Religious Doctrines and their Influence on Entrepreneurship 3031433858, 9783031433856

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James O. Fiet

Religious Doctrines and their Influence on Entrepreneurship

Religious Doctrines and their Influence on Entrepreneurship “There are those who say that Religion and entrepreneurship do not mix. With this book, Fiet shatters this myth. For many entrepreneurs, their faith has been a central influence in shaping their worldviews. This book effectively discusses the beliefs of nine world religions and 16 Christian denominations. These religious foundations often impact the pursuit of entrepreneurship, both positively and negatively. Whether you are a practitioner or researcher seeking to better understand entrepreneurs and the decisions they make, examining their religious beliefs can lead to important insights. This book provides an excellent resource for pursuing such inquiries.” —Lowell Busenitz is a Professor Emeritus of Entrepreneurship at the University of Oklahoma at United States “James Fiet’s Religious Doctrines and their Influence on Entrepreneurship offers a comprehensive examination of the possible effects of the religious doctrines and philosophies of sixteen Christian denominations and nine world religions. Not since Max Weber’s work over a century ago have we seen such a systematic approach to the topic of religious systems and entrepreneurship. By examining the doctrines and philosophies of each religious perspective, Professor Fiet seeks to determine the effects that beliefs shaped by these systems of thought would have on an entrepreneur’s expectations. It is important to note that this book is not assessing the veracity of truth claims, nor is it providing an assessment of whether each religion’s adherents live the doctrines and philosophies they espouse. Instead, Professor Fiet seeks to examine systematically what effect the belief system, if followed with conviction, would have on entrepreneurial outcomes, while providing his own rationale for the effect of these religious perspectives on these outcomes. He is quick to point out that readers could differ in their rationale, and they are likely to do so, depending on their own interpretation of these doctrines and philosophies and their own explanations and predictions of how and why these beliefs will shape outcomes. However, the framework offered by Fiet’s book could greatly reduce confusion about where disagreements exist and help us to distinguish the effects of belief systems on entrepreneurship from the effects of faith on entrepreneurship. Therefore, I recommend the book to anyone interested in entrepreneurship and the effects of religious beliefs on it, but I also recommend the book to anyone who is simply curious about the doctrinal differences in these denominations and religions.

After reading the book, I now have a better understanding of the belief systems of some of my family and friends.” —Jeffery S. McMullen, David H. Jacobs Chair in Strategic Entrepreneurship, Professor of Entrepreneurship, Department of Management and Entrepreneurship, Indiana University, Bloomington, United States “With the advent of the theological turn to entrepreneurship research, Jim Fiet advances the field from a general understanding of religion to a specific application of the different doctrines within and between different religions. This book makes an important contribution to the future of scholarship by highlighting how and why these distinctions matter for the study of entrepreneurship. It provides a comprehensive, provocative, and even controversial analysis of the role of religion in entrepreneurship.” —Dr. Brett Smith, Founder Director—L.I.F.E. (Leading the Integration of Faith & Entrepreneurship) Research Center, Miami University

James O. Fiet

Religious Doctrines and their Influence on Entrepreneurship

James O. Fiet Department of Management and Entrepreneurship, College of Business University of Louisville Louisville, KY, USA

ISBN 978-3-031-43385-6 ISBN 978-3-031-43386-3 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43386-3 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Paper in this product is recyclable.

Acknowledgments

I developed spiritual interests in my youth, and they have grown stronger with age and experience. I credit my family with nurturing them. Later in life, I discovered entrepreneurship, and later still the connection between spiritual feelings or religion and entrepreneurship. Thus, this is a book that it has been writing itself my entire life. I acknowledge the support of my wife and family, my colleagues at the University of Louisville, and many doctoral students with whom I have worked. I also acknowledge Ravali Pampana who helped with calculating the doctrinal indices, as well as the graphs illustrating the impacts of individual religious doctrines and religions.

v

Prologue

Humans tend to think in ways that frame how they understand their prospects, which could change their interest in pursuing opportunities. The prevalence of such thinking is unknown. What we do know is that our thoughts can become semi-permanent patterns, after which, they would influence how we see the world. As cognitive beings, we do not operate tabula rosa without preconceptions. Our brains are preoccupied with patterns, which color the world in which we live (Baron, 2004). Some of these seem to have developed without outside influences from childhood, whereas others could have been instilled via life experiences or education. Some have argued that DNA could even play a role (Shane & Nicolaou, 2013). Others argue that our births were not our beginning because they maintain that our mortal souls bring with them an eternal spiritual inheritance, in “a trailing cloud of glory” (Wordsworth—Quiller-Couch, 1919). What would be the effects of a person’s doctrinal beliefs on his or her views of life in general and on entrepreneurship in particular? For most people, matters of faith relate to their early religious training or family background assuming that they were not born with their beliefs. The impact of a person’s doctrinal beliefs on his or her prospects for becoming an entrepreneur is our focus. It will be a comprehensive examination in that it encompasses 16 Christian denominations and 9 world religions, all of which will be cross tabulated against shared religious beliefs and philosophies for living.

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PROLOGUE

This research also differentiates between doctrines and philosophies for living . There are two requirements for a belief to be a doctrine. First, the adherents must believe that a belief originated from God and was transmitted to humans because of divine agency. Second, for a belief to be a doctrine, it must be canonized or accepted by a formal vote of the body of believers. If a belief fails either of these tests, then it would be something else, most likely a philosophy for living, which is not required to have a divine origin. We make this distinction to determine if a philosophy for living has the same framing effect as a doctrine on one’s propensity to become an entrepreneur. Religious faith is important to most Americans (Rasmussen, 2023), but they worry that traditional beliefs are getting watered down. Seventy-five percent of American adults say that religious faith is Very Important to their daily lives—up from 71% in 2018—including 49% who say faith is Very Important to their lives. Only 23% do not consider religious faith important to their daily lives. Given such a preponderance of interest, it is logical that entrepreneurship researchers should consider the effects of religious doctrine on an entrepreneur’s choices.

References Baron (2004). The Cognitive Perspective: A Valuable Tool for Answering Entrepreneurship’s Basic “Why” Questions. Journal of Business Venturing, 119(2), pp. 221–239. Fiet, J.O. (2020). Time, Space and Entrepreneurship. Routledge Studies in Entrepreneurship. London: Routledge Press. Fiet, J.O. (March, 2022a). The Theoretical World of Entrepreneurship. Northampton, Edward Elgar. Fiet, J.O. (2022b). The Entrepreneurial Solution to Poverty and the Science of What Is Possible. Northampton, Edward Elgar. Fiet, J.O. (2022c). Informational Entrepreneurship in a World with Limited Insight. Palgrave Rasmussen Reports. (2023, April 13) Is America Losing “That Old-Time Religion”? Available at: https://www.rasmussenreports.com/public_con tent/lifestyle/general_lifestyle/april_2023/is_america_losing_that_old_time_ religion?utm_campaign=RR04132023DN&utm_source=criticalimpact& utm_medium=emailShane, S. and Nicolaou, N. (2013). The Genetics of Entrepreneurial Performance. International Small Business Journal: Researching Entrepreneurship, 31(5), pp. 473–495.

PROLOGUE

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Wordsworth, W. Quiller-Couch, A. (1919). The Oxford Book of English Verse (Illustrated). Available at: https://www.amazon.com/BOOK-ENGLISHVERSE-ILLUSTRATED-ebook/dp/B01LXJITBF/ref=sr_1_4?crid=3BA Q1MW85MXCI&keywords=Wordsworth--Quiller-Couch&qid=168079

Contents

Part I Doctrines in Entrepreneurship 3 4 5

1

The Origin of Religious Preconceptions Religious Influence on Capitalism References

2

Ranking Doctrinal Effectiveness The Theory of Rational Expectations The Role of Spiritual Feelings Doctrinal Effectiveness References

7 7 8 8 10

3

Analytical Organization Project Organization

11 11

4

Christian Denominations and Their Doctrines Christian Doctrines References

13 13 15

5

World Religions and Their Doctrines The Doctrines of Nine World Religions

17 17

xi

xii

CONTENTS

Part II Doctrinal Differences Among Christian Denominations 6

7

Adventist Doctrine and Entrepreneurship God Holy Trinity Holy Ghost Holy Bible Pre-existence of Man Ecclesiastical Authority Baptism Virgin Birth, Immaculate Conception Did Christ Organize a Church? Lord’s Supper Christ’s Atonement Life After Death/Man’s Resurrection Vicarious Salvation for the Dead Status of Non-Believers Miracles Satan Heaven and Hell Church Membership Divine Revelation Marriage Purpose of Life Christ’s Second Coming Summary of the Impact of Adventist Doctrine on Entrepreneurship References

23 23 24 24 24 24 25 25 25 25 26 26 26 26 26 27 27 27 27 28 28 28 28

Baptist Doctrine and Entrepreneurship God Holy Trinity Holy Ghost Holy Bible Pre-existence of Man Ecclesiastical Authority Baptism Virgin Birth, Immaculate Conception Did Christ Organize a Church?

31 31 32 32 32 33 33 33 33 34

29 29

CONTENTS

8

xiii

Lord’s Supper Christ’s Atonement Man’s Resurrection Life After Death Vicarious Salvation for the Dead Status of Non-Believers Miracles Satan Heaven and Hell Church Necessary for Salvation Divine Revelation Marriage Purpose of life Christ’s Second Coming Summary of the Impact of Baptist Doctrine on Entrepreneurship References

34 34 34 35 35 35 35 36 36 36 36 37 37 37

Christian Scientist Doctrine and Entrepreneurship God Holy Trinity Holy Ghost Holy Bible Pre-Existence of Man Ecclesiastical Authority Baptism Virgin Birth, Immaculate Conception Did Christ Organize a Church? Lord’s Supper Christ’s Atonement Man’s Resurrection Life After Death Vicarious Work for Dead Status of Non-Believers Miracles Satan Heaven and Hell Church Necessary for Salvation? Divine Revelation

39 39 40 40 40 40 41 41 41 42 42 42 42 42 43 43 43 43 43 44 44

37 38

xiv

CONTENTS

Marriage Purpose of Life Christ’s Second Coming Summary of the Impact of Christian Science Doctrine on Entrepreneurship References 9

10

Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saint Doctrine and Entrepreneurship God Holy Trinity Holy Ghost Holy Bible Pre-Existence of Man Ecclesiastical Authority Baptism Virgin Birth, Immaculate Conception Did Christ Organize a Church? Lord’s Supper Christ’s Atonement Man’s Resurrection Life After Death Vicarious Salvation for the Dead Status of Non-Believers Miracles Satan Heaven and Hell Church Necessary for Salvation? Divine Revelation Marriage Purpose of Life Christ’s Second Coming Summary of the Impact of the Doctrines of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints on Entrepreneurship References Congregational Christian Churches God Holy Trinity Holy Ghost

44 44 44 44 45 47 47 48 48 48 49 49 49 50 50 50 50 51 51 51 51 51 52 52 52 52 53 53 53 53 54 55 55 55 56

CONTENTS

11

xv

Holy Bible Pre-Existence of Man Ecclesiastical Authority Baptism Virgin Birth, Immaculate Conception Did Christ Organize a Church? Lord’s Supper Christ’s Atonement Man’s Resurrection Life After Death Vicarious Work for Dead Status of Non-Believers Miracles Satan Heaven and Hell Church Necessary for Salvation? Divine Revelation Marriage Purpose of Life Christ’s Second Coming Summary of the Impact of the Doctrine of the Congregational Christian Churches on Entrepreneurship References

56 56 56 57 57 58 58 58 58 58 59 59 59 59 59 60 60 60 60 60

Disciples of Christ Doctrine and Entrepreneurship God Holy Trinity Holy Ghost Holy Bible Pre-Existence of Man Baptism Virgin Birth, Immaculate Conception Did Christ Organize a Church? Lord’s Supper Christ’s Atonement Man’s Resurrection Life After Death Vicarious Work for Dead

63 63 64 64 64 65 65 65 65 66 66 66 66 67

61 61

xvi

12

CONTENTS

Status of Non-Believers Miracles Satan Heaven and Hell Divine Revelation Marriage Purpose of Life Christ’s Second Coming Summary of the Impact of the Doctrines of the Disciples of Christ Church on Entrepreneurship References

67 67 67 68 68 68 68 68

Eastern Orthodox Doctrine and Entrepreneurship God Holy Trinity Holy Ghost Holy Bible Pre-Existence of Man Ecclesiastical Authority Baptism Virgin Birth, Immaculate Conception Did Christ Organize a Church? Lord’s Supper Christ’s Atonement Man’s Resurrection Life After Death Vicarious Salvation for the Dead State of Non-Believers Miracles Satan Heaven and Hell Church Necessary for Salvation? Divine Revelation Marriage Purpose of Life Christ’s Second Coming Summary of the Impact of Eastern Orthodox Doctrine on Entrepreneurship References

71 71 72 72 72 72 73 73 73 74 74 74 74 75 75 75 75 76 76 76 76 77 77 77

69 69

77 78

CONTENTS

13

14

xvii

Episcopalian Doctrine and Entrepreneurship God Holy Trinity Holy Ghost Holy Bible Pre-existence of Man Ecclesiastical Authority Baptism Virgin Birth, Immaculate Conception Did Christ Organize a Church? Lord’s Supper Christ’s Atonement Man’s Resurrection Life After Death Vicarious Work for Dead Status of Non-Believers Miracles Satan Heaven and Hell Church Necessary for Salvation? Divine Revelation Marriage Purpose of Life Christ’s Second Coming Summary of the Impact of Episcopalian Doctrine on Entrepreneurship References

79 79 80 80 80 80 81 81 81 82 82 82 82 83 83 83 83 83 84 84 84 84 85 85

Jehovah’s Witnesses’ Doctrine and Entrepreneurship God Holy Trinity Holy Ghost Holy Bible Pre-existence of Man Ecclesiastical Authority Baptism Virgin Birth: Immaculate Conception Did Christ Organize a Church? Lord’s Supper

87 87 88 88 88 88 89 89 89 89 90

85 86

xviii

CONTENTS

Christ’s Atonement Man’s Resurrection Life After Death Vicarious Work for Dead Status of Non-Believers Miracles Satan Heaven and Hell Church Necessary for Salvation? Divine Revelation Marriage Purpose of Life Christ’s Second Coming Summary of the Impact of Jehovah’s Witnesses’ Doctrine on Entrepreneurship References 15

Lutheran Doctrine and Entrepreneurship God Holy Trinity Holy Ghost Holy Bible Pre-existence of Man Ecclesiastical Authority Baptism Virgin Birth, Immaculate Conception Did Christ Organize a Church? Lord’s Supper Christ’s Atonement Man’s Resurrection Life After Death Vicarious Salvation of Dead Status of Non-Believers Miracles Satan Heaven and Hell Church Necessary for Salvation? Divine Revelation Marriage

90 90 91 91 91 91 92 92 92 92 93 93 93 93 94 95 95 96 96 96 97 97 98 98 98 99 99 99 99 100 100 100 101 101 101 101 102

CONTENTS

16

17

xix

Purpose of Life Christ’s Second Coming Summary of the Impact of Lutheran Doctrine on Entrepreneurship References

102 102

Mennonite Doctrine and Entrepreneurship God Holy Trinity Holy Ghost Holy Bible Pre-existence of Man Ecclesiastical Authority Baptism Virgin Birth, Immaculate Conception Did Christ Organize a Church? Lord’s Supper Christ’s Atonement Man’s Resurrection Life After Death Vicarious Work for Dead Status of Non-Believers Miracles Satan Heaven and Hell Church Necessary for Salvation? Divine Revelation Marriage Purpose of Life Christ’s Second Coming Summary of the Impact of Mennonite Doctrine on Entrepreneurship References

105 105 106 106 106 106 107 107 107 107 108 108 108 108 109 109 109 109 110 110 110 110 111 111

Methodist Doctrine and Entrepreneurship God Holy Trinity Holy Ghost Holy Bible Pre-existence of Man

113 113 114 114 114 114

102 103

111 111

xx

18

CONTENTS

Ecclesiastical Authority Baptism Virgin Birth, Immaculate Conception Did Christ Organize a Church? Lord’s Supper Christ’s Atonement Man’s Resurrection Life After Death Vicarious Salvation for Dead Status of Non-Believers Miracles Satan Heaven and Hell Church Necessary for Salvation? Divine Revelation Marriage Purpose of Life Christ’s Second Coming Summary of the Impact of Methodist Doctrine on Entrepreneurship References

115 115 116 116 116 116 117 117 117 117 118 118 118 118 118 119 119 119

Presbyterian Doctrine and Entrepreneurship God Holy Trinity Holy Ghost Holy Bible Pre-existence of Man Ecclesiastical Authority Baptism Virgin Birth, Immaculate Conception Did Christ Organize a Church? Lord’s Supper Christ’s Atonement Man’s Resurrection Life After Death Vicarious Work for Dead Status of Non-Believers Miracles

121 121 121 122 122 122 123 123 124 124 124 124 125 125 125 125 126

119 120

CONTENTS

19

xxi

Satan Heaven and Hell Church Necessary for Salvation? Divine Revelation Marriage Purpose of Life Christ’s Second Coming Summary of the Impact of Presbyterian Doctrine on Entrepreneurship References

126 126 126 127 127 127 128

Roman Catholic Doctrine and Entrepreneurship God Holy Trinity Holy Ghost Holy Bible Pre-existence of Man Ecclesiastical Authority Baptism Virgin Birth, Immaculate Conception Did Christ Organize a Church? Lord’s Supper Christ’s Atonement Man’s Resurrection Life After Death Vicarious Work for the Dead? Status of Non-Believers Miracles Satan Heaven and Hell Church Necessary for Salvation? Divine Revelation Marriage Purpose of Life Christ’s Second Coming Summary of the Impact of Roman Catholic Doctrine on Entrepreneurship References

131 131 132 132 132 133 133 134 134 134 135 135 136 136 136 137 137 137 137 138 138 138 139 139

128 128

139 140

xxii

20

21

CONTENTS

Quaker Doctrine and Entrepreneurship God Holy Trinity Holy Ghost Holy Bible Pre-existence of Man Ecclesiastical Authority Baptism Virgin Birth, Immaculate Conception Did Christ Organize a Church? Lord’s Supper Christ’s Atonement Man’s Resurrection Life After Death Vicarious Work for Dead Status of Non-Believers Miracles Satan Heaven and Hell Church Necessary for Salvation? Divine Revelation Marriage Purpose of Life Christ’s Second Coming Summary of the Impact of Quaker Doctrine on Entrepreneurship References

141 141 142 142 142 142 142 143 143 144 144 144 145 145 145 145 145 146 146 146 147 147 147 147

Unitarian Doctrine and Entrepreneurship God Holy Trinity Holy Ghost Holy Bible Pre-existence Ecclesiastical Authority Baptism Virgin Birth, Immaculate Conception Did Christ Organize a Church? Lord’s Supper

149 149 150 150 150 151 151 151 152 152 153

147 148

CONTENTS

22

xxiii

Christ’s Atonement Man’s Resurrection Life After Death Vicarious Work for Dead Status of Non-Believers Miracles Satan Heaven and Hell Church Necessary for Salvation? Divine Revelation Marriage Purpose of Life Christ’s Second Coming Summary of the Impact of Unitarian Doctrine on Entrepreneurship References

153 153 154 154 154 154 155 155 155 155 156 156 156

Secondary Questions for Christians References

159 160

156 157

Part III Doctrinal Differences among World Religions 23

Basis for Doctrinal Differences Among World Religions References

165 167

24

Buddhist Doctrine and Entrepreneurship First Earthly Exponent Applied Asceticism Entrepreneurial Application Origins Today God More Than One God Roles of the Gods? Philosophy for Living? Requirements Savior Marriage and Family Caste System Suggested Practices

169 169 170 170 170 171 171 172 173 173 173 174 175 175 175

xxiv

25

26

CONTENTS

Rituals or Ceremonies? Divine Revelation Purpose of Life? Afterlife Reward for Faithfulness Relevancy to Our Present Lives Summary of the Impact of Buddhist Doctrine on Entrepreneurship References

176 176 177 177 177 177

Christian Doctrine and Entrepreneurship First Earthly Exponent Origins Today God More than One God Roles of the Gods Philosophy for Living? Requirements Savior Object of Faith Marriage and Family Caste System Suggested Practices Rituals or Ceremonies? Divine Revelation? Purpose of Life? Afterlife Reward for Faithfulness Relevancy to Our Present Lives Summary of the Impact of Christian Doctrine on Entrepreneurship References

179 179 180 180 180 181 181 181 182 182 182 183 183 183 183 184 184 184 185 185

Confucian Doctrine and Entrepreneurship First Earthly Exponent Origins Today God More than One God

187 187 188 188 188 188

178 178

186 186

CONTENTS

27

xxv

Roles of the Gods? Philosophy for Living Requirements Savior Object of Faith Marriage and Family Caste System Suggested Practices Rituals or Ceremonies? Divine Revelation Purpose of Life? Afterlife Reward for Faithfulness Relevancy to Our Present Lives Summary of the Impact of Confucian Doctrine on Entrepreneurship References

188 189 189 189 189 190 190 190 190 192 192 192 192 193

Hindu Doctrine and Entrepreneurship First Earthly Exponent Origins Today God More than One God Roles of the Gods? Philosophy for Living Requirements Savior Object of Faith Marriage and Family Caste System Suggested Practices Rituals or Ceremonies? Divine Revelation? Purpose of Life? Afterlife Reward for Faithfulness Relevancy for Our Present Lives

195 195 195 196 196 196 196 198 199 200 200 201 202 203 203 203 204 204 204 204

193 193

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CONTENTS

Summary of the Impact of Hindu Doctrine on Entrepreneurship References 28

29

205 205

Islamic Doctrine and Entrepreneurship First Earthly Exponent Origins Today God More Than One God Roles of the Gods? Philosophy for Living? Requirements Savior Object of Faith Marriage and Family Caste System Suggested Practices Rituals or Ceremonies? Divine Revelation? Purpose of Life? Afterlife Reward for Faithfulness Relevancy to Our Present Lives Summary of the Impact of Islamic Doctrine on Entrepreneurship

207 207 207 208 208 208 208 208 209 210 211 211 211 211 212 212 212 212 213 214

Jewish Doctrine and Entrepreneurship First Earthly Exponent Origins Today God More Than One God Roles of the Gods Philosophy for Living? Requirements Savior Object of Faith Marriage and Family Caste System

215 215 216 216 217 218 218 218 218 218 219 219 219

214

CONTENTS

30

31

xxvii

Suggested Practices Rituals or Ceremonies? Divine Revelation? Purpose of Life? Afterlife Reward for Faithfulness Relevancy to Our Present Lives Summary of the Impact of Jewish Doctrine on Entrepreneurship References

219 220 220 220 221 221 221

Primal Religious Doctrine and Entrepreneurship First Earthly Exponent Origins Today God More Than One God Roles of the Gods? Philosophy for Living? Requirements Savior Object of Faith Marriage and Family Caste System Suggested Practices Rituals or Ceremonies? Divine Revelation? Purpose of Life? Afterlife Reward for Faithfulness Relevancy to Our Present Lives Summary of the Impact of Primal Religious Doctrine on Entrepreneurship References

225 225 226 226 227 227 227 227 228 228 228 228 228 229 229 229 230 230 230 230

Taoist Doctrine and Entrepreneurship First Earthly Exponent Origins Today God

233 233 234 234 234

222 222

231 231

xxviii

32

CONTENTS

More than One God Roles of the Gods? Philosophy for Living? Requirements Savior Object of Faith Marriage and Family Caste System Suggested Practices Rituals or Ceremonies? Divine Revelation? Purpose of Life? Afterlife Reward for Faithfulness Relevancy to Our Present Lives Summary of the Impact of Taoist Doctrine on Entrepreneurship References

234 235 235 235 236 236 236 236 236 237 238 238 238 239 239

Woke Doctrine and Entrepreneurship First Earthly Exponent Origins Today God Roles of the Gods? Philosophy for Living? Requirements Savior Object of Faith Marriage and Family Caste System Suggested Practices Rituals or Ceremonies? Divine Revelation? Purpose of Life? Afterlife Reward for Faithfulness

241 242 242 244 245 245 245 246 246 246 246 247 247 247 247 248 248 248

239 239

CONTENTS

Relevancy to Our Present Lives Summary of the Impact of Woke Doctrine on Entrepreneurship References

xxix

248 248 249

Part IV Denominational and Doctrinal Analysis 33

Christian Denominational Effectiveness Denominational Comparisons

253 253

34

Christian Doctrines and Their Entrepreneurial Promise Doctrinal Comparisons Christ’s Atonement Man’s Resurrection Virgin Birth, Immaculate Conception Lord’s Supper Life After Death Holy Ghost Purpose of Life Miracles Heaven and Hell Christ’s Second Coming Holy Bible Ecclesiastical Authority Did Christ Organize a Church? Divine Revelation Pre-existence of Man Church Membership God Baptism Status of Non-Believers Vicarious Salvation for the Dead Holy Trinity Marriage Satan

255 255 255 256 256 256 257 257 257 258 258 258 258 259 259 259 260 260 260 260 261 261 261 262 262

xxx

CONTENTS

Denominational Comparison of World Religions Comparing the Entrepreneurial Effectiveness of the World’s Religions

263

36

The Doctrinal Promise of World Religions Doctrinal Comparisons Relevancy to our Present Lives Rituals or Ceremonies? Marriage and Family Reward for Faithfulness Requirements More than One God Divine Revelation Purpose of Life Afterlife Philosophy for Living Suggested Practices God Roles of the Gods Object of Faith Caste System Savior

265 265 265 266 266 266 266 267 267 267 267 268 268 268 269 269 269 269

37

The Religions with the Most Promising Doctrine References

271 273

35

263

Epilogue: Entrepreneurship and the Secularization of Society

275

Index

279

List of Figures

Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig.

33.1 34.1 35.1 36.1

Fig. 37.1 Fig. 37.2

Christian denomination comparisons Doctrinal promise of the Christian denominations World religions and their entrepreneurial promise Doctrines with most entrepreneurial promise for world religions Top Christian denominations ranked for entrepreneurial effectiveness Top world religions ranked for entrepreneurial effectiveness

254 262 264 270 272 273

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PART I

Doctrines in Entrepreneurship

CHAPTER 1

The Origin of Religious Preconceptions

Our most notable source of preconceptions about entrepreneurship could be our religious beliefs. These could consist of the philosophies of men mingled with scripture, or they could consist of doctrine sent from God. They have been mostly codified as doctrines, many of which have an institutional imprimatur, but others originated more informally. This research categorizes beliefs as either doctrines (d) or philosophies (p) of men. These preconceived religious notions become lenses that we may use to interpret how we see the world. Surprisingly, no known studies have systematically predicted the influence of competing beliefs from differing or even the same religious perspectives.

Entrepreneurship education treats prospective students as though they all came from the same cognitive mold when we know differences in religious doctrines have provided formative influences over civilizations, wars, and at the very least for 16, variously different, Christian denominations. Yet these differences were important enough to believers that many changed their denominational affiliations, especially among Christians. The nine other world religions also have their own denominational differences.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. O. Fiet, Religious Doctrines and their Influence on Entrepreneurship, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43386-3_1

3

4

J. O. FIET

Religious Influence on Capitalism Max Weber became a notable observer of the possible influence of religion on our vocations. He posited in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1904–1905) that protestants would manifest a disciplined work ethic that would help them to outperform Hindus who happened to support a view of the transmigration of the soul among different life forms though a process known as reincarnation (Smith, 2009). His working hypothesis was that protestants would outperform Hindus, perhaps due to the evolving destiny of the Hindu soul, for which he found initial tentative support. However, his methodology was criticized, after which the initial protestant advantages disappeared after Indian Independence. Nevertheless, the present work owes an intellectual debt to Weber because he was the first one to question implicitly what impact one’s doctrinal views would have on a person’s vocation. This project is most interested in what impact a person’s strongly held, religious doctrines would have on someone’s propensity to take on entrepreneurial risk. I begin this work with a foundation that I have already published in The Theoretical World of Entrepreneurship (Fiet, 2022a). In that work, I cataloged the doctrines of sixteen Christian denominations and nine world religions. I intend to draw on it to suggest how individual religious doctrines will impact one’s propensity for entrepreneurship, but also what would be the collective impact of jointly supportive doctrines, compared with simultaneously believing in conflicting doctrines. Work on the potential influence of religion as an independent variable is in its infancy. As with Weber’s pioneering work, it has been limited to one’s devotion to a religion or its context, not to its individual doctrines, nor what it could mean for a particular outcome. However, this work is so rare that it is difficult to find citations to it. The underlying challenge is that people do not live and believe as Baptists only; instead, they adhere to Baptist teachings consisting of doctrines that are common among Baptists. Others may not really consider themselves to be Jewish as much as they are proud of their Jewish traditions. They could want to raise their children with the predictability of Jewish holidays, traditions, and milestones, which allows them to be simultaneously involved with raising their children while being able to follow community standards and practices. In fact, it is possible for a Jew to follow Jewish traditions while simultaneously being an atheist. These examples demonstrate why examining the impact of individual doctrines is the correct unit of analysis,

1

THE ORIGIN OF RELIGIOUS PRECONCEPTIONS

5

not religious affiliation, after which it would be helpful to understand the faithfulness of potential entrepreneurs to these doctrines.

References Fiet, J. O. (2022a, March). The Theoretical World of Entrepreneurship. Edward Elgar. Smith, H. (2009). The World’s Religions. HarperOne. Weber, M. (1904–1905). The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Peter Baehr (Introduction, Translator), Gordon C. Wells (Introduction, Translator). Penguin Group. https://www.amazon.com/Protestant-Ethic-Spi rit-Capitalism-Twentieth-Century-book/dp/B002GJGIDQ/ref=sr_1_1?crid= 1MWJ1W4WI6KOB&keywords=the+protestant+ethic+and+the+spirit+of+ capitalism&qid=1680796874&s=digital-text&sprefix=The+Protestant+Ethic+ and+the+Spirit+of+Capitalism+%2Cdigital-text%2C159&sr=1-1

CHAPTER 2

Ranking Doctrinal Effectiveness

This analysis will be based on the theory of rational expectations (Blume et al., Journal of Economic Theory 26:313–317, 1982; Shiffrin, S. (1996). Rational Expectations (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.). It is, what would one reasonably expect to occur if he or she believed in a certain doctrine. In an eternal scheme, where we come from, why we are here, and where we are going—the big questions—all could create expectations about what will be the consequences of the choices that we make, especially when those consequences are influenced doctrinally.

The Theory of Rational Expectations As humans, we face decisions with different consequences. The question is, how appealing are these consequences? This is where the theory of rational expectations becomes operative because it really becomes a choice between the preferred future states offered by competing religious doctrines (c.f., Shiffrin, 1996). From a religious perspective, these future states are given because the doctrines are fixed, certainly in time and space. We do not think about people shopping for the most appealing temporal aspects of religious doctrines, but this project compiles competing doctrines so that conceivably it could be feasible to go shopping. A person without faith could argue that the doctrines are false narratives based on fiction, in which case they would not be a bargain © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. O. Fiet, Religious Doctrines and their Influence on Entrepreneurship, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43386-3_2

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at any price. However, in most such cases argued to be a fiction, there are millions and in some cases billions of adherents who have faith in their veracity. You will recall that this project does not control for a person’s faith (Sheldrake, 2007), which means that the usefulness of this analysis will depend on the faith of the reader. Those with faith will probably consider it to be a curiosity because systematic analysis is the last thing on their minds. In most traditions, shopping for beliefs is not preferred, and believers’ choices would accordingly be channeled as directed by their religions, which this project explores. An implication of this channeling is to ask which doctrines provide the greatest decision support, in the form of attractive future states, to become an entrepreneur and which religions teach these doctrines?

The Role of Spiritual Feelings This exploration uses an economic interpretation, which would certainly be moderated by a person’s spiritual feelings, which could be quite apart from an intellectual, rational interpretation. Science has struggled with the topic of spirituality (Jones et al., 1986; Sheldrake, 2007). The surest way to avoid the difficulties is to assume that a person’s spiritual feelings are held constant and that any differences in outcomes are due to how a person’s rational expectations guide his or her decision-making. In effect, the design adopted by the current study will describe the rational expectations of the average believer in a particular doctrinal interpretation (Shiffrin, 1996), which could be utterly different for a believer who has had a spiritual manifestation. For our purposes a spiritual manifestation will be one that appears to violate the ordinary rules of nature, but nevertheless presents itself to a believer as being one that can be trusted implicitly.

Doctrinal Effectiveness Part of the analysis will be to (1) rank the collective scores of individual religions as decision support tools in the service of achieving entrepreneurial success, which will be used to create an index for individual religions. One could adopt a different ranking system (Crisp, 2019). One could also use a team of raters, rather than a single individual. Of course, these choices are only some of those that could point

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entrepreneurs in the direction of different levels of willingness to engage with a new venture. Not only does this treatment intend to provide different decision support tools, but also to identity the set of criteria that can be used to tease improvements in performance. In addition to the index for each religion’s effectiveness using a specific belief, the belief will be categorized as either a doctrine or a philosophy for living. Doctrines will be coded with a “d” and philosophies for living will be coded with a “p.” It would also be helpful to (2) learn of the curative value of certain religious principles or doctrines to offset liabilities brought on by a lack of faith or through opposing community standards that aroused opposition to someone launching their preferred type of venture. One of the questions raised in the family business literature is about how to improve rates of transference from one generation to the next during a family business succession. To the extent that a doctrine was in support of a venture as a continuation of a religiously oriented family legacy, one would also expect to see more successful transitions. It could also turn out to be that faith in one religion would predispose a person to be more successful with a particular type of new venture and less successful with other types. Typically, aspiring entrepreneurs do not think this deeply about launching a venture. Mostly, they are reported to launch ventures with less thoughtfulness, especially if it is one that is new and appealing to them. It is quite possible that devout followers of a particular religious tradition would be better limiting their venture prospects to those that matched the patterns manifested by a particular type of venture. An example would be someone who had religious commitments on Sundays, such as honoring the Sabbath Day, to keep it holy. Such a person could avoid working in a retail business that required a seven-day-a-week commitment. An important caveat about the rankings is that they have nothing to do with the veracity of the individual religious doctrines. Their truthfulness stands on its own and can be evaluated in the same way that believers always gauge their faith. The rankings only refer to the impact that individual doctrines could have on a believer’s propensity to become an entrepreneur. In fact, if they were to be construed more broadly, they could even do harm, which has never been their intended purpose.

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References Blume, L. M. M., Bray, M., & Easley, D. (1982). Introduction to the Stability of Rational Expectations Equilibrium. Journal of Economic Theory, 26(2), 313– 317. Crisp, O. (2019). Analyzing Doctrine: Toward a Systematic Theology. Baylor University Press. Jones, C., Wainwright, G. & Yarnold, E. (1986). The Study of Spirituality. Oxford University. Sheldrake, P. (2007). A Brief History of Spirituality. Blackwell Publishing. Shiffrin, S. (1996). Rational Expectations (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.

CHAPTER 3

Analytical Organization

This project will be organized progressively in the following way. First, it will introduce Christian doctrines, together with a comparison across churches. The purpose of this comparison will be to lay out the denominational differences and their likely entrepreneurial implications. It will also create an index for each religion, which is intended to represent the average propensity of a belief system to incentivize entrepreneurship.

Project Organization This chapter will lay out the doctrines that will be used for comparison of world religions, including Christianity. These comparisons are more disparate given that the worldwide views on divinity tend to be more heterogeneous and less amenable to direct comparison. Next, the expected impact of Christian doctrines will be examined. Although it is unlikely that they could be expected to be determinative in all cases, the comparison will examine what would be their expected, average impact. Because they all worship the same Savior, we would expect to see similarities. The next section will highlight those denominations that share the greatest similarities, followed by those that show the greatest doctrinal differences. Finally, the project will conclude by identifying sets of doctrines that offer the greatest entrepreneurial promise. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. O. Fiet, Religious Doctrines and their Influence on Entrepreneurship, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43386-3_3

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Next, the expected impact of the doctrines of the world religions will be examined. It is highly likely that these divergent doctrines will have more heterogeneous impacts on entrepreneurship. Finally, this project will summarize and examine those doctrines that could have the greatest impact on one’s proclivity to become an entrepreneur. This project represents a giant leap forward in our understanding of doctrinal entrepreneurship. What it means for wealth creation is an empirical question, together with how much of it is subject to volitional control.

CHAPTER 4

Christian Denominations and Their Doctrines

Here are the sixteen Christian denominations whose doctrines will be examined: (1) Adventists, (2) Baptists, (3) Church of Christ, Scientist, (4) Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, (5) Congregational Christian Churches, (6) Disciples of Christ, (7) Eastern Orthodox Churches (Catholic), (8) Episcopal Church of England, (9) Jehovah’s Witnesses, (10) Lutherans, (11) Mennonites, (12) Methodists, (13) Presbyterians, (14) Roman Catholic Church, (15) Quakers, and (16) Unitarian Church. For each of these denominations, it will examine 23 Christian doctrines.

Christian Doctrines We will use the following Christian doctrines to compare each of the 16 denominations (Fiet, 2022a). The purpose of the comparisons will be to explain the expected impact that they could have on entrepreneurs’ prospects for launching a new venture, as well as how they would operate such a venture. The questions themselves were broadly suggested by Howells (1940). 1. God—who is this being? 2. What is the Holy Trinity? Does a particular denomination believe in the Holy Trinity?

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3. Who is the Holy Ghost? Is this person or thing a member of the Godhead? What is the Godhead? 4. The Holy Bible. Is it the word of God? Is it infallible? Are there other inspired books? 5. The Pre-existence of Man. Do we have a pre-earth, eternal soul who is the person who is born? Or do humans simply spring into existence, tabula rosa when they are born? 6. Ecclesiastical Authority. What is a denomination’s position on its authority to teach and speak for God? 7. Baptism. Is it necessary for salvation? What is its purpose? Must it be authorized? Is it done by immersion or sprinkling? What happens to those who are not baptized? What age should it be done? 8. Virgin Birth, Immaculate Conception. Was Mary a virgin? Who was Jesus’ father? Was Mary free from original sin or was she a very good, striving but imperfect person? 9. Christ’s Church. Did He organize a church during His earthly ministry? Is there salvation outside of His Church? Must one be called by those in authority to perform as a representative of Jesus Christ within the organizational hierarchy? 10. Lord’s Supper. What is its purpose? Does it require authority to administer? What form does it take? 11. Atonement of Christ. What is it? Is it necessary? What were Christ’s qualifications to perform it? Can we be saved without it? What are qualifications for us to benefit from it? 12. Resurrection of Man. Will we be resurrected? How would we be resurrected? Who will be resurrected? Will there be those who are not resurrected? 13. Life after Death. Will we live again? Will we have a body? Will we have a memory of our life on earth? Who will or will not live again? Are we dependent on Christ to live again or was He only a great teacher? 14. Vicarious Work for the Salvation of the Dead. Can we be saved without our ancestors? Can they be saved without us? What is the nature of this vicarious work? Can we help our ancestors achieve their own salvation? 15. Possible Status of Non-Believers in Christ. What happens to those who do not believe in Christ? Must everyone accept Him?

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16. Miracles. What is a miracle? Do they occur today? Must they be authorized, or can faith alone generate them? 17. Satan. Who was he? What role, if any, does he play today? 18. Heaven and Hell. Do they exist? What are the criteria for each one? Can someone escape from hell and go to heaven? 19. Church Necessary for Salvation. Can a person be saved outside of Christ’s church? Can someone be religious and devout without being active in a church? 20. Divine Revelation. Does revelation to the devout occur today? Is the Bible an acceptable substitute for continuing revelation? Is revelation needed today? 21. Marriage. Is there a role for marriage in the gospel plan? Is marriage necessary to start a family? Are we accountable to God for what we do while married? What is the purpose of marriage? 22. Purpose of Life. What is the purpose of life? Does this same purpose continue after the resurrection? 23. Second Coming of Christ. Was He God? Will He return? Who will meet Him?

References Fiet, J. (2022a). The Theoretical World of Entrepreneurship. Edward Elgar Publishing. Howells, R. (1940). His Many Mansions. Ensign Press.

CHAPTER 5

World Religions and Their Doctrines

Here are the nine world religions to be examined. They were primarily identified by (Smith, H. The World’s Religions. HarperOne, 2009) but were augmented by Fiet (2022a): (1) Buddhism, (2) Christianity, (3) Confucianism, (4) Hinduism, (5) Islam, (6) Judaism, (7) Primal Religions, (8) Taoism, and (9) Wokeism. For each of these religions, this study will identify 20 doctrines or characteristics because in some situations their doctrines are quite heterogeneous.

The Doctrines of Nine World Religions We will use the following doctrines/philosophies to compare each of the 9 world religions. The purpose of the comparisons will be to explain the rational impact that they could have on entrepreneurs’ prospects for launching a new venture, as well as how they would operate such a venture. The doctrines to be analyzed were identified for the first time in the current treatment. 1. First Earthly Exponent. Who is credited with being the first teacher of a doctrine? 2. Origins. What is the creation story of a religion? Is it the creation of the earth or of the religion itself?

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3. Today? How do believers today fit into the story of its origins? How are they connected with the origins? 4. Is There a god? Is God in charge? What is our relationship with Him or Her? What were his responsibilities to us? Are they the same today? 5. Is There More than One God? How many? Is our responsibility to each of them the same? 6. Roles of the Gods. Do they have separable responsibilities? How are our responsibilities to them different? Their responsibilities to us? 7. Is the Religion More of a Philosophy for Living? Is it divine in its origin? Does it have a God as the central organizer of the universe? What is our eternal destiny if it is only a philosophy for living that does not have the power to save us from our imperfections? If it has the power to save us, can we become like God? 8. What Is Required to Be an Adherent? Who oversees the standards, God, or Man? What will be the consequences if we fail to meet the standards. How will we benefit if we meet the standards? 9. Is There a Savior? What is his relationship to us? Why did he intercede for us? What is our responsibility or obligation to Him? 10. What Is the Object of Faith? In whom or in what do adherents have faith? How was this dependency created? 11. Is There a Role for Marriage and Family? Is it central to our eternal purpose? How else would children come into the world? How else could children be nurtured and taught? Are families necessary or optional? If so, what is their essential role? 12. Is There a Caste System? Is the system of earthly or heavenly origin? What is its past? What is its future? 13. Are There Required or Suggested Practices? What determines whether they are required or suggested? What is their purpose? What is their future? 14. Are There Required Rituals or Ceremonies? What are they and what purpose do they serve? What happens to us if we neglect them? 15. Is There Divine Revelation? Is it necessary for God to communicate with us? How does He do it? Is revelation recorded in holy scripture and used as the basis for worship? Who is authorized to interpret scripture or to pronounce God’s will for mankind?

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16. What Is the Purpose of Life? Does the purpose require working with others or can we accomplish it by ourselves? 17. What Follows Earth Life? Are there differing gradients of life that we can earn or are they gifts or punishments to us from God? Should our understanding of post-mortal life influence the choices that we make now? To become an entrepreneur? 18. Is There a Reward for Faithfulness? Or is the reward merely the quality of the life that we enjoy now? 19. How Is Religion Relevant to Our Present Lives? Does it only provide us with comfort or is it a guide for happier and more successful living? 20. Is It a Guide for Becoming a Successful Entrepreneur? Or is earning a living simply something that we must do to survive? Does how we earn a living, either working for someone else or being an entrepreneur, really matter in an eternal scheme?

PART II

Doctrinal Differences Among Christian Denominations

CHAPTER 6

Adventist Doctrine and Entrepreneurship

In 2009, the Seventh Day Adventist Church had 16 million adherents worldwide (Kidder, Andrews University Seminary Studies 47:101–116, 2009). Here are its doctrines and their ramifications for entrepreneurship (Rice, R. (1985). The Reign of God: An Introduction to Christian Theology from a Seventh-Day Adventist Perspective. Andrews University Press.). The language of the doctrines is borrowed from authoritative denominational sources. The primary authoritative sources are noted. The bracketed number at the end of each doctrine summarizes the impact of a doctrine on becoming an entrepreneur. This index is then coded as a “d” for doctrine or as a “p” for philosophy, the former from divinity whereas the latter is a philosophy of man.

God God is a personal spiritual invisible being, omnipotent, omniscient, and omnipresent (Knight, 1999). The fact that God is personal would increase an entrepreneur’s sense of responsibility to do the best with his or her God-given talents. The fact that He is invisible would decrease a person’s need to be compliant with His desires for us. The fact that He is omniscient and omnipresent would increase a person’s constant reliance on Him. [+1d]

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Holy Trinity Consists of three persons; God the Father, a spiritual being; Jesus Christ— very God, a being of the same nature and essence as the eternal Father; Holy Spirit—great, regenerating power (Knight, 1999). The fact that the beings are separable as individuals would increase an entrepreneur’s individual accountability to them. The fact that they are an unknown essence would increase the chasm between God and man because of the difficulty of relating to an essence rather than a father, and moreover, it could cause entrepreneurs to wonder whether this essence understands them and their potential as an entrepreneur. [0p]

Holy Ghost The third person of the Godhead; the Executive of the Godhead, whose presence is the presence of both the Father and the Son (Rice, 1985). This description is sufficiently generic that although it could serve anyone, it does not attempt to personalize it to humans as individuals, and thus would not motivate aspiring entrepreneurs to act. [0d]

Holy Bible The infallible word of God, written by men moved upon by the Holy Spirit. The only infallible rule of Faith is the Holy Bible. Contains all of God’s teachings for our salvation (Knight, 1999). Because it is a perfect information source, it leaves no space for indecision or confusion, for which entrepreneurs often serve as the grand equilibrators. Thus, it is possible that it would remove opportunities for entrepreneurs to create value. Entrepreneurs profit by removing uncertainty. [-1d]

Pre-existence of Man A human being commences his existence when he is born into this world. He has no previous existence (Kidder, 2009). Because all of us would reach the starting line with same distance to run, no aspirant would begin the race of life with an advantage. However, if our beginnings were the obverse, it would be possible that some of us could have advanced further and faster, which could confer an entrepreneurial advantage. [0p]

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Ecclesiastical Authority Has been invested in the Church for teaching and guiding. This authority is not vested in any one man. Other Churches can have authority if they are in harmony with God and His word (Knight, 1999). Because all churches can have access to the same ecclesiastical authority, it would not be a source of a competitive advantage for launching a new venture. [0p]

Baptism The act that expresses personal faith in Christ the Savior, who died for our sins. Only by immersion. Accepts the baptism of other churches on conditions (Rice, 1985). Again, this philosophy is not a point of differentiation that could be leveraged to confer an entrepreneurial advantage. [0p]

Virgin Birth, Immaculate Conception Christ—very God, retaining His divine nature, voluntarily took upon Himself human flesh; conceived by the Holy Spirit, born of Virgin Mary, without sin, both man and God (Rice, 1985). Immaculate conception refers to being born sinless, and in this case, it refers to both Mary and Christ. Because it does not refer to entrepreneurs, it would not advance entrepreneurship. However, it could help potential entrepreneurs to trust Christ, which could inadvertently increase entrepreneurial confidence, proactivity, and success. This could be an advantage, but not a particular advantage to Adventists. [+1d]

Did Christ Organize a Church? Christ did not organize a visible church while on earth. His disciples affected organization. Our church rose to give God’s special message for today ( Knight, 1999). Once again, this is not a point of entrepreneurial differentiation. [0p]

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Lord’s Supper The bread and wine are symbolic representations of the Body and Blood of Christ. All who partake in remembrance of Christ manifest their faith in His atoning death “till He come” (Rice, 1985). Because taking the sacrament is not restricted to Church members, this doctrine would not differentiate Adventists from other Christians in their proclivity to be entrepreneurial. [0d]

Christ’s Atonement It was for all sins both original and personal (Rice, 1985). The benefit of the atonement thus is appropriated by those who believe in Christ. Adventists are willing to accept the baptism of other churches, so the benefits of His atonement are not the exclusive entitlement of Adventists and would not confer an entrepreneurial advantage. [0d]

Life After Death/Man’s Resurrection The resurrection of man is literally to a perfected body. All men go not to their reward or punishment after death, but they “sleep” until the day of the resurrection (Kidder, 2009). The resurrection represents an implied benefit for all men and thus would not confer an entrepreneurial advantage. [0d]

Vicarious Salvation for the Dead There is nothing any human being can do to change the condition of the dead. After one dies, there is no more that can be done, or that an entrepreneur can do (Rice, 1985). This could be an unfortunate disadvantage to family business entrepreneurs whose role is often to contribute to and extend a family legacy. [-1p]

Status of Non-Believers Those who reject the offered gift of life through Christ thereby bring upon themselves eternal destruction. There is no probation after death (Rice, 1985). Believers accept the status quo that has been prepared for them in the next life. Non-believers face destruction (Rice, 1985). The

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doctrine is silent on the impact of believing in this life. One would expect that it could increase a believer’s feelings of personal security so that he or she would be more amenable to accepting entrepreneurial risk. [+1d]

Miracles A miracle is the result of the direct interposition of divine power apart from God’s usual mode of working. There have been and still are instances of such (Kidder, 2009). One could assume that miracles would be the entitlement of believers, but this is not specified, so that miracles are neither an advantage nor a disadvantage to believers. [0d]

Satan A created being, a fallen angel. He will finally be reduced to a state of non-existence with all other impotent ones (Kidder, 2009). Satan could be a temporary impediment but not in the long run. However, the focus of this analysis is the here and now when Satan could pose an impediment. [-1d]

Heaven and Hell Heaven is a place where the throne of God is, and where He dwells in a sense in which He does not dwell anywhere else. Hell describes fires of last days in which the wicked will be destroyed (Kidder, 2009). Because heaven and hell describe conditions that will exist after the resurrection, it is possible to live now and not be focused on them. Thus, believers could forget them for now, thinking all is well. [-1d]

Church Membership Membership in the invisible Church of Christ is necessary for salvation. Membership in His visible Church is in accordance with the divine plan. Exceptions are possible (Knight, 1999). It is impossible to know the difference between a visible and an invisible Church. These are not scriptural terms. However, some people are clearly excluded. [-1p]

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Divine Revelation It is a belief, and although the canon of scriptures is closed, God may still reveal Himself to His Church through prophecy (Kidder, 2009). Presumably, the scriptures are closed for the Church but open to individuals who need guidance. If this assumption is correct, it could be an advantage for entrepreneurs. [+1p]

Marriage Is a divine institution ordained for the good of man during this present life. “Until death do us part.” No marriage relationship is in the future state Rice, R. (1985). Marriage can be a partnership to which both contribute resources that can increase a family’s possibility set. Because it is viewed as temporary, it provides less motivation to sacrifice in the short term. Overall, a temporary view of marriage provides no lasting advantages for entrepreneurs. [0p]

Purpose of Life Man is created for the Glory of God. Our purpose is to cooperate with God in the realization of this divine plan. This life is not a part of eternal life. Immortality is a gift from God (Rice, 1985). To the extent that people feel as though they have a vested purpose in God’s plan, it could certainly incentivize them to persevere to be successful entrepreneurially. [+1p]

Christ’s Second Coming Believe in a bodily, visible return of Christ to this earth in power and glory. The event is near, but definite time not revealed (Rice, 1985). This could have either a positive or a negative impact on person’s entrepreneurial endeavors, depending on the righteousness of the project. Some projects could be more deserving of praise than others. [0d]

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Summary of the Impact of Adventist Doctrine on Entrepreneurship The overall impact of Adventist doctrine on entrepreneurship is zero, or neutral, which is a result of totaling the twenty-two individual scores. In addition, the beliefs were 12 for doctrine and 10 for philosophy. The rationale for the score is provided as part of the evaluation of each doctrine. Readers may modify the calculation if they prefer a different rationale. It should be clear that although the cumulative score is zero, the individual impacts are not zero but could be engineered to leverage a denomination’s core competencies. The null hypothesis is that they could pretend that what an entrepreneur’s religious views are really does not matter, despite history and observation arguing for the hypothesized result. The last question to be part of this analysis will be whether other denominations enjoy a competitive doctrinal advantage compared with being an Adventist.

References Kidder, S. (2009). Creeds and Statements of Belief in Early Adventist Thought. Andrews University Seminary Studies, 47 (1), 101–116. Knight, G. (1999). A Brief History of Seventh-day Adventists. Review and Herald Publishing Association. www.reviewandherald.com Rice, R. (1985). The Reign of God: An Introduction to Christian Theology from a Seventh-Day Adventist Perspective. Andrews University Press.

CHAPTER 7

Baptist Doctrine and Entrepreneurship

In 2009, there were 40 million Baptist congregants, divided into different memberships. “Baptist” is a general style of running a Church. The individual congregation is the main structure of the Church. Here are the Baptist doctrines.

God God is an infinite, eternal spirit, source, and support of all things. Without form of body and is the same perfect spirit from the beginning (Carroll, 2003). There is no doubt from this description that God is all-powerful, which could be beneficial to entrepreneurs. The difficulty is that it is impossible for an aspiring entrepreneur to feel a personal connection, which a Baptist could argue, “is the beauty of it.” The question is, how would this translate into facilitating what an entrepreneur does? A response could be that if God is on your side, there is no need to do anything. For the purposes of this analysis, we are going to assume that everything depends on the entrepreneur, not on God, so that entrepreneurs can personally develop their own competence. [0p]

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Holy Trinity Consists of one and only one God, capable of manifesting three distinct persons—Father, Son, and Holy Ghost: All equal in perfections, distinct in office, but one in substance (Hammett, 2019). This view of the Trinity can be traced back to the Council of Nicaea in 325 A.D., which predated Baptists, in fact, it predated Catholicism, as well as all other Christian denominations, when the emperor, Constantine, desired to reconcile the monotheistic teachings of Christians and Jews with the Greek gods worshiped by the Romans. Under his direction, the Council developed a three-in-one accommodation. That way, Constantine could use Christianity to expand his empire. It was a prescient decision for empire building because Christianity became the religion with the most adherents worldwide. That said, where does this view of the Trinity leave entrepreneurs? The answer is that the mystery continues unabated. It is quite possible that entrepreneurs would not know where they stood, unfortunately. [0p]

Holy Ghost The third person or attribute of the one and only one God (spirit). The positive part of this doctrine for entrepreneurs is that they would only be approaching one deity for inspiration, and it is possible that they would think that they were developing a personal, supportive relationship (Taylor, 1932). In other words, entrepreneurs could understand to whom they were praying. The difficulty would be that the Spirit would be unlike them, which could obstruct their communication. On balance, being able to develop a personal relationship is positive. [+1p]

Holy Bible Believed to be the absolute truth. Contains all of God’s revelation to man. There are no other scriptures. Because it is a perfect and complete information source (Hammett, 2019), it leaves no space for indecision or confusion, for which entrepreneurs often serve as the grand equilibrators. Thus, it is possible that it would remove opportunities for entrepreneurs to create value. Entrepreneurs profit by removing uncertainty. [-1p]

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Pre-existence of Man Do not believe in pre-existence. Jesus Christ (God) only had such or lived before this life (Mullins, 1913). Thus, this doctrine lacks a context to which entrepreneurs may turn for guidance. Of course, they can still pray and receive guidance from the Holy Ghost. [0p]

Ecclesiastical Authority No succession of authority. Other Churches may have equal authority because authority comes from within the group itself through their righteousness and desire to serve Christ ( Hammett, 2019). Of course, living righteously places a burden on the believers, which works well in the best of times. In times of trial, there is no one authorized to claim that he or she has the authority to make decisions in the Church for others. This creates uncertainty that is detrimental for entrepreneurship. [-1p]

Baptism By immersion only. Infants are not baptized. Candidates must first believe. Accept baptism of other churches if done by immersion Is not entirely necessary for salvation (Taylor, 1932). It is ironic that the church that took the name of baptism now excuses its necessity. As explained, this seems more like a hurdle than a blessing to those baptized. It is a positive that infants who are not responsible for their own actions are not required to be baptized. Of course, infants cannot be entrepreneurs. [-1p]

Virgin Birth, Immaculate Conception God desiring to link himself with man was born of the Virgin Mary, thus taking on his second character (person) as the Christ (Hammett, 2019). It seems very human-like for God to want to have a relationship with His children. Of course, He was reaching down and out to His children. This action should instill greater confidence in man to imagine being an entrepreneur. [+1d]

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Did Christ Organize a Church? He organized followers to spread the Gospel, but no definite church: the believers in and of themselves evolved a church (Hammett, 2019). Forming a church would have been a man-made institution, not a divine one. Thus, attempting to form a church would not have been a divine act to motivate entrepreneurs. [0p]

Lord’s Supper To commemorate together the remembrance of the dying love of Christ. Each church determines when to be taken. Wine and bread used (Carroll, 2003). Assuming that taking the sacrament is a divine ceremony intended to commemorate the atonement, plus our commitment to renew our Christian covenants, Baptists would lack the authority to preside over a sacramental ceremony. Alternatively, reading the bible would be a substitute for being authorized to administer the sacrament. [0p]

Christ’s Atonement Christ atoned for our personal sins and for original sin. He opened the door through which we, by our faith, obtain everlasting life (Hammett, 2019). Having confidence that entrepreneurs would obtain everlasting life would be a tremendous source of power to act entrepreneurially. [+1d]

Man’s Resurrection Not literal of the body; distinct identity; and personality will always exist. We must look by faith to the future as we have no certain doctrine of such (Carroll, 2003). It is surprising that Baptists argue that the canon of scripture is complete while claiming that their eternal destiny is unknown. Why would a loving God create such a conundrum? Knowing man’s eternal destiny, after the resurrection, could serve as a guide to acting entrepreneurially. However, not knowing what will happen next would decrease our willingness to become entrepreneurial. [-1p]

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Life After Death Believe in, with degrees of exaltation according to merit, with possible opportunity of advancement (many believe in a fixity of character, unchanged after death) (Hammett, 2019). This doctrine offers more hope that acting entrepreneurially would be possible. However, the incompleteness of the doctrine diminishes its potential motivation. There is no guarantee that entrepreneurial achievement would offer eternal possibilities. [0d]

Vicarious Salvation for the Dead Do not believe we can help those who have died, neither believer nor nonbeliever in Christ (Hammett, 2019). This doctrine creates a hopelessness, suggesting that either Christ has abandoned the dead or that He does not care about them, which means that in the game of life that there are winners and losers, which is not a hopeful message for entrepreneurial risk taking. [-1p]

Status of Non-Believers Those who reject Christ involve themselves in a state of eternal condemnation. Any future opportunity is outside our knowledge (Carroll, 2003). The good news is that this doctrine implies that there is hope in Christ for believers. However, apparently Christ is a respecter of persons who cares more about some of us than others. Others could claim that His covenant path is available to all who believe. In summary, salvation is conditional. [0d]

Miracles Miracles were wrought anciently but not of the same nature since the time of Christ (Taylor, 1932). This doctrine is a disappointment. Do we not need the same faith promoting experiences in our day? Entrepreneurs understand that sometimes their success seems miraculous because the odds are against them; nevertheless, in our day entrepreneurs are out of luck. [-1p]

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Satan A spiritual being seeking the overthrow of all good. Is the personal head of all evil (Carroll, 2003). Clearly, Satan represents opposition, both for Christ and for all believers in Him. Again, this is not an optimistic message for entrepreneurs. [-1d]

Heaven and Hell Heaven—with the presence of God. Hell—without the presence of God. When final judgment is passed, the separation will take place, thus fixing our final state (Mullins, 1913). Whether in heaven or hell, entrepreneurs need buyers and this doctrine implied that there will be some of them in both heaven and hell. So, this is partial good news. The fact that there seem to be preordained aspects to heaven and hell suggests that many will fail to reach heaven, eventually resulting in damnation that will stop entrepreneurial progress. [0p]

Church Necessary for Salvation It is only necessary to accept Christ through grace to be saved. All good will be rewarded. A church of itself is a help but has no saving power (Mullins, 1913). Thus, the answer is that church is not necessary for salvation (Carroll, 2003), but if that is the case where would God’s authorized representative be found? Does this mean that all roads lead to Rome or that regardless of our actions that we will be saved? It is conceivable that this could be true if after all that we do, we are merely saved by grace. Entrepreneurs understand that this is not the way that things work in life or business. To receive a benefit, a payment must be exchanged. An exception could be the atonement but if it were the exception, who would authorize the exception? Regardless of the interpretation, believers are left to grapple with a mass of confusion. [-1p]

Divine Revelation Believe in ancient revelation through prophets, but not in modern or future prophecy because all that has been deemed necessary has been given (Mullins, 1913). Entrepreneurs hate uncertainty when the probability distribution of future events is unknown. As claimed, why would

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revelation have ceased? Is it because God has lost the power? Or is it because our civilization has grown so complex that we no longer need it? The responses to both questions seem preposterous. We need continuing revelations today and so do entrepreneurs. [-1p]

Marriage For this life only. It is only speculation as to any marriage or family relationship after death. Do not believe in such (Hammett, 2019). If marriage is only speculation, why is it necessary to disbelieve it? Can we agree that having a family would incentivize an entrepreneur to work harder? Can we also agree that not having a family would provide less incentive to work harder? Even if this doctrine does not require belief, wouldn’t we want to hope that marriage would still be effective to motivate us to work through the difficulties? [0p]

Purpose of life To seek to know and do God’s will. This is the beginning of a life of eternal progression (Taylor, 1932). Eternal progression could be one eventual benefit of entrepreneurship. The possibilities are endless. [+1d]

Christ’s Second Coming Christ will again return to earth in person as is believed He ascended (Hammett, 2019). This is a most hopeful message. [+1d]

Summary of the Impact of Baptist Doctrine on Entrepreneurship The overall impact of the doctrines of the Baptists on entrepreneurship is minus four, which is a result of totaling the twenty-two individual scores. In addition, the beliefs were 7 for doctrine and 16 for philosophy. The rationale for the score is provided as part of the evaluation of each doctrine. Individually, it would be possible to craft a promising entrepreneurial way forward by avoiding some of the predicted negative outcomes and uncertainty inherent in some Baptist doctrines. Of course, that would not be likely if one did not have access in advance to how the doctrines should be leveraged. Naturally, a caveat to this cumulative

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assessment is that different raters could develop different and more positive individual assessments, which they are welcome to do. Meanwhile, they can refer to the scores provided here as a reference point for both Baptists and those of other religions.

References Carroll, B. (2003). Baptists and Their Doctrines. Compiled by Cranfill, J. Ages http://nashpublications.com//wp-content/uploads/2013/10/ Software. Baptist_History/Old_Baptist_Books/Baptists-and-Their-Doctrines-BHCarr oll.pdf Hammett, J. (2019). Biblical Foundations for Baptist Churches: A Contemporary Ecclesiology. Kregel Publications. Mullins, E. (1913). Baptists Beliefs. Baptist World Publishing Co. Taylor, H. (1932). Why I Am a Baptist. Southern Baptist Theological Seminary Library.

CHAPTER 8

Christian Scientist Doctrine and Entrepreneurship

In 1990, there were estimated to be 106,000 members of the Church of Christ, Scientists, in the United States and fewer than 50,000 in 2009. Worldwide, there were 400,000 members in 2008. It is a small but influential denomination beyond its members, largely through publishing the Christian Science Monitor as well as the prevalence of its reading rooms. Here are its beliefs.

God Views God as being purposeful and omnipotent. Acknowledges and adores one supreme and infinite God and acknowledges His Son, one Christ; the Holy Ghost or divine Comforter; and man is in God’s image (Eddy, 2023). Uses the term, Father-Mother God. Views God, not as a person, but “all-in-all.” Jesus was divine and atoned for our sins so that we could be resurrected. Compared with the image that emerged from the Council of Nicaea, the Christian Science depiction is more complete and even addresses the potential maleness and femaleness of deity. This God has human attributes with which entrepreneurs can identify more easily, which would make this God more relatable to human and entrepreneurial challenges. [+1d]

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Holy Trinity Its theology is non-Trinitarian. Views churches that accept the Trinity as being polytheistic. Jesus was a Christian Scientist and a “way shower” between God and mankind. Being non-Trinitarian could facilitate being a “way shower” and certainly makes this God one with human attributes with whom one could more easily relate (Eddy, 2023). It is conceivable that part of being a “way shower” would be to explain how to be an entrepreneur. [+1d]

Holy Ghost Stresses the role of the spirit in understanding the world and in healing. The Holy Ghost is the purveyor and source of Christian health (Eddy, 2023). As a spirit of understanding this view of the Holy Ghost could facilitate entrepreneurship. As a purveyor of health, it could provide an unexpected health benefit to give entrepreneurs the endurance to persevere. [+1d]

Holy Bible Does not accept the inerrancy of the Bible. For example, it points out that the idea that God created matter is a major fallacy and leads to the conclusion that God is responsible for all suffering and that salvation involves the resurrection of the flesh. Nevertheless, they “accept the inspired word of the bible as their sufficient guide to eternal life.” Also, the views of its founder, Mary Baker Eddy, on science and health were a challenge to the Bible. This analysis is agnostic regarding specific doctrines and considers the Bible as a decision support tool for entrepreneurship rather than as an inspired document per se. It also acknowledges Mary Baker Eddy as potentially a triangulating expert to witness for the Bible (Foster, 1934). [+2d]

Pre-Existence of Man Because God did not create matter, it leaves open the possibility that mankind had a pre-existence prior to birth. Accepts the Genesis narrative of creation but rejects everything in Genesis thereafter as false and materialistic (Foster, 1934). Again, this analysis is agnostic regarding

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specific doctrines and takes them from the perspective of the believers. For example, the possibility of having a pre-earth life more firmly establishes humans with an eternal destiny that could include entrepreneurship. Because God would have facilitated mankind’s passage into mortality, we can be assured that human existence was not an accident, and in fact is part of God’s plan for us, which clearly includes agency to make our own choices. [+2p]

Ecclesiastical Authority Derives its authority from both science and faith, largely based on biblical teaching (Carter, 2021). It does not claim to have doctrines; rather Mary Baker Eddy posited six tenants (Eddy, 2023). Surprisingly, it does not trace its authority back to Mary Baker Eddy who they could have claimed being their prophetess. Drawing on science, the religion is logical positivist. Drawing on the Bible, it claims a doctrinal lineage back to prophets in the Bible, although it views errors in the Bible as likely. Their doctrine on authority is characteristic of a scientific approach which they validate in their teachings, including in the Christian Science Monitor and in their reading rooms. [+2p]

Baptism A lay Church that performs no baptisms. It performs no baptism because it apparently thinks as a lay church that it lacks the authority (Carter, 2021). Credit its doctrinal modesty at the expense of the strength that entrepreneurs could borrow if it were so endowed. [-1p]

Virgin Birth, Immaculate Conception Refers to God as “she,” but God is mostly represented by synonyms “Mind, Spirit, Soul, Principle, Life, Truth, Love” (Eddy, 2023). What other religion refers to God as a she? Why the sudden vagueness, which could be clarified by referring to the prophets in the Bible? To whom would Christian Scientists pray? From whom could entrepreneurs draw strength? [-1p]

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Did Christ Organize a Church? It has a non-professional, lay ministry, which has not succeeded in avoiding the decline in its membership. Christ did not personally organize a Church (Carter, 2021). Evidence that membership is declining suggests that something could be missing from its doctrine, in one way, perhaps as it pertains to equipping its members to be entrepreneurial. [0p].

Lord’s Supper This sacrament is not administered (Eddy, 2023). This could be classified as a missed opportunity regardless of the reason for its omission. Rituals build renewal and confidence, which adherents could use to build entrepreneurial confidence. [-1p]

Christ’s Atonement It was not a sacrifice for sins, which would have been a bribing of God through offerings. It was an at-one-ment with God (Eddy, 2023). This is a very unusual Christian doctrine, which may be unique to them. How do they reconcile with God and find peace through overcoming their sin? It is not clear how they would clear their conscious and be freed to succeed as entrepreneurs. [-1p]

Man’s Resurrection There is no doctrine of the soul (Foster, 1934). This means that Christian Scientists are on their own to succeed entrepreneurially. What would be the purpose of an atonement? What would be the purpose of repenting? What would be the purpose of striving if we do not have an eternal soul to capture the improvements? [-1p]

Life After Death Teachings about life after death are vague. Of course, there would be no life after death without a soul (Foster, 1934). If we are barreling full speed ahead into the unknown, or into nothingness, one would naturally become less energetic to enjoy the view. However, there would be no eternal reason to be an entrepreneur. [-1p]

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Vicarious Work for Dead Not done (Foster, 1934). Without belief in a soul, there would be no ancestors to rescue from the ravages of death, which would be a sad way to end a meaningless existence, and certainly without any interest in entrepreneurship. [-1p]

Status of Non-Believers Derives authority from science and faith, so the consequences for nonbelievers are not artificially harsh (Foster, 1934). Resisting artificial rewards and punishments could lend credibility to a scientific approach, but it does nothing to strengthen the faith of believers. Nor probably does it provide believers with spiritual insights. [0p]

Miracles Healing miracles are an emphasis for today, in addition to those found in the Holy Bible. Everything is explicable (Carter, 2021; Foster, 1934). Believes that medical treatment is therapeutic nihilism. It is ironic that the religion focused on science would allow for unexplained natural occurrences when everything is supposed to be explicable. This does not seem to comport well with entrepreneurship. [0p]

Satan He exists, but the focus is more on man’s lack of faith and ignorance (Carter, 2021). In other words, he may sometimes cause bad things to happen, but we ought to focus on what we can do ourselves through science and faith. [0d]

Heaven and Hell There is no hell and heaven is not delayed to another time (Eddy, 2023). This doctrine implies that we can create our own heaven on earth, which could be an immediate reward for entrepreneurship. [+1d]

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Church Necessary for Salvation? The Church was lost through drift, but its founder, Mary Baker Eddy, has given it back to believers. This tenant does not directly address the question but makes it irrelevant. We are free to become entrepreneurs. [0p].

Divine Revelation Again, everything is explicable (Carter, 2021), meaning that in the face of science there is not much that can be considered miraculous, including entrepreneurship. [0p]

Marriage Is favored and practiced, but for time only. This doctrine emphasizes the temporal and temporary nature of life (Talbot, 2017). If marriage cannot continue, why should entrepreneurship? [-1p]

Purpose of Life Its purpose is to live by faith while using scientific reasoning to live the best possible life (Eddy, 2023). One could say that individuals are the center of their lives and they do not live to serve others. This would not need to obstruct entrepreneurship. [0d]

Christ’s Second Coming Founder taught that Christian Science was a type of Second Coming (Carter, 2021). This is another odd doctrine that makes it seem more like a philosophy for living than a religion, yet it also accommodates the exercise of faith. [0p]

Summary of the Impact of Christian Science Doctrine on Entrepreneurship The overall impact of the doctrines of the Christian Scientists on entrepreneurship is plus two, which is a result of totaling the twentytwo individual scores. In addition, the beliefs were 7 for doctrine and

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16 for philosophy. The rationale for the score is provided as part of the evaluation of each doctrine. Theologically, the beliefs were quite supportive of entrepreneurship, but some of their views of itself as a body of Christ reduced its impact. As much as it attempts to have an impact on the world through its news gathering and reporting, it does not mix easily with Christianity as a modern religion. However, this denomination incorporates many precepts into its doctrine that would advance entrepreneurship.

References Carter, J. (2021). 9 Things You Should Know about ‘Christian Science.’ https:// www.thegospelcoalition.org/article/christian-science/ Eddy, M. (2023). Science and Health with Key to The Scriptures. Christian Science. https://www.christianscience.com/the-christian-science-pastor/ science-and-health Foster, M. (1934). The Christian Doctrine of Creation and The Rise of Modern Natural Science. Mind, 43(172), 446–468. Talbot, L. (2017). Christian Science and the Doctrine of Marriage. Talbot Publications, 2. https://digitalcommons.biola.edu//tal-pub//2

CHAPTER 9

Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saint Doctrine and Entrepreneurship

On December 31, 2020, there were 16,663,663 members, which was an increase of 98,627 members from a year earlier. There are about as many Church members living in Latin America as there are in the United States, which means that the Church is larger internationally than it is domestically. It is among the very few Churches that claim modern revelation as the impetus for its founding, which separates it from Catholic and Protestant denominations. Here are its doctrines:

God God the Eternal Father is a supremely exalted personage, having a tangible immortal body, in whose image we are. His power or influence is omnipresent; therefore, he is omniscient and omnipotent (Pratt, 1886; Smith, 1908). Not only is God all-powerful, but He is also a personal, relatable God who nevertheless rules the universe. He is the type of God in whom an entrepreneur could have complete confidence—in both His wisdom and power. Because He is our Father, we know that He would love us as His children (Mormon, 1981) Regardless of one’s faith, He is one in whom humans would want to trust, which would also be the case for entrepreneurs. [+3d]

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Holy Trinity Three distinct personages: The Eternal Father, His Son Jesus Christ, and the Holy Ghost. These constitute the Godhead and are as one in purpose and action. The Father and the Son have bodies of flesh and bone, although glorified ( Smith, 1908). This understanding is an explicit rejection of the teachings from the Council of Nicaea that preached a three-in-one God, so large that He could fill the universe yet so small that He could dwell in one’s heart. Clearly, it is easier to visualize and have faith in a God with a glorified, physical body than it is to visualize one consisting of a three-in-one spiritual essence, which was adopted to expand the Roman empire on the strength of the growing Christian religion. Feeling greater faith and love, an entrepreneur could assume that launching a new venture would have divine approval. [+3d]

Holy Ghost The third member of the Godhead, a personage of spirit, possesses attributes of Deity; bears witness of the Father and the Son; ministers for the Godhead executing their will (Pratt, 1886). Presumably, the Holy Ghost is spiritual, rather than physical, so that it can dwell in our hearts and less tangibly inspire us. [+1d]

Holy Bible “We believe the Bible to be the word of God as far as it is translated correctly.” It is accorded first place among the Standard Works of this Church (Smith, 1970). It is as important for what is not said as for what is said. Because the Bible is of necessity incomplete, because time marches on, and partially due to likely translation errors, this Church provides continuing revelation through modern apostles and prophets to answer mankind’s questions. Regardless of whether someone else would accept the Church’s interpretations, it is rationally comforting that they are available. [+2d]

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Pre-Existence of Man We lived as unembodied spirits, children of the Eternal Father. In mortality the spirit is united with a body of earthly substance. The spirit is immortal (Smith, 1908, 1970). This doctrine suggests that not only does man have an eternal future, but that men and women always existed, implying that who they are individually evolved from who they have always been. This immortality of the soul leads us to believe that man has a purpose that can be directed by individual agency, just the stuff that would animate an aspiring entrepreneur to be proactive and to persevere. Add to our immortality the doctrine that Heavenly Father was the father of our spirits, and we are left to conclude that we are animated by a spark of divinity—much more than would be required to be an effective entrepreneur. [+4d]

Ecclesiastical Authority Apostacy from Church followed apostolic ministry. Priesthood, which is the divine authority to administer, ceased; this was restored by ordination to Joseph Smith (Pratt, 1886; Smith, 1908). This church claims that authority was lost and restored by God to a prophet and that this same authority continues in the church today, authorizing its teachings and contemporary leadership. Although beside the point for specific, individual entrepreneurs, being authorized would reduce institutional uncertainty and lead to more dependable decision-making. [+3d]

Baptism By immersion in water, for remission of sins and entrance into the Church, administered only by authority of priesthood; required of all over 8 years; no infant baptism is essential for salvation (Mormon, 1981). Thinking that one was saved through an authorized baptism could clear the temporal obstacles from one’s path and allow greater focus on entrepreneurship. [+2d]

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Virgin Birth, Immaculate Conception Jesus Christ was born of the Virgin Mary, as the Only Begotten Son of God the Eternal Father in the flesh. “Immaculate Conception” not recognized. This doctrine justifies faith in the Lord Jesus Christ as God’s Son, in fact an embodied, pre-existent member of the Godhead. Also, as God, Jesus was the God of the Old Testament as well as the one who directed the creation of the world. It would be comforting for an entrepreneur to believe that the deity that he worshiped was the creator of the world (McConkie, 1966). [+2d]

Did Christ Organize a Church? Yes. He ordained apostles and other officers. In the primitive Church, there were apostles, pastors, evangelists, bishops, priests, teachers, and deacons (McConkie, 1966). In an authoritatively organized church, an entrepreneur would know who to trust to purvey approved teachings and who to trust to confer approved blessings. Although not directly related to entrepreneurship, this knowledge would remove uncertainty, clearing the way to take more risk and launch more ventures. Increased serenity would provide a solid context for taking risk. [+3d]

Lord’s Supper Administered regularly as a sacred ordinance, the emblems—bread and water—being partaken in remembrance of the broken body and spilt blood of the Redeemer and Savior of mankind (McConkie, 1966). Administering the sacrament requires priesthood authority. The sacrament allows us to renew our baptismal covenants and receive a remission of sins, paving the way, to be ready to launch a venture without the distraction of sin. [+3d]

Christ’s Atonement Assures redemption and resurrection to all, and provides for salvation and exaltation according to worthiness. Christ is the Redeemer and Savior (Pratt, 1886; Smith, 1908). Everything hinges on the veracity of the atonement, including the peace and harmony in which to launch new ventures. [+3d]

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Man’s Resurrection Literal resurrection of all mortals, a resurrection of the just and later resurrection of the unjust. Individual identity persists through unembodied, embodied, and disembodied, and re-embodied states (Smith, 1908). Once again, this is a doctrine that preserves individual identity and accountability, which are two conditions to which entrepreneurs would gravitate on account of wanting to be profitable servants. [+3d]

Life After Death The spirit lives beyond death; every soul will find his place in one of the several degrees provided, of which the principal ones are Celestial, Terrestrial, and Telestial. Life continues (Smith, 1908). Rewards continue. This would be more impactful toward the end of one’s life because it provides a reason for not quitting. One can continue to be entrepreneurial, even into the next life. [+3d]

Vicarious Salvation for the Dead Baptism and other ordinances essential to salvation administered in temples to living for the dead. Agency to accept or reject the vicarious service is assured (Smith, 1908). This work not only serves the dead, but also engages the living, adding both meaning and purpose and a reason to press ahead, entrepreneurially if one desires. [+2d]

Status of Non-Believers Jesus Christ, while disembodied, preached to the disobedient spirits, and missionary labor continues in the spirit world. Eventually every tongue will confess that Jesus is the Christ (McConkie, 1966). This is a doctrine that does not force compliance. Agency is preserved. It is neutral regarding non-believers. [0d]

Miracles Characteristic of operation of the priesthood; confirmatory signs to believers. “We believe in the gift of tongues, prophecy, revelation, visions, healing, interpretation of tongues, etc.” (Smith, 1970). Such signs would

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increase compliance with ordinary rules for success, which could lead to more entrepreneurship. [+2d]

Satan An individual personage not embodied; the fallen Lucifer, in rebellion against God and Christ, seeking to thwart the divine plan of redemption and salvation (McConkie, 1966). He represents an impediment to the extent that he is given free reign. However, protecting the work of the Kingdom is the priesthood of God as possessed by His authorized servants. [0d]

Heaven and Hell Generalized terms, indicating places or states of souls assigned according to righteous or culpably wicked conditions (Smith, 1908). In each there are numerous degrees or grades. Progression beyond death. Continued progression is the key to the viability of entrepreneurship both in this life and in the continuance of life to come. [+3d]

Church Necessary for Salvation? In the sense that ordinances prescribed by the Savior are essential, and authority to administer them is established in the Church. Right living brings a degree of salvation even without Church membership (Talmage, 1929). The Church is a vehicle for showing the way and providing the ordinances of salvation, all of which could lead to the best quality of life and successful entrepreneurship. [+2d]

Divine Revelation Direct revelation is characteristic of the Church. The Eternal Father and Jesus Christ revealed themselves in person to Joseph Smith through whom the Church was reestablished (Pratt, 1886). Revelation reduces uncertainty, especially personal revelation, which entrepreneurs avoid. [+3d]

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Marriage Accept the divine appointment and necessity of marriage, believe in the celestial order of matrimony for time and eternity; family relationship thus established to be of eternal duration (Smith, 1908). This could be very impactful in family businesses. [+2d]

Purpose of Life Earth life is a probationary state, offering opportunities and experiences to prepare for eternal advancement; serves to develop and demonstrate the character of the soul (Smith, 1908). Entrepreneurship offers the option of continual advancement. Our choices matter both in this life and in the life to come. [+3d]

Christ’s Second Coming Jesus Christ will return to earth in the resurrected body in which He ascended. The event will inaugurate the predicted Millennium of peace (Smith, 1908). This is one more step in our eternal progression, which can include entrepreneurship. [+2d]

Summary of the Impact of the Doctrines of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints on Entrepreneurship The overall impact of the doctrines of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints is plus fifty-four, which is a result of totaling the twentytwo individual scores. In addition, the beliefs were 23 for doctrine and 0 for philosophy. The rationale for the score is provided as part of the evaluation of each doctrine. The predicted positive impact of its doctrines on entrepreneurship is orders of magnitude greater than other religions. This does not represent a claim as to their veracity, which becomes a matter of faith for those who investigate its precepts. Nor does it predict that its members will be more successful entrepreneurs because their success would be moderated by their faith and the extent to which they leverage the doctrinal precepts. Nevertheless, one can reasonably expect that it can become a springboard to entrepreneurship for church members.

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References McConkie, B. (1966). Mormon Doctrine (2nd ed.). Bookcraft. Mormon. (1981). The Book of Mormon. (trans. Joseph Smith). Salt Lake City, Utah: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints. Pratt, P. (1886). Voice of Warning and Instruction to All People or an Introduction to the Faith and Doctrine of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints. The Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints. Smith, J. (1908). The Doctrine and Covenants of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints. The Deseret News, Printers and Publishers. Smith, J. F. (1970). Teaching of the Prophet Joseph Smith. (Arranged by Joseph Fielding Smith). Deseret Book Company. Talmage, J. (1929). The Articles of Faith (11th Edition in English). The Deseret News.

CHAPTER 10

Congregational Christian Churches

The Congregational Christian Churches were a Protestant denomination that operated in the United States from 1931 through 1957. On the latter date, most of its churches joined the Evangelical and Reformed Church in a merger to become the United Church of Christ. As of 2020, there are 802,356 members in the United Church of Christ. Here are its doctrines:

God Believes in the Triune God: Creator, Christ, and the Holy Ghost. Jesus Christ is recognized as fully human and fully God, Son of the Creator, Savior, and Head of the Church (Merkel, 2013). A triune god employs the three-in-one interpretation from the Council of Nicaea, yet this doctrine seems to emphasize the separate identities of the Godhead, which would make Him more personal and relatable to entrepreneurs, although this is not specified. [+1p]

Holy Trinity Sets itself apart from Christian denominations with its emphasis on the belief that God still speaks to his followers today. New light and understanding are constantly being revealed through interpretation of the Bible (Nelson, 2001). Yes, it would be unique among followers of the Council © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. O. Fiet, Religious Doctrines and their Influence on Entrepreneurship, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43386-3_10

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of Nicaea to believe that God communicates with believers. Still the triune confusion makes it more difficult for them to envision that God is their father who loves them, all while being omniscient. Using the Bible as a device to evoke revelation is a viable concept for entrepreneurs. [+1d]

Holy Ghost “He bestows his Holy Spirit, creating and renewing the church of Jesus Christ, binding in covenant faithful people of all ages, tongues, and races” (Nelson, 2001). This is an engaged, active interpretation that emphasizes the viability of communication between God and mankind. It is reasonable to assume that this communication could spill over to entrepreneurs attempting to launch a new venture. [+3d]

Holy Bible The Bible is used for inspiration, guidance, and for preaching. Members are not required to believe literally any version of scripture. Nor does the Church require its congregations or members to follow a creed. The only profession necessary is love (FCCRogers.org, 2023). One could argue that for the Congregationalists that the Bible is a book of suggestions, without specified consequences. Perhaps to offset this flexibility, the Holy Ghost would become an essential bridge to communicate God’s will. The flexibility of the Bible’s interpretation for entrepreneurs and others is to tacitly acknowledge that the Bible is only the word of God as far as it is translated correctly. [+1p]

Pre-Existence of Man Not discussed. This is both neutral and a missed opportunity that could be used to motivate entrepreneurs. From a Congregationalist perspective, if they lack the revelation to support such a discussion, they are teaching all that they can teach. [0p]

Ecclesiastical Authority Beliefs account for a wide variety of authoritative diversity. Local needs and traditions usually dictate worship styles and music. While no single liturgy is imposed, worship services typically include a sermon, adoration

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of God, general confession of sins, an assurance of forgiveness, prayer or songs of thanksgiving, and members dedicating themselves to God’s will. All members are equals as the priesthood of believers, and though ordained ministers have special training, they are considered servants. Individuals are free to believe based on their interpretation of God’s will for their lives. Stresses only unity and equality, meaning that there is no discrimination at any time in the Church’s beliefs (Peter, 1960). This church uses a bottom-up model of authority, rather than a top-down, God-to-mankind model. Any bottom-up model is authorized by the joint will of the adherents. A bottom-up model enjoys unspecified benefits, other than unity. It is conceivable that it could develop doctrines only based on majority rule. [0p]

Baptism Congregations conduct baptism during worship services when the community is present. Sprinkling is the usual practice, although some congregations use immersion (Yarnell, 2005). Differences in practice are common among denominations that utilize a bottom-up approach to administration. The obverse would be proclaiming authority from God, as well as the priesthood to authorize its proper administration. If one can baptize as if it all depended on mankind’s prerogative, then one would wonder what God, and especially, Christ who atoned for the sins of mankind would think about such protocols. Still, according to common belief, the method of baptism is not critical. [0p]

Virgin Birth, Immaculate Conception Believe in the virgin birth but not the Immaculate Conception (FCCRogers.org., 2023). The Immaculate Conception is the belief that the Virgin Mary was free from original sin from the moment of her conception whereas the virgin birth is defined as reproduction without fertilization. The Immaculate Conception suggests that Mary would have been perfect, just like her Son, whereas the second means that Jesus could be the son of God, not Joseph. Thus, Congregationalists believe in the divinity of Christ, but not in the perfection of Mary. It is not clear what impact these paired doctrines would have, except that Christ who was divine could be the mediator between God and mankind. [0d]

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Did Christ Organize a Church? His role today is to direct the Holy Spirit to inspire its leaders (Yarnell, 2005). It is not clear whether Church leaders could direct members how to become entrepreneurs. [0p]

Lord’s Supper Communion elements are usually brought to members in their pews (FCCRogers.org., 2023). Presumably, the administration of communion would be directed by inspired Church leaders. [+1d]

Christ’s Atonement God promises to all who trust in the gospel forgiveness of sins and fulness of grace, courage to struggle for justice and peace, the presence of the Holy Spirit in trial and rejoicing, and eternal life in that kingdom that has no end (FCCRogers.org., 2023). Forgiveness of sins would enable entrepreneurs to press forward, not weighed down by guilt, so that they could achieve their venture’s potential. [+3d]

Man’s Resurrection In Jesus Christ, the man of Nazareth, our crucified and risen Savior, you have come to us and shared our common lot, conquering sin and death and reconciling the world to yourself (Armstrong, 2011). One consequence of the atonement would be the joining together of the body and spirit so that mankind could live forever with a resurrected body. To enjoy a resurrected, perfected body would fortify our vision of our eternal potential, which by itself is very entrepreneurial. [+3d]

Life After Death There will be life after death through Christ’s atonement and resurrection (Armstrong, 2011). The entrepreneurial possibilities are endless. [+3d]

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Vicarious Work for Dead There will be life after death through Christ’s atonement and resurrection (Armstrong, 2011). Again, the entrepreneurial possibilities are endless. Plus, everyone has eternal potential. [+3d]

Status of Non-Believers They will have an unknown opportunity to accept Jesus Christ because He seeks in holy love to save all people from aimlessness and sin (Armstrong, 2011). This is an unfinished doctrine in that it does not describe the mechanism that will save all of us. It is only presented as an aspiration. [+1p]

Miracles The resurrection is a miracle (Armstrong, 2011). Yes, everyone would agree. However, most readers will want to know the doctrine that could explain supernatural occurrences. This reaction is a bit unsatisfying. [0p]

Satan Satan is a spirit who opposes God (Yarnell, 2005). Yes, but what is his role and what is the extent of his power? Would he obstruct entrepreneurs, or would they fall outside the scope of his interests? [-1p]

Heaven and Hell Many members do not believe in specific places of reward or punishment but do believe God gives believers eternal life. Sin is “opposition or indifference to the will of God” (Yarnell, 2005). The influence of heaven and hell is undeveloped as far as it is taught, which means that it is rationally doubtful that it could influence entrepreneurial decision-making. Nevertheless, sin is taught that could influence our eternal destination. [0p]

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Church Necessary for Salvation? The Church is necessary for communion. Also, our own spiritual growth, protection, and blessing are all at risk when we are disconnected from the body of Christ. There is no such thing as a lone ranger Christian (Peay, 2009; Peter, 1960). Drawing strength from communion could fortify entrepreneurial resolve. [+1d]

Divine Revelation The Church’s official beliefs call for the Church to be prophetic. Many of the Church’s positions call for the same treatment of people as did other prophets and apostles. (Nelson, 2001; Rausch, 2001). Being prophetic could reduce uncertainty and motivate entrepreneurship. [+1d]

Marriage It is desirable and for time only (Nelson, 2001). This means that it will come to an end. Think of the difference it could make if it were eternal. As life draws to a close, marriage partners would recognize that their marriage would continue into the afterlife. There would be no reason to quit early. If the opposite were true, they would wish to continue serving each other and building their entrepreneurial life together. [0p]

Purpose of Life God promises forgiveness of sins and a fullness of grace, courage in the struggle for justice and peace, the presence of the Holy Ghost in trial and rejoicing, and eternal life in that kingdom which has no end (Peay, 2009). Referring to a kingdom without end raises the possibility that there could be eternal progression within that kingdom. What a beautiful doctrine this could be if this were understood and believed. It could be forever entrepreneurial. [+2d]

Christ’s Second Coming Not mentioned in several versions of its statement of beliefs (Rausch, 2001). What an odd omission given its worship of the Savior, especially since this doctrine was proclaimed by angels. [-1p]

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Summary of the Impact of the Doctrine of the Congregational Christian Churches on Entrepreneurship The overall impact of the doctrines of the Congregational Christian Churches is plus nineteen, which is a result of totaling the twenty-two individual scores. In addition, the beliefs were 11 for doctrine and 12 for philosophy. The rationale for the score is provided as part of the evaluation of each doctrine. The predicted positive impact of its doctrines on entrepreneurship is consequential. This does not represent a claim as to their veracity, which becomes a matter of faith for those who investigate its precepts. Nor does it predict that its members will be more successful entrepreneurs because their success would be moderated by their faith and the extent to which they leverage the doctrinal precepts. Nevertheless, one can reasonably expect that it can become a springboard to entrepreneurship for church members. Unfortunately, its positive impact will be limited by its limited membership.

References Armstrong, M. (2011). Lay Christian Views of Life After Death: A Qualitative Study and Theological Appraisal of the ‘Ordinary Eschatology’ of Some Congregational Christians (Durham Theses), Durham University. Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/3274 FCCRogers.org. (2023). Summary of Congregational Beliefs. https://www.fcc rogers.org/summary-beliefs Merkel, S. (2013). Reawakening the Congregational Campaign for Christ: ‘What Shall We Do?’. International Congregational Journal, 12(1), 41–54. Nelson, D. (2001). In Spirit and Truth: The Holy Spirit and the Interrelation of Doxology and Doctrine with Implications. Peay, S. (2009). Congregationalism in the United States: A Brief Overview. International Congregational Journal, 8(1), 61–69. Peter, P. (1960). The Historical Development of the Church from the Reformation to the Present on the Congregational and Synodical Leve. Presented at the Theologians’ Conference in Thiensville. Rausch. T. (2001). Has the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith Exceeded Its Authority? Theological Studies, 62(2). https://journals.sagepub. com/doi/abs/10.1177/004056390106200406?casa_token=NSeMUnhP9 J8AAAAA%3A64-zdF278TsxyIfPQPGdSDzAXP1i4O0Lv_lPO2hUBuJ_X4c zEw6B4Kar_wIWLpdNp7H4tyvKYQgRuw%26journalCode=tsja Yarnell, M. (2005). Congregational Priesthood and the Inventio or Invention of Authority. Journal of Baptist Theology and Ministry, 3(1), 110–135.

CHAPTER 11

Disciples of Christ Doctrine and Entrepreneurship

Headquartered in Indianapolis, Indiana, there are nearly 700,000 members worldwide. The founders were Thomas and Alexander Campbell and Barton Stone. Thus, its lineage can be traced back to the earlier Campbellites. The Church has no creed and gives its congregations complete autonomy over their doctrine, which complicates this review. Beliefs vary widely from individual church to church, and even among members of a single church.

God Jesus is the Christ, the Son of the living God... Lord and Savior of the world. Belief in Christ as Savior is the only requirement for Salvation (Young, 1904). If nothing is required, nothing should be expected to be the direct result of this doctrine. It is puzzling why Christ would save us and then have no expectation for what we were to accomplish in our lives. One could say that He saved us because he loves us but that raises the question, what were we to be good for? If it was to become entrepreneurs, there is no evident direction for this effect. [0p]

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Holy Trinity Profess God the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit in their confession, and they baptize in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Church members are allowed freedom of opinion on this and other doctrines and are expected to give others that same freedom (Young, 1904). Given that there are no rules or expectations, nothing is required. However, it is extremely curious that a religion that presumably worships Christ has nothing to say about His relationship with God the Father and the Holy Ghost. That is, if an individual member accepts their existence. Even the worship of Christ could be optional, which would reduce the church to be in the same classification as a social organization such as the Kiwanis Club—certainly one that was not focused on Christ. Its members value getting along with each other over understanding and pursuing truth as a body of Christ. [0p]

Holy Ghost Accepting the Holy Ghost is accommodated in their professed understanding of the Trinity, although again, it is not mandatory (Young, 1904). This much flexibility suggests that members are not concerned about the impact of the Holy Ghost on entrepreneurship. [0p]

Holy Bible Consider the Bible to be the inspired Word of God and recognize 66 books in the canon but beliefs vary on the inerrancy of scripture. Individual churches cover the spectrum from fundamentalist to liberal (Lawrence, 1986). Thus, the Bible appears to be one anchor that grounds believers to a common doctrine, despite there being an avoidance of specifying what that common core would be. The surprising part of this fellowship of believers is that they feel any need to associate with each other. One possibility to explain themselves is that they feel loyalty to the founders. There is no discernible influence on one’s propensity to be an entrepreneur. [0p]

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Pre-Existence of Man The Church does not engage in speculative theology (Casey, 1986). The Church may not but humans want to impose meaningful frameworks on their circumstances so that they can place their lives in a context that shows that their lives matter. [0p]

Baptism Baptism is practiced by immersion; however, people who join from other Christian denominations are accepted without the need to be baptized again. Baptism is performed at the age of accountability. It does not practice infant baptism (Garrison, 2015). Although these congregants come together without rules, an exception is baptism which requires awareness of the difference between good and evil. It also requires baptism by immersion, which raises the question of how they settled on immersion. Of course, immersion is the form mentioned in the Bible, so this practice does show some biblical influence. It is possible that this structure reduces some uncertainty as one less concern for entrepreneurs. [+1d]

Virgin Birth, Immaculate Conception Because they believe that Christ is the Son of the Living God, most members believe in the virgin birth while rejecting Immaculate Conception (Tucker & McAllister, 1975). This combination of beliefs is probably the dominant understanding of Christ among Christian believers, meaning that it does not set them apart for the purpose of becoming an entrepreneur. [0d]

Did Christ Organize a Church? Christ called apostles from among his disciples. Views differ as to whether this constituted organizing a Church (Garrison, 2015). A church could provide aspiring entrepreneurs with a platform for action. However, because their disparate beliefs provide them with so little basis for joint action, in this case it would be weak or non-existent. [0p]

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Lord’s Supper The Lord’s Table is the central focus of worship, explaining the use of a chalice as the Church’s official logo. To foster unity, communion is open to all Christians. It practices communion weekly (Lawrence, 1986). The Lord’s Supper is the Church’s most important ritual, and capable of drawing members together in common cause. Regardless of its religious significance, to the extent that it could increase communication and bonding among church members, it would also foster entrepreneurial networking. [+1p]

Christ’s Atonement Jesus Christ is the Lord and Savior of the world who effectuated an atonement (Lawrence, 1986). This is the central fact in their religion, and all other doctrines are appendages to it, even though they are not required to agree on their peripheral significance. Overarching all the rest, the atonement binds them together and it is of such central importance that it not only can save them collectively, but individually. In fact, the peace that the atonement could bring to aspiring entrepreneurs is so powerful that it could enable them to overcome other uncertainties in their lives. [+2d]

Man’s Resurrection They believe in resurrection, but opinions differ regarding status after the resurrection (Gaines, 1905). This is an incomplete doctrine, which is disappointing after the support shown for the atonement. What was the purpose of the atonement if they are uncertain about being resurrected? Otherwise, death stands in the way of an entrepreneurial future extending beyond death. [-1p]

Life After Death There will be life after death, but unsure of the status (Young, 1904). This is the same as saying that there is something out there, but we do not know whether it is a threat or an opportunity. It could just as easily raise concerns as bring peace, which would be an impediment to entrepreneurship. [-1p]

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Vicarious Work for Dead Not allowed (Lawrence, 1986). This is quite definitive. However, unless God loves some of his children more than others—the ones who could be baptized—He must provide a way for all His children, regardless of the circumstances in which they were born, to receive their eventual reward for faithfulness. Not providing such an equilibrating mechanism simply seems unfair. Because the system is unfair, why should entrepreneurs not cheat to get ahead? [-1p]

Status of Non-Believers The ministry of believers extends to all members of the Christian Church. Although the denomination has ordained clergy, lay people play key roles in the Church. Members are allowed to think whatever they will about the status of non-believers (Casey, 1986). It is fair to ask if one can believe whatever he or she wishes, what is the unique role of this denomination? It seems to place itself on the same level with all other denominations, which raises the question as to why it should exist separately or at all. Certainly, its role as a motivator and facilitator of entrepreneurship is questionable. [0p]

Miracles They occurred in the meridian of times and occur also in our time (Young, 1904). Any aspiring entrepreneur would be pleased if a miracle could make his or her venture successful. This church is in the minority that believe in latter-day miracles. [+1d]

Satan There is the devil, but he is not emphasized (Young, 1904). The impact of this doctrine is unclear. [0p]

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Heaven and Hell Views on heaven and hell among the Disciples of Christ range from believing in literal places, to trusting in God to provide eternal justice. The Church itself does not engage in speculative theology and lets its individual members decide for themselves (Young, 1904). There not being a canonized doctrine regarding our eternal reward; it is unclear what impact heaven and hell would have on entrepreneurial intentions. [0p]

Divine Revelation Occurred anciently. Today, members are allowed to believe what they wish to create and sustain unity (Lawrence, 1986). The question is unity about what if they do not have a required set of beliefs. This doctrine is as neutral as it can be. [0p]

Marriage An earthly covenant (Lawrence, 1986). This suggests that it is until death only, which would mean that it would terminate even if the life of the marriage partners were to continue. However, they would continue separately, which for many could take away their motivation to confront entrepreneurial risk. [-1p]

Purpose of Life They view creating unity through cooperation with other faith groups to achieve healing and justice in the world as its primary purpose. They proclaim unity, not uniformity (Young, 1904). This philosophy raises the question, which is more important, the truth about reality or unity? If the faith’s knowledge of reality were false, could that possibly be less important than unity? It still leaves unanswered the question, why would unity be providential if it were based on falsehoods? [-1p]

Christ’s Second Coming Different views are allowed (Young, 1904). The result is that it cannot have a predictable effect. [0p]

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Summary of the Impact of the Doctrines of the Disciples of Christ Church on Entrepreneurship The overall impact of the doctrines of the Disciples of Christ is zero, which is a result of totaling the twenty-two individual scores. In addition, the beliefs were 4 for doctrine and 19 for philosophy. The rationale for the score is provided as part of the evaluation of each doctrine. The predicted neutral impact of its doctrines on entrepreneurship is not surprising due to its non-binding nature. The Church has no creed and gives its congregations complete autonomy over their doctrine. Beliefs vary widely from individual church to church, and even among members of a single church. Thus, it is possible that an individual church’s doctrine could have a stronger or weaker influence on a person’s propensity to act entrepreneurially.

References Casey, M. (1986). The Development of Necessary of Inference in the Hermeneutics of the Disciples of Christ/Churches of Christ. University of Pittsburgh. Gaines, E. (1905). The Disciples of Christ. Baker & Taylor. Garrison, W. (2015). An American Religious Movement: A Brief History of the Disciples of Christ. Christian Board of Publication. Lawrence, K. (1986). Classic Themes of Disciples Theology: Rethinking the Traditional Affirmations of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ). Texas Christian University. Tucker, W., & McAllister, L. (1975). Journey in Faith: A History of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ). Chalice Press. Young, C. (1904). Christian Union: Epoch-making Statements by Leaders among the Disciples of Christ for the Restoration of Christianity of the New Testament-Its Doctrines, Its Ordinances, and Its Fruits. Christian Century Company.

CHAPTER 12

Eastern Orthodox Doctrine and Entrepreneurship

The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest after the Roman Catholic Church and is estimated to have 220 million members, although these numbers may be inflated in countries like Greece and Russia where participation is reported to be near 98 percent. Here are its doctrines and their expected influence on entrepreneurship:

God God is a spiritual personal substance and as an infinite Spirit He is everywhere at the same time. Same unchangeable substance from beginning (Cunningham & Theokritoff, 2008). This denomination traces its understanding of God directly from the ruminations of the Council of Nicaea. Nonetheless, it has not hindered its growth, even if it were largely driven by the population growth of its membership. Because its membership tends to dominate the geographic region where it is located other denominational options are less available. As mentioned previously, the impediment posed by this understanding is that it would be incomprehensible to believers, which becomes troublesome when an aspiring entrepreneur needs individual support. [-1p]

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Holy Trinity Three persons in one and the same spirit-substance—Father, Son, and Holy Ghost; undivided, yet non-confused and equal in all (Levshin, 1857). Despite its claim of being non-confused, this is more Nicaean confusion. Normal human beings do not think like this. They would want to know with whom they were conversing if such triune personages could communicate. [-1p]

Holy Ghost Is a distinct person of God spirit-substance. Third person of Godhead, which proceeds from God the Father (Nichols, 1999). Missing from this description is his role and purpose, so let’s fill in what is missing. Presumably in his role as a personage of spirit, he dwells in our heart, comforts, and instructs, and bears witness of the other members of the Godhead. He may also answer prayers. The fact that he is a distinct person will probably make it easier for mankind to pray to Him, which could reduce uncertainty for entrepreneurs. [+1p]

Holy Bible The word of God literally interpreted. Contains all revelations to man inspired by Holy Spirit. Church only interprets the scripture (Nichols, 1999). Seems to suggest that the Bible is infallible but if this is true, this doctrine does not explain how the fallible translators of the Bible were able to avoid making errors. Nor does it explain how it could contain all revelations to mankind when their needs continue and change. Still, the Bible is viewed as a standard of truth, which is much better than having no standard. Entrepreneurs would gravitate to the certainty the Bible provides. [+1p]

Pre-Existence of Man God (Holy Trinity) only has pre-existence. Everyone else created on this earth by God, the Father (Spirit)( Cunningham & Theokritoff, 2008). In this case, mankind would not have the same sense of immortality, having a beginning, which could reduce his or her sense of purpose in the pursuit of becoming an entrepreneur. [-1p]

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Ecclesiastical Authority From apostles at time of Christ, and their successors the bishops, such being necessary to officiate. Other Churches can have authority when derived in the same way (canonically). Only Catholics make the same claim (McGuckin, 2011). Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints claim to have received authority from heavenly messengers who possessed it anciently. These are the only known claims to ecclesiastical authority, other than directly from the Bible, which allows these churches to officiate in ordinances like baptism. Such authority would reduce uncertainty for aspiring entrepreneurs. [+1d]

Baptism By immersion (sprinkling in emergency) three times, once each for Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. Accepts baptism of other Churches when so done. Necessary to salvation. Infants baptized (Cassidy, 2012). Although there is flexibility in how it is performed, it is necessary for salvation, yet no known means is provided to allow those to be saved who have not been baptized. Nor is there any explanation of why an infant needs to be baptized assuming he or she is incapable of sin. Thus, it is difficult to reconcile this apparent discrimination by a merciful God, which is unsettling to entrepreneurs who possess limited understanding of God’s Plan. [-1p]

Virgin Birth, Immaculate Conception God’s spirit operating through Mary, and Mary remaining virgin. Mary was freed from original sin from time of Annunciation by the Angel. A virgin birth (Ware, 1993). Mary is provided a special status as the mother of Jesus. It is not clear why this would be essential, although it is not logically inconsistent with His role as the Redeemer of the World. This doctrine could increase the faith of entrepreneurs and their willingness to act. [+2d]

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Did Christ Organize a Church? Christ established the Church through His Apostles. All people are members of the Church of Christ, who have a true conception of Christ in their hearts and have been canonically baptized (Ware, 1993). However, being a member of the Church is not sufficient to be saved from sinning—one must be baptized, but only some are fortunate enough to be baptized. This doctrine acknowledges God’s role but denies that all people will be blessed by it, which raises concerns about Christ caring more for some people than others. [-1p]

Lord’s Supper We believe in the transubstantiation of the elements of the Lord’s Supper. All partake, who are worthy. Given as true Body and Blood of Christ, in form of sop (Ware, 1993). Regardless of the delivery mode, believers accept its efficacy, which should allow them relief and forgiveness from sin. Anything that allows entrepreneurs to think more clearly ought to increase their entrepreneurial proclivity. [+1d]

Christ’s Atonement For our personal sins and for original sin. All are benefitted who believe correctly and do good works. The individual must have confession (McGuckin, 2011). The atonement provides believers who do good works to receive a remission of their sins—they would be clean to receive all the blessings to which they would be entitled. In fact, they would know that they were on the Lord’s side, which would be a boost to their entrepreneurial ambitions, assuming that being an entrepreneur were still important to them. [+2d]

Man’s Resurrection Our resurrected bodies will be like that of our Lord’s after His resurrection—incorruptible and eternal. Believe we will recognize each other—no definite doctrine (Nichols, 1999). This is a wonderful outlook because it makes it possible that we could continue living together in the same way that we do now. This would mean that we could have the same incentives in the next life that we have now. If we were an entrepreneur, we could

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still wish to be an entrepreneur. Of course, our views could change but it is likely that we would have the option. Believing that our lives would continue unabated, could be our lives’ greatest incentive. [+3d]

Life After Death Three states—Hell, Paradise, and Intermediate. After judgment, only Hell and Paradise. Intermediate state for those who repent and have no good works. These are benefitted by prayers (Cunningham & Theokritoff, 2008). Prayers would be a form of vicarious work for the dead, which provides a merciful avenue to continue progression, which again could benefit entrepreneurship. [+1d]

Vicarious Salvation for the Dead Prescribes prayers for salvation of dead. Cannot help those who did not repent in this life (Cassidy, 2012). This would be limited to those who have been obedient but not diligent in this life. Moreover, prayer would only help those without good works. This avenue is not as appealing because the lazy lose control of their own destiny. [0d]

State of Non-Believers We believe in the condemnation of all non-believers in Christ (Nichols, 1999). Given that He is the Savior, He has the right to set the terms of our redemption, and because none of us is perfect, we could be condemned without His intercession. However, it is doubtful that a merciful, perfect God would abandon us to our worst instincts. Consequently, this doctrine seems incomplete, meaning that it could help the faithful to become entrepreneurs while leaving the rest to struggle on their own. [0d]

Miracles We believe in true miracles as recorded in the Bible; also, in present-day miracles (Cassidy, 2012). It is refreshing to see a religion boldly proclaim its faith that God still has the power to perform miracles. Miracles could prepare the way for entrepreneurs or reward them for their focused and productive efforts. [+2d]

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Satan A rebellious spirit, castigated for his revolution against the Supreme power. He became an angel of darkness (Levshin, 1857). That said, he cannot be an impediment for long because Christ and His Father will prevail. [-1d]

Heaven and Hell Two separate and distinct places, one for the good, the other for the bad, as we are judged by God (Levshin, 1857). The difficulty with these destinations in motivating faithfulness today is that they do not provide for fine gradations in behavior. One is judged either good and commendable for being rewarded or faithless and worthy of being condemned. Real people are likely to be a mixture of faithfulness and a failure to live the gospel, which heaven, and hell as the only destinations cannot appropriately reward. Thus, there is likely to be some slippage in the rewards realized. When the rewards do not match the choices, many people could think that they were both unfair and ineffective. Thus, the concept of heaven and hell would not incentivize entrepreneurship. [-1d]

Church Necessary for Salvation? It is necessary to join the true Church and live in it, which is the Eastern Orthodox (McGuckin, 2011). The Eastern Orthodox Church has many commendable doctrines, so it is natural that its adherents would think that it was the true Church. Good for them if it helps them to live better lives. The same could be said for members who aspire to be entrepreneurs. Of course, there would be no effect for those who were not members. [+1d]

Divine Revelation Believe in ancient revelations. All truths necessary to salvation have been revealed and are in the Scriptures and Holy Tradition (McGuckin, 2011). It is conceivable that the foundational truths have been revealed, but it seems likely that new developments would require new revelations. The only way that Holy Tradition would contain truth is that if one assumes that it was revealed from God. Otherwise, we would need to assume that tradition was a human creation. [0d]

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Marriage For this life only. There will be no marriage or family relationships in the hereafter (Ware, 1993). In other words, one of the greatest sources of human happiness is going to be out of reach for mankind. That being the case, why strive for what seems most worthwhile. This would have a negative influence on entrepreneurship. [-1p]

Purpose of Life It is to perfect ourselves and make worthy of beatitude in eternal life (Nichols, 1999). It is unclear what “beatitude in eternal life” means but perfecting ourselves is clear. Becoming perfect would mean living like Jesus Christ who Himself was perfect. At that point, godly perfection will likely exceed human understanding, as it relates to entrepreneurship. [0d]

Christ’s Second Coming He will come again as He ascended with body. When He comes there will be no material place, for at the time of His coming, all the world will be changed instantaneously (Cunningham & Theokritoff, 2008). If this means that materiality will disappear, this will have a negative impact on entrepreneurship. [-1d]

Summary of the Impact of Eastern Orthodox Doctrine on Entrepreneurship The overall impact of the doctrines of the Eastern Orthodox Churches (Catholic) is plus six, which is a result of totaling the twenty-two individual scores. In addition, the beliefs were 15 for doctrine and 7 for philosophy. The rationale for the score is provided as part of the evaluation of each doctrine. The predicted positive impact of its doctrines on entrepreneurship is not surprising given the stability of its centuries-long doctrinal development, known within the Church as its Holy Tradition. Right or wrong, church members are not left guessing. Entrepreneurs love certainty because it can be used as a basis for decision-making. Plus, this is a huge, dominant Church in its principal geographic regions. The

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tendency would be for its members to use its doctrines in the same way, both as a church and individually.

References Cassidy, A. (2012). The Orthodox Christian World. Routledge. Cunningham, M., & Theokritoff, E. (2008). The Cambridge Companion to Orthodox Christian Theology. Cambridge University Press. Levshin, G. (1857). The Orthodox Doctrine of the Apostolic Eastern Church or, A Compendium of Christian Theology, translated from the Greek. Whittaker & Co. McGuckin, J. (2011). The Orthodox Church—An Introduction to its History, Doctrine, and Spiritual Culture. Wiley Blackwell. Nichols, A. (1999). Light from the East: Authors and Themes in Orthodox Theology. Sheed & Ward. Ware, T. (1993). The Orthodox Church. Penguin Books.

CHAPTER 13

Episcopalian Doctrine and Entrepreneurship

The Episcopal Church in the United States is part of the worldwide Anglican Communion. It has 1,364,170 communicant members and 1,798,042 active-baptized members. Here are its doctrines. Compare them with those of Catholic Church from which it broke away due to a marriage dispute.

God God is a personal spirit, infinite, transcending and eminent, without form, body, parts, or passions, so that His divinity will not be lost (Methodist Episcopal Church, 1920). Even though the Episcopal Church is protestant, its conception of God is straight from the Council of Nicaea. It is as catholic as if it were originally conceived by Constantine. This is another example that ideas are more important than armies because they are difficult to kill or terminate and can live on from generation to generation. This Nicaean conception corrupts the relationship between God and Man so that the latter forgets how to communicate with God in prayer, which means that He has allowed them to drift apart as was championed by seventeenth century Deists. A Deist believes in a God who created the universe, but then allows it to operate independently, on its own when trying to launch a venture. [−1p]

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Holy Trinity Consists of three persons in one God; a tri-personal individual as God the Father, Creator; God the Son, Redeemer; God the Holy Ghost, Sanctifier, One substance (Methodist Episcopal Church, 1920). More Nicaean confusion. It is disappointing that a church with such a robust protestant history would have its doctrines and understanding of God, watered down by the ancient Nicaeans. This is not good for the Trinity or for entrepreneurship. [−1p]

Holy Ghost The Holy Ghost or Holy Spirit is one of the tri-characters of the one Godsubstance. Proceeds from the Father and Son (Wilmer, 1829). Need I say more about this Nicaean confusion? Ironically, the personage of spirit is the least confusing of the Godhead. [−1p]

Holy Bible The word of God, containing all things necessary for salvation. As scripture contains all God’s revelations to man. No other canonical scriptures (Wilmer, 1829). As with most other Christian denomination, the closing of the canon leaves mankind in the dark, as especially as it pertains to future questions. If anything, entrepreneurs desire to reduce uncertainty, which they are less likely to be able to do with a closed canon. [−1p]

Pre-existence of Man Do not profess any knowledge of a pre-existence of man. Believe that only God lived before His birth at Bethlehem (Wilmer, 1829). Such a doctrine supports God’s omniscience, but diminishes mankind, in some way as descendants from God the Father. Conceivably, He could give us all the knowledge that we need, but when our births are our beginnings, rather than being “trailing clouds of Glory,” we would be less qualified to succeed as entrepreneurs. [−1p]

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Ecclesiastical Authority Comes from the Apostles of Christ. The bishops are their successors. No divine appointment of any ministry. Other churches may have this authority from same source (Holmes, 1993). Because the Episcopalians are an offshoot of the Catholic Church, the former has adopted a modified explanation of its authority. The Catholics claim authority from Peter, whereas the Episcopalians claim authority from the apostles. The only thing that is missing is an explanation of the logical link to the Episcopalians, which of necessity had to skip over the Catholics. There is also the question that if the Catholics had the authority, how were the break-away Episcopalians authorized to rebel against the Catholic pope? Authority matters so that church leaders are authorized to teach and baptize. As mentioned with other denominations, this ecclesiastical authority reduces entrepreneurial uncertainty. [−1p]

Baptism Immersion or pouring, in emergency a Christian may baptize, using words—“In name of the Father, Son and Holy Ghost.” Is necessary to salvation. Infants baptized (Methodist Episcopal Church, 1920). This doctrinal statement does not address the authority needed to baptize. In fact, anyone, it appears, can baptize with words. Nor does it explain why innocent infants need to be baptized. These baptismal issues raise doctrinal uncertainty, which as you know does not help entrepreneurship. [−1p]

Virgin Birth, Immaculate Conception God, to perform the mission of a Christ, was born of the Virgin Mary, thus becoming both God and man in the form of Jesus Christ (Virgin birth only) (Wilmer, 1829). The way He became part human, is less important than that he was able to fulfill His role as the Savior. We do not know much about this topic because its details have not been revealed, so this assumption matters. The most important aspect of this doctrine is that He was able to perform His role as was required. [+1p]

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Did Christ Organize a Church? Yes, and He inspired His Apostles to further organize and extend it. It is in existence today and has been since Christ. The Episcopal Church is part of it (Methodist Episcopal Church, 1920). Episcopalians do not claim a unique relationship with the Savior through the organization of His Church. Instead, they view themselves as part of the larger body of Christ. [0p]

Lord’s Supper An outward sign of bread and wine—an inward reality of Christ’s Body and Blood present. Both species administered to confirmed persons. May be celebrated daily (Wilmer, 1829). Such a daily remembrance could provide powerful support for those delving into unknowable questions about entrepreneurship. [+1p]

Christ’s Atonement Christ atoned for the sins of the world. The original sin is washed away in baptism. Christ’s death redeems us from all sins through faith (Wilmer, 1829). As described the atonement does not appear to be contingent on works or faith. It is a gift for the whole world. One wonders whether its nature as a gift will diminish its perceived worth. It is not clear whether the atonement as taught by the Episcopalians will strengthen its value as a mediator and facilitator of entrepreneurship. [0d]

Man’s Resurrection Believe in the resurrection of the dead. A spiritual body, in continuity with life of the earth, but without identity with the body laid in the grave (Wilmer, 1829). It seems implausible that this difficultto-interpret doctrine on the resurrection will make much difference to aspiring entrepreneurs. [0d]

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Life After Death After death there is an intermediate state, the end of which is the general resurrection. Possible growth in spiritual life after death (Wilmer, 1829). However, its speculative nature diminishes the positive effect that this perception could have on entrepreneurship. [0d]

Vicarious Work for Dead No ordinance for the dead, but we recognize intercessions for the dead as well as the living, as prayer is valuable for all souls (Holmes, 1993). Again, if there is no way to help those who died without accepting Christ, then God must treat His children differently, which seems inconsistent with His perfect nature. If God Himself is inconsistent, how can we pray to such a god and trust the answers to prayers. [0p]

Status of Non-Believers God is not willing that any be lost. In the continued progress and discipline of the intermediate state, which is non scriptural, it is hoped that all will be reconciled to God (Holmes, 1993). This is a hopeful, but ill-defined outcome, certainly not one that would put one at ease. [0p]

Miracles Miracles are demonstrations of the pre-potence of spiritual forces over material conditions. Miracles have never ceased (Methodist Episcopal Church, 1920). This proposition states the obvious but does not allow others the certainty to know that all will be well, either for themselves or for others. Nevertheless, it does prioritize spirituality over materiality, the latter being of preeminent importance to entrepreneurs. [0p]

Satan Is a personal spirit. Also, a physical and moral evil, only understood as they affect persons (Methodist Episcopal Church, 1920). Because he is evil, he cannot be expected to exert a powerful influence for good. [−1d]

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Heaven and Hell Are conditions of life—states of existence. Heaven is where God is. Impossible after death for good and bad to enter the same state (Wilmer, 1829). Because this doctrine is stated with certainty, it defines the outcomes that one can expect from questions of obedience. Entrepreneurs understand that if they are going to earn a reward that most of the time, they are going to comply with the rules for its bestowal. [+1d]

Church Necessary for Salvation? Not necessary to join our church to be saved. Is necessary to join some church, for only so are brought into sacramental relations with Christ (Methodist Episcopal Church, 1920). This is another way of explaining that ecclesiastical authority is necessary for baptism as an ordinance of salvation, but then at the same it dismisses the claim that the authority resides in a single church. It seems that the church is straddling an authority divide, which is confusing. [−1p]

Divine Revelation God’s revelations have come to us through the Church interpreting the Holy Bible. He still reveals Himself through science, discovery, and development of intellectual and spiritual life (Wilmer, 1829). Thus, the Church views revelation as a supplement to other recognized ways of discovering truth. The important point is that it does acknowledge revelation, even if it primarily comes through the Church while interpreting scripture. This restricted portal would make it more difficult to inspire entrepreneurs. [0d]

Marriage For this life only. Church does not hold the doctrine of indissolubility, “until death us do part,” is the formula used (Holmes, 1993). Other churches hold on to this same position regarding marriage. Regardless of the doctrine, the durability of marriage will be what it will be, so it is incumbent on us to consider the state of marriage in the hereafter. Would

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it deepen one’s enjoyment of life and incentivize entrepreneurs and the answer is yes. [−1p]

Purpose of Life To learn righteousness and to glorify God and prepare for eternal fellowship with Him. To bring in the kingdom of God (Holmes, 1993). There may be some types of righteousness that would be inconsistent with entrepreneurship. In the same way, spending time in fellowship with God, would eventually keep us otherwise occupied. [0d]

Christ’s Second Coming Christ will come again to judge the living and dead. Many, however, believe that His coming is only to be found through the growing holiness of Christian people (Methodist Episcopal Church, 1920). This raises the question of whether non-Christians can be holy. Regardless, Christ will be the judge of our holiness, which He is in the process of doing, even before returning to earth. His coming again creates a gauntlet for those wishing continuing spiritual, and eventually, entrepreneurial growth. [0p]

Summary of the Impact of Episcopalian Doctrine on Entrepreneurship The overall impact of the doctrines of the Episcopal Church of England on entrepreneurship is minus nine, which is a result of totaling the twentytwo individual scores. In addition, the beliefs were 7 for doctrine and 16 for philosophy. The rationale for the score is provided as part of the evaluation of each doctrine. The predicted negative impact of its doctrines on entrepreneurship is not surprising given its raucous origins in advocating for the King of England to be able to divorce his wife. Entrepreneurs love certainty because it can be used as a basis for decision-making to promote entrepreneurship. Plus, this is a dominant Church in England where it largely overshadows other churches. The tendency would be for its members to us.

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References Holmes, D. (1993). A Brief History of the Episcopal Church. Trinity Press International. Methodist Episcopal Church. (1920). Doctrines and Discipline of the Methodist Episcopal Church. The Methodist Book Concern. Wilmer, W. (1829). The Episcopal Manual: Being Intended as a Summary Explanation of the Doctrine, Discipline, and Worship, of the Protestant Episcopal Church, as Taught in Her Public Formularies, and the Writings of Her Approved Divines. To Which Are Added, Observations on Family and Public Devotion, and Directions for a Devout and Decent Attendance on Public Worship, with Prayers, Suitable to Several Occasions. E. J. Coale.

CHAPTER 14

Jehovah’s Witnesses’ Doctrine and Entrepreneurship

Founded in 1879 by Charles Taze Russell, there are 8.5 million members worldwide with the largest concentration being in the United States. Also known as Watchtower Society and Watchtower Bible and Tract Society. Here are its beliefs, which turn out to be among the most pessimistic regarding their prospects for entrepreneurship.

God Jesus Christ, the perfect man, had returned invisibly to earth in 1874 and would establish God’s visible kingdom after the Battle of Armageddon in 1914, which certainly could have been confused with the start of World War I. When His return did not occur, the doctrine was changed to Christ’s return commencing in 1914 (J.W.org, 2023). Christ knows when He will return, so any confusion that remains after 1914, would have been caused by others. The failure of this prediction raised doubts about the veracity of other doctrines and predictions, and as well as how they relate to entrepreneurship. [−3p]

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Holy Trinity Rejects the Trinity and the deity of Christ (J.W.org, 2023). Paradoxically, they still believe that He has the power to return in a Second Coming. How? This trinitarian doctrine clearly refers to the Nicaean Triune God. Why it would reject the deity of Christ is unclear and apparently contradictory. The same would be true regarding its impact on entrepreneurship. [−2p]

Holy Ghost The Jehovah’s Witnesses deny the deity, personality, and masculinity of the Holy Spirit. They teach that the “holy spirit” (always lower case) is merely an impersonal force (Chryssides, 2023). This is the only known Christian denomination that does not worship and honor the Holy Ghost as part of the Godhead. What the practical effects of this would be on Christian believers is less clear. Taken by itself, without considering any substitutes, this would have a negative impact on entrepreneurship. [−2p]

Holy Bible Based on an interpretation of the Old Testament, believe that the soul of a person resides in his or her blood—thus they refuse blood transfusions and are conscientious objectors. They believe that hell does not exist and that all condemned souls are annihilated. They hold that only 144,000 people will go to heaven while the rest of saved humanity will live on a restored earth (Holden, 2002). How one avoids annihilation is not specified. They do not celebrate any non-Witness holidays, such as Christmas, Easter, or one’s birthday. These expectations constitute a type of predestination, which would obviate the need for entrepreneurs. Also, capping the number saved is a tremendous disincentive to play the game by the rules. In fact, it is a credit to its leaders that the Church has grown, despite these disincentives. [−2p]

Pre-existence of Man Is unlikely because most souls will be annihilated (Holden, 2002). The logic for this could be that if souls can be annihilated, they were probably not eternal, pre-existent spirits because such would be unlikely to be

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terminated. This is among the most negative Christian interpretations of the doctrine of pre-existence. [−3p]

Ecclesiastical Authority Has 105,000 congregations in 236 countries so this is not a small denomination. Presided over by a small governing body. Christ is not divine, so authority cannot come from Him. The centralized governance is loosely coupled to the congregations, so there really is no attempt to establish a line of authority. Congregations are largely on their own except for the influence of the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society (Holden, 2002). As with other denominations that eschew centralized governance and ecclesiastical authority, this increases the level of doctrinal uncertainty, which would be anathema to entrepreneurship. Moreover, denying that Christ is divine, undermines the basis for a Christian religion. In their view, a spirit replaces the concept of God. [−3p]

Baptism Baptism by immersion is practiced (Stark & Lannaccone, 1997). This practice is a mystery because the efficacy of baptism depends on Christ’s atonement for the remission of sins. Being a perfect man would not have been sufficient to atone for sins. So, why baptize? Again, the level of uncertainty rises thwarting entrepreneurship. [−1p]

Virgin Birth: Immaculate Conception They reject both (Stark & Lannaccone, 1997). This is not surprising if they do not consider Christ to be divine. In this case, perfect is not good enough. These beliefs are a natural extension of their views on deity, which again creates uncertainty about the justice of a powerless “god,” as well as His competence to intercede to benefit entrepreneurs. [−2p]

Did Christ Organize a Church? No (Knox, 2011). That was simple. Nor is it clear what the role of this perfect man would have been if He had organized one. Observers can imagine its leaders dispensing wisdom based on their own views, which could not be divinely inspired. Once again, mankind is left rudderless and

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adrift. This is a serious problem because it is one of the primary ways that entrepreneurs cope with uncertainty. [−2p]

Lord’s Supper Not necessary because Jesus was not the Savior (Knox, 2011). It is disconcerting that a religion that espouses witnessing for Jehovah rejects the divinity of the Savior whereas some other Christian denominations believe that Jehovah was Christ acting as the creator of the Earth. This rejection begs the question, who is the anchor of their souls? If they believe that they have such an anchor they do not elaborate on his purposes or characteristics. Unfortunately, such a rejection could increase the loneliness that an isolated mankind could feel, and it certainly would not have a positive effect on entrepreneurial initiative. [−2p]

Christ’s Atonement Invalid except for the 144,000 (Rhodes, 2009). To the extent that there was a non-divine atonement, it was not universal. It is interesting that most denominations think that He atoned for the sins of all mankind under conditions of repentance, but the Jehovah’s Witnesses think that it only applies to 144,000. Well, that is great for those who are included, but the rest will be annihilated. Nor do we know if the others could earn their way into the saved group by being exemplary in their obedience. Thus, this doctrine creates great uncertainty for most of humanity, including for most entrepreneurs. [−3p]

Man’s Resurrection Only a small number of people (144,000) in human history will be resurrected to live in heaven to rule with Jesus in the eternal kingdom (Rhodes, 2009). Other than the apparently prejudicial outcome, why does Jesus have the right to rule in heaven if He is not divine. These are reasonable questions that entrepreneurs could question. [−3p]

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Life After Death There will be life after death for those who are not annihilated. Most will go to an unknown planet to live unless they (the 144,000) are sent to live with God in Heaven (Montague, 1977). Other dominations have similarly uninviting fates for those who do not repent—oblivion, going to hell, purgatory, so the fact that it will be unpleasant for those who are not judged to be righteous is not unusual. What is rare is that so few will be permitted ex ante to live with God. It is also rare that we know so little about the fates of those who are almost able to return to God. This lack of information is disheartening because much is being required from the faithful. None of this increases the odds of entrepreneurial success. [−2p]

Vicarious Work for Dead None (Montague, 1977). This is hardly surprising when there is similarly less interest in the living. What is one to expect entrepreneurially? Not much. [−1p]

Status of Non-Believers If they are good people, although not good enough to be part of the 144,000, they will be sent to live on an unknown planet. If they fall short, they will be annihilated (Montague, 1977). If an entrepreneur falls short, why worry about entrepreneurial risk when they are going to be annihilated? [−2p]

Miracles The main miracle relates to the salvation of the 144,000 (Penton, 2015). This doctrine manifests a blind spot for most of God’s children. How could this god be perfect with such a perverted, self-centered view of his children? The question of entrepreneurship seems secondary when most of humanity will be deported to an unknown planet or annihilated. [−3p]

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Satan Because Christ is not divine, his having a mortal adversary is not necessary (Montague, 1977). Satan is one more example of how losing sight of the divinity of God’s work among his children perverts everything with which it comes in contact. The universe has been turned upside down and entrepreneurs are left to fend for themselves. [−3p]

Heaven and Hell Only 144,000 have the possibility of going to heaven. Hell is unnecessary because those who do not go to heaven will be annihilated except for those who are sent to dwell on an unknown planet (Montague, 1977; Stark & Lannaccone, 1997). Clearly, this life is the only one according to this doctrine in which mankind would have any control. The logical implication is to live and let live. To hell with what comes next. [−3p]

Church Necessary for Salvation? All Jehovah’s Witnesses have the same responsibility to warn us about the limited number of those who will be saved (Montague, 1977). In contrast, most other churches have a professional ministry or those who are called by others in authority to be ministers. The question is, are they preaching out of devotion or fear? This doctrine diminishes entrepreneurship to the point that it would be a very low priority. [−2p]

Divine Revelation Revelation is not emphasized. It is more important to study the Bible. However, its founders have at times made revelatory pronouncements, for example, in signaling the beginning of the Second Coming (Knox, 2011). Let’s assume that God did reveal His will to mankind. Under this understanding of the relationship between God and mankind, what would be the substance of the communication—hell fire and brimstone to warn them that they were going to be annihilated? It is difficult to understand why God would reveal His will when He already has a plan to annihilate His children. It is macabre. Again, who would care about entrepreneurship? [−3p]

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Marriage Is for this life only. Otherwise, it could be interrupted by the great separation that will occur after the judgment (Chryssides., 2023). And marriage is not the only thing that would be interrupted. Life as we know it is likely to come to an end. That is, concomitantly with when we are annihilated. Horrific! Again, who cares about entrepreneurship. [−3p]

Purpose of Life The main purpose of life is to study the Bible and warn as many people as possible of the imminent end of times (Montague, 1977). In some respects, such a view of life seems like a cult, which is a serious accusation. All people are entitled to be respected for their religious beliefs. However, witnessing is life for Jehovah’s Witnesses. What makes it seem cult like is the way that members are expected to march in lockstep toward their likely annihilation—of course, with no thoughts of entrepreneurship. How is such a purpose meaningful? [−3p]

Christ’s Second Coming He will come again, and has already begun to come, commencing in 1914 (Knox, 2011). Coming must have a different meaning that has nothing to do with transportation because it would not take Christ more than 100 years to come to earth. Clearly, in this conception He must not be God. Otherwise, He could travel instantaneously anywhere in time and space. [−1p]

Summary of the Impact of Jehovah’s Witnesses’ Doctrine on Entrepreneurship The overall impact of the doctrines of the Jehovah’s Witnesses on entrepreneurship is minus fifty-five, which is the result of totaling the twenty-two individual scores. In addition, the beliefs were 22 for doctrine and 0 for philosophy. The rationale for the score is provided as part of the evaluation of each doctrine. This result is quite shocking because religion is noted for aspiring to improve the lives of the faithful. It is safe to say that if someone says that they are a member of a certain religious tradition that one should encourage them to be as faithful to their beliefs

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as possible because it will make them happier while making the world a better place. The doctrines of the Jehovah’s Witnesses put that admonition to the test. There is a hopelessness about the end game of living this religion, at least to non-believers who do not understand what joy there would be in preparing for the annihilation. It seems like a suicide pact. Heaven help us and heaven help entrepreneurship under this belief system.

References Chryssides. G. (2023). Jehovah’s Witnesses. World Religions and Spirituality Project. https://wrldrels.org/2020/10/30/jehovahs-witnesses-2/ Holden, A. (2002). Jehovah’s Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement. Psychology Press. J.W.org. (2023). Jehovah’s Witnesses. https://www.jw.org/en/jehovahs-witnes ses/faq/jehovah-witness-beliefs/ Knox, Z. (2011). Writing Witness History: The Historiography of the Jehovah’s Witnesses and the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. Journal of Religious History, 35(2), 157–180. Montague, H. (1977). The Pessimistic Sect’s Influence on the Mental Health of Its Members: The Case of Jehovah’s Witnesses. Social Compass, 24(1), 135–147. Penton, M. (2015). Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah’s Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. Rhodes, R. (2009). Reasoning from the Scriptures with the Jehovah’s Witnesses. Harvest House Publishers. Stark, R., & Lannaccone, L. (1997). Why the Jehovah’s Witnesses Grow So Rapidly. Journal of Contemporary Religion, 12(2), 133–157.

CHAPTER 15

Lutheran Doctrine and Entrepreneurship

In 2005, the Lutheran Church had 48.4 million adherents worldwide. In the United States, there were 8.21 million, compared with 7.3 million in Sweden where it is the State Church. Its doctrines are of special interest because they were posited by its founder, Martin Luther, who happens to be history’s most published Christian apologist, and who also was the leader of those who broke away during the Protestant reformation. Here are its doctrines.

God God is a spirit who is absolute Personality, eternal, without body, without parts, of incomprehensible shape, of infinite power; omnipresent, omnipotent, omniscient (Gritsch & Jenson, 1976). Lutheranism maintains many of its pre-reformation beliefs from when Martin Luther posted his ninety-five theses on the door of the All-Saints’ Church in Wittenberg, signaling the excommunication from the Catholic Church of his followers for rejecting both tradition and the authority of the Pope. However, even after the separation, Lutherans continued to be influenced by the Council of Nicaea and its belief in a Triune God without body, parts, or passions, in fact one that mixed the Godhead into one incomprehensive miss mash. If Luther were going to reform the Catholic Church, one would have

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thought that he would have started with its Nicaean Creed, which is rationally incomprehensible. Understanding God is essential because otherwise we cannot have faith in Him. Nor would the universe make as much sense, nor an entrepreneur’s role in it. [−2p]

Holy Trinity God is a Trinity—three distinct Persons in one divine essence; Jesus Christ, second Person, being God manifest in the flesh. The Holy Ghost, third Person, through which God is manifested (Hall, 2007). This Nicaean doctrine is the most incomprehensible of all, yet it has persisted, perhaps some claim because it is incomprehensibly beautiful. This is a pre-modern interpretation. In fact, most of this view devolved from the Nicaean Creed. As stated, this doctrine assumes that God manifests Himself through the incomprehensible Holy Trinity. If God cannot be understood, then he would be less approachable and more of an obstacle to approaching him for help with entrepreneurship. [−2p]

Holy Ghost Third Person of the divine essence proceeding from both the Father and the Son; co-essential and co-eternal (Lochmah, 1818). This doctrine extends the incomprehensible nature of the Holy Trinity with a similar impact on entrepreneurship. [−2p]

Holy Bible Is essentially and literally the word of God and the only rule for faith and practice. As scripture, it contains the whole of God’s teachings for man’s salvation (Wohirabe, 1987). Let’s agree that God is omniscient but that we are still learning. Although God would know everything that we do not understand, we would probably not be prepared to receive what we do not already understand ourselves. As we encounter new events in life, they could trigger the need to learn more. This would be more difficult if our only source of truth was learning from a static source such as the infallible word in the Bible. A simple solution to the conundrum would be learning and being taught in the same way that God communicated anciently. That is, through apostles and prophets. Of course, there is a problem because Lutherans accept ancient prophets, but not modern

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ones. Plus, they teach from a Bible that is static and incapable of accommodating new questions. Thus, the Bible does not guarantee that it will be able to address all questions that entrepreneurs could raise as they attempt to commercialize new opportunities. [−1p]

Pre-existence of Man Do not believe in the pre-existence of man (Sullivan, 2004). Lutherans are not the only denomination that denies the pre-existence of the soul. When a baby is born, where does it come from? Does it suddenly spring into existence? Well, if it did, it could focus on its future and not its past. However, what if the baby came “trailing clouds of glory” (Davis, 1955) with a heroic past, from which it was totally disconnected? The baby would lose touch with his or her past and the potential strength that could be drawn from it. Understanding a baby’s past, could help him or her to gain the confidence to extend those “trailing clouds of glory” into the future. Entrepreneurs could benefit from a little confirmation bias to strengthen their resolve to take on entrepreneurial opportunities. [−1p]

Ecclesiastical Authority Holy Scripture alone is the source of divine authority. In a sense, all who exercise such in accordance with the will of God, as revealed in His Word, have divine authority (Shoenberger, 1977). In the New Testament, Jesus, and His authorized apostles, called followers and set them apart for a new responsibility through prayer and the laying on of hands by those who already had the authority. They did not self-appoint themselves after reading a scripture because a static book is not self-correcting if a disciple were to interpret it incorrectly. Nor did Christ leave His Church leaderless. Instead, He staffed it with different callings, plus a quorum of twelve apostles who were authorized to approve those who were to be set apart using prayer and the laying on of hands. Without living leaders, entrepreneurs could try to interpret the scriptures, which would not be as helpful. [0p]

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Baptism Sprinkling, pouring, or immersion, baptisms of other churches accepted when Bible conditions have been fulfilled. Infants baptized. It is necessary for salvation, except in rare cases (Vainio, 2008). Luther started the reformation because he had many concerns with the Catholic Church, which were largely based on the practice of paying indulgences for the remission of sins, as well as his interpretation of being saved by grace, after all that we can do. Being saved by such unearned grace is evident in the many different modes of baptism that are acceptable. This contrasts with the Apostle John (3:6) who said “...Except a man be born of the water and of the Spirit, he cannot enter the kingdom of God.” These changes are representative of the fact that Luther’s original protest seems to have splintered, even regarding a central doctrine, such as baptism. It is fair to ask if the Church is being led by inspiration, why is the direction that it provides so contingently diverse? One explanation could be that Christ does not care about us but based on His suffering in the Garden of Gethsemane and Calgary, that would be blasphemous. Of course, Christ is Christ, and we are part of mankind, so the real explanation is subject to interpretation. Regarding entrepreneurship, Lutherans provide for a lot of contingencies, which create that “hated” uncertainty for entrepreneurs. [−2p]

Virgin Birth, Immaculate Conception Christ was conceived by the Holy Ghost and born of the Virgin Mary. Do not believe in Immaculate Conception (Biermann, 2014). It is more important that Christ was divine than it was that Mary was clean and perfect. She was not required to atone for our sins. Denial of her perfection does not address her perfectibility. [+1d]

Did Christ Organize a Church? Christ did not organize the Church as such. Organization came later in the development of the Church. We believe the Lutheran Church most nearly approaches the ideal of Christ (Lochmah, 1818). Having a single, true church could help entrepreneurs because it would provide a single point of contact to learn God’s will. [+1p]

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Lord’s Supper “In, with and under the bread and wine, we receive the body and blood of Christ” (body and blood of Christ are truly present) allowing the communicants to eat and drink for the remission of sins (Gritsch & Jenson, 1976). Being able to receive a remission of sins could help entrepreneurs to focus on being entrepreneurs. [+1d]

Christ’s Atonement Christ by his innocent suffering and death upon the cross made complete satisfaction for all our sins and carried all our guilt (Vainio, 2008). He reconciled us to God and purged our sins. Such redemption could likewise help entrepreneurs to focus on being entrepreneurs. [+1]

Man’s Resurrection Same body and soul as we have here will be reunited in a literal resurrection. We will be perfectly pure and righteous (Hall, 2007). Going forward, Lutherans face a wonderful future. However, because they are saved by grace, it is not clear whether they view their future resurrected state as a reward for faithfulness or unmerited grace, and if the later, it is not clear that it would affect their choices as an entrepreneur. [0d]

Life After Death Will be unending and blissful—no sorrow or death, nothing, but joy. Family will not exist. Only heaven and hell—no intermediate state (Hall, 2007). Receiving unending bliss without sorrow or death, seems wonderful. However, if this is the fate of mankind for those who go to heaven, what is the incentive to make choices to be entrepreneurial? Perhaps, it will be to avoid hell. However, being saved by grace, we will receive heaven without much seeming effort on our part. Will that teach us to feel entitled? Will we also gorge ourselves thinking there will be no negative consequences? One could argue that this is a prescription for raising spoiled teenagers. [−2]

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Vicarious Salvation of Dead Men cannot help those who have died. We have no form of work for the dead. After death—the judgment. It is appointed unto man once to die (Vainio, 2008). Men are not God, so of course they would not have the power by themselves to save the dead. However, Christ could set up such a program with our participation. The question is, do Lutherans claim the authority from Christ to set up such a program? The answer is no, which means that they acknowledge tacitly that God is an unfair god who cares more about those who have been baptized while living than He does for those who have died without being baptized. This probably seems harsh. If it is, it is a criticism that can be equally applied to many other Christian denominations. The implications of such preferential treatment could cause consternation for aspiring entrepreneurs because it could suggest that if God does not care about the unbaptized, why should He care about my becoming an entrepreneur? [−2p]

Status of Non-Believers Those who reject Christ will be forever separated from God and His mercy (Lochmah, 1818). This is in substance eternal death and the torment of hell. A non-believer is different from someone who was never taught and was left behind without understanding. Presumably, a nonbeliever was someone who had the option to believe but chose not to believe. However, it is difficult to know what is in someone’s heart. Perhaps, they did not believe because they were still confused by lack of knowledge. One could see the justice of God in such an approach if the investigator were sufficiently informed. This balanced approach would have a neutral effect on entrepreneurship. [0p]

Miracles Are supernatural acts caused by Jesus, or done through power of His name, in which the laws of nature are suspended. Miracles, at time of Christ, confirmed His claims: no longer necessary (Biermann, 2014). This explanation raises the question of whether the miracles served Christ or were intended to strengthen the faith of believers. It is implausible that they were performed for His self-aggrandizement. If the latter, one wonders why they are not needed today. Could it be that we are so faithful

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that we would not benefit from them now? Or perhaps Christ has lost the power? Neither of these explanations is convincing. Thus, the loss of miracles is to the detriment of entrepreneurs. [−1p]

Satan Is a fallen angel, an actual invisible spirit-being; was one of the principal exalted spirits in the creation. Ever-tempting men to reject God (Vainio, 2008). In opposing God, he would also be liable to oppose entrepreneurs—anything that would be good for entrepreneurs could be used to build the kingdom of God. [−1p]

Heaven and Hell Heaven—eternal abode of those saved through Jesus Christ; perfect bliss will be enjoyed. Hell—eternal abode of the lost; inexpressible woe and eternal torment. Location of either is not known (Hall, 2007). One could assume that the separation criteria is stark. If one thinks he or she is going to heaven, it seemingly removes any motivation to excel as an entrepreneur because they would already possess everything to make them happy. If one thinks he or she is going to hell, all hope would be lost, together with the motivation to excel. What would be needed to motivate entrepreneurs would be a system with more contingent outcomes. [−1p]

Church Necessary for Salvation? Only by way of exception can a person be saved outside of the Church. The purpose of the Church is to teach the true gospel and administer the sacraments rightly for the saving of men (Wohirabe, 1987). If the doctrine is clear, it would not create uncertainty to forestall entrepreneurship. [0d]

Divine Revelation Believe in ancient revelations as recorded in the Bible, but not in modern, future, or individual revelations. Christ fulfilled all (Sullivan, 2004). As mentioned elsewhere, this is a static view of our prospects. Without continuing revelation, entrepreneurs would be left to themselves to be guided to the best future outcomes. [−1p]

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Marriage Marriage is the union of one man and one woman which is to be terminated only by the death of either. It is a relationship for this life only (Gritsch & Jenson, 1976). Being separate and alone would deprive blessedly happy spouses from enjoying each other’s company, which would remove a major source of future happiness, which would diminish entrepreneurship. [−1p]

Purpose of Life To seek God and His salvation, and to bring non-believers to Christ. To find specific purpose of life, one must submit to direction of Holy Spirit (Biermann, 2014), which could also foster entrepreneurship. [+1d]

Christ’s Second Coming Christ will come again as a Personality (as He ascended). He will have to judge all men, both living and dead. He will appear everywhere at the same time (Vainio, 2008). The certainty of His return would create stability and the serenity to know that His Coming was soon. This combination of circumstance would foster entrepreneurship. [+1d]

Summary of the Impact of Lutheran Doctrine on Entrepreneurship The overall impact of the doctrines of the Lutheran Church on entrepreneurship is minus thirteen, which is the result of totaling the twenty-two individual scores. In addition, the beliefs were 7 for doctrine and 15 for philosophy. The rationale for the score is provided as part of the evaluation of each doctrine. This result is like other large protestant denominations. They left in protest but took with them many of the inscrutable beliefs from the Council of Nicaea about a Triune God. There seems to have developed a stagnation and loss of hope because man under these doctrines has lost some control over his life, which then percolates down to a hopelessness about achieving goals such as becoming an entrepreneur. Offsetting this hopelessness could be support that they receive from the fellowship of other church members, plus the proud Lutheran tradition of having launched the Reformation. The dictum to

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be a faithful Lutheran is likely to make one happier and a better Christian, if not necessarily a more successful entrepreneur.

References Biermann, J. (2014). A Case for Character: Towards a Lutheran Virtue Ethics. Augsburg Fortress Publishers. Davis, G. (1955). 45. Wordsworth’s Ode: Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood. The Explicator, 13(7), 108–110. https:// doi.org/10.1080/00144940.1955.11481810 Gritsch, E., & Jenson, R. (1976). Lutheranism: The Theological Movement and Its Confessional Writings. Fortress Press. Hall, H. (2007). The Development of Doctrine: A Lutheran Examination. ProEcclesia, 16(3), 256–277. Lochmah, J. (1818). The History, Doctrine and Discipline of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. John Wyeth. Shoenberger, C. (1977). The Development of the Lutheran Theory of Resistance: 1523–1539. The Sixteen Century Journal, 61–76. Sullivan, D. (2004). Rhetorical Invention and Lutheran Doctrine? Rhetoric & Public Affairs, 7 (4), 603–614. Vainio, O. (2008). Justification and Participation in Christ: The Development of the Lutheran Doctrine of Justification from Luther to the Formula of Concord (1580). Brill. Wohirabe, J. (1987). An Historical Analysis of the Doctrine of the Ministry in the Lutheran Church—Missouri Synod until 1962.

CHAPTER 16

Mennonite Doctrine and Entrepreneurship

The Mennonite Church emerged as a part of the Protestant Reformation in the sixteenth century. They are also known as Anabaptists because they rejected infant baptism in favor of adult baptism. In 1515, a group of Anabaptists broke away from the Protestant and Catholic ranks to become known as Mennonites. In 1536, a former Dutch Catholic, Menno Simons, their namesake, joined their ranks and rose to a leadership position (Dana and Dana in Collective Entrepreneurship in a Mennonite Community in Paraguay. Edward Elgar Publishing, 2010). At times it has been accused of being both too pacifist and too liberal. Here are its doctrines:

God Mennonites believe in the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost. They believe that God became flesh in the person of Jesus Christ so that He could work the atonement. The Savior’s work is bringing glory to the Father through the atonement and to be the head of a Church that He would establish, latter to return. The Father, the Son, and Holy Ghost are deemed to be one God in substance (Finger, 2002). By now, readers should understand that this doctrine is the Nicaean Creed, which makes understanding the trinity much more complex than explained here. This creed remains just as perplexing for Entrepreneurs who want to clarify the divine confusion. [−1p] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. O. Fiet, Religious Doctrines and their Influence on Entrepreneurship, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43386-3_16

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Holy Trinity Mennonites believe in the doctrine of Trinity, which is that the Godhead shares the same substance and is without body, parts, or passions, who fills the immensity of space, yet is so small that He (they) can dwell in one’s heart (Lee, 2003). While not doubting the sincerity of believers, the doctrine of the Trinity in the Nicaean Creed is rationally incomprehensible and would be perplexing and frustrating to entrepreneurs unless they were fascinated by confusion. However, according to rational expectations, they would want to eliminate uncertainty so that they could control the launching of new ventures. [−2p]

Holy Ghost The Holy Spirit dwelled in Jesus Christ. It empowers the Church and is the source of life in Christ. It is bestowed on those who believe as a guarantee of redemption (Lee, 2003). Although physically incompressible, its functionality would be welcomed and celebrated. [+1p]

Holy Bible They believe in all scripture and that it is inspired by God through the Holy Ghost. They accept the scriptures as being fully reliable and trustworthy as a standard for Christian faith and life. The scriptures are interpreted in support of the salvific mission of Jesus Christ (Scott, 1996). This interpretation does not claim infallibility but reliability and trustworthiness. This assessment leaves room for inadvertent translation errors. It also allows for personal revelation to help entrepreneurs to clarify uncertainty. [+1p]

Pre-existence of Man Mennonites do not believe in the pre-existence of the soul. Instead, they teach Adam was created from the dust of the earth in the image of God (Scott, 1996). The question is not whether this doctrine could be erroneous, but what effect would it have on entrepreneurs? If it were true, we would not have sprung suddenly into existence. We could have come with “trailing clouds of glory.” If true, it could have provided a push to those inclined to be entrepreneurs. [+1d]

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Ecclesiastical Authority Mennonite congregations possess independent ecclesiastical authority. There is no centralized authority over all congregations. Congregationlevel authority can excommunicate erring members from the Church because of unrepentant sin (Wenger, 2000). Local authority administered in a predictable manner could reduce uncertainty, which could have a positive impact on entrepreneurship. [+1p]

Baptism They practice a baptism of adult believers with water as a sign of their cleansing from sin. Baptism is also a pledge before the Church of their covenant with God to walk with Jesus Christ through the power of the Holy Spirit (Friedman, 1999). This form of baptism not only cleanses the repentant but also paves the way for inspiration from the Holy Spirit. Both of which could facilitate entrepreneurship. [+1d]

Virgin Birth, Immaculate Conception Mennonites believe in the virgin birth, but not the Immaculate Conception (Koop, 1999). This is the most common interpretation of these doctrines among Christians. The virgin birth effectuates Christ’s salvific mission, which is at the center of Christianity. The peace that comes to the repentant and or those who have faith would facilitate entrepreneurship. [+1d]

Did Christ Organize a Church? Yes, Mennonites believe that Christ established one true, visible Church, which has been used through the ages to preserve faith. For Mennonites, this is a bottom-up congregational-level organization (Hostetler, 2001). They are among the minority who recognize this organization— the others believing instead that authority comes from the Bible. A living, church organization can provide more current direction, even if it is seen as more variable, which would reduce uncertainty for entrepreneurship. [+1p]

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Lord’s Supper Mennonites believe that the Lord’s Supper is a sign by which the Church thankfully remembers the new covenant, which Jesus established by His death (Waite, 2017). It is interesting that they focus on Christ’s death rather than His life and teachings. Nevertheless, they do celebrate taking the sacrament as a visible sign of their commitment to the Covenant. Covenant-making establishes a sense of formality to this mutual promise, which would provide a sense of security that God was on the side of the covenant maker, which certainly would enhance entrepreneurship. [+1d]

Christ’s Atonement Mennonites believe that Christ died on the cross to offer salvation to sinners through their repentance and dedication to His teachings (Koop, 1999). Salvation would be a gift to anyone because it would allow them to repent, start-over, and receive forgiveness for their sins. Along with it would come a clear conscience and resolve to not repeat an error. In other words, this would be very entrepreneurial. [+2d]

Man’s Resurrection Christ will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead. His final victory will end the present age of struggle and will usher in the resurrection of the dead, plus a new heaven and a new earth (Koop, 1999). If mankind could maintain some of the character traits learned while on earth, entrepreneurs would have an incentive to keep developing themselves for an even brighter future. [+2d]

Life After Death After their resurrection, the people of God will reign with Christ in justice, righteousness, and peace forever and ever (Koop, 1999). Certainly, this will be a glorious future. Whether or not someone would still want to be an entrepreneur is difficult to predict. [0d]

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Vicarious Work for Dead Mennonites do not practice vicarious work for the dead (Finger, 2002). By itself this could be their choice. However, the question about God being prejudiced toward those who were able to be baptized while living and against those who were not, does not go away. It strengthens the possibility that God is a respecter of some people but not of others. Would such a God love us all perfectly? If not, would it damage our faith and confidence that life was fair and that we could make long-term plans as entrepreneurs? [−2p]

Status of Non-Believers God’s love restores all souls who look to Jesus for the forgiveness of sins and seek to follow Jesus (Hostetler, 2001). This doctrine reverses the previous one, but it does not explain the mechanism that is operative. Christians are asked to accept it based on faith. [0p]

Miracles Miracles are intended to glorify God, demonstrate His sovereignty over all creation, and confirm that He is present and active in all life (Wenger, 2000). This statement is not entirely clear, but we can assume that Mennonites accept miracles. The statement does clarify their purposes, which would be supportive of entrepreneurs. [+1p]

Satan Satan is the “father of lies,” the “evil one,” and the “devil” who is intent on thwarting the plan of salvation (Finger, 2002). Likewise, he would oppose constructive purposes that could support the plan of salvation. Mixed with mortality would be such good works as entrepreneurship. [−1d]

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Heaven and Hell There is a final judgment, whereby some are eternally consigned to punishment (hell) while others to reward (heaven). Belief is not just a fire escape from hell or a ticket to heaven; rather Christians are admonished to live according to the future reign of God (Scott, 1996). Because there are conditions associated with future states, entrepreneurs would be able to practice conforming to requirements for being successful in their ventures. [+1d]

Church Necessary for Salvation? The Church is designed to encourage one another in the principles of the faith and to live in community. Joining the Church is an individual decision (Friedman, 1999). This doctrine or philosophy betrays the perceived value of their fellowship, suggesting that all denominations offer about the same saving grace. This being the case, how can adherents have confidence in their leaders or in the doctrines that their denomination espouses? How could such a position offer a competitive advantage for aspiring entrepreneurs? [−1p]

Divine Revelation Personal revelation is available through the ministry of the Holy Ghost (Friedman, 1999). Viewed in juxtaposition with an obligation to join the Church, this doctrine suggests that the Holy Ghost works with individuals and less so through the Church’s leaders. However, this arrangement, although inspiring to individuals, would leave the Church leaderless for the body of its members. The net effect is neutrality. [0p]

Marriage Marriage is ordained of God, which commences life in a family. God wishes all people to be blessed through family life. Divorce is very rare (Hostetler, 2001). This declaration is very supportive as far as it goes; however, it is silent on the continuity of marriage beyond the grave. If it is good for us now, it would be even better if it had a future. [+1p]

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Purpose of Life Grow in faith toward God and serve one another (Finger, 2002), this statement is positive, but it seems unrelated to entrepreneurship. [0d]

Christ’s Second Coming Christ will return to usher in the Millennium (Friedman, 1999). This appears to indicate the beginning of a glorious future, but not sure how it is related to entrepreneurship. [0d]

Summary of the Impact of Mennonite Doctrine on Entrepreneurship The overall impact of the doctrines of the Mennonite Church on entrepreneurship is plus ten, which is the result of totaling the twentytwo individual scores. In addition, the beliefs were 12 for doctrine and 10 for philosophy. The rationale for the score is provided as part of the evaluation of each doctrine. This result is superior to other larger protestant denominations. In addition, its doctrines have a more positive impact on entrepreneurship. Its early members are descendants of those who left the Catholic Church in protest. They eventually took with them fewer of the inscrutable beliefs from the Council of Nicaea about a Triune God. Consequently, they were able to worship with more independence and less hopelessness, which is unsurprisingly connected to becoming an entrepreneur.

References Dana, L., & Dana, T. (2010). Collective Entrepreneurship in a Mennonite Community in Paraguay. In Entrepreneurship and Religion. Edward Elgar Publishing. Finger, T. (2002). Confessions of Faith in the Anabaptist/Mennonite Tradition. Mennonite Quarterly Review, 76(3), 277–398. Friedman, R. (1999). Mennonite Piety Through the Centuries: Its Genius and Its Literature (No. 7). Wipf and Stock Publishers. Hostetler, J. (2001). Mennonite Life. Wipf and Stock Publishers. Koop, K. (1999). Early Seventeenth Century Mennonite Confessions of Faith: The Development of an Anabaptist Tradition (Doctoral Dissertation).

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Lee, J. (2003). The Theology of John Smyth: Puritan, Separatist, Baptist, Mennonite. Mercer University Press. Scott, S. (1996). Introduction to Old Order and Conservative Mennonite Groups. Simon & Schuster. Waite, G. (2017). Pieter Jansz Twisck on David Joris: A Conservative Mennonite and an Unconventional Spiritualist. Mennonite Quarterly Review, 91(3), 371– 403. Wenger, J. (2000). Glimpses of Mennonite History. Wipf and Stock Publishers.

CHAPTER 17

Methodist Doctrine and Entrepreneurship

In 1997, Methodism had 33 million adherents worldwide. In the United States, where it is one of the mainline Protestant Churches, there were 22.5 million adherents who can find points to differentiate themselves from other mainline Protestants. Here are its doctrinal differences.

God God is a personal spirit without body or parts, and in the unity of this Godhead there are three persons, of one substance, power, and eternity— the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost (Campbell, 2011). Humans are free to believe whatever they wish about God. As Isaiah 55: 8 counsels us, “For my thoughts are not your thoughts, neither are your ways my ways, saith the Lord.” It is uncertain how to interpret this advice, but it seems to suggest that our understanding of God could seem like a mass of confusion. If confusion were their intent, the Methodists, following the Council of Nicaea, have succeeded. Rationally, this is the only conclusion that humans with their limited insight can reach. The problem for aspiring entrepreneurs is that it is impossible to have faith in something that they cannot understand. [−2p]

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Holy Trinity God, Jesus, and the Holy Spirit (Holy Ghost) are three distinct entities of one spirit-substance, power, and eternity—the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost (Lyles, 2015). One can only conclude that the confusion continues. The Council of Nicaea strikes again, and with it, it dashes the hopes of aspiring entrepreneurs. [−2p] Holy Ghost A spiritual personality proceeding from the Father and the Son is one substance, majesty, and glory with the Father and the Son (Marsden, 1818). Because one already expects the Holy Ghost to be a personage of spirit, one is more prepared to comprehend the workings of this spirit who serves as a comforter, which entrepreneurs could use to help them cope with ordinary disappointments. This is not a doctrine that comes solely from the Council of Nicaea. [+1p]

Holy Bible Contains all things necessary to salvation; so that whatsoever is not read therein, nor may be proved thereby, is not thought requisite or necessary to salvation (Rowe et al., 2000). This is a more nuanced argument than claiming that the Bible is complete, given that time marches on, and things change, meaning that is unlikely that one unchangeable book could address all aspects of a changing future. However, it is cleverer to claim that the changes will not be impactful, which of course requires faith. [0p]

Pre-existence of Man Do not believe in the pre-existence of man (Marsden, 1818). This is not a denial of a pre-existence. Rather it is a lack of faith that we had such an existence. However, it is a denial of and a diminution of our eternal importance. If we just sprang into existence when we were born, then our existence is left-censored and truncated. We could not possess eternal traits that would empower us to overcome entrepreneurial challenges. We would be forced to make snap decisions using our best instincts, which would not have been tested. In contrast, some people have a sense that

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they can overcome any challenge because they have faith in themselves, possibly because they have confidence in their eternal nature. In summary, rejecting our pre-existence is a loss of potential power to become an entrepreneurial success. [−1p]

Ecclesiastical Authority Do not believe in any line of priestly descendants, as such authority unnecessary. Bible itself only authority, and its interpretation left to individual conscience (Jones, 2002). If this were true, it would be like worshiping a physical object, such as a graven image or a golden calf, which we know that Moses rebuked. Also, if authority is unnecessary how are people authorized to teach, interpret the Bible, and perform ordinances such as baptisms? Without authority, quickly a church would become like the Kiwanis Club where we typically do not go to learn eternal doctrines. Of course, we could go to a social club to make contacts, but those contacts would not be authorized to coach us in truth or how to become an entrepreneur. [−1p]

Baptism By sprinkling, pouring, or immersion. It is only an outward sign of entrance into Church. Accepts baptism of other churches. Not necessary to salvation. Infants also baptized (Campbell, 2011). Jesus said, “Except a man be born of water and of the Spirit, he cannot enter into the kingdom of God” (John 3:5). Jesus is authorized to make this statement because He is a God, and it is His Church to which adherents are trying to gain membership. As He explains, being baptized is a condition of entering the kingdom of God. In contrast to this statement is the laissez-faire declaration by Methodists (and others) that suggests that the mode is unimportant and so is the requirement to be authorized. It is reasonable to question Methodist authority to supersede the guidance from Him whose right it is to set the rules, based on His very own atoning sacrifice for sin. If rule-breaking and ignoring precedent is the norm, this would diminish an entrepreneur’s desire to follow the rules that lead to new venture creation. [−1p]

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Virgin Birth, Immaculate Conception Christ had a mortal mother and an immortal father. A virgin birth, wherein Mary miraculously conceived the Christ (no belief in the Immaculate Conception) (Jones, 2002). This view is standard among denominations. It recognizes that despite her goodness, she was not the Savior, nor would she perform the atonement. [0p]

Did Christ Organize a Church? Only in a spiritual sense. No temporal organization (Frank, 2006). If He did not organize a church, why did He call apostles and other gospel ministers? Clearly, they had roles to play in His church. One could argue that the church He organized does not exist today because the authority to operate it was lost with the deaths of the apostles, but this is a different question. Assuming that His Church was lost, it would not be available to help aspiring entrepreneurs. [0p]

Lord’s Supper In remembrance of the Body and Blood of Christ. Unfermented grape juice and bread, taken monthly or less often by all who feel themselves worthy (Fujimoto, 1986). The worthiness requirement is curious because Christ did not come to save those who were already perfect; He came to save sinners who were trying to do better. Because the sacrament is central to most Christians, for many to remind them of their baptismal covenants, their views regarding it are central to their religion. Thus, it is not the purpose of this review to question their efficacy nor their sincerity. The question before us is to ask whether the Methodist belief in the sacrament could help an entrepreneur feel closer to God, offer peace, and facilitate spiritual communication. The answer to all these questions from their perspective is yes. [+1d]

Christ’s Atonement Christ was crucified to reconcile God to man. He atoned not only for original sin, but also for actual sins of men (Rowe et al., 2000). This is a powerful affirmation of Christ’s beneficial mission to save us from sin and to help us to become our better selves, which would certainly help

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us to be more effective entrepreneurs. The only thing curious about it is its inference about who would do the reconciling—it would be man reconciling to God, not the obverse. [+1d]

Man’s Resurrection Believe in the resurrection of the spiritual body (personality). Undying soul maintaining its identity (Rowe et al., 2000). The continuity offered by the resurrection could be the greatest motivator of all for entrepreneurship. Relatedly, suicide is not death, only a change in scenery. [+2d]

Life After Death Believe in life of progression after death and in the existence of personality. Profess no knowledge of family relationship in the hereafter (Rowe et al., 2000). This is both a clarification and an extension of the previous doctrine. Except for its denial of life with a family, it would exert a positive impact on entrepreneurship. [+1d]

Vicarious Salvation for Dead They feel powerless to do anything for or to help those who are dead (Lyles, 2015), which must leave them feeling helpless. Again, the issue becomes, is this a doctrine in which someone wants to believe because in this dimension, it has nothing to offer. [0p]

Status of Non-Believers Men are saved according to their faith in Christ; those denying and not believing will suffer condemnation (Fujimoto, 1986). Unfortunately, the statement leaves out a large category of potential believers who died without a knowledge of Christ. As we know from the statement above, there is no provision for those who would have believed if they had been given a chance. It is not credible to believe that a God would have been so unfair and short-sighted, which casts doubt on the capacity of this Methodist doctrine to help entrepreneurs. [−1p]

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Miracles Operation of a higher power over a lower power, not understood by man. Believe in ancient and present-day miracles (today manifested more in healings) (Marsden, 1818). Believing in miracles would help entrepreneurs to have the faith to overcome their difficulties. [+1d]

Satan Is a force of evil influence through the universe. Believe in a possible personal devil (Fujimoto, 1986). It seems odd that a universal, personal devil would be relatively misunderstood. As the second most powerful influence in the universe, next to God, one would think that his existence and purpose would be better understood so that humans could resist and act accordingly. Satan would pose a risk to entrepreneurs. [−1d]

Heaven and Hell Two separate and distinct places. Heaven—where God is. Hell—not physical torment but mental state—remorse of conscience (Marsden, 1818). These destinations would serve to discipline entrepreneurs. In the end, if they were to cause entrepreneurs to act on true principles, they could be positive for entrepreneurs. [+1d]

Church Necessary for Salvation? It is not necessary to join a Church to be saved, as all true believers in Christ will be saved (Frank, 2006). Of course, this raises the question of them being true believers in Christ, why wouldn’t they want to join His Church? One explanation is that they doubt His power to save us, which would extend to His church. Alternatively, it could mean that they doubt the divine origins of their church. Neither one of these explanations would benefit entrepreneurs. [−1p]

Divine Revelation Believe in those given anciently. Today, only to the extent that God’s spirit guides and directs good works, inventions, etc. (Campbell, 2011). Why would they place boundary conditions on God’s willingness to bless

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us through revelation? Perhaps, we no longer need revelation because we are so smart. Or alternatively, He has lost the power, which would be blasphemous. In summary, this doctrine is somewhat positive but in a very limited way. [0p]

Marriage For this life only. Do not believe in definite marriage or family relationship in the hereafter (Jones, 2002). For many married entrepreneurs, this will be a distressing expectation that will take away their expectations for joy and posterity. [−1p]

Purpose of Life To prepare souls for eternal fellowship with God and the redeemed. Aim is to live a Christ-like life (Campbell, 2011). However, if everyone lived as celibate, which we think that Christ did, then this would mark the end of civilized procreation and humanity. So, there must be a different standard for us. Also, it seems ironic that if the purpose is fellowship, why would we not want to spend eternity with those in our families who we love. This statement seems incomplete, and especially as it pertains to entrepreneurs. [0p]

Christ’s Second Coming Some believe that Christ has come again (at the time of the destruction of Jerusalem). Others that He will yet appear a second time (Marsden, 1818). To some, this doctrine may not seem central by itself. After all, if He has already come, it did not seem to make much difference. However, for entrepreneurs, it is one more source of confusion that obfuscates a reason that we should have faith in prophecy and its role in our future. [−1p]

Summary of the Impact of Methodist Doctrine on Entrepreneurship The overall impact of the doctrines of the Methodist Church on entrepreneurship is minus five, which is the result of totaling the twentytwo individual scores. In addition, the beliefs were 7 for doctrine and

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15 for philosophy. The rationale for the score is provided as part of the evaluation of each doctrine. This result is viewed by some analysts as the extreme middle. Unfortunately, they do not explain what they mean by this moniker. Its average doctrines have a modestly negative impact on entrepreneurship. Its early members are descendants of those who left the Catholic Church in protest. Now, it must confront the momentum of its doctrinal legacy. Consequently, they were able to worship with some independence and less hopelessness, which is unsurprisingly connected to becoming an entrepreneur.

References Campbell, T. (2011). Methodist Doctrine: The Essentials. Abington Press. Frank, T. (2006). Polity, Practice, and the Mission of the United Methodist Church: 2006 Edition. Abingdon Press. Fujimoto, M. S. (1986). John Wesley’s Doctrine of Good Works (Methodist Theology, Christian Ethics). Drew University. Jones, J. (2002). United Methodist Doctrine: The Extreme Center. Abington Press. Lyles, A. (2015) Methodism Mocked: The Satiric Reaction to Methodism in the Eighteenth Century. Wipf and Stock Publishers. Marsden, G. (1818). Of Methodist Doctrines. The Wesleyan-Methodist Magazine, 41, 12–22. Rowe, K., Richey, R. & Schmidt, J. (2000). The Methodist Experience in America Volume II: Sourcebook. General Board Higher Education and Ministry.

CHAPTER 18

Presbyterian Doctrine and Entrepreneurship

In 1998, the Presbyterian Church had about 48 million adherents worldwide. That same year, there were about 8.43 million in the United States. It is another mainline Protestant church, headquartered in Louisville, Kentucky. Here are its doctrines:

God God is a Spirit. There is no such thing as a “form” or “shape” connected with God. Man is like God in his creation only in a moral and spiritual sense (Helmer, 2014). This is clear enough. Unfortunately, most of us do not have experience with personages of spirit. Feeling such a cognitive distance would make it harder to approach God for support to confront the fear of the unknown, which entrepreneurs must routinely overcome. [0p]

Holy Trinity Three personages (manifestations) of the one Godhead—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit (Holy Ghost), one in substance and equal in power and glory (Hughes & Breckinridge, 1855). By now, readers are familiar with the interpretation of the Godhead by the Council of Nicaea. In the Presbyterian view, what complicates understanding God is the fact the three © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. O. Fiet, Religious Doctrines and their Influence on Entrepreneurship, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43386-3_18

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members are “one in substance,” which occurs nowhere else in nature. Clearly humans would need to exercise faith to comprehend such a god. [−1p]

Holy Ghost Holy (spirit) is God operating as one of God’s persons. A functioning of the one and only God (Spirit) or third person of the Godhead (one substance) (Delivuk, 1982). Because the Holy Ghost is embedded in the Holy Trinity, it is not possible to understand the Holy Ghost outside of this context. Thus, the substance of the Holy Ghost is combined with the other members of the Godhead, which complicates understanding how its functioning, which also impacts entrepreneurs. [−1p]

Holy Bible Is Supreme word of God, the only infallible rule of faith and practice. A spiritual guidance containing all known scripture (Sanders, 1997). Let’s assume that the Bible was perfect at the time of its writing. Nevertheless, it is a static document and could not perfectly accommodate changes, anticipated or not, because it only comes in a first edition. Of course, God could have anticipated the changes; however, mankind does not have the same capacity, meaning that the changes would have been necessary for us, not God. Entrepreneurs are humans with limited information processing capacity. Therefore, the once perfect Bible could need updates to stay current. [−1p]

Pre-existence of Man There is nothing in the Bible in evidence of pre-existence, according to Presbyterian belief. Ideas about it are only speculative (Helmer, 2014). According to Jeremiah 1:5, “Before I formed thee in the belly, I knew thee (referring to Jeremiah); and before thou camest forth out of the womb I sanctified thee, and I ordained thee a prophet unto the nations.” Clearly, Jehovah knew Jeremiah before he was born, otherwise he could not have made this statement. Thus, Jeremiah had a pre-existence, which raises the question of the rest of us also having a pre-existence, which Presbyterians deny. Denying a pre-existence forces us to spring into existence at our birth, in contrast to living prior to our birth during

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which time we could have developed into who we became. Taking away an entrepreneur’s personal history would have diminished any foreknowledge that we could succeed as entrepreneurs. [−1p]

Ecclesiastical Authority Vested in the priesthood of the individual. Bible also authority. Other churches have it as Presbyterianism is merely a branch of Christianity or form of government (Hughes & Breckinridge, 1855). What this statement means is that authority comes from individuals, not the body of Christ or from Christ. Also, if everyone can self-authorize, then it is meaningless as a concept that could set churches apart. All churches could preach whatever they wish so that differences in doctrine could be shopped to obtain a more lenient deal. Unfortunately, for entrepreneurs, the world does not work that way and they would be required to conform. [−1p]

Baptism Sprinkling, pouring, or immersion, as desired by applicant. Baptism of other churches accepted. Is not necessary to salvation. Infants baptized (Hodge, 1877). This doctrine supersedes John 3:6, which is where Christ explained its essential nature, which was for the remission of sins, for which infants are not culpable. According to their statement of faith, the Bible is the “supreme word of God, the only infallible rule of faith and practice.” Either it is fallible, or they are currently rejecting it with their doctrine on baptism. If this is a religion, one would think that its Savior would have the authority to prescribe how it was performed and who was authorized to perform it. If that is not true, what are we to rationally conclude? Are they serious about taking away the authority to baptize from the Mediator Himself. Surely this philosophy of man will be answerable to the One who made it possible. Meanwhile, entrepreneurs understand that this approach must be considered a philosophy of man. [−2p]

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Virgin Birth, Immaculate Conception Christ’s was a virgin birth, brought about by the Holy Spirit working upon Mary. (Christ had no earthly father) (Helmer, 2014). This is the most common doctrinal interpretation of His origin. Because most churches proclaim the same interpretation, it would not convey a unique advantage to its adherents. However, because it reinforces Christ’s divinity, it makes possible His atonement to forgive our sins, which would make entrepreneurs more effective. [+1p]

Did Christ Organize a Church? Majority do not believe He did. He appointed apostles and others and taught Christian living, which does not require an organization (Hughes & Breckinridge, 1855). The first fact that one notices is that gauging who supports this doctrine requires a vote or a poll, which does not change whether He did or did not organize a church. It is striking that this would be a question for those who acknowledge apostles and prophets. For entrepreneurs, it means that if they are free to believe what they wish, this approach would diminish His influence in their lives. [−1p]

Lord’s Supper A means of grace. Administered with bread and wine in remembrance of Christ’s death. Time and frequency of observation may vary with each church (Delivuk, 1982). Connecting grace to the sacrament seems logical. That is, through its connection with the atonement. However, Christ accomplished the atonement prior to His death. The good news is the atonement and resurrection, not His death. All humans die—only one has been asserted to have risen from death. Regardless of the logic, grace that increases one’s hope for the future would support increased entrepreneurship. [+1d]

Christ’s Atonement Was universal as well as for our personal sins. Sin results in separation from God (death), which came through Adam and for which Christ atoned (Hodge, 1877). Again, the atonement was central to man’s salvation, and all other aspects of Christ’s work are appendages to this central

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fact. It is interesting that those who killed Him were complicit in helping Him to achieve His greatest notoriety and influence while attempting to extinguish the faith of his followers. All can benefit from the atonement, including entrepreneurs. [+1d.

Man’s Resurrection The material composing our bodies will be glorified and transformed. There will be individual identity—continuation of personality (Sanders, 1997). Taken as expressed here, this could be the most important motivating factor for an entrepreneur to excel because he can be expected to continue to possess the wealth that he will be able to earn. [+2d]

Life After Death There will be life and progression after death. There are degrees of salvation obtained through grace. We will recognize our relatives (Smith, 1960). Again, this is an extremely hopeful and optimistic doctrine. Entrepreneurs who must have faith in the future would immediately understand the future opportunities that it could open for them. [+2d]

Vicarious Work for Dead Do not believe in form of work for the dead, as we have no power to help them (Hodge, 1877). It is interesting that power (and authority) is necessary in this context but not in other doctrinal areas, such as being authorized to perform baptisms. As mentioned earlier, God would need to be a prejudicial god who favored only those who had been taught his gospel while alive. Others would be condemned for being unlucky. This stance would exacerbate entrepreneurial concern driven by luck. [−1p]

Status of Non-Believers Make no attempt to determine such but leave them in the hands of a merciful God (Smith, 1960). Is this being merciful or avoiding the fact that some do not believe but others never have an opportunity to become believers? This manifest unfairness raises doubts in the minds of potential believers, such as entrepreneurs, so that they remain unwilling to risk launching a new venture. [−1p]

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Miracles Believe performed as recorded in Bible. Prayers will help the sick to recover, and healings are affected through the spirit with faith (by anyone) (Warfield & Graig, 1956). There is no explicit mention that they are believed to occur today. They could help entrepreneurs, but they are not guaranteed. [0d]

Satan Believed to be a personification of evil (personage of spirit). Is actual, existing spiritual force—source of evil (Helmer, 2014). This is an example of a negative doctrine that could harm entrepreneurs. [−1d]

Heaven and Hell Heaven is to be, or being, in the presence of God. A happy state of mind as result. Hell is the opposite (Helmer, 2014). As explained this doctrine is neutral because it does not explore the necessary mechanism to go to heaven. Entrepreneurs would feel the same way. [0d]

Church Necessary for Salvation? Their church is not the only “gate” to God’s Kingdom. Neither is it the only true church. Faith in Christ is the only thing necessary for salvation. All true believers belong to the universal Church (Delivuk, 1982). As described here, this church is very non-exclusive. Moreover, this idea runs contrary to the doctrine expressed in Matthew 7:14—“Because strait is the gate, and narrow is the way, which leadeth unto life, and few there be that find it.” It is difficult to know how to rationalize this difference. One appears to accept everyone as they are, whereas the other takes people where they are and then preaches obedience to raise up so that we are worthy to dwell with God. Confusion renders this doctrine as being neutral for entrepreneurs. [0p]

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Divine Revelation Was given to chosen individuals anciently from God. Modern and future revelations not necessary, as Christ is the final word (Sanders, 1997). This stance does not address the issue of ongoing, sometimes, changing, needs that must be addressed, and for which people are not certain what counsel Christ would offer. Nor does it address how Christ would communicate His will. Unless communication occurs, it seems reasonable to assume that they would not be judged for not being obedient. On the contrary, as the world grows more complex, it seems that humans have greater needs for revelation than ever in our history. Why would any church claim that revelation was not needed. This position suggests a large amount of hubris, which could negatively impact entrepreneurship. [0p]

Marriage All the spiritual meaning of marriage will be consummated: however, the physical side will be eliminated. Sacramental conception increasingly recognized (Hodge, 1877). In the resurrection, will we have physical bodies? Will these bodies be interested in sexual relations? If not, then they would not be the same type of bodies that we have now. As suggested, there is more to life than physicality, but physicality is part of it. It may be that true joy comes from binding together the physical and the spiritual, suggesting that without marriage, our lives would be incomplete. In fact, joy in marriage is one of the rewards that could come to successful entrepreneurs. Anything that could impede that joy could be viewed as being an impediment to entrepreneurship. [–−1p]

Purpose of Life To glorify God and enjoy Him forever. To progress toward a Christ-like personality (Helmer, 2014). We do not fully comprehend God’s nature nor the type of life that He lives. Nor do we understand whether He or we would have an interest in being entrepreneurial. Thus, we do not know what sort of entrepreneurship could be part of God’s plan for us. Nevertheless, for many people alive now, becoming an entrepreneur could be an attractive option. [0p]

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Christ’s Second Coming He will come again; when, where, and how no one knows. Some believe He will come prior to, and others after, the Millennium (Sanders, 1997). Although there is ambiguity surrounding it, according to this doctrine, it represents a hopeful and positive signal that Christ will play a central role in our future, indicating an increase in order and light while reducing uncertainty, all of which favor entrepreneurship. [+1d]

Summary of the Impact of Presbyterian Doctrine on Entrepreneurship The overall impact of the doctrines of the Methodist Church on entrepreneurship is minus four, which is the result of totaling the twentytwo individual scores. In addition, the beliefs were 5 for doctrine and 17 for philosophy. The rationale for the score is provided as part of the evaluation of each doctrine. Readers may note that the rational expectations presented by Methodists and Presbyterians are quite similar. This result is viewed by some analysts as the extreme middle. Unfortunately, they do not explain what they mean by this moniker. Their average doctrines have a modestly negative impact on entrepreneurship. Their early members are descendants of those who left the Catholic Church in protest. Now, they must confront the momentum of their doctrinal legacy. Consequently, they were able to worship with some independence and less hopelessness, which is unsurprisingly connected to becoming an entrepreneur.

References Delivuk, J. (1982). The Doctrine and History of Worship in the Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America. Helmer, C. (2014). Theology and the End of Doctrine. Presbyterian Publishing Corp. Hodge, A. (1877). Manual of Forms: For Baptism, Admission to the Communion, Administration of the Lord’s Supper, Marriage, and Funerals, Conformed to the Doctrine and Discipline of the Presbyterian Church. Hughes, J., & Breckinridge, J. (1855). A Discussion of the Question, Is the Roman Catholic Religion, in Any or in All Its Principles or Doctrines, Inimical to Civil or Religious Liberty?: And of the Question, Is the Presbyterian Religion, in Any or in All Its Principles or Doctrines, Inimical to Civil or Religious Liberty? John Murphy & Company.

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Sanders, M. (1997). “A Fellowship of Concern” and the Declining Doctrine of the Spirituality of the Church in the Presbyterian Church in the United States. The Journal of Presbyterian History (1997–), 75(3), 179–195. Smith, E. (1960). The Doctrine of Imputation and the Presbyterian Schism of 1837–1838. Journal of the Presbyterian Historical Society, 1943–1961, 129– 151. Warfield, B., & Graig, S. (1956). Calvin and Augustine.

CHAPTER 19

Roman Catholic Doctrine and Entrepreneurship

There are estimated to be 1.2 billion Roman Catholics in the world. The Catholic (universal) Church claims to have received its priesthood authority directly from the Apostle Peter and to be the only true church. More than 40 percent of the world’s Catholics live in Latin America. There are 85 million Catholics in the United States. Here are its doctrines.

God God is a spirit, which permeates entire universe, no definite form or limit. Same unchangeable substance from the beginning. Scripture-incorporeal (Emery, 2012). Notice that there is no mention of the Council of Nicaea, which was the genesis of this complex doctrine. Perhaps, it is not complex to any of the 1.2 billion Catholics. And this is a key point. For the purposes of this treatment the only issue that matters is that Catholics believe it. In fact, this same logic pertains to each of the doctrines supported by any of the world’s Christian and world religions. Secondarily, this treatment assumes that the adherents live their lives in accordance with their doctrines. If potential entrepreneurs were not orthodox believers, readers should modify any doctrinal inferences. This is not a question of what is true. Rather it is a question of what impact such a doctrine would have on man’s rational comprehension of God’s nature, how He would interact with man, and whether this relationship © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. O. Fiet, Religious Doctrines and their Influence on Entrepreneurship, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43386-3_19

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would be a positive for entrepreneurship. The answer to the latter questions is that it would not be positive, which is not the same as asserting that it would not be true. [−1p]

Holy Trinity One God capable of three personages; God the Father, God the Son, God the Holy. Three distinct divine persons, having numerically one and the same nature (Emery, 2012). With this explanation, the complexity of their natures, purpose, and interdependence continues. It may be beautiful to a Catholic, but it remains forever confusing to anyone trying to divine what will be the rational basis for their future interaction with mankind, including entrepreneurs. [−1p]

Holy Ghost The third Person of the Divine Trinity proceeds eternally from the Father and Son in all perfection (Emery, 2012). He presents Himself as a testifier and second witness of the Father and the Son. In this role, we could argue that they were one in purpose, but it is a different matter to assert that they are one in substance as if they were the same creature. This would confuse entrepreneurs if they were focused on His nature. [0p]

Holy Bible Collection of writing inspired by God. Our translation is only authorized one. Contains all inspired writing. Church only to interpret the Scripture (Levering, 2017). In this important statement Catholics have specified their positions on several related issues. First, they have acknowledged the possibility that the Bible could be subject to errors through mistakes in its translation. Second, they have assigned the authority of interpreting the scriptures to the Church, which is a rare position among Christian denominations. And third, they have acknowledged the role of priesthood authority to act in the name of God. These position statements provide a more stable basis for doctrinal development compared with most other denominations. Entrepreneurs would appreciate the stability. [+1p]

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Pre-existence of Man No belief in. Christ is God: as God, Christ was from all eternity. As man, Christ began at the incarnation (Geiermann, 1995). This is a doctrine that separates God from man. Conceivably, man could be co-eternal with God, given that some Christians believe that Heavenly Father is the father of our spiritual natures. Instead, if man suddenly were born from nothing, his connection with the immortal would be more tenuous, especially if birth was viewed as the beginning of everything. Jeremiah 1:5 presents another image showing Jehovah knowing Jeremiah prior to his birth. Jeremiah was not God, which is a counter claim to the notion that only God was eternal. What does not having a pre-existence mean for man? It would mean that he would have nominal experience compared with someone whose nature pre-dated his birth. A person who brought with him from before his birth “trailing clouds of glory” could be better equipped to deal with entrepreneurial challenges. [−1p]

Ecclesiastical Authority Supreme authority vested by Christ in Peter and his successors the Popes, the Bishops of Rome: authority of other bishops was dependent on the subsequent Popes. All other churches without authority (Rogers, 2005). This was a unique claim among churches when the doctrine was first espoused. Others now have competing claims. To be authorized, someone would need to receive authority from someone who was already authorized. This makes sense because it provides a means to approve how the Gospel was taught anciently, and even today. Catholics claim the authority from Peter, the chief apostle. Other denominations claim to have founders who received it from a heavenly messenger, which is another avenue to receive divine authorization. Notably to be authorized by God, the authorization would need to come from God. However, to be authorized by a man, that approval would need to be safeguarded by a man or men. In summary there are two issues: (1) the necessity of being authorized to represent Christ and (2) the source of the authorization. For example, one could acknowledge the first while denying the second. Overall, an entrepreneur could prosper under the protection of a benevolent god, even if there were disagreement about the validity of the authorization. [+1d]

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Baptism Pouring, sprinkling, or immersion. Accepts baptism of other churches when performed as our Church prescribes. Is necessary for salvation. Infants baptized (Ruokanen, 2016). In the meridian of times, baptisms were only performed by immersion. However, with priesthood authority, as Catholics claim, a different mode could be authorized. A more common approach is to cite scriptures supporting an immersive mode and rejecting infant baptism due to their lack of accountability. Ultimately the validity of their authority claim should settle any questions regarding its doctrine of baptism, even when it counter-intuitively accepts properly performed baptisms by other churches. Related to these claims of authority, its baptismal claims reduce uncertainty for entrepreneurs. [+1d]

Virgin Birth, Immaculate Conception Immaculate Conception, i.e., Mary’s soul in the first moment of its existence (nine months before her birth) free from original sin. Believes in Mary’s virginity before and after birth of Christ (Hardon, 2011). Original sin would assertedly be due to Adam’s transgression. Catholic doctrine assumes that mankind inherits sin from Adam. Most other churches reject this guilt by inherited association. This is the original “sin of the fathers.” Most churches assume that mankind is judged for their personal sins and that Adam’s transgression was paid for by the atonement. It is difficult to avoid the perception that the doctrine of Immaculate Conception is intended to elevate Mary to be more god-like herself, even though she has no salvific role to play. Others would say that all mothers have a godlike role to play as they participate in bringing new life into the world. Clearly, Mary was an exemplary mother and worthy of commendation, whether that should extend to elevate her to being worthy of worship is a denominational difference. As for the effects of these doctrines on entrepreneurs, they probably have little effect. [0d]

Did Christ Organize a Church? Christ established the Church while on earth, and it is in existence today as the Holy Roman Catholic Church and will last until the end of time (Rogers, 2005). The fact that Christ called apostles and other church

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leaders to minister to His disciples is scriptural evidence that He did organize a church. The debate is over whether the authorization to act today in His name only continues in the Catholic Church. Regardless of the disagreements that this question elicits, it raises the broader issue of the necessity of possessing priesthood power to act for Him as well as to ask the question, who is His representative today? If it were possible to settle these last questions, most other denominational differences would disappear. The debate does create some uncertainty for entrepreneurs. [0d]

Lord’s Supper In the sacrifice of the Mass by transubstantiation, the substance of bread and wine is changed completely into the Body and Blood of Christ. Laity may receive daily under form of bread (Hardon, 2011). The doctrine of transubstantiation is not scriptural. It was introduced later by the popes or bishops of Rome. It represents the ultimate example of mysticism. It could be a significant doctrinal change if it were properly authorized. The Catholic Church was the first to authorize and teach it. Critics charged that eating the blood and body of Christ was gruesome and made a mockery of the atonement. Still adherents can believe what they wish, even when they are wrong. How would it affect entrepreneurs? Probably, not by much… [0d]

Christ’s Atonement Christ’s sacrifice merited for all the grace of salvation, by which sins are forgiven through confession, but His merits must be applied through the sacraments to the individual soul (Pitstick, 2007). The conditions for forgiveness vary across denominations. For example, the only sacrament for forgiveness in the scriptures is baptism, so in the Roman Catholic Church the others that were added were done so with the authority of subsequent popes. Beyond Catholicism, beliefs about the efficacy, the need for, and the mode of baptism relate to their understanding of the conditional nature of the atonement. Regarding entrepreneurs, the mode is less important than its efficacy for individual sinners. [+1d]

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Man’s Resurrection Our soul will be united with the same body we now have; the bodies of the just will be glorified. The resurrection of the body of each takes place at the end of the world (Pitstick, 2007). This is a wonderfully positive message because it removes one of our greatest fears. It would be terrific for entrepreneurs [+2d]

Life After Death There are three states, Hell, Purgatory, and Heaven. No liberation from Hell but progress out of Purgatory to Heaven through own atoning sufferings and through prayers of priests and friends on earth (Pitstick, 2007). There is no scriptural mention of purgatory, which provides a convenient escape, most notably by paying priests to pray for the deceased. This practice is known as paying indulgences was one of the chief causes of the protestant reformation. Eastern Orthodoxy also rejects this practice. The fact that the Roman Catholic Church benefitted from this practice was and is an apparent conflict of interest. The current practice of indulgences is ancient, evolving, and controversial within Catholic circles and beyond. To the extent that entrepreneurs could buy their way to heaven would be one more incentive to be successful financially. [+1p]

Vicarious Work for the Dead? Souls in Purgatory helped by masses, prayers, and good works. Souls in hell cannot be helped. Infants not baptized enjoy natural happiness, but not supernatural vision of God (Pitstick, 2007). The Catholic Church is one of the denominations that allows the living to do vicarious work for the dead. Unfortunately, this facility is sometimes viewed as corrupt because of its frequently perceived association with paying indulgences. Although it is possible that the Church will drop the practice of indulgences, other aspects of work for the dead confirm the fairness of God in providing others with opportunities to accept the gospel, even when they were not taught it on earth. This practice, when freed from self-interest seeking, Illustrates God loving us, including entrepreneurs. [+1p]

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Status of Non-Believers If one does all that he knows God requires of him, God will give him the means necessary for faith and salvation. If a sinner (all of us) neglects these, he will be condemned (Ruokanen, 2016). This statement seems reasonable but does not allude to various work for the dead, which is mostly part of how the dead will receive a second chance, or for them a first chance. Because this doctrine is non-specific, it will exert a neutral influence on entrepreneurs. [0d]

Miracles A miracle is divine interference with the laws of nature. We accept as real the miracles narrated in the Bible: also, others duly proved as such (Levering, 2017). This explanation is not much of an extension if it requires proof. As explained, miracles seem more neutral than anything else and would not constitute much of an add on to what entrepreneurs already know. [0d]

Satan Satan is a fallen angel tempted by pride. He is a seducer originally created as good and whose rebellion against the divine will is reflected in the temptation that he offers to Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden (Pitstick, 2007). One could assert that if God created Satan, that He is responsible for his creation’s antics. However, if Satan were a self-existent spirit from the pre-mortal realm, one who had his own agency, that God would be absolved of Satan’s choices. It is not clear from this statement, which avenue is supported by Catholic doctrine. What is clear is that Satan is a troublemaker who is negative for entrepreneurship. [−1d]

Heaven and Hell Purgatory is a state between heaven and hell. The essential characteristic of heaven, hell, and purgatory is that they are states of being of a spirit (angel/demon) or human soul, rather than places (Pitstick, 2007). One can infer from this statement that anyone can put themselves in hell,

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regardless of where they are, and the same can be true for hell and purgatory. Thus, it appears that our final state is a choice, which would allow us to be entrepreneurial. [+1d]

Church Necessary for Salvation? Membership in one Church (Catholic), founded by Christ, is necessary for salvation; those in good faith outside this Church can be saved if they correspond to the graces given to them (Ruokanen, 2016). If the graces are gifts, this suggests people can be preordained to achieve a certain status or state. Thus, this doctrine must be incompletely given, otherwise, God would favor some of us in an unfair way, which would provide a disincentive for taking entrepreneurial risk. [−1d]

Divine Revelation Revelation by God, intended for all, ceased with the time of the apostles. No revelation of doctrine, such as recorded in scriptures, since then (Levering, 2017). This doctrine suggests either that we know all that we need to know or that God does not love us anymore. Alternatively, it could mean that we are so advanced that we do not need revelation. To the contrary, there probably never has been a time when we were more in need of knowing God’s will. Regarding entrepreneurship, this approach leaves us uninformed about risk. [−1p]

Marriage Is a contract and a sacrament, binding until death of one party. No marriage relations after death. Church does not tolerate divorce (Hardon, 2011). It seems ironic that the Church does not tolerate divorce, yet so cavalierly dismisses it in the hereafter. Could this demonstrate a lack of confidence in the hereafter? Or is the nature of the hereafter going to be so discontinuous that we will find joy outside of marriage and family life. Losing a marriage partner would not normally be beneficial for entrepreneurship. [−1p]

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Purpose of Life God made us to know Him, to love Him and to serve Him in this life, and to be happy, with Him forever in the next (Hardon, 2011). The essence of this doctrinal claim is that God made us. What if we were coeternal with God and we had a pre-mortal existence? In fact, what if we were involved in the creation of Earth, from the councils in heaven, so that we could create a probationary state as a step in becoming more like Him? Neither Catholic scripture nor any of the popes has addressed this competing narrative. Could it be that we do not need to love God because we already love Him naturally and want to perfect ourselves as we become more like Him? The purpose matters and there does not seem to be any deviation in the purpose available to Catholics or entrepreneurs. [0p]

Christ’s Second Coming Christ (God) will come again in his human nature at the end of the world, to judge the living and the dead—the Last Judgment (Pitstick, 2007). The judgment being a necessary part of the plan of salvation would introduce a degree of seriousness to our intentions, which could favor systematic, informational entrepreneurship. [+1d]

Summary of the Impact of Roman Catholic Doctrine on Entrepreneurship The overall impact of the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church on entrepreneurship is plus three, which is the result of totaling the twentytwo individual scores. In addition, the beliefs were 12 for doctrine and 10 for philosophy. The rationale for the score is provided as part of the evaluation of each doctrine. The Catholic impact on entrepreneurship is massive because of the dominant number of its adherents, plus their place in the chronology of Christianity. Not only was it the first denomination if one accepts the classification; otherwise, it could be argued that the others were sects that broke away from the mother church. Despite its dominant influence, its impact on entrepreneurship has not been exceptional. This result could be viewed by some analysts as a continuation of the extreme middle. However, Catholicism is often viewed as the essence of Christianity because when most people think about Christianity, they

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think about Catholics. Its long history has had ample time to document the errors that were made by men, which were extremely detrimental. As the first church, its leaders were probably going to make mistakes. For example, its sponsorship and adoption of the doctrine of the Triune Trinity, which came out of the Council of Nicaea as a negotiated outcome for a political prize. When the final history of the world is written, it is highly likely that the doctrine of the Trinity will be judged to be the most influential, of all those that were sponsored, magnified, and promulgated to the Christian world, as well as for those for our purposes who sought to become entrepreneurs.

References Emery, G. (2012). The Trinity: An Introduction to Catholic Doctrine on the Triune God. Catholic University of America Press+ORM. Geiermann, P. (1995). The Convert’s Catechism of Catholic Doctrine. TEACH Services, Inc. Hardon, J. (2011). The Catholic Catechism: A Contemporary Catechism of the Teachings of the Catholic Church. Image. Levering, M. (2017). Was the Reformation a Mistake?: Why Catholic Doctrine Is Not Unbiblical. Zondervan Academic. Pitstick, A. (2007). Light in Darkness: Hans Urs von Balthasar and the Catholic Doctrine of Christ’s Descent into Hell. Eerdmans Publishing. Rogers, T. (2005). The Catholic Doctrine of the Church of England (Vol. 40). Wipf and Stock Publishers. Ruokanen, M. (2016). The Catholic Doctrine of Non-Christian Religions: According to the Second Vatican Council. Brill.

CHAPTER 20

Quaker Doctrine and Entrepreneurship

In 1998, the Religious Society of Friends, or Quakers, had 300,000 adherents. Half of the world’s Quakers live today in Kenya. In 1640, George Fox as a young man embarked on a journey around England to understand its spiritual turmoil. He met others on a similar quest. He came to believe that the presence of God was found within people, not churches. Quakers include people who are progressive Christians, Evangelicals, and Friends who are unsure about labels or who are even atheists.

God Most Quakers believe in Jesus Christ, but some do not because He came to teach people Himself, whereas Quakers gather in meetings to listen for the Spirit to instruct them. Quakers believe that there is a direct relationship between God and each believer; every human contains something of God, “the light of God.” Quakers believe that all humans contain goodness and truth. Based on the concept that Christ has come to teach His people Himself, stressing the importance of a direct relationship with God through Jesus Christ, this creates a universal priesthood of all believers (Brinton, 1959). The Quaker interpretation of God is the most openended and flexible of all known religions, which makes it difficult to specify how its adherents will view or pursue entrepreneurship. [0]

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Holy Trinity Most Quakers believe in the three-in-one Trinity and that God has expressed Himself as the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost (Brinton, 1959). This would be a Triune Christian interpretation within Quakerism. Others reject the Trinity because they reject Christ and even the notion of a Godhead. However, focusing on a triune Godhead, this perspective could increase entrepreneurial uncertainty. [−1p]

Holy Ghost Quakers (The Society of Friends) arose from an immediate, living experience of the Holy Spirit. Experiencing the Holy Ghost is primary to Quakers and all other experiences are secondary (Brinton, 1959). Interacting with the Spirit could empower individuals to become entrepreneurs. Or it could refocus their priorities so that they have no interest in it. [0d]

Holy Bible Quakers do not regard any book as being the actual word of God. Most Quakers regard the Bible as a great inspirational book, but they do not see it as the only one. They also read other books for inspiration (Spencer, 2004). They read other books because inspiration can come through a broad conduit, which can inspire the offering of many sources of truth. Generally, the Bible would not have a defining impact on entrepreneurship. [0p]

Pre-existence of Man Quakers have not expressed a position (Creasey, 1956). Thus, no known impact on entrepreneurship. [0p]

Ecclesiastical Authority Ecclesiastical authority comes to individuals as they listen in silence to the spirit in their meetings (Brinton, 1959). Consequently, this analysis of authority suggests that Quakerism does not exert much influence on how its adherents view and interact with the world. That is, beyond their

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meetings where they listen in silence. If it were not for their periodic meetings, it would be difficult to understand how there is sufficient cohesion for them to be viewed as a body of Christ. In contrast, from an adherent’s perspective, it is possible that they enjoy a spiritual cohesion as they perform their gatherings in silence. Even so, it is likely that any cohesion that they sense is an individual experience, which would have no predictable influence on entrepreneurship. [0p]

Baptism Quakers believe that baptism does not have the same meaning today. In fact, they have abandoned water baptism. There is only baptism of the Holy Ghost (Weddle, 2001). Given these positions, it would not be unreasonable to rename Quakers the Church of the Holy Ghost because Christ seems to have been supplanted in His importance in the Godhead. Finally, one can only conclude that even for Christian Quakers, Christ does not have the same importance today. Evidence is the position that they have taken regarding baptism. He said that it was essential to enter the kingdom of heaven (John, 3:5), yet they have abandoned water baptism. Because of this doctrine’s centrality in the gospel, clearly, they feel less obligated to worship Christ, which must weaken their faith and diminish it as a source of strength, none of which can be positive for entrepreneurship. [−1p]

Virgin Birth, Immaculate Conception Some, but not all Quakers, accept the virgin birth. No known Quakers support the Immaculate Conception. In fact, some Quakers reject Jesus Himself as non-essential (Maurice, 1891). It is not their position on one doctrine but the constellation of their positions across doctrines that weakens their cohesion as a group, but also their external influence, and even their predictability as individuals. As a result, their positions on the virgin birth and immaculate conception will have little influence on their propensity to pursue entrepreneurship. [0p]

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Did Christ Organize a Church? Christ is the head of the Church. The Church is the body of Christ (Weddle, 2001). After having many Quakers reject Christ, this doctrine is not only surprising but stunning. Of course, their definition of “church” does not refer to an organization but to an invisible church that has spiritual cohesion, presumably because they believe the same things or are pursuing the same goals. However, they do not believe the same doctrine, nor are they pursuing the same goals. In fact, among themselves, they do not worship the same god. The answer to this question, with its necessary assumptions, is approaching a mass of confusion. Clearly, Quakers are members of a religion that does not compel them to believe the same, including about the value that they place on entrepreneurship. [−1p]

Lord’s Supper They reject the Eucharist believing that no sacrament is vital to contacting God (Spencer, 2004). Most Christians take the sacrament in remembrance of their baptismal covenants, if they do not practice infant baptism, and choosing to reject the sacrament is the same as rejecting the atonement as the central event in the Christian story. Only a non-Christian could do this, so it is not surprising that many Quakers declare themselves to be non-Christian. With such divergent views, one must be extremely tolerant to seek fellowship with non-believers. Again, this divergence would not foster entrepreneurship. That is, unless it could be viewed as being in support of the divergence. [−1p]

Christ’s Atonement Christ died for our sins but rose again on the third day. He is the only mediator between man and God (Dunn, 1978). This doctrine stands in juxtaposition to the previous one regarding the Lord’s Supper. The only way that they can be reconciled is if they represent different Quaker factions. But even so, an outsider is left wondering what to believe about their Christianity. This central conflict instills confusion and uncertainty regarding the role of divinity and our relationship with Christ, and for entrepreneurs [−1p]

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Man’s Resurrection Man will overcome death through the atonement and resurrection of Jesus Christ, although this is not accepted by all (Creasey, 1956). This doctrine will have mixed effects on entrepreneurship due to its lack of unanimity, which will probably be determined in the mind and in the heart of individual believers. [0p]

Life After Death Quakers have no specific beliefs about what happens after we die. Their focus is on writing a will to care for those left behind (Tual, 1988). If someone is focused on writing their will, they are not going to be thinking about starting a new business. [−1p]

Vicarious Work for Dead There is no vicarious work for the dead (Tual, 1988). This is certainly not surprising when they do not have beliefs about what is going to happen to themselves. For all they know and believe, death could be the end—bitter or sweet, it could all be coming to a permanent end with no future. This sort of belief is the most damning of all for future planning, including entrepreneurship. [−1p]

Status of Non-Believers Because not all Quakers agree with each other on the meaning of life, they allow the same ambivalent standard to apply to non-believers (Maurice, 1891). In other words, they do not agree with themselves, and they do not agree with others. It is surprising that they even exist as a denomination. I wonder if they think that George Fox, their founder, made a mistake. They cannot even offer themselves comfort and reassurance. This belief offers no positive reassurance to potential entrepreneurs. [−1p]

Miracles The Quaker founder, George Fox, believed in miracles of healing through his own words, prayer, and touch, which were performed by God (Kent, 1983). There is no mention of priesthood authority, so once again, a

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miracle is between a man and his faith in God. Anyone can be authorized to invoke a blessing of healing for him or herself. Such an approach seems to deliberately exclude a role for the Church. In effect, believers can act entrepreneurially to seek a blessing for themselves. This could offer an opportunity for entrepreneurs. [+1p]

Satan Most Quakers accept the existence of Satan. Their detractors view Quakerism itself as a Satanic cult (Weddle, 2001). Having cruel detractors has always been the fate of believers and is common for all religions. In the short term, the detractors are highly negative. Over time, their criticisms tend to lose their effectiveness. As the sworn enemy of God and believers, we can expect him to be a negative for entrepreneurs. [−1d]

Heaven and Hell Quakers believe God’s kingdom is now and consider heaven and hell to be issues for individual interpretation (Spencer, 2004). If His kingdom is now, why isn’t there more overt communication with God? Of course, the degree of communication is not documented on an individual basis, nor is it combined in a summary report. Most people have probably not noticed that God rules now in His kingdom. They are too busy trying to succeed during this probationary state. Nor is God apparently taking care of believers so that do not need to succeed temporally. Nor have any known believers proclaimed that their faith and works have made them successful entrepreneurs. [0p]

Church Necessary for Salvation? Quakers have no formal clergy. God can inspire individuals separately from a clergy (Brinton, 1959). Building independence as believers reinforces their entrepreneurial competence. However, lacking a clergy to lead a congregation provides them with the space to act on their own inspiration. [+1p]

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Divine Revelation Divine knowledge depends on revelation to individuals (Brinton, 1959). Personal revelation is most likely to come to individuals. However, this raises the question of how the institution receives guidance so that it is leading individuals and programs. The answer is that Quakerism provides no specific channel for receiving institutional guidance, nor is it expected. Individuals could receive revelation to help them launch ventures. [+1d]

Marriage Marriage is desirable and ordained by God (Tual, 1988). This doctrine would be shared by most of Christianity. However, the doctrine is silent on the future of marriage as well as the status of the family in eternity. This could be a disincentive for entrepreneurship. [−1p]

Purpose of Life Quakers prefer to let their lives preach by putting their faith in action (Spencer, 2004). Their style of faith is commendable, but the statement is silent on how and why we should live. This could be a lost opportunity to instill entrepreneurship. [0p]

Christ’s Second Coming It is eagerly anticipated but unknown as to when it will occur (Creasey, 1956). This doctrine is expressed as though all Quakers believed it when we know that they do not. For those who believe it, it could bring peace and purpose to their goals of becoming entrepreneurs. [+1p]

Summary of the Impact of Quaker Doctrine on Entrepreneurship The overall impact of Quaker doctrines on entrepreneurship is minus six, which is the result of totaling the twenty-two individual scores. In addition, the beliefs were 3 for doctrine and 19 for philosophy. The rationale for the score is provided as part of the evaluation of each doctrine. The Quakers are a small denomination mostly located in Kenya. Its impact on entrepreneurship is negative, but mostly inconsequential due to its few

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adherents. Its impact today has diminished, perhaps due to not taking many stands on doctrines. Surprisingly, many Quakers are not Christian and therefore do not abide by Quaker precepts for living. One Quaker trait that sets its adherents apart is that their meetings consist of sitting in silence waiting for the spirit to speak to them. We can assume that when the spirit does speak to Quakers, it is not speaking to them about entrepreneurship, because it hardly speaks to them about doctrinal issues.

References Brinton, H. (1959). The Quaker Doctrine of the Holy Spirit. Quaker Religious Thought, 1(1), 2. Creasey, M. A. (1956). Early Quaker Christology, with special reference to the teaching and significance of Isaac Penington, 1616–1679: an essay in interpretation (Doctoral dissertation, University of Leeds). Dunn, M. (1978). Saints and Sisters: Congregational and Quaker Women in the Early Colonial Period. American Quarterly, 30(5), 582–601. Kent, S. (1983). The Quaker ethic and the fixed price policy: Max Weber and beyond. Sociological Inquiry, 53(1), 16–28. Maurice, F. (1891). The Kingdom of Christ: Or, Hints to a Quaker Respecting the Principles, Constitution, and Ordinances of the Catholic Church (Vol. 1). Macmillan. Tual, J. (1988). Sexual equality and conjugal harmony: the way to celestial bliss. A view of early Quaker matrimony. The Journal of the Friends Historical Society, 55(6). Spencer, C. (2004). Holiness: The Quaker way of perfection. Quaker History, 93(1), 123–147. Weddle, M. B. (2001). Walking in the way of peace: Quaker pacifism in the seventeenth century. Oxford University Press.

CHAPTER 21

Unitarian Doctrine and Entrepreneurship

In 2020, there were 187,689 Unitarians worldwide. Even though some Unitarians are Christians in that they follow Christian precepts, typically they question God and Christ to the extent that it is fair to ask if Unitarians can even be a religion rather than merely a humanistic philosophy for living. Here are the Church’s doctrines:

God A spirit, not transcendent but eminent. No tranquility or materiality. Traditionally anti-Trinitarian. Opinion now ranges from belief in Fatherhood of God to agnostic humanism, emphasizing human values (Wallace, 1850). Worshiping God is a central tenant in nearly all religions, yet there is a faction of Unitarians who are more focused on advancing human values than on worshiping God. When a faith lacks central tenants, its adherents tend to follow their interests in different directions. We will see that Unitarians exemplify this tendency. Their constellation of beliefs about God would have no predictable influence on entrepreneurship. [0p]

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Holy Trinity No belief in. Such a belief would be contrary to the unity of things, as we understand. Christ was a great moral teacher only (Wallace, 1850). Trinity is one of the most inscrutable of Christian doctrines. Not believing in it, does not diminish this Church by losing a belief that is fundamental to the relationship between God and Man. God still could exist, and this doctrine would not change His existence. However, it does make it more challenging to categorize this preeminent belief that determines the possibilities that man can achieve in his relationship with God. Regarding entrepreneurship, this doctrine’s effect would be neutral. [0p]

Holy Ghost No belief in. Biblical references not to be understood literally (Wallace, 1850). This doctrine creates a wider gulf between God and Man. In other religions, the role of the Holy Ghost is to bridge this gulf. Without the Holy Ghost, how God will communicate with man is left unspecified. Likewise, it leaves unspecified how God could support entrepreneurship. [0p]

Holy Bible Religious source book of the history of man. Only man-made. To be interpreted by reason and conscience, not taken literally—any book having scriptural value can be called scripture (Wallace, 1850). For orthodox Christians, this Unitarian doctrine approaches heresy. They not only reject the Bible as a source of truth and a record of God’s dealings with man, but also as a source of the authority to officiate in the work of the Lord, which is claimed by most protestant denominations. It also removes their common religious currency for developing a mutual understanding among denominations. This doctrine would disrupt the peace and harmony shared across many denominations and would be detrimental to entrepreneurship. [−1p]

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Pre-existence Our beginning was here on this earth, therefore no pre-existence (Ulmer, 2005). If we had a pre-existence, we do not remember it, which would pose an obstacle to drawing on the experience without divine assistance. For example, Jeremiah could not remember his pre-existence, but Jehovah reassured him that He knew him before he was conceived in the womb. Before I formed thee in the belly, I knew thee; and before thou camest forth out of the womb I sanctified thee, and I ordained thee a prophet unto the nations. (Jeremiah 1:5)

Having a pre-existence changes our understanding of the nature of our being. Not having one makes us mortal creatures with a birth and a death, whereas having one raises the possibility of benefitting from a relationship with deity and perhaps enjoying our own immortality. Being related to divinity would support our hope that we could be successful entrepreneurs. [−1p]

Ecclesiastical Authority No ecclesiastical authority. Ministers and board of trustees govern the Church. Ministers are appointed. A few of our clergy recruited from other churches (Harris, 1998). This doctrine raises the question of what is the difference between Unitarian authority and that exercised by members of a Kiwanis Club that votes on how it will operate? It does not suggest that the board or the ministers seek God’s will in their operational decisions. Such an approach raises the possibility of political influence to make determinations on issues touching the divine. This approach may have proper humanist intentions, but it is not foolproof nor reliably supportive of entrepreneurship. [−1p]

Baptism No baptism. Members are admitted by covenant. “In the love of truth and spirit of Jesus we unite for the worship of God and the service of man” or by signing simple statement of ethical purpose (Fuller, 1797). The covenant seems more like an agreement among fellow travelers than

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it does an agreement with God to achieve the remission of sins. Is not this agreement like one that would be made to join a social organization? The reason that it sets itself apart is that Unitarianism is a church, not a social club. It is possible that entrepreneurs could increase their networking in a social organization. [+1p]

Virgin Birth, Immaculate Conception Do not believe Jesus Christ was the literal Son of God, in any supernatural sense, any more than all of us are the sons of God (Spirit) (Lindsey, 1783). If Christ is not the literal Son of God, then He cannot be the savior of mankind. Nor would Christianity have redeeming power. Of necessity, Christianity would be overpromising because its savior would be a fraud. This statement invalidates any interest in knowing if Mary was perfect because even if she were, she was not the Savior. In summary, this doctrine is a disappointment and repudiation of the claims found in the four Gospel, suggesting that it could offer little valid assistance to aspiring entrepreneurs. [−1p]

Did Christ Organize a Church? Christ did not organize a church but had followers and was a great moral, ethical, spiritual, and religious leader (Greenwood & Harris, 2011). This doctrine contradicts the Apostle Paul in the Book of Ephesians (4:11–14) about Christ organizing a Church. And he gave some, apostles; and some, prophets; and some, evangelists; and some, pastors, and teachers. For the perfecting of the saints [church members] for the work of the ministry, for the edifying of the body of Christ: Till we all come in the unity of faith, and of the knowledge of the Son of God, unto a perfect man, unto the measure of the stature of the fulness of Christ: That we henceforth be no more children, tossed to and fro, and carried about with every wind of doctrine, by the sleight of men, and cunning craftiness, whereby they lie in wait to deceive.

The Church was organized because Christians have not yet reached a unity of faith nor reached the perfection of the Son of Man. Also, there is still evidence that believers are being tossed around by every wind of

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doctrine. Thus, those who claim that we no longer need the church that Christ organized should explain how these challenges are being addressed without one. This confusion about Christ not organizing a church cannot help entrepreneurship. [−1p]

Lord’s Supper Administered seldom and then only upon request, as a symbol of love as manifest in fellowship (Belsham, 1820). Clearly, this statement is not geared toward the atonement but toward the social aspects of fellowship, which are entirely different. This is the sort of doctrinal divergence that occurs when churches deny divine revelation because they are overtaken by the philosophies of men. The sacrament from a social perspective would have minimum impact on entrepreneurship. [0p]

Christ’s Atonement Man (race) has never fallen and therefore, no restoration or atonement necessary. Majority believe in theory of evolution, i.e., our development from lower forms (Lindsey, 1783). This is the basest possible interpretation of man’s possibilities. It connotes the law of the jungle, survival of the fittest, the rejection of man’s divine potential, and the work of salvation made possible through the atonement. In fact, it continues to reject Christ’s divinity. Regarding whether man has fallen, no one can deny that man falls short of the divine ideals taught by Christ in the Sermon on the Mount. This statement is also an implicit rejection of the ideal that man was to reach upward toward God so that He could reach down to lift us up. Given the purported scheme about humans struggling to survive in a hostile jungle where only the strong are vicious enough, entrepreneurs would constantly be threatened. [−1p]

Man’s Resurrection Do not believe in a literal resurrection, but that there may be identity in some form or other (Lindsey, 1783). This notion is akin to the Hindu doctrine of reincarnation and the transmigration of the soul, except that it is more uncertain. Why would anyone strive to pursue entrepreneurial goals when they could slam themselves headlong into an inhospitable, unknown future? [−1p]

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Life After Death Have no knowledge of. Majority still believe in survival of personality after death. The emphasis of Unitarian teaching is this worldly (Lindsey, 1783). It is not clear why the scope of such teaching would exclude the future beyond the grave, even if all that were that would be death. Or alternatively, the future could be so abhorrent that mankind and entrepreneurs would enjoy more peace not knowing about it. [−2p]

Vicarious Work for Dead We are powerless to aid those who are dead (Pease, 1956). In fact, it could be that Unitarian doctrine indicates that Christ is powerless to save either the living or the dead because we are doomed to die an ignominious death in the jungle while being excluded from the morning after the resurrection. This is quite sad but at least the living and the dead are treated in the same way, so that God will be no respecter of persons—everyone will die, including the entrepreneurs. [−2p]

Status of Non-Believers People will be saved by their character. Do not believe in hell, therefore, no future condemnation from which we are to be saved (Harris, 1998). Clearly, they do not assume that faithful members of their Church earn future credit by obeying its precepts, nor do non-believers lose credit for the future. Life, here and now, is the same for everyone with no expectations for a better future for anyone, including entrepreneurs. [−2p]

Miracles Do not believe in infractions of the natural law, as natural laws cannot be broken. Biblical miracles not taken literally but regarded as legendary (Greenwood & Harris, 2011). The rejection of Biblical miracles, assuming that they were reported free of translation errors, is also the rejection of Christ and His priesthood power, which He delegated to His apostles. He gave it to His apostles because they were the ones who were to preside over His Church. Every entrepreneur hopes that his new

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venture will enjoy a miraculous future, but this is not to be for Unitarians. [−1p]

Satan A fictitious character to represent evil. Biblical account of Satan discarded (Fuller, 1797). It is not the absence of Satan that is disconcerting. Rather it is the absence of a Biblical standard even if it has developed errors over the centuries. This loss suggests that other truths could be lost, which would not be helpful to entrepreneurship. [−1p]

Heaven and Hell Believe in such only as myths, coming to us from primitive lore of all peoples. The terms are still used to denote evil conditions to be overcome and good to be attained (Fuller, 1797). For the purposes of entrepreneurship, it could be that this new nomenclature is a distinction without a difference, assuming that the resultant motivations would be the same. [0p]

Church Necessary for Salvation? No. A church is simply an organized force for personal and social betterment (Greenwood & Harris, 2011). Nevertheless, a church structure is an artifact of an active and vibrant religion. The Unitarian position makes a church seem superfluous, particularly because salvation would not be an organizational goal, which cannot support entrepreneurship. [−1p]

Divine Revelation Do not believe in. Man advances in knowledge only by his own discoveries. There is no connection (revealing) between God (Spirit) and man (Ulmer, 2005). Assuming that there is a God who can communicate man through revelation, the question arises, why would He not reveal and guide us? A couple of answers are possible. First, He has lost the power, and second, He does not care about us. Both answers are troubling, leading to chaos and confusion, neither one of which can be helpful to entrepreneurship. [−1p]

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Marriage For this life only, do not know of any such relationship hereafter (Ulmer, 2005). Life without one’s marriage partner would be lonelier. Lonely, solitary actors would not be as effective as entrepreneurs. [−1p]

Purpose of Life To be found not by reference to some ultimate purpose of which we have no definite knowledge, but to the higher values discovered in human experience (Fuller, 1797). This is more evidence of the unitarian focus on humanism, not on a relationship with the divine. Men are to look to each other, not to God because He will not answer. This would also pertain to entrepreneurs. [−1p]

Christ’s Second Coming Do not believe that there will be a Second Coming of Christ, as He was only a great moral teacher and was subject to death, as with all other men (Greenwood & Harris, 2011). This is an indirect attack on the primary protagonist in Christianity. Without Him all else would be a myth and unhelpful to entrepreneurship. [−1p]

Summary of the Impact of Unitarian Doctrine on Entrepreneurship The overall impact of Unitarian doctrines on entrepreneurship is minus nineteen, which is the result of totaling the twenty-two individual scores. In addition, the beliefs were 0 for doctrine and 22 for philosophy. The primary factor that caused this negative combined effect is that it is not a religion unless one thinks that belief in God can be optional. In addition, it is dismissive of more conventional or orthodox Christians. It ignores the godhead, ridicules miracles, and does not believe in salvation for the dead. It also dismisses baptism and the resurrection. It also rejects forgiveness of sins because it asserts that mankind has never fallen. The Bible is not divinely inspired and only contains a collection of myths. Accordingly, man must live for today because there is nothing beyond the

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grave. It contains few optimistic messages except that fellowship is available for those who wish to meet. Fellowship could lead to networking opportunities for aspiring entrepreneurs.

References Belsham, T. (1820). Memoirs of the Late Reverend Theophilus Lindsey, MA, Including a Brief Analysis of His Works: Together with Anecdotes and Letters of Eminent Persons, His Friends, and Correspondents; Also, a General View of the Progress of the Unitarian Doctrine in England and America. R. Hunter. Fuller, A. (1797). Socinianism Indefensible: On the Ground of Its Moral Tendency: Containing a Reply to Two Late Publications, the One by Dr. Toulmin, Entitled the Practical Efficacy of the Unitarian Doctrine Considered, the Other by Mr. Kentish, Entitled The Moral Tendency of the Genuine Christian Doctrine. Author, and sold. Greenwood, A., & Harris, M. (2011). An Introduction to the Unitarian and Universalist Traditions. Cambridge University Press. Harris, M. (1998). Unitarian Universalist Origins: Our Historic Faith. Unitarian Universalist Association of Congregations. Lindsey, T. (1783). An Historical View of the State of the Unitarian Doctrine and Worship: From the Reformation to Our Own Times…. By Theophilus Lindsey, AM (No. 5). J. Johnson. Pease, W. (1956). Doctrine and Fellowship: William Channing Gannett and the Unitarian Creedal Issue. Church History, 25(3), 210–238. Ulmer, W. (2005). Virtue of Necessity: Coleridge’s Unitarian Moral Theory. Modern Philology, 102(3), 372–404. Wallace, R. (1850). Antitrinitarian Biography, or Sketches of the Lives and Writings of Distinguished Antitrinitarians: Exhibiting a View of the State of the Unitarian Doctrine and Worship in the Principal Nations of Europe, from the Reformation to the Close of the Seventeenth Century: to which is Prefixed a History of Unitarianism in England During the Same Period (Vol. 2). ET Whitfield.

CHAPTER 22

Secondary Questions for Christians

The following secondary questions could be explored to explain how Christian doctrine could change entrepreneurial expectations. In some cases, they will identify the mechanisms that could be in play to moderate behavior and decision-making. • Some denominations believe in a bodily resurrection with adverse consequences for corruption. Does a belief in forgivable corruption make it easier to launch a new venture? In other words, is repentance for such denominations the same as forgiveness on a lay-away plan— sin a little today and then repent as is convenient? • Does a denomination’s belief in ongoing revelation spill over to individual revelation to launch a new venture? • Some denominations reject baptism and the sacrament. Nor do they have a doctrine regarding the immortality of the soul. In other words, the justice that one obtains in this life is about the same as would be obtained in the hereafter. Does this belief in the extension of earthly justice serve as a disincentive to launch a new venture? • Some denominations reject speculative theology, which means that they take a position that adherents are not supposed to “theorize” about it, which ought to provide a disincentive to launch a venture. Is that the case?

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• Some denominations reject Jesus Christ as the savior, along with potential forgiveness of sins. Does that incentivize a “live and let live” philosophy, leading to more corruption, and fewer startups? • If Christ was only a great teacher and not divine, as advocated by some denominations, does that translate into a less hopeful life, which would depress startups? Relatedly, do atheists live a more hopeless life than believers? • One denomination believes that there is a fixed number of sinners who will be saved with some others consigned to an unknown planet while the rest will be annihilated. Would there be any motivation left over to do anything that did not matter anyway, including launching a new venture? • Many denominations prioritize faith over works. Because launching a new venture requires work, would such a belief lead to fewer startups? Or would the obverse be true—greater faith leading to more startups? • Some denominations believe in life and progression after death, which would be a continuation of earthly efforts. Would a belief in eternal progression incentivize entrepreneurship in this life? • Some denominations allow adherents to believe whatever they wish—in other words, they live a life without fixed beliefs or rules. Again, would those who are not governed themselves by rules become more successful independent agents, compared with those who follow eternal rules? • Do some denominations generate more optimism than others, resulting in more startups?

References Bae, T., Qian, S., Miao, C., & Fiet, J. (2014). The Relationship Between Entrepreneurial Education and Entrepreneurial Intentions: A Meta-Analytic Review. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 38(2), 217–254. Shane, S., & Nicolaou, N. (2013). The Genetics of Entrepreneurial Performance. International Small Business Journal: Researching Entrepreneurship, 31(5), 473–495.

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Quiller-Couch (Ed.). (1919). William Wordsworth 1770–1850. Ode Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood. The Oxford Book of English Verse: 1250–1900. Clarendon. Weber, M., Baehr, P., et al. (2002). The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism: and Other Writings. Penguin Twentieth-Century Classics.

PART III

Doctrinal Differences among World Religions

CHAPTER 23

Basis for Doctrinal Differences Among World Religions

Twenty characteristics will be used to compare each of the 9 world religions. The purpose of the comparisons will be to explain the rational impact that they could have on an entrepreneur’s prospects for launching a new venture. The doctrines to be analyzed were identified for the first time in the current treatment. One could argue that the first three characteristics are descriptors, not doctrines. This descriptor nomenclature is supported by the analysis because it does not have its own impact on entrepreneurship.

1 First Earthly Exponent. Who is credited with being its first teacher of the doctrine? 2 Origins. What is the creation story of a religion? Is it the creation of the earth or of the religion itself? 3 Today? How do believers today fit into the story of its origins? How are they connected with the origins? 4 Is There a God? Is God in charge? What is our relationship with Him or Her? What were his responsibilities to us? Are they the same today? 5 Is There More Than One God? How many? Is our responsibility to each of them the same?

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6 Roles of the Gods. Do they have separable responsibilities? How are our responsibilities to them different? Their responsibilities to us? 7 Is Religion More of a Philosophy for Living? Is it divine in its origin? Does it have a God as the central organizer of the universe? What is our eternal destiny if it is only a philosophy for living that does not have the power to save us from our imperfections? If it has the power to save us, can we become like God? 8 What Is Required to Be an Adherent? Who oversees the standards, God, or Man? What will be the consequences if we fail to meet the standards. How will we benefit if we meet the standards? 9 Is There a Savior? What is his relationship to us? Why did he intercede for us? What is our responsibility or obligation to Him? 10 What Is the Object of Faith? In whom or in what do adherents have faith? How was this dependency created? 11 Is There a Role for Marriage and Family? Is it central to our eternal purpose? How else would children come into the world? How else could children be nurtured and taught? Are families necessary or optional? If so, what is their essential role? 12 Is There a Caste System? Is the system of earthly or heavenly origin? What is its past? What is its future? 13 Are There Required or Suggested Practices? What determines whether they are required or suggested? What is their purpose? What is their future? 14 Are There Required Rituals or Ceremonies? What are they and what purpose do they serve? What happens to us if we neglect them? 15 Is There Divine Revelation? Is it necessary for God to communicate with us? How does He do it? Is revelation recorded in holy scripture and used as the basis for worship? Who is authorized to interpret scripture or to pronounce God’s will for mankind? 16 What Is the Purpose of Life? Does the purpose require working with others or can we accomplish it by ourselves? 17 What Follows Earth Life? Are there differing gradients of life that we can earn or are they gifts or punishments to us from God? Should our understanding of post-mortal life influence the choices that we make now? To become an entrepreneur? 18 Is There a Reward for Faithfulness? Or is the reward merely the quality of the life that we enjoy now?

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19 How Is Religion Relevant to Our Present Lives? Does it only provide us with comfort or is it a guide for happier and more successful living? 20 Is It a Guide for Becoming a Successful Entrepreneur? Or is earning a living simply something that we must do to survive? Does how we earn a living, either working for someone else or being an entrepreneur, really matter in an eternal scheme?

References Fiet, J. (2022). The Theoretical World of Entrepreneurship. Edward Elgar Publishing. Smith, H. (2009). The World’s Religions. HarperOne.

CHAPTER 24

Buddhist Doctrine and Entrepreneurship

Buddhism was founded 2,500 years ago in Nepal. Adherents make up 7 percent of the world’s population but are expected to decline to 5 percent by 2060. In 2010, there were reportedly 500 million Buddhists, making it the still dominant religion in East Asia. Here are its doctrines:

First Earthly Exponent Prince Shakyamuni Buddha founded the religion in the fifth century B.C.E. and effectively became the first Buddha. His father was a king. His upbringing was luxurious. He was exceptionally handsome. He was well born of pure descent. He inspired trust; he was gifted with great beauty, fair in color, fine in appearance, stately to behold; he had elephants and silver ornaments for his elephants; his model wife was as majestic as a queen in heaven, constant, ever-cheerful, full of dignity, and exceeding grace. He was destined for fame and glory. One day in his twenties, he awoke and became discontented; he decided to renounce everything in his life to pursue something more—enlightenment and an end to suffering. To dissuade him, he was given three palaces and 40,000 dancing girls. However, fleshly pleasures lost their appeal once he meditated on sin and suffering. He was shielded from sickness, decrepitude, and death; runners were to clear his path of these sights. [--]

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Applied Asceticism He gave up on asceticism alone and devoted the final phase of his awakening to a combination of rigorous thought and mystic concentration. He posed under a Bodhi-tree where he was attacked first by Kama, the God of Desire, parading three voluptuous women with their tempting retinues. In steady sequence he was challenged by other Hindu gods, with their specific competencies. He spent the next half-century speaking with anyone who would listen (Matilal, 1989). He founded an order of monks and nuns and challenged the deadness of the Brahmin society. He died of dysentery after 45 years of preaching, having reached the highest plane of understanding. His teachings were the basis for the religion. [--p]

Entrepreneurial Application Buddha learned how he wanted to live and spent the rest of his life pursuing his quest. Such a single-minded pursuit is unlikely to develop a successful entrepreneur. Nor is understanding a philosophy for living likely to contribute to one becoming a successful entrepreneur (Fiet, 2022). An entrepreneur must recognize and create value as well as understand the market for the value created. Nor will meditation necessarily enable an entrepreneur to understand industry dynamics. What could seem like a worldly failure decreases in importance as one prioritizes spiritual awakening over worldly wealth. A counterargument could be that pursuing a personal awakening would endow a devotee with personal equanimity, peace, insight, singlemindedness, and a greater understanding of what was the focus of a person’s attention. The question is whether these cognitive advantages would translate into an entrepreneurial advantage? The answer depends on whether the knowledge acquired is a close fit with the information needed to launch a new venture. It seems unlikely that mystic devotion will improve the informational fit required to align an entrepreneur’s resources with a prospective opportunity. [-1p]

Origins Buddhism began with a man who woke up. He developed a new set of religious practices, the foremost of which was meditation. He meditated on the question of “What are you, not who are you?” (Kochumuttom,

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1989). Teaching evolved as Buddhists spread from Nepal, then to East Asia, and then to the rest of the world. For entrepreneurs, the question becomes, is what a person is more important than who a person is? An important aspect of entrepreneurship is informational. The most valuable type of information for entrepreneurs is related to people, places, special circumstances, timing, and technology—information that is specifically related to an exploitable opportunity. This answer is a “what” answer, not a “who” answer. Without the “what” information, entrepreneurship would depend more on luck than deliberate actions and choices. Meditation is well suited for answering both the “who” question and the “what” question. In fact, meditation could become an important decision support tool to answer the “what” question, which could help entrepreneurs launch new ventures. [+1p]

Today There are 244 million Buddhists living in China. One percent of US adults are Buddhists and two-thirds are Asian Americans. The one percent represents a miniscule number of US adherents (Fiet, 2022). However, their small number is not an impediment to entrepreneurship, based on the pursuit of specific information, which is highly subject to proactive, constrained, systematic search. [--]

God Buddha was asked by his followers, are you a god? An angel? A saint? His reply was that he was awake (Kochumuttom, 1989). Buddha means the enlightened one. Being God is not the goal. Instead, the purpose of Buddhism is to achieve spiritual enlightenment and cease suffering, which occurs by following the eightfold path (Davids, 1877; Siderits, 2021), which consists of the following steps: 1. Right understanding: Understanding that the Four Nobel Truths are noble and true as follows: a. Suffering b. Cause of suffering c. Cessation of suffering

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d. Eightfold path to the cessation of suffering. 2. Right thoughts: Determining and resolving to practice the Buddhist faith. 3. Right speech: Avoiding slander, gossip, lying, and all forms of untrue and abusive speech. 4. Right conduct: Adhering to nonviolence (ahimsa), as well as refraining from stealing or sexual impropriety. 5. Right means of making a living: Not slaughtering animals or working at jobs that force you to violate others. 6. Right mental attitude or effort: Avoiding negative thoughts and emotions, such as anger or jealousy. 7. Right mindfulness: Having a clear sense of one’s mental state and bodily health and feelings. 8. Right concentration: Using meditation to reach the highest level of enlightenment. Becoming or worshiping God is not the immediate goal. Instead, the purpose of Buddhism is to achieve spiritual enlightenment and cease suffering, which occurs by following the eightfold path. We can see in Buddha’s own life that pursuing this purpose will not contribute to becoming a successful entrepreneur. Rather than economic or innovative engagement, it will lead to disengagement through meditation and sacrifice. [-2p]

More Than One God The goal is for each practitioner to achieve spiritual enlightenment, which is comparable to becoming a god unto and for oneself. This was true even though Buddhist followers lived among Hindus with their 33 million gods. The choice becomes godhood or spiritual enlightenment. Spiritual enlightenment would lead to a greater understanding of oneself and the universe, whereas, becoming a god would lead to mastery of the laws governing the universe. Either option would lead to living life in a higher and holier way, rather than mucking around in a temporally focused earthly mortality. Nor would this way of life lead to a relationship with God because God is not the focus of Buddhism (Cabezón, 2000). The effect of this view of divinity would be to lead potential entrepreneurs to a greater sensitivity

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to their spiritual nature, which would distance them from entrepreneurship. Thus, in countries where Buddhism is the dominant religion, it is not surprising that there is less entrepreneurship and more poverty. [-2p]

Roles of the Gods? There is no mention of Buddhists becoming gods (Cabezón, 2000). Enlightenment is the goal. They are aware of the 33 million Hindu gods surrounding them, but they are focused elsewhere—on discovering what they are. This discovery does not come from a revelatory process based on God’s involvement. Nor in fact, is there any discussion of gods. Rather the discovery is self-directed. Nor is there a discussion as to the roles adherents would play as they pursue separate but parallel paths. There are few clues as to how long this quest could take. Neither do we know the relationships that could develop among those who pursue their own enlightenment. Clearly, these processes are far removed from any gods and from entrepreneurship. [-2p]

Philosophy for Living? While Hinduism developed over eons from prehistoric times, Buddhism emerged nearly fully formed, ready to point the way to enlightenment (Siderits, 2021). Buddhists practice singing and chanting as part of their religious celebration. They also practice mediation, which is part of the eightfold path. It is possible that these practices could increase mutual fellowship. However, it is quite unlikely that they would lead to the exchange of information that would support entrepreneurship. They would also be a distraction from investing in specific information to understand when value can be created. [-1p]

Requirements Buddha preached a religion devoid of authority. He also preached a religion devoid of ritual. He preached a religion devoid of tradition. He preached a religion of intense self-effort. He preached a religion devoid of the supernatural. Finally, he preached a religion that skirted speculation and thus was devoid of requirements. He also skirted the thicket of theorizing. He maintained a noble silence regarding theorizing and doctrine. Most analysts view Buddha’s religion—without authority, ritual, theology,

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tradition, grace, and the supernatural—as also being a religion without God (Siderits, 2021). Being a religion without God makes it more akin to being a philosophy of living, yet one focused on enlightenment. The question becomes, is this philosophy of living consistent with entrepreneurship? It is probably not consistent if it means that an aspiring entrepreneur is pursuing enlightenment. [-1p]

Savior There are two Buddhist pathways or denominations, Theravada, and Mahayana (Streng, 1971). In the first, Buddha is a saint, supreme teacher, and inspirer, not a savior, although he encouraged virtuous living. His view was that his followers had to overcome through their own efforts the obstacles to their own enlightenment. In the second, Buddha is a savior, probably because he was so indispensable in showing others the path to enlightenment. A discussion of Buddha being a savior would not be complete without understanding Prajnaparamita, or the Perfection of Wisdom sutras, which are the culminating texts: (1) dukkha, (2) karma, (3) nirvana, and their like; (4) the committed order, and (5) the person of the Buddha himself— all of which are vital to the individual and in crossing into enlightenment. The Buddha is envisioned as playing a salvific role, which individuals cannot perform for themselves. The analogy of Buddha playing a savior in one of his roles is more like him teaching us how to follow his path (Nicholson, 2012). The path becomes what redeems us, not some extraordinary powers that he possesses or admonitions to follow his path. Nor is entrepreneurship central to this salvific role. [+1p] The objective of Buddhist theology is enlightenment and putting an end to suffering. Faith seems to be beside the point to Buddhists. Instead, Buddhism is (a) empirical, (b) scientific, (c) pragmatic, (d) therapeutic, (c) psychological, (f) egalitarian, and (g) individualistic. Faith may be less important than life as we know it (Chen, 2001). In contrast, entrepreneurs must often make assumptions about the future, which would not promote entrepreneurship. [-1p]

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Marriage and Family Marriage and family are necessary and helpful to overcome the following life challenges: (a) the trauma of birth, (b) the pathology of sickness, (c) to be tied to what one dislikes, (d) the phobia of death, (e) the morbidity of decrepitude, and (d) to be separated from what one loves. In connection with marriage, Buddhists have attempted to perfect the art of Tantra, or at least in one of its forms, sexual proclivity, within the bounds of marriage, so that one does not need to choose between practicing Tantra and asceticism (Kochumuttom, 1989). After all, sex is an essential part of regenerating and extending life. As outlined above, marriage fulfills and satisfies many of life’s needs. The point of marriage is to make it full of joy, regardless of how long it lasts. One wonders whether a joyful life would motivate entrepreneurship. The Buddhist view does not touch on its longevity or whether one will be married beyond the grave. So, does joy now and distraction later lead to greater or lesser entrepreneurship? It is not clear. [0p]

Caste System Buddhists do not practice the Hindu caste system although many of them live among those who practice it (Fiet, 2022). The caste system raises the question of whether it promotes the exchange, of goods, services, and information. Generally, the answer is probably no, but not always, depending partially on the level of poverty. There is no question that such a system restricts access to opportunity. It probably reduces losses because many lower caste members are unable to afford to be market actors. Combined, these factors exert a negative influence on entrepreneurship. [-1p]

Suggested Practices Buddhists are encouraged to follow the eightfold path to spiritual enlightenment. Some also practice Tantra, which is a systematic quest for salvation or spiritual excellence by realizing and fostering the divine within one’s own body, one that is the simultaneous union of the masculine– feminine and spirit-matter and has the goal of realizing the primal blissful state of non-duality. Nonduality is a philosophy, which says that there is just one Eternal Spirit in existence, and that everything in the Universe is

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an inseparable part of it. We become non-dual when we realize that we are not separate from our experiences. The suggested practices seem to have a different purpose than the eightfold path—not enlightenment, but blissful, and sexual, enjoyment (Kochumuttom, 1989). In either case, these would not focus entrepreneurs on how to launch a venture. Entrepreneurship is an earthly endeavor, not one focused on personal enlightenment. Whereas a sexual, Tantra focus would blur any entrepreneurial focus beyond one’s marriage partner if one were to comply with Buddhist norms. [0p]

Rituals or Ceremonies? Buddhism is generally devoid of ritual and ceremony; the practice of Tantra, borrowed from Hinduism, would be an exception. Rituals and ceremonies can be used to teach adherents and lead them through making commitments that are viewed as being beneficial for both individuals and a community of believers. However, they are not employed by Buddhists because their quest for enlightenment is conducted individually (Rouse, 1922). The individuality of a quest is in juxtaposition to missionary work to increase the number of Buddhists. It is quite remarkable that Buddhism has more than 500 million adherents, mostly in East Asia, with no organized effort to increase their numbers. Their success appears to have come from many years of developing shared values. It is not surprising that entrepreneurship has not been a priority and likely will not become one if most believers are focused on enlightenment. [0p]

Divine Revelation Revelation would be more properly characterized as following the eightfold path to enlightenment and alleviating suffering (Sharf, 2015). Enlightenment or revelation may come to individuals, but it is not expected to be received to lead the body of Buddhists. They move synchronously to the extent that they receive the same enlightenment; otherwise, they do not move. Because enlightenment is focused elsewhere, it is not expected to enhance entrepreneurship. [0p]

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Purpose of Life? Quite simply the purpose is enlightenment. As stated already, it would not lead to entrepreneurship. [0p]

Afterlife Life’s rewards can be earned in this life. Not much is speculated about an afterlife. When the Buddha embarked on his quest, he was already living a heaven on earth. His luxuries and pleasures were not enough for him. Wealth, acclaim, married happiness, being showered with gifts left him feeling empty. He wanted enlightenment now, not later (Chen, 2001). We do not know if it will lead to a greater reward in another life. We could reason that it would, but Buddhists do not do that. They are focused on the here and now, so their view of an afterlife would not influence entrepreneurship. [0p]

Reward for Faithfulness The reward for faithfulness is enlightenment. Other than relieving suffering nothing else is specified, including entrepreneurship. [0p]

Relevancy to Our Present Lives There is a tension between detached enlightenment and engagement to make a difference, even an entrepreneurial difference (Tanaka & Tanaka, 1990). After all, genuine satisfaction can be earned by ameliorating current worldly needs, including by creating new wealth to alleviate resource scarcity and shortages. Given that life’s rewards for oneself and others can be earned in this life, it becomes a question of which rewards are more valuable to pursue. Personal morality, based on the golden rule, begins with overcoming one’s selfishness and self-absorbed isolation. The Buddhist answer would be that eternal celestial enlightenment rather than terrestrial satisfaction should supersede everything else, including success in serving the needs of other as an entrepreneur (0p).

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Summary of the Impact of Buddhist Doctrine on Entrepreneurship The overall impact of Buddhist doctrines on entrepreneurship is minus nine, which is the result of totaling the twenty-two individual scores. In addition, the beliefs were 0 for doctrine and 19 for philosophy. The primary factor that caused this negative combined effect is that it is not a religion. It could be a religion in name only, but it is more a philosophy of living. The goal is enlightenment, not salvation. Belief in God is optional. Nor does belief in God lead to more entrepreneurship. Unless one thinks that belief in God can be optional.

References Cabezón, J. (2000). Truth in Buddhist Theology. Buddhist Theology: Critical Reflections by Contemporary Buddhist Scholars, 136–54. Chen, P. (2001). Sound and Emptiness: Music, Philosophy, and the Monastic Practice of Buddhist Doctrine. History of Religions, 41(1), 24–48. Davids, T. R. (1877). On Nirvana, and on the Buddhist Doctrines of the “Groups, the Sankaras, Karma, and the Paths” The Contemporary review, 1866–1900, 29, 249–270. Fiet, J. (2022). The Theoretical World of Entrepreneurship. Edward Elgar. Kochumuttom, T. (1989). A Buddhist Doctrine of Experience: A New Translation and Interpretation of the Works of Vasubandhu, the Yog¯ ac¯ arin. Motilal Banarsidass Publisher. Matilal, B. K. (1989). Ny¯aya Critique of the Buddhist Doctrine of Non-soul. Journal of Indian philosophy, 61–79. Nicholson, H. (2012). The Spirit of Contradiction in the Buddhist Doctrine of Not-self. The Journal of Religion, 92(1), 31–57. ´ Rouse, W. (Ed.). (1922). Siksh¯ a-samuccaya: A Compendium of Buddhist Doctrine. J. Murray, for the Government of India. Sharf, R. (2015). Is Mindfulness Buddhist? (and Why it Matters). Transcultural Psychiatry, 52(4), 470–484. Siderits, M. (2021). Buddhism as Philosophy. Hackett Publishing. Streng, F. (1971). The Buddhist Doctrine of Two Truths as Religious Philosophy. Journal of Indian Philosophy, 262–271. Tanaka, K., & Tanaka, K. (1990). The Dawn of Chinese Pure Land Buddhist Doctrine: Ching-ying Hui-yuan’s Commentary on the Visualization Sutra. SUNY Press.

CHAPTER 25

Christian Doctrine and Entrepreneurship

In 2019, Christianity had 2.4 billion adherents, which made it the world’s largest religion: 253 million live in the United States, representing 12 percent of the world’s Christian population. Other countries with many Christians are Brazil, China, Mexico, and Russia. Christianity is an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. The Christian faith centers on beliefs regarding the birth, life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ.

First Earthly Exponent Many people think that Jesus was the one who first enunciated His Christian religion. In fact, Old Testament prophets, for example Isaiah, prophesied His coming so that it was expected as the fulfillment of prophesy. Also, his forerunner, John the Baptist, was prophesied to come first and prepare His Way. Although Jews were aware of the same prophecies, they rejected the signs that signaled His coming, and in fact, eventually ratified his death sentence on the cross, probably less so due to malice and more so because they had faith in other precepts. [--]

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Origins This book has already summarized the doctrines of 16 Christian denominations that espouse different understandings of the Christian story. Interested readers are invited to consult these summaries. According to the Bible, the first Church was organized 50 days after Jesus’ death, on the Day of Pentecost, which is when the Holy Spirit descended on His followers. [--]

Today The United States has the largest Christian population, followed by Brazil, Mexico, and Russia. Christianity is broadly composed of three branches: (1) Catholic, (2) Protestant, and (3) Eastern Orthodox. Islam, because of its shared monotheistic, Abrahamic heritage, is probably closest to it. Judaism, having specifically rejected Jesus’ messianic mission, is probably a bit more distant. Today, the main themes of Christianity are (Fiet, 2022): 1. Love God, 2. Love your neighbor as yourself, 3. Forgive others who have wronged you, 4. Love your enemies, 5. Ask God for forgiveness of your sins, 6. Jesus was the Messiah and was given the authority to forgive others, and 7. Repentance for sins is essential.

God There was great confusion about God’s nature after Christ’s ascension into heaven. The apostles knew that He prayed to His Father. Stephen prayed to the Father as he was being stoned and saw in a vision separately the Father and Son; yet he also saw the Holy Ghost in the form of a dove. So, was God made up of one or three beings? Early Christians would read the same scriptural passages and draw different conclusions. The emperor Constantine saw the advantages of rallying around Christianity, so in 325 C.E. he convened early Church leaders in the councils of

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Nicaea (Gunton, 1997). Seeking to unify divergent Christian camps under one unifying doctrine, they concluded, consistent with Greek polytheistic views on deity, that God was a Trinity of three personages sharing the same substance, without body parts or passions, so small that He could dwell in your heart, yet also omnipresent and omniscient so that He could fill the immensity of space (Gunton, 1997). In other words, the conveners concluded that God was a mystery and that was the beauty of it. Consequently, the Trinitarian interpretation of God dominated Christianity for nearly 2,000 years. It is interesting to compare the Trinitarian Catholic, and later Protestant view, with the monotheistic views of Judaism and Islam, which viewed Christianity as a form of polytheism. Today, you can examine the Christian doctrines for each of the 16 Christian denominations. The Catholic tradition is less influential due to the emergence of others, there are various scriptural interpretations of God’s nature. Plus, a few denominations have made their own truth claims, based on continuing revelation. This lack of unity makes this doctrine of God less influential. [0pd]

More than One God Christians worldwide agree that there is God the Father, Christ the Son, and the Holy Ghost. They do not agree on their physical or spiritual natures (Gunton, 1997). [0pd]

Roles of the Gods God is the ruler of heaven and earth. Jesus Christ became the Savior of the world. The Holy Ghost became the testifier of the Savior’s role, while also acting as the spiritual Comforter for individual believers (Erickson, 2001). These roles could resolve uncertainty for entrepreneurs. [+1d]

Philosophy for Living? Christians are admonished to be perfect, even as their Father in Heaven is perfect (Matthew 5:48). They are also admonished to do unto others as they would have others do unto them. Under this scenario, entrepreneurs would earn normal economic returns. [0d]

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Requirements The requirements for being a Christian depend to a large extent on denominational practices. [0p]

Savior Christ came to redeem the world from sin, which he did through the atonement. The atonement took place in the Garden of Gethsemane and later the cross. In the garden, He paid for our individual sins by sweating great drops of blood. On the cross, He submitted to death so that he could overcome it to be the first fruit of the resurrection, which he provided for all mankind (Hanson & Hanson, 2005). Forgiveness of sins was conditioned on individual repentance. He became a self-sacrifice for the collective sins of mankind as well as those of individual sinners. He also descended below all things so that He could understand our mortal suffering. Later, Augustine and Luther were despondent over what they viewed as universal sinfulness and mankind’s failure to follow Christian teachings. Luther’s solution was being saved by grace while ignoring failed works. Jonathan Edwards preached in his most famous sermon, Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God, that all was lost—in fact, that we were predestined to go to hell. Others claimed that only 144,000 could be saved and that sinners would be destroyed and denied Christ’s universal physical resurrection. Still others concluded that a loving Savior would not allow his beloved brothers and sisters to go unredeemed (Leith, 1982). As can be seen in Sect. 2, there is a divergence interpretation of even the role of the Savior. [0pd]

Object of Faith The object of faith is not faith itself, but faith in the Lord Jesus Christ. Such faith could restore someone’s lost confidence, making it possible to achieve entrepreneurial success. [+1d]

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Marriage and Family Marriage is ordained of God. There should be complete fidelity within marriage to create a home where children can be raised as faithful believers in Christ (Charry, 1999). Such a home would enjoy peace and support entrepreneurship. [+1d]

Caste System A caste system does not exist in any form of Christianity. [0p]

Suggested Practices Christian practice is largely determined by one’s denomination, many of which are linked to early Catholic creeds (Leith, 1982). So, one determining factor is whether a Christian associates him- or herself with the practices of historical Christianity as suggested in the creeds or whether he or she wants to follow New Testament Christianity. Some abstain from eating certain foods and drink. Others quarrel about sexual orientation, whether women should be ministers, and about the permanency of marriage and family relations and whether they extend beyond death. Still others claim that because we are saved by grace, religious practice is less relevant. As a group, these divergent practices are difficult to predict regarding their impacts on entrepreneurship (Robinson, 1913). Considering these practices individually by denomination, we have seen that they would have an impact. [0p]

Rituals or Ceremonies? Common rituals are baby blessings, baptisms, confirmations, participating in the Lord’s Supper (sometimes weekly), marriages, and even the dedication of graves. Collectively, these rituals and ceremonies mark the steps that one may follow down a covenant path (Robinson, 1913). Depending on the denomination, this path could terminate in a different destination. Meanwhile, while traveling, one would enjoy the peace that the gospel brings. This peace could remedy the detours posed to aspiring entrepreneurs. [+2d]

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Divine Revelation? Again, denominations differ regarding revelation. Most seem to claim that the heavens are closed, and revelations ceased after the times of the New Testament. This position also relates to a denomination’s view on whether the Bible is a closed canon for scriptural purposes. Denominations also have differing positions on the effectiveness of personal prayer and whether Heavenly Father responds to individuals. Most agree that devotees should pray to Heavenly Father in the name of Jesus Christ, our Mediator. However, there is disagreement over whether individual prayers will be answered (Allison, 2011). Entrepreneurship is often an individual endeavor, so it is unfortunate that Christians cannot agree regarding individual responses. [0pd]

Purpose of Life? For faithful Christians, man’ earthly existence is but a test as to whether he will concentrate his mind, his effort, and his soul upon things that contribute to the comfort and gratification of his physical instincts and passions, or whether he will make as his life’s end and purpose the acquisition of spiritual qualities (McKay, 1953). Entrepreneurship could conflict with the stated life’s end and purpose. If not, it would be coincidental. [0d]

Afterlife Once again, a devotee’s denomination will have its own interpretation of the afterlife. Some denominations believe that there is a Paradise in which the faithful dead will reside until the judgment and resurrection and that there is only heaven and hell, but they disagree on their nature, as illustrated in Dante’s Inferno. Some believe that the afterlife is a continuation of life on earth (Augustine & Shaw, 2009). Others believe that most of us are going to hell where there will be continual burning amid fire and brimstone. Some see family life continuing after death, which will be accompanied by continual personal progression until one eventually reaches near godlike obedience (Guthrie, 1994). The problem that is becoming apparent is that examining doctrines across Christianity tends to allow their different beliefs to cancel themselves out. [0pd]

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Reward for Faithfulness In his essay, “Letters from the Earth,” Mark Twain cautioned males that heaven was not going to be so heavenly because they would be expected to join choirs and learn to play harps for the choirs (Twain, 1942) He mockingly cautioned that no males that he knew would appreciate such a fate and that for them it would be a form of personal hell. He did not consider the variety of outcomes that are available to sinners trying to do better. One way to gain a useful orientation for one’s own life, according to current and creedal traditions, is to adopt a plan for personal study, which has not always been encouraged by the clergy. However, bibles are widely available, and anyone can pray, so a Christian can play a role in assessing the benefits of living Christian principles. Although they take different routes, there is more in common with their shared futures than is always apparent, which should facilitate entrepreneurship. [+1pd]

Relevancy to Our Present Lives The relevancy of Christianity depends on its denominations. Without judging one’s individual intentions, denominational identification is an important key to know how to match the incentive of a doctrine with its proclivity for entrepreneurship. To the extent that Christianity is a calming influence on the possible downsides of one’s entrepreneurial ambitions, he or she may be more willing to act. Others may feel that they can communicate with Heavenly Father through prayer regarding how to proceed while at the same time requesting that their efforts be blessed. Being concerned about their heavenly reward, Christian believers can probably be counted on to act morally and ethically, which should facilitate conducting exchanges with others. Of course, Christianity has had a positive impact on the ideas behind the Declaration of Independence and the representative government guaranteed by the Constitution, which independently also stimulates entrepreneurship. In summary, Christianity benefits entrepreneurship. [+1pd]

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Summary of the Impact of Christian Doctrine on Entrepreneurship The overall impact of Christian doctrines on entrepreneurship is plus seven, which is the result of totaling the twenty-two individual scores. In addition, the beliefs were 5 for doctrine and 3 for philosophy and 7 for philosophy of living. The primary factor impacting entrepreneurship is that Christianity has many sub-parts that often draw on different doctrines. Averaging these differences tends to cancel themselves out. Of course, the options exist most clearly at the denominational level. Thus, Christianity is more than a philosophy of living because its adherents worship a god, a god who has atoned for their sins. How else could He demonstrate more that He loves them? Plus, He is a God of miracles who could support entrepreneurship. These are all encouraging storylines.

References Allison, G. (2011). Historical Theology: An Introduction to Christian Doctrine. Zondervan Academic. Augustine, S., & Shaw, J. F. (2009). On Christian Doctrine. Courier Corporation. Charry, E. (1999). By the Renewing of Your Minds: The Pastoral Function of Christian Doctrine. Pro Ecclesia, 8(2), 240–242. Erickson, M. (2001). Introducing Christian Doctrine. Baker Academic. Fiet, J. (2022). The Theoretical World of Entrepreneurship. Edward Elgar. Gunton, C. (Ed.). (1997). The Cambridge Companion to Christian Doctrine. Cambridge University Press. Guthrie Jr, S. C. (1994). Christian Doctrine. Westminster John Knox Press. Hanson, R., & Hanson, R. (2005). The Search for the Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy 318–381 AD. A&C Black. Leith, J. (Ed.). (1982). Creeds of the Churches: A Reader in Christian Doctrine, from the Bible to the Present. Westminster John Knox Press. McKay, D. (1953). Gospel Ideals. An Improvement Era Publication. Robinson, H. (1913). The Christian Doctrine of Man. T. & T. Clark. Twain, M. (1942). Letter from the Earth. Harper & Row.

CHAPTER 26

Confucian Doctrine and Entrepreneurship

In 2005, Confucianism had 6.33 million adherents, nearly all of whom lived in South Korea. It is a system of thought and behavior originating anciently in China. It has been described as a tradition, a philosophy, a religion, a humanistic religion, a way of governing, or simply as a way of life. It is unlikely that this loose amalgamation of practices will have a predictable effect on entrepreneurship. This chapter examines whether they are undergirded by doctrines that could be related to entrepreneurial success.

First Earthly Exponent Confucius—Kung Fu-tzu or Kung the Master reverently referred to as the First Teacher, not because there were no teachers before him but because he stands first in rank. Better known in China as Master Kong, he was a fifth-century Chinese thinker whose influence upon East Asian intellectual and social history is immeasurable. He considered himself as a transmitter of cultural values, not as a prophet (Yao et al., 2000). [--]

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Origins Also known as Ruism, Confucianism is a system of philosophical and ethical teachings founded by Confucius, born in Lu; he was a Chinese teacher and philosopher (551-479 B.C.E.). His work was further developed by Menius, another Chinese philosopher who lived from 372 B.C.E. to 289 B.C.E. (Yao et al., 2000). [--]

Today Its influence continues, although with fewer adherents, due mainly to restrictions of Chinese government policy. There is a debate over if Confucianism is a religion (Cua, 1971). It is best understood as an ethical guide to live and living with strong character, which could support entrepreneurship. [+1p]

God Devotees expended much effort to learn god’s will through divination. Nonetheless, Confucianism does not have a god figure (Huang, 2009). In many Asian nations, adherents follow Confucian teaching while professing belief in religions, such as Buddhism, Christianity, or Islam. Thus, God could not be a source of strength for entrepreneurship. [-1p]

More than One God Some did recognize minor gods, but these were not universally accepted. In fact, another source claims that there were over 200 gods and goddesses worshiped throughout China, which could have grown to as many as one thousand (Yao, 1999). This clear divergence is evident primarily because there is no one authorized to represent the body of believers. Other faith groups that lack an authorized spokesperson tend to demonstrate a similar divergence. [0p]

Roles of the Gods? If there were Confucian gods, their roles were unclear (Yao, 1999), although Confucius himself is worshiped as a spirit rather than as a god. [0p]

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Philosophy for Living There are four things in the Way of the profound person, none of which Confucius claimed to be able to do himself (Yao, 1999). (1) To serve my father as I would expect my son to serve me. (2) To serve my ruler as I would expect my ministers to serve me. (3) To serve my elder brother as I would expect my younger brothers to serve me. (4) To be the first to treat friends as I would expect them to treat me. It is unclear if such a profound person would enjoy an entrepreneurial advantage. [0p]

Requirements There are six main groups of beliefs, which include the following: (1) Yi—righteousness, (2) Xin—honesty and trustworthiness, (3) Chung — loyalty to the state, etc., (4) Li—includes ritual, propriety, etiquette, etc., (5) Hsiao—love within the family, love of parents for their children, and love of children for their parents, and (6) Jen—benevolence, humanness toward one another, which is the most important Confucian virtue (Cheung et al., 2003). These beliefs are not targeted toward entrepreneurship. These requirements are the right way to live because Confucius said so. He is the standard, independent of any external validation. It is not surprising that these may not be related to entrepreneurship. [0p]

Savior There is no explicit savior. The focus is to live wisely now following the six standards outlined above. Left unanswered is any expectation for divine assistance (Huang, 2009). What if all there were behind the standards were Confucius’ wisdom? Would that be enough for humans to exercise faith in them? Would they have the power to make aspirants more effective entrepreneurs? Would it not be more comforting if there were a savior who could make up the difference when we fall short. [0p]

Object of Faith The main object of faith was Confucius himself because he was so revered as a great teacher and for his wisdom (Legge, 1971). Indeed, his teachings dominated Chinese life for centuries. He was clearly revered out of love,

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not compulsion. Eschatologically, the object of faith was to achieve cosmic harmony. This moral character is achieved through the virtue of ren, or “humanity,” which leads to more virtuous behavior, such as respect, altruism, and humility. If cosmic harmony is the goal, who establishes and maintains it? Of course, the missing answer would be God who is mysteriously absent in Confucianism. Without God, Confucius becomes His spokesperson in absentia. The most remarkable aspect of Confucianism is its founder’s enduring influence. Are its adherents really transferring their dependence on God to a beloved messenger? Centuries have transpired without providing a definitive answer. In this case, the peace provided by this philosophy for living could help entrepreneurs. [+1p]

Marriage and Family Marriage and family are central to Confucian followers as suggested by the elaborate marriage and death rituals outlined below. These emphases would support entrepreneurship. [+1p]

Caste System The Hindu caste system is not required by Confucianism. Thus, it has no effect on entrepreneurship [0p]

Suggested Practices Confucian practices emphasize repetition and remembrance of deceased ancestors. We will see that rituals and ceremonies and their repetition replace cosmic certainty as a source of meaning and comfort, which indirectly could help entrepreneurs. [+1p]

Rituals or Ceremonies? Lack of a clear understanding of the universe is replaced by a strong belief in rituals, which unites people and strengthens the community (Chan, 1955; Cua, 1971). These rituals are not regular practices but occur at important moments in life. In effect, Confucianism and other philosophies for living have replaced what to expect with what to do. They do not have time to worry about the future when current rituals and ceremonies occupy their time in the present.

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• Birth: The Tai-Shen (spirit of the fetus) protects the expectant mother and deals harshly with anyone. She eats a special diet after birth and is given one month to rest after the delivery of the baby. The parents are responsible for supporting the baby. A special recognition ceremony occurs on the first-, fourth-, and twelfth-month anniversary of the child’s birth. • Marriage: There are six separate associated marriage rituals (Suh, 2020): • Proposal: Both sides of the relationship share the hour, day, month, and year of their birth. If any upsetting events happen within the bride-to-be’s family within the next three days, it is believed that she has rejected the proposal. • Engagement: After deciding on the date of the wedding, the bride announces the wedding with invitations and gifts of cookies. • Dowry: It is a transfer of parental belongings when their daughter is getting married. Gifts equal in value are given to the bride and groom. • Procession: The groom proceeds to the bride’s home and brings her back to his place, with much happiness and excitement. • Marriage: The couple recites their vows that will bond them together for a lifetime, toasts each other with wine, and then takes center stage at a banquet consisting of friends, and families of both bride and groom. • Morning after: The bride serves breakfast to the groom’s parents, and then the parents do the same. • Death: The family cries aloud to inform the neighbors. The family begins mourning by making clothes of course material and wearing them. The corpse is placed in a coffin, and friends and family bring money to help pay for the funeral. Important objects and food are placed in the coffin. A priest from any religion performs the burial ritual. Guests follow the coffin dragging a large willow branch symbolizing the soul of the deceased. Later it is dragged back to the family alter to install the spirit of the deceased. Public worship is performed on the seventh, ninth, and forty-ninth days after the burial, then later on the first- and third-year anniversary (Xu, 2004). [+1p]

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Divine Revelation This is not the object of Confucian discipline, meaning that this is a different philosophy for living. There is not a god at the center of it that could reveal himself. The focus is on the adherents and their harmony with the cosmos (Xu, 2004). Mankind becomes more self-actualized as he or she lives in harmony with principles that Confucius revealed through his teaching. It is wrongheaded to think about God intervening because most adherents believe that He does not exist to intervene. This position does not support entrepreneurship. [-1p]

Purpose of Life? As noted above, the purpose of life is to achieve cosmic harmony (Xu, 2004). This balance is achieved through the virtue of ren, or humanity, which leads to more virtuous behavior, such as respect, altruism, and humility. This is a philosophy for living that focuses on developing humanistic virtues, which are good according to the philosophy’s own definition. They are unrelated to entrepreneurship and unlikely to be relevant. [0p]

Afterlife An afterlife is beyond human comprehension. Humans should live and behave in such a way as to promote ideal social relations, rather than to act based on the expectations of rewards or punishments after death (Xu, 2004). This perspective forecloses future entrepreneurial expectations so that it would have no impact on entrepreneurship. [0p].

Reward for Faithfulness Rewards are not expected, which leaves nothing to be gained through entrepreneurship. [0p]

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Relevancy to Our Present Lives Its relevancy for our present lives is a blank slate. Being encouraged to develop one’s innate moral potential to the fullest while fulfilling all of one’s social obligations are its two objectives. At the same time, one cannot live fully in the present without being fully responsible to the past. Ancestor worship is an important part of Confucian practice (Yao, 1999). Thus, a binding link into the future is a tradition from the past. A society that abandons its traditions will face a more uncertain, less meaningful, and less promising future. Confucius developed his philosophies amid social anarchy, including interminable warfare. Horror reached its apex shortly after his death (Yao, 1999). One could think that anarchy was created by him or his teachings, but in fact, he worked to restore peace and order, which is a practice that has application for us. Living a genuinely moral life would facilitate the exchange of goods and services because factor providers could expect to be compensated according to the terms of their original bargain, which would lower transaction costs and facilitate entrepreneurship. [+1p]

Summary of the Impact of Confucian Doctrine on Entrepreneurship The overall impact of Confucian doctrines on entrepreneurship is plus four, which is the result of totaling the twenty-two individual scores. In addition, the beliefs were 0 for doctrine and 17 for philosophy and 0 for philosophy/doctrine. The most notable features of this summary are the absence of doctrines, the legend of the founder, and the fact that rituals and ceremonies seem to have taken their place. They do not exactly substitute for doctrines, but the adherents seem to be otherwise occupied. Determining whether there are doctrines underlying the rituals and ceremonies is beyond the scope of this analysis.

References Chan, W. (1955). The evolution of the Confucian concept Jen. Philosophy East and West, 295–319. Cheung, T., Chan, H., Chan, K., King, A., Chiu, C., & Yang, C. (2003). On Zhongyong Rationality: The Confucian Doctrine of the Mean as a Missing

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Link Between Instrumental Rationality and Communicative Rationality. Asian Journal of Social Science, 31(1), 107–127. Cua, A. (1971). Reflections on the Structure of Confucian Ethics. Philosophy East and West, 21(2), 125–140. Huang, P. Z. (2009). Confronting Confucian Understandings of the Christian Doctrine of Salvation: A Systematic Theological Analysis of the Basic Problems in the Confucian-Christian Dialogue (Vol. 3). Brill. Legge, J. (1971). Confucian Analects: The Great Learning, and the Doctrine of the Mean. Courier Corporation. Suh, J. (2020). The Confucian Doctrine of the Mean, the Optimality Principle, and Social Harmony. Society and Economy, 42(1), 59–73. Xu, G. Q. (2004). The Use of Eloquence: The Confucian Perspective. Rhetoric Before and Beyond the Greeks, pp. 115–30. Yao, X. (1999). Confucianism and its Modern Values: Confucian Moral, Educational and Spiritual Heritages Revisited. Journal of Beliefs and Values, 20(1), 30–40. Yao, X., & Yao, H. (2000). An Introduction to Confucianism. Cambridge University Press.

CHAPTER 27

Hindu Doctrine and Entrepreneurship

In 2005, Hinduism had 820 million adherents. Its origins are prehistoric, and consequently it is the oldest organized world religion. It forms the context for many other religions because the alternative to starting anew was Hinduism. It is both a religion and a cultural tradition for the Indian subcontinent. Here are its doctrines.

First Earthly Exponent There was no single first exponent—even if there were he or she acted before recorded history. [--]

Origins Corresponds with the development of the Indian subcontinent from the Iron Age, with some traditions tracing back to prehistoric religions. Regarded as a synthesis, which created the world’s oldest religion. History is often divided into the pre-Vedic period, which includes the Indus Valley civilization, which ended about 1750 B.C.E. The synthesis emerged after the Vedic period between 500 and 200 B.C.E (Brown, 1964). At the end of this period, Hinduism emerged from the Vedic religion. [--]

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Today Hinduism is the product of an evolutionary process, which stabilized around 320 to 650 C.E. This long process in which culture, tradition, and religion became intertwined is today difficult to separate into its first causes. There were also influences from rulers as well as practitioners from Islam who became intermixed on the Indian subcontinent (Brown, 1964). Brahmanism developed in the Indus Valley while incorporating ideas from the Vedic text. The emphasis was on ritual and the dominant position of the Brahmans. Today, Hinduism is a pastiche of many threads of religious practice with Brahmanism still prevailing at the top of the culture-based caste system (Brown, 1964). It took a long time for Hinduism to reach its current state suggesting that it will maintain its stability. Stability is adored by entrepreneurs, even when it creates fewer opportunities. [+1p]

God Some of the more prominent gods are Shiva, Vishnu, Ganesh, and Brahma, to name a few (Dhavamony, 1982). For there to be more than one God suggests that these demigods are limited in their scope and influence. Otherwise, we would see the stronger gods driving the others out of their earthly domains. It is not clear whether multiple domains and overlapping influence could be good for entrepreneurship. [0p]

More than One God Hinduism is a faith filled with gods and goddesses (Dhavamony, 1982). In fact, there are over 33 million Hindu gods in total. Having so many gods is incomprehensible. Even if we were referring to 33 million humans, we would not know how they would interact. In the case of gods who have superhuman capabilities, we would know even less about their roles. That is, if any of the rules apply to them, there is no way to apply rational expectations for 33 million gods to entrepreneurship. [0p]

Roles of the Gods? Among the 33 million gods are a Hindu Trinity (Bowes, 2021):

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• Brahma, the first member of the Hindu Trinity, is the Creator God—He periodically (cyclically) creates everything in the universe. His role could be supportive of entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurs could see opportunity in the changes. • Vishnu, the second member of the Holy Trinity, is the Preserver God. He maintains the order and harmony of the universe, which is periodically created by Brahma and destroyed by Shiva. He would reduce uncertainty, which entrepreneurs prefer, even if it reduces opportunity. • Shiva, the third member of the Hindu Trinity, is the Destroyer God. He destroys the universe in preparation for its renewal. In fact, his destroying power is regenerative. Its regenerative nature stimulates opportunity for entrepreneurs. • Ganapati, who has an elephant head, is the Remover of Obstacles God. Naturally, Ganapati is beloved by Indians. In doing so, he could be removing barriers to entry, which lead to a lower average level of entrepreneurial profit. Avatars of Vishnu are helpers. Two of the ten are Rama and Krishna (Wadley, 1977): • Rama is portrayed as an ideal son, brother, husband, and king, as well as strict adherent to dharma, which is the created moral order or the arrangement of physical reality. He is loved by millions of Hindus. His micro-level actions would have an uncertain effect on entrepreneurship. • Krishna is the teacher of the sacred scripture known as the Bhagavad Gita and as a friend and mentor. He has also promised to return to Earth when the dharma declines. Again, his facilitation would have an uncertain effect on entrepreneurship. Other gods and goddesses are (Wadley, 1977): • Saraswathi, the goddess of learning. She is also the consort to Brahma. Learning is beneficial, but in this case, it presumably increases general rather than specific knowledge, which would lead to normal economic returns and less entrepreneurship.

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• Lakshmi is the goddess of good fortune, wealth, and well-being. She could put her thumb on scale of good fortune to favor entrepreneurship for some adherents; although if she did this for everyone, it would lead to normal economic returns. • Durga Devi is a goddess who fights to preserve dharma. She is frightening to her enemies but loving toward her devotees. Because dharma is for the next life, it would not have a predictable effect on entrepreneurship in this life. • Indra, the King of Heaven, and Lord of the gods, wields a thunderbolt and provides rain. Not relevant to entrepreneurship. • Surya, the sun, is a golden warrior, arriving on a chariot pulled by seven white horses. Not relevant to entrepreneurship. • Agni, the fire god, is the sacrificer and witness of all rites. Not relevant to entrepreneurship. • Hanuman, the monkey king, and devoted servant earned a path to deification by performing feats of strength, devotion, and courage. Not relevant to entrepreneurship. Interpreting the roles and interactions of these gods and avatars is too complex to do with sufficient understanding, which would be even more true regarding their implications for entrepreneurship. Individually, they could have a positive effect. [0p]

Philosophy for Living • Truth is eternal, implying that Hindus pursue knowledge and understanding of truth: the very essence of the universe (Bowes, 2021). Truth is one but the wise express it in various ways. Acknowledging the existence of truth provides a basis for entrepreneurship. • Brahman is truth and reality because he is the one true God, formless, limitless, all-inclusive, and eternal. He encompasses everything in the universe. These attributes are incomprehensible, so it is not clear how they could benefit entrepreneurship. • The Vedas are the ultimate authority (Bodewitz, 2019). These are scriptures containing revelations received by ancients and sages. They are eternal without beginning or end. Serving as an authority reduces uncertainty, which benefits entrepreneurship but it is not clear how they could accommodate unexpected change.

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The fact that Brahman and the Vedas are eternal and unchanging is highly encouraging because it suggests that the universe consists of patterns that can be understood by entrepreneurs who can treat acquiring information about these patterns as an investment decision. Acquiring eternal, specific information is a form of informational entrepreneurship, which provides a guide for making choices in a world of limited insight. [+2p]

Requirements The following requirements comprise life’s purpose: • Strive to achieve dharma (Malinar, 2007). It includes right conduct, righteousness, moral law, and duty, according to one’s duties and abilities. Doing so, what makes someone a trustworthy exchange partner. • Individual souls are immortal (Guénon, 2001b). The individual soul or atman is neither created nor destroyed. Actions of the atman require that it reap the consequences, meaning the atman moves from one body to another because of actions in a previous life, which is referred to as transmigration. It is unclear what impact this would have on an entrepreneur’s rational expectations but consider the forthcoming arguments about incentive alignment. Weber (2009) presumed that reincarnation and transmigration of the soul would serve as a disincentive for entrepreneurship. Earlier interpretations in this book also assumed that it would be a disincentive. However, reincarnation may be the opposite. That is, it could be the ultimate incentive alignment mechanism. As far as we know, there is no negotiating a better deal if someone is unmatched for or unworthy of a better station in the next life. One is reincarnated in the life form that corresponds exactly with the type of life that one has chosen to live, prior to their death. Further increasing the incentive alignment of the effectiveness of the Hindu perspective is that our personality, our atman, is eternal (Bassuk, 1987), which means that it takes on the characteristics that reflect the choices that it has made. Clearly with both transmigration and an eternal nature, with entrepreneurship, and other tools in our toolkit, we

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can choose who we wish to become. Plus, we know the plan and its requirements. An important caveat to the Hindu plan is there is no savior (Stenzler, 1876), nor a provision for repentance, which means that there can be no excuse for making a mistake. There are no moral bankruptcies or chances to start over. An entrepreneur must do it correctly the first time, or his or her eternal progression will be re-routed to a lower sphere, which some could characterize as hell, but others could be content with their destination. Given this alternate interpretation, which some may view as draconian, this analysis posits the opposite effect on entrepreneurship. [+5pd]

Savior There is no savior in the sense that he redeemed souls through an atonement process. However, Brahman is the object of devotion; the goal is reuniting with Him in unconditional surrender of our own agency (Stenzler, 1876). Thus, there are no second chances, nor a repentance process. Moreover, the end of the process is the loss of agency, which is the opposite of entrepreneurship. Whereas reincarnation could be interpreted positively, the loss of our agency would prove to be a disincentive to entrepreneurship. [−5d]

Object of Faith The goal of the soul is moksha. Moksha is liberation, which is the soul’s release from the cycle of death and rebirth, which it accomplishes by reuniting with Brahman and realizing its true nature, which can occur by following one of three paths: (1) duty, (2) knowledge, or (3) devotion, which is unconditional surrender to Brahman (Rajagopalachari et al., 1970). Giving up one’s agency is a foreign concept to Western thinking because it results in abandoning any hope of effectuating results that are necessary for entrepreneurial achievement, among other objectives. Even if it does not happen while moksha is being pursued, the result is the abandonment of individual agency-driven entrepreneurship. [−3pd]

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Marriage and Family Marriages are arranged and revered partly as a way of honoring the family (Sukarma, 2016). They are accompanied by huge dowries and followed by the bride’s living with the groom’s parents to learn family traditions. Divorce is rare. There have been eight forms of marriage. 1. Rite of Brahmana: The father of the bride chooses a man learned in the Vedas, and known for his good conduct, and gives his daughter to him, after decking her with jewels and costly garments. 2. Rite of Daiva: The daughter is groomed with ornaments and gifted to a priest who officiates the wedding ceremony. 3. Rite of Rishis: The father gives away his daughter after receiving a cow and bull from the bridegroom as a gift of appreciation, which was not intended to be a form of dowry. 4. Rite of Prajapati: Here, the father gives away his daughter after blessing the couple by reciting to the world, “May both of you perform together your dharma.” 5. Rite of the Asuras: The bridegroom receives a maiden after bestowing wealth on the bride and her relatives. Because it was considered as a sale, it is no longer practiced. 6. Rite of Gandharva: Involves the voluntary union of a maiden and her lover arising out of physical desire and intercourse. Although it involved free choice, and was without family involvement, it is not practiced today. 7. Rite of Rakshasa: This is the forcible abduction of a maiden from her home after her kinsmen have been slain, which is no longer practiced. 8. Rite of Pisaka: This is equivalent to rape when the girl is sleeping or intoxicated. Again, it is not practiced today. Marriage and family are important institutions while living. There is no discussion of their future in the hereafter. Presumably they are left behind as the consequence of a newly reincarnated state. It is conceivable that their termination marks the commencement of a sad period, except that in a new state they could have no meaning, suggesting that they could neither bring happiness nor unhappiness. In these ways, though, while looking to the future, they could serve as a disincentive for future entrepreneurs to sacrifice when no future familial relations can be relied

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on. What is not clear is whether the atman is conscious of missed opportunities that could have been merited or whether he or she is blissfully ignorant. [−1pd]

Caste System People are classified based on education, culture, and income level, according to scripture. It is a system inspired by the Bhagavad Gita as a way for society to provide essential functions and so that everyone has a vital role to play (Wadley, 1977). The following are the castes themselves: • Brahmin: The priestly/intellectual class. They are expected to be characterized by serenity, self-restraint, purity, forgiveness, uprightness, knowledge, and belief in God. They serve as a gatekeeper; provide intellectual advice; offer priestly services; and grapple with fundamental questions of life. • Kshatriyas: The warrior class. They possess physical prowess, courage, splendor, firmness, dexterity, stalwartness, generosity, and lordliness, all so that they can defend the country while specializing in arms, ammunition, strategies, and tactics of war. • Vaishyas: The trade/commerce class. They specialize in business to procure goods and services so that society can have what it needs. Today, they are primarily traders and entrepreneurs. • Shudras: The agricultural/labor class. They do manual labor to till the land, work the fields, and raise cattle and crops. Everyone one not in the previous three castes is a Shudra, except for the untouchables: people performing the most menial of tasks, such as sweeping the streets. This classification is a manmade perversion, which has been opposed by leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi. The caste system reduces social and economic mobility, stifles information flow, and reduces financial support for those not in a favored caste. In doing so, it may crush access to opportunity. However, it does help entrepreneurs to specialize and may at the same time position them in the market at a crossroads of information flow. In summary, there are advantages and disadvantages of the caste system for entrepreneurship. [−2pd]

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Suggested Practices Hinduism is not an organized religion in that it is managed in a top-down fashion. It has no single, systematic approach to teaching (Rajagopalachari et al., 1970). Nor do Hindus have a single set of rules to follow like the Ten Commandments. Local, regional, caste, and community-driven practices influence the interpretation and practice of beliefs. This fact is further justification for the approach taken here—to focus instead on doctrines, not the impact of Hinduism in its entirety. [0pd]

Rituals or Ceremonies? These depend largely on local practice, which further subdivides Hinduism as an organized religion that could have a single impact on entrepreneurship. [0p]

Divine Revelation? There are 33 million gods who may communicate; however, this is not an expected occurrence. Revelation may come in the form of dreams (Dhavamony, 1982). Here are some other keys to interpretation: 1. To see birds flying is unlucky, but the sound of birds singing symbolizes an improvement. 2. To dream of books is auspicious and suggests an agreeable future. 3. Good bread indicates good health and a long life but burned bread signifies a funeral. 4. Dark clouds indicate that great sorrows lie in your future, but they will pass away if clouds are moving. 5. Dreaming of an elephant means good health, success, strength, prosperity, and intelligence, whereas dreaming about a lion suggests that honor, power, fame, or recognition lie in your future. The above guidance indicates how revelation can come. Not included is the nature of the guidance or whether it could relate to entrepreneurship. Historically, Hindus have followed inherited practices, not based on underlying doctrines. This means that the rationale for following them is largely missing. Because the doctrinal story is missing, Hindus will find It difficult to extrapolate to the future. This is not to suggest that there

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is not a story, only that Hinduism is not organized in the sense that it teaches the same story, and one that is incomplete. [0p]

Purpose of Life? It is to unite with Brahma so that continual transmigration ceases. Moksha is the point when union with Brahma is achieved and transmigration ceases. At the point of uniting, souls become one with the divine creator God, the ruler of heaven and earth (Malinar, 2007). Because God is above man, we lack an understanding of what a union would mean. It must be accepted on faith, which is fine; however, the lack of knowledge makes it less effective as a motivator to become an entrepreneur or anything else. [0d]

Afterlife There is no afterlife in the sense of going somewhere to rest. Instead, one life is superseded by the next one until moksha is achieved (Malinar, 2007). Hindus must be content to understand that the afterlife is a process that they must experience. Entrepreneurship becomes a peripheral concern. [−1d]

Reward for Faithfulness Moksha is the reward for faithfulness. [−1d]

Relevancy for Our Present Lives Hindus are expected to strive to live upright lives (Bassuk, 1987). The Vaishyas, members of the trading caste, are best positioned by tradition and mutual expectations on the Indian subcontinent to pursue careers as entrepreneurs. Notably, members of this caste do not have any, innate qualifications to be entrepreneurs, other than the prerogative to do it, which is like the situation with the rest of the world’s entrepreneurs. It is certainly accurate to say that those who are not members of this caste have a cultural disadvantage in becoming an entrepreneur. However, for those who qualify, the caste system and settled views on their eternal destiny create more stable environmental conditions, which reduce trading risk and increase their prospects for success. [+1d]

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Summary of the Impact of Hindu Doctrine on Entrepreneurship The overall impact of Hindu doctrines on entrepreneurship is minus four, which is the result of totaling the twenty-two individual scores. In addition, the beliefs were 5 for doctrine and 7 for philosophy and 5 for philosophy/doctrine. The most notable features of this summary are the prehistoric nature of its origins, the absence of doctrines, moksha, reincarnation, and transmigration of the soul, 33 million gods, and an emphasis on virtuous living. Like other East Asian religions, Hinduism substitutes rituals and ceremonies for doctrines. They do not exactly substitute for doctrines, but the adherents seem to be otherwise occupied. Determining whether there are doctrines underlying the rituals and ceremonies is beyond the scope of this analysis.

References Bassuk, D. E. (1987). Incarnation in Hinduism and Christianity: The Myth of the God-Man. Springer. Bodewitz, H. (2019). The Hindu Doctrine of Transmigration: Its Origin and Background. In Vedic Cosmology and Ethics (pp. 3–19). Brill. Bowes, P. (2021). The Hindu religious tradition: A philosophical approach. Routledge. Brown, W. (1964). The Sanctity of the Cow in Hinduism. Éditeur non identifié. Dhavamony, M. (1982). Classical Hinduism (Vol. 15). Gregorian Biblical BookShop. Guénon, R. (2001a). Introduction to the Study of the Hindu Doctrines. Sophia Perennis. Guénon, R. (2001b). Man and His Becoming According to the Vedanta. Sophia Perennis. Malinar, A. (2007). The Bhagavadgita: Doctrines and Contexts. Cambridge University Press. Rajagopalachari, C., Diwakar, R., Rand, R., & Munshi, K. (1970). Hinduism: Doctrine and Way of Life. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. Stenzler, A. (1876). On the Hindu Doctrine of Expiation. In Transactions of the Second Session of the International Congress of Orientalists Held in London in September 1874 (pp. 205–12). Sukarma, I. (2016). Tri Hita Karana Theoretical Basic of Moral Hindu. International Journal of Linguistics, Literature and Culture, 2(3), 102–116. Wadley, S. (1977). Power in Hindu Ideology and Practice. The New Wind: Changing Identities in South Asia (pp. 133–157). Mouton. Weber, M. (2009). The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (Introduction by R. Swedberg, Norton Critical Editions).

CHAPTER 28

Islamic Doctrine and Entrepreneurship

In 2009, Islam had 1.57 billion adherents, representing 23% of the world’s population. Three hundred million Muslims live in countries where it is not the majority religion; 60% of global Muslims live in Asia and 20% live in the Middle East and Africa. It is one of three monotheistic, Abrahamic religions, the others being Christianity and Judaism.

First Earthly Exponent Muhammad was the last of a line of prophets including Moses and Jesus (Moses is referred to as Musa and Jesus is referred to as Isa ibne Maryan, i.e., son of Mary. Muslims believe that Isa was not crucified but saved by Allah and that the Quran rejects Isa as the Son of God). Muhammad’s teachings are recorded in the Quran. Muslims strive to follow his example. After the holy Quran, the prophet’s sayings and his example are what guide Muslims. [--]

Origins When Muhammad was 40 years of age, he began having visions and hearing voices. He was visited by the Archangel Gabriel in the first of his visions that began his revelations, which formed the Quran. He was

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forced to leave Mecca for preaching monotheism. He traveled to the AlAqsa Mosque in Jerusalem where he prayed with Moses, Abraham, and Jesus, after which he ascended to the skies, where he was led by Gabriel through Paradise and Hell, and finally came face-to-face with God He then returned to continue spreading Islam. Muhammed died in 632 C.E., after which a rift was created between Sunni and Shia factions over who should lead the faith. [--]

Today The word Islam means submission to the will of God. Followers of Islam are called Muslims. Muslims are monotheistic and worship one allknowing God, who is known as Allah. Followers of Islam aim to live a life of complete submission to Allah. [--]

God Allah is the one true God. Having such clarity makes it easier to exercise faith in Him, which could be beneficial to entrepreneurship. [+1d]

More Than One God There is only one God, Allah. More than Him would be polytheistic. [+1d]

Roles of the Gods? This is not applicable because they do not exist. [0d]

Philosophy for Living? There are five pillars of Islam, which are ordered hierarchically as follows: 1. Profession of Faith (Shahadah). Muslims believe that there is only one God; and Muhammad is the Messenger of God. One becomes a Muslim by reciting this sentiment with conviction. Having faith in one God could support entrepreneurship because He could be a source of strength. [+1d]

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2. Prayer (Salat). Muslim pray facing Mecca five times, at dawn, noon, mid-afternoon, sunset, and after dark. It includes recitation of the opening sura of the Quran, and sometimes performed on a small rug. Muslims can pray individually at any location or in a mosque; women are welcome but not obligated to participate. After praying, there is a short sermon by an Imam and a discussion of a particular religious topic. Such an intense prayer routine could interfere with daily life, which is its purpose—to keep adherents living faithfully— perhaps, not focused on entrepreneurship. [−1d] 3. Fasting (Sawm). During the daylight hours of Ramadan, the ninth month, healthy adults are required to abstain from food and drink. This temporary deprivation builds awareness and gratitude for what God has provided, which should not adversely affect entrepreneurship. [0d] 4. Pilgrimage (Haj). All Muslims make at least one pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca in present-day Saudi Arabia. There is a cubicle structure in Mecca, which is regarded as the house of Abraham, to which they face praying each day. The Mecca pilgrimage is a sign of their devotion to Islam. Although this is a pillar of Islam, it will probably not influence an aspirant’s propensity to pursue entrepreneurship, which is not problematic because that is not its purpose. [0d] 5. Alms (Zakat). Muslims donate a fixed portion of their income to community members in need. Rulers and wealthy Muslims build mosques, drinking fountains, hospitals, and schools, both as a religious duty and to receive blessings associated with charity. The desire to be charitable could motivate some entrepreneurs to succeed, which would be a positive influence. [+1d] The cumulative impact of these five pillars would be. [+1d]

Requirements Followers of Islam aim to live a life of complete submission to Allah. Muslims accept Jesus as a great prophet and moral teacher, but they reject Him as the Savior of the world. In their view, their submission to Allah eliminates a need for a savior. However, Islamic prophecy happens in the context of the end times. Faithful followers are aware of signs of the end times:

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1. Sexual immorality appears among the people and is practiced openly. If someone would cheat on their spouse, they are likely to cheat in business. 2. People cheat in weights and measures to gain in business, which constrains entrepreneurship. 3. They withhold charity and hoard their wealth. In the short run, this practice could provide seed money to be an entrepreneur, despite it being a religious violation. In the long run it could lead to other violations of moral turpitude, which would inhibit entrepreneurship. 4. They break their covenant with God, which indicates that they would also cheat exchange partners, which would frustrate entrepreneurship. 5. Without devotion to Allah, people will fight with each other. 6. Constantinople will be conquered. 7. The sun will rise from the West. 8. A first trumpet will sound, and all remaining humanity will die, followed by a period of 40 years, at the end of which smoke will envelop the world. 9. The Quran will be taken to heaven and not recited on earth. The above requirements are signs of the times more than they are doctrinal imperatives. As such, they do not relate to entrepreneurial behavior. [0p]

Savior Islam does not accept the belief that a savior is necessary. Nevertheless, one can infer from the Qu’an that Jesus was a great prophet who never failed to heal the sick. If justice and mercy are to prevail while at the same time abiding by a universal law of justice, someone must balance the scales. If that person were not a savior, then it seems reasonable that individuals would play a role in their own accounts. It would be much easier to hope for a savior. Not believing in a Savior must make it more difficult to become an entrepreneur. [−1d]

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Object of Faith Allah is the object of faith, the one true god. This belief could guarantee order and light in the universe, which could be good for entrepreneurship. [+1d]

Marriage and Family Most Muslims believe marriage is a fundamental building block of life. It is a contract between a man and a woman to live together as husband and wife. There are at least two purposes to marriage—(1) to keep faithful to each other for the rest of their lives and (2) to have children and bring them up in the Muslim faith. Marriage requires loyalty to each other, a supportive loving relationship and stability, which support entrepreneurship. [+1d]

Caste System Although Islam advocates for the elimination of a caste system, Muslim communities in South Asia (where it overlaps with Hinduism) apply a system of religious stratification. However, in the rest of Islam, both in the Quran and Hades, there is no indication of religious stratification. There are religious leaders called Hujur, Alem, and Iman who are informally interchangeable. More formally, they are Imam. An Imam is a person who leads the prayer in a Muslim community. These leaders have specific duties, which otherwise do not mean that their worthiness is stratified above anyone else’s. Assuming that a caste system is not permitted, it would have no impact on entrepreneurship. [0p]

Suggested Practices Religious belief is insufficient without religious practice. As mentioned earlier, the basic practices are: 1. A declaration of faith, 2. Prayer, 3. Fasting, 4. Pilgrimage, and 5. Almsgiving.

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The average impact of these practices is still zero. [0p]

Rituals or Ceremonies? The main rituals are the five pillars of Islam, i.e., Shahadah, Salat, Zakat, Sawm, and Haj, as described earlier. Muslims engage in an initiation ceremony to be admitted as a devotee in which they are given secret knowledge; and, which sometimes involves one or more tests that must be passed or endured. Also, there is a ritual known as Aquiqah in which on the seventh day after birth, a child’s head is shaved, and the baby weighed and the equivalent weight in silver or gold is given to charity. Rituals and ceremonies benefit entrepreneurship because they reduce uncertainty. [+1p]

Divine Revelation? Muslims believe in angels, unseen beings who worship God and carry God’s orders through the universe. The angel Gabriel brought divine revelation to the prophets. These manifestations would reduce uncertainty and advance entrepreneurship. [+1d]

Purpose of Life? Islam is the response to humanity’s search for meaning. The purpose of creation for all men and women for all times has been to know and worship God. This relegates entrepreneurship to second place or lower. [−1d]

Afterlife Muslims believe in the continued existence of the soul and to a transformed physical existence after death. Allah decides when a person dies and most Muslims believe that when they die, they will stay in their graves until Yawm al-din, the Day of Judgment. On the Last Day, resurrected humans will be judged by Allah according to their deeds. One’s eternal destination depends on the balance of good to bad deeds in life. Those judged are either granted admission to Paradise, where they will enjoy spiritual and physical pleasures forever, or condemned to Hell to suffer spiritual and physical torment for eternity. The Day of Judgment

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is described as passing over Hell on a narrow bridge to enter Paradise. Those who fall, weighted by their bad deeds, will fall for a time to Hell. Many Muslims misinterpret the temporal nature of their fate, thinking that they may ultimately engage in wrong deeds with a belief that they will be eventually placed in Paradise because of their faith in Allah. Because of their faith, they are tempted to engage in activities such as corruption, which could have a major influence in entrepreneurship. There are two exceptions to going to Hell: 1. Warriors who die fighting in the cause of God are ushered immediately to God’s presence. 2. Enemies of Islam are sentenced immediately to Hell upon death. There is not much room for nuance in the Muslim view of the afterlife. Heaven or hell, that is it, depending on the weight of one’s sins. Surprisingly, one must deal with his own sins because there is no savior to perform an atonement. Such a view promotes accountability, which could be effective training for one to become an entrepreneur. [+1d]

Reward for Faithfulness Thawab refers to spiritual merit or reward that accrues from the performance of good deeds and piety. The good go to Jannah, which Is Paradise. In addition, Allah makes six promises to faithful believers: 1. True believers will always be evaluated based on their belief in Allah. 2. Believers are blessed forever. 3. Believers will receive Allah’s guidance while alive. 4. Believers will be protected from Satan. 5. Every righteous effort will be rewarded. 6. The faithful will enter Jannah. The most promising of these is that every righteous effort will be rewarded, including entrepreneurship. In the end the faithful will go to Jannah or Paradise. [+1d]

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Relevancy to Our Present Lives Islam is a religion that requires daily, visible commitments to live its practices, most notably by praying five times daily in prescribed ways and at prescribed times. It has high moral standards and demands exactitude in living them. Its high standards ought to facilitate exchanges, which would spur entrepreneurship. However, the countries where Islam is practiced are generally some of the least economically advanced. Although the cause of this lack of economic progress is not completely understood, it could be that the demanding daily commitments to worshiping Allah, together with a lack of educational progress, has impeded entrepreneurial achievement. Regarding education, the Islamic world is a source of many of the world’s greatest inventions. Why did they not continue? The answer would depend on future research. [0d]

Summary of the Impact of Islamic Doctrine on Entrepreneurship The overall impact of Islamic doctrines on entrepreneurship is plus seven, which is the result of totaling the twenty-two individual scores. In addition, the beliefs were 12 for doctrine and 4 for philosophy and 0 for philosophy/doctrine. The most notable features of this summary are Islam’s similarities with Christianity and Judaism as one of the three Abrahamic, monotheistic religions. It has a strict moral code but does not have a Savior, which removes expiation as an option. Strict compliance is intended to remove the need for a Savior. Given the importance of the topic, Islam is rather silent regarding the fate of those who falter in their compliance with the moral code. The implication is that those who falter are going to hell, not Paradise, depending on the balance of your good deeds versus evil ones. Meanwhile, Islam provides strict moral standards to prepare adherents for entrepreneurship. Clearly, as is the case with all religions, the doctrines that one follows are not single factor indicators of success. Success as an entrepreneur depends on multiple success factors in addition to one religion.

CHAPTER 29

Jewish Doctrine and Entrepreneurship

In 2019, Judaism had about 14,707,400 adherents. The ten countries with the greatest populations of Jews are: (1) Israel, (2) United States, (3) France, (4) Canada, (5) United Kingdom, (6) Argentina, (7) Russia, (8) Germany, (9) Australia, and (10) Brazil. It is the world’s oldest monotheistic religion, dating back nearly 4,000 years. Followers of Judaism believe in one God who revealed himself through ancient prophets. It is one of three religions that came from the great progenitor Abraham: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, all of whom recognized Abraham as the father of Israel and as a great prophet. The history of Judaism is intertwined with its faith, law, culture, and oral traditions.

First Earthly Exponent Abraham’s grandson, Jacob (later known as Israel), was the father of 12 children who each headed a tribe of their descendants. Collectively, the tribes were known as Israel. God first revealed himself through Abraham who became known as the founder of Judaism. God is the god of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. [--]

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Origins The origins of the Jewish faith are explained through the Torah. Jews believe that God made a special covenant with Abraham and that he and his descendants were a chosen people who would create a great nation (Ebersheim, 2016). More than 1,000 years after Abraham, the prophet Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt after being enslaved for hundreds of years. God revealed his laws, known as the Ten Commandments, to Moses on Mt. Sinai. Temples are central to Jewish worship (Ebersheim, 2016). Solomon built the first temple in Jerusalem around 1,000 B.C.E. The kingdom collapsed around 931 B.C.E. and split into Israel in the North and Judah in the South. Around 587 B.C.E., the Babylonians destroyed the first temple and sent many Jews into exile. A second temple was built around 616 B.C.E., but was destroyed by the Romans in 70 C.E. After the destruction of the second temple, Jews shifted their focus to local synagogues. There are two holy books—the Torah or first five books of the Bible, and the Talmud, which is a collection of oral traditions that have been transcribed and codified into 613 imperatives from Jewish law. [--]

Today Judaism is a product of its past and its past has been one of persecution. In fact, throughout history, Jews have been persecuted (Fiet, 2022): • 1066 Granada Massacre: On December 30, 1066, a Muslim mob stormed the royal palace of Granada and killed more than 1,000 Jewish families. The group also kidnapped and crucified Joseph ibn Naghrela, the Jewish vizier to the Berber king. • The First Crusade: The Crusades were a series of medieval holy wars involving Christians and Muslims. In the first, thousands of Jews were killed, and many were forced to convert to Christianity. • The Spanish Expulsion: In 1492, Spain’s rulers issued a royal edict that declared all Jews who refused to convert to Christianity would be expelled from the country. Estimates are that 200,000 people were ousted and tens of thousands died while trying to reach safety. • The Holocaust: In the Holocaust, the most infamous of modernday atrocities, the Nazis murdered more than six million Jews.

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Jewish Holidays form the structure of Jewish worship (Ebersheim, 2016). One cannot understand Judaism without understanding its holidays whose explanations follow: • Shabbat: It is a day of rest and prayer for Jews, which begins at sunset on Friday and lasts until nightfall on Saturday. There are different forms of Shabbat worship depending on whether one is an Orthodox or Conservative Jew. Many observant Jews celebrate Shabbat by reading or discussing the Torah, attending synagogue, or socializing with other Jews in Shabbat meals • Passover: It lasts seven or eight days and celebrates Jewish freedom from slavery in Egypt. • Rosh Hashanah: Jews celebrate the birth of the universe and humanity during this holiday, which is also known as the Jewish New Year. • Yom Kippur: This is the Day of Atonement, the holiest day of the year, and is celebrated by fasting and praying. • High Holy Days: The ten days between Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur are the high holy days, which are reserved as a time of repentance. • Hanukkah: This celebration is known as the festival of lights. It commemorates the rededication of the temple in Jerusalem after the Maccabees defeated the Syrian Greeks over 2,000 years ago. • Purim: This is a joyous holiday celebrating when the Jewish people in Persia were saved from extermination. [+1pd]

God Yahweh is the god of the Israelites, whose name was revealed to Moses as four Hebrew consonants (YHWH). Again, He is the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, and the national god of the Israelites. He delivered the Israelites from Egyptian slavery and gave them the Law of Moses on Mountain Sinai, as described in the Torah. Jews believe that there is a single god who not only created the universe, but with whom every Jew can have an individual and personal relationship, which is established and bound with a covenant (Lapide & Moltmann, 2002). Such a relationship could be extremely reassuring to an entrepreneur struggling to overcome and master uncertainty. [+1d]

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More Than One God Jews worship only one God (Lapide & Moltmann, 2002). To the extent that it reduces confusion, this could be positive for entrepreneurship. [+1d]

Roles of the Gods This is not pertinent. [0p]

Philosophy for Living? Jewish philosophy is not part of its religion. It is the pursuit of speculative knowledge undertaken from the perspective of the Jewish religion. If it is not part of its religion, it is outside the scope of this analysis for the purpose of entrepreneurship. [0p]

Requirements Traditional Jews observe dietary rules from the Book of Leviticus, including abstaining from eating meat and dairy products at the same meal, the humane slaughter of animals, and the prohibition from eating blood, pork, shellfish, and certain other foods (Schwarzschild, 1962). In addition, observant Jews are expected to celebrate the six holidays described previously. Because these lifestyle imperatives are not themselves doctrines, they do not impact entrepreneurship. [0p]

Savior Jews believe in a Messianic Savior, but they reject Jesus Christ as being that Savior, viewing Him instead as a common Jew (Sarachek, 2008). Jews are waiting still for him to come in power and glory. The definitive reference on this is Alfred Edersheim’s (2016) tome, The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah. It is one of the most remarkable studies ever written about a religious figure, which was ten years in its writing, awe-inspiring in its scope, and incredibly well-documented. In fact, I know of no comparable study of any religious figure. A savior who had already come would be easier to follow and validate. The fact that Jews reject Jesus as being the Savior means that they are still waiting. If He had already come, He

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would be easier to serve and follow. Having not already come, Jews are left with more uncertainty for entrepreneurs. [−1d]

Object of Faith Salvation is related to the idea of redemption, which is saving oneself from the conditions that destroy the value of human existence (Gillman, 1997). God is the source of salvation, if individuals observed his precepts, which would also pertain to entrepreneurship. [0d]

Marriage and Family Marriage is a contractual bond between one man and one woman to create a relationship with God. Jews covenant with God and not with each in their marriage vows. Marriage is intended to result in children. Marriage is also the merging into a single soul because man was considered incomplete (Langton, 2014). Raising a family is a righteous extension of marriage. Marriage and family increase stability, make it necessary to plan for one’s temporal needs, all while providing emotional and spiritual support for anything, really, but in the present context for entrepreneurship. [+1d]

Caste System Having a caste system is not part of Judaism, which means that it does not impact Jewish entrepreneurship. [0p]

Suggested Practices Jews observe the Levitical practices and religious holidays. They also worship in the synagogue. Worship at home includes prayers, Shabbat meals, and study (Wicks, 1915). Notice that these practices are generally not connected with doctrines. If that is the case, why do Jews practice them? Surely, they must mean more than being the means whereby to keep Jews committed to Judaism. This same question could be asked regarding the practices of other religions and denominations. The advantage of a doctrine over a practice is that the first is related to an eternal relationship whereas the second

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is something that is repeated at frequent intervals with little espoused connection to eternity. [0p]

Rituals or Ceremonies? Refer to previous discussions of Shabbat and the ceremonies associated with Jewish holidays and worshiping in the synagogue and in the home. If they are only suggested practices, their underlying, spiritual, and doctrinal relationships would be quite distal (Wicks, 1915). A key question to ask is whether a ritual or ceremony relates to an historical event or to a doctrine that explains the relationship between God and man, as well as to future possibilities for observant Jews. If it only relates to an historical event, perhaps it could still point to a doctrine that explained an eternal pathway for the faithful. If it only related to an event, then the attachment would be cultural rather than religious. There are many Jews who value their cultural attachment but have drifted into atheism. However, it is unlikely that a cultural attachment could have the same positive effect on entrepreneurship as a doctrine. [+1pd]

Divine Revelation? The Torah was a product of ongoing revelation (Charles, 1913). However, reconstructionist Judaism denies the notion of revelation entirely. Those who have abandoned Judaism’s spiritual nature have likely fallen into atheism, and for them revelation would not be acceptable. However, for those who are not cultural Jews only, revelation was received by the rabbis who pronounced the Talmud. Whether it occurs today is a question with a more uncertain answer. If it did occur, it could be positive for entrepreneurship. [0pd]

Purpose of Life? Before man sets out to conquer the world, he must first conquer himself and his ego through the subjugation of the earthly and beastly in his nature. This is attained through actions that accord with the Torah, which is the Jewish guide for practical everyday living. The goal is that the material becomes permeated and illuminated with the light of God. Thus, the purpose of life is to rise above the earthly and mundane. It is not clear how entrepreneurship fits into this earthly view (Charles, 1913). However, it

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is common knowledge that Jews have gravitated toward business, partly because their persecutors would not do business with them, and particularly in financial services. For example, the Rothchild’s financial empire in Europe is legendary. Thus, the Jewish purpose of life would be positive for entrepreneurship. [+1d]

Afterlife Humans have a soul, which will someday return to God (Gillman, 1997). Other teachings suggest that there will be a future judgment when some will be rewarded whereas others will be punished. Setting up a contingent reward system is positively related to entrepreneurship. [+1d]

Reward for Faithfulness It is axiomatic that God rewards the righteous by granting them prosperity and well-being, not only in this life but in the afterlife (CohnSherbok, 1978). This same axiom would stimulate entrepreneurship. [+1d]

Relevancy to Our Present Lives There are faithful Jews living throughout the world whose heritage is one of suffering, questioning, debate, and intellectual excellence (Bakan, 2012). We need only to consider the brilliant Jews who fled to the United States in anticipation of World War II to understand their contributions to the world of scholarship, music, and science, including especially mathematics and physics. Jews are also bound to a strict moral code, one to which they will be held accountable, prior to receiving their reward for right living. It is not surprising that the combination of their brilliance and dedication to excellence, their community born of suffering, and their imperative to work together against all odds have created some of the world’s most successful entrepreneurs, indeed leaders in many different fields. [+2p]

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Summary of the Impact of Jewish Doctrine on Entrepreneurship The overall impact of Jewish doctrine on entrepreneurship is plus eight, which is the result of totaling the twenty-two individual scores. In addition, the beliefs were 7 for doctrine and 6 for philosophy and 3 for philosophy/doctrine. The most notable features of this summary are the preponderance of holidays, rituals, and ceremonies, all layered beneath a very strong set of inherited, cultural traditions. In fact, Judaism is well known both internally and externally for its traditions. Even when some believers abandon the faith, they are quite reluctant to raise their children beyond Jewish cultural influence. Moreover, given the impressive record of Jewish excellence in music, finance, mathematics, and physics, it is quite likely that the positive influence from Jewish doctrine will be further leveraged by its intellectual achievements. Finally, Judaism is a monotheistic, Abrahamic religion with a cogent set of doctrines that probably by themselves reduce entrepreneurial uncertainty.

References Bakan, D. (2012). Sigmund Freud and the Jewish mystical tradition. Courier Corporation. Charles, R. H. (1913). A Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life: In Israel, in Judaism, and in Christianity; Or, Hebrew, Jewish, and Christian Eschatology from Pre-prophetic Times Till the Close of the New Testament Canon. A. & C. Black. Cohn-Sherbok, D. (1978). The Jewish Doctrine of Hell. Religion, 8(2), 196– 209. Ebersheim, A. (2016). The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah (13th Printing). Hendrickson. Fiet, J. (2022). The Theoretical World of Entrepreneurship. Edward Elgar. Gillman, N. (1997). The Death of Death: Resurrection and Immortality in Jewish Thought. Jewish Lights Publishing. Langton, E. (2014). Essentials of Demonology: A Study of Jewish and Christian Doctrine, Its Origin and Development. Wipf and Stock Publishers. Lapide, P., & Moltmann, J. (2002). Jewish Monotheism and Christian Trinitarian Doctrine. Wipf and Stock Publishers. Sarachek, J. (2008). The Doctrine of the Messiah in Medieval Jewish Literature. Wipf and Stock Publishers. Schwarzschild, S. (1962). Do Noachites Have to Believe in Revelation A P (Passage in Dispute between Maimonides, Spinoza, Mendelssohn and H.

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Cohen). A Contribution to a Jewish View of Natural Law: The Textual Question. The Jewish Quarterly Review, 52(4), 297–308. Wicks, H. J. (1915).The Doctrine of God in the Jewish Apocryphal and Apocalyptic Literature. Hunter & Longhurst.

CHAPTER 30

Primal Religious Doctrine and Entrepreneurship

The world’s primal religions predate recorded history. There is no way of knowing how many adherents that they have attracted, nor exactly what they believe. These will be referred to as primal because they came first; but they have also been referred to as tribal because their groupings were invariably small and because writing was unknown. This mode of religiosity continues in Africa, Australia, Southeast Asia, the Pacific Islands, Siberia, and among the Indians of North and South America. Their numbers are diminished but they are important for their influence and the contrasting light that they throw on the historical religions that we will engage.

Primal religion refers to (1) native traditions, (2) tribal traditions, or (3) indigenous traditions. Examples would be the Native American people, the Cherokee, the Lakota, and the Indian nations in the former United States and throughout North and South America; the San people of the Kalahari, sometimes referred to as the Bushmen of the Kalahari; and the Adivast or the first peoples of India (Cox, 1996). These groups were geographically isolated but nevertheless similar.

First Earthly Exponent We do not know who could have provided the first impetus for these groups or whether they simply coalesced and learned to travel together, eventually settling in a location. Or whether any of them had a leader © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. O. Fiet, Religious Doctrines and their Influence on Entrepreneurship, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43386-3_30

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to inspire cooperation. We have no records of this person’s impact on entrepreneurship (Turner, 2022). [--]

Origins Scholars think that these groups had a few common characteristics from their early years (Smith, 1986). First, they all seemed to venerate animals. Some animals were viewed as being sacred and could have represented a god or the tribe itself. The impact of their origins could have been instrumental in their entrepreneurial success and survival. However, we simply have no record of their origins. Second, a belief in magic and animism. Animism is the idea that everything is somehow alive or full of spirits, including the spirits of gods. Magic was administered by a shaman who was a special person, such as a medicine man who knew the right prayers, the right herbs, and the right rituals to maintain contact with the gods or the spirits of nature, all of which helped them to rectify adverse situations in the community. Third, totem and taboo, in which a sacred animal is a stand-in for the life of the community. A taboo is any practice or behavior forbidden for religious, cultural, or social reasons. A totem is an image, a living thing, or physical object that is recognized by a group as representing it, either in whole or in part. By venerating an animal, one is really venerating the entire community. The animal would be protected until it was ceremonially eaten. Fourth, rites of passage at birth, adulthood, marriage, and a funeral, which sanctify the entire cycle. Fifth, many tribes practice ancestor worship, which helped them to feel connected to humanness while isolated geographically. [--]

Today These primal religions enact a wide range of religious practices, many that have a suspected ancient heritage. Because they can seem odd compared with modernity, scholars must be deferential not to force change on the practitioners in a way that would corrupt their heritage (Clifton et al., 2019). Notice that these practices rarely if ever have a doctrinal explanation. In other words, they do not tell a story, and if there is no story to tell or to follow, it cannot be connected to entrepreneurship. [--]

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God A god could become a person. A person could become an animal through a sort of trance state. Plants could be associated with certain animals. Or plants could be associated with certain gods. Thus, categories are fluid according to indigenous traditions (Ultranet, 1983). So, it is not simple to separate what is a god and what is human and so forth. What is also not clear is the meaning of the fluidity for one’s aspirations, or specifically what it would mean for entrepreneurship. [0p]

More Than One God Yes, they recognize more than one God. The various gods are distinguished by the functions that they perform in the service of humanity (Sharma, 2006a). A god’s functionality was also characteristic of the 33 million Hindu gods, but as in that case, it is not clear how a human would approach a god with cross-functional needs or goals, which would be the case with entrepreneurship. [0p]

Roles of the Gods? The roles are associated by their names and with the functions performed. The notion that a god would not be multi-functional and all-powerful is to suggest that god’s powers are limited. The only way to act as an all-powerful god would be for the gods to collaborate in a team effort. However, collaboration seems beyond the capabilities of primitive societies (Sharma, 2006b). Perhaps, their gods can collaborate, but the societies themselves live in isolation. Otherwise, they would not be as primitive. It does not seem plausible for these gods to support entrepreneurship. [−1p]

Philosophy for Living? Some religions have gone global as they spread internationally to the point that they are potentially available to anyone who would chose to embrace them (Grayson, 1984). Others, which we call primal, have remained integrated with the cultures in which they arose. Thus, although primal religions experience the five similar practices noted previously, what really differentiates their philosophies for living is the cultural milieu in

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which each one is embedded. Thus, we cannot generalize about their effects on entrepreneurship. [0p]

Requirements The veneration of animals, magic, totem and taboo, rights of passage, and ancestor worship are the fundamental requirements, which are culturally adjusted to conform to their specific cultural locale (Grayson, 1984). There is no known, systematic relationship between any of these requirements and their relationship with entrepreneurship. [0p]

Savior Adherents do not worship a savior (Cox, 1996). A savior would be an implausible nuance to account for the events in an adherent’s life. Rather than worry about their salvation, they are more worried about their survival from day to day. There is no doctrinal salvific relationship with entrepreneurship. [0p]

Object of Faith Faith is directed toward living in conformity with nature, animals, and the demands of magic (Choksy, 1988). Moreover, there is no known doctrinal explanation about how any of them could account for increased levels of entrepreneurship. [0p]

Marriage and Family The rites of passage are closely connected with marriage, procreation and raising a family (Wokler, 2000). They protect and promote continuity from one generation to the next, which is a way that they can see immortality in their posterity. In this way, it is possible that entrepreneurship could provide the means to influence or control the future. [+1p]

Caste System No known primal religion uses a caste system so that it can exert any influence on entrepreneurship (Smith, 1986). [0p]

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Suggested Practices Primal religions are usually pre-scientific. Rather than using modern tools of experimentation and observation, primal people rely on myth and ritual to discern their world (Bediako, 1997). By studying their practices, we can increase our understanding of phenomena such as (1) sacred places, (2) visions, (3) ritual specialists, (4) initiation rites, (5) motivation, (6) syncretism, (7) vision quests, and (8) responses to change. Because these practices do not appear to be doctrinally based, it is unlikely that they will be related to entrepreneurship. [0p]

Rituals or Ceremonies? It is useful to recall that the primal consciousness has not been altered by the conditions and dichotomies of modern technological society. As a result, it is not fragmented, but remains whole. In this form, all of life is a symbolic paradigm of the sacred and the connected. Life as lived is a sacred activity in and of itself. One worships as one breathes. Work and play are inseparably connected. Ritual plays a major part in primal religions, with ceremonies used both to please or propitiate the spirits and to enlist their help in many sorts of human activity, from agriculture to warfare. Rites of passage mark the beginning of adulthood, the birth of a child, and circumcision for boys and a girl’s first menstrual period. The key spiritual figure in these rituals and ceremonies is the shaman. The shamans contact the spirit world, receive visions, transmit messages, and assist in healing (Bediako, 1997). It is possible that one of these rituals could be related to successful entrepreneurship. However, there is no known doctrine to explain such a relationship. With such an explanation, we must conclude that there is no such relationship with entrepreneurship [0p]

Divine Revelation? Primal religionists accept the reality of divine revelation but because their divinity has various divine influences, their revelations do not come from a one, true god, but are practically driven and thought to pertain more to the vicissitudes of daily survival (Sharma, 2006b). Once again, a relationship with entrepreneurship comes up short because the doctrine to explain it is missing. [0p]

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Purpose of Life? A purposeful life is one that balances our human needs, including (a) certainty, (b) variety, (c) significance, (d) connection, (e) growth, and (f) contribution. Although we do not know much about their ancient ancestors, we can compare the primals living in societies near us with other cultures, so that we can understand that human nature, guided by a genome, tends to approximate a common ideal, resulting in the similarity (Sharma, 2006b). One could view these aspects of living with the ideal standards to achieve entrepreneurial success. Unfortunately, there are no known religious doctrines to frame such a relationship. [0p]

Afterlife Most primal religions hold the belief that life and death are connected very closely. The belief in spirits and the honoring of ancestors is very powerful and meaningful. Often, death is celebrated as a natural and wonderful part of life rather than being mourned, as in most organized religions (Ultranet, 1983). Unfortunately, the doctrine to connect the afterlife with entrepreneurship is missing. [0p]

Reward for Faithfulness Life as lived is a sacred activity in and of itself (Smith, 1986). One worships as one breathes. Rewards in the afterlife are a natural extension of living worthily in this one, which could include entrepreneurship. [+1p]

Relevancy to Our Present Lives Primal religions do not engage in evangelism, yet they live very similar lives while being unaware of others practicing similar lifestyles with similar spiritual aspirations. Their similarities, uninfluenced by social interaction, suggest that at our moral and spiritual foundations we gravitate to similar patterns of living (Smith, 1986). Due to the need to stay focused on daily survival, primals are not engaged in entrepreneurial activities such as accruing capital gains. Their needs are more immediate. Yet we can learn from them about our common humanity and that there is much more that we have in common than what separates us. [0p]

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Summary of the Impact of Primal Religious Doctrine on Entrepreneurship The overall impact of primal religious doctrine on entrepreneurship is plus one, which is the result of totaling the twenty-two individual scores. In addition, the beliefs were 0 for doctrine and 16 for philosophy and 0 for philosophy/doctrine. The most notable feature of this summary is the absence of religious doctrine. Instead, these disparate but similar groups engage in common practices. Their origin is a mystery except that they are related to the earth and common life stages and experiences. They also engage in rituals and ceremonies with associated rites of passage, only a few of which has an obvious connection to entrepreneurship.

References Bediako, G. M. (1997). Primal Religion and the Bible: William Robertson Smith and His Heritage (Vol. 246). A&C Black. Choksy, J. K. (1988). Women in the Zoroastrian Book of Primal Creation: Images and Functions Within a Religious Tradition. Mankind Quarterly, 29(1), 73. Clifton, J. D., Baker, J. D., Park, C. L., Yaden, D. B., Clifton, A. B., Terni, P., Miller, J. L., Zeng, G., Giorgi, S., Schwartz, H. A., Seligman, M. E. (2019). Primal World Beliefs. Psychological Assessment , 31(1), 82. Cox, J. L. (1996). The Classification ‘Primal Religions’ as a Non-Empirical Christian Theological Construct. Studies in World Christianity, 2(1), 55–76. Grayson, J. (1984). Religious Syncretism in the Shilla Period: The Relationship Between Esoteric Buddhism and Korean Primeval Religion. Asian Folklore Studies, 185–198. Sharma, A. (2006a). A Primal Perspective on the Philosophy of Religion (p. 76). Springer. Sharma, A. (2006b). The Concept of Revelation and the Primal Religious Tradition. A Primal Perspective on the Philosophy of Religion, 93–109. Smith, H. (1986). The World’s Religions: Our Great Wisdom Traditions. Perfect Bound (HarperCollins Publishers). Turner, H. (2022). The Primal Religions of the World and Their Study. Australian Association for the Study of Religions Book Series, 11–11. Ultranet, Å. (1983). The Concept of the Supernatural in Primal Religion. History of Religions, 22(3), 231–253. Wokler, R. (2000). The Enlightenment, the Nation-State, and the Primal Patricide of Modernity. The Enlightenment and Modernity, 161–183.

CHAPTER 31

Taoist Doctrine and Entrepreneurship

In 2005, Taoism had about 2.56 million adherents, 90% of whom live in Taiwan. There are only 12,000 adherents in the United States. Taoism (also spelled Daoism) is a religion and philosophy from ancient China. It holds that humans and animals should live in balance with Tao, or the universe. Taoists believe in spiritual immortality where the spirit joins the universe after death.

First Earthly Exponent Lao Tzu was a philosopher who lived around 500 B.C.E. He wrote the main book of Taoism, the Tao Te Ching (Kaltenmark, 1969). The fact that the religion has a written standard work from which it can draw stability and guidance also serves as an authoritative source to ensure compliance with its pre-philosophies and precepts or doctrine. The fact that its founder was a philosopher suggests that his teaching could be as much philosophical as doctrinally based. To the extent that it lacks doctrines, it may also be powerless to deliver entrepreneurial outcomes. [--]

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Origins As a religion, it began in the year 142 C.E. with the revelation of the Tao to Zhang Daoling or Chang Tao-ling by the personified god of the Tao, Taishang Laojun (Lao Tzu), the Highest Venerable Lord (Kaltenmark, 1969). Zhang Daoling became the first Celestial Master and founder of the first organized Taoist school of thought. [--]

Today Like the other religious philosophies that originated in China, they are not encouraged by government policy (Welch Jr., 1971). In fact, during the communist takeover in 1959, Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism were banned, which caused a decline in China of all three religions. Taoism now flourishes mostly in Taiwan. If Taiwan were reunited with China, the reunification would probably not bode well for Taoism. [--]

God Lao Tsu was both the first God of Taoism and the personification of the Tao (Seidel, 1984). However, Taoism does not have a god in the way that the Abrahamic religions do. There is no omnipotent being beyond the cosmos who created and controls the universe. The universe sprung from the Tao, and the Tao impersonally guides things. As such, adherents cannot ask for special favors that would improve their odds of entrepreneurial success. [0p]

More than One God Taoism has many gods, most of them borrowed from other cultures. These deities are within this universe and are themselves subject to the Tao (Seidel, 1984). Westerners who study Taoism are surprised to discover that Taoists venerate gods because there does not seem to be a place for them in Taoist thinking. The gods are subjected to the universe and are unable to provide special treatment for those who hope to become entrepreneurs. [0p]

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Roles of the Gods? The Venerable Lord, the Tao, was at rest in open mystery, beyond silent desolation, in mysterious emptiness. Say it/he is there and does not see a shape; say it/he is not there, yet all beings follow him for life. Many of the deities are gods of a particular role, rather than a personal divine being and have titles rather than names (Seidel, 1984). In fact, the Taoist pantheon resembles a heavenly bureaucracy that mimics earthly, Chinese administrations. However, apologists claim that it is the other way around. That is, that secular administrations mimic the heavenly bureaucracy. Although it is conceivable that a god could intervene to help an entrepreneur, this would be an exception to the general rule. [0p]

Philosophy for Living? Taoist thought focuses on genuineness, longevity, health, immortality, vitality, wu wei (non-action, a natural action, a perfect equilibrium with Tao) detachment, refinement (emptiness), spontaneity, transformation, and omni-potentiality (Ma, 2001). In other words, Taoist forms of perfection, rather than achieving an external goal, such as entrepreneurship. [0p]

Requirements There are four teachings that will help practitioners to navigate life (Schipper, 1993): 1. Simplicity, patience, compassion. 2. Going with the flow. When nothing is done nothing will be left undone. 3. Letting go. If you realize that all things change, there is nothing you will try to hold on to. 4. Harmony. Such passiveness and going with the flow are the obverse of what is required for entrepreneurship. [−1p]

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Savior Taoism does not have a savior that could impact entrepreneurship (Seidel, 1984). [0p]

Object of Faith It is to become one with Tao. As contemplated, it is pointless to consider anything other than the universe that subsumes everything else, which is only transitory (Seidel, 1984). In fact, humans are so helpless and pointless that they are only a temporary distraction from what is real. So naturally, entrepreneurship is also pointless. [−1p]

Marriage and Family The concepts of Yin and yang suggest the usefulness of joining together in marriage, which is considered a sacred act (Chen, 1973). However, some sources acknowledge that people can grow apart in a marriage, with the passions running elsewhere or their interests diverging, in which case divorce could be used to end a formal relationship. Thus, divorce would be an approved way to rebalance yin and yang. None of this would be directly related to entrepreneurship. [0p]

Caste System By itself, Taoism does not have a caste system. Because Taoism is typically not practiced near Hinduism, it is very unlikely that it would be adopted as a practice. Nor would it be likely to have an impact on entrepreneurship. [0p]

Suggested Practices The Taoist ideal is for a person to act by changing themselves, and thus become an example of the good life for others. They should develop themselves so that they live their life in complete harmony with the universe. So, the philosophy is not to do good things; but become a good person (Creel, 1982).

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Taoists avoid eating meat and drinking alcohol unless the latter is a cure for an illness. Meat is avoided to maintain balance between ying and yang. In fact, all living creatures ought to live in a state of harmony with the universe, and the energy found in it. Ch’s, or qi, is the energy present in guiding everything in the universe. The Tao Te Ching and other Taoist books provide guides for behavior and spiritual ways of living in harmony with this energy. Taoists beliefs are often introduced from the various cultures found in a region. Taoism has temples, monasteries, and priests who make offerings, meditate, and perform other rituals for their communities (Creel, 1982). Living a harmonious life is unrelated to entrepreneurship. In fact, an entrepreneur is sometimes viewed as a disrupter who could be seen as an obstacle to be overcome by others. [−1p]

Rituals or Ceremonies? Major festivals last for days and up to seven days or more. A two-day service may involve 15 different rites corresponding to distinct texts, each rite lasting from one to several hours. Typically, each of these rites consists of the following stages (Kirkland, 1986): 1. Purification, 2. Invocation of the deities, 3. Prayers, 4. Consecration and offerings, 5. Hymns, 6. Dances, and 7. Perambulations. There are two types of rites: 1. Funeral or periodic rites or rites on behalf of ancestors and 2. Rites on behalf of local communities. All rites must be performed perfectly and in the proper sequence. At the end, a petition is presented to the gods stating the names and purposes of the ritual, as well as a vow, effectively making a covenant with the

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deity—prescribed behavior in exchange for a desired and worthy outcome (Kirkland, 1986). Much of Chinese drama is influenced by colorful rituals, filled with music, incense and stylized movement. Puppetry is common. Some puppet plays are so fearsome that ordinary people avoid watching them. These rituals and ceremonies are unrelated to entrepreneurship. [0p]

Divine Revelation? As a part of rituals, both mediums and puppets can undertake expeditions against demons who have caused problems for a person or community. Also, at times people can be visited by Immortals, as was Yang Xi. His visions lasted seven years during which time he received a whole new scriptural and hagiographic literature (Sivin, 1978). It is conceivable that a vision could be related to a demon who was impeding entrepreneurship. [+1p]

Purpose of Life? To live in harmony with Tao, as well as Ch’i, which is Tao’s energy, is to have the consequences magnified. Also, one should balance yin and yang. These ideas represent matching pairs, such as light and darkness, hot and cold, action and inaction, which work together toward a universal whole. Ying and yang show that everything in the universe is connected, and nothing makes sense by itself (Zürcher, 1980). It is not clear how this purpose would align with entrepreneurship unless one views it as a way of establishing harmony. [0p]

Afterlife There is a debate regarding death, which is described as shijie or release from the corpse. However, what happens next has been described as transformation, immortality, or ascension to heaven (Welch Jr., 1971). Others are believed to have been transformed into a sword and then into a column of smoke. It is believed that the body is filled with spirits and monsters and that several rituals must be performed so that these spirits are able to guard the body. These differing views and debate increase the uncertainty connected with the afterlife, which is a disincentive for entrepreneurship. [−1p]

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Reward for Faithfulness The fundamental belief in Taoism is Dao, a belief that myriad things of the universe are created by Dao (Welch Jr., 1971). Dao is eternal and everlasting, and hence, through cultivation one can achieve the Dao, enjoy good fortune and a blissful life on earth, and live on eternally in the heavenly realms. There is nothing remotely connected with entrepreneurship. [0p]

Relevancy to Our Present Lives Taoists believe that they can achieve good fortune and a blissful life (Welch Jr., 1971). In practice, this could mean that a Taoist would develop a very high tolerance for risk, which would make an entrepreneur more proactive. If a devotee’s faith results from entrepreneurial success, then a Taoist belief system could be a positive moderator for entrepreneurship. [+1p]

Summary of the Impact of Taoist Doctrine on Entrepreneurship The overall impact of Taoist religious doctrine on entrepreneurship is minus two, which is the result of totaling the twenty-two individual scores. In addition, the beliefs were 0 for doctrine and 16 for philosophy and 0 for philosophy/doctrine. With Taoism, the absence of religious doctrine continues. Doctrine has been figuratively replaced by practices, rituals, and ceremonies. While it does have some tenets, mainly it consists of rituals and ceremonies whose intended purpose is to keep adherents focused on becoming one with the Dao, which is more like becoming good than doing good.

References Chen, E. M. (1973). Is There a Doctrine of Physical Immortality in the Tao Te Ching? History of Religions, 12(3), 231–249. Creel, H. G. (1982). What Is Taoism?: And Other Studies in Chinese Cultural History. University of Chicago Press. Kaltenmark, M. (1969). Lao Tzu and Taoism. Stanford University Press.

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Kirkland, J. R. (1986). The Roots of Altruism in the Taoist Tradition. Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 54(1), 59–77. Ma, R. (2001). Taoist Philosophy and the Art of War: A Response to Combs’ Rhetoric of Parsimony. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 87 , 436–438. Schipper, K. (1993). The Taoist Body. University of California Press. Seidel, A. (1984). Taoist Messianism. Numen, 31(2), 161–174. Sivin, N. (1978). On the Word “Taoist” as a Source of Perplexity. With Special Reference to the Relations of Science and Religion in Traditional China. History of Religions, 17 (3/4), 303–330. Welch, H. H., Jr. (1971). Taoism: The Parting of the Way (Vol. 224). Beacon Press. Zürcher, E. (1980). Buddhist Influence on Early Taoism. T’oung Pao, 66(1), 84–147.

CHAPTER 32

Woke Doctrine and Entrepreneurship

There is a tidal wave sweeping through every facet of Western culture, taking the form of a new, secular religion. Known as Wokeism, currently, it may only be a movement but is approaching the status of a religion. Mainly, it has appeared as an alternative to Christianity, which has presented some challenges to its classification (Zimmer in Wall Street Journal, April 17, 2017). It is not a Christian religion; nor does it represent a JudeoChristian world view. Where it is practiced, it offers a different utopian vision of the future.

Wokeism is not a political or social movement within the framework of enlightenment values (Funk, 2020). Nor is it the type of awakening proclaimed by the Buddha who was attempting to become one with a Daoist universe. Concepts such as logic, science, math, and reason are viewed as tools of the oppressive white patriarchy. Surprisingly, values such as hard work, individualism, punctuality, and delayed gratification are interpreted as perpetuating white supremacy (Sobande, 2019). It is also the case that these same values that characterize entrepreneurs would be viewed as white supremacist threats. Wokeism is not compatible theoretically with entrepreneurship. Nor does it create new wealth; instead, it is a scheme for redistributing a shrinking amount of wealth because it takes away incentives to be productive from those who want to make a difference or to improve their own standing in the world. In contrast, it views self-interest as comparable © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. O. Fiet, Religious Doctrines and their Influence on Entrepreneurship, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43386-3_32

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to sin, which should be punished through such tactics as boycotts and cancelation (Peterson, 2021). It is useful to understand its premises so that proponents of entrepreneurship can offer counterarguments.

First Earthly Exponent Many see Wokeism originating with the horrendous death of George Floyd. This treatment will be clear from the outset—it does not debate the unfair legacy of minorities. It has no reluctance to admit the discrimination that is part of our national history. It is not surprising that his death was made into a watershed event for an ideology that had been growing for decades (Pillai, 2020). The purpose of this treatment is to explore Wokeism’s interpretive theory, and its relationship to entrepreneurship, which developed into a narrative, a narrative that has not been sufficiently debated. For example, its beginnings can be traced back to the German Frankfurt School, a Marxist offshoot, which developed a social philosophy called Critical theory. Critical theory critiques Western culture and challenges society’s underlying power structures (Chambers, 2004). Twenty years ago in Europe, critical theory was already highly influential. Critical theory as exemplified by Wokeism has become much more than a social philosophy. It can easily be interpreted as the driving force behind a new secular, civic religion. [--]

Origins Surely, the death of George Floyd was a crisis for the nation and world. In fact, to Wokeism’s true believers George Floyd has become its patron saint. Political organizers understood that it was never advantageous to allow such a crisis to go to waste. They attacked anything that could be viewed as an artifact or symbol of racism using a presentist interpretation of historical events and figures (Pillai, 2020). Alicia Garza, Patrisse-Khan-Cullors, and Opal Tometi established an organization known as Black Lives Matter (BLM). BLM is a literal artifact of critical race theory (CRT). At least one of its cofounders became a multi-millionaire, which was not the type of virtue she intended to signal. She was a Marxist multi-millionaire with four houses. Her cofounders were also Marxists. With George Floyd as a symbol of racism, BLM implicitly promised a better future for the oppressed, which attracted

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hundreds of thousands to its ranks nationwide. In fact, through affiliated organizations, BLM is now prominent in Western Europe, which also shares a collective guilt for slavery. Nationally, BLM has become a symbol in much of the legacy and social media, at our nation’s embassies, in the military, in most major corporations, and as a symbol of many universities. Even sports organizations have adopted boycotts of regions that were not deemed sufficiently compliant with BLM’s goals. Politicians, sensing its appeal, were quick to associate themselves with it as a symbol of their own moral virtue. Another artifact of Wokeism is Antifa, although its supporters claim that it is solely anti-fascist. Its origins can be traced to communist (Marxist) organizers who opposed Hitler and Mussolini. The same purpose remains today, which is to oppose anything that it deems to be fascist which would include capitalism, the police, white supremacy, and sexual or gender discrimination, and so on. Its methods are generally anarchist, which makes them more brutal than BLM’s. It describes itself as a movement without leaders, yet clearly it is directed and organized to present a threatening public presence while it makes no secret of its goal, which is to destroy existing institutional structures that it charges are fascist. In its public demonstrations, its supporters are often armed with rifles and dress in black. What is missing from the Antifa Intersectionalist narrative is what is going to replace the fascist institutions that it intends to destroy and meanwhile who is going to keep the peace without police. The default position is that everyone will be armed, and no one will trust anyone else. Because trust is essential for entrepreneurship to operate, an Antifa vision of the future will bring entrepreneurship to an end. Whether it is BLM’s or Antifa’s, the Marxist story only has one narrative, and it is class struggle. Originally, it was the capitalists versus the working class, but the Intersectionalist version of critical theory found more than 30 potential points of conflict to be confronted, not just one at a time, but in combination to overwhelm any opposition. Being woke today means advocating for compensation for the oppressed, based on these Intersectionalist grievances. Currently, the main lines of demarcation between oppressors and oppressed are race, sex, and gender identity. Again, nothing in this summary should be construed to deny societal inequities or historic racism. The extent to which these inequities exist today is difficult to measure because there are no national databases

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of the alleged grievances, only media and political narratives. Plus, no social critic, nor anyone else, has access to all information in its totality regarding the alleged systematic racism. That said, wherever it exists, it must be addressed. If we are going to address historic racism and its effects, we should also recognize the historic progress that has already been made. This section’s purpose is less about discovery and more about understanding the theoretical underpinnings of a theory that could end entrepreneurship. [--]

Today It is mainly embodied as a cancel culture demanding safe spaces in which to protect itself from counter narratives (Peterson, 2021), although it is completely unwilling to allow those with different views the same protection, nor even to be entitled to express another point of view. Social media, print media, major corporations, and many politicians have rushed to cancel others with different views to signal their own virtue, and often to enhance their own self-interest (Peterson, 2021). The New York Time’s 1619 Project argues that America was formally established in 1776 to guarantee the continuation of racism, which proponents are attempting to have taught nationwide in schools, even though eight out of ten of its writers were Marxist journalists, not historians. They omit from their narrative that the colonists primarily had governance and economic differences with England. England was not attempting to curtail slavery. If protecting slavery had been the motivation for independence, there would have been no reason to fight a war. Whether the 1619 Project spreads nationwide is a political question. The movement’s other objectives are to secure reparations for historic injustices, even though those who would pay for them and those who would receive them were not responsible for, nor the victims of, the injustices. It does not matter that Christian teachings uphold traditional marriage and traditional gender roles; the woke advocates in the world’s most Christian country intend to quash anyone who would oppose their propagandist messages and policies. The alleged villains are white males, although being a white female is said to have also conferred white privilege. They accuse the targets of their campaign to restructure societal rewards of manifesting white fragility, which is the tendency among members of the dominant white cultural

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group to have a defensive, wounded, angry, and dismissive response to evidence of racism. Those in higher education at elite universities who have been beguiled and awakened by CRT may be in for a surprise. Some employers are saying that they will not be hiring Ivy League grads because they are too woke, too self-important and have been trained to stay silent when it matters (Reno, 2021; Shiver, 2021). According to Reno, If students can be traumatized by “insensitivity” on that leafy campus, then they’re unlikely to function as effective team members in an organization that must deal with everyday realities. And in any event, I don’t want to hire someone who makes inflammatory accusations at the drop of a hat. Student activists don’t represent most students. But I find myself wondering about the silent acquiescence of most students. They allow themselves to be cowed by charges of racism and other sins. I sympathize. The atmosphere of intimidation in elite higher education is intense. But I don’t want to hire a person well-practiced in remaining silent when it costs something to stand up. (Shiver, 2021)

God It provides a God-shaped hole in our culture with no expectation of divine intervention. Entrepreneurs cannot expect God to help them. [−1p]

Roles of the Gods? There is no appeal to divinity. Entrepreneurs would be on their own. [0p]

Philosophy for Living? The ideals of sin (privilege), righteousness (victimhood), and damnation (cancelation) are well established within Wokeism. Each of these can serve as an impediment to entrepreneurship. [−3p]

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Requirements Wokeism is incompatible with a biblical world view, for example, by attributing intrinsic guilt or innocence to an individual based on group identity, regardless of individual actions. Nor does the Bible advocate in favor of natural identifiers such as race, age, sex, and so on, which are supposed to supersede the content of one’s character. The main requirement is to continue the class struggle, rather than pursue entrepreneurship or any other otherwise, worthwhile cause. [−1p]

Savior There is no role for a Savior. We save ourselves by opposing oppressors. In so doing, we are preparing the way for a utopian future. Meanwhile, we are supposed to focus on the redemptive patterns of various groups vying for power within an inherently oppressive system. Clearly, this is a tribalistic vision of the world and the only thing that exists is power. And if power is all that exists, then power is necessary to tear down a corrupt system. [0p]

Object of Faith There is no object to pursue, other than Marxist utopian ends, which so far have left their adherents very disappointed. In fact, 100 million true believers and others have been murdered during the last one hundred years in the cause of Marxism (Satter, 1996, 2017), 20 million of whom were murdered during the Chinese Cultural Revolution. Because individual aspirations are subsumed under a shared utopian vision, entrepreneurship is devalued. [−1p]

Marriage and Family Intersectionalist gender roles are viewed as being fluid and subject to individual interpretation. Without fixed roles, procreation is thwarted, which eliminates one of the functions of marriage. The family is a casualty, creating a need to receive governmental assistance to survive. In one Marxist country, China, the government only allowed one child per family. Then, that restriction was increased to two children per family. However, because that change had not reversed declining population

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trends, it was increased to three children per family in 2021. In summary, the family has become an instrument of Marxist state policy, all of which clamps down on market dynamism and entrepreneurship. [−1p]

Caste System Wokeism views capitalism as assigning workers and other oppressed minorities to a caste system of a sort, which woke adherents have as their purported goal to subvert and overthrow. Thus, a caste system would work against a capitalist system and entrepreneurship. [−1p]

Suggested Practices Wokeism has different interpretations than Christianity on concepts of truth, justice, and equity and leaves no room for conversation. These differing interpretations would adversely affect entrepreneurship. [−1p]

Rituals or Ceremonies? Wokeism provides ritual penance through checking-your-privilege and allyship, which is the state or condition of being an ally. It is also a supportive association with another person or group. It is not clear how this would impact entrepreneurship. [−1p]

Divine Revelation? According to James Lindsay, an academic and atheist, Some religions look up; they’re looking at God; and they’re thinking about redemption; they’re thinking about forgiveness. And then some religions look down; and all they do is look at sin. If you look up, then religion can be great; it can lead people in spiritual development, community and so on, but if you’re looking down, if you’re obsessing about sin, you’re going to start obsessing about everybody else’s sin too. (cited in Rogan, 2021)

Not only is Wokeism looking down, but it does also not expect to see the face of God in any solutions to the world’s oppressions. [−1p]

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Purpose of Life? To tear down oppressive power structures means that you are aware of your own prejudices, for which you are supposed to be grateful. This is unrelated to entrepreneurship. [0p]

Afterlife Wokeism does not offer future absolution to its followers; in fact, it is the opposite. There is no discussion of an afterlife so it could not impact entrepreneurship. [0p]

Reward for Faithfulness Wokeism offers a future utopian society liberated from the evils of the current oppressive system. It also offers every sinful human heart moral justification. Though justified, the advocates are unlikely to experience their own utopia, which increases their own virtue and self-righteousness. It does this without either sending them to heaven or by helping them to become entrepreneurs. [0p]

Relevancy to Our Present Lives Proponents believe that they are acting justly within the world and being fair, and sometimes they are. But often all that these true believers are doing is posturing, or worse, being destructive. If you disagree with a woke vision of society and its dealings, then you may wish to join with others to present an alternative vision (doctrine); otherwise, entrepreneurship and life as we know it will take on different formulations. [−1p]

Summary of the Impact of Woke Doctrine on Entrepreneurship The overall impact of Woke religious doctrine on entrepreneurship is minus twelve, which is the result of totaling the twenty-two individual scores. In addition, the beliefs were 0 for doctrine and 15 for philosophy and 0 for philosophy/doctrine. Other than strict atheism or Marxism, the continuance of the absolute absence of religious doctrine is manifestly present. Its doctrine has been figuratively replaced by a political

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agenda to gather power unto its preferred identity groups. Nor does it have nuanced doctrine. Its entire script is fighting oppression while being sensitive to one’s group-based identity. It also feeds off the perception of mistreatment while trying to never fail to leverage someone’s individual grievance for the identity group’s advantage. It has nothing to do with entrepreneurship, except to advance the group’s interests as in the cases of Black Lives Matter and Antifa.

References Chambers, S. (2004). The Politics of Critical Theory. In F. Rush (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Critical Theory. Cambridge University Press. Funk, M. (2020). Wokeism—The New Religion of the West. Converge Media. https://www.convergemedia.org/wokeism-the-new-religion-of-the-west/ Peterson, J. (2021). My Road to Cancellation. Deseret News. https://www.des eret.com/2021/6/20/22516382/my-road-to-cancellation Pillai, M. (2020). A Brief History of Wokeism. https://openthemagazine.com/ cover-story/a-brief-history-of-wokeism/ Reno, R. (2021, June 7). Why I Stopped Hiring Ivy League Graduates. Wall Street Journal. Rogan, J. (2021). Podcast with James Lindsay. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=FINW311FZ5o Satter, D. (1996). Age of Delirium: The Decline and Fall of the Soviet Union. Yale University Press. Satter, D. (2017, November 6). 100 Years of Communism—And 100 Million Dead. Wall Street Journal /Opinion. Shiver, P. (2021, June 9). Employer Says He Has Stopped Hiring Ivy League Grads: They’re too ‘Woke,’ too ‘Self-Important,’ or Have Been Trained to Stay Silent When It Matters. Blazemedia. Sobande, F. (2019). Woke-Washing: Intersectional Femvertising and Branding Woke Bravery. European Journal of Marketing, 54(11), 2723–2745. Zimmer, B. (2017, April 17). “Woke”: From a Sleepy Verb to Badge of Awareness. Word on the Street. Wall Street Journal.

PART IV

Denominational and Doctrinal Analysis

CHAPTER 33

Christian Denominational Effectiveness

This chapter compares the overall effectiveness of the doctrines of sixteen Christian denominations regarding their support for entrepreneurship. The comparisons assume that each denomination’s doctrines are theologically valid and believed by their adherents. Given, these conditions, the doctrinal rankings are based on the result that a believer could reasonably expect a doctrine to generate.

Denominational Comparisons The denominational comparisons are based on the summary scores of all a denomination’s indexed doctrines. An indexed doctrine’s score would fall between a range of plus four to minus four, depending on the benefit that a doctrine would confer to an aspiring entrepreneur. Individual indices are noted in brackets at the end of the discussion of each denomination’s individual doctrines. If readers have a different interpretation of what a denomination’s individual doctrines or summary doctrinal score should be, based on rational expectations, they are invited to adjust the score for their own use to reflect their view. However, in making an adjustment, one would hope that it would be rationally justified as well as the rationale documented for later consideration and analysis. In addition, any criteria adjustments

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Fig. 33.1 Christian denomination comparisons

should be applied to the scores of all sixteen Christian denominations. The strength of this approach is that it preserves parallel analysis. Figure 33.1 shows the rankings of the sixteen Christian denominations, the highest being for the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints. At the opposite end of the spectrum is the Jehovah’s Witnesses. One way to interpret the rankings would be as measures of optimism or pessimism about one’s entrepreneurial future. A denomination’s summary score is not as meaningful as its scores on individual doctrines. It is notable that a denomination’s score on the same doctrine could be higher or lower than another denomination’s simply because of their differing theologies. One finding from this denominational comparison is that the mainline Christian denominations tended to cluster around the mean. The three denominations with the highest scores tend to not consider themselves to be either Catholic or part of the Protestant reformation. Instead, those with the highest scores had charismatic founders who claim to have been inspired themselves. Those with the lowest scores tended to be either agnostic or to have unique and foreboding concerns about the future.

CHAPTER 34

Christian Doctrines and Their Entrepreneurial Promise

Doctrinal Comparisons The doctrinal comparisons have more potential utility than the denominational comparisons. The doctrines function as decision support tools that help aspiring entrepreneurs to gauge their optimism about the future. Christ’s Atonement For Christians, the most impactful doctrine was Christ’s atonement. In fact, all other doctrines are merely appendages to the centrality of the atonement. The atonement facilitates individual repentance. Repentance allows entrepreneurs to move forward without carrying the baggage of sin, which would hinder entrepreneurship. A Savior is required to atone for the sins of mankind. As an aside, Judaism, also an Abrahamic religion, believes in a Messiah, not a Savior. For Jews, no atonement was necessary because sinners are supposed to petition individually anyone who they have offended to ask for forgiveness, and to God for forgiveness when the laws of God are breached. The role of a Messiah is to save the nation of Israel, not individual Jews.

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Man’s Resurrection Next, in entrepreneurial effectiveness is man’s resurrection. It opens the door to the future. Without a resurrection, mankind would not enjoy a future, or a continuation of life on earth, which reduces the motivation to continue to strive for entrepreneurial success. Even though no known religion allows humans to take their material gains with them beyond the grave, the lessons learned in the process will remain a part of our personalities if we are resurrected beings. What could be a richer source of wealth than what we learn while striving to be a Christ-like entrepreneur? Virgin Birth, Immaculate Conception Christians believe in the virgin birth, but not in the Immaculate Conception, the latter elevating Mary, in addition to Jesus. Catholics are a notable exception in supporting the Immaculate Conception, believing that she was godlike herself, and not burdened by original sin. Nearly all Christians believe in the virgin birth of the Savior, indicating that His father was in heaven. The preponderance of support for the virgin birth indicates the faith that Christians have that Jesus was a god Himself, one who could mediate communications with a god in heaven. In summary, Christians have faith in the virgin birth of the Savior and draw strength from it that they can use as entrepreneurs. Lord’s Supper Christians partake regularly of the sacrament or the Lord’s Supper in remembrance of the atonement while petitioning to be forgiven of their sins. In fact, for those who have reached the age of accountability prior to their baptism, partaking of the Lord’s Supper is a way to recommit to those original baptismal covenants. The frequency of the Lord’s Supper varies, but each time someone partakes of it, it is a promise to return to the covenant path leading to forgiveness. It also serves as a powerful reminder of the Savior’s atonement, which provides entrepreneurs with the assurance that they are forgiven and re-enabled to press forward with hope in Christ.

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Life After Death Life after death is what follows the resurrection. This assurance is highly important to Christians. In fact, it is the fifth most influential doctrine. Beliefs differ on the nature of life after the resurrection. Some believe in a life with a perfected, physical body. Others believe only in a continuity of man’s spirit. Some believe in being punished for earthly sins; others believe that all who believe in Christ will be forgiven, regardless of their earthly failings. The extent of the reward or punishment that awaits us will impact our entrepreneurial enthusiasm for taking risks. Whatever awaits us is probably more motivating than thinking that death is the end because it still leaves open the possibility that we can exert some influence over its nature. Holy Ghost The Holy Ghost is the third member of the Godhead, as understood by many Christians. It is generally conceived of as a spirit that can communicate with our spirits. The confusion comes because of the work of the Council of Nicaea in developing the Nicene Creed. The Council was organized in 325 A.D. to support the Roman Emperor, Constantine, to reconcile Christian and Greek understandings of the Godhead, so that he could use it to advance his interests in empire building. It does not claim to have either a scriptural or prophetic foundation. Instead, it is human invention. Believers have a deep need to feel support from God because the future is often unknown. Entrepreneurs confront the same uncertainty. Even though the Nicene Creed about the Holy Ghost is a human invention, it is often used as an acceptable substitute for an understanding of the Holy Ghost, based on revelation. With all its shortcomings, the Holy Ghost as conceived most often in Christianity (based on the Nicene Creed) fulfills man’s longing for a godly connection, which entrepreneurs would also rely on. The Holy Ghost is primarily a testifier of the Father and the Son, which seems farcical if they are all mixed in the same essence. Purpose of Life Christians do not agree on what the purpose of life should be. There are denominational differences. Even if a purpose is ill conceived, it would still anchor an entrepreneur. No purpose would be worthwhile to a Christian without the Savior and His atonement. Nevertheless, it is a slothful

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servant who must be commanded in all things, so there are denominational differences in purpose that surely will be resolved in time. For now, it is enough to know that having a purpose is useful for entrepreneurs and that it is in the top third of Christian doctrines regarding its influence on entrepreneurship. Miracles Most Christians believe in the Biblical miracles. However, they mainly reject them occurring today. Others reject even the Biblical miracles claiming that they are contrary to the laws of nature. Of course, they are contrary to nature because that is what constitutes a miracle. Without miracles, Christian entrepreneurs would be left with less hope for the future. Heaven and Hell Heaven and hell offer contrasting destinations. Their existence should cause Christians to pause as they contemplate their future and decisions related to it. Many Christians view their existence as a metaphor indicating when one’s life is being lived consistent with the Gospel taught by Christ. Whether they represent permanent destinations varies by denomination. Whether they offer fire and brimstone, or choirs accompanied by harps are two contrasting visions that offer entrepreneurs a choice, even if it is false dichotomy. Christ’s Second Coming Christian denominations are not unanimous on Christ coming again. Those who do not expect His return are likely to see Him playing more of a Deist role in which he is not actively involved in our lives. Because the denominations differ, readers are encouraged to review them individually. Overall, the doctrine of the Second Coming among denominations has a medium impact on entrepreneurship. Holy Bible In general, Christian denominations are very vocal about the Bible being the authorized source of all Christian doctrine. Most of them view the

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scriptural cannon as closed—arguing that it contains all of God’s instructions for mankind—nothing else is needed or necessary, which they often profess while arguing that ongoing revelation is not necessary. At the same time, our lives continue. New issues arise. The Bible’s unassailable nature could have a greater impact on entrepreneurship if it were viewed as well adapted to our times. Instead, it is viewed as only having a modest impact because it is far removed from many new circumstances that confront entrepreneurs. Ecclesiastical Authority Ecclesiastical authority is the right to act in the name of God. The Catholic church claims authority from the Apostle Peter, arguing that from him it was passed down to the bishops of Rome. Other churches claim the same derivation, even though they broke away during the Protestant reformation. Most churches minimize its need while arguing that their authority comes from the Bible. Other churches, such as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, claim a restoration of authority from heavenly messengers. Most, however, argue that good intentions are all that are needed to be authorized. In summary, most churches posit that being authorized by God is unnecessary today, presumably because we are so enlightened that we do not need it. Did Christ Organize a Church? Most denominations act as if this is an irrelevant question because they argue that we have all that we need today in the Bible. This perspective ignores that fact that Jesus called apostles, prophets, teachers, and evangelists to officiate and serve in the work of salvation. Despite these scriptural and historical facts, most churches deny that Christ organized a church to serve its members and to proclaim the gospel to the world, which would be absent after His crucifixion. Naturally, this historical contradiction is troubling to individual Christians because they can read in the Bible for themselves that His church appears missing today. Divine Revelation Most churches do not acknowledge divine revelation today, which accounts for its minimal expected impact on entrepreneurship. Not all

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churches dismiss it. In fact, those most inclined to acknowledge its possibility tend to have a greater denominational impact on entrepreneurship. Its possibility could be diminished if one thought that we were so advanced that we did not need it or if one thought that God had lost the power to communicate with mankind. Finally, it could be diminished if God ceased to love His children. Many Christians would object to these obstacles, which makes it very curious that so many churches dismiss divine revelation and its expected impact on entrepreneurship. Pre-existence of Man For man’s spirit to be co-eternal with God, it would need to have existed prior to birth. Of course, most denominations not only reject its preexistence and eternal nature, but also that it could be equal to God in any way. However, if it pre-existed, it is logical that it would continue to exist eternally, which would provide a tremendous boost to entrepreneurship. Today, this doctrine does not have much denominational impact. Church Membership Many churches view baptism as optional, ecclesiastical authority as being unnecessary, the Bible as providing all the required authorization, and good intentions as sufficient for the mercy and grace to be forgiven of our sins. In addition, some of them view God, if they believe in a God, as being uninvolved both their lives and in the church. Thus, most churches do not see membership in their church as a requirement for salvation, and we might add, for entrepreneurship. God The low ranking of God by most denominations is shocking. Does it mean that they do not expect God to intervene in their lives? If they do not believe in God, can such a belief even qualify them to be a religion, let alone a Christian denomination? Baptism All Christian denominations accept the Bible, some not as the word of God, but at a minimum, they acknowledge it as a book containing

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wisdom. John 3: 3–5, proclaims that without being baptized, one cannot enter “into the kingdom of God,” yet many Christians denominations reject its necessity. Most accept other baptisms, indicating that proper authorization is not necessary or that other churches possess the required authorization. If Christ’s approval were not needed, why did He suffer being crucified. He could have winked at any form of baptism and approved it. Allowing any form of baptism or no baptism at all is an indication that most denominations do not follow their own Bible. Such duplicity would have little impact on entrepreneurship. Status of Non-Believers The low status of non-believers in terms of the positive difference that membership makes is an indication of the lack of sincerity or conviction that the beliefs of most denominations make in their lives, and as entrepreneurs. Of course, this group represents the tails of the distribution, so any outcome with these denominational outliers should not be surprising. Vicarious Salvation for the Dead Few denominations believe in vicarious work for the dead, so this weak measure is an indication of the minimal proliferation of this doctrine, rather than its potential efficacy for entrepreneurship. If it were more widely practiced, it would be an indication of the justice of God as well as his universal love for mankind. This research has posited that a belief in justice would invigorate entrepreneurship and risk taking. Holy Trinity The Holy Trinity is one of the most confusing and disappointing attempts by man to rationalize God for his own purposes, which is reflected in this doctrine’s very low ranking. The result has created an inscrutable amalgam of spirit essence, consisting of three incomprehensible beings to whom entrepreneurs would be more reticent to petition in prayer. Although adherents claim that God’s incomprehensible nature makes Him/Them more beautiful, who could have confidence that such being(s) could understand human challenges and entrepreneurship?

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Marriage Marriage is a partnership, which should make entrepreneurs more successful. The problem with its doctrinal framing by most denominations is that it only lasts until death. Its temporal nature means that it will not play a role beyond the grave. What if it did play a role and marriage partners could continue to support and encourage each other? Such impact ought to help entrepreneurs to endure difficulties and succeed more frequently but alas, that is not to be the case for most denominations. Satan The role played by Satan is understood by nearly all denominations to serve as an obstacle to mankind’s highest and best aspirations, including entrepreneurship. Refer to Fig. 34.1 to view the ranking of the expected impact of individual Christian doctrines on entrepreneurship.

Fig. 34.1 Doctrinal promise of the Christian denominations

CHAPTER 35

Denominational Comparison of World Religions

The doctrines of the world’s religions frame how believers view and interpret what they see in the world. This chapter explores the proposition that because the doctrines of the world’s religions are both disparate and distinct; they will not act as a single factor that will help believers to converge on an entrepreneurial outcome. Instead, we should rationally expect a wide dispersion of entrepreneurial effectiveness.

Comparing the Entrepreneurial Effectiveness of the World’s Religions As expected, there is a wide dispersion in entrepreneurial effectiveness based on the unique doctrinal perspectives of the world’s religions. The least effective religion regarding entrepreneurial effectiveness is also its newest, Wokeism, whereas the most effective is its oldest monotheistic religion, Judaism. Similarly, Islam and Christianity are the second and third most effective religions, and together these three constitute the three oldest monotheistic religions, all with founding roots that go back to Abraham. In contrast, the oldest religion with prehistoric roots, Hinduism is also one of the least effective. It is not surprising that Hinduism would have a low score because it reportedly has 33 million gods who could find themselves in conflict with each other, if they play different roles. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. O. Fiet, Religious Doctrines and their Influence on Entrepreneurship, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43386-3_35

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Fig. 35.1 World religions and their entrepreneurial promise

It is somewhat surprising that Buddhism ranks as the second lowest in entrepreneurial effectiveness. From another perspective, Buddhism completely abdicates any role in interacting with modern life, as if it were not constrained by normal demands for living. Located at the mean of effectiveness are those religions that are more properly viewed as philosophies for living—Taoism and Confucianism— they do not believe in the existence of a deity, all while attempting to disappear and become one with the universe. Refer to Fig. 35.1 to see how the entrepreneurial promise of the world’s religions compare.

CHAPTER 36

The Doctrinal Promise of World Religions

Doctrinal Comparisons Compared with Christian denominations, the doctrinal characteristics of world religions have much less in common. In fact, we will see that some of them are more like philosophies for living than religions with canonized doctrines. Because of their disparate nature, this section compares doctrinal characteristics, rather than the doctrines themselves. The purpose of this comparison is to examine how doctrinal characteristics could impact entrepreneurship. Relevancy to our Present Lives There are many ways to rationalize our lives from a religious perspective. Some of these seem more relevant than others. Regardless of the doctrinal story, it is universally important to believers that the story be relevant to our present lives. That that relevancy would be so important across such diverse religions is a testament to the common challenges shared by all mankind. It may also suggest that what we share is more important to us than our differences.

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Rituals or Ceremonies? The high ranking of rituals and ceremonies for the world’s religions may be surprising. Adherents use them to add meaning to aspects of their lives that are not well understood. For example, nature dominates many religions, yet primitive people did not understand it. To pay homage to it, several religions developed rituals and ceremonies as proxies, sometimes to communicate with the god of the forests, for example. At other times, a ritual will be a form of covenant making, intended to guide adherents in making commitments. In fact, rituals and ceremonies are common to all organized world religions. To the extent that they guide adherents to form partnerships with deity, they may help entrepreneurs to overcome uncertainty. Marriage and Family As with Christian denominations, marriage and family are also very important to world religions. There is much that they do not share. However, they share basic biology and the same human needs for affection and companionship. Plus, they have an innate interest in nurturing their posterity. Unfortunately, the world’s religions view marriage as terminating with this life, the only exception being one Christian denomination, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints. If marriage comes to an end, so will the added motivation to provide for one’s family through successful entrepreneurship. Reward for Faithfulness One of the most shared doctrinal characteristics by the world’s religions is enjoying a reward for faithfulness. It is as if it is part of a universal system of justice, with some rewards coming during this life. The expectation of rewards as compensation is common. One compensation could be more successful entrepreneurship. Requirements The requirements of the world’s religions differ quite significantly. Refer to their individual descriptions.

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More than One God World religions vary in the number gods that they worship. Refer to the individual religions for a discussion of this variety. Multiple gods allow for specialization, but they also could complicate communication among them and/or with them. Of course. Specialization would likely not lead to greater godly efficiency because a god would have already achieved perfection. What is left is more complex communication for humans, which could hinder any support sought by entrepreneurs. Divine Revelation Divine revelation is slightly above the mean in generating entrepreneurship. This seems counter-intuitively less effective than would be expected until one realizes that some religions are philosophies for living without there being a god. Thus, although revelation should be eminently important, for at least a third of the world religions, it is not an option. When revelation occurs, this could be the grand key for entrepreneurship. It could be very beneficial if it occurred more often. Purpose of Life One of the most widely held doctrinal characteristics is that it must be useful for specifying a purpose for life. Without purpose, humans lose their spiritual momentum, become distracted, and cease to live according to their faith. Without momentum, entrepreneurs may cease to strive to achieve their entrepreneurial ambitions. Even philosophies for living work from the perspective of their purpose of life. This doctrinal characteristic could be more influential than it is. Afterlife Most but not all world religions believe in an afterlife, but its nature and purpose vary greatly. One that ends in the transmigration of the soul to a different life form is very different from one whose soul vanishes and becomes one with a Daoist universe. Whereas others see an afterlife as a continuance of life on earth. Most view an afterlife as a reward for making prescribed choices correctly and obediently. The fact that it is

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viewed as moderately ineffective in leading to entrepreneurship is due to its perceived variety. Philosophy for Living A philosophy for living is less impactful than a canonized doctrine. In fact, outside of the Abrahamic religions, there are no known doctrines, only philosophies for living. Thus, among the world religions, philosophies are more common than doctrines. The closest world religions to having doctrines would be Hinduism and Buddhism. A doctrine should be more influential. However, a philosophy can be equally influential if it is believed and practiced religiously. It is possible that a doctrine could contain more truth than a philosophy, but as humans, we work with what we have. Philosophies for living are not viewed as exerting much influence on entrepreneurship. Suggested Practices Each religion has its own suggested practices. One avoids or adopts them on principles of faith. Again, readers should refer to the individual religions and denominations for a review. Examples are Hindus practicing a caste system; Buddhists practicing austerity and mediation; the primal religions commonly worshiping the earth; Judaism worshiping the one true God; whereas Islam preys to Mecca 5 times a day—often from a prayer rug. These practices are not costless. They interfere with daily living and take time away from being an entrepreneur. Not considered here are any entrepreneurial benefits that accrue to the adherents. Based on their ranking, the suggested practices generally make it less likely that one will succeed as an entrepreneur. God Believing in God is one of the lowest ranked doctrines among the world’s religions. This is quite remarkable, both because they do not believe in God and because God does not help adherents to be more successful entrepreneurs. These surprises raise the question of why these beliefs constitute religions. For many, the answer is found in their traditions, which are inseparable from their beliefs. The most evidence for traditional

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beliefs is found among Hindus whose roots are prehistoric. Plus, adherents are completely socialized through ceremonies and rituals covering all aspects of life. Roles of the Gods In the cases of the Abrahamic, monotheistic religions, God’s role is singular and all-encompassing. On the other end of the spectrum is Hinduism with its 33 million gods. One could argue that their roles are specialized but there are far too many to analyze, and simply beyond the scope of this analysis. Juxtaposed against these extremes are the philosophies for living that do not have gods, so there are no roles being played. On average, the gods of the world’s religions are not influential, mainly due to a diversity of beliefs about them. They operate in a different realm that is beyond the comprehension of humans and entrepreneurs. Object of Faith The world’s religions do not agree on their objects of faith. Christians worship the Lord Jesus Christ. Jews worship Jehovah (Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints view Jesus and Jehovah as being the same being). Muslims worship Allah. Confucians, Buddhists, and Taoists do not believe in a god. Wokeism rejects divinity; whereas Hindus worship 33 million gods. Finally, the primal religions typically worship nature. For the purposes of religious faith, it matters less about what is the object of one’s faith than that an adherent has one— something to believe in and something to live for, which is outside of oneself. Caste System Only Hinduism has supported a caste system and today there seems to be movement away from one, moreover, due to its rarity, it has little influence today on entrepreneurship. Savior Only one world religion endorses a savior in the person of Jesus Christ. Even the two other monotheistic, Abrahamic religions do not endorse the

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Fig. 36.1 Doctrines with most entrepreneurial promise for world religions

need for a Savior. The Jews look forward to a Messiah to save Israel, but not to a Savior offering individual salvation. The Muslims acknowledge Jesus as a prophet but reject Him as a Savior. Because 3 million people do not rely on repentance, all these souls are able to reject the need for a Savior. Surprisingly, the belief in a Savior is the lowest ranked doctrine of all world religions as it relates to assisting in entrepreneurship. As with the other doctrines or doctrinal characteristics, this ranking is not a rejection of the doctrine of a Savior. Rather, it is a recognition that very few adherents, even though Christianity is the world largest religion, consider a Savior to be vital in their life as an entrepreneur. Figure 36.1 ranks the efficacy of the doctrines and doctrinal characteristics of the world’s religions. Some of these rankings are counterintuitive, not because they do work, but because of all the religions, they can be quite rare.

CHAPTER 37

The Religions with the Most Promising Doctrine

This chapter ranks the denominational effectiveness of both Christian denominations and world religions in their support for entrepreneurship. Due to the greater similarity among the Christian denominations, they were comparable on more doctrinal dimensions. It is also noteworthy that the ranking of the doctrines is more useful than the denominational rankings, which tends to mask the doctrines that are really making a difference.

For the record, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints and the Congregational Christian Church averaged the highest combined doctrinal scores. The Abrahamic, monotheist religions scored the highest among the world religions. A closer examination of their doctrines is merited and could yield clues regarding which doctrinal beliefs and practice are most supportive. Across all religions, the doctrines that were most supportive of entrepreneurship were those that extended the horizon that an aspiring entrepreneur could contemplate. Also, those doctrines that reduced uncertainty, extended continuity, promised resources, and were the most forgiving of errors, were the ones that were the most effective in promoting and facilitating entrepreneurship. Also, more promising were those that were actual religions, not philosophies for living that precluded

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. O. Fiet, Religious Doctrines and their Influence on Entrepreneurship, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43386-3_37

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Fig. 37.1 Top Christian denominations ranked for entrepreneurial effectiveness

divine intervention. Entrepreneurs tend to hesitate in the face of uncertainty and while they are hesitating; they are most likely to act if they share a narrative that promises divine intervention. Refer to Figs. 37.1 and 37.2 As we conclude this review, it is important to emphasize again, that the indexing and ranking of doctrines and denominations was never intended to be a measure of their validity or worth as objects of faith. As religions, their worth will be better gauged by the spiritual feelings that they create for believers and adherents. This study’s major contribution has been to extend Weber’s initial insight about how religions impact our entrepreneurship. Moreover, this extension has been the most comprehensive to date and potentially lays the groundwork more nuanced theorizing about the relationship between religion and entrepreneurship.

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Fig. 37.2 Top world religions ranked for entrepreneurial effectiveness

References Baron, R. A. (2004). The Cognitive Perspective: A Valuable Tool for Answering Entrepreneurship’s Basic “Why” Questions. Journal of Business Venturing, 119(2), 221–239. Fiet, J. O. (2020). Time, Space and Entrepreneurship. Routledge Studies in Entrepreneurship. Routledge. Fiet, J. O. (March, 2022a). The Theoretical World of Entrepreneurship. Edward Elgar. Fiet, J. O. (2022ba). The Entrepreneurial Solution to Poverty and the Science of What Is Possible. Edward Elgar. Fiet, J. O. (2022c). Informational Entrepreneurship in a World with Limited Insight. Palgrave Rasmussen Reports. (2023, April 13). Is America Losing “That Old-Time Religion”? https://www.rasmussenreports.com/public_content/lifestyle/gen eral_lifestyle/april_2023/is_america_losing_that_old_time_religion?utm_cam paign=RR04132023DN&utm_source=criticalimpact&utm_medium=email Shane, S., & Nicolaou, N. (2013). The Genetics of Entrepreneurial Performance. International Small Business Journal: Researching Entrepreneurship, 31(5), 473–495.

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Wordsworth, W., & Quiller-Couch, A. (1919). The Oxford Book of English Verse (Illustrated). https://www.amazon.com/BOOK-ENGLISH-VERSEILLUSTRATED-ebook/dp/B01LXJITBF/ref=sr_1_4?crid=3BAQ1MW85 MXCI&keywords=Wordsworth--Quiller-Couch&qid=168079

Epilogue: Entrepreneurship and the Secularization of Society

Bias Free The analysis of religious doctrines required that it be free from bias. It is not enough to claim a lack of bias. It must demonstrate such in the analysis. Yet, the analysis was intended to generate results that some believers would appreciate more than others. The only way to avoid the appearance of bias was to show that any bias was incidental to an overall framework that was perceived as being plausible and fair, which means treating all religions and doctrines using the same evaluation criteria. Subjective Even using the same evaluation criteria, the final analysis was subjective, which means that different raters could reach different conclusions. This is a strength of the analysis because it is highly adaptable to different conclusions about the criteria. When raters disagree, this research provides a systematic way to tabulate and keep track of the discrepancies. It also serves to identify specific doctrines where differences in expectations could occur. For example, the most significant point of departure for Christians is the Nicene Creed, which shrouds the doctrine of the Godhead in mystery and confusion, largely obscuring any understanding of a God who cares about us individually because He is the Father of our Spirits, as others would claim. © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. O. Fiet, Religious Doctrines and their Influence on Entrepreneurship, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43386-3

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EPILOGUE: ENTREPRENEURSHIP …

Theory of Rational Expectations The framework selected for analysis was the theory of rational expectations. It relies on our natural motivation to respond to incentives, and particularly to those that we can reasonably expect to occur. In other words, prudence dictates that we should prepare for those eventualities that we can reasonably anticipate occurring. Or alternatively, we should plan and work toward visions of the future that are the most rewarding. In evaluating these religious reward systems, because that is really what a religion is—a reward system, it was unavoidable that some reward systems would appear to be more appealing than others. These differences raise the question of when some reward systems would not be considered appealing. An important question becomes why adherents would believe in a reward system that was not just viewed as unrewarding but as punitive. Yet, that is clearly what the empirical results demonstrate. It may be that they pursue unrewarding outcomes because they think that is the best that they can achieve or that is available to them. What if they discovered a new religious doctrine with more rewarding outcomes? Would they change religions or view their parameters as being eternally fixed and unmovable? These decisions become very personal and involve spiritual feelings, which this treatise has not attempted to address. The Veracity of Belief Most importantly, this study has adopted the simplifying assumption that everyone’s religious doctrines are true because for them, they are true. Now, assuming that a doctrine is true, what sort of incentive would it offer to be an entrepreneur? May I suggest the doctrinal context could be an important part of what frames the incentives for an entrepreneur to act. Religion is not the only factor that impacts how we make decisions, but it is an important and essential one, even if we were atheists, because atheists make assumptions in the same way as those who are believers. Historically, the study of divinity has been conducted apart from economics. Now, we understand that the study of religion and economics can be blended, and not treated like secular poison that would contaminate each other. Where do impactful ideas originate? Now, we know that some of these ideas come from religious doctrines. The next steps will be to understand

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how doctrines change, how opportunity changes, and how to proceed when societies themselves work to exclude the consideration of religion. Excluding religion does not mean that it will still not be considered in the background, regardless of our voluntary actions. Opportunity and the Secularization of Society Even if we were to exclude religion, it would continue to influence how entrepreneurs view opportunity. In the last few decades, the secularization of society has begun to overwhelm religious devotion and practice with unknown consequences for entrepreneurship. There are three interrelated trends. First, the decline of religious beliefs and practices in modern society. Second, the privatization of religion, meaning believers are fleeing institutions to practice spirituality. And third, the differentiation of secular spheres, mainly driven by social media, institutions, and government. What do these trends mean for religion’s impact on entrepreneurship? Even if religion were to inexorably go out of fashion, we humans would continue to look for answers somewhere. Searching for answers is part of what makes us human, or others could say, godlike. We will never cease to search for answers that not only give us meaning but control. Whatever one’s interests and proclivities, many people will work to improve their circumstances, at least until some conceivable point in the future when all our needs are met.

Index

A Adventists, 13, 25, 26 after death, 14, 26, 35, 37, 42, 51, 58, 59, 66, 75, 83, 84, 91, 99, 108, 117, 125, 136, 138, 145, 154, 160, 184, 192, 212, 257 Allah, 207–214, 269 Animism, 226 Antifa, 243, 249 Apostacy, 49 Atonement, 14, 217, 255

B Baptism, 14, 25, 33, 41, 49, 51, 57, 65, 73, 81, 89, 98, 107, 115, 123, 134, 143, 151, 260 Baptists, 4, 13, 31, 32, 34, 37, 179 beliefs, vii, viii, 8, 29, 37, 44, 53, 57, 60, 61, 64, 65, 68, 69, 77, 85, 89, 93, 95, 102, 111, 119, 128, 135, 139, 145, 147, 149, 156, 160, 178, 184, 186, 189, 193, 203, 205, 214, 222, 231, 237,

239, 248, 261, 268, 269, 271, 277 Bible, 14, 15, 24, 32, 40, 41, 43, 48, 55, 56, 64, 65, 72, 73, 75, 80, 84, 88, 89, 92, 93, 96, 98, 101, 106, 107, 114, 115, 122, 123, 126, 132, 137, 142, 150, 156, 180, 184, 216, 246, 258–260 BLM, 242, 243 Blood, 26, 74, 82, 116, 135 Body, 26, 74, 82, 116, 135 Buddhism, 170–174, 176, 188, 234, 264, 268

C caste system, 18, 166, 175, 183, 190, 196, 202, 204, 211, 219, 228, 236, 247, 268, 269 Catholic, 13, 77, 81, 95, 98, 111, 120, 128, 132, 134–139, 180, 181, 183, 254, 259 choices, viii, 8, 19, 41, 53, 76, 99, 137, 166, 171, 199, 267

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. O. Fiet, Religious Doctrines and their Influence on Entrepreneurship, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43386-3

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INDEX

Christ, 13–15, 24–28, 33–37, 39, 42, 44, 45, 48, 50–53, 55–60, 63–66, 68, 73–77, 81–85, 87–90, 92, 93, 96–102, 105–108, 111, 116–119, 123, 124, 126–128, 133–135, 138, 139, 141–145, 147, 150, 152–154, 156, 160, 180–184, 218, 254–259, 261, 266, 269, 271 Christian doctrines, 11, 13, 150, 181, 186, 258, 262 Christianity, 11, 32, 45, 107, 123, 139, 144, 147, 152, 156, 180, 183–186, 188, 214, 216, 247, 257, 263, 270 Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, 13, 53, 254, 259, 266, 269, 271 cognitive, vii, 3, 121, 170 Confucianism, 188, 190, 234, 264 Congregational Christian Churches, 13, 61 Constantine, 32, 79, 180, 257 Council of Nicaea, 32, 39, 48, 55, 56, 71, 79, 95, 102, 111, 113, 114, 121, 131, 140, 257 creation story, 17, 165 Critical theory, 242 curative, 9

D denomination, 13, 14, 29, 45, 67, 71, 80, 88, 89, 97, 110, 139, 145, 147, 159, 160, 183, 184, 253, 254, 258, 260, 266 Disciples of Christ, 13, 68, 69 divinity, 11, 49, 57, 79, 90, 92, 124, 144, 151, 153, 172, 229, 245, 269 Doctrinal Effectiveness, 8

doctrine, viii, 9, 17, 26, 27, 29, 32–37, 41–44, 49–51, 53, 55, 59–61, 63, 64, 66–69, 72–75, 77, 80–82, 84, 85, 87–93, 96, 98, 101, 102, 105, 106, 109–111, 114, 117, 119, 123–126, 128, 131, 133–135, 137–139, 143–145, 147, 150–154, 156, 159, 165, 173, 178, 181, 185, 186, 193, 205, 214, 219, 220, 222, 229–231, 233, 239, 248, 253–255, 257, 258, 260, 261, 268, 270 E Earthly Exponent, 17, 165 Eastern Orthodox Churches, 13, 77 Ecclesiastical authority, 14, 25, 33, 41, 49, 56, 73, 81, 89, 97, 107, 115, 123, 133, 142, 151, 259 economics, 276 education, vii, 3, 202, 214, 245 enlightenment, 176 Entrepreneurship, 3, 4, 53, 176, 184, 204 Episcopal Church of England, 13, 85 Eternal progression, 37 F faith, vii, viii, 7–9, 15, 18, 25, 26, 34, 35, 41, 43, 44, 47, 48, 50, 53, 61, 68, 73, 75, 82, 96, 100, 106, 107, 109–111, 113, 114, 117–119, 122, 123, 125, 126, 137, 138, 143, 146, 147, 149, 152, 160, 166, 172, 179, 182, 188, 189, 196, 200, 204, 208, 211, 213, 216, 219, 222, 228, 236, 239, 246, 256, 267–269, 272 feminine, 175

INDEX

Floyd, George, 242 Forgiveness, 58, 182 Frankfurt School, 242

G God, viii, 13–15, 18, 19, 23–25, 27, 28, 31–34, 36, 37, 39–42, 47–50, 52, 55–60, 63–65, 67, 68, 71–76, 79–81, 83–85, 87–89, 91–93, 95–102, 105–111, 113–119, 121–127, 131–133, 136–139, 141, 142, 144–147, 149–156, 165, 166, 170–174, 178, 180–183, 186, 188, 190, 192, 196–198, 202, 204, 207–210, 212, 213, 215–221, 227, 234, 245, 247, 255, 257, 259–261, 267–269 Godhead, 14, 24, 48, 55, 72, 80, 95, 106, 113, 121, 122, 257

H Heaven, 15, 27, 36, 43, 52, 59, 68, 76, 84, 91, 92, 94, 101, 110, 118, 126, 136, 137, 146, 155, 181, 198, 213, 258 hell, 15, 27, 36, 43, 52, 59, 68, 76, 84, 88, 91, 92, 99–101, 110, 118, 126, 136, 137, 146, 154, 155, 182, 184, 185, 200, 213, 214, 258 Hinduism, 173, 176, 195, 196, 203–205, 211, 236, 263, 268, 269 holidays, 4, 88, 217–220, 222 Holy Ghost, 14, 24, 32, 33, 39, 40, 48, 55, 56, 60, 64, 72, 73, 80, 81, 88, 96, 98, 105, 106, 110, 113, 114, 121, 122, 132, 142, 143, 150, 180, 181, 257

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Holy Spirit, 24, 25, 56, 58, 64, 72, 80, 88, 102, 106, 107, 114, 121, 124, 142, 180 Holy Trinity, 13, 24, 32, 48, 55, 64, 72, 80, 88, 96, 106, 114, 121, 122, 132, 142, 150, 197, 261

I immersion, 14, 25, 33, 49, 57, 65, 73, 89, 98, 115, 123, 134 immortality, 49, 72, 151, 159, 228, 235, 238 index, 8, 9 infallible, 14, 24, 72, 96, 122, 123 Infants, 33, 73, 81, 98, 115, 123, 134, 136 information, 24, 32, 91, 122, 170, 171, 173, 175, 199, 202, 244 initiation rites, 229 invisible, 23, 27, 101, 144 Islam, 180, 181, 188, 196, 208–214, 263, 268

J Jehovah’s Witnesses, 13, 88, 90, 92, 93, 254 Jewish, 4, 216–220, 222 Judaism, 180, 181, 214–217, 219, 220, 222, 255, 263, 268

L Lutherans, 13, 95–100

M Magic, 226 marriage, 15, 18, 28, 37, 44, 53, 60, 68, 77, 84, 93, 110, 119, 127, 138, 147, 156, 166, 175, 176, 183, 190, 191, 201, 211, 219,

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INDEX

226, 228, 236, 244, 246, 262, 266 Marxist, 242–244, 246 Mary, 14, 25, 33, 40, 41, 44, 50, 57, 73, 81, 98, 116, 124, 134, 152, 207, 256 masculine, 175 Mennonites, 13, 105–109 Methodists, 13, 113, 115 milestones, 4 Miracles, 15, 27, 35, 43, 51, 59, 67, 75, 83, 91, 100, 109, 118, 126, 137, 146, 154, 258

prophets, 36, 41, 48, 60, 96, 124, 152, 179, 207, 212, 259 Protestant, 4, 180, 181, 254, 259 purpose, 9, 13–15, 17–19, 28, 42, 44, 48, 49, 51, 65, 66, 68, 72, 93, 101, 102, 116, 118, 119, 132, 139, 147, 151, 156, 166, 171, 172, 176, 177, 184, 192, 199, 209, 212, 218, 220, 238, 239, 242–244, 257, 265, 267

N Nicaean creed, 96, 105 Nicene Creed, 257 non-believers, 14, 26, 35, 43, 51, 59, 67, 75, 83, 91, 94, 100, 102, 109, 117, 125, 137, 144, 145, 154, 261

R rankings, 9, 254, 270 ranking system, 8 Rational Expectations, 7 reparations, 244 resurrection, 14, 15, 26, 27, 34, 40, 42, 50, 51, 58, 59, 66, 74, 82, 83, 90, 99, 108, 117, 124, 125, 127, 136, 145, 153, 154, 156, 159, 182, 184, 256, 257 revelation, 15, 18, 28, 32, 36, 44, 48, 51, 52, 56, 60, 68, 76, 84, 92, 101, 106, 110, 118, 119, 127, 138, 147, 153, 155, 159, 166, 176, 181, 184, 192, 203, 212, 220, 229, 234, 238, 247, 257, 259, 267 reward for faithfulness, 19, 67, 99, 166, 177, 204, 266 rites of passage, 226, 228, 231 Roman Catholic Church, 13, 134–136, 139

O omnipotent, 23, 39, 47, 95, 234 omnipresent, 23, 47, 95, 181 omniscient, 23, 47, 56, 95, 96, 181 opportunities, vii Origins, 17, 165, 170, 180, 188, 195, 207, 216, 226, 234, 242

P philosophies for living, vii, viii, 9, 190, 227, 264, 265, 267–269, 271 polytheistic, 40, 181, 208 Pre-existence, 14, 24, 33, 40, 49, 56, 65, 72, 80, 88, 97, 106, 114, 122, 133, 142, 151, 260 Presbyterians, 13, 122, 128 Priesthood, 49

Q Quakers, 13, 141–147

S sacrament, 26, 34, 42, 50, 108, 116, 124, 135, 138, 144, 153, 159, 256

INDEX

sacred places, 229 Satan, 15, 27, 36, 43, 52, 59, 67, 76, 83, 92, 101, 109, 118, 126, 137, 146, 155, 213, 262 Savior, 11, 18, 25, 50, 52, 55, 58, 60, 63, 66, 75, 81, 82, 90, 105, 116, 123, 152, 166, 174, 181, 182, 189, 200, 209, 210, 214, 218, 228, 236, 246, 255–257, 270 scriptures, 28, 32, 80, 97, 106, 132, 134, 135, 138, 198 shaman, 226, 229 shopping, 7, 8 speculation, 37, 173 Spiritual Feelings, 8 spirituality, 8, 83, 277 standards, 4, 9, 18, 166, 189, 214, 230 symbolic paradigm, 229 syncretism, 229

T taboo, 226, 228 Tabula rosa, vii Tantra, 175, 176 Taoism, 233, 234, 236, 237, 239, 264 theology, 40, 65, 68, 159, 173, 174 33 million gods, 172, 269 Today, 18, 68, 118, 165, 171, 180, 181, 188, 196, 202, 208, 216, 226, 234, 244, 260 totem, 226, 228 traditions, 4, 8, 56, 185, 193, 195, 201, 216, 222, 225, 227, 268

283

Triune, 55, 88, 95, 102, 111, 140, 142 U unembodied spirits, 49 Unitarian, 13, 150, 151, 154–156 V vicarious, 14, 51, 75, 109, 136, 145, 261 Vicarious work, 14, 43, 59, 67, 83, 91, 109, 125, 136, 145, 154 Virgin birth, Immaculate Conception, 14, 33, 50, 57, 73, 81, 98, 116, 124 vision quests, 229 W Weber, Max, 4, 199, 272 Wokeism, 241–243, 245–248, 263, 269 word of God, 56 world, vii, 3, 4, 11, 12, 17, 18, 24, 40, 45, 50, 51, 58, 63, 66, 68, 77, 82, 94, 123, 127, 131, 134, 136, 139, 140, 142, 166, 171, 181, 182, 195, 199, 201, 204, 209, 210, 214, 220, 221, 229, 241, 242, 244, 246–248, 259, 263–271 Y ying and yang, 237, 238