Pseira X: The Excavation of Block AF [1 ed.] 9781623031114, 9781931534567

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Pseira X The Excavation of Block AF

Frontispiece. Excavating in Room AF 3A/B. .

PREHISTORY MONOGRAPHS 28

Pseira X The Excavation of Block AF by Philip P. Betancourt with contributions from Eleni Armpis, Costis Davaras, Heidi M.C. Dierckx, Cheryl R. Floyd, Glynis Jones, John C. McEnroe, George Mitrakis, George H. Myer, Marianna Nikolaidou, David S. Reese, Mark J. Rose, Maria C. Shaw, Ian Smith, Eleni Velona, and Fotini Zervaki

edited by Philip P. Betancourt and Costis Davaras

Published by INSTAP Academic Press Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 2009

Design and Production INSTAP Academic Press Printing CRWGraphics, Pennsauken, New Jersey Binding Hoster Bindery, Inc., Ivyland, Pennsylvania

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Betancourt, Philip P., 1936Pseira X : the excavation of Block AF / by Philip P. Betancourt ; with contributions from Eleni Armpis ... [et al.] ; edited by Philip P. Betancourt and Costis Davaras. p. cm. — (Prehistory monographs ; 28) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-931534-56-7 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Pseira (Extinct city) 2. Pseira Island (Greece)—Antiquities. 3. Excavations (Archaeology)—Greece—Pseira Island. 4. Historic buildings—Greece—Pseira Island. 5. Architecture, Minoan—Greece—Pseira Island. 6. Minoans—Greece—Pseira Island. I. Armpis, Eleni. II. Davaras, Kostes. III. Title. IV. Title: Pseira 10. V. Title: Pseira ten. DF221.C8B567 2009 939’.18—dc22 2009046257

Copyright © 2009 INSTAP Academic Press Philadelphia, Pennsylvania All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America

Contents

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vii LIST OF TABLES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ix LIST OF FIGURES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xiii LIST OF PLATES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xv PREFACE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xvii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xix ABBREVIATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxi PART I. HISTORY OF THE EXCAVATION 1. Introduction, Philip P. Betancourt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 2. Architectural Phases 1 to 3 (Early Phase), Philip P. Betancourt, Marianna Nikolaidou, and Eleni Velona. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 3. Architectural Phases 3 (Late Phase) to 5, Philip P. Betancourt, Eleni Armpis, George Mitrakis, Marianna Nikolaidou, Eleni Velona, and Fotini Zervaki. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17 PART II. ARCHITECTURE AND MATERIAL CULTURE 4. Architecture in Block AF South, John C. McEnroe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29 5. Architecture in Block AF North, John C. McEnroe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33 6. Pottery from Block AF, Cheryl R. Floyd. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

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PSEIRA X

7. Ground and Chipped Stone Tools from Block AF South, Heidi M.C. Dierckx. . . . . . . . .95 8. Ground and Chipped Stone Tools from Block AF North, Heidi M.C. Dierckx. . . . . . . . .99 9. Stone Weights from Block AF, Heidi M.C. Dierckx and Philip P. Betancourt. . . . . . . . .105 10. Miscellaneous Objects from Block AF, Philip P. Betancourt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107 11. Plaster from Block AF, Maria C. Shaw and Philip P. Betancourt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113 12. Analysis of the Plaster, George H. Myer and Philip P. Betancourt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121 13. Plant Remains from Block AF, Glynis Jones and Ian Smith. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125 14. Lithic Materials from Block AF, Philip P. Betancourt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127 15. Faunal Remains from Block AF, David S. Reese. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131 16. Fish Remains from Block AF, Mark J. Rose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143 17. Comments on the Mud Mortar, Philip P. Betancourt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151 PART III. INTERPRETATION AND CONCLUSIONS 18. Architectural History, Philip P. Betancourt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155 19. Room Functions and Activities in the Buildings, Philip P. Betancourt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163 APPENDIX A. POTTERY STATISTICS, Cheryl R. Floyd. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171 APPENDIX B. FABRIC PERCENTAGES, Cheryl R. Floyd. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .223 REFERENCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229 INDEX. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237 FIGURES PLATES

List of Illustrations in the Text

Illustration 1.1.

Map of eastern Crete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

Illustration 1.2.

Plan of the town on Pseira Island. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

Illustration 2.1.

State plan of Building AF South. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

Illustration 2.2.

Plan and section looking west of AF 3A/B, AF 3C, and AF 3D in Block AF South. . . .9

Illustration 2.3.

Archaeological section of the strata in Room AF 3D and its relation to Room AF 3C, looking west. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

Illustration 2.4.

Plan of the foundation deposit in Rooms AF 3A/B and AF 3C in Block AF South. . . .11

Illustration 2.5.

State plan and sections of Building AF North, looking east. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

Illustration 3.1.

Stratigraphical section in Room AF 6, showing the four floors and the strata above them. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

Illustration 3.2.

State plan in Rooms AF 8 and AF 9 and architectural section A-A', looking west. . .21

Illustration 3.3.

State plan and stratigraphical section in Room AF 9, showing the units. . . . . . . . . . .24

Illustration 4.1.

The west wall of Block AF South, probably built before Architectural Phase 1. . . . .30

Illustration 4.2.

Walls at the south of the block, Architectural Phases 1 and 2 in Block AF. . . . . . . . .30

Illustration 4.3.

Architectural Phase 3 in Block AF South. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

Illustration 4.4.

Column base and cut slab buried in the floor of Room AF 3/4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32

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PSEIRA X

Illustration 5.1.

Architectural Phase 3 in Block AF North. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34

Illustration 5.2.

Architectural Phase 4 with the east wall of Building AU. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

Illustration 5.3.

Architectural Phase 5 in Block AF. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

List of Tables

Table 10.1. Summary of the discoid weights. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111 Table 13.1. Charred plant remains from Block AF. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126 Table 16.1. Block AF: taxa and number of indentified specimens (NISP). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .144 Table 16.2. Anatomical distribution in Block AF and elsewhere at Pseira and in Crete. . . . . . . . . . . . .146 Table 16.3. Taxa present at Middle Minoan and Late Minoan sites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147 Table A1.

Building AF South, Phase 2, Room AF 3C, MM II floor packing. Unit AF 3C-4. . . . . .173

Table A2.

Building AF South, Phase 2, Room AF 3C, MM II floor level. Unit AF 3C-3. . . . .173–174

Table A3.

Building AF South, Phase 2, Room AF 3D, MM II floor level. Units AF 3D-3, AF 3D-4, and AF 3D-5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174

Table A4.

Building AF South, Phase 2, Room AF 3D, MM II collapse over the floor. Units AF 3D-1 and AF 3D-2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175

Table A5.

Building AF South, Phase 2, Room AF 3E, MM II stratum. Units AF 3E-3 and AF 3E-4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175–176

Table A6.

Building AF South, Phase 2, Space AF 2, MM II stratum. Unit AF Drain-1. . . . . . . . . .176

Table A7.

Area AF South, Phase 3, Room AF 2, LM I floor. Unit AF 2-2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177

Table A8.

Area AF South, Phase 3, Room AF 2, mixed MM II–LM I collapsed debris above the floor. Units AF 2-1, AF 2 South-1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178–179

x

Table A9.

PSEIRA X

Area AF South, Phase 3, Room AF 3A/B, MM II–LM I deposit on a floor. Units AF 3A-3, AF 3B-3, AF 3B-4, AF 3B-5, and AF 3B-6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179–181

Table A10. Area AF South, Phase 3, Rooms AF 3A/B, mixed MM–LM IB debris from collapse of building. Units AF 3E-Surface, AF 3E-1, AF 3E-2, AF South-Surface, AF 3B-Surface, AF 3B-1, AF 3B-2, AF 3C-2, AF 3-1, AF 3-2, and AF 3-3. . . . . . . .182–185 Table A11. Building AF South, Phase 5, Room AF 1 and Space AF 4, LM IB floor level. Units AF 1-3 and AF 4-3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185–187 Table A12. Building AF North, Phase 5, Space AF 10, LM IB floor and debris from collapse of building. Unit AF 10-Surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187 Table A13. Building AF North, Phase 5, Room AF 1 and Space AF 4, LM IB-Final debris from collapse of building. Units AF South-1, AF 1-1, AF 1-2, AF 4-Surface, AF 4-1, and AF 4-2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188–190 Table A14.

Building AF North, Phase 5, Room AF 5A, LM IB-Final floor level. Unit AF 5A-4. . . . . .190

Table A15. Building AF North, Phase V, Room AF 5A, LM IB-Final debris from collapse of building. Units AF 5A-3, AF 5A-2, and AF 5A-1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .191–192 Table A16. Building AF North, Phase 5, Room AF 5B, LM IB floor level. Unit AF 5B-4. . . . .192–193 Table A17. Building AF North, Phase 5, Room AF 5B, LM IB debris from collapse of building. Units AF 5-2, AF 5-3, AF 5B-1, AF 5B-2, and AF 5B-3. . . . . . . . . . . .193–195 Table A18. Building AF North, Phase 5, Rooms AF 5A, AF 5B, and Area to the West, LM IB-Final debris from collapse of building with LM IIIA:2 disturbance. Units AF 5-Surface and AF 5-1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195–198 Table A19.

Building AF North, Phase 5, Room AF 6, LM IB lowest ground floor at 8.42 m asl. Unit AF 6-7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198–199

Table A20.

Building AF North, Phase 5, Room AF 6, LM IB floor at 8.48 m asl. Unit AF 6-6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199–200

Table A21. Building AF North, Phase 5, Room AF 6, LM IB-Final ground floors and collapsed upper story with LM IIIA:2 disturbance. Units AF 6-4 and AF 6-5. . . . .200–202 Table A22.

Building AF North, Phase 5, Room AF 6, LM IB-Final collapsed upper story and debris from collapse of the building. Units AF 6-Surface, AF 6-1, AF 6-2, and AF 6-3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .202–204

Table A23.

Building AF North, Phase 5, Room AF 7, LM IB-Final debris from collapse of building with LM IIIA:2 disturbance. Units AF 7-1, AF 7-2, AF 7-3, AF 7-4, AF 7-5, AF 7-6, AF 7-7, AF 7-NE Corner, and AF-Cleaning of the N wall. . . . . . . .204–207

Table A24. Building AF North, Phase 5, Room AF 8, LM IB floor level at 9.28 m asl. Units AF 8-5, AF 8-5N, AF 8-5 NE Corner Feature, AF 8-5W, and AF 8-6W. . . . .207–209 Table A25. Building AF North, Phase 5, Room AF 8, LM IB debris from upper story and collapse of building with LM IIIA:2 disturbance. Units AF 8-2, AF 8-2N, AF 8-2W, AF 8-2 (SW corner), AF 8-3, AF 8-3N, AF 8-3W, AF 8-3 near N Wall, AF 8-4, AF 8-4N, AF 8-4W, and AF 8-4 NE Corner Feature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .209–212

LIST OF TABLES

xi

Table A26. Building AF North, Phase 5, Room AF 8, mixed Minoan and Byzantine Surface Stratum. Units AF 8-1, AF 8-1N, and AF 8 and 9 W Wall. . . . . . . . . . . . . .213–214 Table A27. Building AF North, Phase 5, Room AF 9, LM IB paved surface. Units AF 9-6, AF 9-6E, and AF 9-6W. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .214–215 Table A28. Building AF North, Phase 5, Room AF 9, LM IB-Final debris and collapsed mudbrick wall dividing Rooms AF 8 and AF 9, with LM IIIA:2 disturbance. Units AF 9-4 and AF 9-5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216–218 Table A29. Building AF North, Phase 5, Room AF 9, LM IB debris from upper floor and collapse of building. Units AF 9-1, AF 9-2, and AF 9-3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219–220 Table A30. Building AF North, Space AF 11, LM IB and Byzantine debris outside the building. Units AF 11-All, AF 11-1N (surface), AF 11-Surface 1E, AF 8-2 Outside to the North, AF 8-1 Outside to the North, N of AF 8, AF 8-1N, AF 8-2N of N, AF 11-N, and AF 11N of AF 7. . . . . . . . . . . .221–222 Table B1.

Fabric percentages (by count) from Phase 2 (MM II). No ceramic remains come from Phases 1 and 4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .225

Table B2.

Fabric percentages (by count) from Phase 3 (MM II–LM I). No ceramic remains come from Phases 1 and 4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .225

Table B3.

Fabric percentages (by count) from Phase 5 (LM IB and LM IB-Final). No ceramic remains come from Phases 1 and 4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .225–226

Table B4.

Average percentages of sherds (by count) in Phase 2 (MM II). No ceramic remains come from Phases 1 and 4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .226

Table B5.

Average percentages of sherds (by count) in Phase 3 (MM II–LM I). No ceramic remains come from Phases 1 and 4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .226

Table B6.

Average percentages of sherds (by count) in Phase 5 (LM IB and LM IB-Final). No ceramic remains come from Phases 1 and 4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .226

Table B7.

Average percentages of sherds (by count) in all phases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227

Table B8.

Percentages of sherds (by count) in various fabrics according to vessel types in Phase 5 (Building AF North). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228

List of Figures

Figure 1.

Pottery from Rooms AF 3C, AF 3D, AF 3E, and AF 2. Scale 1:3.

Figure 2.

Pottery from Rooms AF 2 and AF 3A/B. Scale 1:3.

Figure 3.

Pottery from Rooms AF 3A/B, AF 3C, and AF 3E. Scale 1:3.

Figure 4.

Pottery from Rooms AF 3A/B, AF 3C, AF 1, and AF 4. Scale 1:3.

Figure 5.

Pottery from Room AF 1 and Space AF 4. Scale 1:3.

Figure 6.

Pottery from Room AF 1, Space AF 4, and Room AF 5A. Scale 1:3.

Figure 7.

Pottery from Rooms AF 5A and AF 5B. Scale 1:3, except as noted.

Figure 8.

Pottery from Rooms AF 5A and AF 5B. Scale 1:3.

Figure 9.

Pottery from Rooms AF 5A and AF 5B. Scale 1:3.

Figure 10.

Pottery from Rooms AF 5A and AF 5B. Scale 1:3.

Figure 11.

Pottery from Rooms AF 5A, AF 5B, and AF 6. Scale 1:3.

Figure 12.

Pottery from Room AF 6. Scale 1:3.

Figure 13.

Pottery from Room AF 6. Scale 1:3.

Figure 14.

Pottery from Room AF 6. Scale 1:3, except as noted.

Figure 15.

Pottery from Rooms AF 6 and AF 7. Scale 1:3.

Figure 16.

Pottery from Room AF 7. Scale 1:3.

Figure 17.

Pottery from Rooms AF 7 and AF 8. Scale 1:3.

Figure 18.

Pottery from Room AF 8. Scale 1:3.

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PSEIRA X

Figure 19.

Pottery from Room AF 8. Scale 1:3.

Figure 20.

Pottery from Room AF 8. Scale 1:3.

Figure 21.

Pottery from Room AF 8. Scale 1:3.

Figure 22.

Pottery from Rooms AF 8 and AF 9. Scale 1:3.

Figure 23.

Pottery from Room AF 9. Scale 1:3.

Figure 24.

Pottery from Room AF 9. Scale 1:3.

Figure 25.

Pottery from Room AF 9. Scale 1:3.

Figure 26.

Pottery from Room AF 9 and Space AF 11. Scale 1:3.

Figure 27.

Pottery from Space AF 11. Scale 1:3.

Figure 28.

Pottery from Space AF 11. Scale 1:3.

Figure 29.

Pottery from Space AF 11. Scale 1:3.

Figure 30.

Pottery from Space AF 11. Scale 1:3.

Figure 31.

Pottery from Space AF 11 and the wall between AF 1 and AF 5B. Scale 1:3.

Figure 32.

Ground stone tools from Block AF. Scale 1:3.

Figure 33.

Obsidian, quartz crystals, and ground stone tool from Block AF. Scale 1:1, except as noted.

Figure 34.

Ground stone tools from Block AF. Scale 1:3.

Figure 35.

Ground stone tools and obsidian from Block AF. Scale 1:3, except as noted.

Figure 36.

Quartz crystals, obsidian, and ground stone tools from Block AF. Scale 1:1, except as noted.

Figure 37.

Obsidian and ground stone tools from Block AF. Scale 1:3, except as noted.

Figure 38.

Ground stone tools from Room AF 6. Scale 1:3, except as noted.

Figure 39.

Ground stone tools from Rooms AF 6 and AF 7. Scale 1:3, except as noted.

Figure 40.

Ground stone tools, obsidian, and quartz crystals from Rooms AF 7 and AF 8. Scale 1:3, except as noted.

Figure 41.

Ground stone tools from Room AF 9 and Space AF 11. Scale 1:3.

Figure 42.

Ground stone tools, quartz crystals, and stone weights from Block AF. Scale 1:3, except as noted.

Figure 43.

Miscellaneous cataloged objects from Block AF. Scale 1:3, except as noted.

Figure 44.

Miscellaneous cataloged objects from Block AF. Scale 1:3, except as noted.

Figure 45.

Miscellaneous cataloged objects from Block AF. Scale 1:3.

List of Plates

Plate 1A.

Block AF, looking south.

Plate 1B.

Aerial photograph of Block AF and the surrounding parts of Katsouni Peninsula on Pseira Island.

Plate 2.

Room AF 1, looking north.

Plate 3A.

Detail of the stairs and the west wall in Room AF 1.

Plate 3B.

Strips of plaster in situ within the soil in Room AF 1.

Plate 4A.

Space AF 3A (the Pillar Crypt), looking north, with Space AF 2 at the upper right.

Plate 4B.

Space AF 3A looking west, with the column base in situ (upside down) where it fell into AF 3A from the upstairs room.

Plate 5A.

Detail of the red limestone column base found in Space AF 3A.

Plate 5B.

Lifting the column base in Space AF 3A.

Plate 5C.

Column base in situ in Space AF 3A.

Plate 6A.

General view of Room AF 1, looking northwest.

Plate 6B.

Blocked doorway in the west wall of Room AF 1 leading to Room AF 5B, as seen from inside AF 1.

Plate 6C.

Triton shell in situ in the fill in Room AF 5A.

Plate 7A.

Southeast corner of Room AF 6, with the doorway at the left.

Plate 7B.

Southwest corner of Room AF 6, showing the hearth at left.

Plate 8A.

Southwest corner of Room AF 6 with a hearth with a cooking pot (AF 194) in place.

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PSEIRA X

Plate 8B.

Stone mortar (AF 480) in situ in Room AF 6.

Plate 8C.

The northwest corner of Room AF 6, showing the bedrock with a mortar (AF 479) carved into it in the corner.

Plate 9A.

Room AF 6, looking west from the street outside the building.

Plate 9B.

Room AF 8, after excavation, looking west.

Plate 10A.

The west wall of Rooms AF 8 and AF 9, looking southwest.

Plate 10B.

Building AF, looking southwest.

Plate 11A.

Rooms AF 9 and AF 8, looking north.

Plate 11B.

Conical cups in situ in Unit AF 9-6.

Plate 11C.

Room AF 8 after excavation of Unit AF-5, looking east.

Plate 12A.

Spaces AF 4 (at left) and AF 1 (at right), looking northwest.

Plate 12B.

Space AF 4, looking east.

Plate 13A.

Space AF 11 (exterior street), east of Room AF 6, looking west.

Plate 13B.

The north wall of AF North, looking east, showing the poorly built wall (at left) added after the LM IB destruction to help hold up the building’s north wall (after excavation to remove the rubble between the two walls).

Plate 13C.

The L-shaped bench at the east of the entrance to Building AF North, looking south.

Plate 14.

Minoan pottery, scale 1:2 except as marked.

Plate 15.

Minoan pottery, scale 1:2 except as marked.

Plate 16.

Minoan pottery, scale 1:2 except as marked.

Plate 17.

Minoan pottery, scale 1:2 except as marked.

Plate 18A.

Plaster strips, upper sides.

Plate 18B.

Plaster strips, lower sides.

Plate 19A.

Plaster strips B, C, and F, upper sides.

Plate 19B.

Plaster strips B, C, and F, lower sides.

Plate 20A.

Edge of plaster strip D.

Plate 20B.

Plaster strip H, upper side.

Plate 20C.

Plaster strip H, lower side.

Plate 21A.

Shells and conical cup used as a floor deposit in Room AF 3B.

Plate 21B.

Detail of a shell (PS 3669) from the floor deposit in Room AF 3A/B and 3C (no. 9 on Ill. 2.4).

Preface

During the process of surveying and photographing the parts of Pseira that had not been excavated by Richard Seager in 1906–1907, the photographer (Mike Betancourt) noticed small bits of red-painted plaster among the walls in Block AF, the most southern group of walls on the Pseiran peninsula. He informed John McEnroe of the discovery, and after a brief discussion with the director, a decision was reached to make a test trench at the location of the plaster (AF 1). The block turned out to be one of the most important areas at the site because of its long succession of building phases. Block AF was not an easy area to excavate. Many of the rooms were remodeled and altered repeatedly during its long period of habitation. Radical changes were made to some of the buildings in this block at several points in their history, and the information that they provide is a testament to the hard work and keen insights of the trench supervisors, the architect, and the many other staff members who worked on this complicated group of rooms. This southern group of buildings at the edge of the town is important for several reasons. It has examples of complex architectural details including a “pillar crypt,” elaborate upstairs floors, a well-preserved U-shaped staircase, and a welldesigned kitchen, all of which contribute significantly to our knowledge of East Cretan building practices. It also provides a good compliment to Building BS/BV, a grander building at Pseira (published in Pseira III). Like BS/BV, one building in the block had evidence for cult practices, but the architectural settings for the ceremonies are different in the two structures. Block AF provides the fullest sequence of building phases from any one area at Pseira, with habitation extending from before MM II to LM III. Unlike the Pseiran buildings that had been thoroughly looted in antiquity, many of the objects in Block AF were broken but not removed, so a more complete range of finds could be excavated. In addition to domestic pottery, the houses furnish examples of stone tools,

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stone vessels, loom weights, inscriptions in Linear A, cult objects, animal bones, marine shells, and a wide range of material recovered from water sieving. This latter category, with burned grain, fish bones, shells, and other categories of materials, fills many gaps in our knowledge of Pseiran life. Philip P. Betancourt

Acknowledgments

The Pseira project was an American-Greek collaboration (synergasia) directed by Philip P. Betancourt and Costis Davaras. It was sponsored by Temple University, the Archaeological Institute of Crete, and the Archaeological Society of Crete, under the auspices of the Greek Ministry of Culture and the American School of Classical Studies at Athens. Additional financial assistance for the work published in this volume was given by the following persons and institutions: the Institute for Aegean Prehistory; the National Endowment for the Humanities, an independent federal agency; The University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology; the Society for the Preservation of the Greek Heritage; the Arcadia Foundation; the Mellon Corporation; Hamilton College; Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario; and other donors. Thanks are extended to all those who assisted with the project: Directors for Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities, Yannis Tzedakis (1985–1990, 1993–1999), Ios Zervoudaki (1990–1992), Katerina Romiopoulou (1992–1993), and Liana Parlama (1999–2000); the late Nikos P. Papadakis, Epimeletis and Supervisor for the 24th Ephorate for Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities. The directors are also grateful to the Directors of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, Stephen G. Miller (1985–1987), William D. Coulson (1987–1997), and James D. Muhly (1997–2002) for their assistance. Heidi Dierckx, author of the sections on stone implements, would like to thank Harriet Blitzer for her advice on the study of stone tools and for her help in their cataloging. She would also like to thank Jeffrey S. Soles and Costis Davaras for allowing her to study and refer to the stone material from the excavations at Mochlos, and David Romano for allowing her to examine stone implements in the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. The excavations and studies for Block AF took place between 1990 and 1997. Excavations were conducted in 1990–1991 under the direction of the editors of this

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volume with the supervision of several trench supervisors: Eleni Armpis, George Mitrakis, Marianna Nikolaidou, Eleni Velona, and Fotini Zervaki. The architectural study was conducted by John C. McEnroe with the help of several assistants: Anne Barnosky (1990–1992), Joan Beaudoin (1992), Senta C. German (1989– 1992), Naomi Horowitz (1991), Sharon Rathke (1989–1990), and Paul Scotton (1991). A plan of the site was completed in 1992 using data prepared by the entire team of architects listed in Pseira IV. Field photographs were taken by Michael W. Betancourt (1990), George Mitrakis (1992), and Philip P. Betancourt (1990–1994, 2006–2007). Aerial photographs were made in 1992 by J. Wilson and Eleanor E. Myers. The water-sieving operation was supervised by Jonathan Chapman (1990) and Ian Smith (1991). Technicians Nikos Daskalakis and Andreas Klinis provided special expertise in excavation. The architecture was cleaned in 2005 and 2006. Alekos Nikakis provided expertise in consolidation of the architecture. Mary A. Betancourt supervised work in the apotheki. Profile drawings were by Teresa Howard (1990–1992), Jenny Hope Simpson (1991), Krista Gustafson (1990–1992), Marie T. Naples (1990–1991), Jeanne Pond (1990), Michael W. Betancourt (1990), Eleni Velona (1990), Naomi Horowitz (1991), Ursula Hawlitschka (1992), and the authors of the individual sections. Catalog entries for the material presented here were made by Mary A. Betancourt (1990–1993) and Laurie Schmitt (1991–1992), as well as by the individual authors. Conservators included Asaf Oron (1992) and Vanessa Edwards (1992). Object photography was by George Mitrakis (1992–1993) and Philip P. Betancourt (1990–1994). Other studies were made by the authors of the individual sections. Samples for analysis were collected by the trench supervisors under the supervision of Philip P. Betancourt and were studied in the laboratories listed in the following chapters. Assistance with editing and preparation of illustrations was given by Elizabeth Shank, Louise Langford-Verstegen, and Andrea Powers.

Abbreviations

ca.

approximately

pers. comm. personal communication

CF

Coarse Fabric

pers. obs.

personal observation

cm

centimeters

PF

Phyllite Fabric

d

diameter

PS

excavation number

dim

dimension

Pseira I

EM

Early Minoan

F

fused

P.P. Betancourt and C. Davaras, eds. Pseira I: The Minoan Buildings on the West Side of Area A

FF

Fine Fabric

Pseira II

gr

gram

P.P. Betancourt and C. Davaras, eds. Pseira II: Building AC (the “Shrine”) and Other Buildings in Area A

ht

height

Pseira III

kg

kilograms

L

left

P.P. Betancourt and C. Davaras, eds. Pseira III: The Plateia Building, by Cheryl R. Floyd

LM

Late Minoan

Pseira IV

m

meters

P.P. Betancourt and C. Davaras, eds. Pseira IV: Minoan Buildings in Areas B, C, D, and F

m asl

meters above sea level

Pseira V

max

maximum

MFCC

Mirabello Fabric, Cooking Class

P.P. Betancourt and C. Davaras, eds. Pseira V: The Architecture of Pseira, by J. McEnroe

MG

Middle Geometric

Pseira VI

MM

Middle Minoan

P.P. Betancourt and C. Davaras, eds. Pseira VI: The Pseira Cemetery 1

MNI

Minimum Number of Individuals

Pseira VII

NISP

Number of Individual Specimens

P.P. Betancourt and C. Davaras, eds. Pseira VII: The Pseira Cemetery 2. Excavation of the Tombs

xxii

PSEIRA X Pseira VIII

Pseira IX

P.P. Betancourt, C. Davaras, and R. Hope Simpson, eds. Pseira VIII: The Archaeological Survey of Pseira Island Part 1 P.P. Betancourt, C. Davaras, and R. Hope Simpson, eds. Pseira IX: The Archaeological Survey of Pseira Island Part 2. The Intensive Surface Survey

R

right

th

thickness

UF

unfused

unk

unknown

w

width

ws

water-sieved sample included

wt

weight

Part I

History of the Excavation

Gulf of Mirabello

0 Illustration 1.1. Map of eastern Crete.

10 km

1

Introduction Philip P. Betancourt

Pseira Island, occupied intermittently from the Neolithic period until the Byzantine era, was an important Minoan seaport along the northeastern coast of Crete during the Bronze Age (Ill. 1.1). Its excavation uncovered substantial remains from a Minoan town consisting of about 60 buildings (see Pseira I–IX). Houses were arranged in irregular blocks that were divided by roadways providing easy pedestrian access between different parts of the community. Block AF is situated at the southern tip of the peninsula where the main part of the Minoan settlement was constructed (the peninsula is named Katsouni, a local Cretan word for a long curved knife or any feature resembling its shape; see Ill. 1.2). Several successive phases of construction can be identified in the architecture in this block of houses, making it the most stratigraphically complex location excavated by the Pseira project. The earliest surviving architecture is from MM I–II or earlier. It consists of a massive retaining wall at the west side of the area, and it probably supported Minoan buildings from its earliest phase. Houses were constructed here in MM I to MM II, and they were replaced by later structures that were destroyed in MM IIB. After a pause, new buildings were erected. Another general

destruction of the community can be assigned to Late Minoan IA, securely dated to the period of the eruption of Thera by the presence of pumice on the floors that were covered before the next building phase. After this major destruction of the block in LM IA, the tip of the peninsula (Area AF South) was abandoned, and new construction took place farther away from the sea. The southern parts of the block were kept as outdoor space during the rest of the life of the town. The new construction resulted in two different sets of rooms, both of them situated in Area AF North. The new LM IB buildings re-used some of the earlier rooms (AF 1, AF 5A, and AF 6B) and added additional interior spaces on the north (AF 6 to 9). An important household shrine in the upstairs space above these new rooms used a series of imported Knossian ceramic vases as well as a white-painted bull figurine and several other cult objects. Among the pottery pieces were rhyta decorated in the Marine Style and related decorative traditions. In another destruction (at the end of LM IB), the block was damaged by fire. Casual re-occupation in the partly ruined rooms continued in LM IB-Final and LM III, until the ceilings finally collapsed. This part of the peninsula

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was exterior space when Early Byzantine settlers lived in a monastery built over the Minoan town beginning in the late 5th to early 6th century, and the Minoan buildings were already buried at that time.

Illustration 1.2. Plan of the town on Pseira Island.

Several preliminary reports have been published (Pariente 1992; Betancourt and Davaras 1993; Dierckx 1995a; Floyd 1995b; 1997b; Floyd et al. 1995; Betancourt, Banou, and Floyd 1997; Betancourt 2001a).

2

Architectural Phases 1 to 3 (Early Phase) Philip P. Betancourt, Marianna Nikolaidou, and Eleni Velona

Pseira is an offshore island on the eastern side of the Gulf of Mirabello, a large bay in northeast Crete (Ill. 1.1). Its Minoan town was excavated by Richard Seager in 1906 and 1907 (Seager 1910), and the editors of this volume returned to the island in 1984 to begin a new project (Betancourt and Davaras, eds., 1995, 1998a, 1998b, 1999, 2001, 2002, 2003; Betancourt, Davaras, and Hope Simpson, eds., 2004, 2005). Block AF was excavated by the modern expedition. Block AF is at the southern end of Katsouni Peninsula on a level part of the peninsula’s spine (Frontispiece; Ill. 1.2; Pls. 1A, 1B). The land slopes down quickly at the east of the block where bare cliffs rise above the sea, but the landscape is not as rugged at the west where a more gradual descent terminates at the water’s edge at the southeastern side of the small Pseiran harbor. South of the block, the peninsula is bare rock that is washed most years by turbulent seas. Before work began at this location, a few walls were above ground, but the architecture was mostly covered with soil. The west wall of Room AF 1, some of the stones of the massive wall west of Spaces AF 3A/B, and a few other stones were exposed, so that the upper parts of several walls could be traced on the modern ground surface.

Vegetation consisted of grass and low bushes. A few small fragments of Minoan plaster, some showing traces of red paint, were lying on the surface within Room AF 1. The relation between Areas AF South and AF North was not visible before excavation. Goals and objectives for the investigation of the block were formulated in 1990. This block was chosen as one of the locations for detailed investigation. The main goal of the work was to achieve as complete an understanding of the block as its excavation would show. Additional goals included an analysis of the artifacts and archaeological materials that would be excavated, their proper understanding within their contexts, and an appreciation of the role that this block played within the community at Pseira. Several specific objectives were planned: 1. Excavation, recovery, and recording of the building or buildings as well as the objects and archaeological materials within their contexts, using modern methodology 2. Completion of plans, photographs, descriptions, and discussions of the architecture 3. Completion of drawings, photographs, descriptions, discussions, statistical tables, and other information on the artifacts and

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archaeological materials uncovered by the excavation 4. Study of the excavated information within its local, regional, and international contexts 5. Conservation of both architecture and finds 6. Publication of the results of the project Block AF was divided into two sections after sufficient excavation had taken place to establish that Area AF South and Area AF North contained different buildings. Before work began, the entire block was regarded as a single location consisting of the architectural remains at the eastern side of the tip of the main Pseiran peninsula. The region near AF was first investigated in the archaeological campaign of Richard Seager in 1906 or 1907. Seager’s workmen excavated a pit in the exterior space east of Room AF 6, immediately east of the doorway leading from the street into that room. They excavated through the paved roadway at this location, reaching the bedrock without uncovering any architecture aside from the paved street. They did not excavate inside the building. Seager’s small trench was not mentioned in his publication (Seager 1910). No other part of Block AF was previously excavated. When Block AF was examined after the removal of bushes and before work began, the upper parts of most of the walls delineating the rooms could be traced on the surface. This examination allowed the rooms to be numbered for convenience in mapping, and the process of excavation and its recording system were organized on the basis of the architectural divisions. Rooms and exterior spaces were numbered from AF 1 through AF 11. The excavation took place over two seasons. Area AF South was excavated during 1990 and 1991 under the supervision of Marianna Nikolaidou and Eleni Velona. The work was directed by the editors of this volume (for the excavation system at Pseira and the conventions and nomenclature for the site, see Betancourt and Davaras, eds., 1995, xvii, xviii).

Paleobotanists Jonathan Chapman (1990) and Ian Smith (1991) operated the water separation machine for retrieval of microscopic remains and sorted the resulting flot and residue. For theory and practice of this type of machine, the reader may consult French (1971) and Peterson (2009). Sampling strategy for water sieving involved the collection of five samples of 15 kg each from floor levels (one from each corner of the room and one from the center of the room), with additional samples collected where visual inspection indicated the presence of carbonized organic remains. For the MM II deposit in Space AF 3C, the only deposit yielding this type of material, 100% of the soil was water sieved. Additional cleaning, drawing, and consolidation of architecture took place in 2005. The consolidation was accomplished under the supervision of Alekos Nikakis. Drawing was accomplished by Gayla Weng and Judith Papit. Philip Betancourt supervised the work. Architect John McEnroe divided the construction of the buildings in this block into five phases based on the sequence of walls and other architectural features like roads and paved surfaces. The methodology used the physical evidence of the walls and their superposition and bonding to determine the specific sequence in which they were constructed. The study of the pottery was by Cheryl Floyd. Her research agreed with the sequence of these phases based on the architecture, and she assigned pottery dates for many of the architectural events that made up the individual steps in the construction of the walls. In addition to dates provided by architecture and pottery, the presence of waterworn pumice from the island of Thera’s LM IA volcanic eruption provided a terminus post quem for contexts containing this material (for the identification of Pseira’s pumice, see Vitaliano and Vitaliano 1996). The following discussion of the process of excavation is organized by the block’s architectural phases.

ARCHITECTURAL PHASES 1 TO 3 (EARLY PHASE)

Illustration 2.1. State plan of Block AF South.

7

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BETANCOURT, NIKOLAIDOU, AND VELONA

Excavation of Architectural Phase 1 Room AF 3D, a space that preceded the construction of Building AF South, was found at a low level at the southern edge of the block of rooms (Ill. 2.1). Marianna Nikolaidou supervised the work. The earliest construction in this part of the site was a massive wall at the west side of the block, which seems to be earlier than Architectural Phase 1. No rooms from before Phase 1 were discovered in Block AF, but sherds from Final Neolithic to MM I found in later fills and in debris fallen from walls and roofs showed that early structures once stood in the vicinity. Because it was common at Pseira for early walls to be demolished to provide building materials for later construction, these early sherds probably belong to the buildings that were the predecessors of Architectural Phase 1. SPACE AF 3D Space AF 3D was a rectangular architectural space south of the later building’s Room AF 3C (Ills. 2.1–2.3). Because of the slope of the hill at this point, the modern surface was at 5.71 m asl at the north of the room but only at 5.25 m asl just south of the existing architecture. The upper pass in the room (unit AF 3D-1) removed soil down to 5.58/ 5.45 m asl. The soil was hard and compact. It was yellowish red (5YR 4/6) in color and filled with stones of various sizes that had fallen from the Minoan walls. Many paving slabs of greenish gray metacarbonate were present along with the rest of the fallen material (for metacarbonate, a subvariety of the local limestone, see Betancourt 2001b). The tilted paving slabs were encountered at about 5.58/5.53 m asl. The excavation was continued as a separate pass (unit AF 3D-2), which removed the soil associated with the tilted paving slabs found at the bottom of the higher unit. The pass excavated about 10 cm of soil, from ca. 5.58/5.53 to 5.49/5.43 m asl, exposing

the slabs and demonstrating that they were across the entire room. Only a few small pieces of pottery and some tiny fragments of charcoal were present in the level, which consisted of the fallen floor from the room on the upper story. It had collapsed all at once, falling down into the ground floor. The yellowish red soil was soft, and it only contained small stones and a few sherds. The pottery, from MM IB or MM IIA, provided a date for the end of this phase. After removal of the tilted slabs, a slab pavement resting partly on bedrock (the floor of the room, at 5.49 to 5.43 m asl) was found at the base of the level. Unit AF 3D-5 later removed a small lens of soil from above the floor at the northwest end of the room. The excavation of units AF 3D-3 and AF 3D-4 extended from 5.49/5.43 m asl to ca. 5.20 m asl. This set of units removed the slab floor and investigated under it. Unit AF 3D-3 was excavated in the southern part of the room, and AF 3D-4 was in the northwestern part of the room (bedrock was already visible at the northeast). This pass of 2 units uncovered the floor packing for the paved surface and the fill of soil under the floor. The soil was darker and browner than the sediment in the higher levels (the color was strong brown, 7.5YR 4/6). It was also lumpy and soft, and it contained a few tiny fragments of charcoal. The pottery was not very diagnostic, but its date was in MM IB or early MM II. No traces of architecture were found south of this room, but the south wall of the space was not an exterior wall, so the architecture must have once extended in this direction. The topography south of AF 3D was rocky and uneven, and it would have been difficult to construct a stable structure here. Considering the evidence for several destructions on this part of the site, it is not surprising that little was preserved on this area that consisted mostly of exposed bedrock.

Excavation of Architectural Phase 2 Besides the remains in AF 3D discussed above, Architectural Phase 2 was only explored in two trenches, AF 3C and AF 3E (Ills. 2.1–2.4). Parts of

two rooms were found. The rooms were probably part of the same house, a large building that occupied this part of the peninsula until it was destroyed

ARCHITECTURAL PHASES 1 TO 3 (EARLY PHASE)

Section A–A Illustration 2.2. Plan and section looking west of Rooms AF 3A/B, AF 3C, and AF 3D in Block AF South.

9

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BETANCOURT, NIKOLAIDOU, AND VELONA

Unit AF 3C-4 was the pass removed next, below unit AF 3C-3. It was excavated down to 6.13 m asl. It removed the empty clay floor and the packing beneath it. The pottery was from MM II, with earlier sherds included as well. The level below the floor consisted of loose soil whose color was strong brown (7.5YR 4/6). The packing contained many small bits of charcoal, including carbonized grains. All the soil was water sieved.

Illustration 2.3. Archaeological section of the strata in Room AF 3D and its relation to Room AF 3C, looking west.

at some time within early MM II. The work was supervised by Marianna Nikolaidou. ROOM AF 3C, EARLY LEVELS Strata under the slab floor of the Architectural Phase 3 building were investigated in Room AF 3C. Unit AF 3C-3 was excavated from 6.6/6.48 to 6.23/6.22 m asl. The soil was compact and filled with angular blocks of limestone, slabs of metacarbonate, and tiny pieces of charcoal. Its color was yellowish red (5YR 4/6). Walls at the east and the south were below the level of the paving slabs from Phase 3, demonstrating that the room preceded the later architecture. The latest pottery was from MM II. The fallen slabs of metacarbonate suggested that the house had had an upper floor with a paving of stone slabs. A clay floor was at the base of the pass.

SPACE AF 3E Space AF 3E was a small room visible outside the southeast corner of the Phase 3 building at the south of Block AF (Ill. 2.4). Its excavation uncovered the corner of a small rectangular room whose walls were at a lower level than the Phase 3 architecture. The room had a platform at its west side. Because of the slope of the hill, the upper surface extended from 6.55 m asl (the top of the visible architecture at the north) to 5.83 m asl at the south. The first pass below the surface level (AF 3E-1) excavated down to 6.06/5.79 m asl. The soil was reddish brown (5YR 4/4), compact, and filled with stones fallen from the walls. Only a few sherds were present. The latest sherds were from MM II. The next two passes, AF 3E-2 and AF3 E-3, removed additional fill down to 5.85/5.77 m asl. The soil color was strong brown (7.5YR 4/6). The bottom of the trench was reached with unit AF 3E4. The excavation showed that the room’s poorly preserved walls ran underneath the Phase 3 building that was destroyed at the end of LM IA, confirming that this room was part of its predecessor. Little was found in the space, because the stones from the collapse of the walls had fallen into an almost empty room. No clearly defined floor was present.

Excavation of Architectural Phase 3 A large house was constructed on the site of the Phase 2 building after the earlier building’s destruction (Ill. 2.1). The date of the destruction of Architectural Phase 2 was established by AF 20, a MM IIB carinated cup found beneath the construction of Phase 3. The new building lasted until a violent earthquake destroyed it at the end of LM IA. Although the northwestern part of the structure

survived the destruction, and some of its rooms were remodeled and re-used in a later period (Architectural Phase 5), most of the eastern rooms collapsed and fell into the sea at the end of LM IA. Marianna Nikolaidou supervised most of the excavation, but Eleni Velona oversaw the work in Space AF 4 and in Rooms AF 5A and AF 5B.

ARCHITECTURAL PHASES 1 TO 3 (EARLY PHASE)

ROOM AF 1 The excavation of Room AF 1 uncovered important evidence for the architecture built after the MM IIB destruction (Ill. 2.1; Pls. 2, 3). For this reason, it is discussed along with the other rooms from Phase 3. The walls were so well built that they continued to stand after the LM IA calamity that destroyed Rooms AF 2 and AF 3A/B, but the whole area was remodeled considerably during this later period. The space contained two contexts, a floor level from LM IB and one above it from later. Room AF 1 was interior space until the destruction of LM IA. It held the western half of a U-shaped staircase that ascended to the north with stone steps in this room; the stairs continued up toward the south in wood in Room AF 2. After the LM IA destruction, Space AF 1 became a covered street, and Room AF 2 no longer existed. The deposit in the Room AF 1 consisted of architectural elements from the LM IA phase (including plaster strips from an upstairs floor) along with pottery from the later use of the space.

Illustration 2.4. Plan of the foundation deposit in Rooms AF 3A/B and AF 3C in Block AF South. 1. Shell PS 3612 2. Shell PS 3613 3. Shell PS 3615 4. Shell PS 3616 5. Shell 5 (unnumbered) 6. Shell PS 3669 7. Shell PS 3676 8. Conical cup AF 55 9. Shell PS 3969

11

Before work began, the space and its steps were covered with soil and stones, but several fragments of red-painted plaster were visible on the modern surface. Elevations ranged from 8.60 m asl at the north to 8.00 m asl at the south. The first pass consisted of two units, AF (South)Surface and AF 1-1. They removed the modern surface and collected the plaster visible above ground, excavating down to 8.52/7.93 m asl (the elevation was higher at the north). The compact soil was yellowish red (5YR 5/6) across the western side of the room and redder near the eastern side of the space. Slabs of metacarbonate and a few additional pieces of plaster were found in both soil areas. Unit AF 1-2 continued the excavation of the space, excavating from 8.52/7.93 down to 8.15/7.58 m asl. The hallway held a single, uniform deposit. The soil was compact and hard, yellowish red (5YR 5/6) on the west and redder on the east. The red color was caused from a collapsed mudbrick wall that had once been present on the east between Rooms AF 1 and AF 2. The soil included angular to

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BETANCOURT, NIKOLAIDOU, AND VELONA

roughly squared blocks of limestone from the walls, metacarbonate slabs that had once covered the face of the mudbrick wall, pieces of red-painted plaster strips, chips of metacarbonate, and a few sherds and other artifacts. The plaster strips were throughout the deposit, from the modern surface to the ancient floor (Pl. 3B), indicating that they had originally been used in the upper story. Metacarbonate steps leading up to a landing at the north filled the northern part of the hall (Pl. 2). A sherd from an ogival cup from LM IB-Final (AF 115) shows that the room survived the LM IB destruction visible elsewhere in this block (the designation LM IB-Final is used for the historical phase immediately following the LM IB destruction of Pseira; it is contemporary with the final phase of LM IB Mochlos, as published by Barnard and Brogan [2003]). The soil just above the floor was excavated as unit AF 1-3. The level, ca. 5 cm thick, was soft and brown with no plaster fragments or stones in it. This stratum must have been the sediment that accumulated in the space before the upper parts of the walls and the ceiling collapsed. The latest date of the pottery was LM IB, which showed that this part of the Phase 3 building, including its upper story, was kept clean until the end of LM IA. It survived the LM IA destruction and was still used in LM IB, and this unit is the soil that accumulated on the slab floor during LM IB. Below the stratum of soil, the well-preserved floor was paved with stone slabs (Pl. 2). The floor descended slightly toward the south, from an elevation of 7.50 m asl near the steps to 7.36 m asl at the south of the hallway, which would have created proper drainage for rain falling into the street’s landing at the north and running down the steps in the final days of the area when the ceiling and roof were still intact but the hall was a part of the road system. ROOM AF 2 Room AF 2 was immediately east of Room AF 1 (Ill. 2.1; Pl. 4A). During LM IA it contained the wooden upper part of the staircase whose lower half was in AF 1. Its walls were mostly destroyed at the end of LM IA, and little of the room survived into modern times (see Ill. 2.1; Pl. 4A, upper right of photograph). The peninsula descended steeply to the east beginning at this point, and most of the eastern part of the entire building had collapsed into the sea.

The space was investigated in three units, all of which removed the shallow soil down to Room AF 2’s floor surface. Unit AF 2-1, in the northern part of the space, investigated the remains of the lower parts of a mudbrick wall between Rooms AF 1 and AF 2. It revealed the bottom of the wall (ca. 30 cm thick) and showed that it rested on a stone foundation between the north part of Rooms AF 1 and AF 2, east of the steps in AF 1. It also exposed the north part of a stone wall between these two spaces in the southern half of the room and a poorly preserved patch of floor at the west of Room AF 2 (at an elevation of 7.53 m asl). The soil was brown to dark brown (7.5YR 4/4), compact, and filled with angular stones. Unit AF 2-2, south of unit AF 2-1, excavated the central part of what remained of Space AF 2. The floor here was partly paved with slabs of metacarbonate, and it must have been a closet underneath the wooden part of the staircase. The soil was similar to the sediment removed in unit AF 2-1. Unit AF 2 South-1 explored the southern part of Space AF 2, south of AF 2-2. The small lens of soil here was similar to the sediment removed from the rest of Room AF 2. A separate unit investigated under the floor in the northern part of the space, beneath unit AF 2-1 (which ended at a paved floor at 7.53 m asl). This pass, called AF Drain-1, removed soil from below the paved space. It revealed a natural crack in the limestone bedrock (a natural fissure in the bedrock, not a man-made drain, in spite of the name given to the unit in the trench notebook) whose bottom was at 7.30 m asl. The soil was red terra rossa, consisting of the eroded part of the mudbrick wall between the stone and the wooden parts of the staircase. A complete carinated cup (AF 20) was upside down in the crevice, either from the earlier Phase 2 building or because it was placed there as a foundation deposit under the staircase. It can be assigned to MM IIB, and it provides a terminus post quem for the architecture of Phase 3. ROOM AF 3A/B The soil fill in Room AF 3A/B, the large room south of Space AF 4 and north of Room AF 3C (Ills. 2.1–2.4; Pls. 4, 5), was excavated as a series of passes (Ills. 2.1, 2.4; Pls. 4, 5). This room contained a pillar to help support the roof (it was the lower room of the Minoan architectural arrangement usually

ARCHITECTURAL PHASES 1 TO 3 (EARLY PHASE)

called a pillar crypt). For convenience in recording, the area north of the pillar was designated AF 3A, and the space south of the pillar was called AF 3B, but the entire space was certainly a single room (see Ill. 2.4). The soil fill in Room AF 3A/B was excavated as units AF 3-1, AF 3A-2, AF 3B-1, and AF 3B-2. A paved floor was reached at a level extending from 6.83 m asl in the north part of the room to 6.94 m asl in the southern part of the room, with the upper surfaces of a few slabs slightly higher. All of the deposit across the large room was similar. The soil was compact, and it included angular limestone blocks that had fallen from the walls and large greenish-gray metacarbonate slabs that had collapsed into the room from the upstairs floor above this space. Small chips of metacarbonate (perhaps from a leveling course under the slabs?) were present as well. The soil color was yellowish red (5YR 4/6). Sherds and a few other artifacts were present. The pottery included several Middle Minoan pieces from the soil in the ceiling and roof. The latest pottery was from LM IA. Several items were on the room’s slab floor (at 6.94 to 6.83 m asl). In the northeast corner, a red limestone base was upside down on the slabs where it had fallen from the upper story (found at 6.83 m asl; see Pl. 4 for the base in situ and Pl. 5A for the appearance of its upper surface). Also in the northern part of the room were several lenses of small waterworn pebbles set in clay. This discovery suggests the possibility that the flat roof had been given a layer of pebbles, an architectural detail that has been recorded at Akrotiri on Thera from the same period (Palyvou 2005, 129, fig. 126). Enough flat slabs were found on the floor where they had fallen to show that the entire surface of the upper story above this space was paved with metacarbonate slabs, and they fell into the lower room when the building collapsed. In the southern part of the room (units AF 3B-3 and AF 3B-4), the excavation found an interesting series of objects lying on the floor. The group consisted of several waterworn lumps of Theran pumice, a series of large marine shells from deep water species, and an upside down conical cup (Ill. 2.4). These items were all lying directly on the slabs of the floor and on the threshold between Rooms AF 3A/B and AF 3C, forming a foundation

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deposit for the remodeling of the area after the LM IA destruction (discussed further, below). Most of the pottery from all of Room AF 3A/B consisted of small sherds from MM I–II and earlier. These small fragments must have come from the walls and ceiling that fell into the empty room. The room also yielded stone tools, marine shells, fish bones, and other casual debris, much of which was probably originally in the soil of the ceiling. Units AF 3B-5 and AF 3B-6 were excavated below the floor slabs in the southeastern part of the room, revealing the floor packing under the paved floor. The excavation proceeded from 6.94 to 6.63 m asl, in two passes. The soil color was strong brown (7.5YR 4/6), with a compact consistency. It was mixed with small pieces of smashed metacarbonate. The latest pottery was LM IA (AF 53), providing the date of the building’s construction. The gap between MM IIB when the earlier building was destroyed and the beginning of LM IA when the new architecture was built indicates that this part of the site was empty for a period between Architectural Phases 2 and 3. The final date of the building can be dated closely because of the waterworn lumps of Theran pumice in the foundation deposit buried after its destruction; they came from the Theran eruption near the end of LM IA. ROOM AF 3C, UPPER LEVELS Room AF 3C was the southern room of the Phase 3 building (Ills. 2.1–2.4). Its soil was compact and mixed with stones fallen from the walls and slabs from the upper floor. Units AF 3C-1 and AF 3C-2 were removed as successive passes down to the slab paving at 6.78 m asl, which was a continuation of the slab floor already revealed in Room AF 3A/B. The soil was brown (7.5YR 4/4), but it was redder in the eastern part of the room, suggesting that a mudbrick wall had been above this part of the space on the upper floor. The soil was full of smashed bits of metacarbonate. Part of the foundation deposit of shells was found in this room, on the paved floor near the doorway leading into Space AF 3B (Ill. 2.4). ROOMS AF 5A AND AF 5B Rooms AF 5A and 5B were constructed as a part of Architectural Phase 3 (Ill. 2.5; Pl. 6). They were part of the large building program inaugurated after

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BETANCOURT, NIKOLAIDOU, AND VELONA

Illustration 2.5. State plan and sections of Block AF North, looking east.

ARCHITECTURAL PHASES 1 TO 3 (EARLY PHASE)

the destruction that occurred near the end of MM II. Several of the new walls were destroyed in LM IA at about the time of the volcanic eruption of the island of Thera, but these two well-constructed rooms survived, and they were incorporated into the remodeled building used during Architectural Phase 5. Further remodeling occurred after the LM IB destruction (including the blocking of a doorway between AF 1 and AF 5B, seen in Pls. 6A, 6B). The rooms were reused as late as LM III, and as a result of all this later activity, their excavation did not find

15

any deposit from the original use that ended in LM IA. The deposits in the rooms were from the later periods of its use, and they are discussed below. ROOM AF 10 The landing at the north of the staircase (Ill. 2.5; Pl. 2) was part of the building from Architectural Phase 3, but it survived the LM IA destruction. It became part of the Phase 5 structure, and its only deposit was from the later period.

3

Architectural Phases 3 (Late Phase) to 5 Philip P. Betancourt, Eleni Armpis, George Mitrakis, Marianna Nikolaidou, Eleni Velona, and Fotini Zervaki

This chapter discusses the excavation of the northern part of Block AF. Rooms AF 1, AF 5A, and AF 5B were re-used after the rest of this building was destroyed near the end of LM IA. Additional rooms at the north (Rooms AF 6, AF 7, AF 8, and AF 9) were built across land that had previously been a courtyard, and they were used during LM IB and later. Area AF North was excavated in 1990 and 1991 under the supervision of several trench supervisors: Eleni Armpis, George Mitrakis, Marianna Nikolaidou, Eleni Velona, and Fotini Zervaki. Assistance and advice on the collection and conservation of the painted plaster was provided by Alekos Nikakis. The

excavated fragments of plaster were transported to the Hagios Nikolaos Museum where they were subsequently conserved and mended before study by Maria C. Shaw. Nikos Daskalakis provided technical expertise during the excavation. Jonathan Chapman (1990) and Ian Smith (1991) operated the water separation machine for retrieval of microscopic remains. The theory and practice of this type of machine is discussed by Peterson (2009). Sampling strategy for water sieving is discussed in Chapter 2. Goals for the excavation and general protocols for the work are presented in the same chapter.

Architectural Phase 4 The wall between Building AU and Rooms AF 8 and 9 (the east wall of Building AU) was constructed after Phase 3 and before Phase 5 (Ill. 2.5A). It was assigned to Architectural Phase 4, but no deposits of soil were excavated with the wall because Building

AU was not investigated (McEnroe 1998a). The paving that was uncovered at a lower level than this wall (in Rooms AF 8 and AF 9) pre-dated Phase 4.

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Excavation of Architectural Phase 5 Architectural Phase 5 consisted of the rooms built after the construction of the east wall of Building AU as well as remodeled parts of the building from Architectural Phase 3 (Building AF North, also called the House of the Rhyta). The older rooms consisted of Rooms AF 5A and 5B, as well as the upstairs space above these rooms and also above Room AF 1. The new rooms included Rooms AF 6 to 9 and the upstairs space above them. The staircase in Room AF 1 was no longer in use because of the collapse of Room AF 2, which had included the wooden upper part of the stairs, and the new access to the upper story is unclear. The new building, called the House of the Rhyta, contained an interesting LM IB household shrine on the upstairs floor (discussed by Betancourt 2001a). The building suffered damage at the end of LM IB, and it was casually occupied while it was in a semi-ruined state after then, with the latest sherds (aside from one Byzantine fragment) inside the rooms coming from LM IIIA:2. Considerable rubbish from the shrine remained in the structure after its LM IB destruction, and it fell into the ground floor spaces when the building collapsed at the end of its long history. The site was not built over in later times. ROOMS AF 5A AND AF 5B Rooms AF 5A and AF 5B, which were at the northwest corner of the building from Phase 3 (Ill. 2.5; Pl. 6), were constructed at the beginning of LM IA. Room AF 5A had no door at floor level, and it must have been entered through a ladder from above (such rooms are present in many Pseiran houses). Room AF 5B was immediately south of it. It had an exterior doorway opening from the west and a second doorway at the east, leading into Room AF 1. Originally, it may have been a vestibule for the LM IA building. When the building of Architectural Phase 5 was constructed, both of these rooms became part of it. The doorway leading between Rooms AF 5B and AF 1 was blocked up at this time (Pl. 6B), and Space AF 1 became a public street. The access between Rooms AF 5A and 5B from the upstairs

space above them is unclear. It is possible that there was no access, or it may have been by means of wooden ladders or staircases. Unit AF 5-Surface removed the highest level above both AF 5A and AF 5B. Before excavation, the ground level extended from 9.85 m asl at the north to 9.68 m asl at the south. The division between the two rooms was not visible. The soil was dark brown (5YR 3/2) and filled with decayed leaves and other organic matter. The only wall visible above ground was the large wall at the west of Room AF 1. Unit AF 5-1 also removed soil from across both AF 5A and AF 5B. It excavated from 9.62/9.61 to 9.20/8.93 m asl in the first pass, and it removed large quantities of angular stones with only a little soil. The soil was dark reddish brown (5YR 2.5/2), filled with modern organic matter at the top of the level. A second pass in unit AF 5-1 removed soil down to 9.08/7.09 m asl without changing the unit number. The soil soon became very pale brown (7.5YR 7/4), as the excavation moved below the modern vegetation, but it continued to consist of a fill of angular stones with just a little soil. When enough stones were removed, the upper part of the wall between AF 5A and 5B became visible. The pottery was from LM IB and earlier. Unit AF 5-2 excavated the fill down to 7.83/7.56 m asl, which better revealed the cross-wall’s surface and allowed the trench to be divided between the two rooms. An intact triton shell was found within the rubble in the upper part of Room AF 5A, in unit AF 5-2 (Pl. 6C). ROOM AF 5A The rest of Room AF 5A (Ill. 2.5; Pl. 6C) was excavated in four arbitrary levels, down to 8.03 m asl (units AF 5A-1 to 4). The fill in the room was identical throughout the deposit. The soil ranged from light brown (5YR 6/3) to light gray (7.5YR 7/2). It was loose and filled with angular stones from the collapse of the second story into the space. The floor was empty except for a few small sherds whose latest date was LM IB. One sherd from LM IB-Final (AF 135) was also found in the fill.

ARCHITECTURAL PHASES 3 (LATE PHASE) TO 5

ROOM AF 5B Room AF 5B, the rectangular room south of Room AF 5A (Ill. 2.5; Pls. 6A, 6B), was also excavated in 4 arbitrary passes from 8.76 m asl at the depth where the walls were all clearly visible to 7.53 m asl at the floor (units AF 5B-1 to 4). The deposit in the room was all loose soil that was filled with stones, but the sediment color changed from pass to pass. Unit AF 5B-1 was light brown (6YR 6/3), unit AF 5B-2 was reddish brown (5YR 5/4), unit AF 5B-3 was dark brown (5YR 4/4), and AF 5B-4 was gray (10YR 6/1). These colors had little meaning except for reflecting the various layers of soil that collapsed into the room at the end of its history. The pottery included LM IB sherds, including pieces of a conical rhyton (AF 136) that fell in from the household shrine that was on the second floor in LM IB. ROOM AF 6 Room AF 6 was north of AF 5A and south of AF 7 (Ills. 2.5, 3.1; Pls. 7, 8). It had a door on the east leading to Space AF 11 (the street) and a second door connecting it with Room AF 7. All four walls that defined the room were partly visible before excavation. The work, which was supervised by Eleni Armpis, discovered a succession of levels including four superimposed floor surfaces (Ill. 3.1). Unit AF 6-Surface removed the modern vegetation and the top level of dark soil. Before excavation, the ground was higher at the west than at the east (from 9.84 to 9.16 m asl). The surface soil, especially at the west, was filled with organic matter. Its color was brown to dark brown (10YR 4/3), and it was loose and full of stones, roots, and modern leaves. The bottom of the pass was reached at 9.53/9.13 m asl. Unit AF 6-1 was the first level below the surface. The soil changed appreciably in this level. It was now dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4), and it was more compact. The deposit consisted of a jumble of soil and fallen angular stones including both limestone and metacarbonate. Only a few sherds were found (almost all from LM I). The bottom of the level was reached at 9.40 m asl on the west and 9.10 m asl on the east.

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Unit AF 6-2 continued to excavate the same fill as unit AF 6-1. No changes were noted in the color and consistency of the soil, and many stones continued to be found, especially at the northwest. Only a few sherds were in the unit. The bottom of the stratum was reached at 9.21 m asl on the west and 9.07 m asl on the east. The soil color changed at the beginning of unit AF 6-3 (9.21/9.07 m asl). It was now strong brown (7.5YR 5/6) and less compact. In the southwest corner of the room, the upper parts of a square construction defined by vertical slabs appeared at this depth. A head of a bull-shaped rhyton was found near the center of the room at 8.66 m asl. Several sherds and a few pieces of plaster were also found, mixed with the stones fallen from above. Many of these stones were large metacarbonate slabs. A small lens of charcoal bits and several small seashells were found in the northeast corner at a depth of 8.78 m asl. The slabs, many of which were tilted, suggested that the room above this one had been paved. The slabs were removed, and the unit was completed at 8.88/8.75 m asl. Unit AF 6-4 consisted of the soil lying beneath the fallen slabs and directly on top of a packed soil

Illustration 3.1. Stratigraphical section in Room AF 6, showing the four floors and the strata above them.

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BETANCOURT, ARMPIS, MITRAKIS, NIKOLAIDOU, VELONA, AND ZERVAKI

floor discovered at 8.75/8.65 m asl (Ill. 3.1, labeled the LM IIIA Floor). The soil was all loose, and it did not have any fallen stones in it, suggesting that this unit consisted of the last sediment that had accumulated inside the room before the upper floor collapsed. Its color was strong brown (7.5YR 5/6). A large piece of limestone used as a working platform was discovered near the center of the room. Its upper surface was smoothed from abrasion, and two stone hand tools were in place beside it (AF 473, AF 474). The construction in the southwest corner whose top had been visible in the previous level was revealed as a hearth with a cooking pot in situ inside it. The pottery included both LM IB sherds (AF 199, AF 200) and later pottery, from as late as LM IIIA:2 (AF 203). Unit AF 6-5 excavated the packing under the soil floor at 8.75/8.65 m asl. A second floor was found at 8.54/8.52 m asl (Ill. 3.1). Like the upper one, it was of hard-packed soil. The working platform used in the time of the higher floor had been used with this one as well (Pl. 8B), and two more hand tools were found beside it (AF 476, AF 477). The floor yielded several sherds, fragments of a Late Minoan I marble chalice (AF 521), and other artifacts. The soil was yellowish brown (10YR 4/6). A late sherd in this stratum (AF 203), from LM IIIA, shows that this floor—with the hearth with its broken but still serviceable cooking pot (AF 194)—was laid down well after the LM IB destruction and that the house continued to be used even when it was in a partly ruined condition. One assumes that a hole in the roof allowed the smoke from the make-shift hearth to exit at the room’s southwest corner. Unit AF 6-6 was excavated beneath the floor found at 8.54/8.52 m asl. The unit removed the floor packing and revealed a third floor at 8.48 m asl. Like the two higher floors in this room, it was of hard-packed soil. The soil was strong brown in color (7.5YR 5/6). Tiny stones and a few sherds were in the soil beneath the third floor (Ill. 3.1). The pottery on this floor was all from LM IB (AF 186, AF 187). Unit AF 6-7 was excavated below the third floor, and a fourth floor was found at 8.42 m asl. It used bedrock in the northwest corner and soil over the rest of the room. This floor had a worked quern or mortar on it (AF 480, Pl. 8B). A mortar was carved into the bedrock part of the floor (Pl. 8C). The soil

was strong brown in color (7.5YR 5/6), and packed tightly. Small stones and a few sherds were in the soil. The date of the pottery on the floor was LM IB (AF 183). ROOM AF 7 Room AF 7 was north of Room AF 6 (see Ill. 2.5 and Pl. 9A, at the right of the photograph). The walls were visible before excavation, and the digging proceeded with a succession of passes inside the room. The only door was in the south wall, connecting this room with Room AF 6. The work was supervised by George Mitrakis. Unit AF 7-1, the first unit after the removal of vegetation, lifted loose stones on the surface and excavated the first level, from 10.06/9.55 to 9.41/9.37 m asl. The soil was yellowish brown (10YR 5/4). It consisted of loose fill with many stones. Only a few sherds were present. Unit AF 7-2 was below AF 7-1. It was excavated from 9.41/9.37 to 9.04/8.86 m asl. The soil was more compact, but it continued to be full of angular stones. Soil color was strong brown (7.5YR 4/6). Sherds, stone tools, and a few small bits of charcoal (under 1 cm in size) were present. Most of the pottery was from LM IB. Unit AF 7-3 continued the removal of the fill in the room. The unit was changed for recording purposes, but this was the same stratum as unit AF 72. It was excavated from 9.04/8.86 to 8.89/8.65 m asl. The top of a mudbrick wall appeared in the southeast corner of the room in this unit. The soil color was dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2). It consisted of loose, sandy soil with a very fine texture. The stratum of dark grayish brown soil was thicker along the eastern wall and thinner at the west and north. Finds included a piece of pumice, a small quartz crystal, 3 pieces of carbonized bones, and several sherds. Most of the pottery was from LM I, but a body sherd from a flask was later, and Floyd dates it to LM IIIA:2 (AF 257). Units AF 7-4 to AF 7-7 completed the clearing of the room down to its floor at 8.41 m asl. The soil was all similar. It was loose and filled with stones from the collapse of walls, and the division between units was arbitrary. The small mudbrick wall at the southeast corner defined a small compartment, but otherwise the room was empty. Joins of pottery sherds between the units (such as AF 232) confirmed that

ARCHITECTURAL PHASES 3 (LATE PHASE) TO 5

the fill was all a single stratum. Many of the sherds were from LM IB. Two sherds (AF 255 and AF 256) were from LM IB-Final. ROOM AF 8 Room AF 8 was at the northwest corner of the building (Ill. 3.2; Pls. 9B, 10, 11). It was a rectangular room with a mudbrick wall at the south that

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divided this space from Room AF 9. The west wall (Pl. 10A) was the outside wall of Building AU, which had been constructed before the building of Room AF 8. The east wall divided Room AF 8 from AF 7, a room on a lower terrace. An exterior door was originally in the west end of the north wall. The building was severely damaged at the end of LM IB, and it may have been partly burned

Illustration 3.2. State plan in Rooms AF 8 and AF 9 and architectural section A-A, looking west.

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at this time. Debris from this partial destruction was especially prevalent at the northwest corner of the structure where many LM IB pithos fragments with marks of burning were found. They had either fallen or been dumped here by people who used Room AF 8 in an informal way after the structure was partly destroyed. A feature at the east of Room 8 was destroyed at this time, and later partial cleaning out of the ruins resulted in a new configuration. Some of the northeast corner of Room AF 8 (where it extended north of Room AF 7) either collapsed or had its stones robbed out at some point, and the rest of the front of the building was damaged. After LM IB, access into the building was provided by walking over a pile of rubble at the doorway. Apparently the room was used in a very casual way until LM IIIA:2. The excavations in Room AF 8 were supervised by Fotini Zervaki. Before excavation, the area was covered with stones and very light vegetation. Only some of the walls were visible, Unit AF 8-1 was the first unit excavated. It was the surface layer, consisting of compact soil that was full of stones and roots. Excavation began at 10.03 m asl and continued to 9.87 m asl. The soil was yellowish brown (10YR 5/4). The north wall of the room was not yet visible because it was below a pile of stones, but the east and west walls could be seen clearly. Many stones were in the level along with sherds mixed in at random. Unit AF 8-1N was an extension of trench AF 81 1.5 meters to the north. It was designed to find the north wall of the room. It removed loose stones and soil like that in the rest of the trench, but it did not find the wall in this level, which was no lower than 9.87 m asl. The pottery was mostly Minoan, but it included one Byzantine amphora fragment (PS 3635). Unit AF 8-1 Surface Outside to the North was a further extension of unit AF 8-1, extending a meter east of unit AF 8-1N, in an area that before excavation was thought to be outside the building at the north. It clarified the situation considerably, and it discovered an east–west wall just north of the existing trench inside Room AF 8. The wall did not have a corner connecting it to Room AF 8, but the orientation indicated it was probably the north wall of the room.

Unit AF 8-2 was excavated inside Room AF 8, below unit AF 8-1. It removed soil and stones from 9.87 to 9.75 m asl. The soil was similar to the soil in unit AF 8-1. It was yellowish brown (10YR 5/4) and filled with metacarbonate slabs and angular limestone fieldstones. Many sherds, including pieces of several LM IB rhyta, were mixed with the slabs that had fallen in from the upper story. For the next pass, the trench was divided between units AF 8-2W (at the west), AF 8-2N (at the north), and AF 8-2 Outside to the North, and excavation proceeded down to 9.70/9.61 m asl. All the units removed fill that had fallen into the room. Unit AF 8-2N, in the north part of the room, excavated down to 9.70 m asl. The yellowish-brown soil (10YR 5/4) was loose fill containing many sherds as well as angular stones and fallen paving slabs. Several fragments of rhyta were found in this part of the room among the fallen slabs. Unit AF 8-2W was excavated at the west. This part of the trench contained a fill of stones and soil whose color and consistency was like the deposit in the north part of the room. At 9.68 m asl the soil color changed, and the unit was completed. Unit AF 8-2 Outside to the North was the second unit in the extension outside the original trench in AF 8. It was excavated from 9.80/9.60 to 9.65/9.10 m asl, removing the rubble behind the short east– west wall discovered in the previous pass. Besides the stones, this rubble contained a large number of large LM I pithos fragments. The soil was dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4). One could not yet tell if this wall was the north wall of Room AF 8 or part of another building to the north. The units of the next pass continued to excavate individual parts of the room separately. They were below the previous passes, beginning at 9.68 m asl where the soil color changed to yellowish red (5YR 4/6). The character of the room was now very different in its two halves, with the eastern half consisting of a mass of stones and rubble. It is possible that this rubble was the remains of a staircase that led to the upper floor. Unit AF 8-3W was excavated near the western wall, in the western part of the room. The soil was harder than in the previous level, beginning at 9.68 m asl. Its color was yellowish red (5YR 4/6). Although this level was not recognized as a floor at

ARCHITECTURAL PHASES 3 (LATE PHASE) TO 5

the time of excavation, subsequent analysis suggests that it must have been near the floor used in the last occupation of the building. A sherd from a deep bowl (AF 326, from LM IIIA:2) was found here, establishing the date for the use of this very irregular, rubble-filled surface as a floor. The pass ended at 9.44 m asl. Unit AF 8-3 was the pass that removed from the eastern half of the room. The soil was soft (it had never been walked on), and it had angular stones and slabs in it. It was later determined to be either the ruined part of the base of a destroyed staircase or the lower part of a stone bench or platform. Soil color was yellowish red (5YR 4/6). The area was excavated down to 9.44 m asl, and it continued to be different from the western part of the room. Unit AF 8-3N was at the north of the room, in the entrance area. It was excavated from 9.70/9.68 down to 9.55 m asl. Many loose stones were removed, revealing a north–south wall at the east of a narrow vestibule just inside the entrance at the northwest corner of the building. As in the rest of this level, the soil color was yellowish red (5YR 4/6). The pottery was from LM IB (AF 322). Unit AF 8 N of N Wall was the unit that was excavated northeast of unit AF 8-3N. It removed soil and stones down to the level of the threshold and paved street north of the north wall of the room. This trench showed that the east–west wall discovered previously was the north wall of Room 8. It was constructed over an earlier paved street. This street must have originally been an east–west road beside the north side of Building AU, which was already standing when the Phase 5 Building was added up against it. This unit also uncovered the northeast corner of Room AF 8. Whether the stone rubble at the east of the room was a staircase or not was never clarified. The next lower pass continued to divide the room into different sections for more precise recording. The eastern subsection (unit AF 8-4) excavated the feature that may have been a stone platform or a ruined staircase at the east side of the room (Pl. 10A), and the western subsection (unit AF 8-4W) excavated the habitation layer. Unit AF 8-4W was excavated in the western side of the room. The pass began at a change in soil color at 9.44 and ended at 9.25 m asl. The new soil was

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strong brown in color (7.5YR 4/6). Many sherds were found in this level. The pass uncovered the foundation course for the west wall of the room (the east wall of Building AU) at 9.38 m asl. Below the lowest course of the wall, the foundation stones were wider than the wall, irregular in shape, and positioned so that they extended beyond the face of the wall (Pl. 10A). The sherds found in this level were all from LM IB and earlier. Unit AF 8-4 was excavated at the east of the room. The pass began at 9.44 m asl and ended at 9.20 m asl. Stone slabs that were first seen in the previous unit were more clearly revealed. They were diagonally positioned (not flat), and they were clearly part of a rubble fill in this part of the room. The soil was soft, and the unit included only a few artifacts (a piece of waterworn Theran pumice, a piece of plaster, and a few sherds). If the rubble had once been a staircase, it would have continued up to a landing at the southeast of the room, and then it would have continued upward in wood over Room AF 7. The bottom of a platform (perhaps the base for the staircase landing?) was found in this unit at the southeast corner of the room. At the dividing line between Rooms AF 8 and AF 9, adjacent to the room’s east wall, an upside down conical cup (AF 291) and a piece of pumice were positioned under the location of the mudbrick wall whose remains had been seen in a higher level in Room AF 9. This cup had apparently been a foundation deposit below the mudbrick wall. Unit AF 8-4NE Corner Feature was a unit that investigated a space at the northeast of the room where two vertical slabs were set with a north–south orientation (Pl. 10A, at the left of the photograph). The space east of the slabs contained rubble fill consisting of soil, stones, and small sherds. Unit AF 8-4N was the excavation of the entrance at the northwest corner, a space 1.25 m north–south by 0.75 m east–west. The pass removed soil from 9.55 to 9.35 m asl. The soil’s color was strong brown (7.5YR 4/6). It was sandy and soft, and it lay over an irregularly paved area just inside the building. The four divisions of the room were continued in the next pass (AF 8-5W, AF 8-5, AF 8-5N, AF 8-5NE Corner). The new units were under the earlier ones. Unit AF 8-5W removed the soil in the west part of the room. The soil’s color was strong brown

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Illustration 3.3. State plan and stratigraphical section in Room AF 9, showing the units. 1. surface stratum; 2. fallen debris; 3. fallen debris; 4. just above final floor in room; 5. floor level, LM II to LM IIIA; 6. floor level, LM IB.

(7.5YR 5/6), and it was looser than the hardpacked soil above it. A few sherds were present, but no complete vessels were on the slabs. The date of the pottery was all LM IB and earlier. The excavation continued down to a surface paved with slabs at ca. 9.28 m asl (Pls. 9B, 10A). The floor was very irregular, and the paving was uneven. In terms of stratigraphy, the paving cannot have been the original surface planned when Building AU was the only structure here because it was well below the bottom of Building AU’s east wall, which was now being uncovered as the west wall of the room. The paving was originally earlier (either Middle Minoan or LM IA) and below the level of Building AU, but the LM IB sherds lying on it showed that it had been used as an interior floor for

Room AF 8. Since this architectural situation created an uneven floor, one must conclude that this room was a service and storage area for the more important rooms that were upstairs where the shrine was located. The removal of unit AF 8-5 in the east part of the room revealed the base of the stone feature. The soil was strong brown (7.5YR 5/6). A few sherds were found, including a fragment of AF 324, a deep bowl assigned by Floyd to LM IIIA:2. Most of the sherds in this mixed deposit were from LM I (AF 262, AF 263, AF 268). Unit AF 8-5NE Corner Feature was north of AF 8-5. The soil was identical to the soil in the rest of the level. The excavation uncovered the lower parts of the two metacarbonate slabs that were positioned on edge, oriented north and south. Unit AF 8-5N was the unit excavated in the entrance space below unit AF 8-4N. It was excavated from 9.35 to 9.20 m asl. The soil was like the rest of the level, and it rested on paving stones. The pottery was all LM IB or earlier. Units AF 8-6 and AF 8 & AF 9 Cleaning of West Wall cleaned the east wall of Building AU (Pl. 10A). Soil was also removed from its northern end. The work showed that the wall was all built as a single construction stage, in spite of a slight offset near the center of the wall. ROOM AF 9 Room AF 9 was south of Room AF 8 and west of Room AF 6 (Ills. 3.2, 3.3; Pl. 11A, B). Like Room AF 8, its east and west walls could be traced before excavation, but its south wall was not visible. The excavation was supervised by Fotini Zervaki. The excavation discovered a succession of floors in the room (Ill. 3.2). Unit AF 9-1 was the first pass in the room. The soil color was yellowish brown (10YR 5/4), and it was very loose. Only a few stones were present. The elevation before excavation was 10.15 to 9.75 m asl. The bottom of the unit was at 10.12 to 9.68. m asl. Very little was present in this surface stratum. Unit AF 9-2 was the next lower pass. It removed soil from 10.12/9.68 to 9.63/9.58 m asl. The soil color and consistency were like those of the first pass. This level had a larger number of stones in it, but no architectural features were present. The stones were most numerous along the west wall.

ARCHITECTURAL PHASES 3 (LATE PHASE) TO 5

The sherds were from LM IB (AF 394, AF 396) and earlier. Unit AF 9-3 began at a change in soil color at 9.58 m asl. The pass excavated down to 9.48/9.35 m asl. The soil color was now dark brown (7.5YR 4/4). The south wall of the room could now be defined, and angular stones from the upper walls continued to appear in this stratum. A few flat slabs of metacarbonate started to appear as well. The latest sherds were from LM IB (AF 309, AF 393, AF 395–397). Unit AF 9-4 was excavated below unit AF 9-3, from 9.48/9.35 to 9.30/9.10 m asl. The soil was harder along the western side of the room than along the eastern side. The soil color was yellowish red (5YR 5/6) to brown (7.5YR 5/4), with the redder color all at the north end of the room. The redder color here appeared to be a collapsed mudbrick wall that had fallen and dissolved. The upper foundation course for the west wall appeared at this level, so the floor was not recognized here during excavation, but many sherds were collected from this level. In addition to some earlier sherds, the fragments from this level came from both LM IB (AF 367, AF 373, AF 376) and LM IB-Final (AF 378, AF 379). One sherd was placed by Floyd in LM IIIA:2 (AF 381). Because this level included the fallen mudbrick wall, it must have been near the final floor of the room. Unit AF 9-5 was excavated under AF 9-4, from 9.30/9.10 to 9.05/8.90 m asl. The soil color was

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yellowish brown (10YR 5/4). It was harder toward the south and looser toward the north. The dissolved mudbrick wall was still visible in this level, at the north of the room, so this pass was still excavating the floor level used in the last phase of the room. Many sherds were found at this level. They included LM IB sherds (AF 364–366, AF 368– 375) as well as sherds from LM IB-Final (AF 394, AF 396) and one sherd from LM IIIA:2 (AF 380). Earlier pieces were also present. The pass ended at the point where the soil color changed from yellowish brown to strong brown (7.5YR 4/6). This depth was near the level used as the floor in the final phase of the room, after the partial destruction of the building in LM IB. Unit AF 9-6 was the next pass. It excavated from 9.05/8.90 to 8.86 m asl, and it removed soil that was strong brown (7.5YR 4/6). A conical cup (AF 342) and a piece of pumice were found in this stratum. Additional conical cups and 2 sea pebbles were at this level next to the east wall. Two of the cups were upside down (Pl. 11B). Only LM IB pottery was in this stratum. A floor at the bottom of this level (at 8.90 to 8.86 m asl) consisted partly of bedrock and partly of paving slabs, with a lens of packed soil near the south wall. The LM IB pottery was lying on this flat surface, which seems to have been the first floor in the room. Other artifacts from the floor included a polishing tool made of Theran pumice (AF 495), a clay weight (AF 535), a celt (AF 494), and two additional hand tools (AF 496, AF 497).

Excavation of the Exterior Spaces SPACE AF 4 Space AF 4 was a short east–west paved corridor south of Room AF 5B (Ill. 2.1; Pl. 12). It was the eastern end of a street that ran uphill along the south side of Buildings AE and AU, and it must have been one of the ways to enter the Phase 3 building of Block AF. Whether or not it was roofed in its earliest period is uncertain, but by LM IB it was open to the sky. A bench was placed on the north side of the space The surface was removed as unit AF 4-Surface, and the work continued in three passes, units AF 4-1, AF 4-2, and AF 4-3. The paving was reached at

the base of AF 4-3, at an elevation of 7.36 m asl. The soil color was reddish yellow (7.5YR 7/6) in unit AF 4-14-1, dark brown (5YR 4/4) in AF 4-2, and light reddish brown (5YR 6/4) in unit AF 4-3, but the soil consistency, the presence of many angular stones, and the date of the pottery remained the same throughout the deposit. The paved surface was empty. SPACE AF 10 Space AF 10 was the landing at the top of the stone flight of stairs in Room AF 1 (Ill. 2.5; Pl. 2). It measured ca. 1.5 m east–west and 2.5 m north–south.

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It was part of the interior of the Phase 3 building, and it became part of the street system in Phase 5. A single pass, unit AF 10-Surface, removed 10 cm of strong brown soil (7.5YR 5/6) from the top of the stone landing. The latest pottery was from LM IB. SPACE AF 11 Space AF 11 was the street east and north of the Phase 5 building (Ill. 2.5; Pl. 13A, B). Its excavation was supervised by Eleni Armpis. The shallow deposit in the street (10 to 35 cm of stones and rubble) was excavated as 2 units, and individual finds were plotted in as they were found. Very little was found east of the building, but a deposit that consisted mostly of broken pithos fragments was found north of the structure. The street was partly paved with metacarbonate slabs and partly surfaced with hard-packed soil (Pl. 13A). The latest date of

the pottery in the rubble on top of the street’s surface was LM IB. Cleaning on the north side of the building in 2006 clarified its architecture. The LM IB building had an entrance at the west side of the north wall, with a L-shaped bench immediately east of the doorway (Pl. 13B, C). After the house was partly burned during the LM IB destruction, the rough wall shown at the lower center of Plate 10B was constructed along the western part of the structure’s north facade, and rubble was placed between it and the building’s north wall, apparently to give the older wall some additional support and prevent it from collapsing. This operation buried the bench and created a buttress at the north of the building so that Rooms 8 and 9 could still be used. The cleaning in 2006 removed the rubble, revealing the LM I bench.

Part II

Architecture and Material Culture

4

Architecture in Block AF South John C. McEnroe

The buildings in Block AF South were built close to bedrock. The location, at the southern tip of the peninsula, meant that the architecture was exposed on three sides (Ill. 1.2). As a result, the area has been severely eroded since the Bronze Age. Lost areas include the entire east side, much of the south side, and the northeast corner. While the erosion has damaged much of the latest Minoan structure, it has provided us with a rare opportunity to investigate at least small parts of the earlier buildings that underlie the later Minoan walls.

Parts of three distinct chronological phases can be distinguished. The earliest of them (MM I– II) includes the walls and pavement in Space AF 3D (Ills. 2.2, 2.3). The walls in AF 3E and the early levels below the floor in AF 3C (Ill. 2.1) belong to Phase 2 (MM II). The most extensive remains belong to the latest building. This third phase building complex continued to the north and included the original phases of Rooms AF 1, AF 5A, and AF 5B (see Block AF North, Ch. 5).

Materials and Techniques BEFORE ARCHITECTURAL PHASE 1 The wall that establishes the west facade of Block AF South (Ills. 2.1, 4.1) seems to have been one of the earliest constructions in the area, and it is also one of the most massive. It is built of large rubble and megalithic limestone boulders.

ARCHITECTURAL PHASES 1 AND 2 Walls for AF 3D can be assigned to Architectural Phase 1 (Ill. 4.2). Space AF 3E and part of a room found under the Phase 3 stratum of AF 3C are from Phase 2. An unusual style of masonry was used for the south facade of Space

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Illustration 4.1. The west wall of Block AF South, probably built before Architectural Phase 1, shown in black.

Illustration 4.2. Walls at the south of the block, Architectural Phases 1 and 2, shown in black.

AF 3C and for the southwest corner of Space AF 3D. Near the corners of these two walls, the builders used huge slabs set on edge. The one in the south wall of Room AF 3C is 1.33 m long by 0.50 m thick by 0.98 m high. The south facade of Space AF 3D is megalithic. The interior walls are not well preserved, but they appear to be of uncoursed rubble and slabs.

Rooms AF 3A, AF 3B, and AF 3C form a single continuous space with a short partition wall dividing AF 3B from AF 3C (Ills. 2.1, 4.3; Pl. 4). There are several interesting structural features in this room. Near the center of the northern part of the room is a pillar built of limestone blocks (Pl. 4). A carefully dressed column base of hard pale red limestone was found nearby (Ill. 4.4; Pls. 4, 5). It is ca. 0.37 m in diameter and 0.14 m thick. The base was found in association with paving slabs that had fallen from the second story. Presumably, the column base was originally on the second story above the groundstory pillar. The floor of the ground story was paved with slabs of metacarbonate and hard blue limestone (Pl. 4). An interesting cut sandstone slab, 0.40 m by 0.34 m by 0.025 m thick, was set into the floor just to the

ARCHITECTURAL PHASE 3 The massive west wall of Block AF South was partly rebuilt during this period. The north facade of Space AF 3A is of coursed large slabs. Near the door, this wall makes an interesting angle, apparently to provide easier access to the door in the east end of Space AF 4, which is a rather narrow street (Ill. 4.3).

ARCHITECTURE IN BLOCK AF SOUTH

west of the pillar (Ill. 4.4). A small section of pebble paving was found in the northwest corner of the room (fallen from the upper levels of the building). Three unusual walls define Space AF 3F (Ill. 4.3). These walls are extremely thin. Made of small

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slabs, they rise only a few centimeters above the surface. They may be the bases of partitions carried up in another material, perhaps mudbrick. Similar walls are used in the interior of Building BS/BV, in Wing BV (McEnroe 1998b, 24).

Building Sequence ARCHITECTURAL PHASE 1 The massive west facade of Block AF South established an important limit for the southern part of the settlement throughout its long history (Ill. 4.1). Even within the early period, this wall was rebuilt at least once. The upper part of the western wall of Space AF 3D was built over the original megalithic blocks, so their original construction precedes the first phase.

also built during this phase as a continuation of the same building complex, if not of the same building (see Area AF North, Ch. 5).

ARCHITECTURAL PHASE 2 The west wall of Space AF 3E marks the beginning of the second phase (Ill. 4.2). It is bonded with the other walls of the room. The wall between Spaces AF 3C and AF 3D was probably built at about the same time. It was butted against the west wall of AF 3C, but it is quite similar in construction. It was built over the first phase constructions. ARCHITECTURAL PHASE 3 IN BUILDING AF SOUTH The southern Phase 3 building (Building AF South) incorporated some of the earlier walls for its south and west facades (Ill. 4.3). This later building was constructed at a higher level. Its slab pavement extended over the earlier levels in the south part of Room AF 3C. The east side of the building is not well preserved, and it is difficult to understand. The thin walls that define Space AF 3F may belong roughly to this third period. The south wall of the room is built over part of the earlier north wall of Space AF 3E. The strange construction just outside the northwest corner of AF 3F (Ill. 1.2) is not intelligible. The southern rooms of Block AF North (Rooms AF 1, AF 5A, and AF 5B), making up part of Building AF South, were

Illustration 4.3. Architectural Phase 3 in Block AF South, shown in black.

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Room Descriptions ROOMS AF 3A, AF 3B, AND AF 3C IN BUILDING AF SOUTH Most of the remains of the third phase belong to a single room, entered by a doorway 0.85 m wide. The north wall is 2.45 m long and 0.75 m thick, and it stands 0.90 m high (with 4 courses). The west wall is preserved for a length of ca. 7 m. It is 0.92 m thick and 0.80 m high. A partition wall, 1.58 m long, 0.44 m thick, and 0.38 m high, separates Space AF 3B from Space AF 3C. The south wall is preserved only below the level of the floor. It is ca. 3.62 m long and 0.80 m thick. A low platform of rubble was built against the west wall. The purpose of the construction in the southeast corner

of Room AF 3A/B is unclear. It forms a doorway 0.60 wide with the partition wall. The northeast corner of the room is unclear, as is the division between Block AF South and Block AF North. It is clear, however, that the southern rooms of Block AF North (Rooms AF 5A, AF 5B, and AF 1) were closely associated with this structure. Only later were they incorporated into the later LM building that was built to the north. During this period (Phase 3), the southern rooms of Block AF North were directly associated with Spaces AF 3A to AF 3C. SPACE AF 3D Space AF 3D (from Architectural Phase 1) is confined to the early levels southwest of the Phase 3 building. The west wall is about 2 m long. Its south end forms a right angle with another wall that is preserved for a length of 0.80 m. The two walls seem to partly frame a surface made of small slabs. SPACE AF 3E Space AF 3E is a small rectangular space below the level of the Phase 3 slab floor. Its northwest corner is covered by later construction, and little of the east side is preserved. A platform built against its west wall fills much of the interior. The west wall is preserved for a length of ca 2.75 m, and the south wall is about 3.00 m long.

Illustration 4.4. Column base and cut slab buried in the floor of Room AF 3/4.

SPACE AF 3F Space AF 3F is located at the southeast corner of AF 3A/B. Its south wall runs over a section of the north wall of the architecture of Phase 2, Space AF 3E. It may, therefore, belong either to Phase 3, or to an intermediary phase. The north wall is 1.19 m long, 0.32 m thick, and 0.17 m high. The south wall is preserved for a length of 0.50 m. It is 0.31 m thick and 0.12 m high. The west wall is 1.17 m long, 0.42 m wide, and 0.19 m high. These thin walls of coursed small slabs standing less than 0.20 m high are reminiscent of the similar partition wall bases in Wing BV of Building BS/BV (see McEnroe 1998b, 24).

5

Architecture in Block AF North John C. McEnroe

Compared to most of the rest of the site, Block AF North is remarkably well preserved (Ill. 2.5; Pls. 7– 13). Many of the walls stand to an impressive height. Problems are presented by the loss of the eastern edge of the area and some confusion in the northwest corner. Block AF North was the product of a long and complex building history involving a series of constructions, demolitions, re-use, additions, and alterations. At the time of the LM IB destruction, Area AF comprised parts of two distinct blocks. In the southeast

corner, Rooms AF 1, AF 2, AF 5A, and AF 5B belonged to a relatively early structure, which had originally extended farther to the east. Rooms AF 6, AF 7, AF 8, and AF 9 formed a second building constructed against existing buildings on the west and south. The evidence does not indicate with certainty whether or not the two structures in Block AF had access between them on the upper story, but finds of rhyta from both lower stories suggest a connection during LM IB is possible.

Materials and Techniques It is possible to gain some idea of the complexity of the buildings by briefly noting some of the construction styles they employ. Block AF North may have a greater range of masonry styles than any other single location at the site. Nearly every type is represented: uncoursed slabs and rubble (Room AF 8, east wall), coursed large rubble (Room AF 9, west wall), coursed slabs (Room AF 1, north wall), megalithic blocks (east facade of Room AF 5A), upright slabs (east facade of Room AF 5B), pseudo-isodomic masonry (Room AF 8, west wall), mudbrick (Rooms

AF 7 and AF 8), and mudbrick with metacarbonate dado slabs (Room AF 1). Slabs fallen into the ground story rooms indicate that the architecture had a second story and that at least part of the upper story was paved. In Room AF 1, strips of plaster were found (Pl. 3B). These strips had fallen from the upper story. Some of them preserved traces of red paint, and most of them showed evidence of having belonged to an upper story floor (see Shaw and Betancourt, Ch. 11 in this volume).

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As we shall see, that floor probably predated the final use of the house. The stairway in Room AF 1 is particularly interesting (Pl. 2). The massive flight leads down to the south. Clear remains of a mudbrick partition wall with metacarbonate dado slabs run along the east side of the southern flight. Analogy with the stairs in Room BS 7/BS 9 (Betancourt and Davaras, eds., 1998b, pl. 10A) suggests that this marked the side of a wooden return flight that climbed up to the south. The configuration of this stairway was

much altered during its final use when it became incorporated into the street system. Much of the variety in the construction techniques, especially in masonry types, was related to the specific functions of the walls. Exterior walls, for example, were generally stronger and more impressively built than interior walls. Other differences in masonry styles, however, are related to the complex history of the building. To cite one example, the megalithic west facade of Room AF 5A was built long before any of the rooms to the north.

Building Sequence The complex development of Block AF North can be divided into three main building phases. The earliest of these is contemporary with the third phase of the adjacent architecture in Block AF South. ARCHITECTURAL PHASE 3 The structure consisting of Rooms AF 1, AF 2, AF 5A, and AF 5B was built during the third architectural phase (Ill. 5.1). Room AF 5A is the earliest room in the area. It appears to have been built at about the same time as Spaces AF 3A to 3C. In fact, its megalithic west facade is basically a continuation of the west facade of Block AF South. Several other features in Block AF North were built during the same period. The stairway, Room AF 1 (Pl. 2), was built against the east wall of Room AF 5A, probably as a part of the same building program. Short segments of east–west walls framing the northern flight of stairs are all that remain of the eastward extension of the building. A similar early east–west wall fragment can be seen just north of the doorway into Room AF 6. This wall was revealed when Seager dug through a section of the later pavement in Space AF 11. What appears to be a corner of a low terrace wall at a low level between Rooms AF 8 and AF 9 may belong to this period (see Ill. 2.5A), as do the early pavements in Rooms AF 8, AF 9, and AF 5B (Pls. 9B, 10A, 11A). The pavement in Room AF 5B, for example, runs beneath the walls of the room, and it is essentially a continuation of the pavement of Space AF 3A.

It was, therefore, at least slightly later in this phase that Room AF 5B was built. This unusual room originally had two doorways facing one another on the east and west walls. At a later point, perhaps in Phase 5, the doorway was blocked (Pl. 6B; for pottery providing a date for this blocking operation, see AF 414).

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BLOCK AF NORTH PHASE 3

Illustration 5.1. Architectural Phase 3 in Block AF North.

ARCHITECTURE IN BLOCK AF NORTH

Rooms AF 5A, AF 5B, and AF 1 were originally parts of the same building complex as Space AF 3A to AF 3C. Other parts of this complex apparently continued to the east and to the north. In Phase 5, when most of the early rooms had gone out of use, Rooms AF 5A, AF 5B, and AF 1 were incorporated into a new building on the northwest. ARCHITECTURAL PHASE 4 Building AU was built during the fourth architectural phase (Ill. 5.2). Its impressive east facade (Pl. 10A) was constructed in two stages. The northern section was built first, and the southern section was added against it. To build the pseudoisodomic section, the builders cut a foundation trench into the earlier levels and eventually covered the earlier pavements to a level above the foundation courses of the wall. Originally, Building AU was entirely independent of anything in Block AF. It may have been separated from Room AF 5A by an open area or a street. In the final, fifth phase, the two buildings were joined.

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BLOCK AF NORTH PHASE 4

Illustration 5.2. Architectural Phase 4 with the east wall of Building AU, shown in black.

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ARCHITECTURAL PHASE 5 Rooms AF 6, AF 7, AF 8, and AF 9 belong to the fifth phase (Ills. 2.5, 5.3). They form a small building built against the facade of Building AU and over the original north end of Room 5A. This new construction follows the basic orientation of Building AU, and it is distinctly different from the orientation of the Phase 3 buildings. In Rooms AF 6 and AF 7, the builders removed all the soil down to bedrock. In Rooms AF 8 and AF 9, they excavated down to the Phase 3 slab pavement (Pl. 10A), which they reused as a floor surface. A deposit of inverted conical cups was placed on the corner of the old pavement beneath a new mudbrick wall that separated Room AF 8 from Room AF 9 (Pl. 11B). A few alterations were carried out within Architectural Phase 5. Excavation revealed three superimposed floor levels of packed soil in Room AF 6, for example (Ill. 3.1), all above the level of the bedrock used as the original LM IB floor. A street (Space AF 11, Pl. 13A) was built along the east side of the new building. The street covered

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BLOCK AF NORTH PHASE 5

Illustration 5.3. Architectural Phase 5 in Block AF North, shown in black.

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an earlier (Phase 3?) wall, which had gone out of use. This street was continued to the south by converting the earlier stairway and landing in Room

AF 1 (Pl. 2) from an interior stairway to an exterior stepped street.

Room Descriptions for the Block Consisting of Rooms AF 1, AF 2, AF 5A, and AF 5B, Architectural Phase 3 ROOM AF 1 The original design of this stairway (Pls. 2, 3A) was discussed in the section on materials and techniques. In addition to the preserved flight of this stairway, a wooden return flight paralleled the south flight and climbed to the second floor. It was probably the room at this level that had the painted plaster floor. Most of the building to which the stairway originally belonged went out of use by the fifth phase. When Rooms AF 5A and AF 5B were incorporated into the new building, the stairway became part of the street system. The flight of stairs is 1.08 m wide. It has five steps between the floor and the landing (for their elevations, see Ill. 2.5). ROOM AF 5A In the final phase of the house (Building AF North), Room AF 5A was a small doorless space (Ill. 2.1). Its floor was originally ca. 0.65 m above bedrock. The north wall is 1.30 m long and 0.58 m

thick, and it stands 1.47 m above the level of the bedrock. The south wall is 1.03 m long, 0.69 m thick, and 1.31 m high (11 courses). The east wall is 2.30 m long, 0.55 m thick, and 1.37 m high (9 courses). The west wall is 2.56 m long, 0.76 m thick, and 1.60 m high (5 courses). ROOM AF 5B Originally, Room AF 5B was a paved vestibule belonging to the Architectural Phase 3 structure (Ill. 2.1). Entered from the west, a second door led to the stairway, Room AF 1. It may have been in Phase 5 (when the stairway became a part of the street system) that the eastern door was blocked. The north wall is 1.85 m high, 0.70 m thick, and 1.65 m high (8 courses). The south wall is 1.17 m long, 0.55 m thick, and 1.15 m high (5 courses). The east wall is 2.28 m long, 0.38 m thick, and 1.42 m high (9 courses). The west wall is 1.58 m long, 0.62 m thick, and 0.48 m high (4 courses). The doorway is 0.84 m wide.

Room Descriptions for the Block Consisting of Rooms AF 6 to AF 9, Architectural Phase 5 ROOM AF 6 Room AF 6 could be entered from the street on the east side of the house by means of a doorway 0.60 m wide, which is fitted with a limestone threshold (Ill. 2.5A, B). Room AF 6 is a large, square kitchen. In LM IB-Final, a built hearth 0.90 m x 0.90 m x 0.64 m high occupied the southwest corner of the room. A built platform continues from the hearth across the south wall (Pl. 7A). In

the northwest corner, a circular depression, 0.17 m in diameter, was drilled into the bedrock (Pl. 8C). A second less regular cutting in the bedrock is located about a meter to the southeast. The excavation revealed four superimposed floors in this room (Ill. 2.6). The north wall is 3.40 m long, 0.46 m thick, and 0.88 m high (7 courses). The south wall is 3.67 m long, 0.58 m thick, and 0.97 m high (9 courses).

ARCHITECTURE IN BLOCK AF NORTH

The east wall is 3.90 m long, 0.50 m thick, and 0.95 m high (7 courses). The west wall is 3.43 m long, 0.40 m thick, and 1.12 m high (11 courses). ROOM AF 7 Room AF 7 is entered from Room AF 6 by a doorway 0.73 m wide (Ill. 2.5). Remains of a small mudbrick wall were found extending from the south wall. It probably formed a small partitioned area ca. 0.50 m wide near the east wall. The north wall of the room is 2.06 m wide, 0.58 m thick, and 1.01 m high (5 courses). The south wall is 2.00 m long, 0.47 m thick, and 0.72 m high (10 courses). The east wall is 2.06 m long, 0.63 m thick, and 0.82 m high. The west wall is 2.97 m long, 0.47 m thick, and 1.06 m high (9 courses). ROOM AF 8 The fill over the northeast corner of the room was so shallow that this part of the building is extremely unclear. The original entrance in the north wall, 1.02 m wide, was eventually blocked. The north wall was poorly preserved. On the south

37

side of the room, traces of a mudbrick wall were found. This probably belonged to a partition wall that separated Rooms AF 8 and AF 9 (Ill. 2.5A). As previously mentioned, many of the slabs on the floor originally belonged to a Phase 3 construction (Pl. 9B). They may have been covered in Phase 4, but in Phase 5 the builders excavated down to their level and reused them as a floor. On this floor, they built a L-shaped platform in the southeast corner. A staircase might have been on the east. The north wall is 1.85 m long, 0.44 m thick, and 0.60 m high. The east wall is 2.70 m long, 0.47 m thick, and 0.72 m high. The west wall is formed by a section of the facade of Building AU (Ill. 5.2; Pl. 10A). ROOM AF 9 The floor of Room AF 9 is at a slightly lower level than that of Room AF 8 (Pl. 11A). The south wall of the room is 1.67 m long, 0.75 m thick, and 0.91 m high (6 courses). The east wall is 4.10 m long, 0.43 m thick, and 1.04 m high (10 courses).

6

Pottery from Block AF Cheryl R. Floyd

The architecture of Block AF has been divided into five phases, with three of them present in Block AF South. No strata were associated specifically with architectural spaces from before Phase 1, although this earlier phase (before Phase 1) was recognized by the presence of early pottery in later contexts. It is only possible to state that the phase could not have continued any later than MM I–IIA (the date for the Phase 1 Building). Block AF South seems to have had a succession of buildings, some of which pre-dated Architectural Phase 2, which stood during MM II.

Later, during the MM III–LM I period, much of this area was re-used or modified (Architectural Phase 3). The material presented in this chapter was organized chronologically by architectural phases and by rooms. Appendices A (Tables A1–A30) and B (Tables B1–B8) contain many tables that present the statistical data for the pottery from Block AF. Preliminary reports included Floyd et al. 1995 and Betancourt, Banou, and Floyd 1997. Unless otherwise stated, all measurements are given in centimeters.

Architectural Phases 1 and 2 in Block AF South: MM II Architecture The earliest phases yielding stratified ceramic remains were in Phases 1 and 2. One of the earliest strata recognized in Block AF South was the MM II floor on top of bedrock in Space AF 3D (Architectural Phase 1; see Ill. 2.1). Another early, deep, MM level was noted in Room AF 3C, which was a packing beneath a paved MM II floor (Phase 2). This MM II floor in Room AF 3C probably continued into Room

AF 3A/B and might be associated with the MM II levels nearby (Room AF 3E), although it was not always possible to be certain that these spaces belonged to the same building. Spaces AF 3C, AF 3D, and AF 3E yielded MM II strata. No MM II stratum was uncovered in Room AF 3A/B because excavation did not continue very far below the paved surface of this

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Architectural Phase 3 building. The massive western wall that Room AF 3A/B shared with Room AF 3C pre-dated the building of the south wall of AF 3C with its associated MM II strata. No whole

or largely restorable vessels were found in the Phase 2 building, which was not surprising for an area that was subsequently modified and re-used.

Room AF 3C Room AF 3C was south of Room AF 3A/B and east of the massive wall forming the western facade of what was probably a single MM II structure (Ill. 2.1). Two MM II strata have been recognized in this room. Strata and Units MM II Floor Packing: AF 3C-4 MM II Floor Level: AF 3C-3

MM II Floor Packing (Table A1) This stratum was approximately 10 cm deep. It was composed of soft, dark, lumpy soil mixed with small metacarbonate slabs, pottery, and other finds. This deepest level in Room AF 3C, represented by excavated unit AF 3C-4, was confined to the southern part of the room, immediately north of Space AF 3D. The trench, approximately one meter north to south, was oriented parallel to the southern wall of Room AF 3C. The stratum was below a level of reddish clay mixed with small metacarbonate slabs, which constituted a packed MM II floor. The remains from this context were interpreted as the packing for this floor. Of the 27 sherds collected, all of the diagnostic pieces were from MM I–II or earlier. Fabrics Fine Fabrics: 4 sherds; 10 gr (15% by count) Coarse Fabrics: 18 sherds; 175 gr (67% by count) Mirabello Fabric, Cooking Class: 2 sherds; 10 gr (7% by count) Phyllite Fabrics: 3 sherds; 40 gr (11% by count) Total: 27 sherds; 235 gr

EM I–II PHYLLITE FABRICS AF 1, Fig. 1 (PS 4240; AF 3C-4). Open vessel, body sherd. Max dim 5.0. A phyllite fabric (dark brown, 7.5YR 4/4); burnished on interior and exterior. Dark surface. Convex profile. Comments: exterior surface worn. Burned. Date: EM I–II.

EM I–IIA FINE FABRICS AF 2, Fig. 1 (PS 3703; AF 3C-4). Open vessel, possibly a bowl, rim sherd. D of rim 22. A fine fabric (reddish yellow, 7.5YR 7/6) with inclusions; burnished on interior and exterior. Almost straight profile; thickened rim. Pale slip (very pale brown, 10YR 8/4) on the interior and exterior. Comments: the fabric is much like that of AC 1 (see Pseira II, p. 15), which is also a burnished open vessel. Date: EM I–IIA.

MM I–II COARSE FABRICS AF 3, Fig. 1 (PS 3702; AF 3C-4). Bowl or kalathos, rim sherd. D of rim 16. A coarse fabric (brown, 7.5YR 5/4). Concave profile; thickened, slightly everted rim that is flattened on its exterior edge. Dark slip: interior and exterior. Comments and Parallels: deep, handleless bowls (or kalathoi) are common MM forms. For examples, among many others, see two complete pieces from Gournia (Betancourt and Silverman 1991, p. 31, nos. 441, 442) and several fragmented examples from Pseira (Pseira II, p. 24, AC 93; Pseira I, p. 7, AG 4, p. 40, AB 31). Painted and unpainted examples occur in both fine and tempered fabrics. Date: MM I–II.

MM II Floor Level (Table A2) This context was the MM II floor and the fill above it. Immediately above this level was a paved floor with a terminus post quem for its construction in MM II, but which was last used in LM I. This upper, paved floor was a continuation of the paved surface (Phase 3) in Room AF 3A/B. The MM II

POTTERY FROM BLOCK AF

floor stratum was approximately 25–37 cm thick, consisting of hard, lumpy soil mixed with stones. It lay above a packed clay floor. All of the sherds were MM II or earlier. The diagnostic sherds in Fine Fabric (FF) and Coarse Fabric (CF) included a base sherd from a MM I–II cup with dark slip on the interior and exterior (AF 7) and a body sherd from a MM beehive or grater that was scored on its interior surface (AF 5). The sherds unearthed from vessels in Phyllite Fabric (PF) were not typical of the Neopalatial fabric type common on Pseira (for the typical phyllite fabric of LM I on Pseira, see Myer, McIntosh, and Betancourt 1995, 145–146). The phyllite inclusions in the sherds from this excavated unit were tiny, dark, and uniformly rounded in shape, representing a MM or earlier type of phyllite fabric. Fabrics Fine Fabrics: 11 sherds; 35 gr (22% by count) Coarse Fabrics: 28 sherds; 335 gr (56% by count) Mirabello Fabric, Cooking Class: 5 sherds; 75 gr (10% by count) Phyllite Fabrics: 6 sherds; 70 gr (12% by count) Total: 50 sherds; 515 gr EM–MM(?) COARSE FABRICS AF 4, Fig. 1 (PS 3700; AF 3C-3). Cooking dish, rim sherd. D of rim ca. 52. A coarse fabric (reddish yellow, 5YR 7/8; core: dark grayish brown, 10YR 4/2) with numerous inclusions. Almost straight profile; thickened and slightly upturned rim. Comments: unusual fabric. Possibly not local. Parallels: for a discussion of Minoan cooking vessels, see Betancourt 1980, passim. For rims of the same form from other Pseiran buildings, see, for example, Pseira II, p. 18, AC 44, AC 45, p. 21, AC 68, and p. 24, AC 97–101; Pseira I, p. 81, AM 15; and Pseira

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III, pp. 36, 55, BS/BV 59 and 154. These cooking vessels are known from all periods of Minoan history. The unusual fabric of this piece argues in favor of an early date for the vessel. Date: EM–MM(?).

MM COARSE FABRICS AF 5, Fig. 1 (PS 3698; AF 3C-3). Beehive or grater, body sherd. Max dim 8.0. A coarse fabric (very pale brown, 10YR 8/4). Almost straight profile; thick wall. Incised, criss-crossed lines on the interior. Dark slip: interior: traces; exterior: traces. Comments and Parallels: see Pseira III, p. 275, BS/BV 263. For other possible examples of the large open vessel with a scored interior from Pseira, see Pseira III, p. 75, BS/BV 263 and Pseira IV, pp. 32, 182, BC 17 and BT 40. Date: MM.

MM MIRABELLO FABRIC IN THE COOKING CLASS AF 6, Fig. 1 (PS 3699; AF 3C-3). Cooking dish, rim sherd. D of rim ca. 58. Mirabello Fabric, Cooking Class (reddish yellow, 5YR 6/6; core: brown, 10YR 6/3); burnished on the interior(?). Straight profile; thickened, straight rim. Comments: the fabric is typical of MM cooking vessels of all types in the Mirabello Bay area. For an analysis of this type of cooking fabric, see Myer, McIntosh, and Betancourt 1995, pp. 144–145. For additional comments, see AF 4. This fabric is the equivalent of Type VI fabric as established by Haggis and Mook (1993, passim). Parallels: for another MM cooking dish from this building, see AF 12. For additional examples from Pseira, see Pseira I, pp. 113, 116, ADC 42, 74; Pseira II, pp. 18, 25, AC 44–45, 114. Date: MM.

MM I–II FINE FABRICS AF 7, Fig. 1 (PS 3701; AF 3C-3). Cup, base sherd. D of base 5.0. A fine fabric (reddish yellow, 5YR 7/8). Dark slip: interior and exterior. Comments and Parallels: this base is probably from a semiglobular cup shaped like nos. 370–371 from Kommos (Betancourt 1990a, p. 90) and no. 406 from Gournia (Betancourt and Silverman 1991, p. 404). Date: MM I–II.

Space AF 3D This space, located south of Room AF 3C and west of Room AF 3E, possessed two distinct MM II strata. The southern wall for the space was missing by the time of the modern excavations. Although

this space shared the massive western wall with Rooms AF 3A–C, and the construction of its southwest corner appeared to be aligned with the southern wall of Room AF 3C, it was not clear whether

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or not it formed part of the same MM II building as rooms immediately to the north located under the Phase 3 architecture. Strata and Units MM II Floor Level: AF 3D-3, AF 3D-4, and AF 3D-5 MM II Collapse over the Floor: AF 3D-2 and AF 3D-1

profile; thickened, slightly outturned rim. Comments: burned on the interior. Date: MM. AF 9, Fig. 1 (PS 3795; AF 3D-3). Bridge-spouted jar, rim sherd. D of rim ca. 18–20. A Mirabello Fabric (reddish yellow, 5YR 6/8). Slightly convex profile; thickened, inturned rim. Comments and Parallels: jar rims of this basic shape are common island-wide in the EM III–early MM periods (see, for example, Pseira III, p. 39, BS/BV 79). After MM IB, however, the rim is generally everted and articulated. For information on the form from the MM period at Knossos, see MacGillivray 1998, pp. 78–80. Date: EM III–MM I.

MM II Floor Level (Table A3) Although the lowest stratum in Space AF 3D was a MM II floor, it was at a level ca. one meter lower than the MM II floor in Room AF 3C. The number of sherds recovered in both units was too small to allow for a finer dating of the strata, and it was only possible to determine a general, MM II terminus post quem for both levels. This excavated context represented both the floor level and the actual clay floor itself. The clay of the floor was laid on metacarbonate slabs placed on top of the bedrock. The stratum was ca. two meters wide by 3.75 meters in length. The floor surface was paved with irregular slabs, and the hard soil associated with it contained very few sherds. The stratum varied in depth from only a few cm to nearly 30 cm in places. The scant number of sherds and the absence of any whole or largely restorable vessels indicated that the surface was cleared of objects before the structure collapsed. The 22 sherds were statistically insignificant and could not be used to propose any specific function. In addition to the two cataloged pieces, a base from a MM I–II cup in FF with dark slip on its interior and exterior came from the level. Fabrics Fine Fabrics: 5 sherds; 20 gr (23% by count) Coarse Fabrics: 5 sherds; 85 gr (23% by count) Mirabello Fabrics: 5 sherds; 60 gr (23% by count) Phyllite Fabrics: 7 sherds; 65 gr (31% by count) Total: 22 sherds; 230 gr MM MIRABELLO FABRIC AF 8, Fig. 1 (PS 3794; AF 3D-3). Jar, rim sherd. D of rim 12. Mirabello Fabric (light red, 2.5YR 6/8). Convex

MM II Collapse over the Floor (Table A4) This stratum was removed from above the entire area as defined by the remains of the southwest corner that was still preserved. The level was ca. 18–27 cm thick. It consisted of hard soil mixed with metacarbonate slabs, stones, some charcoal, a few sherds, and shells that represented the collapse or destruction of the room. The slabs, which were greatly tilted, could be interpreted as a fallen floor. The latest sherd from this fill was from a MM II cup (AF 12). All the sherds in FF were from MM I–II. The few sherds in Phyllite Fabrics had white angular inclusions and small phyllites, i.e., they fit the profile established for MM Phyllite Fabrics at Pseira and in the rest of the Mirabello Bay region (Haggis and Mook 1993, 272, 274, Type IV Fabric). Fabrics Fine Fabrics: 7 sherds; 30 gr (35% by count) Coarse Fabrics: 5 sherds; 25 gr (25% by count) Mirabello Fabric, Cooking Class: 1 sherd; 10 gr (5% by count) Phyllite Fabrics: 7 sherds; 75 gr (35% by count) Total: 20 sherds; 140 gr MM IB–II FINE FABRICS AF 10, Fig. 1 (PS 3791; AF 3D-2). Cup, rim sherd. D of rim ca. 10. A fine fabric (reddish yellow, 7.5YR 7/6). Slightly convex, baggy profile with low max d; thin, straight rim. Dark slip: interior and exterior. Added white: band at rim. Comments: unusual sherd, not local. The exterior surface is, in part, highly burnished. Parallels: MacGillivray terms cups of this type from Knossos “squat rounded cups” (MacGillivray 1998, pp. 75–77, pls. 3:106, 5:122). Date: MM IB–II.

POTTERY FROM BLOCK AF AF 11, Fig. 1 (PS 3705; AF 3D-1). Straight-sided cup, rim sherd. D of rim 8. A fine fabric (reddish yellow, 7.5YR 8/6). Almost straight profile; thin, straight rim. Dark slip: interior: wide band at rim; exterior: wide band at rim; thin, diagonal lines below. Added red: floral motif on dark band. Added white: thin band; floral motif; thin band. Comments: Kamares Ware. Probably a product of Palaikastro. Floral motifs of this type are especially common in the MM IB period at Palaikastro (Bosanquet and Dawkins 1923, pls. 4, 5). It is an example of the Alternating Red and White Floral Workshop style (Floyd 1997a). For additional comments on vessels that may be in the same style at Knossos, see MacGillivray 1998, pp. 68–72, type 9, where they are called “Pattern Painted” or the “Woven Style” (see MacGillivray 1998, pls. 53:251, 55:196, both of which are from his Group D from the North-West Pit at Knossos). Parallels: parallels for the shape are known from several sites, including Palaikastro (Bosanquet and Dawkins 1923, pl. 5b, d), Gournia (Betancourt and Silverman 1991, p. 24, no. 407), Knossos (MacGillivray 1998, pls. 1:52; 2:56, 59, 68), and Pseira. Parallels for

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the specific floral motif are common from Palaikastro (Bosanquet and Dawkins 1923, pls. 4f, 5c; Dawkins 1902–1903, p. 305, figs. 4:2, 5:a). Date: MM IB–II. AF 12, Fig. 1 (PS 3706; AF 3D-1). Carinated cup, base sherd. D of base ca. 5. A fine fabric (reddish yellow, 7.5YR 7/6). Carinated profile; flat base. Dark slip: interior and exterior, bottom of base. Comments and Parallels: the carinated cup is one of the most common of the painted cups from Crete in the MM I–II period. For the shape, see, among many others: nos. 409–414 from Gournia (Betancourt and Silverman 1991, p. 25); nos. 257–260 from Vasiliki (Betancourt 1983, fig. 19); nos. 192, 193, and 228 from Kommos (Betancourt 1990a, pp. 77, 80); nos. AB 28 and AM 4 (Pseira I, pp. 40, 80), AE 1 (Pseira II, p. 81), and BS/BV 100 (Pseira III, pp. 44–45) from Pseira; pl. 2, no. 10 from Gournia (Hawes et al. 1908); fig. 9, nos. HT 14 and 15 (Haggis 1996) from Kalo Chorio; and from Knossos (MacGillivray 1998, pp. 73, 74, where the form is called an “angular cup”). A nearly complete example of a MM II carinated cup from this building is AF 20. This fabric is equivalent to the Type IV fabric established by Haggis and Mook (1993, passim). Date: MM II.

Space AF 3E Space AF 3E was east of Room AF 3C and the northern part of Space AF 3D (Ill. 2.1). Its northern wall was only partially preserved, with a possible platform running along the interior of its western wall. A single context came from this room. Stratum and Units MM II Fill with Earlier Sherds: AF 3E-4 and AF 3E-3

MM II Stratum (Table A5) It was not possible to discern an actual MM II floor within this stratum of very hard clay and soil mixed with metacarbonate slabs, cobbles, pebbles, some shells, and broken pottery. The level, which was ca. 13–26 cm thick, was removed from inside the entire room. The latest sherds were from MM II. Because the MM II floor or surface was not preserved, it was impossible to say whether these remains in Space AF 3F related to those in Room AF 3C and Space AF 3D, although they were found at approximately the same elevation as the MM II floor in Room AF 3C.

As with the MM II strata elsewhere in Block AF South, the ceramic remains from excavated units AF 3E-4 and AF 3E-3 were very limited. Only 58 sherds were found, with all of the diagnostic examples being from MM II or earlier. The earlier sherds could be explained as debris incorporated into the soil or clay used to build either the walls of the room or the platform, or even the soil used to level any MM II surface that may once have existed. Almost 70% of the sherds were from MM closed vessels in CF or PF, so it seemed likely that the pottery came from one or more areas once used for storage purposes. If this were the case, then perhaps the platform acted as a shelf of sorts. The sherds in CF and PF represented a minimum of 10 MM closed vessels, which ranged in size from small (up to 20 cm maximum diameter) to large (over 30 cm maximum diameter). Diagnostic sherds in FF included a rim sherd from a highly burnished FN–EM I bowl, a body sherd from a Vasiliki Ware closed vessel, sherds from several MM cups and closed vessels covered with dark slip, and a rim and handle sherd from a MM cup (AF 15). The sherds in Phyllite Fabrics were all early, mostly dating to the EM period

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(for more on the phyllite temper, see Betancourt and Myer 1995).

yellow, 7.5YR 7/6). Thin, straight rim; thin handle with oval section. Date: MM IB–II.

Fabrics Fine Fabrics: 11 sherds; 40 gr (19% by count) Coarse Fabrics: 40 sherds; 1,470 gr (69% by count) Mirabello Fabric, Cooking Class: 1 sherd; 20 gr (2% by count) Phyllite Fabrics: 6 sherds; 155 gr (10% by count) Total: 58 sherds; 1,685 gr

MM I–II MIRABELLO FABRIC IN THE COOKING CLASS

FN–EM I PHYLLITE FABRICS AF 13, Fig. 1 (PS 3809; AF 3E-3). Open vessel, rim sherd. D of rim ca. 33. A phyllite fabric (dark reddish brown, 5YR 3/4) with phyllite and other inclusions; burnished on interior and exterior. Convex profile; thickened, outturned rim. Dark surface: interior and exterior. Comments: probably a shallow bowl. The thickened and everted rim would be highly unusual on a Minoan chalice. Interior surface worn. Date: FN–EM I.

EM IIB COARSE FABRICS AF 14, Fig. 1 (PS 4243; AF 3E-3). Closed vessel, probably a jug, base sherd. D of base 8.5. A coarse fabric (reddish yellow, 5YR 6/8); burnished. Convex profile; ring base. Dark slip: exterior: traces. Comments: Vasiliki Ware. Burned on bottom in interior and exterior. Highly worn and friable. For Vasiliki Ware in general, see Betancourt 1979. Parallels: the base is probably from a jug, such as nos. 193–195 from Vasiliki (Betancourt 1983, p. 64, fig. 16; see also Evans 1921–1935, I, fig. 46a, from Vasiliki). For additional examples, see Warren 1972, pls. 49–51 (jugs with raised spouts from Myrtos). Date: EM IIB.

MM IB–II FINE FABRICS AF 15, Fig. 1 (PS 3810; AF 3E-3). Cup, rim and handle sherd. D of rim ca. 10–12. A fine fabric (reddish

AF 16, Fig. 1 (PS 3807; AF 3E-3). Tripod vessel, leg sherd. Max dim 4. Mirabello Fabric, Cooking Class (reddish brown, 5YR 6/6). Leg has a thin oval section. Comments and Parallels: for a discussion of the development of tripod legs from thin to thick ovals in section, see Hood, Warren, and Cadogan 1964, pp. 52, 53, and Betancourt 1980, p. 5. For MM parallels, see Pseira II (p. 15, AC 54), Pseira III, p. 28 (BS/BV 12), and Betancourt 1990a, p. 66, no. 51, from Kommos. Date: MM I–II.

MM COARSE FABRICS AF 17, Fig. 1 (PS 3808; AF 3E-3). Jar, rim sherd. D of rim ca. 36. A coarse fabric (reddish yellow, 7.5YR 6/6). Thickened, slightly everted rim. Dark slip: exterior and rim: traces. Date: MM. AF 18, Fig. 1 (PS 4244; AF 3E-3). Jar, handle and body sherds. Max dim 14.6. A coarse Mirabello Fabric (light red, 2.5YR 6/6) with granodiorite inclusions. Slightly convex profile; handle with circular section. Dark slip: exterior: trickle decoration; band on handle. Comments: trickles in dark paint are typical designs on EM II–MM III medium and large jugs, jars, and amphorae formed from coarse fabrics, especially in East Crete. Parallels: published examples of closed vessels with trickle decoration from Pseira include: AC 27, AC 37, AC 38, and AJ 2 (Pseira II, pp. 17–18, 90). Examples of trickle decorated amphorae from Chamaizi are shown in Walberg 1983, 10, figs. 8a and 8c, and the trickle motif is her Motif 30. Examples of jars or pithoi decorated with trickle motif are known from many sites, including Gournia (Hawes et al. 1908, pl. 6:41, 43), Myrtos (Warren 1972, pls. 37–38), and Tylissos (Hazzidakis 1921, fig. 35:2), among many others. Date: MM.

Space AF 2 Immediately east of the northern part of Staircase AF 1 a natural cleft in the bedrock ran from beneath the eastern wall of Staircase AF 1 eastward to the sea. From this cleft came a complete, inverted MM II carinated cup (AF 20) and several MM sherds that may or may not represent a purposeful deposit of material. Only the presence of the complete vessel suggested that this stratum

may represent an intentional deposit rather than the result of wash or a leveling fill into this depression in the bedrock. Regardless of the nature of the stratum, the paving of Rooms AF 3A/B and 3C (Architectural Phase 3) was above it. Stratum and Unit MM II Stratum: Space AF 2: AF Drain-1

POTTERY FROM BLOCK AF

MM II Stratum (Table A6) The stratum from the cleft in the bedrock, ca. 25 cm deep, was composed of hard, lumpy soil that contained both shells and sherds. Although the majority of the sherds recovered were MM, a few LM I fragments were also found. Fabrics Fine Fabrics: 18 sherds; 60 gr (46% by count) Coarse Fabrics: 13 sherds; 80 gr (35% by count) Mirabello Fabric, Cooking Class: 5 sherds; 30 gr (14% by count) Phyllite Fabrics: 2 sherds; 10 gr (5% by count) Total: 38 sherds; 180 gr EM III–MM IA FINE FABRICS AF 19, Fig. 1 (PS 3167; AF Drain-1). Jug, base sherd. D of base 7.0. A fine fabric (reddish yellow, 7.5YR 6/6); burnished. Convex profile; flat base. Dark slip: exterior. Added white: triangles, two thin bands near base. Comments: East Cretan White-on-Dark Ware. Parallels: various versions of triangle motifs occur on White-on-Dark Ware vessels (see Betancourt 1984, pp. 23, 24). Date: EM III–MM IA.

MM FINE FABRICS AF 20, Fig. 1, Pl. 14 (PS 3191; AF Drain-1). Carinated cup, complete. D of rim 9.1; d of base 3.9. A

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fine fabric (light red, 2.5YR 6/8). Carinated shape; thin rim; flat base; strap handle. Dark slip: interior and exterior. Comments: found under the mudbrick wall between AF 1 and AF 2. For the form, see AF 12. Date: MM IIB. AF 21, Fig. 1 (PS 3262; AF Drain-1). Straight-sided cup, rim sherd. D of rim 10. A fine fabric (reddish yellow, 7.5YR 7/6). Straight profile; thin, straight rim. Dark slip: interior and exterior. Comments: raised horizontal grooves on exterior surface resulting from throwing on a wheel. Parallels: this rim is probably from a cup shaped like no. 789 from Kommos (Betancourt 1990a, p. 120). The straight-sided cup was especially popular during the MM II–III period. Other parallels are known from Gournia (Betancourt and Silverman 1991, pp. 32–34, nos. 445–463), Phaistos (Betancourt 1985, pl. 13C), and elsewhere. See also AF 93. Date: MM II–III.

MM COARSE FABRICS AF 22, Fig. 1 (PS 3261; AF Drain-1). Conical cup, rim sherd. D of rim ca. 10–12. A coarse fabric (reddish yellow, 7.5YR 6/6). Convex profile; thin, straight rim. Dark slip: interior: wide band at rim; exterior: irregular band at rim. Comments and Parallels: see comments for AG 2 (Pseira I, p. 7). Conical cups with painted bands on both the rim exterior and interior are not uncommon from MM IA through the transitional MM III–LM IA period, while LM IA–LM IB examples are generally unpainted. MM I–III examples with painted rim bands are known from most sites of this period. For examples, among many others, see Knossos (MacGillivray 1998, p. 476, and Betancourt 1985, p. 75, fig. 49). This vessel’s shape is rather like no. 330 from Kommos (Betancourt 1990a, p. 88). Date: MM II–III.

Architectural Phase 3 in Block AF South: MM III–LM IA Building After the MM II building in Block AF South was no longer in use, the area north of Space AF 3D was leveled to form the foundation level for a room with a paved floor (Rooms AF 3A–B and AF 3C). The new building lasted until the end of LM IA (Architectural Phase 3). This paved floor formed part of a LM IA building whose limits were not able to be ascertained. Other parts of the building that were constructed at this time included Staircase AF 1, Room AF 2, Room AF 5A, and

Room AF 5B. In a later period (Phase 5), Rooms AF 1, AF 5A, and AF 5B continued in use, as attested by the LM IB-Final sherds found even in the deepest strata of these rooms (see below). However, Room AF 2 went out of use (i.e., it was not part of the Phase 5 Building). The latest sherds on the Phase 3 floors were LM I. The few sherds from this building were worn. Many could be attributed to either LM IA or LM IB. Thus, these strata were assigned the general date of LM I.

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Room AF 2 Room AF 2 was east of the room with the stone staircase (Room AF 1). This space probably contained a wooden return flight of steps over the ground floor in Phase 3. Although this area was once part of the Phase 3 building, the eastern, northern, and southern walls of this space were destroyed by the time of the block’s last phase (Phase 5, from LM IB and later). As with the staircase to the west, the latest material from the lowest stratum was LM I. Only two contexts were in Room AF 2. Strata and Units LM I Floor: AF 2-2 Mixed MM II–LM I Collapsed Debris above the Floor: AF 2-1 and AF 2 South-1

LM I Floor (Table A7) The majority of the sherds in FF were small, and they came from the MM II–LM I periods, with the latest fragments coming from LM I. Fragments of cups and closed vessels were present. Most of the sherds, in all fabric groups, were from different vessels, with the exception of the multiple pieces from a single cooking pot. Thus, the sherds appeared unlikely to represent the remains of vessels from the Phase 3 occupation (i.e., they were debris from an earlier time). Fabrics Fine Fabrics: 15 sherds; 45 gr (8% by count) Coarse Fabrics: 13 sherds; 70 gr (8% by count) Mirabello Fabric, Cooking Class: 2 sherds; 50 gr (1% by count) Phyllite Fabrics: 139 sherds; 950 gr (83% by count) Total: 169 sherds; 1,115 gr MM IIB FINE FABRICS AF 23, Fig. 1 (PS 3283; AF 2-2). Carinated cup, body sherd. Max dim 3.2. A fine fabric (light red, 2.5YR 6/8). Carinated profile. Horizontal grooves on the exterior. Dark slip: interior and exterior. Comments: see AF 12. Date: MM IIB.

LM I FINE FABRICS AF 24, Fig. 1 (PS 3284; AF 2-2). Conical cup, rim, base, and body sherds. D of rim 8.0; d of base 5.0. A fine fabric (reddish yellow, 5YR 7/6). Convex profile; straight rim; slightly articulated base. Parallels: see AF 55. Date: LM I.

Mixed MM II–LM I Collapsed Debris above the Floor (Table A8) Sherds in units AF 2-1 and AF 2 South-1 represented remains from above the LM I surface. The 161 sherds were small and non-joining. They came largely from MM and LM I vessels in FF or CF. Sherds in Mirabello Fabric, Cooking Class (MFCC) and PF were also found, but these accounted for only 17% of the total. Sherds in FF ranged in date from EM IIB through LM I and included examples of both cups and closed vessels. One MM sherd appeared related in tradition to AF 11. It had added white diagonal lines on a dark rim band, below which the vessel was left in reserve (unpainted). A typical East Cretan LM I piece also occurred. It was a base from a cup painted with dark and red bands (uncataloged). Fabrics Fine Fabrics: 48 sherds; 115 gr (36% by count) Coarse Fabrics: 64 sherds; 345 gr (47% by count) Mirabello Fabric, Cooking Class: 7 sherds; 25 gr (5% by count) Phyllite Fabrics: 16 sherds; 120 gr (12% by count) Total: 135 sherds; 605 gr EM III–MM IA COARSE FABRICS AF 25, Fig. 1 (PS 3240; AF 2-1). Closed vessel, body sherd. Max dim 2.9. A coarse fabric (reddish yellow, 5YR 7/8). Convex profile. Dark slip: exterior. Added white: parallel, diagonal stripes terminating in a vertical line. Comments and Parallels: East Cretan White-onDark Ware. This sherd may be from a closed vessel with a motif like that on another sherd from the North Trench at Gournia (Hall 1904–1905, pl. 31:10). Date: EM III– MM IA. AF 26, Fig. 2 (PS 3243; AF 2-1). Closed vessel, body sherd. Max dim 2.3. A coarse fabric (reddish yellow, 5YR

POTTERY FROM BLOCK AF 6/6). Almost straight profile. Dark slip: exterior. Added white: motif with cross-hatching. Comments: East Cretan White-on-Dark Ware. Parallels: motifs incorporating cross-hatching are extremely common in this ware. For a few examples, among many, see: Dawkins 1903–1904, fig. 2:d–g, i, k (Palaikastro), MacGillivray et al. 1989, fig. 2 (Palaikastro), and Hall 1904–1905, pl. 29:1–4, 5–8, 10 (Gournia). Date: EM III–MM IA.

MM I–II FINE FABRICS AF 27, Fig. 2 (PS 3245; AF 2-1). Closed vessel, base sherd. D of base ca. 4. A fine fabric (reddish yellow, 7.5YR 7/6) with tiny inclusions. Convex profile; flat base. Dark slip: exterior. Date: MM I–II. AF 28, Fig. 2 (PS 3282; AF 2-1). Closed vessel, body sherd. Max dim 3.3. A fine fabric (reddish yellow, 5YR 6/6). Convex profile. Dark slip: exterior. Added white: thin band; part of a motif. Date: MM I–II.

LM I FINE FABRICS AF 29, Fig. 2 (PS 4230; AF 2-1). Miniature cup, base sherd. D of base 2.3. A fine fabric (reddish yellow, 7.5YR 7/6); burnished. Thickened, slightly pronounced base. Dark slip: interior and exterior: traces. Comments and Parallels: for a discussion of miniature vessels from Gournia, see Betancourt and Silverman 1991, pp. 67–68. A miniature straight-sided cup was found in the Plateia Building on Pseira (Pseira III, p. 65, BS/BV 216). Evans also mentions several miniature vessels from the Temple

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Tomb at Knossos (LM II–IIIA), which he interprets as a child’s toys (Evans 1921–1935, IV (2), p. 1008, figs. 960–961). Date: LM I. AF 30, Fig. 2 (PS 3242; AF 2-1). Closed vessel, body sherd. Max dim 4.5. A fine fabric (reddish yellow, 7.5YR 8/6); burnished. Convex profile; handle with oval section. Pale slip (yellow, 10YR 8/6) on exterior. Date: LM I. AF 31, Fig. 2 (PS 3281; AF 2 South-1). Cup, body sherd. Max dim 2.5. A fine fabric (reddish yellow, 7.5R 8/6); burnished. Convex profile. Dark slip: exterior: spirals. Added white: dots on dark spirals. Date: LM IA.

LM I PHYLLITE FABRICS AF 32, Fig. 2 (PS 3241; AF 2-1). Cooking pot, rim sherd. D of rim ca. 28–30. A phyllite fabric (reddish yellow, 7.5YR 7/6). Almost straight profile; straight rim. Comments and Parallels: unusual, straight rim. For comments on the form in general, see AF 16. This vessel form is known island-wide. For additional LM I examples from this building, see AF 95, AF 185, AF 195, AF 196, AF 232, and AF 293. Date: LM I.

LM IA FINE FABRICS AF 33, Fig. 2 (PS 3246; AF 2-1). Closed vessel, body sherd. Max dim 3.7. A fine fabric (yellow, 10YR 7/6) with tiny inclusions; burnished. Dark slip: exterior: bands. Date: LM IA.

Room AF 3A/B Room AF 3A/B was north of Room AF 3C and south of Staircase AF 1 (Ill. 2.1). Its floor was paved with slabs of metacarbonate and other stones. Rooms AF 3A/B and AF 3C formed a continuous space in the Phase 3 building. Room AF 3C continued the slab pavement from Room AF 3A/B, but was separated from the more northern room by a short partition wall. Four contexts were in this room. Strata and Units MM II–LM I Floor Level: AF 3A-3, AF 3B-3, AF 3B-4, AF 3B-5, AF 3B-6, AF 3C-4 MM II–LM I Floor Packing under Slab Floor: AF 3B-5, and AF 3B-6

Mixed MM–LM I Debris from Collapse of Building, lying on the Floor: AF 3-3, AF 3-2, AF 3-1, AF South-Surface, AF 3B-2, 3B-2 (SE), AF 3B-1, AF 3B-Surface, AF 3C-2, AF 3E-2, AF 3E-1, and AF 3E-Surface Mixed Level over the Architecture: AF 3B-C

MM II–LM I Floor Level (Table A9) This MM II–LM I stratum was very hard and lumpy in texture. The soil was mixed with clay, metacarbonate slabs, stones, sherds, and other finds. It extended as much as 25 cm above the paved floor.

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In the southwest corner of Space AF 3B, adjacent to the built platform or bench, was a deposit consisting of four intact shells (3 Tonna galea and 1 Semicassis) with a complete, inverted, LM I conical cup. Additional shells would be found later, across the entrance in the south wall and in Room AF 3C. Given their location in a room with a pillar apparently below an upper story room with a column above the pillar (i.e., a pillar crypt), it seemed likely that this deposit represented a ritual deposit placed on the floor after the room’s destruction and before the building of the later architecture. In addition to the shells, numerous sherds, a tiny piece of gold foil (AF 510), a stone tool (AF 438), and a few quartz crystals (AF 451– AF 453) were found in this stratum. Of the sherds recovered, approximately 50% were from the MM I–II periods, a few were EM, and the remainder were from LM I, with no sherds that could be specifically attributed to LM IB. Early Minoan sherds include a rim from a cup (AF 42) and two body sherds from EM III White-on-Dark Ware closed vessels in FF, and at least two sherds from White-on-Dark Ware closed vessels in CF. Uncataloged sherds from MM vessels in FF included fragments of dark-slipped cups, carinated cups, straight-sided cups, conical cups, a semiglobular cup, bowls, a bridge-spouted jar, and closed vessels. Tempered fabrics (CF, MFCC, and PF) made up ca. 62% of the sherds. This percentage was a bit higher than the average for floors in the rooms and spaces in Building AF South or Building AF North (45%), but the fact that the ceramic remains were quite mixed in date precluded the possibility of suggesting a specialized function for this Room in the LM I period. The range of fabrics in the CF category was especially large, and diagnostic examples were from FN–EM I to LM I. Among the early fragments in CF were several sherds from vessels tempered with angular, white calcite chips (such as AF 35). This fabric type was most likely from EM I–II, based on finds of similar sherds in the Mirabello Bay region and on the island of Mochlos, which occurred with EM I–II dark, burnished pottery. Other identifiable examples in CF were MM, such as the rim of a basin in a pink-buff fabric tempered with granodiorite fragments (AF 44). Sherds in Neopalatial PF outnumbered sherds in MFCC by more than 5:1. The sherds in MFCC were

from cooking vessels, while the sherds in PF came from cups, conical cups, closed vessels, and cooking vessels. In addition, two sherds in foreign fabrics were present. One was possibly a body sherd from a Cypriot closed vessel (possibly White Painted Ware, AF 56), and the other was a body sherd from an unpainted closed vessel, possibly Cycladic (AF 57). Fabrics Fine Fabrics: 79 sherds; 455 gr (33% by count) Coarse Fabrics: 82 sherds; 515 gr (34% by count) Mirabello Fabric, Cooking Class: 14 sherds; 395 gr (6% by count) Phyllite Fabrics: 66 sherds; 2,825 gr (27% by count) Foreign fabrics: 2 sherdS; 20 gr (