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"I'm Not Like Them But I Can Pretend:" A Feminist Analysis of Kurt Cobain's Gender Performance
A Thesis Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts
August 18,2009
By Cortney A. Alexander
Department of Women's and Gender Studies College of Liberal Arts and Sciences DePaul University Chicago, Illinois
2
Acknowledgements To begin. I would like to acknowledge my parents, Yvonne and Jack Alexander who have told me since childhood that I had a gift for writing. Though none of us knew where that would eventually lead me, they always made me feel talented and that my "heart would always make itself known through my words." Without their emotional and financial support I certainly would never have made it through graduate school, much less through the arduous research process. I want to take this opportunity to thank my thesis committee members. Dr. Melissa Bradshaw introduced me to queer theory and made me realize the personal nature of this kind of work. It was wonderful to work with another Nirvana fan who helped me locate myself in this project. I want to thank Dr. Francesca Royster for giving me the idea for this thesis. Fler English course, Celebrity, Race and Gender was the first time I considered Kurt Cobain a worthwhile topic for further feminist inquiry. It was wonderful to work with such an insightful and patient person. My most sincere thanks to my thesis advisor, Dr. Allison McCracken, for working closely with me during our independent studies. Thank you for the stacks of books and the hours of time in your office. And thank you for the regular reminders that this work is a labor of love and that it should be fun. I had great fun working with you and you have definitely inspired me to continue on the path to a PhD. I want to also acknowledge DePaul University's Women's and Gender Studies department, especially Dr. Beth Catlett whose kindness and patience helped me become a better writer, scholar and educator. I also want to thank my graduate cohort for being endlessly supportive, caring and thoughtful. You are some of the smartest women I have ever met and I am privileged to have had the opportunity to learn from all of you. I want to acknowledge Kathy MillerDillon and Pew Bose for their support during my undergraduate studies at UWMilwaukee. Their encouragement and kind words made me think graduate school was a possibility. Their strength as educators laid the foundation tor what I am sure will be a lifelong passion for feminist scholarship. Finally, Erika Turner has been an inspiration and one of the most supportive friends 1 could have asked for. Ever since we grappled with complicated feminist theories together in our undergraduate courses, Erika has pushed me to think beyond my own white privilege and to understand the intersectional nature of oppressions. Special thanks to my ever patient and giving partner whose motivation and support mean the world to me. It has been a great privilege to have these extraordinary people in my life. I can confidently say that without all of you, this work would not have been possible.
Table of Contents
Introduction
4
Part I: Theoretical Foundations
10
Feminist and Queer Theoretical Foundations Media Theories and Historical Context
11 15
Part II: Analysis of Biographical Texts
20
Cobain's Early Life: Working Class Masculinity 21 Cobain's Life on the Cusp of Rock Stardom: Punk Rock and Grunge Masculinities....37 The Celebrity Life of Cobain: Authenticity, Masochism and Masculinity 51 The Death of Cobain: Race, Celebrity and Representations of Death 68
Conclusions
74
Bibliography
78
4 "Yeah, all Isms (sic) feed off one another but at the top of the food chain is still the white, corporate, macho, strong ox male. Not redeemable as far as I'm concerned. I mean, classism is determined by sexism because the male decides whether all other isms still exists (sic). Its up to men. I'm just saying that people can't deny any ism or think that some are more or less subordinate except for sexism. He's in charge he decides. 1 still think that in order to expand on all other isms, sexism has to be blown wide open. Its almost impossible to deprogram the incestuallyestablished (sic), male oppression... but there are thousands of green minds, young gullable (sic) 15 year old boys out there just starting to fall into the grain of what they've been told of what a man is supposed to be and there are plenty of tools to use. The most effective tool is entertainment."1 In 1992, grungerock band. Nirvana took stage at the annual MTV Video Music Awards ceremony. They had agreed to play their popular tune "Lithium." However, when Kurt Cobain played the first few riffs on his guitar, fans immediately knew that the song he was beginning to play was the controversial, as yet unreleased, "Rape Me." Cobain sang two lines from "Rape Me" before shifting back into "Lithium." At the end of the performance, Cobain threw his guitar into the speakers behind him and then leapt into the band's drum kit.2 I was 14 when I first saw this performance being rerun on MTV. Cobain's antiestablishment attitudes appealed to my own budding feminist political consciousness and even five years after his death, he was still the epitome of cool to my high school peers and me. Even now Cobain is often credited with starting the grunge music scene and is also frequently referred to as the voice of Generation X. Today, fifteen years after his death, his cultural productions are still consumed and critiqued frequently. Many have even elevated Cobain to the status of a rock n" roll god.3 Consider the title of his most recent biography, Heavier Than Heaven4 or the infamous photograph of him with angel wings on the In Utero tour (see page 42). He continues to posthumously enchant adoring fans of all ages and to inspire and intrigue music critics and historians.
'Kurt Cobain, Journals, (New York: Riverhead Books, 2002), 177. 2http://www.voutube.com/watch?v=IdvKAFfpwOU&feature=related
and http://www.voutube.com/watch?vr=tY5Pr20MH4g 3Chris Molanphy, Kurt Cobain: Voice of a Generation, (Barnes & Noble Publishing, 2003). 4Titled such because of the 1989 UK tour Nirvana did with Tad. Charles R. Cross, Heavier Than Heaven: A Biography of Kurt Cobain (New York: Hyperion Books, 2001), 144.
5 I have been a Nirvana fan ever since I saw that 1992 performance but only recently did I begin to consider Cobain a worthwhile topic for feminist inquiry. Reading texts like Cobain's Journals and Charles Cross's Heavier Than Heaven: A Biography of Kurt Cobain through a feminist lens, I noticed the construction of an uneasy masculinity and a rebellious spirit with a political consciousness. After I decided that I wanted to do my graduate research on Kurt Cobain's life and celebrity, I asked many of the people in my life what they thought was notable about him and what they remembered about his celebrity. Most people mentioned the notoriety he gained as lead singer and guitarist of Nirvana, his widely publicized drug use, his depression and suicide. Some people heralded him as a voice of a generation while others thought he was a miserable junkie. Once I started looking at things Cobain wrote himself, reviews written during his life and biographies and documentaries produced since his death, I realized that the narratives that have been constructed about his life and work are widely varied. Together they weave a rich tapestry that tells us as much about ourselves as a culture as it does about the actual life of Kurt Cobain. An excerpt from music journalist, Chris Molanphy's pictorial biography Kurt Cobain: Voice of a Generation, taps into many of the widely accepted narratives about Cobain's life. "[Kurt] Cobain was a mass of contradictions. He could be gentle but also destructive. Possessing natural good looks beneath his unwashed hair and ragged clothes, he carried himself with selfflagellating modesty and yet could be selfaggrandizing in the next breath... He could be stridently political but remained ambivalent about the world and his place in it. He came of age believing the code of punk without ever losing his love of pop—a big reason why his music was embraced by such a wide audience... The most poignant, memorable images associated with Nirvana's music...were ideas concocted by Kurt. Images of Kurt Cobain are pieces of art in and of themselves. Like his songs, they are the truest artifacts we have to represent him. unspoiled by myth making—ours, the media's, or Cobain's. Yet, again like his songs, these photographs invite interpretation: we project ideas, wishes, ourselves onto Cobain. As he did in his brief life, he absorbs all of our own contradictions—our need to rebel and our need to belong, our desire to look cool and our wish to look away.'0
'Chris Molanphy, Kurt Cobain: Voice of a Generation (Barnes and Noble Publishing, Inc., 2003), 10.
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He was attractive, contradictory, smart, modest yet selfinterested, talented, ambitious, uninterested in fame, political yet apathetic, widely popular; he was the epitome of cool in the early 1990s in America. Molanphy writes that we project ourselves onto Cobain and that is exactly what I wish to examine here. If images, texts and songs by and about Cobain are reflections of American culture, then they are telling us that gender is not a stable category and that gender does not determine sexuality. They tell us that masculinity, authenticity and coolness are fragile and anxious constructions that are never perfectly and completely done. It is my view that Kurt Cobain was a postmodern character that challenged gender norms through his complex construction and subversion of celebrity while simultaneously buying in to the institutions that marginalized him as a nonnormatively gendered individual. In this research, I will lay out the different 'readings' of Cobain's body and art through an analysis of the narratives and discourses constructed by popular media like films, books and television. Since the inception of feminist analysis as a form of academic inquiry, feminist scholars have spent much time and energy studying constructions of femininity in culture. More recently, feminist scholars have started considering constructions of masculinity and, more broadly, gender. Gender here refers to the cultural meaning attached to an individual's body based her/his biological sex.6 Much like white people often fail to consider that they too have race, some feminists would argue that white, heterosexual men have had the privilege of not having to consider their gender.7 This might account for the striking lack of academic work done around Kurt Cobain's feminism and performance of race and gender at the particular moment in US and global history in which he gained notoriety. There is an abundance of information available about the life and death of Cobain, his music and his celebrity status, yet his complex
6 Michael Kimmel, Manhood in America: A Cultural History (New York: Oxford University
Richard Dyer, White (New York: Routledge, 1997), 3.
Press, 2006), 2.
7 performances of gender and sexuality on stage and in media are seldom mentioned. This gap in the narratives about Cobain's life and work is an area that necessitates further inquiry. I wish to pose the question of whether Cobain can be considered a queer subject. I believe that he performed a dysfunctional, white, working class, heterosexual masculinity that in some ways subverted dominant gender roles and in other ways reinforced them, all the while negotiating a contentious relationship with feminism and other social justice movements. As he struggled through much of his private life becoming public knowledge, he demonstrated the social consequences of failed masculinity, thus demonstrating the inherent impossibility of our socially constructed masculine ideals. Much of the critical work on Cobain's oeuvre is framed in terms of his authenticity. It is my contention that authenticity, like masculinity and heterosexuality, is a social construction used to categorize people but that it is ultimately so uneasily constructed as to be essentially meaningless as a qualifier wielded by music critics and musicians to exclude certain people and styles. Finally, I think that it is important to consider Cobain's feminist attitudes, his interrogation of hegemonic gender and whether he ought even to be considered a feminist under certain theoretical traditions. This question has not been asked in much of the academic and critical work on Kurt Cobain's celebrity. To answer these questions I analyze several biographical texts about Kurt Cobain. Some of the primary sources used are: Kurt Cobain's Journals, Gus Van Sant's Last Days, AJ Schnack's About a Son, Michael Azerrad's Come as You Are: The Story of Nirvana, Chris Molanphy's Kurt Cobain: Voice of a Generation, and Charles R. Cross's Heavier Than Heaven: A Biography of Kurt Cobain. I utilize the method of discourse analysis to understand the narratives that these texts construct about Cobain as a celebrity in American popular culture. Heavily influenced by the work of Michel Foucault, discourse analysis is concerned with
constructions of meaning through language and texts and with the underlying structures that allow certain texts to exist. This type of analysis is critical of the ways in which power is established and maintained through cultural texts. Foucault's understanding of power as non authoritarian, nonconspiratorial and nonorchestrated yet still influential in the construction of social domination and subordination is useful in analyzing Kurt Cobain's texts and the larger cultural narrative about his life and work within their particular social and political contexts. The texts to be analyzed here range from lyrics and journals written by Cobain himself to biographies and fan texts. Some of these texts are considered highbrow, wellresearched canons or works of art on the life of Cobain while others are simply considered lowbrow picture books. Foucault's method of discourse analysis does not favor or value one type of cultural text over another. This method requires us to recognize that all texts uniquely contribute to cultural understandings of celebrities. Since few of his fans have actually met Cobain. these texts are all that we have to base our experience of him upon. Further, it is important to note that biographies are written by particular people for particular purposes. None of the biographies analyzed here are definitive and complete (though many claim to be); they can only speculate as to Cobain's actual feelings and intentions. What Cobain actually thought and felt can perhaps be gleaned from his own writings but even they are subject to multiple readings and varied meanings. The meaning an individual gleans from a text is highly dependent upon that person's own particular social and historical location. All of that considered, I do not wish to make any claims as to Cobain's actual intentions or 'real' feelings, only to analyze the discourses constructed within biographies, art and journals and the ways in which those discourses construct Cobain as a raced, sexualized and gendered subject. Part of this will require considering how the stories about
8 Susan Bordo, "Feminism, Foucault and the Politics of the Body,"
Feminist Theory & The Body: A Reader, eds.
Janet Price and Margrit Shildrick, (New York: Routledge, 1999), 252.
9 Cobain make sense in their particular historical and political contexts and how narratives about him compare to similar nonwhite or nonmale artists at that time. For the purposes of this research, combining feminist and queer theory with celebrity and cultural studies sheds insight into the life and work of Kurt Cobain that have not yet been considered. In the archive of mainstream media images of Cobain, from magazines to album art. anyone can see that his body was small and. arguably, feminine. He often wore ripped up old clothes and even crossdressed as a challenge to the heteropatriarchy that dominates American culture. I suspect that Cobain presented himself in this particular way because he looked at masculinity from an outsider's perspective, from a stance of marginality, never feeling a part of the mainstream, which is perhaps why he was able to offer, through his music and art. such striking insights into its dysfunctions. Kurt Cobain constructed an image of himself that was highly suspicious of normative, hegemonic gender while at the same time desperately trying to find a comfortable relationship within socially acceptable gender roles. In order to better understand his gender play, I first provide tools from queer and feminist theory that will help to unpack all of the meaning embedded in the texts that will be analyzed here.
Part I: Theoretical Foundations
11 Feminist and Queer Theoretical Foundations 1 opened this paper with a quote from Kurt Cobain. This quote is the one that started me thinking about Cobain as a feminist figure. Coupled with his affinity for crossdressing, wearing makeup and dabbling in the profane, one might also wonder whether Cobain ought to be considered a queer figure. Before considering Cobain's relationship with feminism it is important to identify the parameters and conceptualization of feminism as it will be used here. Author, educator and scholar, bell hooks urges scholars and activists to think of feminism as an intersectional movement to end sexist oppression rather than a women's movement toward equality with men. In her text Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center, hooks writes, '"Focus on social equality with men as a definition of feminism led to an emphasis on discrimination, male attitudes, and legalistic reforms. Feminism as a movement to end sexist oppression directs our attention to systems of domination and the interrelatedness of sex, race, and class oppression."9 Hooks' definition of feminism as a movement to end sexist oppression takes into consideration the intersectional nature of oppression. Women are oppressed as women but they are also oppressed as racialized subjects, as sexualized subjects and a myriad other social standpoints like gender, ethnicity, religion, nationality, ability, class and size to name a lew. An intersectional approach would consider many avenues of oppression and also of privilege. As I begin to ponder Cobain's manifestation of gendered characteristics, the narratives surrounding his gender performance and his contentious relationship to feminism as defined here by hooks, I will also consider the other positions from which he understood the world. His white, working class, heterosexual male standpoint is also unique to his historical and physical location, all of these positions together informed his politics and his celebrity. It is this feminist theoretical position, along with the burgeoning field of queer theory, which will inform my own analysis ol Cobain.
9 bell hooks, Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center, (Cambridge, MA: South End Press, 2000),
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Poststructuralist, feminist and queer theorist Judith Butler is the best resource for understanding gender theory and applying it to media texts. In her book Gender Trouble, Butler argues that the body is a site of cultural construction whose boundaries are dependent upon social and cultural norms, which are fluid, historical and ever changing. She argues that there is no definitive masculinity or femininity but that those concepts exist on a continuum, which is also variable depending upon historical period and physical location. She also acknowledges that gender is not something we are able to choose freely. She writes, "[Gender] is a regulatory ideal whose materialization is compelled, and this materialization takes place (or fails to take place) through certain highly regulated practices.'"10 When we look at an image of Kurt Cobain, for example, we cannot simply assume that he woke up that morning and. for no particular reason, decided to wear torn jeans and a flannel shirt to a photo shoot. Rather we must consider the larger culture that enforces appropriately gendered attire and behavior. Torn jeans and a dirty shirt are symbols of a particular masculinity properly performed. They demonstrate a necessary disinterest in fashion and body maintenance, which are thought to be venues through which femininity, not masculinity, is expressed. We can also look at this image of Cobain wearing makeup (below) and understand that he was attempting to subvert gender mores because we know that makeup is not an appropriate accoutrement of masculinity. Still, eyeliner worn on a man who is also sporting facial hair and a cool guy leather coat, might also suggest a different form of acceptable masculinity rather than a subversion of normative gender. Within alternative music cultures and subcultures, masculine norms are not identical to masculine norms in mainstream culture but are still just as demanding and, arguably, restrictive.
l 0 Judith Butler, Bodies That
Matter: On the Discursive Limits of 'Sex' (New York: Routledge, 1993), 1.
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Within the postmodernist paradigm, gender is a performance, an illusion. Butler, and other postmodern theorists, suggests that there are not just two definitive genders; that what we call 'gender" is a complex performance that requires costumes, acting and make up and even then it can still be ambiguous. The practice of doing gender is constantly in process, gender is never done for once and for all but is rather a process that needs to be reiterated regularly to maintain its authority. Butler uses this feminist and poststructural theoretical framework to trouble cultural narratives. Through the technique of deconstruction, as with the makeup example above, Butler troubles the way that we think of gender, sexuality, heterosexuality, homosexuality, normal, drag, performance, origin, and space among others. I hope to trouble those same notions by applying these theories to Cobain's particular and complex performance of masculinity. Postmodernism and poststructuralism do not seek to write a new narrative to replace the patriarchal, white supremacist, imperialist and capitalist metanarratives but rather they seek to deconstruct, and thereby expose, all narratives that restrict individuals' lives. It is my contention that Cobain attempted to expose gender as a fraud by donning the accoutrements of femininity and lyrically challenging the realness and stableness of binary gender itself.
14 While Kurt Cobain may have been heterosexual, male and white, all positions of privilege in American culture, he recognized those as positions of privilege and tried to subvert them rather than to use them to perpetuate oppressive ideologies. Further, his small, non stereotypically masculine body and working class status gave him a unique position from which to critique hegemonic masculinity as an outsider who was expected to perform a certain type of socially acceptable working class masculinity. His inability to live up to those standards left him feeling alienated and questioning the 'truth' of binary gender. Queer theory is useful in deconstructing and interpreting meanings embedded in cultural texts by and about Cobain. What I am attempting to do here is a discourse analysis using queer theory as a tool for the deconstruction of discourse. Social theorist and gender activist. Riki Wilchins, writes that queer theory is a hybrid of feminist and postmodern theories.11 Queer theory is an attempt to challenge normative gender by asking whether gender is even a valid or useful way of knowing and categorizing people. Queer theory recognizes the violence of naming. Once something is named it becomes that thing and cannot be anything else. Naming is limiting, if one is named man one cannot be woman. Those are the only options and all people must, necessarily, fit into one of two categories. Likewise, if one is named gay one cannot be straight. Again, those are the only options. Any social signifier would work here: race, class, gender, sexuality, etc. Queer theory and postmodern theory seek to disrupt these many binaries by doing queer readings.12 Queer readings offer new perspectives on old texts. They also attempt to heal the violence of erasure. For example, in the body of biographical work that has been done about Kurt Cobain, there is almost no mention of his crossdressing or his feminism save a few mentions of his interview with Advocate magazine. What I am attempting to uncover here is what has been lost in the
1 'Riki
Wilchins, Queer Theory, Gender Theory: An Instant Primer, (Los Angeles, CA: Alyson Books, 2004), 11.
l 2 Queer is used here to mean nonnormative especially when referring to gender and sexuality.
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archives, what is being said between the lines of biographical text, what is missing altogether and what we can learn about the culture from the socalled truths about Cobain that are anything but coherent.
Media Theories and Historical Context Like feminist and queer theories, media and celebrity theories are particular and historical. Early theories have evolved over time and have become a hybrid of modern and postmodern ideologies. There are still major debates as to which theoretical position is most useful. Before I lay out my theoretical framework, I will give a brief history of media ownership in the United States. Understanding the prevailing media theories requires knowledge of this history and it will also be useful as we go into the particular history of grunge music and the political environment out of which it arose. In the interest of space, we will not go in to international media regulations but will rather focus on the United States as it is most relevant to this discussion of Kurt Cobain and grunge music. In 1941, the federal government put a 35% national cap on media ownership, which prevented broadcasters from owning stations that would reach more than that number of the nation's homes. Then in 1946 television network mergers were prohibited. About 20 years later, it was decided that broadcasters could only own one station per market and crossownership of radio and newspapers with television stations was banned.1'' For 35 years, preventing media consolidation was a priority in the United States. It was believed that maintaining local ownership of media would prevent it from becoming too powerful a tool for one person or group of persons to have at their disposal.
x~Hear Us
Now: Consumer Voice for Communication Choice, http://www.hearusnow.org/mediaownership/25'
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In 1981 things began to change; the Federal Communications Commission and the US Congress ruled in favor of deregulating media ownership. This first round of deregulations allowed a company to own up to 12 television stations as long as they did not reach more than 25% of the population. In 1987 the Fairness Doctrine, which held communications outlets responsible for presenting multiple and opposing viewpoints and for performing public service by reporting on key community issues, was overruled.14 In 1996, the Telecommunications Act led to almost complete media ownership deregulation. Since then only a few companies (I ime Warner, Sony, Viacom, Disney, Bertelsmann, and News Corporation1") own and control nearly every media outlet in America. In their text The Business of Media: Corporate Media and the Public Interest, David Croteau and William Hoynes write: "In 1996, just 10 media companies dominated the entire mass communication industry. With recent highprofile mergers, that figure continues to decline.'"16 This means that only a few, very wealthy, mostly white, mostly male, executives make decisions that affect what any American exposed to mass media will have access to. This makes understanding the nature of mass media vital to any solid cultural criticism. Educator and theorist Pepi Leistyna writes, "What should be clear from all this is that elite private powers and corporate bodies do not fool around when it comes to understanding and using media to shape public consciousness and political agency. They understand, as imperial powers have always understood, that controlling the flow of information in society is critical to maintaining hegemony by effectively circulating a vision of the world that suits their needs. This takes us to one of the major theoretical traditions in media studies. This tradition follows that media are tools used by the bourgeois or upper classes of society to relay messages that 1 4 Ibid. l 5 Jean Kilbourne,
Can't Buy my Love: How Advertising Changes the Way We Think and Feel, (New York:
Touchstone, 1999), 55. Also, http://www.thenation.com/special/bigten.html 1 6 David Croteau and William Hoynes, "The New Media Giants: Changing Industry Structure," Gender, Race, and Class in Media , eds.Gail Dines and Jean M. Humez. (Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, Inc., 2003), 36 | 7 Pepi Leistyna, "Teaching About and With Alternative Media,"
Radical Teacher, no. 81 (2008): 3.
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would affirm and maintain their cultural hegemony. In capitalistic societies, the decisions of media elites are made in accordance with what they think will sell the most and support the messages that are most favorable to their sponsors, as well as what will maintain their hegemonic position by reproducing only those images that do not challenge the hierarchical structure of power in America. James Lull writes of Marxist philosopher, Antonio Gramsci's theory of ideological hegemony: "Mass media are tools that ruling elites use to 'perpetuate their power, wealth, and status [by popularizing] their own philosophy, culture and morality.' The mass media uniquely introduce elements into individual consciousness that would not otherwise appear there, but will not be rejected... because they are so commonly shared in the cultural community. Owners and managers of media industries can produce and reproduce the content, inflections, and tones of ideas favorable to them far more easily than other social groups because they manage key socializing institutions, thereby guaranteeing that their points of view are constantly and attractively cast into the public arena."18 Mass media are indeed tools that the state can use to transmit ideas and be sure that almost all Americans will be exposed to them. The idea that media act as hypodermic needles injecting ideas into the unsuspecting consciousness of the masses was first made popular by theorists from the Frankfurt School of social criticism. Their fear was that media acted as a form of leisure or distraction that would prevent people, especially proletariat workers, from critically examining the world around them. As neoMarxists, theorists from the Frankfurt School were primarily concerned with the relationship between media and capitalism. They believed that mass mediated entertainment was a powerful tool for social control. If consumers are amused and occupied with mass media, especially media that does not challenge the social order, then they will come to believe that their position in the world is normal and static, that they have no power to change it. In his text Popular Music and Youth Culture: Music, Identity and Place, sociologist, Andy Bennett writes Gender, Race, and Class in Media, ed. Gail Dines and Jean M. Humez, (Thousand
i 8 James Lull, "Hegemony,"
Oaks, California: Sage Publications, Inc., 2003). 62.
18
"The implication here is that with the rise of mass culture the individual is denied any possibility of creative participation in leisure activities and becomes simply a cultural "dupe.""19 This school of thought holds that mass media denies consumer resistance and creates cultural dupes, that anyone could be convinced of anything via mass media. Given the history of media ownership in America it would be easy to believe that media act as hypodermic needles injecting the masses with ideology that benefits the ruling classes but we must be careful not to overlook the agency of consumers who read media texts as individuals who have been shaped by multiple meaningful cultural institutions like race, ethnicity, class, gender, sexuality and ability, etc. Prominent cultural theorist Stuart Hall lodges a challenge to the hypodermic needle theory of ideological hegemony. He argues that part of the pleasure of media can be attributed to its polysemic nature.20 Media texts are encoded with complex meanings that are often contradictory. Because of this consumers can choose texts that adhere to their belief systems or they can read texts subversively or against the grain or they can reject the implied meaning entirely. Further deconstruction of a text reveals its multiple meanings and complex cultural constructions. Foucault, whose work foregrounds much, if not all queer theory work, argues that no one is outside of the power structures. In his foundational text The History of Sexuality. Volume One he writes, '"Power comes from below; that is, there is no binary and all encompassing opposition between rules and ruled at the root ot power relations."
Unlike the
theorists from the Frankfurt School, Foucault believes that everyone reproduces power
1 9 Andy Bennett, Popular Music and Youth Culture: Music, Identity and Place. (New York: Palgrave, 2000), 36. 2 0 Jeremy G. Butler, Television: Critical Methods and Applications (Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, Inc., 2002), 350. . rd Stuart Hall, "Cultural Studies and its Theoretical Legacies," The Cultural Studies Reader, ed. Simon During, 3 ed. (New York: Routledge, 1993), 41. 2 1 Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality, (New York: Vintage Books, 1978), 94.
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hierarchies not just those on top. While they might have the greatest stake in maintaining a particular social order, we have all been socialized and interpellated by the same system and are all, to varying degrees, responsible for reproducing it. Foucault writes, "Where there is power, there is resistance, and yet, or rather consequently, this resistance is never in a position of exteriority in relation to power. Should it be said that one is always 'inside* power, there is no 'escaping' it, there is no absolute outside where it is concerned."22 Also, Foucault would argue that people have been shaped by their particular social and historical locations and that therefore, each person will interpret a cultural text slightly differently. Because of this, he would reject the hypodermic needle theory in lavor of a poststructural theory that sees subjectivity as being much more complex and situated. Because of the unique nature of subjectivity, poststructuralists, unlike theorists from the Frankfurt School, see resistance everywhere and, therefore, challenge the notion of hierarchical, topdown power. While it is tempting to see Cobain simply as a contributor to the hegemony of white American capitalist patriarchy especially given the power that comes with immense lame, it would also limit the potential for resistance against the heteropatriarchy that can be read between the lines of Cobain's public performances. Part of what made him popular in the grunge scene was his resistance to authority and seeming indifference to mainstream popularity. And yet, while he struggled against music industry gatekeepers he was simultaneously desperately working to earn a place in the limelight of American popular music. Similarly, while Cobam wholly accepted some parts of patriarchal masculinity (like marriage and nuclear family life), he also actively opposed misogyny and homophibia in some parts of his public life. The next section looks more closely at these representations and their potential meanings.
2 2 Ibid., 95.
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Part II: Analysis of Biographical Texts
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Kurt Co bain's Early Life: Working Class Masculinity Kurt Donald Cobain was born in 1967 in Aberdeen. Washington and lived there for the next twenty years. At the time, his father worked at a gas station and his mother was just out of high school. Aberdeen depended on the logging and fishing industries and was especially stricken with unemployment as much of American industrial labor moved overseas."' As is the case in economically depressed environments, Cobain watched many of the men in his life, including his father, suffer from unemployment, alcoholism, and depression. In the films and books about Cobain. especially About a Son and Heavier Than Heaven, Aberdeen lingers in the background like a character in itself. In his own writings, Cobain spends a great deal of time describing Aberdeen and the impact that living there had on his formative years.24 In his Journals he disdainfully describes the population of Aberdeen as such: "A few thousand loggers and their subservient wives."23 This particular location had an enormous impact on the life and celebrity of Cobain. As he entered adolescence and struggled through high school, Cobain, like his father, also faced terrible economic hardship. Cobain's working class background and the poverty of his adolescence and young adult life had a tremendous effect on his art and writing and. later, a mythos of his narrative. Fans came to understand that poverty made Cobain's music authentic thus making him 'cool," both concepts discussed further later in this paper. Those years were especially important to Cobain's oeuvre considering his life ended when he was only twentyseven years old. He did not have much time to develop memories and knowledge about life beyond the very turbulent 1980s and early 1990s. Like Aberdeen, the 1980s serve as a major trope in the discourse about Cobain's life and work. In fact, in an interview with The Advocate magazine in 1993 Cobain said, 2 'Charles Cross, Heavier Than Heaven, (New York: Hyperion, 2001), 6 and 71.
4 Kurt Cobain, Journals, (New York: Riverhead Books, 2002), 35. 25 Ibid., 60.
22 "Our generation [is] not going to put up with the same Reaganite bullshit we were subjected to when we were younger. I was helpless when I was twelve, when Reagan got elected, and there was nothing I could do about that. But now this generation is growing up, and they're in their mid twenties, they're not putting up with it/'26 He was clearly deeply influenced by the political environment around him and eventually developed an interest in social justice while living in Olympia in 1987 and 1988.27 As he said himself, the political environment of the 1980s, that shaped the economic climate of Cobain's adolescence, is best understood by looking at the policies of President Ronald Reagan. Under his presidency, Reagan promoted laissezfaire economic policies and enforced a series of deregulatory measures that allowed unfettered industrial growth, conglomeration and globalization.28 Simply put, those economic policies led to a global political and economic landscape that took a turn toward neoliberalism. A neoliberal state transfers economic control from the government to privately owned businesses to reduce government spending by as much as possible. A neoliberal state must operate under the belief that all services are best provided by private interests rather than state provided social welfare programs. In his text, A Brief History of Neoliberalism, David Harvey describes this belief: "The assumption that individual freedoms are guaranteed by freedom of the market and of trade is a cardinal feature of neoliberal thinking, and it has long dominated the US stance towards the rest of the world... I call this kind of state apparatus a neoliberal state. The freedoms it embodies reflect the interests of private property owners, businesses, multinational corporations, and financial capital."29 In theory, neoliberalism benefits all individuals by placing social responsibility upon individually owned and operated corporations. In this system, governing bodies exist to protect the free market and the interests of corporations under the belief that everyone benefits from a healthy free market. The Advocate, (February 1, 1993). Heavier Than Heaven , (New York: Hyperion, 2001), 91. 2 8 David Harvey, A Brief History of Neoliberalism, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 25. 2 6 Kevin Allman, "Nirvana's Front Man Shoots From the Hip," 2 'Charles Cross,
2 9 Ibid„ 7.
23 Neoliberal ideology has had a marked effect on the ways in which we think about cultures and people, which has affected the lived experiences of real people in America and abroad. Neoliberal rhetoric, popularized during Reagan's tenure, is responsible for the notion that anyone can pull her/himself up by her/his bootstraps and that unemployment and poverty are voluntary states/'0 If the playing field were level, everyone would have the same opportunity to be successful in the marketplace. This is a myth that the upper classes employs to maintain their hegemonic position at the top of the hierarchy which is much more likely a privilege of birth rather than a result of talent or skill. These major economic shifts contributed to the high rates of unemployment in Aberdeen and other parts of the country that were heavily dependent on manufacturing jobs. This economic shift had a huge impact on families in Aberdeen and certainly contributed to a frustrated, alienated and anxious masculinity. The inability of many men to get jobs left them feeling emasculated, as financial support is patriarchal culture's expectation of men. Inability to live up to their culturally mandated role contributed to the anxious masculinity that Cobain was responding to in his public performances of masculinities. In his masculinities studies canon, Manhood in America: A Cultural Histoiy, historian and sociologist Michael Kimmel, writes about the effects that economic recession and depression have on "selfmade"" or working class masculinities: "Industrialization and deindustrialization made men's hold on the successful demonstration of masculinity increasingly tenuous; there are fewer and fewer selfmade successes and far more selfblaming failures. The segment of the economy that has been hardest hit—small shopkeepers, independent farmers, highly skilled manufacturing workers—is exactly the segment that clings most tenaciously to the ideology of selfmade masculinity."jl
:"°David Harvey, A Brief History ofNeoliberalism, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 53.
"'Michael S. Kimmel, Manhood in America: A Cultural History, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 216.
24 Hegemonic masculinity, as discussed earlier, is impossible to attain consistently, it must constantly be reiterated and preformed. Kimmel offers the following description of the characteristics of hegemonic masculinity in American culture: "young, married, white, urban, northern, heterosexual, Protestant, father, of college education, fully employed, of good complexion, weight, and height, and a recent record in sports.""'2 Attaining a college education and full time employment at a living wage are markers of class privilege that Kurt Cobain, like many of the other men in his family, was never able to achieve (until he became a rock star). Taken into consideration with his disinterest, perhaps even disdain, for sports, his small stature, low body weight, and atheistic views, Cobain was pretty far from achieving the masculine ideal that Kimmel outlined.33 It is this outsider perspective that informed Cobain's later interest in feminism and gay rights. In his meticulously researched biography, Heavier Than Heaven: A Biography of Kurt Cobain, Charles Cross describes Cobain as a very sensitive, artistic, musically inclined and happy child/4 However, as he grew to adolescence, the demand to shed those childish qualities haunted him. As most narratives about his life follow, Cobain"s father pushed him into sports, especially wrestling, as a means of molding his son into appropriate adolescent masculinity and preparing him for the life of manual labor that seemed inescapable for a young working class man in Aberdeen at the time.3" Cobain was always physically much smaller than the other school children and feelings of inadequacy and emasculation plagued him through all ot his formal education. Cross describes Cobain's experience ot his own body as "small and scrawny
32Ibid., 4.
"Kurt Cobain, Journals, (New York: Riverhead Books, 2002), 33, 36. 37, 60. '4Charles Cross, Heavier Than Heaven, (New York: Hyperion, 2001), 10. 35lbid„ 3738.
25 and "impotent and weak."j6 Also, in an interview for the documentary Kurt and Courtney, Cobain's posthigh school girlfriend, Tracy Marander, said, "He felt like he was too skinny. He tried to gain weight, tried to work out a little bit, but uh he just couldn't really gain any weight... about 120 [pounds] was what he weighed.. .he got teased about it in high school, you know guys would think he was gay because he looked kinda feminine."37 It is clear that Cobain understood the importance of performing socially acceptable masculinity very early in his life. In his Journals, Cobain wrote "1 was a rodentlike, underdeveloped, hyperactive spaz who could fit his entire torsoe [sic] in one leg of his bell bottomed jeans, and I was frustrated, I needed to let off some steam."38 Throughout his entire life Cobain was very aware of the proportions of his body and the many ways that it did not measure up to the social standards he had come to accept. According to his own journals and interviews with people close to him. his peers and his father were relentless about forcing Cobain to perform their accepted version of masculinity. Later in that same interview, the interviewer asked Marander whether there was a relationship between the pressures and abuses from his peers and the way that he dressed. It sheds a great deal of light into what would later become nationally known grunge style. "I think so, yeah. Cuz there's no way you could wear that many layers and still be comfortable, really but yeah it added extra padding... um, sometimes he'd wear a pair or two of long johns and a pair of jeans and then put ripped up jeans over it and then a couple of tee shirts."39 Ripped up jeans, tee shirts with flannel over shirts, and torn tennis shoes were the dress code of the grunge generation; a trend Cobain is frequently credited with starting. Interestingly, the style of an entire subculture made mainstream, is a direct response to failed masculinity. Cobain knew
3*Ibid.,27. 3~Kurt & Courtney.
VHS. Directed by Nick Bloomfield, 1998.
j8Kurt Cobain, Journals, (New York: Riverhead Books, 2002), 1 15. 39Ibid.
26 that masculinity was going to be violently imposed on him no matter how he did not fit. He responded by trying to make his small body look bigger rather than trying to make his actual body larger.40 This is the ultimate fagade of masculine performance. Cobain did not have to be physically strong he just had to learn how to give the appearance of strength by taking up more physical space. Many layers of clothing allowed him to do this. Images like the ones of Nirvana, in different incarnations, below demonstrate grunge style in its heyday.
Aside from his now infamous attire, teenage Cobain rebelled and expressed his anger at his parents by skipping school, doing drugs and playing his guitar to the exclusion of almost all other activities.41 Two themes that arise in almost all texts by and about Cobain are those of restrictive social and familial expectations and parental failures. Cobain's father failed to nurture the artistic and sensitive nature of his son, he failed to earn a comfortable living to support his son (who was often homeless), he failed at keeping his family and marriage together and he
40Though in
one interview Tracy Marander did say that Cobain would "write away to ads in the backs of magazines for weightgain powders." Charles Cross, Heavier Than Heaven, (New York: Hyperion, 2001), 94. "'Kurt Cobain, Journals, (New York: Riverhead Books, 2002), 115.
27 eventually gave up on fathering altogether.42 In 1976. Kurt Cobain's parents divorced. According to most of the biographies written about Cobain, this event had the single greatest impact on Cobain's young life. He reiterated the devastating effect it had on his entire youth in interviews, in his journals and in many of Nirvana's songs.4"3 Charles Cross, even goes so far as to refer to the divorce as "an emotional holocaust."44 This event marked a monumental change in Cobain's behavior. The once outgoing child became sullen and withdrawn. Cobain learned at that young age that the nuclear family ideal is inherently fallible. While he occasionally used this pain to reject the trappings of the white, middle class, heterosexual nuclear family model, he also spent a good deal of time lamenting its loss and trying to reconstruct a version of it in his own adult life. In an interview with British rock journalist, Jon Savage, Cobain described his parents' "divorce as something that made him feel 'ashamed' and yearning for what he had lost: 'I desperately wanted to have the classic, you know, typical family. Mother, father. I wanted that security.'"43 This is consistent with the descriptions that Charles Cross gave of Cobain's relationship with Marander. She is often described as being his benefactor and caretaker. Cross carefully contrasts the maternal warmth and patience of Marander with Cobain's next girlfriend Tobi Vail who was a riot grrrl feminist and punk rocker. She did not want a serious relationship and did not nurture or care for Cobain in the ways he supposedly wanted. Later we will see the ways in which Vail is blamed for Cobain's eventual fall. Whether intentional or not, Cross constructs a 'good' femininity by posing it against 'bad' femininity which is correlated with feminism through Vail's connection to the riot grrrl movement. As a contradictory character
Heavier Than Heaven, (New York: Hyperion, 2001), 328. Journals, (New York: Riverhead Books, 2002), 35 and "Serve the Servants" lyrics. J 4 Charles Cross, Heavier Than Heaven, (New York: Hyperion, 2001), 22. J 2 Charles Cross, 4 "Kurt Cobain,
4 5 Ibid., 295.
28
with a contradictory narrative, it is difficult to tell whether Cobain desired the supposed safety of a nuclear family and a maternal wife, represented in the biographies by Marander, or the non conformist, nonfamilial lifestyle with a punk woman, represented by both Vail and Courtney Love. As in the above interview, he speaks of a desire for the 'typical family7 and yet some of his actions contradict that vision. While Cobain perpetually performed heterosexual masculinity, to the point of even marrying Courtney Love and forming a nuclear family, he also used his position of power to challenge normative sexuality and gender. In an interview with The Advocate magazine in 1993, Cobain spoke about the formulation of his sexual identity. He spoke about the desire he had for male friendship in high school and the alienation he felt at not being allowed that closeness w ithout the stigma of homosexuality that came along with it. In the interview he said that he eventually came to embrace a gay identity7 because it gave him a political alignment lor his position as social outcast. Cobain told interviewer Kevin Allman: "See I've always wanted male friends that I could be real intimate with and talk about important things with and be as affectionate with that person as I would be with a girl. Throughout my life, I've always been really close with girls and made friends with girls. And I've always been a really sickly, feminine person anyhow, so I thought I was gay for a while because I didn't find any of the girls in my high school attractive at all. They had really awful haircuts and fuckedup attitudes. So I thought I would try to be gay for a while, but I'm just more sexually attracted to women. But I'm really glad that I found a few gay friends, because it totally saved me from becoming a monk or something.. .1 mean, I'm definitely gay in spirit, and I probably could be bisexual. But I'm married, and I'm more attracted to Courtney than I ever have been toward a person, so there's no point in trying to sow my oats at this point. If I wouldn't have found Courtney, I probably would have carried on with a bisexual lifestyle. But I just find her totally attractive in all ?r46
ways.
As a physically small man with a sensitive, artistic nature, Cobain faced endless bullying at the hands of his father, stepfather and peers who determined his masculine posturing to be inappropriate and rapidly and forcefully taught him wrhat behaviors were acceptably masculine. 4 6 Kevin Allman, "Nirvana's Front Man Shoots From the Flip," The Advocate, (February 1, 1993).
29 This came in the form of namecalling and violent beatings. One favored insult was "faggot" which Cobain later used as a weapon against the homophobic and sexist bullies who had taunted him. He knew from experience that the worst thing in the world to be, to this group of people, was feminine, so in one of his oftrepeated stories, he would spray paint things like "homo sex rules" and "god is gay" on the property of the bullies.47 That act of retaliation was repeated often later in his life. As is part of the punk ethic he embraced, Cobain found whatever was most offensive to the bullies, misogynists and homophobes and paraded it in their most sacred spaces. When Cobain discovered (like other punk rockers before him) that his music was being coopted by violent misogynistic and homophobic young men, 48 he decided that the best way to show them how wrong they were about him and his music was to wear dresses, makeup and other women's clothing, and to publically kiss Krist Novoselic on a 1991 episode of Saturday Night Live.49 During a 1988 performance, before he was a nationally known celebrity, as a comment on the kitsch appeal of glam rock or a sign of alliance with women and queer people, Cobain wore highheel shoes and sparkly blue flare pants.50 This had the added effect of demonstrating to his other fans, especially punk and grunge fans, that not only was he an ally to women and queer people but that he identified with those marginalized groups through his experience as a young man who did not fit the mold of hegemonic masculinity. He seemed to find comfort in the nonconformist attitudes of the punk scene (to be explicated further in the next section) and hoped it would be a receptive venue for his ideas about social justice. As a celebrity, it was likely his hope that the 'coolness' 4
Charles Cross, Heavier Than Heaven, (New York: Hyperion, 2001), 68.
4 8 Kevin Allman writes: "Particularly upsetting to him was an incident last year in Reno, when two men raped a
woman while chanting a Nirvana song. On the liner notes for Jncesticide, he vented his frustration in a blunt statement to Nirvana fans: 'If any of you in any way hate homosexuals, people of different color, or women, please do this one favor for usleave us the fuck alone! Don't come to our shows and don't buy our records.'" "Nirvana's Front Man Shoots From the Hip," The Advocate, (February 1, 1993). 4 9 1 9 91 Saturday Night Live performance: http://www.voutube.com/watch?v=Pon GaFH8uM 5 0 Charles Cross, Heavier Than Heaven, (New York: Hyperion, 2001), 109.
30 he had cultivated through rock stardom would be spread to those marginalized groups with whom he identified. The theory that Cobain's crossdressing was a subversion of the heterosexual masculinity that was thrust upon him in his working class town and in the larger punk music scene or that it was an alliance with women and queer people is one of several theories in the discourse about Cobaim s life. Some critics believe that, rather than being a subversion of hegemonic gender, it was an effort to prove his own punk authenticity. Music journalist and cultural critic Marcus Greil writes, ''Behind any discussion of authenticity as it might relate to Cobain is his performance of authenticity—and central to that performance, and to his aesthetic in its entirety, in its most stark and horrible form, is crossdressing, which, in Cobain's performance, meant the deliberate removal of all attributes of entitlement (in his case, primarily maleness) and their replacement by attributes of abjection.'01 Greil recognizes crossdressing as a statement against heterosexism but does not recognize the utility of such a statement in this context. Rather, he sees it as a form of acquiescence to a punk aesthetic that eschews the trappings of gender and class privilege. I believe it was more subversive than just that. There are many ways to prove oneself punk, crossdressing does not seem to be the most obvious or logical choice based upon the rhetoric of punk to be examined in the next section. I think Greil should also be careful to note that the history of punk is not so clear about the benefits of relinquishing genderbased privilege. In his text, "Bleached Resistance: The Politics of Grunge," scholar and author Thomas Shevory writes, "Men's power in rock has usually been expressed artistically and literally at the expense of women...Not unlike Lou Reed and David Bowie before him, Cobain drew on sexual _ ambiguity to authenticate outsider status and define the boundaries of the underground.
''Marcus Greil, " Comment on Mark Mazuilo, The Man Whom the World Sold,"' Musical Quarterly (Vol. 84, No. 4), 752. 5 2 Thomas C. Shevory, "Bleached Resistance: The Politics of Grunge," Popular Music and Society 19 (Summer 1995), 42.
31
Both Shevory and Greil would argue that Cobain's crossdressing was an attempt to prove his authenticity as a punk artist. And while I do recognize Cobain's crossdressing as unique in that it was not entirely about sexuality or ambiguity in the same way that other artists like David Bowie and Boy George have utilized this type of performance, I also do not buy the thesis that it was only about authenticity. Cobain utilized his phantasmatic tales to construct a frame of authenticity around his celebrity. While crossdressing has been used to demonstrate power over femininity by some male rock stars, Cobain did not use crossdressing to appeal to male fans, as many rock stars have, but rather to differentiate himself from them. While artists like Bowie, Boy George, and Annie Lennox used androgyny as part of their persona, Cobain did not seem interested in incorporating gender bending into his performances."J Dresses, heels and makeup on Cobain looked like dresses, heels and makeup on a man; they did not necessarily serve to androgynize him. Still crossdressing conveys the instability and social construction of gender. Unlike Bowie, George and Lennox who looked ambiguously gendered; in many instances it is impossible to determine their biological sex based upon their gender presentation. 1 here is never any question about Cobain's biological sex in any of the documents analyzed here and in the images below we can see that makeup and costume did not have the same effect on Cobain s performance which is why he fits uncomfortably in the discussion about androgyny and gender bending in rock music."4
53Andy Bennett. Popular Music and Youth Culture: Music, Identity and Place, (New York: Palgrave, 2000), 4445 5JImage via http://thefashionisto.com/blog/2009/04/photoofthedavkurtcobain/
32
It is also important to note here the significance of Cobain's male privilege in his use of crossdressing as a political statement. It would be nice to think that Cobain is a feminist figure because he rejected his own male privilege by dressing in culturally coded feminine ways. Still Norma Coates makes a compelling argument about the appropriation of femininity by male rock performers. Male rock stars dressed in drag can be interpreted as asserting their power by appropriating the markers of femininity and using them as their own without assuming any of the dangers of actually being female in this world. In "(R)evolution Now?: Rock and the Political Potential of Gender," she writes, "Because masculinity in rock is based on a fictive foundation, and in addition, because it is a particular style of masculinity which is being performed, it is crucial to expel and incorporate any threat to its (however tentative) stability. Otherwise masculinity in rock, and therefore, rock itself, becomes incoherent. To maintain coherence, any excess must be contained. For the purpose of this essay, femininity is the marker of excess in rock. Male rockers who literally appropriate 'feminine markers' do so in order to assert power over them, and over the 'feminine' or the female.'05 Especially considering the fact that Cobain never attempted to actually pass as female, his cross dressing could be interpreted as an assertion of power over the feminine. As we have seen, his Sexing the Groove: Popular
5 5 Norma Coates, "(Revolution Now?: Rock and the Political Potential of Gender,"
Music and Gender , ed. Sheila Whiteley (New York: Routledge, 1997), 56.
33 lack of culturally valued masculine traits made it difficult for him to assert power over other men so through gender performance he could display dominance over the feminine. I do not think that any of these interpretations of crossdressing, on their own, adequately explains Cobain's performance. I think that crossdressing was a response to the misogyny in punk and other subculture scenes, it was a response to misogynist fans in general and it was also a demonstration of apathetic grunge style at its finest. The lyrics to Nirvana's song "In Bloom" seem to be directed at the misogynist fans that Cobain was horrified to have cultivated. He wrote, "He's the one who likes all our pretty songs/ And he likes to sing along/ And he likes to shoot his guns/ But he knows not what it means/ Knows not what it means when I say, yeah."56 The music video for Nirvana's song, "In Bloom" is also an excellent demonstration of cross dressing as subversion and of the grunge aesthetic Nirvana popularized in the 1990s. The video opens with the band on a stage reminiscent of the old Ed Sullivan Show where artists like The Beatles and Elvis Presley were introduced to American media. Cobain, Grohl and Novoselic are all dressed in 1950sstyle suits and ties with thick horn rimmed glasses, color is difficult to discern because the entire video is in black and white. Images of the band members are juxtaposed with images of screaming, overtakenbylust, female audience members. In this video, the members of Nirvana are viewed through a feminine gaze. While his lyrics suggest that he is speaking to misogynist, homophobic and racist fans, the performance in this video, especially Cobain's sarcastic facial expression and costuming, suggests that he is sarcastically associating his fans with hysterical women. I wonder whether this act of misogyny was intentional on Cobain's part or if he was more innocently attempting to cultivate a female audience by directly rejecting the misogyny of his publically validated male audience.
:6"In Bloom" lyrics, http://www.elvrics.net/read/n/nirvanalvrics/inbloomlvrics.html
34 About three fourths of the way through the music video the images of the band singing in their suits are spliced with images of the band in illfitting dresses, smashing their instruments and posing in homoerotic positions with each other.57 Below is a stillbystill image of the "In Bloom'" video. The subtleties of the changes in attire are difficult to discern in these small images but the video is also fairly subtle until the very end. This video demonstrates Greil's theory7 that Cobain was interested in crossdressing only as it served his grunge aesthetic. It could be argued that, in this video, he cared so little about his appearance that he was even willing to wear women's clothing in public. And it is clear that he did so to shock fans who would never expect a clean cut act like The Beatles on The Ed Sullivan Show to be wearing dresses, smashing the set and humping their guitars.
File Name: Nirvana In Bloom.wmv File Size: 72MB (75892812 bytes) Resolution: 640x480 Duration: 00:04:57
'7"In Bloom" video, http://www.guba.com/watch/3000100943
35 Again, we can never fully know his intention but any of these interpretations of cross dressing seem plausible. Cobain wore dresses and makeup on stage sometimes but there is much more to his gender performance than his choice to subvert hegemonic gender and to startle misogynist fans by crossdressing. (In a later section the other ways in which Cobain performed femininity are more thoroughly examined.) In the Advocate magazine interview, Cobain spoke at length about his frustration with the way that his music and performances were being interpreted by certain white male fans who also liked the misogynistic music of Guns N' Roses. When asked by a fan at a show why he cannot simply make peace with the fact that some of his fans like Guns N" Roses, Cobain said, "No, kid, you're really wrong. Those people are total sexist jerks, and the reason we're playing this show is to fight homophobia in a real small way. The guy is a fucking sexist and a racist and a homophobe. and you can't be on his side and be on our side. I'm sorry that I have to divide this up like this, but it's something you can't ignore.''58 The feud between Axl Rose and Cobain is discussed at length in a later section as it emerged toward the end of his life but it is significant here because it demonstrates his utter disdain tor the ways in which his music was interpreted by some fans once it was released into the world. I believe this is why he crossdressed on stage. He wished to publicly demonstrate his alliance with women and queer people and to denounce the fans that interpreted his music in ways that he found offensive. Interestingly, while it seems that these examples of Cobain's identification with women and queer people are pretty clear, Charles Cross, like Greil and Shevory, argues that Cobain was simply trying to draw attention to himself and. as he often did, was exaggerating about his experiences. Cross downplays the political relevance of the graffiti Cobain left on the property of bullies by saying that "though Kurt would later claim that his graffiti messages were ' s Kurt Cobain to Kevin Allman in interview: "Nirvana's Front Man Shoots From the Flip,' The Advocate, (February 1, 1993).
36 political... in fact, most of what he wrote was nonsensical.'09 "Homo sex rules" is pretty clear. Why write this particular phrase and not just retaliate by calling them gay as they did to him? Cross's dismissal of this act seems too easy. After years of being tormented by these bullies he retaliated by embracing the homophobic insults and thus deflating their power over him and by reproducing nonheteronormative ideas in the sacred spaces of the bullies. That, in my view, makes Cobain's graffiti a political act. If one were to base one's knowledge of Cobain only on interviews and images, one might easily be convinced that he was gay or even transgendered.60 There would certainly be no question as to his political alliance with women and queer people especially considering Kevin Allman's The Advocate magazine interview in which he wrote, "Nirvana... appeals to many of the same hard rock fans who pack Guns N' Roses concerts. But while Axl Rose sang derisively of 'immigrants and faggots' in his song 'One in a Million,' Cobain closed his song 'Stay Away' by howling 'God is gay!" and Nirvana defiantly cavorted in dresses in the video of their hit single 'In Bloom.' Last year Nirvana traveled to Oregon to perform at a benefit opposing Measure 9, a statewide ordinance that would have amended the state constitution to prohibit protections for gays and lesbians. And when they appeared on Saturday Night Live, Cobain and Novoselic made a point of kissing oncamera." However, interpretations of his words and images by music critics and biographers often tell another story altogether, as we saw in the example from Heavier Than Heaven. This is analyzed further in the section about Cobain's celebrity in a discussion about the concept of authenticity.
"9Charles Cross, Heavier Than Heaven, (New York: Hyperion, 2001), 68. 60Kurt Cobain, Journals, (New York: Riverhead Books, 2002), 133 and 192.
37
Kurt Cobain ys Life on the Cusp of Rock Stardom: Punk Rock and Grunge Masculinities "Punks were outsiders. ...both by circumstance and by design. Their embrace of alienation was reflected in clothing, music and blank stares. It was a stance that later became a pose, adopted as a style for middleclass English and American youth, as 70s punk dissolved into a fashion trend."61 Kurt Cobain is frequently credited with being the voice of Generation X. It was through the popularity of his music that he was able to influence so many people. The political turmoil of the 1980s bred a dispassionate and frustrated youth culture of which Cobain was a part. In every biographical text I have read, Cobain is depicted as a visionary, yet frustrated, artist who loved punk music but never felt quite a part of the exclusive punk scene in Seattle and Olympia. His response to that alienation was the creation of a different kind of punk that was less overtly political and more filled with angst and anguish, which was also a reflection of the political environment in a more covert way. To understand the importance of grunge as a music genre and a political statement, one must first delve into the history of punk rock. Most music critics would agree that punk music was born in 1976 in England as a response to the cultural and political climate of that time period, especially racial tensions.62 Punk music gave rebellious white youth a voice and a space to physically challenge the boundaries of mainstream culture. British punk was consciously workingclass, political and antiauthoritarian. Historians of British punk generally agree that punk was antiracist citing its alliance with and influence from the reggae scene as well as organizations like Rock Against Racism and the AntiNazi League.61 However, more recently cultural studies scholars have been critical of punk for its political ambiguity and racial
6 'Robert Garnett, "Too Low to be Low: Art Pop and the Sex Pistols," Punk Rock: So What? The Cultural Legacy of
Punk, ed. Roger Sabin (New York: Routledge, 1999), 19. 6 "Thomas C. Shevory. "Bleached Resistance: The Politics of Grunge," Popular Music and Society 19 (Summer
1995), 25. 6 "See Dick Hebdige's Subculture: The
Meaning of Style, (London: Methuen. 1979).
38 homogeneity. Critic Roger Sabin even argues that punk orthodoxy left enough ambiguity for right wing, white supremacist groups to coopt the style for their own agendas.64 Further, the mostly white face of punk cannot be downplayed. Despite their reliance on reggae sound and style, punk remained mostly music by and for young white men. Perhaps it is due to the unacknowledged privilege of being a movement of white men. but punk's antiestablishment attitude was often anarchist and certainly without a clearly defined anti racist, antisexist platform. Before I delve further into the problematic gender politics of punk, it is important to acknowledge its sound and style. Punk music was, in many ways, a response to the theatrical, glamorous, and, arguably, overdone music of the 1970s. Punk embraces a very raw sound because of its doityourself philosophy. One thing that most all punk rockers have been able to agree upon, across history and across borders is that the music industry is a machine that kills creativity and authenticity.6" Therefore, punk music rejects mainstream popularity making its relationship to popular culture a complicated one. The punk aesthetic in America looked markedly different than British punk. In his text "Bleached Resistance," Shevory writes, "American punk tended to focus its energy toward generational antagonism almost to the exclusion of class and racial conflicts. Moreover, punk critique in the United States was mostly focused on the culture of pop music itself and the music business. Punk opposition tended to be more 'cultural' and less overtly 'political' (although the distinction is hardly rigorous).'"66 While the violence and destruction of punk music and its almost exclusively male purveyors, make punk the domain of men, the politics of punk are also quite antifeminine. U.S. punk was
" J Roger Sabin, '"I Won't Let that Dago By:' Rethinking Punk and Racism," Punk Rock: So What? The Cultural Legacy of Punk, ed. Roger Sabin (New York: Routledge, 1999), 199. ""Robert Garnett, "Too Low to be Low: Art Pop and the Sex Pistols," Punk Rock: So What? The Cultural Legacy of Punk, ed. Roger Sabin (New York: Routledge, 1999), 1920. 6 6 Thomas C. Shevory, "Bleached Resistance: The Politics of Grunge," Popular Music and Society 19 (Summer 1995), 29.
39 decidedly antihippie and antiglam rock. Part of the trend toward violence and destruction associated with punk culture is a response to the perceived '"old, soft and complacent" nature of hippies in the 1970s.6' It was also stripped down to the basic rock n' roll elements; one guy playing bass guitar, one guy at the drum kit, and another guy with an electric guitar and a microphone, who probably had not bathed in a few weeks. This aesthetic is a response to the overthetop aesthetics of glam rock. As I already argued, fashion and beauty are the domain of women and thus they are inherently uncool in the world of punk rock. Glam rock, best associated with bands like Queen, The New York Dolls and musicians like Elton John and Alice Cooper, focused a lot on theatrics, costumes and makeup. In the rhetoric of the punk aesthetic, the political relevance of the hippie was over once it became too feminine and thus uncool. Glam, with its focus on appearance and complex instrumental, was not 'authentic' enough. This is exactly the historic moment when punk masculinism arose as a subculture. Given the masculinist and patrimonial attitudes common in punk rock cultures, one might imagine that the roles relegated to women were anything but equal. Coates writes, "Women's space in rock has been in the bedroom, either as groupies to male rock lovegods, or relegated there to swoon over pinups of teenybop idols by cultural critics. Women have been critically and analytically allowed on the dancefloor as well."68 While punk claimed to be antiestablishment, and in many ways was antiestablishment, it was also remarkably non progressive when it came to making space for women performers. Much like rock, punk women were relegated to girlfriend or groupie. Cobain's relationship with Tracy Marander was no different from this characterization either. Cross writes:
6 7 Ibid. 6 8 Norma Coates, "(R)evolution Now?: Rock and the Political Potential of Gender," Sexing the Groove: Popular
Music and Gender, ed. Sheila Whiteley (New York: Routledge, 1997), 51.
40 "Tracy [Marander] and Shelli [Dilly] contributed to the band in those early days in ways that cannot be underestimated: They played the informal roles of press agents, managers, bookers, and merchandisesales people, in addition to their jobs of making sure their men were fed, dressed, and rehearsed."69 While Cross gives token recognition to the women who basically supported Cobain through his years of unemployment and pseudosuccessful bands, he still gives all the real credit to Cobain throughout the rest of Heavier Than Heaven. Interestingly, Cobain's relationships after Marander were with women who were successful and even famous in their own right as I will explore shortly. Grunge, an outgrowth of the punk scene, came to popularity in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Depending on who you ask, grunge is 'slowed down punk,' 'a synthesis of heavy metal and punk,' 'backwoods yeti stomp,' or 'sleepy, smeary, staggering, drunken music.'70 I think it sounds more distorted and mellow than punk. It is more apathetic and less invested than punk. One thing that is inarguable is that grunge began in the American Northwest, particularly Seattle, Washington. Like punk, grunge grew as a response to what was happening in the larger culture. While grunge was less overtly political than punk, it did have a specific ethos and politics. Thomas Shevory characterizes the politics of grunge as such: "generational conflict, independent recording, style, and gender politics."71 Like punk, grunge was a statement of rebellion. However, rather than demonstrate their rebellion through outward violence and destruction like some punks, grunge musicians turned their anger and aggression inward. "The intense sadness 72
of the music is overwhelming, robbing it of the sense of danger that suffused early punk." " It is commonly believed that the sadness and anger that emerged in grunge music was a reflection of
" 9 Charles Cross, Heavier Than Heaven, (New York: Hyperion, 2001), 95. "Thomas C. Shevory. "Bleached Resistance: The Politics of Grunge," Popular Music and Society 19 (Summer 1995), 31. 7 1 lbid.. 32. 7 2 Ibid.
41
the 1980s political environment during which unemployment was rampant and anxiety about national and personal security was ever increasing. In the biography Kurt Cobain: Voice of a Generation, music critic Chris Molanphy writes about the emergence of Nirvana at this particular historical moment. "[Cobain] was just reflecting his own desire for meaning in a deadend environment, expressing his disdain for the sellout baby boomers who'd exchanged their once impassioned idealism for a corporatesponsored version of the American dream. Unbeknownst to Kurt, however, his peers shared his frustration deeply. The baby boom generation had dominated popular discourse for some three decades...a shadow group— one disaffected by a country deep in recession—was ready to emerge."7'' I cannot help but think it was also related to advances in the Civil Rights and Women's Rights movements that were slowly eroding American white male privilege. These losses certainly provoked anger, hostility and anxiety in white men who were not accustomed to sharing the wealth with minorities and women. In Manhood in America, Michael Kimmel noted a dramatic rise in depression and suicide rates amongst white men in America during the 1990s. He describes depression as anger turned inward back on one's self and notes that it is frequently thought of as a female problem.74 Interestingly, Kurt Cobain's depression and subsequent suicide are two of the most widely known things about his life. Sadness, anxiety and melancholy became a style associated with an entire generation of white youth and, according to the biographical texts that compose the dominant discourse about his life, Cobain was their spokesperson. As we have seen, when it comes to underground music scenes like punk and grunge, masculinity is part of the performance. It is also the epitome of cool. I use 'cool' here as feminist theorist, Susan Fraiman, defines it in her text Cool Men and the Second Sex:
'Chris Molanphy, Kurt Cobain: Voice of a Generation, (Barnes & Noble Publishing, 2003), 30. 4 Michael S. Kimmel, Manhood in America: A Cultural History, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 220.
42 "I use 'coolness to describe a "male" individualism whose model is the teen rebel, defined... by his strenuous alienation from the maternal. Coolness as I see it is epitomized by the modern adolescent boy in his anxious, selfconscious, and theatricalized will to separate from the mother. And it goes without saying that within this paradigm the place occupied by the mother is by definition uncool.... The cool subject identifies with an emergent, precarious masculinity produced in large part by youthful rule breaking. Within this structure of feeling, the feminine is maternalized and hopelessly linked to stasis, tedium, constraint, even domination. Typed as 'mothers,' women become inextricable from a rigid domesticity that bad boys are pledged to resist and overcome."75 Fraiman attempts to make 'coolness' visible as a cultural construction and a political contradiction. This is very important to masculinity studies because coolness is such a prodigious part of the lexicon, especially in subcultures. According to Fraiman's definition of coolness, women are inherently uncool as they are understood to be inextricable from the private sphere of the home. Coolness is a historically contingent, unstable term. It seems mostly to be invoked in opposition to people and ideas that are uncool. The coolness of a musician or a style of music is typically contingent upon its perceived authenticity. For example, black male jazz musicians are endlessly considered cool because they supposedly performed from a position that was rebellious and authentic (this was not necessarily true at the time that they were first emerging).76 It is interesting that sometimes connectedness with the body is considered authentic as in the case of rising from poverty to stardom; poverty, of course, being inextricable from abjection and the body. At other times connectedness with the body is considered inherently unhip as in the case of being a hippie, a woman, or closer to the corporeal body than to the intellect. Within the cultural history of grunge music, Cobain is considered ceaselessly cool and yet it is impossible to quantify 'cool.' For Cobain, poverty made him 'uncool" until he became famous at which point his artistic expression was considered authentic because of it. FTis detachment 'Susan Fraiman, Cool Men and the Second Sex (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003), xii. 6 Ibid., xv.
43 from celebrity and punk, which by 1990 was becoming passe, made him 'cook and yet most biographical texts will refer to Cobain as an ardent champion of his own celebrity which is, according to the previously discussed punk ethos, 'uncool.' In most texts about his life, association with femininity (small size, intense emotional, artistic, and musical expressions) made him 'uncool' and yet when he became famous, wearing makeup and women's clothing made him 'cook and nonconformist. Coolness is dependent upon who is judging it and thus is a fleeting and elusive way of categorizing people and things. Still it has major cultural significance and Cobain, like most youth, spent an enormous amount of time trying to achieve social acceptance via 'cook punk masculinity. Recall again that the 1980s were fraught with high unemployment rates, industry going overseas and small businesses foreclosing; men, particularly working to middle class white men, were losing their economic stability and along with it the ability to fulfill their expected role as providers within the nuclear familial unit. This loss of privilege caused many men to become very angry and we can see one expression of that in the politics of punk outlined above. The 1980s also saw the arrival of HIV/AIDS. This disease shook the fabric of safety that government policies and American cultural ideology had tried so hard to construct. GayRelated Immunodeficiency Disease, as it was known prior to the 1990s, brought sexuality to the fore for better or worse. Anxious masculinity was paired with anxious heterosexuality which, as always, had to reiterate itself as normative. The HIV/AIDS scare created anxiety around sexuality like never before in history and that fear marked almost all cultural productions of the period. In fact, Nirvana named its first album "Bleach"" after Cobain saw an AIDS prevention poster that read "Bleach Your Works."77 The irony of his later battle with heroin addiction should not be lost
Charles Cross, Heavier Than Heaven, (New York: Hyperion, 2001), 126.
44 here. Cobain was still, at this point, not using hard drugs; though chemical dependence is a theme that is weaved into every single biographical text I came across in this research. The music that arose out of the political upheaval of the 1970s and 1980s had the clearest effect on Cobain's style and art. Like many of the male Cobain's before him, Kurt worked as a dishwasher, janitor and did other low wage work after he dropped out of high school and started hanging out with Krist Novoselic at the Melvins practice space. According to most biographies, becoming a rock star was his life goal from the moment he picked up his own guitar at the age of fourteen, despite the fact that he eschewed and even openly rejected the title after he became famous. Cross writes, "At seventeen, he was imagining a career in music. If Kurt had admitted his major label ambitions around the Melvins' rehearsal shack, he would have been treated as a heretic. He kept his ambitions to himself, but he never stopped looking at ways to move beyond his circumstances."78 Perhaps the central tenet of the punk rock dogma is that signing to a major record label is selling out, the opposite of the antiestablishment ethic demanded of 'true' punk rockers. While Cobain often claimed to be a 'true' punk rocker, he never offered a clear definition of what that meant to him aside from writing "punk rock to me means freedom" in his Journals.79 Though his misanthropic behaviors throughout his career do speak volumes about both his inability and desires to fit in with this elusive subculture. Cross's text also serves as a neoliberal pedagogical tool for fans. Cross, and many other authors of Cobain's cultural narrative, suggests that Cobain was able to eventually lift himself from debilitating poverty into rock stardom because he was persistent and talented enough. Cross writes, "He always knew that punk rock was a different freedom for kids who had grown up privileged. To him, punk rock was a class struggle, but that was always secondary to the
7 8 Ibid„ 65.
Journals, (New York: Riverhead Books, 2002), 121.
9 Kurt Cobain,
45 struggle to pay the rent, or find a place to sleep other than the backseat of a car. Music was more than just a fad for Kurt—it had become his only career option."80 The underlying message for fans through this discourse is that if you are persistent and work hard enough, you too can rise above. Once again reinforcing the prevailing political ideology of American capitalism. These texts are seldom critical of the interlocking systems of oppression that make upward mobility nearly impossible, they instead focus upon the luck of one persistent individual conveying the message that, through rock n' roll celebrity wealth can be achieved. Though the two had made several attempts at forming a band in Aberdeen, by 1987 Cobain and Novoselic had formed into Nirvana and performed their first concert in Raymond. W ashington. In his passage on the topic, Cross depicts Cobain as a romantic figure, one worthy of idolatry: "By their very first public show, it was all there, every bit of the Nirvana that would conquer the world in the years to come: the tone, the attitude, the frenzy, the slightlyoff kilter rhythms, the remarkably melodic guitar chords, the driving bass lines that were guaranteed to move your body, and, most important, the hypnotizing focus of Kurt."81 Much of Cross's text reads like a romance between fans and Cobain. Like the masculine hero of a romance novel, Cobain is described as able to conquer the world. Here he is also described as hypnotizing, with the ability to make his fans bodies move involuntarily. Cross's is considered the definitive text on Cobain's life (the word 'definitive' being twice on the back cover alone). He spent four years researching Cobain's life and his is, without a doubt, the most referenced text in other biographical works about Cobain since it was published. That considered. Cross's tone is quite important to this analysis. Like many biographical works about celebrities, Heavier Than Heaven reads like a hagiography or the biography of a saint. While Cross does give equal time to Cobain"s flaws as to his merits, his reverence for Cobain is evident. Celebrity theorist
S0Charles Cross, Heavier Than Heaven, (New York: Hyperion, 2001),197. 8lIbid., 86.
46 Chris Rojek, argues against the school of thought that holds celebrity worship as a form of false consciousness and that fans are deluding themselves into believing that the relationships they form with celebrities are real and valuable when if in fact they are quite trivial. He believes, rather, that the onesided relationships formed between fans and celebrities are, in fact, quite meaningful because they provide a 'genuine' experience to disrupt the "routine order of 82
domesticity."'
This attitude is reflective of the antidomestic attitude of punks and hipsters
described in an earlier section. Antidomestic quite literally equates to antiwoman, as women are ceaselessly equated with the domestic sphere. At any rate, the white male authors of the many biographies analyzed here all idolize Cobain as a Christlike figure whose music and attitude was their salvation, and this is no trivial matter. In one striking passage of Heavier Than Heaven, Cross literally equates Cobain to Christ. "With his fiveday beard growth, he bears a striking resemblance to some portrayals of Jesus Christ. Even Kurt's expression in one of the photos—a pained and faraway look, as if he is marking this moment in time—is similar to the image of Christ in Leonardo da Vinci's 'The Last Supper.'"83 Considered in conjunction with the title of the text and the image of Cobain during the 1993 1994 In Utero tour surrounded by a glowing backlight and perfectly posed in front of large white angel wings, we start to see the construction of a hagiographic narrative.
s2 Chris Rojek, Celebrity, (London: Reaktion Books, 2001), 5152.
^Charles Cross, Heavier Than Heaven, (New York: Hyperion, 2001), 105.
47
This image lends credence to the ethereal nature of a man who was ;heavier than heaven.' Cobain pictured as an angel in this, one of his most famous images, has notable racial implications. It is not often in American culture that we see Christ or angels depicted as non white. In his book, White, film critic and scholar, Richard Dyer argues that the angel imagery is an idealization of virtuousness and pure whiteness.84 Typically the angel or the angelically glowing figure is a white woman. It is interesting that Cobain is depicted in a way that is usually reserved lor white women. In the next section I consider this and other textual representations of Cobain as masochistic, feminine and permeable. For now, I examine the awakening of Cobain's feminist consciousness. The most pivotal point in the development of Cobain's feminist political consciousness was when he moved to Olympia, Washington. Olympia, home of Evergreen State College, was a hotbed of art, culture, academia and punk rock, the likes of which Cobain had never experienced before. College radio in Olympia was vital to the early success of Nirvana and other grunge bands, yet ironically, none of the band members ever attended a day of college. While
s4Richard Dyer, White, (New York: Routledge, 1997), 127.
48 Cobain learned plenty in Olympia, he also experienced a sense of alienation very different from that in Aberdeen. Working class ethos proved very different from the elitist and educated artist crowd that he would encounter in the Olympia underground music scene.^ Cross describes Cobain's experience in Olympia as such: ;'He wanted nothing more than to be thought of as an Olympia sophisticate, not an
Aberdeen hick. Classism would be a fight he would struggle with his entire life, because no matter how far away he got from Grays Harbor, he felt branded as a hillbilly. Most of the [Evergreen State students] were from big cities—like many privileged college kids, their prejudice toward people from rural communities was in marked contrast to the liberalism that they professed toward different races."86 Cross, like Cobain, expressed a striking blindness to his own privilege as a white man and was instead upset by compassion for nonwhite groups at what he imagined was his own expense. This lack of critical race analysis is typical of Cobain's biographies. Another important turning point in Olympia was Cobain's relationship with Bikini Kill drummer, Tobi Vail. After that relationship began, Cobain's journals started to reflect his new understanding of feminism. In his Journals, Cobain wrote about how he thinks that women are actually superior to men because they are less violent than men.8/ He wrote that he wished that 88
women ruled the world.
He frequently expressed derision toward men who abused women,
and especially toward rapists.89 Cross's depiction of the relationship between Bikini Kill and Nirvana is, to say the least, hostile toward their feminism. This depiction is remarkable especially considering Cobain never expressed antifeminist attitudes in his journals and Cross, up until that point, never made any mention of Cobain being anything other than sympathetic to the feminist cause. About halfway through Heavier Than Heaven, Cross writes,
s 'Charles Cross,
Heavier Than Heaven, (New York: Hyperion, 2001), 101.
8 *Ibid.
Ibid., 110. This is a rather unsophisticated and essentialist understanding of feminism, still it demonstrates the early roots of Cobain's feminist consciousness. 8 8 Ibid., 56. 8
8 9 Incesticide Liner Notes: http://members.fortunecitv.com/mvparasite/incesticide.htm
49 "A year earlier, Kurt had complained that feminists were threatening to him. But once Kurt began sleeping with Tobi, riot grrrl feminism was easier for him to swallow, and he soon embraced it as if it were a newly discovered religion... When Kurt was around Tobi, he might criticize a band that earlier the same day he'd advocated for."90 The tone of Cross's description of Vail and Cobain's relationship is obviously critical. It seems difficult for Cross to believe that Cobain might be interested in feminism because it is a social justice movement that benefits nonstereotypically gendered men like Cobain. At best Cross believes that Cobain"s interest in feminism was simply a passing fad elicited by "sleeping with Tobi." At worst, he believes it is responsible for Cobain's descent into a debilitating chemical dependence that would last the rest of his life. Cross writes that "by the fall of 1990, brokenhearted over Tobi.. .he overcame his fear of needles"91 and used heroin for the first time. Vail and the feminism that she represents in this narrative, is responsible for the destruction of Cobain, a rock n' roll Christ. What is striking about this particular depiction of Cobain's drug use is that it downplays the likely actual reason Cobain used heroin: chronic stomach pain. Cross discusses that pain at length in Heavier Than Heaven, Cobain refers to it consistently throughout his journals and in interviews, it is one of the most frequently occurring tropes in the archives of Cobain's oeuvre making Cross's accusation all the more insidious. Though Cross's seeming disdain for feminism is clear, at least he mentions Bikini Kill at all. The relationship between Nirvana and Bikini Kill was significant enough that Cobain titled one of Nirvana's biggest hits "Smells Like Teen Spirit," after graffiti that Kathleen Hanna had spraypainted on Cobain's bedroom wall.92 He wrote many songs, including almost every song on Nevermind, about Vail and throughout his Journals he expressed love and affection for the
° u Charles Cross, Heavier Than Heaven, (New York: Hyperion, 2001), 159160. 9 l Ibid„ 172. 9 2 lbid.. 167.
50 women of Bikini Kill.9"' Still, as a longtime fan, I did not know about this connection until I started this research. Most of the fans I have met did not know about it either. In fact, in the documentary About a Son, narrated only with Michael Azerrad's interviews with Cobain. Bikini Kill is never mentioned. Filmmaker, AJ Schnack, chose to include several minutes of Cobain talking about the punk scene and the alienation he felt in Olympia. He referenced Velvet Underground and the relatively obscure Scratch Acid but never Bikini Kill, Hanna or Vail. This omission is striking considering the impact that they had on Cobain's development as a musician and feminist advocate. Cobain consistently expressed admiration for Bikini Kill, he intentionally cultivated a female audience through his own feminine performances and he openly expressed disdain for misogynist fans. The erasure of female artists in Cobain's narrative is an act of violent imperialism. The outright hatred and disdain for femininity, feminism and women in general in rock music criticism cannot be understated. Male rock critics have the institutional power to decide who is validated in the canon, they have the power to make or break careers making their dismissal of female talent an insidious act of male privilege.
9 , Kurt Cobain, Journals, (New York: Riverhead Books, 2002), 182.
51
The Celebrity Life of Kurt Cobain: Authenticity, Masochism and Masculinity
"Modern white masculinities are deeply contradictory, eroticizing submission and victimization while trying to retain a certain aggressively virile edge, offering subjects positions that have been marked historically as being both masculine and feminine, white and black."94 "I hate myself and want to die."93 Kurt Cobain
The narrative construction of Cobain's life via his Journals and biographies analyzed so far all depict motifs of pain, death, depression and selfdestruction. Cobain's lyrics and his tortured voice are often used as evidence of his depressive nature. Though the researcher can never know for sure what Cobain felt and intended, the narratives wrritten about him all depict him as deeply a disturbed individual who endured a difficult adolescence followed by an adulthood addled with drug abuse, disease and pain. The tortured artist is the most authentic creature in the realm of music criticism, which is, in part, why upbeat popular music is forever considered inauthentic. When I consider artists who are perpetually authentic 1 think of Bob Dylan, John Lennon, Mick Jagger, Roger Waters, Jimmy Page, Kurt Cobain, Jimi Hendrix, Pete Towmsend and Jim Morrison among others.96 Biographies about Cobain demonstrate that authenticity is an important concept in the process of categorizing and gendering music and maintaining the hierarchy of male hegemony within rock n' roll music. My research on Cobain took me through the fields of musicology, media studies and music criticism. In each arena, I found "authenticity" to be a contentious, yet widely used, concept with no clear definitional parameters. Like hegemonic masculinity, authenticity is absolutely vital for a musical text to be
"David Savran, Taking it Like a Man: White Masculinity, Masochism, and Contemporary American Culture, (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1998), 9. 'Kurt Cobain, Journals, (New York: Riverhead Books, 2002), 230. '"All of these artists were mentioned in Michael Azerrad's Come as You Are as Cobain's musical influences.
52 taken seriously by critics. Yet the definition of the concept is so fleeting and impossible to attain as to be almost meaningless as a unit of analysis. For some. Cobain's difficult working class childhood and turbulent adolescence, much of which he spent homeless, gave him a privileged perspective from which to critique the world around him. Further, his appearance and lackadaisical attitude toward success and monetary gain made him an authentic punk rocker with something valuable to contribute to the culture industry. In sorting through the mythology and hagiography that surrounds Cobain's life, it is difficult to determine whether he was a corporate hack sellout or an authentic, intense punk rocker. In his biography of Nirvana, Come As You Are: The Story of Nirvana, music critic, Michael Azzerad writes, 'The songs on Nevermind might have been about alienation and apathy, but alienation and apathy about things that didn't mean much anyway. By contrast, the band has expressed strong feelings about feminism, racism, censorship, and especially homophobia. And any hint of passivity was blown away by the awesome force of the music... and the undeniable craft of the songwriting. This was passionate music that didn't pretend. Getting into Nirvana was empowering for a generation that had no power."97 Azzerad suggests that Nirvana's music does not pretend; I wonder what music he thinks does pretend. Beyond that, many of Cobain's songs were about heartache, divorce, rape, selfhatred and insecurity. The personal nature of each of these topics leads me back to an earlier criticism of punk masculinity. The personal sphere is often equated with femininity and thus it is devalued. Cobain's association with the personal and feminine, to Azzerad, "didn't mean much anyway." Somehow Azzerad failed to connect alienation and apathy to the cultural climate of the Reagan era that lead to the abuse and degradation of women and minorities, and Cobain by his internalized association with them, in the first place.
9
Michael Azzerad, Come as You Are: The Story of Nirvana (New York: Main Street Books, 1994), 5.
53 Along with the class restrictions on authenticity, fashion and style are very important to the construction oi authenticity and coolness in both punk and grunge music. They can both be understood as types of music and also as fashion styles. There is a clear distinction between the authenticity and coolness of the two. The music, performed by mostly male artists, is about "authentic experiences of alienation and rebellion while the style, performed by women and posers, is about cooptation, inauthenticity and uncoolness.98 Ironically, mass media products, like music records, are all produced to be sold to mass audiences. How can something that goes through so many gatekeepers maintain its authenticity? It does not seem to matter because authenticity is a concept that is used to empower some musicians and to suppress others, symbolically privileging the experiences of some groups of people over those of others. This, in part, explains why Sid Vicious with his leather jacket and safety pins gets to be authentic while Avril Lavigne in the same outfit does not." What I am most interested in doing in this section is deconstructing the power of 'authenticity' as a way of categorizing people. The most successful way of maintaining white male hegemony is to make power structures invisible. Music critics and historians are, largely, men and they are the ultimate arbitrators of authenticity for music related subcultures. Their idolatry of white male musicians is anything but subversive and is certainly not surprising. These writers wield power through their unmitigated ability to determine authenticity, quality and impact of songs, artists, and entire genres. In terms of punk and grunge style, authenticity reveals itself as a slippery concept. While grunge artists were expected to look a particular way, they were also expected not to care about how they looked. Cobain's usual attire was a pair of ripped, dirty jeans, a flannel, button up shirt
"Norma Coates, "(R)evolution Now?: Rock and the Political Potential of Gender," Sexing the Groove: Popular Music and Gender, ed. Sheila Whiteley (New York: Routledge, 1997), 51. "Class position also and political consciousness also play a large role. See Dick Hebdige's work on style and subcultures.
54 over a band tee shirt. He almost always had long, dirty, messy hair. This description appears in Chris Molanphy's text, Charles Cross's text and Michael Azerrad's text. Already on the second page of Heavier Than Heaven, Cross writes, "There had never quite been a rock star like Kurt Cobain. He was more an antistar than a celebrity, refusing to take a limo to NBC and bringing a thriftstore sensibility to everything he did. For 'Saturday Night Live' he wore the same clothes from the previous two days: a pair of Converse tennis shoes, jeans with big holes in the knees, a Tshirt advertising an obscure band, and a Mister Rogersstyle cardigan sweater. He hadn't washed his hair for a week, but had dyed it with strawberry KoolAid, which made his blond locks look like they'd been matted with dried blood. Never before in the history of live television had a performer put so little care into his appearance or hygiene, or so it seemed. Kurt was a complicated, contradictory misanthrope."100 The qualities that make Cobain worthy of this reverence are the same ones that make him 'cool' by the standards of punk masculinity. So consumed was he with his music, that he could not be bothered to wash his hair. So nonconformist and anticapitalist was he that he wore the same thrift store clothes for many days in a row and dyed his hair with KoolAid. Of course, what Cross determines to be his lack of concern about appearance could just as easily be interpreted as an obsession with a particular type of appearance and posturing. Cobain* s tendency to actively participate in the construction of his own mythology poses a serious challenge to the hegemonic power of authenticity as a concept. While some images of Cobain present him as a victim of his culture, particularly considering his mental anguish, drug use and suicide, there is a parallel narrative of him as an active agent of his own success. Cross is an ardent believer in this particular version. He writes, "Kurt was a master at exaggerating a yarn so as to tell an emotional truth rather than an actual one... he exaggerated the emotional isolation he felt into phantom tales of physical violence."101 Cross retells many infamous Cobain stories, with an air of disbelief as he reveals supposed Truths" from family members who
'""Charles Cross, Heavier Than Heaven, (New York: Hyperion, 2001), 2. See also, 73 and 106.
10lIbid., 3842.
55 were there at the time. For example. Cobain frequently spoke about living under Young Street Bridge, a story that lends him punk credibility. Cross writes: "[This story] would eventually become one of the touchstones of his cultural biography, one of his single most powerful pieces of mythmaking, the one piece of Kurt's history certain to appear in any oneparagraph description of his life: This kid was so unwanted he lived under a bridge. It was a potent and dark image, made all the more resonant when Nirvana became famous and pictures began to appear in magazines of the underside of Young Street Bridge, its rank fetid nature apparent even in photographs."102 He follows this tale with the 'truth' that Cobain never lived under that bridge, that it was simply a hangout for high school dropouts and burnouts. In another story, Cobain pawns his step father's guns, that he fished out of the Wishkah River, to buy his first guitar. Cross writes, "In this one story were all the elements of how he wished to be perceived as an artist—someone who turned redneck swords into punk rock plowshares."10j Cobain knew that these exaggerations would give him punk credibility and he artfully spun stories that would eventually become part of his working class mythology. This contribution complicates readings of Cobaims narratives because he told stories differently in different interviews and biographers come up with data that does not corroborate any of Cobaims own stories. Again we see the impossibility of the construction of one true narrative, rather there are many contradictory ones that all contribute to our cultural understanding of Cobain*s celebrity. Cobain" s uneasy performance of varying masculinities was always undermined by his extreme physical and emotional discomfort with his own body. One way in which masculinity is performed is through physical strength and yet also through transcendence over the trappings of they physical body. These are all constructed in contrast to femininity, which is performed through physical weakness and closeness with nature and the body. Feminist theorist Susan
l02Ibid.. 59 103,, i;j „
56 Bordo writes about the nature/culture divide in our understanding of gendered bodies. In her text Unbearable Weight: Feminism, Western Culture, and the Body she writes, "'First and foremost, the body is located (whether as wild beast or physiological clockwork) on the nature side of the nature/culture divide. As such, it is conceived as relatively historically unchanging in its most basic aspects, and unitary. That is, we speak of'The Body* as we speak of'Reason'* or 'Mind*—as though one model were equally and accurately descriptive of all human bodily experience, irrespective of sex, race age, or any other personal attributes. That model is assumed to be a sort of neutral generic core....The old metaphor of the Body Politic presented itself as a 'generic' (that is, ostensibly human but covertly male) form. (It is interesting to note, however, that when the natural world was likened to a body...it is gendered, and frequently female. It is only when a manrational form like the state is symbolized, a cultural invention imagined to bring order to the chaos of the 'natural.* That the fiction of genderlessness comes into play.)"104 It is important to understand the social construction of nature in opposition to culture because, as Bordo argues, women are associated with the feminine and the feminine is associated with nature and the corporeal body. In this dualist framework, men are associated with masculinity and the masculine is associated with rationality and transcendence from the physical body. Interestingly, while the masculine is granted the privilege of transcendence, men are still expected to be more physically strong than women so that in both realms, the mind and body, masculinity is valued over femininity and men benefit at the expense of women. When we apply this framework to Kurt Cobain we see that with his small and often weak body he falls more on the feminine and nature side of the nature/culture divide. In one striking photo taken by Ian Tilton. Cobain sits on the ground crying after a 1990 concert in Seattle.10" Chris Molanphy writes that this image "captures Kurt's vulnerability and also depicts the raw angst and mixed emotions of the entire Seattle scene. Tilton recalled that Kurt, after destroying his instruments in the frenzied show,
I H 4 Susan Bordo, Unbearable Weight: Feminism, Western Culture, and the Body, (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2003), 3334. '"'Image via http://www.iantilton.net/
57 came offstage, fell to the floor, and broke down crying."106 So overtaken with emotions was he that he was forced to the floor in tears.
T h e e m o t i o n a l a n d i r r a t i o n a l a r e t y p i c a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e f e m i n i n e a n d i n t h i s e x a m p l e because of his performance, so is Cobain. As we have already seen, gender is not a stable or permanent concept and it is not necessarily related to biological sex. Cobain performed femininity alongside masculinity throughout the narratives about his life. In his relationship with Courtney Love, he regularly positioned himself as the passive one against her aggressive public personality. He was the bottom to her top. The very fact that he chose to marry a women who is quite aggressive and masculine in her own right, is telling about Cobain's performance of femininity.
Kurt Cobain: Voice of a Generation, (Barnes & Noble Publishing, 2003), 46.
1 0 6 Chris Molanphy,
In the media coverage of their longstanding feud, Cobain also positioned himself as the passive, feminine, nonracist, nonsexist figure against Axl Rose's hypermasculine, racist and sexist posturing; both types of masculinity are obvious reflections of the culture of the 1980s discussed in previous sections. In another oftrepeated story, Cobain talks about Rose's threats and his response to them. He told the story to Michael Azerrad in an interview, he told it again to audiences during his 1992 MTV Video Music Awards acceptance speech and once again to Kevin Allman during their previously discussed interview. According to Cobain, Courtney Love yelled to Rose "Axl will you be our baby's godfather?" to which Rose said, ''You shut your bitch up, or I'm taking you down to the pavement."107 Cobain responded by saying, "Everyone around us just burst out into tears of laughter. She wasn't even saying anything mean, you know? So I turned to Courtney and said, 'Shut up, bitch!' And everyone laughed and he left. So I guess I did what he wanted me to dobe a man."108 In this story Rose demonstrates what it means to 'be a man" in American culture. He used violent language to clearly assert the consequences of not "being a man." Cobain, jokingly, acquiesces because, as Cross writes, the idea that anyone could control Courtney was laughable.109 Here the difference between subversion and acquiescence is unclear. Cobain could have chosen not to respond to Rose's comment but instead he did as he was told. Oddly, both Rose and Love were depicted as behaving in very masculine ways while Cobain was more docile. His docility could also be read as a performance of grunge coolness and apathy but his response in the interview was to deconstruct the exchange, recognizing that Rose wanted him to 'be a man' and he sarcastically did so. Another, less obvious way that Cobain performed femininity is through his frequent illness and drug use both of which forced him to be intimately and deeply aware of his bodily 10
Kurt Cobain to Kevin Allman, "Nirvana's Front Man Shoots From the Flip," The Advocate, (February 1, 1993).
I 0 8 lbid. 1 0 9 Charles Cross,
Heavier Than Heaven, (New York: Hyperion, 2001), 258
59 functions which in turn sustained his small, weak appearance."0 As I demonstrated earlier, inability to transcend the weakness and fallibility of one's body is culturally coded as feminine. Cobain's experience of his failing body comes out in almost all of his writing whether in his journals or his lyrics. According to Cross, Azerrad and Cobain himself, it was during Nirvana's first America tour in 1989 that Cobain began regularly complaining of stomach pains. Stomach pain, emotional pain and selfannihilation are major themes in the narratives around Cobain's life, especially the narratives he authored himself. In his Journals, stomach pain and gastrointestinal maladies of all sort are common to the point that he seemed to be almost obsessed with the disgusting, dysfunctional components of physical embodiment. On one page he wrote to concerned fans: 'Tor those of you who are concerned with my present physical and mental state. I am not a junkie. I've had a rather unconclusive [sic] and uncomfortable stomach condition for the past 3 years which by the way is not related to stress which also means it is not an ulcer, because [sic] there is no pattern to the burning, nauseous pain in my upper abdominal cavity, I never know when it will happen, I can be at home in the most relaxed atmosphere sipping natural spring water, no stress, no fuss and then wham! like a shot gun: stomach time... just let me have my very own unexplainable rare stomach disease named after me and the title of our next double album. 'Cobain's Disease.' A rock opera which is all about vomiting gastric juices, being a borderline annorexic Auzhwitz GrungeBoy [sic]. And with it an accompanying endoscopic home video."111 It was through his subversion of gender, as is exemplified by his attire and public performances, and his perversion of sexuality, as is exemplified by his lyrics and journaling, that Cobain queered hegemonic gender. He found beauty in things that are culturally understood to be disgusting and he used that disgust to elicit pleasure from pain. The song "Mexican Seafood" off of the 1992 demos, retakes and radio recordings album
Incesticide is an excellent example of Cobain's use disgust as a subversion of cultural norms.
"°Susan Bordo, Unbearable Weight: Feminism, Western Culture, and the Body, (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2003), 17. 1 "Kurt Cobain. Journals, (New York: Riverhead Books, 2002), 192193. See also pages 189 and 207.
60 "'Ah the itchy flakes it is a flaming/ All the gels and cremes it is pertaining/ To a fungus mold cured by injection/Hope it's only a yeast infection/ Oh well it burns when I, it hurts when I pee/ Oh well it hurts when 1, it hurts when I see/ Now I vomit cum and diarrhea/ On the tile floor like oatmeal pizza/ Fill my toilet bowl full of a cloudy puss/1 feel the bloody becoming chowder rust.../Roll into my bed which does consist of/ Lice, bugs and fleas and yellow mucus/ Stained dirt Vaseline toe jam and booger/ Stomach acid worms that dance in/ Sugared sludge."112 Here he uses images of fungus, yeast, infection, vomit, ejaculate, puss, blood, lice, fleas, and mucus to make the point that his physical body is in pain but also that his emotional or spiritual self is in pain. The only indicator of emotional pain is the list of physical maladies juxtaposed with the line "it hurts when I see." Cobain is implying here that the physical pain he has endured is comparable to the mental anguish caused by sobriety and, perhaps, seeing too much of the world. This certainly makes sense when understood in conjunction with his allconsuming heroin addiction. For Cobain. heroin was an escape from the physical and mental pain he constantly endured. In another, more popular text, Cobain again uses grunge music as a venue through which to express his pain. Consider the lyrics to a song inspired by Courtney Love, "Heart Shaped Box." "Meateating orchids forgive no one just yet/ Cut myself on angel hair and baby's breath/ Broken hymen of your highness I'm left black/ Throw down your umbilical noose so I can climb right back."1 Ij Meat is a representation of masculinity and a dead body, the ultimate bodily failure, is juxtaposed with the very genteel and feminine images of orchids, angel's and baby's breath."4 Baby's breath being both a flower, a symbol of femininity and a representation of innocence and beginnings of life. Cobain weaves high culture, transcendental religious spirits, traditional
""Mexican Seafood'' Lyrics, http://www.elvrics.net/read/n/nirvanalvrics/mexicanseafood]vrics.html '""Heart Shaped Box" Lyrics, http://www.nirvanamusic.com/nirvanaheartshapedboxlvrics.html 1 1 J In The Sexual Politics of Meat Carol J. Adams compellingly argues that meat eating is an act of gender oppression and meat consumption is inextricably tied to contemporary American masculinity.
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beauty and femininity with the socalled lowbrow culture, the profane, and the corporeal. In connecting these seemingly opposite things he poses a challenge to a social order that values masculinity, rationality, objectivity and denial of the body over femininity and being present in one's body with all of its grossness and potential for failure. It is especially striking to note that the song that followed this enchanting, romantic, yet complex, love song is 'LRape Me." In "Rape Me," like many of Nirvana's songs, Cobain identifies with the victim of a violent, genderbased crime and uses language and voice to demonstrate his extreme discomfort. "'Rape me/ Rape me my friend/ Rape me/ Rape me again/ I'm not the only one [4x]/ Hate me/ Do it and do it again/ Waste me/ Rape me my friend/ I'm not the only one." 115 Perhaps his discomfort comes from the violent nature of rape as a violation of the female body with which he identifies. This song also can be understood as a display of Cobain's displeasure with MTV's attempts at censorship and Vanity Fairs unfavorable article about his relationship with Courtney Love. Cobain frequently complained of feeling that corporate America had stripped him of his identity and manufactured his art for mass sale. While he often claimed to feel violated by his own success, as we have seen, he also actively pursued this very outcome. In the song "'Floyd the Barber," Cobain again takes up the subject position of rape and murder victim. "I was shaved.../ Barney ties me to the chair/ I can't see I'm really scared/ Floyd breathes hard I hear a zip/ Peepee pressed against my lips/1 was shamed.../I sense others in the room/ Opev, Aunt Bea, I presume/ They take turns and cut me up/1 die smothered in Andy's butt."116 In this song Cobain imagines being violently assaulted and murdered by the characters of 1960s sitcom The Andy Griffith Show. He likely chose this show because of its idyllic representation of
1 l x 'Rape Me" Lyrics, http://www.elvrics.net/read/n/nirvanalvrics/rapemelvrics.html l l 6 "Floyd the Barber" Lyrics, http://www.elvrics.net/read/n/nirvanalvrics/flovdthebarberlvrics.html
62 traditional American race, class and gender roles (race and class being all but invisible). The participation of these supposedly wholesome characters in a gruesome rape is disturbing and jarring. That reaction was certainly intentional. It forces fans to rethink the imperialism of images in pushing a certain vision of American life. While these two songs are excellent examples of Cobain's identification with the victims of brutal, gender based crimes there is another subject position that he played within the song "Polly." Inspired by a real life incident that made headlines in 1987, "Polly" is told from the perspective of the rapist who kidnapped, raped and tortured a young girl. "Polly wants a cracker/1 think I should get off her first/1 think she wants some water/ To put out the blow torch/ Isn't me, have a seed/ Let me clip your dirty wings/ Let me take a ride, cut yourself/ Want some help, please myself/ Got some rope, you have been told/ Promise you, I have been true/ Let me take a ride, cut yourself/ Want some help, please myself/ Polly wants a cracker/ Maybe she would like some food/ She asked me to untie her/ A chase would be nice for a few.../ Polly said/ Polly says her back hurts/ She's just as bored as me/ She caught me off my guard/ It amazes me the will of instinct."117 As a feminist, and a woman, I find this song disturbing; I often skip over it when I am listening to Nevermind. Even listening to it to write this piece was a difficult and uncomfortable task. Whether Cobain intended this song to depict the horror of rape as a violent hate crime or to be a literary experiment in internal dialogue, the emotional response it elicits is very powerful. Those two possibilities do not take into account the terror a real women might actually feel upon hearing this song. This is a striking example of Cobain's unanalyzed male privilege. In the archives of Cobain's life and work there are several perspectives on this song. First, Charles Cross lauds Cobain for his 'literary strength' and heralds the song as courageous. I am including a long passage because Cross's discussion of the song is so striking. He writes, "Where many of his early tunes had been onedimensional rants—usually discourses on the sony state of society—a song like 'Polly' found Kurt taking a newspaper clipping and 1' "Polly" Lyrics. http://www.elvrics.net/read/n/nirvanalvrics/pollvlvrics.html
63 crafting an emotional back story to go with the headline... Kurt managed to capture the horror of the rape ('let me clip your dirty wings'), yet at the same time subtly pointed out the humanness of the attacker ('she's just as bored as me'). Its literary strength was that it concerned itself with internal dialogue, much in the way Truman Capote found a measure of empathy for the murderers in his book In Cold Blood. The song's subject is in marked contrast to the melody, which, like 'About a Girl,' is sweet, slow, and melodic, almost as if it were designed to catch the audience off guard and result in the listener unknowingly singing a pleasant melody about a horrific crime. Kurt ends the song with a line that could stand as an epitaph for the rapist, for the victim, or for himself: 'It amazes me, the will of instinct.' Years later, upon first seeing Nirvana in concert. Bob Dylan picked 'Polly' out of the entire Nirvana catalog as Kurt's most courageous song, and one that inspired him to remark of Kurt, 'The kid has heart.'"118
That Cross imagines "Polly" to be one of Cobain's most complex and 'literary" songs is another demonstration of the patriarchal hegemony of music criticism. Cross, like Cobain, has not lived his entire life with the lingering threat of rape. That privilege lends itself both to writing a song like "Polly" and considering it a masterpiece because it depicts the humanity of a brutal rapist and murderer. To add to this depiction of unfettered male privilege is Bob Dylan whose oeuvre and implicit respect adds an air of authority to Cross's interpretation of "Polly." There is nothing revolutionary about rape. It is not courageous and it does not 'take heart' to write a rape narrative. It is a tool to maintain male supremacy by keeping women afraid. Women already exist in a culture where they are taught from birth that they must behave in certain ways to avoid sexual assault and then they are inundated with stories of women who have been assaulted coming forth and being publically shamed and blamed for not following the rules. Stories about rape are not radical or new, they have existed as cautionary tales for ages. While I am resistant to do so, it would be negligent not to acknowledge the possibility of a queer reading of this text. It is interesting that Cobain, who typically identifies as a victim, would write from the perspective of a perpetrator. In the construction of Cobain's narrative, he
" s Charles Cross, Heavier Than Heaven, (New York: Hyperion, 2001), 140141.
64 is often depicted as a feminine figure, which makes this identification with the rapist's subject position a complicated performance of gender. On the one hand, Cobain is a man, on the other hand he often positions himself in the feminine role against the masculinity of others around him. On the one hand, Cobain was not the victim of literal rape. On the other hand he often felt as though the use of his art and body by corporate America was a violation of his very being. In this song, we see Cobain trying on another more violent masculinity. Because Cobain positions himself as a victim in so many of his songs, we also are forced to conjure up the queer image of male rape as Cobain takes on the identity of perpetrator in this song. It is meaningful that these lyrics were written and uttered by Cobain. They would take on an entirely different meaning spoken by a different artist. No one interpretation of this song offers a complete understanding of its layers of meaning. In Marcus GreiTs interpretation of "Polly,'" the consequences of Cobain's artistic expression become clearer. He writes, "[Cobain] wrote it in the distracted, drugged, stupefied voice of one of the rapists, as if, one might imagine, he knew he had no right to speak as the victim, but also as if, had life turned out differently, he could have ended up on the other side. As recorded by Nirvana the song came out disturbing, creepy, utterly convincing—too convincing, in certain moods, to listen to. But not for some. With the song out in the world, Cobain found it coming back to him. He had said what he had to say, and he won a response: a newspaper reported the arrest of two young men who had been singing 'Polly' while they committed rape."119 He argues that since Cobain knew he could not identify with the victim of this crime he instead took up the position as perpetrator. Of course, we now know that this is not true: Cobain regularly positioned himself as the victim in rape narratives. Greil also writes about the 1992 incident in which two Reno men raped a woman while singing the song "Polly." This story haunted Cobain throughout the rest of his life. In the liner notes for the Incesticide album ! i 9 Marcus Greil, "Comment on Mark Mazullo, The Man Whom the World Sold,'" Musical Quarterly (Vol. 84, No.
4), 751.
65 Cobain responded to this incident by saying, "If any of you in any way hate homosexuals, people of different colors, or women, please do this one favor for usleave us the fuck alone! Don't 1 90 come to our shows and don't buy our records." Interestingly, this story and Cobain's ensuing guilt, never made the pages of Charles Cross's 'definitive' biography, Heavier Than Heaven. Relevant to the theme of Cobain as a victim of physical and emotional pain, feminine subjectivity and American capitalism, is the constant underlying theme of white male masochism. In the public performances, writings by and about him. Cobain embodied a certain masochistic pleasure in selfdestruction. There are countless examples in the biographies of Cobain depicted as a feminine figure including the few we looked at here. Femininity is intimately tied to masochism because culturally women are tied to femininity and feminine people are expected to be penetrable, soft, yielding and receptive to pain. When men put themselves in the feminine position of pleasuring from pain it is an aberration, a mental illness that needs immediate attention. Nineteenth century psychiatrist and sexologist, Richard von KrafftEbing describes masochism as "one of many 'perversions' (or nonprocreative sexualities) and used it to signify the condition of a person who exacts sexual pleasure from pain, humiliation, and abuse...most important, he regarded it not as a prelude to genital sexual intercourse but as an end in itself, a selfcontained erotic formula."121 Cobain's performance of femininity along with his performance of victimization is not entirely surprising considering the political atmosphere of the 1980s. David Savran, author of Taking it Like a Man: White Masculinity, Masochism, and Contemporary American Culture, writes about the ways in which capitalist economies require male masochism to maintain their power and to reproduce themselves. He writes, "masculinity is a function not of social or The Advocate, (February 1, 1993). Taking it Like a Man: White Masculinity, Masochism, and Contemporary American Culture,
l 2 0 Kurt Cobain to Kevin Allman, "Nirvana's Front Man Shoots From the Hip," 1 " 1 David Savran,
(Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1998), 1011.
66 cultural mastery but of the act of being subject, abused, even tortured" by the machinery of capitalism, heterosexism and imperialism.122 In other words, one of the most important requirements of masculinity, is the ability and willingness to 'take it.' He writes, "The masochistic male subject is both a function of the rise of capitalism and a necessary cog in the process that reproduces patriarchal, heterosexualized relations...he proves the extraordinary resilience of an oppressive cultural hegemony and of white men in retaining their enormous economic, political, and social power."123 Savran argues that throughout history, white male subjectivity has been inextricably linked to masochistic imagery. The crucifixion of Christ is a prime example of the way in which men are taught to take pleasure in sacrifice and pain. Further, Savran uses the Freudian theory of external restriction becoming part of the ego and conscience thus making selfdeprivation and punishment deeply entrenched into the psyche of men in Western cultures to argue that men have long been taught to take pleasure in punishment, humiliation and abuse.124 That pleasure, however, is deeply internalized and what we often see is the performance of an overwhelmingly aggressive, homophobic, ethnocentric and dissident masculinity. This is, of course, the reverse side of the same coin. The 'angry white male as victim' trope is one that informs almost all texts about Cobain.12:1 Whether it be his early years in the Seattle punk scene or his later years as a pop icon, Cobain always felt alienated and empty. Savran writes that white men sometimes utilize marginalized subject positions to situate themselves as victims in order to actually reassert their privilege. "For a white male subject living in a pervasively racist and misogynist culture, a black positionality can function analogously to a feminine one insofar as both represent positions of abjection. This is not by any means to equate femininity and blackness as social and political constructions but rather to suggest how the masochistic fantasmatic is
l 2 2 lbid., 38. 1 2 3 Ibid., 3637. 1 2 4 Ibid., 35.
"Ibid., 5. Savran gives a detailed history of white male countercultures since the 1950s: "The angry white male, the sensitive male, the male searching for the Wild Man within, the white supremacist, the spiritual male."
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able to pose an implicit equivalence between them. Indeed, this slippage between sexual and racial differences is one reason why masochistic fantasy has such enormous psychic power and is able to accomplish an extraordinary amount of cultural work. It allows the white male subject to take up the position of victim, to feminize and/or blacken himself fantasmatically, and to disavow^ the homosexual cathexes that are crucial to the process of ' 1 ^ z (patriarchal) cultural reproduction, all the while asserting his unimpeachable virility." It is my contention that Cobain adopted a feminine subjectivity in order to assuage pleasure from the grips of the immense pain of living in a culture of sexual shame and a strict gender binary. In Heavier Than Heaven, Cross narrates the story in which Cobain loses his virginity. When he was fifteen years old his mother, caught Cobain with his pants down, midcoitus. In this story themes of masochism are already arising as central to his narrative. He describes Cobain's emotions as such: "Lust and shame were equally strong drives within him, hopelessly intertwined and confused." 127 In this story Cobain"s sexual humiliation is described as being both a shameful and pleasurable experience for him. The ultimate expression of Cobain's position as a masochistic character is his suicide and the depictions of the time directly preceding that moment. This will be examined further in the final section.
i:6David Savran. Taking it
Like a Man: White Masculinity, Masochism, and Contemporary American Culture, (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1998), 33. '" Charles Cross, Heavier Than Heaven, (New York: Hyperion, 2001), 55.
68
The Death of Kurt Cobain: Race, Celebrity and Representations of Death "Beat me outta me."128 Kurt Cobain
His discomfort and disease with his own physical body (chronic stomach pain, drug use, and body image issues, to name a few) is perhaps the thing Cobain is most known for outside of his music. In 1994. he died, most likely of a selfinflicted gunshot wound to his head. Cobain's death propelled him into rock n' roll notoriety and also seems to be the ultimate expression of his masochistic persona. Cross narrates the time before Cobain's death as a drug addled stupor. There are gaps of time in this narrative because Cobain was missing between April 2 and April 8 of 1994. Cross hypothesizes that after Cobain left the rehabilitation center in LA, he lurked around his Seattle mansion finding guns and heroin he had hidden earlier and avoiding desperate calls from Courtney Love, her friends and her detective. Cross published Cobain's suicide note and then writes his version of the events before Cobain shot himself in the head. Another text that focuses entirely upon the moments just prior to Cobain's death is Gus Van Sant's fictional film, Last Days. Last Days depicts the last days in the life of a musician named Blake who was obviously intended to be a representative of Kurt Cobain. Through his film it is clear that Van Sant understood the depth and meaning of the masochistic performance and masculine failure of Cobain. In many long, wordless shots, we see Blake walking down the hallways of his mansion wearing a dress and limply carrying a shotgun. It seems at first that Blake might kill his houseguests but the scene is anticlimactic. In this interpretation, Cobain's crossdressing is depicted a symbol of frustrated masculinity and a final acceptance of abjection. It complicates the masculine vision of violence implied by the gun and forces fans to ponder the '" s "Aneurysm" Lyrics, http://www.elvrics.net/read/n/nirvanalvrics/aneurvsmlvrics.html
69 juxtaposition of these gendered devices. In another scene, a character named Scott, sits in the living room listening to a recording of The Velvet Underground's song "Venus in Furs" (which was covered by Nirvana and the Melvins 1991). "Venus in Furs" is based on the 1870 novel of the same name. The novel, by Leopold von SacherMasoch, is where the term 'masochism' comes from. The song, like the novel, is about a man who pleasures in being enslaved and degraded by his mistress. This is the only song that Van Sant plays to completion in the film. Cobain's feminine and masochistic posturing are part of what made him popular. Young people who identified with his outcast identity found a kindred spirit in him, to them association with abjection was just part of living in working class America at the time. From this perspective it is easy to see how a figure like Kurt Cobain could gain such notoriety as a celebrity. As a culture we need aberration, we need something nonnormative in order to reinforce normativity. We love the spectacle of queering gender publicly yet by making it a spectacle we reinforce its status as an oddity and the power structures that encourage that type of binary thinking. So while Cobain was subverting gender norms through his art and performances, he failed to cause any radical disruption in the gender binary. Though since his death, we have seen a drastic rise in tolerance for homosexuality. He would, perhaps, be proud to know that he helped to eke out a space for Generation X to defy authority. Cobain's death is a muchdiscussed topic. The vast majority of the information I was able to find for this project was about Cobain's influence on Generation X. his drug use and his suicide. It is the contention of Azarrad, Cross and Molanphy that drug use lead to Cobain's deep depression and suicide. Cross, as we saw, blamed Tobi Vail for Cobain's first use of heroin, therefore, indirectly blaming her for his death. None of these texts directly blames Courtney Love for Cobain's death, though it is well documented that Love worked with Cross on his
70 biography very intimately. In our personal correspondence, Chris Molanphy told me that when Barnes & Noble Publishers approached him to write Kurt Cobain: Voice of a Generation, they were very clear that he could not say or imply anything inflammatory about Love lest she sue them. Still, in many informal fan texts Courtney Love is directly blamed for Cobain's death. Whether the conspiracy theorists who believed she hired someone to kill him or biographers who heavily imply that the difficulty of living with a nonnormative woman like Love would lead anyone to suicide, the womanblame is apparent. To maintain Cobain's Christlike position as idol and savior, they need a culprit for his death. Others prefer to think of him as a martyr for the cause of anticorporate punk rock or social restrictions on sexual and gender roles. There are more theories about Cobain's death than are worth delving into here. What is worth noting is the context out of which this discourse arose. Cobain died in April of 1994. Just two years later, in September of 1996, artists and rapper Tupac Shakur was shot four times a driveby shooting in Las Vegas. The ways in which these two high profile deaths were portrayed speaks volumes about race and privilege in American culture. We have seen that the discourses around Cobain's death were about his influence on Generation X. his drug use and the theory that he was a martyr for his causes. In contrast, Shakur is not seen as a victim but rather a thug deserving of the fate that he met. Because of his influence on rap music, his association with West Coast gangs, and his jail time, Shakur is not granted status of martyr in mainstream media (though some fans do indeed think of him that way and there is a plethora of fan sites devoted to that image of him). Like Shakur. Cobain's story is portrayed as a cautionary tale of what happens when one subverts cultural norms. He was plagued with drug abuse, volatile relationships, and eventually death because he lived a nonnormative, rock "n roll lifestyle. Yet Cobain was never cast as a deserving victim of his fate in the same way that Shakur was. In their
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2002 article, "'The Day the Music Died'—Again: Newspaper Coverage of the Deaths of Popular Musicians," music critics Sharon R. Mazarella and Timothy M. Matyjewicz chose to analyze the deaths of icons like Tupac Shakur, John Lennon and Kurt Cobain. They write. "Press coverage of the suicide of Kurt Cobain linked him to the socalled Generation X...This was accomplished, in part, by designating Cobain's fan base as Generation X and identifying his personal problems as problems that allegedly also plagued that generation. 'In attempting to make sense of Cobain's suicide.. .the media additionally were attempting to make further sense of an entire generation.''129 This type of discourse was not granted to Shakur who was directly blamed for his own death because he chose a violent lifestyle. Shakur is not seen as being the voice of a generation though his voice has stood the test of time for black youth and fans of hip hop and rap. That Shakur is denied the status of being "voice of a generation" tells us that according to dominant discourses, Generation X was a homogenous group of white youth because if they considered trends in hip hop and gangsta rap at the same time that grunge was gaining momentum, they would see a lot of parallels. Instead, discourses about Shakur are frequently framed by a larger discussion of his violent lifestyle. Mazzarella and Matyjewicz write, "Interestingly, no calls for gun control ensued as a result of Shakur's death, although numerous calls went out to end the celebration of the 'gangsta" lifestyle, again implicating Shakur as in part responsible for his own death—it was not easy access to guns that killed Shakur, but the lifestyle he chose to lead."130 After Cobain's death, mental illness and suicide became frequently discussed topics, he is often credited with opening up a dialogue about depression and suicide in American culture where before there had only been shame and secrecy. Shakur's death was depicted as being a result of his own poor choices and the best way to avoid similar deaths, rather than open a dialogue about social ills that
l 2 9 Sharon R.
Mazarella and Timothy M. Matyjewicz, '"The Day the Music Died'—Again: Newspaper Coverage of the Deaths of Popular Musicians," Pop Music and the Press. (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2002), 223. 1 3 0 Ibid., 227.
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ghettoize black youth, was to imprison and/or demonize black youth for 'choosing' violent lifestyles. In 2002, the same year that Heavier Than Heaven was published, a selftitled Nirvana greatest hitstype album was released. On this album was a previously unreleased song called "'You Know You're Right." This song is as haunting and beautiful as it is painful. It is as if Cobain is posthumously serenading devoted fans and granting them closure about his death. The song heavily implies impending suicide but it also demonstrates that masochistic masculinity that he was so known for.
'"I will never bother you/ I will never promise to/I will never follow you/ I will never bother you/Never speak a word again/ I will crawl away for good/1 will move away from here/ You won't be afraid of fear/ No thought was put into this/1 always knew it would come to this/ Things have never been so swell/1 have never failed to fail.../ It's so warm and calm inside/1 no longer have to hide.../ Things have never been so swell/1 have never felt this real/ Pain."131 His guttural screams of "pain!" left fans acutely aware of Cobain's deep emotional and physical pain. In his lyrics, he is shrinking, making himself smaller until he disappears altogether. He will never bother you, he will never follow you, he will never speak a word, he will crawl away, move away and no longer live in fear. His shrieks of "pain!" penetrate his own weak, selfhating litany. Especially telling is the line, "I have never failed to fail." Again we see the theme of failure emerging. Cobain failed at performing hegemonic masculinity and rather than see the subversion of his own performance, Cobain saw the pain of failure and curled up into himself to die all the while sarcastically telling fans "things have never been so swell, I have never felt this real"
'"''"You Know You're Right" Lyrics, http://www.elvrics.net/read/n/nirvanalvrics/vouknowvou_reright lvrics.html
73 Though Cobain died over 15 years ago. his early fans live on and new generations of fans are born everyday after hearing Nevermind for the first time. In 2009,1 still hear Nirvana songs on the radio almost every day. Since his death a wealth of new texts have been created. Even as I write this, a new film is in the works based upon Charles Cross's biography Heavier Than 132 Heaven. I eagerly await the opportunity to add that narrative to this discussion.
Internet Movie Database listing for Heavier Than Heaven, http://www.imdb.com/title/ttl 129446/
74 Conclusions "I'm not like them/ But I can pretend/ The sun is gone/ But I have a light/ The day is done/ But I'm having fun/ I think I'm dumb/ Or maybe just happy/ Think I'm just happy/ My heart is broke/ But I have some glue/ Help me inhale/ And mend it with you/ We'll float around/ And hang out on clouds/ Then we'll come down/ And have a hangover.../ Skin the sun/ Fall asleep/ Wish away/ The soul is cheap/ Lesson learned/ Wish me luck/ Soothe the burn/ Wake me up."b3
I started this research project hoping to find that the man I had idolized as a teenager was every bit the feminist icon he initially seemed to be. Instead I found a complex and contradictory man who both advocated feminism and shied away from it, a man was antihomophobic to the point that he even crossdressed to challenge cultural notions about appropriate gender performance but who also struggled to maintain an image of patriarchal punk masculinity. Through the process of researching and writing this piece, I had the pleasure of sifting through the artifacts of my own high school experience and recollecting the influence that Cobain had on the early development of my feminist consciousness. The below image is the one I had hanging in my high school locker for four years.
'""Dumb" Lyrics, http://www.elvrics.net/read/n/nirvanalvrics/dumblvrics.html
75 I used Cobain's lyric from the song "Dumb," "I'm not like them, but I can pretend" as the title of this paper because it clearly demonstrates the social construction of identity categories and it playfully suggests an acknowledgement of deviance along with a willingness to acquiesce to avoid appraisal. It is Cobain's use of lyrics like this that makes him so appealing to youth who need the seeds of antiestablishment politics to be sown. In the first section, "Cobain's Early Life: Working Class Masculinity," we saw that he was unable to perform working class masculinity as expected by his father and high school peers. Later, punk masculinity proved just as rigid and demanding.134 This experience prepared Cobain for a lifetime of alienation from his nonnormative body and discomfort with hegemonic masculinity. This alienation and discomfort emerges as a theme across most texts about Cobain's life and becomes especially apparent in discussions about the meaning of his cross dressing. I maintain that his crossdressing was a response to the misogyny in punk and other subculture scenes, as well as a response to misogynist fans in general and it was a demonstration of apathetic grunge style at its finest. In the next section. "Cobain's Life on the Cusp of Rock Stardom: Punk Rock and Grunge Masculinities," we looked at the aesthetic that Cobain constructed based on his affiliation with subcultural groups. He exuded an infamous apathy about appearance and politics yet simultaneously was responsible for the entire grunge style and also played benefit shows for prochoice events and progay legislation events.135 In "The Celebrity Life of Cobain: Coolness, Authenticity and Masculinity," I deconstructed 'authenticity' as a sexist concept for determining the value of music and delved into the development of Cobain's fascination with bodily dysfunction and failure and the ways in which subverting the profane to reveal the instability of social institutions make him a queer character. Finally, in
'''Charles Cross, Heavier Than Heaven, (New York: Hyperion, 2001), 101. , 3 5 lbid., 262.
76 "The Death of Cobain: Race, Celebrity and Representations of Death" we saw the white male masochistic ideology taken to its logical conclusion. We also saw the ways in which racial tensions play themselves out in media coverage of celebrity death. Interrogating Kurt Cobain's deconstruction and performance of gender is a useful and worthwhile avenue of inquiry because it offers us insight into what constitutes acceptable masculinity and why gender is such a limited paradigm. Cobain's dissatisfaction with hegemonic masculinity was something he struggled with during his entire life and it may well have contributed to his suicide. However, his consistent support for women and queer people and his own use of celebrity to propound those philosophies would suggest that he was not merely posturing to gain access into the cult of masculinity and punk rock authenticity. In fact, if anything it seems that he had an investment in deconstructing heteronormative gender roles, given the ways in which they inhibited him. In the opening quote of this paper, Cobain asserted his interest in using rock 'n roll to disseminate feminist and antiestablishment ideas even when they were unpopular.lj6 Cobain used makeup and dress as a way of subverting gender norms that determine dresses and makeup wearing to be solely the domain of women. He also used his lyrics to challenge dominant culture. Cobain's obsession with dysfunctional bodies and the profane, the socially unacceptable, along with his rejection of culturally homogenizing institutions makes him a fascinating queer character. In his art and music, Cobain weaved high culture and lowbrow culture to demonstrate the fluidity of those conceptions and the social orders that they enforce. Rather than identifying with the privileged groups of which he was a part, he identified with oppressed groups because he recognized the flawed system that privileged him in some ways and oppressed him in others. He was a queer figure because of his performance of a nonnormative ' ' 6 K .urt Cobain, Journals, ( New York: Riverhead Books, 2002), 177.
77 sexuality along with his masochistic performance of gender as a pleasurable playground that was also deeply painful. During their previously mentioned interview, Kevin Allman said to Cobain. "You guys aren't preachy about your opinions. It's a sensible approach." To which he responded, "Gee. That's pretty flattering, but out of all the people I know, I'm about the least qualified to be talking politically. I hope I come across more personal than political. About a year ago, when we realized the impact that we have, we thought it was a great opportunity to have some kind of influence on people. I've been called a hypocrite and an idiot and unqualified, but I can't help it. It's just my nature. I have to talk about things that piss me off, and if that's negative or that's preachy, then that's too bad. No one's gonna shut me up. I'm still the same person I was. Actually, I used to be way more of a radical than I am now."137 What Cobain failed to recognize in this interview was that in the narrative construction of his life, the personal is political. The very personal way in which he embodied gender, masochism, and authenticity all have roots in political traditions much, much older than he was. Cobain's politics wrere complicated and often unclear but his public gender play was a political act with enormous political significance.
' " Kurt Cobain to Kevin Allman in interview: "Nirvana's Front Man Shoots From the Hip," The Advocate, (February 1, 1993).
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