inability to meet yours. It is important to set expectations on both sides when reviewing the contract. In addition, have conversations with each other after the first occurrence of someone not meeting an expectation. If these challenges continue to occur, follow the language used in the contract to discontinue services. This typically includes providing 30 days’ written notice prior to the discontinuation of services. If the trainee has engaged in a behavior that is in violation of the Code, it may be necessary to provide immediate termination of services with written notice (and to refer to Chapter 9 again for considerations for terminating the supervisory relationship). If you follow these steps, you will likely

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be in compliance with Code Element 2.15 as it relates to concerns about discontinuing services. Another concern related to Code Element 2.15 is interruptions in services. Interruptions in services can easily happen during the supervision relationship when you schedule vacations or when your schedule becomes especially busy. This is a common complaint lodged by trainees to the BACB (Behavior Analyst Certification Board, 2018). Ensure that you have the time to devote to supervision before making the commitment and develop a plan for the continuation of supervision during long absences such as extended vacations or a medical leave. The key here is to be proactive and plan in advance to ensure that all trainees will continue to receive the support they need in your absence.

Code 5.0—Behavior Analysts as Supervisors Code 5.0 speaks directly to the responsibility of the supervisor. Keep in mind that it is the supervisor’s responsibility to ensure that all supervision activities meet the expectations of the BACB (Bailey & Burch, 2016, p. 142). Your trainees are not yet certified, so it is not reasonable to expect them to have the level of knowledge that you have regarding what is ethical and responsible conduct. This is something that your trainees will learn throughout the supervision process. Ensure that you are supervising people within your level of competence (Code Element 5.01). Trainees come from a variety of work placements and some of those placements may not be familiar to you. Clarify your areas of expertise during your initial meeting with potential trainees and ensure that your background will be a good fit for the skills that the trainee is hoping to acquire during the supervision process. An important piece for you to consider as you are accepting trainees to work with you is what kind of caseload you can handle. Code Element 5.02 states that supervisors can only accept the maximum number of trainees that they can support effectively. This code is intentionally vague knowing that the exact number of trainees will depend on the other job responsibilities that a supervisor has. If supervisors have supporting trainees as their sole responsibility, they will be able to support more trainees than the supervisor who has many other responsibilities. The important focus here is the degree to which the supervisors are able to maintain their obligations to their trainees, and the degree to which trainees are learning under their tutelage (Bailey & Burch, 2016, p. 145). As a supervisor, you need to be thoughtful about the process for delegating tasks to your trainees (Code Element 5.03). Trainees need to

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be given assignments that will build their skill sets, but there needs to be a logical process for how to delegate those tasks at a rate that will be effective for the trainee. Scaffold those tasks in a way that will allow the trainees to be successful, and ensure that clients are receiving the best possible service. This entire book has focused on designing effective supervision and training. Obviously, establishing effective supervision and training is best practice, but not only that, it is Code Element 5.04 within our Professional and Ethical Compliance Code. Communication to trainees has also been an area of focus throughout this book. Code Element 5.05 focuses on the level of communication that supervisors have prior to the start of the supervision relationship (Bailey & Burch, 2016, pp. 148 149). This includes setting clear expectations through your supervision contract and ensuring that you have discussed relevant issues related to evaluation criteria, fees, and so forth. Also related to communication is providing feedback to trainees (Code Element 5.06). From an ethical standpoint, supervisors are expected to have feedback systems in place that will build the skills of your trainees. Supervisors are also expected to provide documented feedback in a timely manner. Another area of focus is to develop a plan for how you will monitor the effectiveness of your supervision (Code Element 5.07). This should include social validity data, data regarding trainees’ progress, and data regarding the progress obtained by the clients with whom the trainees work. When gaining social validity scores, ask the trainees both formally and informally to provide feedback on the trainings and support you are providing. Ask for specific ways that you can improve the systems that you are utilizing to support your trainees. It is also beneficial to ask other stakeholders such as employers, clients, or clients’ parents for feedback regarding the trainees’ skills. Keep in mind that it will be necessary to gain the consent of the trainees prior to obtaining this information. You will be able to use the data that you are collecting on the trainees’ performance to assess the degree to which they are progressing. Use these data to adjust your training systems to increase their effectiveness. Finally, ask your trainees to provide data during your clinical problem solving sessions. Assess the degree to which these clients are improving while receiving services from your trainees.

Code 8.0—Public Statements It goes without saying that supervisors want to ensure that they are not providing false, deceptive, or misleading statements within their advertising (Code Element 8.01). However, it is possible that

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supervisors make accurate statements at the time that they develop their websites or social media content that are no longer accurate. An easy way to address this is to look at your advertising material frequently and update as needed to ensure that you have the most up-to-date data reflected in your content. Within your advertising you need to refrain from requesting testimonials from current trainees (Code Element 8.05). This obviously puts them in a questionable position. Based on the Code it is acceptable for us to obtain testimonials from previous trainees; however, we need to clearly state whether these testimonials were solicited or unsolicited (Bailey & Burch, 2016, p. 186). Another area of concern within this code is related to intellectual property (Code Element 8.02). As behavior analysts providing training in several topics within the field, it is critical for you to ensure that you are obtaining permission to use trademarked and copyrighted materials. Supervisors also need to ensure that they are recognizing the intellectual property of others throughout their training materials (Bailey & Burch, 2016, p. 182).

Code 10.0—Behavior Analysts’ Ethical Responsibility to the BACB Again, it goes without saying that supervisors need to ensure that all the information they provide to the BACB is accurate, and if they unintentionally provide inaccurate information they have an obligation to correct that information as soon as it is identified (Code Element 10.01). Accurate recordkeeping for hours accumulated by trainees, and content covered, will be critical. Establish your systems for recordkeeping before you start supervising trainees, in order to ensure that you have a method established that will be effective across time. As with the intellectual property of other professionals, supervisors also need to be thoughtful of the use of materials developed by the BACB (Code Element 10.03). As you use content from the BACB website for training purposes, you need to properly identify it as such and obtain prior permission as necessary. As those of you who have been in the field for any length of time can attest, requirements and expectations from the BACB change from time to time. It is the supervisors’ responsibility to be aware of these changes as they occur and to ensure that they continue to follow all standards related to supervision (Code Element 10.05). In addition, supervisors have a responsibility to have a full understanding the ethics code overall (Code Element 10.06).

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CONCLUSION It is not possible for this chapter to cover all the ways in which the Professional and Ethical Compliance Code impacts supervisors. The purpose here is to identify those that we have found to be the most relevant from our experiences. We have included the Professional and Ethical Compliance Code as Appendix K for your reference. We encourage you to reference it often and reflect on the ways in which all segments of the Professional and Ethical Compliance Code impact the work that you do.

References Bailey, J., & Burch, M. (2016). Ethics for behavior analysts (3rd ed.). New York: Routledge. Behavior Analyst Certification Board. (2014). Professional and ethical compliance code for behavior analysts. Retrieved from ,https://www.bacb.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/ 09/170706-compliance-code-english.pdf.. Behavior Analyst Certification Board. (2018). A summary of ethics violations and codeenforcement activities: 2016 2017. Retrieved from ,https://www.bacb.com/wpcontent/uploads/180606_CodeEnforcementSummary.pdf..

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C H A P T E R

11 Putting It All Together The nature of supervision has changed significantly since we both became BCBAs in the early 2000s. At that time, the growth of the field, compared to today, was proceeding at a glacial pace, mainly because the market pressures that are currently fueling the expansion of Applied Behavior Analysis were not present. At that time, for many trainees, supervision was often comprised of conversations about specific clinical cases, with some conceptual theory mixed in here and there. Video conferencing technologies were also in their infancy, so supervision mainly took place face-to-face. Today’s supervision needs have obviously changed significantly. Applied Behavior Analysis has gone from something practiced in educational and academic institutions to a reimbursed healthcare service. As a result, there are strong contingencies for earning board certification for trainees, companies that provide ABA services, and university programs that offer the BACB’s Verified Course Sequences. These changes, in our opinion, have also led to concomitant contingencies for offering supervision, particularly in a distance-based format. Put simply, if you are a BCBA, the chances are probably high that someone will eventually ask you to supervise them. As we discussed in Chapter 1, supervising trainees should not be taken lightly, as the health of our field depends on highly skilled practitioners. Despite these “warnings,” we hope we haven’t completely talked you out of providing supervision to trainees. We firmly believe that becoming an effective supervisor will help you to become a better and more well-rounded Behavior Analyst. In this book, we have provided you with the tools for not only deciding if supervision is right for you, but guidelines on the following: • Determining whether you need to establish a legal structure to supervise, and whether you’ll need additional liability insurance • Identifying technologies that will help you supervise remotely • Identifying a structure for reviewing all areas of the Fifth Edition Task List

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• Complying with best practice as it relates to our Code for Responsible Conduct • Modeling the acquisition of new or alternative competencies that are not currently on the task list • Sharing tips for managing the performance of your trainees Throughout this book, we have done our best to articulate these points using a Behavioral Skills Training approach as well as highlighting specific ethics code elements for each topic covered. Before we conclude our book, we would like to share one other piece of advice. Supervision is a wonderful way to develop your professional network. Once your trainees successfully pass the exam and become BCBAs, they may have a tendency to direct all of their attention towards new professional challenges, which may make staying in contact with them difficult. We feel that this is especially true when supervising in a distance-context. While there’s nothing wrong with a newly certified BCBA enjoying a well-deserved post-reinforcement pause, we strongly encourage you to schedule occasional contact with them. There are innumerable positive reasons for doing this (e.g., we’ve seen and been a part of wonderful collaborations with former trainees), but most importantly, connecting with former trainees regularly may prevent them from professional stagnation. As you should remind trainees regularly, the BCBA credential should be thought of not as the culmination of learning all one needs to know about ABA, but rather as a starting point on a career-long journey. In closing, the literature in our field on supervision is disproportionally small given its importance in the continued development of Applied Behavior Analysis, and ultimately the quality of services provided to clients. We hope that by sharing what we have learned about supervising trainees, we’ve made a small contribution to it. More importantly, we hope to have provided you with practical tools for becoming an outstanding supervisor.

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A P P E N D I X

A List of Recommended Videos to Develop Throughout this book, we recommend developing videos ahead of time to demonstrate key skills while using a behavioral skill training model. Below is a compilation of those videos for easy reference. • Interviewing a stakeholder (e.g., parent, teacher) regarding areas of focus for behavioral intervention • Demonstrating behaviors for identifying target behaviors, developing operational definitions, and to practice data collection • Teaching verbal operants • Scenarios for collecting descriptive assessment data • Traditional functional analysis conditions • Prompting and prompt fading • Imitation • Shaping • Chaining procedures • Discrete trial teaching • Naturalistic teaching strategies • Use of differential reinforcement procedures • Time based reinforcement procedures • Extinction procedures • Appropriate use of punishment procedures • Using a token economy • Introducing and implementing a group contingency • Introducing a contingency contract to a client • Self-management procedures

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B Target Behavior Labels This is not intended to be an exhaustive list but offers examples of target behavior labels to use when identifying behaviors to address through a behavior intervention plan.

Unacceptable labels

Acceptable/preferred labels

AWOL, Bolting

Leaving supervised area (use examples and nonexamples)

Protest, Defiance, Oppositional behavior

Noncompliance

Stealing, Food stealing

Taking items from others (specify items)

Grabbing

Inappropriate touching of others

Masturbation

Touching/inappropriate touching of self in public

Stripping

Disrobing

Protest, Acting out

Tantrum (must be clearly defined, typically includes duration as measure, should include more than one behavior, and be used for a younger student/client) Disruptive behavior (for older student/client)

Aggression to objects

Property destruction

Eating nonedible items. Swallowing inedible items

PICA

Flopping

Dropping

Teasing, Taunting

Inappropriate verbal disruptions (clear definitions)

Threats of Aggression, Aggressive Posturing, etc.

Verbal threats or Physical threats

Spit play, Spit smearing

Saliva manipulation

Throw up/Throwing up

Self-induced vomiting

Hoarding

Inappropriate collecting of items

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Other acceptable labels 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Mouthing Licking objects Spitting (if not aggression, and occurs in isolation) Sexualized behavior Destructive episode (continued property destruction; include duration as measure) Ruminating Fecal smearing Urine smearing Urinating in public (make sure this is not a toilet training issue) Defecating in inappropriate places (make sure this is not a toilet training issue)

List adapted from Spectrum Center Schools and Programs

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C Graphing in Excel

LINE GRAPH • In column A, enter the x-axis time measure (e.g., sessions, date) starting at B2 • In column B, enter the behavior label in B1 and enter the corresponding measures for each time measure • Highlight all of the data to be graphed including the blank space for A1 and the behavior label in B1 • Click on the insert tab • Click on line graph and pick the type of line graph that you would like (typically one that includes data points within the line) • Click on the down arrow under Chart Layouts and select the layout you prefer (typically the one with a chart label, x-axis label, y-axis label, and legend) • If there are multiple series depicted on the same graph, you will want to delete the high-low lines • Do this by clicking once on one of the lines so that all of them are highlighted • Click delete • Label the chart by clicking on “Chart Title.” Highlight the text and enter the new title • Label the x-axis by clicking on “Axis Title.” Highlight the text and enter the new title (e.g., session or date) • Label the y-axis by clicking on “Axis Title.” Highlight the text and enter the new title (e.g., frequency, rate, percent of intervals) • Remove the grid lines by hovering your cursor over the y-axis numbers • When “vertical (value) axis” appears, right click on the axis • Click on “Format Major Gridlines”

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• Click on “No Line” • Click “Close” • Adjust the y-axis if the maximum measurement unit goes higher than possible (e.g., 120% instead of 100%) • Hover your cursor over the y-axis numbers • When “Vertical (value) Axis” appears, right click on the axis • Click on “Format Axis” • Under “Axis Options,” go to Maximum and click on “Fixed” • Enter the highest unit you want on the y-axis • Click “Close” • When using dates in the x-axis, there may be uneven gaps between data points if you do not use consecutive days. • Fix this by hovering your cursor over the x-axis numbers • When the “Horizontal (value) Axis” appears, right click on the axis • Click on “Format Axis” • Under “Axis Type” click “Text Axis” • Click “Close”

REVERSAL DESIGN • Enter the x-axis time measure (e.g., date, session number) starting in B2 and moving downward from there • Enter your behavior label in C1 • Enter your measurement unit that corresponds with each date/ session starting in C2 • Use the A column to document which date/session corresponds with baseline and intervention changes • Highlight all data starting with B1 • Click on the “Insert” tab • Click on line graph and pick a line graph that includes data points within the line • Click on the down arrow under Chart Layouts and select the layout you prefer (typically the one with a chart label, x-axis label, y-axis label, and legend) • To remove the line between baseline and intervention: • Click on the entire line series • Click again on the line segment that runs between baseline and intervention • Double click on that line segment • Click on “Line Color” • Click on “No Line” • Click on Close

MULTIELEMENT DESIGN

• • • •

•

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• Repeat steps for each line segment that runs between baseline and intervention or between two different interventions If the legend changes into a meaningless piece of information, click on it and delete it Label the chart x-axis and y-axis, as described previously Remove grid lines as described previously Add a phase change line by highlighting the chart • Click on the “Insert” tab • Click on “Shapes” and click on the line • Starting at the x-axis between the two numbers/dates when the phase change took place, draw a line to the top of the chart area • While the line is still highlighted, right click on the mouse and highlight “Format Shape” • Go to Line Style and click on the down arrow for Dash Type • Select the appropriate dash type • Click on Close • Ensure the line is still highlighted and click control C (to copy the line) • Then click anywhere on the chart and click control V to produce an identical line • Click on the new line and move it to the next phase change on the graph • Repeat for any additional phase changes Label each phase in the graph by clicking on the Insert tab • Click on “Text Box” and place the box at the top of the graph in the first phase • Type the title of the first phase (e.g., Baseline) • Highlight the text box and click control C to copy the text box • Click anywhere on the chart and click control V to produce an identical text box • Click on the new text box and move it to the next phase. Relabel it as appropriate • Repeat for any additional phases in the graph

MULTIELEMENT DESIGN • Enter your x-axis time measure (e.g., date, session number) starting at A2 and moving downward from there • Enter your conditions starting at B1 and continuing across row 1 (i.e., C1, D1) • Enter data as it corresponds based on the session number and condition • Highlight the data starting at A1 through all of the data to be graphed

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• Click on the “Insert” tab • Click on line graph and pick a line graph that includes data points within the line • Click on the down arrow under Chart Layouts and select the layout you prefer (typically the one with a chart label, x-axis label, y-axis label, and legend) • Label the chart, x-axis, and y-axis as described previously • Remove grid lines as described previously • Connect the lines for each condition • Click on the inside portion of the graph • Click select data • Click “hidden and empty cells” • Chose “connect data points within line” • Click OK • Click OK

BAR GRAPH • Enter an identifier so you can recall what the data are related to in A1 • Enter the behavior types if there are multiple behaviors or other relevant stimuli in B2 • Enter the labels that are relevant starting in A3 • Enter the corresponding data in B3 • Highlight the data to include in the graph starting from B1 through all of the data to be graphed • Click on the “Insert” tab • Click on the “Column” graph and select the first 2-D option to the far left • Click on the down arrow under Chart Layouts and select the layout you prefer (typically the one with a chart label, x-axis label, y-axis label, and legend) • Label the chart, x-axis, and y-axis as described previously • Remove grid lines as described previously • If the legend changes into a meaningless piece of information, click on it and delete it.

MULTIPLE BASELINE DESIGN • In the A column, enter the descriptor to indicate what type of multiple baseline it is (e.g., across subjects, settings, or behaviors)

MULTIPLE BASELINE DESIGN

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

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being specific at the point in which the data are reflective of that dimension In the B column, enter the phase label as it corresponds across the conditions (baseline and intervention) In the C column, enter the x-axis time measure (e.g., date, session number) In the D column, enter the corresponding data Highlight the data in the D column for the first baseline and intervention panel Click the insert tab, select the line graph and then select the line graph with data points Click “Chart Layout” and select the chart layout that includes a title for the graph and a y-axis label. It will also include a legend and an x-label axis. Delete the legend, the x-axis label and the x-axis by clicking on each of these and clicking delete Label the chart and y-axis as described above. Include the relevant multiple baseline dimension in the y-axis label (i.e., behavior, setting, etc.) or add a text box in the chart to indicate the relevant dimension Remove the grid lines as described previously Highlight the data in the D column for the second baseline and intervention panel Click the insert tab, select the line graph and select the line graph with data points Align the new graph directly below the first graph Within “Cart Layout” select the chart layout that includes a y-axis label Delete the legend, chart title, and x-axis by clicking on each of these and clicking delete Label the y-axis as described above including relevant multiple baseline dimension in the y-axis label or add a text box in the chart to indicate the relevant dimension Remove gridlines as described previously Highlight the data in the D column for the third baseline and intervention panel Click the insert tab, select the line graph and then select the line graph with data points Align the new graph directly below the second graph Within “Chart Layout” select the chart layout that includes a y-axis label and an x-axis label Delete the legend and chart title by clicking on each of these and clicking delete Label the y-axis as described above including relevant multiple baseline dimension in the y-axis label or add a text box in the chart to indicate the relevant dimension.

100 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

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Label the x-axis Remove gridlines as described previously Click on one individual graph Right click and select “Format Chart Area” Select border color Click “No Line” Click close Repeat with the other two graphs Highlight all three graphs by clicking on one graph, then holding the shift button and clicking on the other two graphs Right click, select group and highlight group On each graph, remove the line between baseline and intervention as described previously Click on the group of all three graphs Draw a line between baseline and intervention in the first graph and have the line extend to the second graph using the information previously on creating a line Change the line color to black and make it a dashed line Draw a line from the bottom of the first line going across to the gap between baseline and intervention on the second graph Change the line color to black and make it a dashed line Copy and paste these lines and move them to their proper locations so that there are a total of three vertical lines and two horizontal lines Make a text box and put it at the top of the first graph to label the baseline Repeat for intervention

A P P E N D I X

D Behavior Analytic Principles Scenarios Activity: Determine which principle is in place for each example provided. • • • • •

Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement Positive punishment Negative punishment Extinction

1. Paying a fine for a speeding ticket; your speed decreases in the future. 2. Getting scolded for talking out in class and not talking out in the future as a result. 3. Faking a stomach ache to get out of going to school. Faking ailments increases as a result. 4. Shaking a vending machine when it does not give you a soda. You have a history of getting soda from this vending machine in the past. You stop using that vending machine as a result. 5. Getting a good grade after studying; studying behavior increases. 6. Getting a stomach ache after eating dairy; avoiding eating dairy in the future. 7. Getting a bad grade after studying hard when studying had been reinforced in the past. Studying decreases as a result. 8. Teenager gets yelled at after coming home late; he stops arriving late after that. 9. Putting on a seatbelt after the alarm signals, in order to stop the alarm. You put your seatbelt on as quickly as possible to avoid the alarm as a result. 10. Shaking a vending machine and it nearly falls on you, decreasing the likelihood of you doing that again in the future.

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11. Teenager gets increased allowance for coming home on time, he is on time more often after that. 12. Rat stops pressing a lever over time when he no longer receives food pellets. 13. Taking an aspirin to get rid of a headache. You are more likely to take aspirin when you have a headache in the future as a result. 14. Teenager loses cell phone access after coming home late, he stops coming home late as a result. 15. Not buying lotto tickets after buying several losing tickets after having one that paid out. 16. Getting a bonus for completing a project early. You complete more projects early as a result. 17. Buying more lotto tickets after getting a payout. 18. Student receives after-school detention (loss of free time) and his problem behavior decreases. 19. Leaving the building when the fire alarm sounds in order to avoid the loud noise. You are more likely to leaving the building the next time the alarm goes off as a result. 20. Student loses recess time because he doodled in class and did not complete his work. His doodling decreases.

A P P E N D I X

E Schedules of Reinforcement Scenarios Practice activities: For each of the examples, determine what schedule of reinforcement is in place. Example 1 The client gets a cookie for saying cookie when approximately 5 minutes have gone by since the last reinforcer delivery. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Continuous Schedule (CRF) Variable Interval Schedule (VI) Conjunctive Schedule (Conj) Concurrent Schedule (Conc) Multiple Schedule (Mult)

Example 2 In the classroom, the student receives a token for completing each math problem correctly. At home, he receives a token for completing five math problems correctly. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Continuous Schedule (CRF) Variable Interval Schedule (VI) Conjunctive Schedule (Conj) Concurrent Schedule (Conc) Multiple Schedule (Mult)

Example 3 The client receives a token for the first correct response after 5 minutes have gone by since the last token delivery. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Fixed Interval (FI) Fixed Ratio (FR) Alternative Schedule (Alt) Chained Schedule (Chain) Variable Ratio (VR)

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Example 4 The client gets a cookie when he requests one after 5 minutes have elapsed since the last time he received a cookie. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Fixed Interval (FI) Fixed Ratio (FR) Alternative Schedule (Alt) Chained Schedule (Chain) Variable Ratio (VR)

Example 5 The client gets water every time he says water and he gets a cookie when he asks for it after 5 minutes have gone by since the last time he received a cookie. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Continuous Schedule (CRF) Variable Interval Schedule (VI) Conjunctive Schedule (Conj) Concurrent Schedule (Conc) Multiple Schedule (Mult)

Example 6 The client either receives a token after he answers five questions correctly, or he can earn a token for every desk he cleans. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Continuous Schedule (CRF) Variable Interval Schedule (VI) Conjunctive Schedule (Conj) Concurrent Schedule (Conc) Multiple Schedule (Mult) Example 7 The client receives a cookie after five correct responses.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Fixed Interval (FI) Fixed Ratio (FR) Alternative Schedule (Alt) Chained Schedule (Chain) Variable Ratio (VR)

Example 8 The client receives a token after successfully completing all of the steps within the task analysis for handwashing, and receives praise for each step along the way. 1. Fixed Interval (FI) 2. Fixed Ratio (FR) 3. Alternative Schedule (Alt)

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4. Chained Schedule (Chain) 5. Variable Ratio (VR) Example 9 The student earns a cookie once he answers at least five questions correctly and 5 minutes have elapsed. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Continuous Schedule (CRF) Variable Interval Schedule (VI) Conjunctive Schedule (Conj) Concurrent Schedule (Conc) Multiple Schedule (Mult)

Example 10 The client receives a token after he answers five questions correctly and after making a correct response once 5 minutes have elapsed since the last token delivery. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Continuous Schedule (CRF) Variable Interval Schedule (VI) Conjunctive Schedule (Conj) Concurrent Schedule (Conc) Multiple Schedule (Mult)

Example 11 The client receives a cookie after the fifth correct response or the first correct response after 5 minutes have elapsed. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Fixed Interval (FI) Fixed Ratio (FR) Alternative Schedule (Alt) Chained Schedule (Chain) Variable Ratio (VR) Example 12 The client receives a token for every third correct response.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Fixed Interval (FI) Fixed Ratio (FR) Alternative Schedule (Alt) Chained Schedule (Chain) Variable Ratio (VR) Example 13 The client gets a cookie every time he says cookie.

1. Continuous Schedule (CRF) 2. Variable Interval Schedule (VI) 3. Conjunctive Schedule (Conj)

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4. Concurrent Schedule (Conc) 5. Multiple Schedule (Mult) Example 14 The client receives a token for approximately every third response. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Fixed Interval (FI) Fixed Ratio (FR) Alternative Schedule (Alt) Chained Schedule (Chain) Variable Ratio (VR) Example 15 The client receives a token after every correct response.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Continuous Schedule (CRF) Variable Interval Schedule (VI) Conjunctive Schedule (Conj) Concurrent Schedule (Conc) Multiple Schedule (Mult)

Example 16 During a handwashing routine, the client receives praise for each step completed and receives a cookie for completing the task correctly. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Fixed Interval (FI) Fixed Ratio (FR) Alternative Schedule (Alt) Chained Schedule (Chain) Variable Ratio (VR)

Example 17 In the presence of dad, the client receives a cookie every time he asks for one. In the presence of mom, he gets a cookie when he asks for one as long as he has not received one for approximately 5 minutes. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Continuous Schedule (CRF) Variable Interval Schedule (VI) Conjunctive Schedule (Conj) Concurrent Schedule (Conc) Multiple Schedule (Mult)

Example 18 The client receives a cookie after approximately five correct responses on average. 1. Fixed Interval (FI) 2. Fixed Ratio (FR) 3. Alternative Schedule (Alt)

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4. Chained Schedule (Chain) 5. Variable Ratio (VR) Example 19 The client receives a token after he answers five questions correctly or after making a correct response once 5 minutes have elapsed since the last token delivery. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Fixed Interval (FI) Fixed Ratio (FR) Alternative Schedule (Alt) Chained Schedule (Chain) Variable Ratio (VR)

Example 20 The client receives a token after making a correct response after approximately 5 minutes have elapsed since the last token delivery. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Continuous Schedule (CRF) Variable Interval Schedule (VI) Conjunctive Schedule (Conj) Concurrent Schedule (Conc) Multiple Schedule (Mult)

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A P P E N D I X

F Motivating Operations Versus Discriminative Stimuli Practice exercises: For each example, determine if it is an example of: 1. Establishing operation 2. Abolishing operation 3. Discriminative stimulus Example 1 • Going 6 hours without food • The impact on food-seeking behavior Example 2 • A linen closet with blankets and the temperature in the house is 62 degrees • The impact on behaviors associated with getting a blanket Example 3 • Having a headache • The impact on behaviors to obtain a pain reliever Example 4 • The water cooler when thirsty • The impact on behaviors to access water Example 5 • The temperature in the house is a perfect 72 degrees • The impact on behaviors associated with getting a blanket Example 6 • Attending a 1-hour spinning class • The impact on behaviors to access water

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APPENDIX F: MOTIVATING OPERATIONS VERSUS DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULI

Example 7 • Going 6 minutes without food • The impact on food-seeking behavior Example 8 • The medicine cabinet when you have a headache • The impact on behaviors to obtain a pain reliever Example 9 • Eating salty chips • The impact on behaviors to access water Example 10 • The temperature in the house is 62 degrees • The impact on behaviors associated with getting a blanket Example 11 • Sore muscles after a 1-hour spinning class • The impact on behaviors to obtain a pain reliever Example 12 • The thermostat when the temperature in the house is 80 degrees • The impact on turning on air conditioning Example 13 • Participating in a 1-hour spinning class • The impact on behaviors associated with increased activity Example 14 • Feeling healthy (no headache or other aches and pains) • The impact on behaviors to obtain a pain reliever Example 15 • The sight of the refrigerator when you have gone 6 hours without food • The impact on food-seeking behavior Example 16 • Pulling an all-nighter studying for an exam • The impact on behaviors associated with going to sleep Example 17 • Drinking 16 ounces of water • The impact on behaviors to access water

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Example 18 • The temperature in the house is 80 degrees • The impact on turning on air conditioning Example 19 • Waking up after getting 8 hours of sleep • The impact on behaviors associated with going to sleep Example 20 • Seeing the Starbucks sign after waking up late and not having time to drink coffee while getting ready • The impact on behaviors associated with accessing coffee

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A P P E N D I X

G Conditioned Motivating Operations Practice exercises: For each example, determine if it is an example of: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Surrogate Conditioned Motivating Operation (CMO-S) Transitive Conditioned Motivating Operation (CMO-T) Reflexive Conditioned Motivating Operation (CMO-R) Discriminative Stimulus (SD) Example 1

• Seeing the clock at noon and suddenly realizing you are hungry. You go to the fridge to get your lunch • The clock Example 2 • Looking for a can opener to open the tomato sauce for dinner. The can opener is typically in the silverware drawer in the kitchen • The silverware drawer Example 3 • A student has a history of engaging in severe aggression resulting in restraints to ensure his safety and the safety of others. The same staff member participates in the restraint regularly. The staff member enters the room and the student immediately leaves the environment • The staff member Example 4 • As you are driving, you see the “check engine” light appear on the dash. You see the sign for your usual mechanic in the distance • The sign for the mechanic

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Example 5 • You have a bad case of insomnia. You keep looking at the clock and seeing how many hours you have left to sleep • The clock Example 6 • Looking for a can opener to open the tomato sauce for dinner. The can opener is typically in the silverware drawer in the kitchen • The can opener Example 7 • Your dog got attacked by another dog while on a walk. You see the owner of the other dog and quickly turn to walk a path where you will not contact that person • The other dog owner Example 8 • Seeing the clock at noon and suddenly realizing you are hungry. You go to the fridge to get your lunch • The fridge Example 9 • You love drinking coffee in the morning, but can only drink it with cream and sugar • The cream and sugar Example 10 • You have a bad breakup in your relationship. You open your Facebook app and it is showing a picture of you with your boyfriend from a trip you took a year ago. You delete several of those pictures to prevent seeing them again • The picture Example 11 • You are thirsty at work and go to the watercooler. You are looking for your glass to fill with water • The watercooler Example 12 • You are attempting to quit smoking, but are having a craving. You typically smoke a cigarette after you are done with lunch • You finish lunch

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Example 13 • As you are driving, you see the “check engine” light appear on the dash. You see the sign for your usual mechanic in the distance • The check engine light Example 14 • You are hungry for fried eggs for breakfast. You find the cooking oil and frying pan. The eggs are in the fridge • The cooking oil Example 15 • You typically smoke a cigarette after you eat lunch. You keep the cigarettes and a lighter in a desk drawer in the office • The desk drawer Example 16 • You are thirsty at work and go to the watercooler. You are looking for your glass to fill with water • The glass Example 17 • You are hungry for fried eggs for breakfast. You find the cooking oil and frying pan. The eggs are in the fridge • The fridge Example 18 • You are hungry for fried eggs for breakfast. You find the cooking oil and frying pan. The eggs are in the fridge • The fry pan Example 19 • You love drinking coffee in the morning, but can only drink it with cream and sugar. • The cabinet where you store the coffee Example 20 • You typically smoke a cigarette after you eat lunch. You keep the cigarettes and a lighter in a desk drawer in the office • The lighter

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A P P E N D I X

H Rule Governed Behavior Practice exercises: For each example, determine if it is an example of: • Rule governed behavior • Contingency shaped behavior Example 1 • You are making a meal from a new recipe tonight and follow the directions step-by-step to ensure that you don’t make a mistake Example 2 • You use your Google Maps App each time you drive home from a client’s house because it consistently finds the fastest way to get home based on traffic at that time Example 3 • You always drive the speed limit on a particular street because you know that police often patrol that area based on seeing them on several occasions Example 4 • You buy a new desk from Ikea. You follow the directions step-by-step as you assemble your new desk Example 5 • You are making a meal from a new recipe tonight and notice that it calls for an ingredient that you dislike. You substitute another ingredient based on what has worked in the past Example 6 • Your doctor recommends that you start taking a multivitamin to ensure that you are getting all of your daily nutrients. You purchase a supply and take your first vitamin that day

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Example 7 • Your friend recommends that you use the Waze App to navigate traffic on your way home from a client’s house and you try it out Example 8 • You take a multivitamin throughout cold and flu season and do not get sick. You continue taking your vitamins on a daily basis Example 9 • You are driving to a new client’s house for the first time and see the speed limit sign is 30 miles per hour. You check your speedometer and adjust your speed accordingly Example 10 • You buy a new desk from Ikea. You disregard the directions and start putting it together based on what makes sense

A P P E N D I X

I Verbal Behavior Scenarios For each example, determine the verbal operant present • • • • •

Mand Tact Intraverbal Echoic Autoclitic

Example 1 “Please pass the salt.” “Salt” is an example of: Example 2 Waitress says, “What can I get for you?” Response, “Coffee, please.” She brings coffee to the table. “Coffee” is an example of: Example 3 “Did you see the new coffee that they are offering at Starbucks?” “Yes, but I did not get a chance to try it yet. How about you?” “Yes, but I did not get a chance to try it yet. How about you?” is an example of: Example 4 “Would you mind giving me directions to the airport?” “Giving me directions” is an example of: Example 5 Waitress brings coffee to the table and the patron says, “Thank you.” “Thank you” is an example of: Example 6 “Please pass the salt.” The other person says, “salt” as they pass the salt across the table. Saying, “salt” while passing the salt is an example of:

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Example 7 “Would you mind giving me directions to the airport?” “Would you mind” is an example of: Example 8 “I love your new shoes!” “Thanks, I got them at Macy’s.” “New shoes” is an example of: Example 9 Instructor says, “What is a common morning beverage?” (waits 1 second) “Coffee.” Student says, “Coffee.” “Coffee” is an example of: Example 10 “Please pass the salt.” “the” is an example of: Example 11 “Would you mind giving me directions to the airport?” “to the” is an example of: Example 12 “What is in your cup?” Looking down, the person responds “Coffee.” “Coffee” is an example of: Example 13 “Mom, can I get a new pair of shoes?” Mom responds, “New pair of shoes? You just got a new pair last week.” Mom’s response, “New pair of shoes?” is an example of: Example 14 “Please pass the salt.” “Please” is an example of: Example 15 “I love your new shoes!” “Thanks, I got them at Macy’s.” “Thanks, I got them at Macy’s” is an example of: Example 16 Waitress says, “What can I get for you?” Response, “I think I need more coffee.” She brings coffee to the table. “I think” is an example of: Example 17 “Mom, can I get a new pair of shoes?” “New pair of shoes” is an example of: Example 18 “Did you see the new coffee that they are offering at Starbucks?” “Yes, but I did not get a chance to try it yet. How about you?”

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“Did you see the new coffee that they are offering at Starbucks?” is an example of: Example 19 “Mom, can I get a new pair of shoes?” Mom responds, “New pair of shoes? You just got a new pair last week.” “Can I get” is an example of: Example 20 “Would you mind giving me directions to the airport?” “Take 880 South for five miles and follow the signs” “Take 880 South. Got it.” Repeating “Take 880 South.” is an example of:

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A P P E N D I X

J Stimulus Equivalence Examples Practice exercises: For each example, decide if this is an instance of: • Reflexivity • Symmetry • Transitivity Example 1

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Example 3

APPENDIX J: STIMULUS EQUIVALENCE EXAMPLES

Example 4

Silverware “Fork”

Silverware

“Fork” Example 5

126 Example 6

Example 7

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STIMULUS EQUIVALENCE EXAMPLES

Example 8

Example 9

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Example 11

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STIMULUS EQUIVALENCE EXAMPLES

Example 12

Example 13

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Example 15

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STIMULUS EQUIVALENCE EXAMPLES

Example 16

Example 17

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132 Example 18

Example 19

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STIMULUS EQUIVALENCE EXAMPLES

Example 20

Example 21

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134 Example 22

Example 23

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STIMULUS EQUIVALENCE EXAMPLES

Example 24

Example 25

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136 Example 26

Example 27

APPENDIX J: STIMULUS EQUIVALENCE EXAMPLES

STIMULUS EQUIVALENCE EXAMPLES

Example 28

Example 29

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138 Example 30

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A P P E N D I X

K Determining Potential Functions of Behavior Activity: For each scenario, determine what appears to be maintaining the behavior: • • • • • •

Accessing attention Accessing tangibles Escaping demands Escaping interactions Automatic positive reinforcement Automatic negative reinforcement Example 1

• Jim consistently engages in aggression when he is sitting next to a specific peer. This happens across environments. Each time it happens, he is prompted to sit in a different location away from the other students. Example 2 • During your observations in the home you notice that every time someone attempts to use the iPad, John engages in disruptive behaviors. On many of those occasions, the family members let him have the iPad, and they use a different form of technology. Example 3 • You look at the data collected by staff in the group home. The data indicate that Kelly’s self-injury is more likely to occur when staff are assisting other clients with their activities of daily living. Given the severity of the self-injury, staff need to stop what they are doing so they can block further attempts.

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Example 4 • Michelle engages in skin picking. You notice that once she has an open wound, she leaves it alone. Once the wound has a scab and starts to heal, she will scratch the scab when no one is looking, and it becomes an open wound again. Example 5 • Ryan engages in skin picking and it typically occurs when no one is looking. You notice that once the wound is open, he rubs the blood along his fingers and on other surfaces. Example 6 • Jack engages is aggression when asked to engage in physical activities during his PE class. When this happens, he gets sent to the principal’s office. Example 7 • As you analyze the ABC data for Alex, you find that his selfinjurious behavior occurs across environments. It seems like the staff have attempted many consequence strategies and the behavior continues to occur regardless of the consequence implemented. Example 8 • You are collecting ABC data on Tom’s verbal aggression. You find that his behavior is most likely to occur when his parents ask him to do chores around the house. When he becomes verbally aggressive, they typically send him to his room. Example 9 • Kris is disruptive in class. You notice that several of her peers laugh during these events. You also notice that disruptive behavior is less frequent in the classes where those peers are not present. Example 10 • Monica enjoys ripping paper into small pieces. When staff attempt to remove the paper so she can engage in a work activity, she becomes aggressive. When staff disengage, she takes the paper back and resumes the activity of ripping paper.

A P P E N D I X

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Index Note: Page numbers followed by “t” refer to tables.

A ABLLS-R. See Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills (ABLLS-R) ACBS. See Association for Contextual Behavioral Science (ACBS) Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT), 67 68 Accounting, 7 8 ACT. See Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) AFLS. See Assessment of Functional Living Skills (AFLS) AIMSweb, 71 Applied Behavior Analysis, 3 4, 89 Assessment descriptive, 42 45 indirect, 41 42, 44 preference, 37 41 of skill strengths and deficits, 35 37 ethics, 37 modeling, rehearsal, and performance feedback, 36 rubric for, 37t Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills (ABLLS-R), 36 Assessment of Functional Living Skills (AFLS), 36 Association for Contextual Behavioral Science (ACBS), 68

B BACB. See Behavior Analysis/Analyst Certification Board (BACB) Background probabilities, 46t Backward chaining, 56t Bar graph, 98 rubric for, 24t BCBAs. See Board Certified Behavior Analysts (BCBAs) Behavior analysis principles, 27 29

ethics related to, 28 29 rehearsal and performance feedback, 28 scenarios, 101 102 Behavior Analysis/Analyst Certification Board (BACB), 8, 69 70, 84, 89 90 Code of Responsible Conduct, 5, 28 29 5th Edition of Task List, 4, 6, 63 Verified Course Sequences, 4, 89 violations to, 81 Behavior Analysts Ethical Responsibility to BACB, 82, 86 Responsibility to Clients, 81, 83 84 as Supervisors, 82, 84 85 Behavior assessment, 35 conducting assessments of skill strengths and deficits, 35 37 functional behavior assessment, 41 49 preference assessments, 37 41 Behavior change procedures interventions to decrease behaviors of concern, 58 62 interventions to increase skills, 53 57 Behavior Intervention Plan (BIP), 61t Behavioral skills training (BST), 15 Behaviors of concern, interventions to decrease, 58 62. See also Skills, interventions to increase development of BIP, 61t of contingency contract, 61t of group contingency, 60t of self-management program, 61t ethics related to, 61 62 implementing differential reinforcement of alternative behavior with extinction, 59t of incompatible behavior with extinction, 60t of other behavior, 59t implementing time based schedule of reinforcement, 60t

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INDEX

Behaviors of concern, interventions to decrease (Continued) implementing token economy with response cost, 60t modeling, rehearsal and performance feedback, 59 60 BIP. See Behavior Intervention Plan (BIP) Board Certified Behavior Analysts (BCBAs), 4 6 BST. See Behavioral skills training (BST)

C CBMs. See Curriculum-based measures (CBMs) Chaining backward, 56t forward, 56t Code 1.0. See Responsible Conduct of Behavior Analysts Code 2.0. See Behavior Analysts— Responsibility to Clients Code 3.0, 37, 39 41 Code 5.0. See Behavior Analysts—as Supervisors Code 8.0. See Public Statements Code 10.0. See Behavior Analysts—Ethical Responsibility to BACB Color identification, 53 54 Communication, 9 to trainees, 85 Competence, 84 Conditional probabilities, 46t Conditioned motivating operations, 113 116 Confidentiality, 83 Contingency contract, 61t Contract, supervision, 83 85 Corrective action plans, 78 79 Curriculum-based measures (CBMs), 70 71

D Data collection, 13, 16 17, 19 20 IOA for, 21 22 rubric for training on, 20t Datasheets, rubric for developing, 20t Derived stimulus relations, 33 rehearsal and performance feedback, 33 Descriptive assessment, 42 45 graphing results for interval data collection systems, 46t rubric for assessing

conditional and background probabilities, 46t scatter plot analysis and graphing skills, 46t structured ABC data analysis and graphing skills, 46t trigger analysis and graphing results, 46t rubric for descriptive assessment data collection, 45t Developing videos, 91 92 DI. See Direct instruction (DI) Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior with extinction, 59t of incompatible behavior with extinction, 60t of other behavior, 59t Direct instruction (DI), 71 72 Discrete trial teaching with conditional discrimination, 57t starting with simple discrimination, 57t Discriminative stimuli, 109 112 Essential for Living (EFL), 36

E Ethics related to assessing variables impacting personnel performance, 64 65 conducting assessments of skill strengths and deficits, 37 developing function based interventions, 64 65 developing interventions to increase skills, 54 57 FBA, 49 interventions designed to decrease behaviors of concern, 61 62 IOA, 21 22 measurement, 21 motivating operations, 30 preference assessments, 39 41 principles of behavior analysis, 28 29 reinforcement schedules, 29 target behaviors and operational definitions, 16 verbal operants, 31 32 visual display of data, 26 in supervision Behavior Analysts as Supervisors, 84 85

INDEX

Behavior Analysts’ Ethical Responsibility to BACB, 86 Behavior Analysts’ Responsibility to Clients, 83 84 Public Statements, 85 86 Responsible Conduct of Behavior Analysts, 82 Executive function, 69 70 Executive Skills in Children and Adolescents: A Practical Guide to Assessment and Intervention (Dawson & Guare), 70 Extinction differential reinforcement of alternative behavior with, 59t differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior with, 60t

F FA. See Functional analysis (FA) FAST. See Functional Analysis Screening Tool (FAST) FBA. See Functional behavior assessment (FBA) “Feedback sandwich”, 79 Flexible and Focused: Teaching Executive Function Skills to Individuals with Autism and Attention Disorders (Najdowski), 70 Forward chaining, 56t Function based interventions, 63 64 ethics related to, 64 65 rubric to assess trainees’ skills related to, 65t Functional analysis (FA), 43 47 alone/no interaction condition, rubric for, 47t assess data collection during FA skills, rubric to, 48t attention condition, rubric for, 47t escape from demands condition, rubric for, 47t graphing and explaining results, rubric for, 48t play/control condition, rubric for, 48t tangible condition, rubric for, 48t Functional Analysis Screening Tool (FAST), 42 Functional behavior assessment (FBA), 41 49 ethics related to, 49 modeling, rehearsal, and performance feedback, 44 48

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G Google, 8 Graphing in Excel bar graph, 98 line graph, 95 96 multielement design, 97 98 multiple baseline design, 98 100 reversal design, 96 97 Graphing skills scatter plot analysis, 46t structured ABC data analysis and, 46t Group contingency, 60t

I Imitation training, 55t Indirect assessment, 41 42, 44 rubric for assessing training, 44t, 45t rubric for completing, 45t Insurance policy, 8 Interobserver agreement (IOA), 21 22 ethics related to, 21 22 rehearsal and performance feedback, 21 Intervention Central, 71 Interventions to decrease behaviors of concern, 58 62 to increase skills, 53 57 IOA. See Interobserver agreement (IOA)

L Limited Liability Corporation, 8 Line graph, 95 96 rubric for, 23t sample rubric for, 25t Logistics of supervision, 7 8. See also Supervision communication, 9 media creation, 9 10 protection, 8

M MAS. See Motivation Assessment Scale (MAS) Measurement, 16 21 ethics related to, 21 rehearsal and performance feedback, 17 20 Media creation, 9 10 Modeling assessments of skill strengths and deficits, 36 FBA, 44 48

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INDEX

Modeling (Continued) interventions to decrease behaviors of concern, 59 60 to increase skills, 54 personnel supervision and management, 64 preference assessments, 38 39 in problem identification, 15 visual display of data, 23 25 Motivating operations, 30 conditioned, 113 116 ethics related to, 30 rehearsal and performance feedback, 30 Motivating operations, 109 112 Motivation Assessment Scale (MAS), 42 Multielement design, 97 98 Multielement graphs rubric for, 24t sample rubric for, 25t Multiple baseline design, 98 100 Multiple baseline graphs rubric for, 24t sample rubric for, 26t Multiple relationships, 82

N National Institute for Direct Instruction, 71 72 Naturalistic teaching strategies, 58t

O Operational definitions, 13 development, 15 ethics, 16 rubric for evaluating, 16t

P PBQ. See Problem Behavior Questionnaire (PBQ) PDC-HC. See Performance Diagnostic Checklist-Human Services (PDCHC) PEAK Relational Training System, 36 Performance management strategies, 77 problems, 63 65 Performance Diagnostic Checklist-Human Services (PDC-HC), 63 64 Performance feedback

assessments of skill strengths and deficits, 36 behavior analysis principles, 28 derived stimulus relations, 33 FBA, 44 48 interventions to decrease behaviors of concern, 59 60 to increase skills, 54 IOA, 21 measurement, 17 20 motivating operations, 30 personnel supervision and management, 64 preference assessments, 38 39 in problem identification, 15 reinforcement schedules, 29 rule governed behavior, 31 verbal operants, 31 visual display of data, 23 25 Personnel supervision and management assessing variables impacting personnel performance, 63 64 ethics related to, 64 65 rubric to assess trainees’ skills related to, 65t developing function based interventions, 63 64 ethics related to, 64 65 rubric to assess trainees’ skills related to, 65t modeling, rehearsal and performance feedback, 64 Positive reinforcement in supervision, 77 78 Potential functions of behavior, 139 140 Precision teaching (PT), 68 69 Preference assessments, 37 41 ethics related to, 39 41 modeling, rehearsal, and performance feedback, 38 39 rubric for assessing implementation of duration/concurrent operant method, 40t of multiple stimulus with replacement, 40t of multiple stimulus without replacement, 40t of paired choice method, 39t of single presentation method, 39t rubric for assessing training, 38t Problem Behavior Questionnaire (PBQ), 42

INDEX

Problem identification, 13 16 modeling, rehearsal, and performance feedback, 15 operational definitions development, 15 ethics, 16 target behavior ethics, 16 identification, 14 working with stakeholders, 14 Professional and Ethical Compliance Code for Behavior Analysts, 81 82 Protection, 8 PT. See Precision teaching (PT) Public Statements, 82, 85 86 Punishment, 58 59

Q Questions About Behavioral Function (QABF), 42

R Rehearsal assessments of skill strengths and deficits, 36 behavior analysis principles, 28 derived stimulus relations, 33 FBA, 44 48 interventions to decrease behaviors of concern, 59 60 interventions to increase skills, 54 IOA, 21 measurement, 17 20 motivating operations, 30 personnel supervision and management, 64 preference assessments, 38 39 in problem identification, 15 reinforcement schedules, 29 rule governed behavior, 31 verbal operants, 31 visual display of data, 23 25 Reinforcement schedules, 29 ethics related to, 29 rehearsal and performance feedback, 29 scenario schedules, 103 108 Response prompts, 55t Responsible Conduct of Behavior Analysts, 81 82 Reversal design, 96 97

169

Reversal graph rubric for, 23t sample rubric for, 25t Rule governed behavior, 30 31, 117 118 rehearsal and performance feedback, 31

S Scatter plot analysis, 46t SCC. See Standard Celeration Chart (SCC) Self-management program, 61t Shaping, 55t Sincere, specific, immediate, and personal model (SSIP model), 77 78 Skills, interventions to increase, 53 57. See also Behaviors of concern, interventions to decrease ethics related to developing, 54 57 modeling, rehearsal and performance feedback, 54 utilizing discrete trial teaching with conditional discrimination, 57t starting with simple discrimination, 57t utilizing backward chaining, 56t forward chaining, 56t imitation training, 55t naturalistic teaching strategies, 58t response prompts, 55t shaping, 55t stimulus prompts, 54t total task presentation, 56t SSIP model. See Sincere, specific, immediate, and personal model (SSIP model) Stakeholders, working with, 14 Standard Celeration Chart (SCC), 69 Stimulus equivalence examples, 123 138 Stimulus prompts, 54t Structured ABC data analysis, 46t Supervision, 3 4, 90. See also Ethics—in supervision; Logistics of supervision importance, 4 positive reinforcement in, 77 78 reasons not to supervise, 4 5 Supervisors, 82 83 Supervisory interpersonal skills correcting inadequate performance, 78 79 positive reinforcement in supervision, 77 78

170 T Target behavior ethics, 16 identification, 14 labels, 91 92 rubric for evaluating, 16t Teaching echoics, sample rubric for, 32t Teaching intraverbals, sample rubric for, 32t Teaching mands, sample rubric for, 32t Teaching tacts, sample rubric for, 32t Testimonials, 86 Time based schedule of reinforcement, 60t Token economy with response cost, 60t Total task presentation, 56t Trigger analysis and graphing results, 46t

V Variable assessment impacting personnel performance, 63 64

INDEX

ethics related to, 64 65 rubric to assess trainees’ skills related to, 65t Verbal Behavior Milestones Assessment and Placement Program (VBMAPP), 36 Verbal behavior scenarios, 119 122 Verbal operants, 31 32 ethics related to, 31 32 rehearsal and performance feedback, 31 Video conferencing platforms, 9 technologies, 89 Video model, 15 for FA, 45 47 Visual display of data, 22 26 ethics related to, 26 modeling, rehearsal, performance feedback, 23 25 Visual inspection, 13, 22, 25