Professional Interpreting Programmes in China: Constructing a Curriculum Improvement Model 100330382X, 9781003303824

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Professional Interpreting Programmes in China

Wang presents the status quo of curriculum development in professional interpreting programmes in China and points to the urgency to devise a curriculum improvement model to ensure the relevance of such programmes against a changing reality. She covers the European experience in interpreter education that China can learn from and discusses opportunities arising from previous examples for China to iterate upon in the context of the broader and more diverse professional reality. The book puts the nature of professional interpreters and, in turn, interpreting programmes, under the concurring lens of curriculum studies and the sociology of professions. Wang identifies eight stakeholders which call for changes in interpreting programmes, and six categories of competence (or sub-​competence) which see a progression from undergraduate to graduate to lifelong-​learning stage. These serve as curriculum goals and encapsulate the recommended changes in institutional curricula. The conceptualised model is then described with a case study on Chinese-​English retour training to show its applicability and relevance in interpreting programmes on the ground. Offering insight for academics, practitioners and trainee interpreting students and of relevance to a broader interpreting community looking to set up or reform interpreting curricula, Wang’s book will help ensure curriculum improvement that is theoretically sound and practically viable. Yinying Wang teaches interpreting at Shanghai International Studies University, China. She has worked with hundreds of students during their professional training. Her teaching is based on her extensive experience as a conference interpreter in the local market and international organisations.

Routledge Studies in East Asian Interpreting

Routledge Studies in East Asian Interpreting aims to discuss practical and theoretical issues in East Asian interpreting. This series encompasses scholarly works on every possible interpreting activity and theory involving the use of Chinese (Mandarin, Cantonese, and other topolects), Japanese, Korean and other East Asian languages/​dialects. At a time when Western interpreting studies has reached its maturity and scholars are looking for inspiration from elsewhere in the world, the field of East Asian interpreting offers the greatest potential for discovery of new frontiers and formulation of new theories. The topics included in this series set out to include all the subfields of interpreting in the broader East Asian region, with Chinese, Japanese, and Korean being the main research languages. Topics can range from interpreter education, conference interpreting, medical or healthcare interpreting, educational interpreting, public service interpreting (also known as community interpreting), sign language interpreting, police interpreting, legal interpreting, interpreting for children, diplomatic interpreting, interpreting in war zones, social services interpreting, liaison or dialogue interpreting, business interpreting, remote interpreting, new models in consecutive and simultaneous interpreting, chuchotage or whispered interpreting, simconsec interpreting, telephone interpreting, shadowing, and respeaking. The series primarily consists of focus/​ shortform books, monographs, edited volumes, handbooks, and companions dedicated to discussing the above issues in East Asia. Conference Interpreting in China Practice, Training and Research Edited by Riccardo Moratto and Irene A. Zhang Professional Interpreting Programmes in China Constructing a Curriculum Improvement Model Yinying Wang For more information about this series, please visit: www.routle​dge.com/​Routle​dge-​Stud​ies-​in-​ East-​Asian-​Inter​pret​ing/​book-​ser​ies/​RSEAI

Professional Interpreting Programmes in China Constructing a Curriculum Improvement Model Yinying Wang

First published 2024 by Routledge 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2024 Yinying Wang The right of Yinying Wang to be identified as author of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-​in-​Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-​1-​032-​30191-​4 (hbk) ISBN: 978-​1-​032-​30192-​1 (pbk) ISBN: 978-​1-​003-​30382-​4 (ebk) DOI: 10.4324/​9781003303824 Typeset in Galliard by Newgen Publishing UK

Contents

List of Illustrations

vi

Introduction

1

1 A Definition of Professional Interpreting

16

2 Curriculum Improvement: Setting the Stage

32

3 A Curriculum Improvement Model

58

4 Stakeholder Role in Curriculum Improvement

81

5 Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals

105

6 A Case Study on Retour

150

7 Conclusion

200

Index

209

newgenprepdf

Illustrations

Figures 2.1 Positioning Professional T&I Programmes on the Spectrum of Educational Philosophies 2.2 Sources of Curriculum Improvement 5.1 Competence-​Based Curriculum Goals for Professional T&I Programmes 6.1 The Process of Improving Retour Training in the Institutional Curriculum

40 52 140 159

Table 6.1 Assessment Criteria for Retour Interpreting from Chinese into English

192

Introduction

More than nine decades have passed since the first professional translation and interpreting (T&I) programme was set up in Moscow in 1930 (Sawyer & Roy, 2015). Before that, earlier forms of translator training had long existed. However, trainers at that time had “no classroom and essentially no students they could address: their pronouncements [were] musings based on their own work” (Dollerup, 1996, p. 19). As the institutionalisation process started in the university setting in the Soviet Union, Germany, Switzerland, France, the United States and, later on, other places across the world, including in China, T&I training has since been witnessing paradigm shifts. As will be discussed in the following chapters, T&I training is more suitable to be categorised as an act in higher education. Most, if not all, T&I teaching faculties are inclined to subscribe to the “two prominent goals of schooling: raising academic achievement and deepening the social/​moral fabric” (Ellis, 2014, p. xiv). T&I scholars have also been using frameworks and tools in educational science in their research. Most occur at an instructional level. Yet, more recently, enriching discussions have also taken place at a more macro-​level in the attempt to answer some of the fundamental questions in education. The primary problem that T&I education faces is not what to add to the curriculum, but rather what to prioritise and what to reduce. Answering these questions requires curriculum-​level thinking, which is urgently needed. A mechanism to reconcile the educational and professional nature of T&I training can better prepare graduates as members of society and the profession. The following is a historical account of professional T&I training, with particular relevance to interpreter training. It shows that the first launch of professional T&I programmes was prompted by urgent but stable exterior demand after the Second World War. With the diversification of the demand, T&I education has since become increasingly complex. Many programmes nowadays consult with a number of stakeholders whose participation is necessitated by the nature of the profession and institutionalised education.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003303824-1

2  Introduction The Beginning of Interpreter Training Scholars with a historical perspective have presented important proof of earlier training efforts (see Pym, 2011; Baigorri-​Jalón, 2015). What these teaching activities share in common with modern forms of T&I education is that they are demand-​oriented. Earlier forms of training were mainly linked with empire expansion and the diplomatic, cultural and technical exchange and communication that emerged out of it. One can also see a long history of interpreter training institutionalised as part of government operations, predating institutionalised training in the university setting. The top-​down government arrangement was mainly intended to ensure quality, allegiance and loyalty (Pym, 2011). However, institutionalisation did not automatically guarantee quality or loyalty. As Baigorri-​Jalón notes on the training of French-​Ottoman interpreters by the French government: The strategic value of having their own interpreters was based on France’s distrust of local eastern Mediterranean interpreters. Both initiatives (at Paris and Pera) failed, mostly due to “pedagogical improvisation” (Balliu, 2005, p. 56). The training methods proved unsuitable for France’s intended purpose of securing a corps of faithful civil servants: not all candidates succeeded and some of those who did ended up working for the “enemy”. (Baigorri-​Jalón, 2015, p. 17) In-​house training of interpreters in governmental agencies is still an established practice, but is existent as a form of specialised training and lifelong learning, in addition to university training. Along with the long history comes various antiquated forms of training, such as self-​pondering, group discussion and apprenticeship. These types of training are now proven to be less ideal because they are “confined to sporadic and individualistic styles” (Munday, 2016, p. 94). Claims that translators and interpreters could be trained through apprenticeship have been replaced by an improved understanding that apprenticeship can inspire many pedagogical methods (Sawyer, 2004; Zhong, 2019a). Other beliefs, such as the one that translators and interpreters are born but not made, are proven transient if put in the longer historical timeframe (see Kalina, 2000). Systematic training and research were called for to make up for the outdated theory-​free, experience-​based training activities that fell shy of consistent and predictable quality. University-​based T&I training started to make incremental differences, with the department of philology shouldering all the responsibilities. At this point, translation exercises emphasised dictionary faithfulness and sameness. The purpose of translation was to consolidate language use. Therefore, the dominant paradigm was a “close, faithful, exact rendition of source text” (Cronin, 2005, p. 249).

Introduction  3 In this historical period, T&I education was necessary because demand existed, mainly of a top-​down nature by national governments in pursuit of national interests in international relations. There was little sign of curriculum-​ level planning at this stage as most training efforts took place outside educational institutions. In the next stage, universities took up the training responsibilities and attempted to provide a sound methodology. Change surfaced in 1928 when simultaneous interpreting was first experimented at International Labour Organisation (ILO) conferences, partly thanks to technological advances in microphones, headsets and interpreting devices (Chernov, 2016). Against the backdrop of constructing a new world order, the use of simultaneous interpreting was mandated because it was “a sign of democratisation by giving voice at that international organisation to trade union representatives in their own languages” (Baigorri-​Jalón, 2015, p. 20). In fact, interpretation provision has long been part of language policies that aim to ensure multilingualism and equity. For example, Spanish authorities issued a decree in 1563 of having interpreters in court in colonial America (Baigorri-​Jalón, 2015, p. 19).Interpreting programmes to date are obliged to feature minority languages in contexts such as the post-​Apartheid South Africa (Pym, 2011, p. 3). The major turn of events took place in the 1930s when technological breakthroughs and evolving world affairs led to surging demand for qualified conference interpreters and the institutionalisation of T&I training in the form of institutes independent of philology departments. Schäffner and Adab (2000, p. vii) argue that “systematic training of translators, as opposed to co-​ opting of competent linguists to perform the activity of translation, also began to be undertaken as a serious objective in the 1940s”. The first professional T&I programmes can be divided into three groups (see Caminade & Pym, 1998; Ulrych, 2005; Pym, 2011; Boéri, 2015; Sawyer & Roy, 2015; Kelly & Martin, 2019), namely: (1) Moscow (1930), Heidelberg (1933), Geneva (1941) and Vienna (1943), where university-​based T&I institutes were set up before the end of the Second World War and before the adoption of simultaneous interpreting in international conferences; (2) Graz (1946), Innsbruck (1946), Germersheim (1947), Saarbrücken (1948) in Germany and Georgetown in the United States (1949), where university-​ based T&I institutes were set up to urgently respond to needs arising from post-war peace processes; and then (3) the interpreting programme in École Supérieure d’Interprètes et de Traducteurs (ESIT) in 1953 followed by that in Institut Supérieur d’Interprétation et de Traduction (ISIT) in 1957, set up in France. Between the 1930s and 1950s, as the first T&I professional programmes were set up in universities, much academic discussion centred on the description of these new curricula. Arjona-​Tseng finds a strong pattern of describing “almost every existing programme” (Arjona-​Tseng, 1991, p. 59). There are several highlights among these earliest professional T&I programmes.

4  Introduction The first professional T&I programme in Europe can be traced to the University of Heidelberg in Germany. It was initially the Institute for Interpreting at the Mannheim School of Commerce in 1930 and was moved and incorporated into the University of Heidelberg in 1933 (Pöchhacker, 2019). The German programmes laid a solid foundation for T&I education even though they were initiated within the bounds of linguistics departments (Caminade & Pym, 1998) and within the limitations of the European educational institution. To date, the Skopostheorie (skopos theory) and the functional approach are instrumental to the understanding of what constitutes professional translation and interpreting. In Switzerland, the Ecole d’Interprètes de Genève was founded in 1941. The programme started with interpreter training and did not begin to have an academic focus on translation until 1972, when the programme was renamed FTI (Faculté de traduction et d’interprétation) and a degree in translation was added. Strong at training interpreters, the programme was the first to break knowledge silos by proposing four training pillars: “language studies, area studies, ancillary studies, and practica” (Velleman, as cited in Park, 2007, p. 168). The emphasis on identifying competence composition through the lens of different disciplines has since been present. Later on in France, ESIT innovated the European educational system and set up a master’s programme in interpreting in the university setting. This solved the problem that confronted many European universities concerning the inability to select students (see Snell-​Hornby, 1992). The school continued academic institutionalisation in the 1970s by having its doctoral programme on interpreting as a “new research discipline […] based on professional practice” (Gile, 2012, p. 75). It has been ESIT’s emphasis that professional T&I programmes should be led, taught and managed by the profession, mandating stakeholders in T&I education. The mid-​20th century was also the time when professional associations began to form. Set up in 1953, the International Association of Conference Interpreters (AIIC) has a strong influence on interpreter training and interpreting practice (Boéri, 2015; Kelly & Martin, 2019). It has detailed prescriptive rules on the direct relations between interpreters and clients, working rates and conditions. Its influence is cast by having regular contact with international organisations and having a peer-​review admission system. The AIIC code of ethics is a relevant source of the professional ethics of T&I. The AIIC training committee emphasises that interpreting programmes should be taught and led by AIIC-​accredited practitioners in university programmes to ensure quality. Quality is dear not only to practitioners, but also to universities. The common goal of pursuing academic excellence gathered together universities of Geneva, Heidelberg, Germersheim, Paris-​Sorbonne, Saarbrücken and Trieste in the 1960s. They formalised their “quality circle” into the Conférence Internationale Permanente d’Instituts Universitaires de Traducteurs et Interprètes (CIUTI) in 1964 (Sawyer & Roy, 2015). Conference interpreting, in line with its practitioner-​centred principle, sees

Introduction  5 heavy influence from professional bodies such as AIIC. T&I programmes see the strong influence of CIUTI on their curriculum (Kelly & Martin, 2019). By the end of the 1960s, professional T&I programmes had been institutionalised in tertiary education, albeit with several unsolved problems. The demand for professional interpreting and translation was unleashed by the invention of new technology, the top-​down political support and the trend of globalisation. The supply-​side saw the slow but steady formation of university-​based training methodology, such as the skopos theory in Germany, the interpretive theory in France and the interdisciplinary competence-​based training in Switzerland. In this historical period, curriculum-​level thinking was limited but enriching, confined by old paradigms in the university system but constantly inspired by professional demands. Against this evolving backdrop, stakeholders such as professional bodies and academic associations were embraced by universities as major contributors. However, as Chau (1984, p. 16) laments: “Translation training […] has not demonstrated sufficient purpose, planning and objectivity. It was left to individual genius, hard work and self-​taught technique. There were amateurs but few devotees […] There is no systematic method of teaching translation.” The First Round of Curriculum Reform: The POSI Project and DIN As professional T&I programmes continued to develop, training methodology began to bear fruit around the 1990s when a consensus was reached on the legitimacy of university-​based T&I education over other forms of T&I training. It was also around this period when translation and interpreting were recognised to be separate from linguistics, thus ushering in the paradigm shift of the cultural turn in the 1970s and the social turn in the 1990s (Robinson, 2012). Schäffner and Adab contest that “translation competence is most effectively developed at an academic institution” (2000, p. x). Given the practice-​ oriented nature of professional T&I, there has been a temptation to place T&I in the context of vocational training. However, as argued by Weber: Only full training programs should be offered in translation and interpretation. Isolated courses are only counter-​productive, as they lull the students into the false impression of having mastered the profession. At best, the more gifted students felt frustrated, because they cannot pursue their studies any further. At worst, students will try to advertise their “skills” after only one or two courses and find out that they are totally unprepared for reality. (Weber, 1984, p. 21) In the 1990s, within the framework of full-​ time training in academic institutions, one major step forward was that T&I was no longer a pedagogical method of second-​language acquisition to evaluate linguistic ability used in language or philology departments. Professional T&I had industry demands that only they could meet (Sawyer, 2004, p. 22; Ulrych, 2005). Around the

6  Introduction same time, translation competence, which would later be expanded into translator competence under the social turn (Pym, 2003), was widely accepted to be composed of more than language abilities. Also in the 1990s, major contributions to the pedagogy and didactics unique to teaching translation and interpreting were made (see Seleskovitch, 1989; Snell-​Hornby, 1992; Kiraly, 1995; Gile, 2009; Nord, 2018). Nord’s functional approach is one of the examples. Kelly explains: Nord’s work constitutes a clear move towards a student-​centred paradigm, that is with more emphasis on learning than on teaching, and towards professional realism in the classroom […] Her approach emphasises the gradual nature of the acquisition of translator competence, and involves considerable teacher intervention, particularly in the early stages, to ensure that tasks are not only realistic, but also feasible and hence not de-​motivating. (Kelly, 2010, p. 391) However, despite much headway on how to teach translation and interpreting, fundamental educational issues remained unsolved. The steady improvement in T&I instruction against the changing and diversified reality of the industry made curriculum planning of professional T&I programmes ever more urgent. Problems began to be hard to ignore as trainers understood what was required in a professional T&I programme, but at the same time highlighted difficulties in implementation due to conflicts among, and constraints from, stakeholders. For example, Snell-​Hornby discussed in detail T&I curriculum implementation typical in the educational system in the 1990s. In the European tertiary educational system in the 20th century, most translator training programmes took the form of five years, at the end of which students could get a master’s degree, according to the mandatory directives of national educational policies that were difficult to change (Snell-​Hornby, 1992). This setup had a big impact on almost all aspects of curriculum development: a five-​year programme meant the first years of the undergraduate stage were to be spent on linguistic enhancement, usually of more than two languages (Pym, 2011). Language enhancement was especially helpful in the context where “anyone with the final school-​leaving certificate [was] eligible to go to University” and University had “no legal right to select students”, which led to a severe lack of language competence in many new enrolments (Snell-​Hornby, 1992, p. 11). The didactic focus on the postgraduate level was also problematic. One would naturally argue that since the undergraduate stage of a five-​year programme was of a generalist fashion, it would mean that once progressed onto the postgraduate level, one should anticipate more time spent in acquiring specialised skills. Therefore, anything that did not strictly belong to linguistic enhancement and that could be found in the professional life of a practising translator or interpreter was believed to be essential in a master’s programme, such as “computer skills, new technologies, business skills, a range of specialised

Introduction  7 translation areas, translation theory, perhaps translation history, and general humanistic courses” (Pym, 2011, p. 316). The list would go on, resulting in an over-​crowdedness of good ideas but a severe lack of time and coordination. The abundance of participating disciplines and stakeholders in a constrained educational institution left educators with a paradox of choices. Therefore, decisions at the curriculum level were called for. The reform initiative of the POSI project is a good example of curriculum improvement. POSI is the German abbreviation of Praxis-​Orientierte Studieninhalte für die Ausbildung von Übersetzern und Dolmetschern (Practice-​ Oriented Curriculum for the Training of Translators and Interpreters). It is a pan-​European project initiated in 1970 led by BDÜ, the German Federal Association of Interpreters and Translators. Its memorandum was submitted in 1986 and received support from FIT, the International Federation of Translators, on October 5, 1996 (Kingscott, 1996; Anderman & Rogers, 2000, pp. 64–​65). In the POSI project, extensive discussion was carried out with stakeholder participation (Kingscott, 1996). In essence, the project features a comprehensive representation of the relation between theory and practice, as well as among disciplines and stakeholders. It is Europe’s first attempt to revamp the professional T&I curriculum, serving as an instrumental foundation for the curriculum reform as part of the later Educational Harmonization in the European Area. In connection with the POSI project, the German Institute for Standardisation Registered Association (DIN) published standards in 1997 for professional T&I activities in such areas as the choice of translators, client relations, documentation and database, text analysis, completeness and correctness of the source text, formality issues in translation, linguistic aspects of translation and translators’ declaration of quality assurance (H. Lee-​Jahnke, personal communication, November, 2020). The DIN norms are built on the POSI model and are an example of interdisciplinary stakeholder-​based quality assurance, taking into account the language aspects, business aspects as well as the professional identity of translation. This sets the stage for the later EMT model. Curriculum Reform in the 21st Century: EMT/​EMCI The European Higher Education Area was established in 1998 by the education ministers of four major European countries and then was later received by more than 40 national educational ministers. This top-​down education reform was situated in the background of competitive globalisation. The 2018 Paris Communiqué identified major challenges that Europe faced, including “unemployment and social inequality to migration-​related issues and a rise in political polarisation, radicalisation and violent extremism” (European Commission, 2018, p. 1). Amid the uncertainties, European countries strived to “ensure that the European higher education system acquires a worldwide degree of attraction equal to our extraordinary cultural and scientific traditions” in the Bologna Declaration (European Commission, 1999, pp. 2–​3).

8  Introduction The reform, often referred to as the Bologna process, is a curriculum-​level rethinking of European tertiary education. It aims to set up a common framework of higher education in Europe and is “essentially a transnational managerial process” (Biggs & Tang, 2011, p. 8). Its starting point is by no means merely at a technical or operational level. The Bologna process aims at curriculum planning to promote the fundamental values of social equity, which has “strong implications for teaching at the institutional and individual classroom levels” (ibid.). In the sphere of professional T&I training, much work had been done by individual T&I schools and institutes at the turn of the century. The starting point was invariably an attempt to describe what professional translators and interpreters were required to do. In 2000, the inductive description of professional T&I curricula between the 1930s and 1950s was updated by stocktaking efforts as pedagogical experimentation and experience had been accumulated for more than half a century. A case in point is Pym’s summary report which aimed to “help create some kind of consensus through dialogue on several key issues” (Pym, 2000, p. 1). The report contained answers from experienced trainers, theorists and educational administrators to the “fundamental questions” in curriculum studies (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2016, p. 28). For example, the main questions included students’ profile, trainers’ profile, curriculum content and integration, and their relation with the professional reality. At the European level, the rethinking of T&I education later resulted in the EMT competence models guiding curricular design in general (Kelly, 2005, p. 36) and the EMCI core curriculum. In the 21st century, in line with the awareness of dealing with the fundamentals in T&I education, T&I scholars start to address curriculum issues by resorting to curriculum theories. Though the research area has been the focus of many since the 1930s, answers are far from straightforward given the various pedagogical frameworks, changing reality in the industry and different national variations. T&I Programmes in Chinese Mainland The historical evolvement in Europe is meaningful to the discussion of professional interpreter training in China, as it reflects the bulk of the overall development of T&I education in the 20th century. To a great extent, China has condensed the seven decades of development of T&I education into one decade. What has been unfolding in China shows many similarities with Europe. In both cases, T&I training has a professional and an educational nature. This saves China from reinventing the wheel, but also juxtaposes issues that should have spread across a much longer timeframe. In the 1980s and 1990s, much effort was channelled to distinguish between language teaching (mainly English) and translation training within the confines of the national educational system (Mu, 1999; Liu, 2008). Mu (1999) researched the historical development of teaching translation and interpreting and found that before the 21st century, translation and interpreting, not as

Introduction  9 an exercise to learn a foreign language but as independent courses, had only been taught in three universities. The first was the United Nations translation and interpreting programme housed at Beijing Foreign Studies University (BFSU) between 1979 and 1993. In 1994, the programme was terminated and became the Graduate School of Interpretation and Translation. Between 1993 and 1994, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies (GDUFS) and Xiamen University, both in cooperation with the British Council for Cultural Relations and Educational Opportunities, set up translation and interpreting courses for undergraduates under English literature and linguistics. (Mu, 1999, pp. 61–​63; Zhong, 2006). Similar to the history on the European continent, the first professional T&I programme in BFSU was set up out of an urgent demand for translators and interpreters in the UN. Aside from isolated examples, most parts of the history of 20th-​century China were only preparing for professional T&I training. Towards the end of the 20th century, an increasing number of scholars had anticipated the surging demand for professional translators and interpreters and thus started curriculum planning for professional T&I training. At the turn of the century, as globalisation and technological advancement started to have substantial implications for China, the demand for professional translation and interpreting surged. In 2003, Shanghai International Studies University (SISU) set up its Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation (GIIT), which established the first PhD programme in translation studies in 2004 (Zhong, 2006). Two years later, in 2006, the first bachelor’s programmes in T&I (BTI) were launched in the country and in 2007, China saw its first master’s programmes in professional T&I (MTI) (Zhong, 2014). By the end of 2021, the China National Committee for Translation and Interpretation Education, the dedicated governmental agency in charge of the educational development of university professional T&I programmes, had under it 284 BTI programmes and 259 MTI programmes, with a total recruitment of 70,000 students and around 50,000 graduates (Translators Association of China, 2020). The doctoral degree in professional T&I, distinct from PhD in translation studies, is expected to be set up in the national education system soon (Zhang & Ding, 2019; Mu, 2019). Since November 2022, the new term of the China National Committee for Translation and Interpretation Education has been discharging its duties under the updated name of the China National Committee for Graduate Education of Translation and Interpreting (China National Committee for Graduate Education of Translation and Interpreting, 2022). Though China is historically one of the earliest in the world that practised and benefited from translation and interpreting, the development of professional T&I programmes has been lagging behind its European counterparts in the 20th century. The timeline also suggests that T&I curricula in Chinese Mainland are built on important results of the curriculum planning, design and development of established European T&I Schools. Founding deans of the first T&I schools, like their counterparts in other parts of the

10  Introduction world, have given much thinking to the curriculum planning of the brand new programmes. However, unlike their European counterparts, they base their design on an already sophisticated understanding of the professional specificities of T&I programmes. For example, Liu (2008), founding dean of the School of Translation and Interpreting Institute of Beijing Language and Culture University, is one of the first trainers who introduced the interpretive theory of ESIT into China. Chai (2010, 2012), founding dean of GIIT, SISU, pays particular attention to the international standards in such areas as curriculum content, trainer profile and knowledge of the industry at the establishment of the institute. Chinese T&I programmes are also aware of the importance of stakeholders such as professional bodies. AIIC standards are used to evaluate interpreting programmes (Wang & Mu, 2012). Five Chinese universities have joined the CIUTI network. The issue of professional reality has also been taken into account. China has also done what the POSI project advocated in the rarely touched-​upon area of curriculum development. In 2009, the first seminar on T&I education and the T&I industry was held. Participants included governmental agencies, industry representatives, universities, publishing houses and technology experts on information engineering and translation software (Xu, 2010). Participants explored important questions such as the relationship between theory and practice, and that between education and industry, as well as the image of translators and interpreters as experts or professionals in the changing landscape (ibid.). T&I programmes in China stand on a solid foundation, ranging from the academic independence of the translation department, to pedagogical frameworks and tools, as well as stakeholder participation including industry representatives and professional associations such as the Translators Association of China (TAC). Imperative for Curriculum Improvement To date, there have been two major rounds of supranational curriculum improvement in Europe. The POSI project led by the professional association of BDÜ is an attempt to increase the relevance of professional T&I programmes both in the tertiary education system and in the market. The EMT/​EMCI project is part of the EHEA reform initiated by the European Union in order to increase the competitiveness of the continent and enhance social equity. In essence, the two rounds of curriculum improvement result in improved ideological curricula (see Jiang, 2014) which need to be interpreted into institutional curricula at the programme level. Among the isolated number of projects on curriculum development and improvement in translation studies, quite a number of researchers have mentioned the imperative of curriculum improvement at the institutional level (Wen, 2005). The prevailing practice is to pre-​determine a technical curricular model with a step-​by-​step sequence of

Introduction  11 goal setting, content design and implementation. Curriculum improvement has been mentioned only briefly: the results of implementation should be incorporated in the updating of curriculum goals and objectives (Kelly, 2005). In Chinese Mainland, signs of curriculum improvement have been seen. Research in professional T&I training under frameworks of curriculum studies did not happen until after 2006 (Yang & Jiang, 2017) with the creation of BTI and MTI programmes. With a relatively short history of less than two decades, most institutional programmes have just completed the process of curriculum-​making, which took more than 50 years in Europe between the 1930s and 1990s. The fast movement of MTI programmes is made possible because their establishment allows them to follow the achievements in translation studies and T&I training methodologies in Europe. The China National Committee for Translation and Interpretation Education acknowledges the benefits of “borrowing and incorporating the pedagogical experience of high-​level T&I education in oversea countries” (China National Committee for Translation and Interpretation Education, 2018, p. 1, my translation). However, the fast-​lane development has also exposed MTI programmes to many challenges (see Chai, 2012; Zhong, 2014, 2019b; He, 2016; Huang, 2019), not only concerning pedagogical resources, but more importantly, concerning the curriculum-​level planning and prioritisation. The national ideological curriculum of China states that the educational outcome of MTI programmes is to produce “high-​level, advanced, professional and/​or specialised translators and interpreters that are needed according to the national specificities, market reality, and future development of the practice” (China National Committee for Translation and Interpretation Education, 2013, p. 1, my translation). This serves as the guiding definition of professional T&I in China in the broadest term. Individual T&I programmes, as part of their curriculum work, should interpret the ideological curriculum into their institutional curricula. However, it is a prevalent trend that trainers might take the national guidelines directly as programme curriculum, or even worse, as instruction plan (Wen, 2005). Curriculum-​level considerations in MTI are called for, with a particular focus on models for curriculum improvement at the institutional level. This means a systematic overview of the nature of professional T&I, the frameworks in curriculum studies, together with relevant findings in T&I instruction. It has been identified that T&I education in China needs to improve curriculum and instruction and create diversity among programmes to reflect local specificities and to meet different local market demands (Zhong & Zhao, 2020). Curriculum improvement of MTI programmes is necessary. The consensus on the importance of curriculum work needs to be substantiated by research using curriculum studies which at the same time takes into account the implications of the professional nature of T&I. This book aims to conceptualise a curriculum improvement model which helps individual programmes update their institutional curriculum. The research

12  Introduction sets out to look at the nature of professional T&I programmes under the concurrent lens of curriculum studies and the professionalisation of T&I. Interpreter training will be the focus, though translator training is inevitably relevant. References Anderman, G., & Rogers, M. (2000). Translator training between academia and profession: A European perspective. In C. Schäffner B. Adab (Eds.), Developing translation competence (pp. 63–​76). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​ 10.1075/​btl.38.07and Arjona-​Tseng, E. M. (1991). Curriculum policy-​making for an emerging profession: The structure, process, and outcome of creating a graduate institute for translation and interpretation studies in the Republic of China of Taiwan [Doctoral dissertation]. Harvard University Baigorri-​Jalón, J. (2015). The history of the interpreting profession. In H. Mikkelson & R. Jourdenais (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of interpreting (pp. 11–​ 28). Routledge. www.taylor​fran​cis.com/​chapt​ers/​edit/​10.4324/​978131​5745​381-​3/​ hist​ory-​inter​pret​ing-​pro​fess​ion-​jes%C3%BAs-​baigo​rri-​jal%C3%B3n Biggs, J., & Tang, C. (2011). Teaching for quality learning at university (4th ed.). McGraw-​hill education (UK). Boéri, J. (2015). Key internal players in the development of the interpreting profession. In H. Mikkelson & R. Jourdenais (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of interpreting (pp. 41–​56). Routledge. www.taylor​fran​cis.com/​chapt​ers/​edit/​10.4324/​978131​5745​ 381-​4/​key-​inter​nal-​play​ers-​deve​lopm​ent-​inter​pret​ing-​pro​fess​ion-​julie-​bo%C3%A9ri Caminade, M., & Pym, A. (1998). Translator-​training institutions. In M. Baker & K. Malmkjær (Eds.), Routledge encyclopedia of translation studies (pp. 280–​285). Routledge. Chai, M. J. (2010). Dui zhuanye fanyi jiaoxue jiangou de sikao—​—​Xianzhuang, Wenti he duice [Some thoughts on professional T&I training: Status quo, issues and solutions]. Chinese Translators Journal, 31(1), 54–​56. Chai, M. J. (2012). Fanyi shuoshi zhuanye xuewei jiaoyu—​—​Shangwai gaofan zonghe gaige shidian [Master’s degree in translation and interpreting—​—​GIIT’s Attempts for its MTI educational reform]. Journal of University of Shanghai for Science and Technology (Social Science Edition), 34(2), 91–​95. Chau, S. (1984). Aspects of translation pedagogy: The grammatical, cultural and interpretive teaching models [Doctoral dissertation]. University of Edinburgh. Chernov, S. (2016). At the dawn of simultaneous interpreting in the USSR: Filling some gaps in history. In K. Takeda & J. Baigorri-​Jalón (Eds.), New insights in the history of interpreting (pp. 135–​166). John Benjamins Publishing. www.jbe-​platf​ orm.com/​cont​ent/​books/​978902​7267​511-​btl.122.06che China National Committee for Translation and Interpretation Education. (2013, December 27). Quanguo fanyi shuoshi zhuanye xuewei yanjiusheng jiaoyu zhidaoxing peiyang fangan [National curriculum guideline for master’s degree programmes in translation and interpreting]. https://​cnti.gdufs.edu.cn/​info/​1006/​1094.htm China National Committee for Translation and Interpretation Education. (2018, September 9). Fanyi shuoshi xuewei jiben yaoqiu [Basic requirements for master’s degree programmes in translation and interpreting]. https://​cnti.gdufs.edu.cn/​ info/​1006/​2029.htm

Introduction  13 China National Committee for Graduate Education of Translation and Interpreting. (2022, November 28). Guanyu biangeng quanguo fanyi zhuanye xuewei yanjiusheng jiaoyu zhidao weiyuanhui yingwen mingcheng huibiao ji wangzhan yuming de tongzhi [Annoucement on the change of English name, logo and portal website of the China National Committee for Graduate Education of Translation and Interpreting]. http://​cnti.shisu.edu.cn/​79/​4d/​c13646​a162​125/​page.htm Cronin, M. (2005). Deschooling translation: Beginning of century reflections on teaching. In M. Tennent (Ed.) Training for the new millennium (pp. 249–​265). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​btl.60.20cro Dollerup, C. (1996). The emergence of the teaching of translation. In C. Dollerup & V. Appel (Eds.), Teaching translating and interpreting: New Horizons (Vol. 3, pp. 19–​30). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​btl.16.05dol Ellis, A. K. (2014). Exemplars of curriculum theory. Routledge. https://​doi.org/​ 10.4324/​978131​5855​318 European Commission. (1999, June 19). The Bologna Declaration of 19 June 1999. www.ehea.info/ ​ m edia.ehea.info/ ​ f ile/ ​ M ini ​ s ter ​ i al_ ​ c onf ​ e ren ​ c es/ ​ 0 2/ ​ 8 / ​ 1 999_​ Bologna​_​Dec​lara​tion​_​Eng​lish​_​553​028.pdf European Commission. (2018, May 25). Paris Communiqué. www.ehea.info/​media. ehea.info/ ​ f ile/ ​ 2 01 ​ 8 _ ​ P a ​ r is/ ​ 7 7/ ​ 1 / ​ E HEAParis2​ 0 18_​ C omm​ u niq​ u e_​ f ​ i nal​ _ ​ 9 52​ 771.pdf Gile, D. (2009). Basic concepts and models for interpreter and translator training (Vol. 8). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​btl.8 Gile, D. (2012). Institutionalization of translation studies. In Y. Gambier & L. Van Doorslaer (Eds.), Handbook of translation studies (Vol. 3, pp. 73–​80). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​hts.3.ins2 He, G. Q. (2016). “Sichong youhuan” ban “sanguan shishou”—​ —​ Woguo fanyi zhuanye yanjiusheng jiaoyu hequhecong? [Four issues and three challenges: what is the prospect of the MTI education in China?]. Shanghai Journal of Translators, (02), 1–​5. Huang, Y. Y. (2019). Zhuahao yingyong fanyi rencai peiyang jizhi jianshe manzu shidai dui yingyongxing fanyi rencai xuqiu [Setting Up a Nurturing Mechanism for Pragmatic Translators]. Shanghai Journal of Translators, (4), 1–​2. Jiang, Q. X. (2014). Fanyi zhuanye kecheng shishi de xitong guanxi yanjiu—​ —​ Jianyi woguo fanyi zhuanye benke kecheng shishi zhong de wenti [A systematic study on the curriculum implementation of professional translator and interpreter training: And its reflections on the BTI programme in China]. Chinese Translators Journal, 35(06), 39–​43. Kalina, S. (2000). Interpreting competence as a basis and goal for teaching. The Interpreters’ Newsletter, 10, 3–​32. http://​hdl.han​dle.net/​10077/​2440 Kelly, D. (2005). A handbook for translator trainers. Routledge. https://​doi.org/​ 10.4324/​978131​5760​292 Kelly, D. (2010). Curriculum. In Y. Gambier & L. Van Doorslaer (Eds.), Handbook of translation studies (Vol. 1, pp. 87–​93). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi. org/​10.1075/​hts.1.cur1 Kelly, D., & Martin, A. (2019). Training and education, curriculum. In M. Baker, & G. Saldanha (Eds.), Routledge encyclopedia of translation studies (3rd Ed.) (pp. 591–​ 596). Routledge. www.taylor​fran​cis.com/​chapt​ers/​edit/​10.4324/​978131​5678​ 627-​126/​train​ing-​educat​ion-​cur​ricu​lum-​doro​thy-​kelly-​anne-​mar​tin

14  Introduction Kingscott, G. (1996). The European translation platform. https://​aclan​thol​ogy.org/​ 1996.tc-​1.10.pdf Kiraly, D. C. (1995). Pathways to translation: Pedagogy and process. Kent State University Press. Liu, H. P. (2008). Zaitan fanyi jiaoxue tixi de goujian [Rethinking the Construction of a Pedagogical System for Translation]. Chinese Translators Journal, 29(3), 35–​39. Mu, L. (1999). Zhongguo fanyi jiaoxue yanjiu [Translation teaching in China]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. Mu, L. (2019). Dui shezhi fanyi boshi zhuanye xuewei de sikao [Some thoughts on the possible DTI programme in China]. Shanghai Journal of Translators, (04), 48–​53. Munday, J. (2016). Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications (4th ed.). Routledge. https://​doi.org/​10.4324/​978131​5691​862 Nord, C. (2018). Translating as a purposeful activity: Functionalist approaches explained (2nd ed.). Routledge. https://​doi.org/​10.4324/​978135​1189​354 Ornstein, A. C., & Hunkins, F. P. (2016). Curriculum: Foundations, principles, and issues (7th ed.). Pearson Education. Park, O. (2007). What constitutes a translation graduate school in South Korea?. Babel, 53(2), 167–​178. Pöchhacker, F. (2019). Structure and process. In D. B. Sawyer, F. Austermühl & V. Enríquez Raído (Eds.), The evolving curriculum in interpreter and translator education: Stakeholder perspectives and voices (pp. 141–​169). John Benjamins Publishing. www.jbe-​platf​orm.com/​cont​ent/​books/​978902​7262​530-​ata.xix.07poc Pym, A. (2000). Innovation in translator and interpreter training: Report on an on-​ line symposium. Across Languages and Cultures, 1(2), 209–​273. https://​doi.org/​ 10.1556/​Acr.1.2000.2.5 Pym, A. (2003). Redefining translation competence in an electronic age. In defence of a minimalist approach. Meta, 48(4), 481–​497. https://​doi.org/​10.7202/​00853​3ar Pym, A. (2011). Training translators. In K. Malmkjær & K. Windle (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of translation studies (pp. 313–​321). Oxford University Press. https://​doi. org/​10.1093/​oxfor​dhb/​978019​9239​306.013.0032 Robinson, D. (2012). Becoming a translator: An introduction to the theory and practice of translation (3rd ed.). Routledge. https://​doi.org/​10.4324/​978020​3108​727 Sawyer, D. B. (2004). Fundamental aspects of interpreter education: Curriculum and assessment. John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​btl.47 Sawyer, D. B., & Roy, C. B. (2015). Education. In F. Pöchhacker (Ed.), Routledge encyclopedia of interpreting studies (pp. 124–​129). Routledge. Schäffner, C., & Adab, B. (Eds.). (2000). Developing translation competence. John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​btl.38 Seleskovitch, D. (1989). Teaching conference interpreting. In P. W. Krawutschke (Ed.) Translator and interpreter training and foreign language pedagogy (pp. 65–​88). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​ata.iii.07sel Snell-​Hornby, M. (1992). The professional translator of tomorrow: Language specialist or all-​round expert?. In C. Dollerup & A. Loddegaard (Eds.), Teaching translation and interpreting: training, talent, and experience (pp. 9–​22). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​z.56.04sne Translators Association of China. (2020). 2020 zhongguo yuyan fuwu hangye baogao [China language service industry development report]. Translators Association of China Publications.

Introduction  15 Ulrych, M. (2005). Training translators: Programmes, curricula, practices. In M. Tennent (Ed.) Training for the new millennium (pp. 3–​ 33). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​btl.60.06ulr Wang, B. H., & Mu, L. (2012). Guowai zhuanye kouyi jiaoxue de diaoyan baogao—​—​ Jiantan dui woguo fanyi zhuanye banxue de qishi [A survey on professional interpreter training beyond China: And its implications to professional T&I training in China]. Foreign Language World, (05), 24–​33. Weber, W. K. (1984). Training translators and conference Interpreters. Language in education: Theory and practice, No. 58. ERIC Publications. https://​eric.ed.gov/​?id=​ ED246​696 Wen, J. (2005). Fanyi kecheng moshi yanjiu: Yi fazhan fanyi nengli wei zhongxin de fangfa [A study on the model of translation curriculum: Translation-​ competence centered approach]. China Culture and History Press. Xu, J. (2010). Guanyu fanyi shuoshi zhuanye xuewei jiaoyu de jidian sikao [Some thoughts on MTI education]. Chinese Translators Journal, 31(1), 52–​54. Yang, Z. J., & Jiang, Q. X. (2017). Woguo fanyi kecheng yanjiu de zhishi tupu fenxi (2000–​ 2016) [A knowledge map analysis of T&I curriculum studies in China (2000–​2016)]. Foreign Language World, (06), 37–​44. Zhang, A. L., & Ding, N. (2019). Xinxingshi xia woguo fanyi zhuanye jiaoyu neihan jianshe—​—​Guanyu fanyi boshi zhuanye xuewei (DTI) shezhi de sikao yu tansuo [The construction a T&I educational system in China: Some thoughts and exploration of the DTI programme]. Chinese Translators Journal, 40(3), 96–​104. Zhong, W. H. (2006). Fanyi zhuanye shuoshi (MIT) de shezhi—​—​Fanyixue xueke fazhan de xinfangxiang [The Master of Interpreting and Translation (MIT) Program: A New Development in the Disciplinary Construction of Translation Studies in China]. Chinese Translators Journal, 27(1), 32–​35. Zhong, W. H. (2014). Woguo fanyi zhuanye jiaoyu de wenti yu duice [Issues of and Solutions to the MTI education in China]. Chinese Translators Journal, 35(04), 40–​44. Zhong, W. H. (Ed.). (2019a). Kouyi jiaoxue—​—​Guangwai moshi de tansuo yu Shijian [Interpreter training–​The Guangwai approach]. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. Zhong, W. H. (2019b). Gaigefangkai 40 nian woguo fanyi zhuanye jiaoxue: chengjiu, tiaozhan yu fazhan [Four decades of professional T&I education in China since the beginning of the reform and opening-​up: Achievements, challenges and prospects]. Chinese Translators Journal, 40(1), 68–​75. Zhong, W. H., & Zhao, T. Y. (2020). Zhongguo fanyi xueke yu fanyi zhuanye fazhan yanjiu (1949–​2019) [A study on the development of translation studies and MTI programmes in China (1949–​2019)]. Chinese Translators Journal, 41(01), 79–​86.

1 A Definition of Professional Interpreting

The educational goal of the national ideological T&I curriculum is producing professional translators and interpreters through professional T&I programmes (see China National Committee of Translation and Interpretation Education, 2013). However, as time proceeds, professional programmes have different definitions and implications. A closer look at what constitutes a professional translator or interpreter in the current time and age is relevant, because it is central to the fundamental questions in T&I education regarding what, who, whom and why to teach. Professional interpreters and their education are the focus of this book. However, in the next chapters, professional translation and professional interpreting are often discussed together as they share much in common in terms of training and professional development. Confusion in Wording Unique to the discussion in the Chinese setting is that the already complicated term professional T&I is compounded by multiple ways of translation in Chinese. The national ideological curriculum states that the educational outcome of MTI programmes is to produce “zhuanye [专业] translators and interpreters” (China National Committee of Translation and Interpretation Education, 2013, p. 1, my translation). The expression can either mean professional or specialised in the Chinese language. Meanwhile, an adjacent Chinese expression, zhiye [职业], which is equivalent to professional strictly under the sociology of professions, can also mean occupational or vocational. The wording creates additional challenges in sorting out the nature of professional T&I in China. Moreover, the English term “professional T&I” itself has a number of different implications. To some extent, the definitional conundrum on professional T&I derives from the massive application of the word in both academic reasoning as well as in everyday conversation. In many cases, the word is used as a first-​choice short-​hand when a new understanding of professional T&I gains traction. Professional is interchangeable with other words, such as specialised. For DOI: 10.4324/9781003303824-2

A Definition of Professional Interpreting  17 example, Garcés and Martin (2008) define professional the same as specialised in contexts of court, legal, police, health work translation and interpreting. Professional is sometimes a synonym for vocational, which emphasises the practice-​oriented nature of T&I pedagogy. Kearns (2006), Li (2000a, 2000b), Arjona-​Tseng (1991) choose not to distinguish between professional and vocational programmes. Professional is also sometimes mixed with everyday words such as advanced or superior that indicate the programme at hand is better, more sophisticated and more demanding than others. For example, Sawyer finds out that the mission of the Monterey Institute of International Studies is to help students “become superior professional translators and interpreters” (Monterey Institute of International Studies, 1998, p. 2, as cited in Sawyer, 2004, pp. 53–​54). In the curriculum guidelines of MTI programmes in China, the goal is set to produce advanced professional translators and interpreters (China National Committee for Translation and Interpretation Education, 2013, p. 1). In their paper on the status of translators and interpreters in China, Mu and Fu cite the national human resources definition of professional translators and interpreters as “professional [zhuanye] workers who do bidirectional translation and interpreting between Chinese and other languages, between languages of ethnic groups, and for sign language” (Occupational Classification Code of the People’s Republic of China, 2015, p. 143, as cited in Mu & Fu, 2017, p. 86, my translation). The definition enumerates different language combinations, but leaves the word professional to its self-​evident meaning. One can detect some sense of value attached, but there is much room for clarity. An Inter-​discipline Gaballo recalls that “[t]‌he image of translators sitting alone at their desks with just a candle to throw some light on the scattered pages of their hand-​written work is a romantic idea of a translator’s job setting, reminiscent of Martin Luther’s time” (Gaballo, 2009, p. 4591, as cited in Krajcso, 2011, p. 270). Translation studies as an inter-​discipline finds its origin in theology, philology and literature. On top of these, professional T&I also incorporates cognitive sciences, cultural studies and social studies. Though theology, philology and literature are still relevant in translation studies, the teaching and research of T&I find their way forward in a changing paradigm. Oftentimes, T&I of a later era is referred to as professional T&I in order to be differentiated from the previous way of teaching and researching translation. As a result, the historical development, compounded by the interdisciplinary nature of translation studies, has given rise to the current reality that professional T&I is referred to under multiple meanings in literary, cultural, cognitive and sociological studies. Translation studies scholars (Gran and Dodds, 1989; Gambier, 2004; Ruano, 2006) tend to agree that the trend of interdisciplinary research in translation studies was initiated in the 1980s, particularly after the Trieste

18  A Definition of Professional Interpreting Conference on interpreting studies (Pöchhacker, 2015, p. 65). This trend was highlighted in 1992 when Translation Studies. An Interdiscipline by Snell-​ Hornby was published (Lambert, 2012). The enthusiasm is well-​founded. Malmkjær and Windle (2011, p. 19) believe that translation studies have “achieved full recognition as a discipline in its own right, to which related disciplines make vital contributions”. Steiner argues that the discipline is at the “point of contact between established and newly evolving disciplines” (Snell-​ Hornby, 2006, p. 31). When referring to translation studies as an inter-​discipline, many scholars mean the academic efforts of borrowing analytical tools and, more importantly, research paradigms from other disciplines with an aim to facilitate the understanding of translation and interpreting with more diversified and comprehensive perspectives (see Venuti & Baker, 2000). Take the psycho-​cognitive analysis of the T&I process as an example. Several scholarly attempts have been made, with much headway, in trying to capture the mental processes of translators and interpreters at work. They adopt concurrent and retrospective tools conventional to cognitive sciences, psychology and neuroscience and use them in their empirical exploration and experimentation of the T&I process (Jääskeläinen, 2011). Other examples include the vast field of community and specialised translation and interpreting (see Moratto & Li, 2021). Legal interpreting and healthcare interpreting need a systematic review of subject matter understanding and cross-​cultural communication as vital parts to facilitate understanding of the translation act (ibid.). Interdisciplinary projects have been the subject of recent research in translation studies. Examples include the PACTE group on translation competence by using quantitative methods in social science (Albir, 2017), Anthony Pym’s project in collaboration with other researchers on the status of translators and interpreters in the European Union by using sociological and economic models (European Commission, Directorate-​General for Translation, 2012) and Annoni and Lee-​Jahnke’s project (2012) on the translation process by using neurocognitive methods. They all serve as a testament to the belief that “even if disciplines do not share conceptual paradigms and research methods, they might nonetheless be joined together to advance a project on translation” (Venuti & Baker, 2000, p. 3). There is little doubt nowadays that translation studies go beyond language (Snell-​Hornby, 2006; Lambert, 2012) and entail the vital contribution of many disciplines. However, one big concern is a lack of reciprocity. In defining inter-​discipline, Choi and Pak (2007) highlight the importance of reciprocity between two or more disciplines. An inter-​discipline also means “a new discipline has emerged as an expression of a newly delineated area of reality” (Schwarz, 1974, p. 59, as cited in Snell-​Hornby, 2006, p. 71). Another problem is the autonomy of the discipline. While acknowledging the positive development of translation and interpreting studies, Gile (2004) has expressed his concern that borrowing paradigms from other disciplines might result in a void of paradigms exclusive to translation studies. This, in turn, will

A Definition of Professional Interpreting  19 harm the possibility of translation studies achieving the status of an autonomous discipline. It should be argued that despite the potential problems, the interdisciplinary approach has been instrumental to the understanding of the fundamental definition of T&I, because, as Chesterman puts it, “[f]‌rom the research point of view, autonomy is not, I think, a goal in itself. Our basic research goal is surely a greater understanding of our subject” (Chesterman, 2004, p. 53). Interdisciplinary research, in the form of turns and norms, contributes to the “no man’s lands” with positive outcomes and added value (Lambert, 2012, p. 84). Ruano (2006, p. 45) further warns of the destructive exclusion masked by a call for “conciliation of viewpoints” to achieve a shared ground. To place one paradigm at the centre automatically means an opt-​out of other competing paradigms. It should also be emphasised that interdisciplinarity rejects the haphazard and random attempts to mention elements of other disciplines in passing; rather, it advocates for systematic incorporation of the research methods and paradigms from other disciplines into translation studies. The analysis of the interdisciplinary nature is important to T&I education. Lee-​Jahnke (2013) argues for the value of interdisciplinarity to innovative approaches and methods in T&I didactics. Academic pursuits with a strong didactic and pedagogical focus have also been a strong force for further development of translation studies (Leal, 2012). The positive outcome derived from interdisciplinarity is believed to outweigh potential problems concerning research paradigms, for the main reason that an interdisciplinary perspective can facilitate the understanding of the practice of T&I, which is the very foundation of translation studies and the theoretical efforts (Holmes, 1972/​2000). Being an inter-​discipline, professional T&I should not be defined through one specific discipline, but rather through the contribution of all relevant disciplines. Equivalence and Norms Given that translation studies are an inter-​discipline, the historical “turns” in translation studies can be viewed as attempts to add layers to the concept of equivalence, or as efforts to enrich translation norms towards a sociological understanding of equivalence. Understanding equivalence and norms is vital to the definition of professional interpreting. Otherwise, unhelpful or unnecessary separation between different kinds of translation and interpreting acts, such as literary, business, commercial, or translation, would cause confusion for curriculum work. Improper classification is also detrimental to the discussion of the social status and recognition of professional interpreters. Literature and Linguistics

Literature and linguistics, as the two earliest disciplines in T&I, can be viewed as two terminals constructing a cline of equivalence in-​between. Professional T&I falls on this spectrum, rather than on one end or the other.

20  A Definition of Professional Interpreting In theology and philosophy, words are the carrier of great thinking. In the essentialist philosophical tradition, meaning is perceived to be stable. Language “would function as an outer layer that is supposed to protect what it allegedly carries so that it could be safely taken or delivered elsewhere” (Arrojo, 2010, p. 247). Following this logic, translation would be considered an impersonal act. Faithfulness in the strict one-​to-​one correspondence is the central principle of translation to ensure that readers have the correct understanding. Within the bounds of linguistics, Nida, focusing on the translation of theology and philosophy and drawing on Chomsky’s universal grammar, transcends translation from lexical equivalence to functional equivalence. Though termed by Nida as functional or dynamic equivalence, potentially confusing with the concept of functional approach by Nord, the relation between the source text and the target text remains strictly on levels of semantics under linguistics (Munday, 2016, p. 84). Pragmatic text and discourse, on the other hand, bear a different philosophical understanding of meaning (Snell-​Hornby, 1992; Nord, 2018). The other end of the cline is governed by poetics and comparative literature (Snell-​Hornby, 2006, p. 33). The relevance of literature to translation studies is three-​ fold. First, the comparative method in literature is retained in translation studies as one of the major empirical methods. Second, literature contributes greatly to translation studies with its sociological thinking, mainly in the form of the poly-​systems theory, in which the reception, acceptance and rejection of literary translation are governed by “issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation” (Lefevere, 1992, p. 2, as cited in Munday, 2016, p. 199). Third, and most pertinently, literary translators have a unique understanding of equivalence, differentiating them from other types of translators and interpreters. The world in the eye of Nietzsche is vastly different from that of realist and essentialist philosophers, in that “as part of an arbitrary, conventional system, every concept is necessarily human-​made” (Arrojo, 2010, p. 249). Meaning is therefore construed and acquired in the post-​modern deconstructive philosophy. At this end of the cline, creating infinite forms of art is the ultimate goal of literary translators. Literary translators look at themselves as artists who take pride in their free spirit. As is put by Litvin in Snir, “In translation I repeat the process of creation” (1988, p. 18, as cited in Sela-​Sheffy, 2016, p. 58). Applying any law that remotely borders natural sciences is unthinkable. Creativity and intuition are their only evaluation measures. Their priority is to “preserve or to recreate somehow the aesthetic intentions or effects that may be perceived in the source text” (Delabastita, 2011, p. 69). Literary translators “[deny] all forms of economic gratifications as factors in their translation careers” (Sela-​Sheffy, 2016, p. 58). In addition, they do not subscribe to the argument that formal training is a prerequisite for competent translation. Even if they earn their living by translation, they treat their job as a pure vocation (ibid.). Consequently, creativity and intuition are their only evaluation measures. Their definition of a translator is an artist with a free spirit and virtuoso.

A Definition of Professional Interpreting  21 The cline of equivalence starts from prescriptive translation in which the correct translation is already embedded in the source text. The cline goes all the way to the other extreme, where translation is freely descriptive, target-​ oriented and fully up to the discretion of the translator and interpreter. The cline between linguistic correspondence and artistic creation features various degrees of equivalence. These two extremes help construct a framework in which equivalence and norms become the most suitable ways to describe the process and product of T&I. In the extreme case of translating religious and philosophical work, there would be no room for equivalence and norms of any degree of approximation. The cline also suggests that literary translation is defined as a translation act in which equivalence and norms are violently disrupted in pursuing artistic creation. In comparison, the concept of equivalence bears the nature of relativity of translation studies. Newmark (1991, p. 3, as cited in Leal, 2012, p. 41) contends that it is “fruitless to define equivalence –​a common academic dead-​ end pursuit –​or to pronounce where equivalence ends and where correspondence, or adequacy, begins”, implying equivalence is the intermediary level of quality between the higher level of correspondence and the lower level of mere adequacy. Likewise, Baker uses the term non-​equivalence to summarise the difficulties in translation that cannot be solved with pure linguistic correspondence (Baker, 2018). She further acknowledges that equivalence in her vocabulary is not absolute; it is dependent on the producer of the source text, the producer of the target text, the readership, specific temporal-​spatial locations, as well as on censorship and other parties of intervention (Baker, 2018, p. 37). In Tymoczko’s words: [E]‌quivalence is […] a similarity relationship –​involving both likeness and difference –​and as such it is contingent on many cultural factors. The result is that many translations are possible of any given text, and equivalence has an a posteriori nature, rather than a positivist or absolutist value […] Translation [is] a multivalent, one-​to-​many process, in which translation is affected by the specifics of the spatiotemporal location of both the source and target texts. (Tymoczko, 2014, p. 41) Equivalence under succeeding translations turns constitute different translation norms. Toury (1980, p. 51) defines translation norms as falling between “objective, relatively absolute rules” and “fully subjective idiosyncrasies”. The definition corresponds with the linguistic and literary extremes of the equivalence cline. This understanding of norms is echoed by Venuti, who highlights the sociological nature of translation norms: Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests

22  A Definition of Professional Interpreting of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas. (1998, p. 29, cited in Munday, 2016, p. 243) Indeed, translation norms are meaningful as they are taken as behavioural criteria so that normative evaluation of the translation performance can be made. The evaluation is dependent on values, ethics or common sense of a specific “community” (Bahrdt, 2008, p. 48, as cited in Wolf & Fukari, 2007, p. 15). In whichever case, it is sufficient to argue that professional T&I is evaluated against considerations of a combination of linguistic, communicative, social and cultural effects of the translational act, rather than against only one norm. Translation norms apply a controlling effect “at the intermediate level between competence and performance, where competence stands for the set of options translators have at their disposal and performance refers to the options actually selected” (Hermans, 1999/​2009, p. 75). This cline of equivalence is helpful in the definition of what is not professional T&I. Professional T&I is more than classroom linguistic practice. One of the most straightforward cases of using the wording professional T&I is to separate it from translation as a pedagogical exercise of foreign language acquisition. Fraser (2000) and Gambier (2012) argue that professional translation is contrastive to didactic translation in the classroom. The emphasis of professional T&I is placed on the professional context and professional realism that require a situational approach featuring commercial, real contexts, real projects (Kelly, 2005, p. 87, p. 131) and the real-​life conditions of translation (Ulrych, 2005). Snell-​Hornby draws attention to the need for training in a professional context (1992, p. 18) and advocates the implementation of alternative forms of testing that reflect the realities of future professional life (1992, p. 19). Nord’s didactic approach has the “premise that training should simulate professional practice; that is, it should never involve translating without a meaningful realistic purpose” (cited in Kelly, 2010, p. 390). Gambier (2012, p. 164) argues that professional T&I programmes “would aim today at producing qualified and highly competent translators –​transforming students with certain language competences into professionals able to translate, localise, revise, etc.”. Therefore, professional T&I programmes should provide training on more than language competences. Exercises that reinforce the one-​on-​one parallel between different languages do not take up the entirety of professional T&I. Professional T&I is not literary translation, either. It is important to note that this is not necessarily because of text type. A distinction should be made between literary translation and pragmatic translation of literary texts for business purposes. In literary translation, literary translators form a “restricted circle of elite” (Sela-​Sheffy, 2016, p. 57) whose artistic creation is usually constrained by outsiders such as agents of patronage (see Lefevere, 1992). Literary translation is not part of professional T&I because of different

A Definition of Professional Interpreting  23 philosophical standings, pointing to different understanding of equivalence and norms. Market Demand

Another conventional but problematic way of defining professional T&I is to take market demand as the prevailing benchmark. Indeed, this has been the implied logic across different historical periods. The first modern forms of T&I programmes were established in response to the pressing demand for reconstructing post-​war order in international organisations. In this case, professional T&I was associated with high-​level meetings and the command of communication technologies. In the 1990s, during the first round of curriculum improvement epitomised by the POSI project, the definition of professional T&I was heavily influenced by the identification of the changing market demands (see Kingscott, 1996). Taking market demand as the only norm authority is the reason why many researchers equate professional T&I with non-​ literary T&I (see Dam & Zethsen, 2011). As Hermans and Lambert comment: It is generally assumed that the academic situation of translator training and Translation Studies is heavily indebted to the boom of translation as a business service since the Second World War. The strange thing is that the dominant groups in Translation Studies are not at ease with the phenomenon of “translation for business purposes”, which tends to be simplified into “technical translation” or “business translation”. (Hermans & Lambert, 1998, p. 114) If market demand dictates what professionals do, professional T&I seems to be identical in meaning with business or commercial translation. In fact, many scholars do use “business translation”, “technical translation” and “specialised translation” as short-​hand expressions for professional T&I. Olohan (2015) conducts a comparison between translation for technical and scientific fields vis-​à-​vis canonical literary and religious texts. Rogers (2015) defines specialised translation as non-​ literary translation. Holz-​ Mänttäri (1986, as cited in Munday, 2016, p. 125) notes that the wording of professional translation is a deliberate distinction from literary translation. The same logic is prevalent in China, too. Fang (2003) defines his research area as pragmatic, practical and applied translation and separates it from literary translation. Chai (2010) defines professional T&I as non-​literary translation. In an attempt to define professional T&I, researchers have been conducting surveys in which practitioners give self-​descriptions (Rogers, 2015, p. 34). This approach still centres on market demand, as practitioners are those who manage to meet market demands. Katan (2009) concludes that professional translators are those who have special skills which sustain their salary. Through the same lens, Dam and Zethsen (2011) conclude that professional translators

24  A Definition of Professional Interpreting and interpreters should meet a certain set of qualifications and depend on doing translation and interpreting to make a living. The logic can also be found in Kelly’s (2005) curriculum design in which the learning outcome is to achieve approximation to reality. Equating professional translators and interpreters with socially and industrially accepted practitioners was not hugely problematic in the 1970s. An emphasis on efficiency and business management among practitioners was a new and effective idea in the previous century (Snyder, 1994). However, this has become increasingly unsustainable against the background of globalisation and information technology (see Baker, 2006). For example, being able to work efficiently to meet market demand also means translators and interpreters are expected to deal with the trends of machine translation (Moratto, 2010; Moratto & Chao, 2019), collaborative translation and crowdsourcing translation, as well as with a disproportionate focus on “job efficiency” and “management tools […] in human resources” (Albir, 2007, p. 164). Such developments have pushed researchers to explore the blurred boundary between professionals and non-​professionals (Pérez-​González & Susam-​Saraeva, 2012). If professional translators and interpreters are defined as the “prototypical” people who manage to meet the market demand (Baker & Maier, 2011, p. 7) and, given that there is an increasing amount of T&I work done by volunteers in the market in recent times, will volunteer translators and interpreters, without “university training in the field” (ibid.), be called professionals? If non-​professionals constitute a part of market reality, should universities start to produce non-​professional translators and interpreters? Therefore, it is not sufficient to equate professional T&I with non-​literary or non-​religious T&I. It is also not appropriate to argue that since business, commercial or specialised translation take up a substantive share of the market demand, they are a synonym for professional translation and interpreting. Market demand only constitutes part of the definition of professional T&I. The Skopos Theory

Professional T&I cuts across disciplines and text types and subscribes to the sociological understanding of translation norms. The skopos theory and the functional approach are instrumental in the definition of professional T&I. It is worth highlighting that the functional approach is formulated with the specific aim of facilitating the training of professional translation skills (Schäffner, 1998, p. 127; Ulrych, 2005). Leal, in her synthesis of the concept of equivalence, argues that the German functional approach “embraced a prescriptive component, as it was primarily designed to attend to the needs of translator and interpreter training” (2012, p. 43). The skopos theory, meaning “a theory of purposeful action” (Nord, 2018, p. 12), was proposed by Vermeer in 1987, building on Reiss’ linguistic approach and extending the cline of equivalence departing from linguistics towards a more target-​ oriented direction. Vermeer states that “linguistics

A Definition of Professional Interpreting  25 alone won’t help us” (1987, p. 29, as cited in Nord, 2018, p. 10). Vermeer’s focus on the action theory in communication is enriched by Holz-​Mänttäri, who proposes the notion of translational action based on pragmatics, communication theory and the action theory. From a pragmatic perspective, meaning is not seen “as generated by the linguistics system but as conveyed and manipulated by participants in a communicative situation” (Baker, 2018, p. 235). The functional approach is further enriched by discourse analysis by Halliday in a socio-​cultural framework in which political, historical and legal conditions are perceived to be relevant (Munday, 2016, p. 143). It is not until after the start of the cultural turn (Snell-​Hornby, 2006, p. 61), marked by the introduction of poly-​system theory stemming from literary translation, that equivalence has been pursued beyond the linguistics level and discussed in socio-​cultural studies (Munday, 2016, p. 193). The functional approach retains a prescriptive nature which is inherited from the strong historical root in language teaching (Nord, 2005; Leal, 2012) in German philology departments using error detection and correction as primary pedagogical methods. More importantly, the prescriptive nature is reflected in the reality that T&I training has been “structured around specific text types […] and focusing on characteristic features of these text types, on general(isable) translation problems and translation strategies” (Schäffner, 1998, p. 127). However, within the bounds of a selected generalisable text type, the translation approach then needs to go towards the direction of being descriptive and target-​oriented, which takes into account the pragmatic, cultural and social factors, as “one-​to-​one transfer between languages” becomes insufficient (Nord, 2018, p. 11). The functional approach is well explained by Kiraly in his definition of professional translation: A person translating a text for pragmatic purposes engages in a real act of inter-​linguistic and intercultural communication –​the production of a text with a specific textual function, information content, and identifiable readership. A real act of translation presupposes that the translator has cognitive, social, and textual skills and access to appropriate stores of linguistic, cultural, and real-​world knowledge. (1995, p. 6) Professional translators and interpreters do not subscribe to the understanding of meaning in religious or literary translation. Rather, they follow a functional approach in the form of a “translation brief” (Fraser, 2000; Nord, 2018). The expression comes from the German concept of Übersetzungsauftrag, which is difficult to translate into English. The untranslatability results in the confusing juxtaposition of translation commission, translation assignment, translating instructions and translation brief (Nord, 2018, p. 29). Wordings such as commission, assignment or instructions might imply a complete power surrender, as is the case concerned by literary translators. In comparison, a translation brief depicts a perception similar to that of “a barrister” (Fraser, 1995,

26  A Definition of Professional Interpreting p. 73, as cited in Nord, 2018, p. 29). Professional translators and interpreters are responsible for fulfilling the function of the text or discourse aligned with the client’s intention. While the function of the professional work is determined, issues such as “how to go about their translating job, what translation strategy to use, or what translation type to choose” (ibid.) fall under the autonomy of the translators and interpreters. This is in line with the goal of training students to be “experts in their field” (Nord, 2018, p. 13). In this case, the use of the expression experts does not necessarily mean those in contrast to novices, typically found in cognitive sciences; rather, being an expert highlights the professional’s relationship with the client. Professional translators and interpreters have the autonomy to choose the right strategy and achieve the communicative function intended by the client. Professional and Professionalism Professional T&I is also frequently discussed under the theme of professional ethics in the sociology of professions. Ozolins highlights the ethical piece in the identity of professional translators and interpreters: The “professional” proviso is crucial, because if interpreting is not carried out by a professional, then ethical responsibility resides only in the participant who hired or invited the particular person to interpret, for that person may not see themselves as professional, nor as having any particular ethical responsibility. (Ozolins, 2015, p. 332) However, professional ethics also faces a definitional problem, quite naturally so, given that the definition of professional T&I is still evolving. There are also additional problems related to the ethical complexity in T&I. Codes of conduct advocated by influential professional bodies such as AIIC are heavily deontic. They risk being excessively rigid and dismissive of dynamic contexts. Codes of conduct and professional associations can also be deemed as controlling agents that exercise monopoly and exclusivity of a profession. Following only deontological rules will risk causing “non-​professionals” to rally and break the “vested interests in the professionalisation” (Pérez-​González & Susam-​ Saraeva, 2012, p. 150). A narrow understanding of professionalism hampers the endeavours to promote the social status of translators and interpreters as a community, and, in turn, is detrimental to professional T&I education. Professional T&I education and professional social status reinforce each other (Schmitt, 2012). There are more encouraging ways in the sociology of professions that show the value of professionalisation through the lens of cooperation. Looking at professional T&I through the lens of the sociological concept of professionalism means considering professional status of translators and interpreters (Katan, 2009) and the role of accreditation and qualifications in the profession.

A Definition of Professional Interpreting  27 Therefore, the definition of professional T&I should be explored under the framework of the sociology of professions. This will be expanded in the following chapters. Concluding Remarks The definition of professional T&I is fundamental to the questions of what to teach, whom to teach and how to teach in T&I education. The over-​ crowdedness of the meaning of being professional in the practising reality is not very helpful in crystallising what constitutes a professional translator or interpreter. The current understanding of the profession in many cases is taken at face value, hosting a myriad of meanings and implications that sometimes are contradictory between one and another. As Arjona-​Tseng (1991) argues, this spells trouble for the curriculum planning and implementation of T&I programmes which promise to produce professional translators and interpreters, affecting “status, educational planning, curriculum design and development, diploma and degree designations, and job specifications as well as career opportunities, the job market and pay scales” (Arjona-​Tseng, 1991, p. 81). Professional T&I is different from religious translation or literary translation, not necessarily due to different text types, but more because of different philosophical understandings of meaning. Professional T&I takes into account a combination of levels of equivalence with interdisciplinary sources, represented by translation norms, including linguistic, communication, social, cultural and sociological considerations. In addition, professional translators and interpreters are not merely those who can survive and manage market demands. Market demand is only one of the many norm authorities in professional T&I. A professional translator or interpreter accepts the clients’ translation brief through which instructions of a pragmatic purpose of the inter-​linguistic communication are given. The communication intention is achieved when the professional makes the expert strategic decision and employs professional competence. A final layer of the definition is the sociological understanding of professionalism, which goes beyond prescriptive codes of conduct. The exploration of the definition of professional interpreters lays a foundation for further discussion of interpreter training in the framework of curriculum studies. References Albir, A. H. (2007). Competence-​based curriculum design for training translators. The interpreter and translator trainer, 1(2), 163–​195. https://​doi.org/​10.1080/​ 17503​99X.2007.10798​757 Albir, A. H. (Ed.). (2017). Researching translation competence by PACTE group (Vol. 127). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​btl.127 Annoni, J. M., Lee-​Jahnke, H., & Sturm, A. (2012). Neurocognitive aspects of translation. Meta, 57(1), 96–​107. Doi: 10.7202/​1012743ar

28  A Definition of Professional Interpreting Arjona-​Tseng, E. M. (1991). Curriculum policy-​making for an emerging profession: The structure, process, and outcome of creating a graduate institute for translation and interpretation studies in the Republic of China of Taiwan [Doctoral dissertation]. Harvard University Arrojo, R. (2010). Philosophy and translation. In Y. Gambier & L. van Doorslaer (Eds.), Handbook of translation studies, (Vol.1, pp. 247–​251). https://​doi.org/​ 10.1075/​hts.1.phi1 Baker, M. (2006). Translation and activism: Emerging patterns of narrative community. The Massachusetts Review, 47(3), 462–​484. www.jstor.org/​sta​ble/​25091​111 Baker, M. (2018). In other words: A coursebook on translation. Routledge. https://​doi. org/​10.4324/​978020​3133​590 Baker, M., & Maier, C. (2011). Ethics in interpreter & translator training: Critical perspectives. The Interpreter and Translator Trainer, 5(1), 1–​14. https://​doi.org/​ 10.1080/​13556​509.2011.10798​809 Chai, M. J. (2010). Dui zhuanye fanyi jiaoxue jiangou de sikao—​Xianzhuang, Wenti he duice [Some thoughts on professional T&I training: Status quo, issues and solutions]. Chinese Translators Journal, 31(1), 54–​56. www.jbe-​platf​orm.com/ cont​ent/​books/​978902​7267​511-​btl.122.06che Chesterman, A. (2004). Paradigm problems?. In C. Schäffner (Ed.), Translation research and interpreting research: Traditions, gaps and synergies (pp. 52–​ 56). Multilingual Matters. https://​doi.org/​10.21832/​978185​3597​350-​006 China National Committee for Translation and Interpretation Education. (2013, December 27). Quanguo fanyi shuoshi zhuanye xuewei yanjiusheng jiaoyu zhidaoxing peiyang fangan [National curriculum guideline for master’s degree programmes in translation and interpreting]. https://​cnti.gdufs.edu.cn/​info/​ 1006/​1094.htm Choi, B. C., & Pak, A. W. (2007). Multidisciplinarity, interdisciplinarity, and transdisciplinarity in health research, services, education and policy: 2. Promotors, barriers, and strategies of enhancement. Clinical and Investigative Medicine, E224-​ E232. https://​doi.org/​10.25011/​cim.v30i6.2950 Dam, H. V., & Zethsen, K. K. (2011). The status of professional business translators on the Danish market: A comparative study of company, agency and freelance translators. Meta, 56(4), 976–​997. https://​doi.org/​10.7202/​101126​3ar Delabastita, D. (2011). Literary translation. In Y. Gambier & L. Van Doorslaer (Eds.), Handbook of translation studies (Vol. 2, pp. 69–​78). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​hts.2.lit2 European Commission, Directorate-​General for Translation. (2012, August 16). The status of the translation profession in the European Union: Final report, Publications Office. https://​data.eur​opa.eu/​doi/​10.2782/​63429 Fang, M. Z. (2003). Woguo de yingyong fanyi: Dingwei yu xueshu yanjiu—​—​2003 quanguo yingyong fanyi yantaohui ceji [China’s Pragmatic Translation: Orientation and Scholarly Study]. Chinese Translators Journal, 24(6), 47–​49. Fraser, J. (2000). The broader view: How freelance translators define translation competence. In C. Schäffner & B. Adab (Eds.), Developing translation competence (pp. 51–​62). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​btl.38.06fra Gambier, Y. (2004). Translation studies: A succession of paradoxes. In C. Schäffner (Ed.), Translation Research and Interpreting Research: Traditions, Gaps and Synergies (pp. 62–​70). Multilingual Matters. https://​doi.org/​10.21832/​978185​ 3597​350-​008

A Definition of Professional Interpreting  29 Gambier, Y. (2012). Teaching translation/​Training translators. In Y. Gambier & L. Van Doorslaer (Eds.), Handbook of translation studies (Vol. 3, pp. 163-​171). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​hts.3.tea1 Garcés, C. V., & Martin, A. (Eds.). (2008). Crossing borders in community interpreting: Definitions and dilemmas (Vol. 76). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​btl.76 Gile, D. (2004). Translation research versus interpreting research: Kinship, differences and prospects for partnership. In C. Schäffner (Ed.), Translation research and interpreting research: Traditions, gaps and synergies (pp. 10–​ 34). Multilingual Matters. https://​doi.org/​10.21832/​978185​3597​350-​003 Gran, L., & Dodds, J. (Eds.). (1989). The Theoretical and Practical Aspects of Teaching Conference Interpretation: First international symposium on conference interpreting at the University of Trieste. Campanotto. Hermans, J., & Lambert, J. (1998). From translation markets to language management: The implications of translation services. Target, 10(1), 113–​132. https://​doi. org/​10.1075/​tar​get.10.1.06her Hermans, T. (1999/​2009). Translation in systems: Descriptive and systemic approaches explained. Routledge. Holmes, J. S. (1972/​2000). The name and nature of translation studies. In L. Venuti (Ed.), The translation studies reader (1st ed.) (pp. 172–​185). https://​tra​nsla​tion​ jour​nal.net/​ima​ges/​e-​Books/​PDF_​Fi​les/​The%20Tran​slat​ion%20Stud​ies%20Rea​ der.pdf Jääskeläinen, R. (2011). Studying the translation process. In K. Malmkjær & K. Windle (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of translation studies (pp. 123–​136). Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://​doi.org/​10.1093/​oxfor​dhb/​978019​9239​306.013.0010 Katan, D. (2009). Translation Theory and Professional Practice: A Global Survey of the Great Divide. HERMES–​Journal of Language and Communication in Business, 22(42), 111–​153. https://​doi.org/​10.7146/​hjlcb.v22​i42.96849 Kearns, J. (2006). Curriculum Renewal in Translator Training: Vocational challenges in academic environments with reference to needs and situation analysis and skills transferability from the contemporary experience of Polish translator training culture [Doctoral dissertation]. Dublin City University. Kelly, D. (2005). A handbook for translator trainers. Routledge. https://​doi.org/​ 10.4324/​978131​5760​292 Kelly, D. (2010). Curriculum. In Y. Gambier & L. Van Doorslaer (Eds.), Handbook of translation studies (Vol. 1, pp. 87–​93). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi. org/​10.1075/​hts.1.cur1 Kingscott, G. (1996). The European translation platform. https://​aclan​thol​ogy.org/​ 1996.tc-​1.10.pdf Kiraly, D. C. (1995). Pathways to translation: Pedagogy and process. Kent State University Press. Krajcso, Z. (2011). Fostering social competence in translation studies. Babel, 57(3), 269–​282. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​babel.57.3.02kra Lambert, J. (2012). Interdisciplinarity in translation studies. In Y. Gambier & L. Van Doorslaer (Eds.), Handbook of translation studies (Vol. 3, pp. 81–​88). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​hts.3.int4 Leal, A. (2012). Equivalence. In Y. Gambier & L. Van Doorslaer (Eds.), Handbook of translation studies (Vol. 3, pp. 39–​46). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi. org/​10.1075/​hts.3.equ1

30  A Definition of Professional Interpreting Lee-​Jahnke, H. (2013). Heterogeneous cooperation or networking between disciplines: the significance for translation studies. In M. Forstner & H. Lee-​Jahnke (Eds.), CIUTI-​Forum 2012: Translators and interpreters as key actors in global networking (pp. 23–​46). Peter Lang AG. Lefevere, A. (1992). Translation/​history/​culture: A sourcebook. Routledge. http://​ ilts.ir/​Cont​ent/​ilts.ir/​Page/​142/​Conte​ntIm​age/​Tran​slat​ion%20Hist​ory%20Cult​ ure.pdf Li, D. (2000a). Needs assessment in translation teaching: Making translator training more responsive to social needs. Babel, 46(4), 289–​299. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​ babel.46.4.02li Li, D. (2000b). Tailoring translation programs to social needs: a survey of professional translators. Target, 12(1), 127–​149. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​tar​get.12.1.07li Malmkjær, K., & Windle, K. (2011). The Oxford handbook of translation studies. Oxford University Press. https://​doi.org/​10.1093/​oxfor​dhb/​978019​9239​306.001.0001 Moratto, R. (2010). Designing translation curricula in the machine translation era (MTE): Challenges of a new approach. Student perspectives”, In G. W. Li & H. R. Li (Eds.), Taking stock and looking forward [Huigu yu qianzhan], proceedings of 15th Taiwan Symposium on Translation and Interpretation (pp. 69–​89). Changrong University, Tainan. ISBN 978-​986-​184-​823-​5 Moratto, R., & Chao, D. K. (2019). Repositioning the role of machine translation in translation training from the perspective of the user [Chongxin dingwei jiqi fanyi yu fanyi xunlian zhi juese: yi shiyongzhe guandian wei shijiao], In H. C. Dong (Ed.), Translation Teaching and Research (Vol. 5, pp. 163–​176). Chongqing Publishing House. ISBN 978-​7-​229-​14344-​2 Moratto, R., & Li, D. F. (Eds.). (2021). Global Insights into Public Service Interpreting (1st ed.). Routledge. https://​doi.org/​10.4324/​978100​3197​027 Mu, L., & Fu, L. L. (2017). Fanyi zhiye de yanbian yu yingxiang tanxi [On Translation and Interpreting Profession’s Evolvement and Its Impact]. Foreign Language Research, (03), 85–​91. Doi: 10.16263/​j.cnki.23-​1071/​h.2017.03.016 Munday, J. (2016). Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications (4th ed.). Routledge. https://​doi.org/​10.4324/​978131​5691​862 Nord, C. (2005). Training functional translators. In M. Tennent (Ed.) Training for the New Millennium (pp. 209–​223). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​ 10.1075/​btl.60.17nor Nord, C. (2018). Translating as a purposeful activity: Functionalist approaches explained (2nd ed.). Routledge. https://​doi.org/​10.4324/​978135​1189​354 Olohan, Maeve. (2015). Scientific and technical translation. Routledge. https://​doi. org/​10.4324/​978131​5679​600 Ozolins, U. (2015). Ethics and the Role of the Interpreter. In H. Mikkelson & R. Jourdenais (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of interpreting (pp. 319–​336). Routledge. Doi: 10.4324/​9781315745381.ch20 Pérez-​González, L., & Susam-​Saraeva, Ş. (2012). Non-​professionals translating and interpreting: Participatory and engaged perspectives. The Translator, 18(2), 149–​ 165. https://​doi.org/​10.1080/​13556​509.2012.10799​506 Pöchhacker, F. (2015). Evolution of interpreting research. In H. Mikkelson & R. Jourdenais (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of interpreting (pp. 62–​74). Routledge. Rogers, M. (2015). Specialised translation: Shedding the ‘non-​literary’ tag. Springer.

A Definition of Professional Interpreting  31 Ruano, M. R. M. (2006). Conciliation of disciplines and paradigms. In J. F. Duarte, A. A. Rosa & T. Seruya (Eds.), Translation studies at the interface of disciplines (pp. 43–​53). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​btl.68.05mar Sawyer, D. B. (2004). Fundamental aspects of interpreter education: Curriculum and assessment (Vol. 47). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​btl.47 Schäffner, C. (1998). Skopos theory. In M. Baker & K. Malmkjær (Eds.), Routledge encyclopedia of translation studies (pp. 235–​238). Routledge. Schmitt, P. (2012). Bologna, EMT and CIUTI–​Approaches to high quality in translation and interpretation training. Meta, 57(1), 23–​34. https://​id.eru​dit.org/​ideru​ dit/​101273​8ar Sela-​ Sheffy, R. (2016). Elite and non-​ elite translator manpower: The non-​ professionalised culture in the translation field in Israel. The Journal of Specialised Translation, 25, 54–​73. https://​jostr​ans.org/​issu​e25/​art_​s​ela.pdf Snell-​Hornby, M. (1992). The professional translator of tomorrow: Language specialist or all-​round expert?. In C. Dollerup & A. Loddegaard (Eds.), Teaching translation and interpreting: training, talent, and experience (pp. 9–​22). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​z.56.04sne Snell-​Hornby, M. (2006). The Turns of Translation Studies: New paradigms or shifting viewpoints? (Vol. 66). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​btl.66 Snyder, N. (1994). The paradox of professionalism. In D. L. Hammond (Ed.), Professional issues for translators and interpreters (pp. 13–​ 21). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​ata.vii.03sny Toury, G. (1980). In search of a theory of translation. Tel Aviv: Porter Institute for Poetics and Semiotics, Tel Aviv University. Tymoczko, M. (2014). Enlarging translation, empowering translators. Routledge. https://​doi.org/​10.4324/​978131​5759​494 Ulrych, M. (2005). Training translators: Programmes, curricula, practices. In M. Tennent (Ed.) Training for the new millennium (pp. 3–​ 33). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​btl.60.06ulr Venuti, L., & Baker, M. (Eds.). (2000). The translation studies reader (Vol. 216). Routledge. https://​tra​nsla​tion​jour​nal.net/​ima​ges/​e-​Books/​PDF_​Fi​les/​The%20 Tran​slat​ion%20Stud​ies%20Rea​der.pdf Wolf, M., & Fukari, A. (Eds.). (2007). Constructing a sociology of translation (Vol. 74). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​btl.74

2 Curriculum Improvement Setting the Stage

Given the complexity in the definition of professional translation and interpreting, T&I training requires careful curriculum development and improvement. So far, most endeavours have been made to map the newly identified constructs under professional T&I onto the syllabus and devise new instructional arrangements accordingly. However, there has been limited curriculum-​level thinking in professional T&I education. Curriculum work in higher education is imperative, as Barnett and Coate have argued: Curriculum is, or should be, one of the major terms in the language of higher education. Through curricula, ideas of higher education are put into action. Through curricula, too, values, beliefs and principles in relation to learning, understanding, knowledge, disciplines, individuality and society are realised. Yet these profoundly important matters are hardly ever raised. It is as if there is a tacit agreement that these are not matters for polite company. (Barnett & Coate, 2004, p. 5) A theoretical framework of curriculum studies would help clarify a number of neglected and confusing issues in T&I training. This chapter looks at T&I training through several key concepts, including curriculum, educational philosophy, the arena of curriculum engineering, curriculum development models, curriculum improvement models and curriculum outcome, goals and objectives. T&I Training as an Educational Act The applicability of curriculum studies to interpreter training is premised on the assumption that the latter is an educational act. As mentioned previously, many T&I scholars have argued for the educational nature of professional T&I training (Schäffner & Adab, 2000; Ulrych, 2005; Pym, 2011). Though many scholars and trainers refer to T&I pedagogy as an act of training, the wording training is more widely used for simplicity (Donovan, 2019). Its widespread use does not necessarily emphasise that the training is vocational. On the relation DOI: 10.4324/9781003303824-3

Curriculum Improvement: Setting the Stage  33 between training and education, Zais argues that “[a]‌lthough the training-​ education dichotomy is spurious in that actual school situations always fall somewhere on the line between the two extremes, the distinction is important to make since curricula, while never purely one or the other, can emphasise either the training or the education model” (1976, p. 316). Therefore, it is necessary to clarify the educational nature of interpreter training. The institutionalisation of professional T&I programmes in universities commenced in search of a systematic training methodology, which was found insufficient within the bounds of linguistics and was later improved upon through the contribution of more disciplines. More recently, in the 21st century, more scholars have studied interpreter training from an educational perspective. This historical evolution reflects a change of weight in the composition of training versus education. However, the gravitational pull of producing prescribed training outcomes to fit a specific exterior demand remains. This gives rise to the situation where fundamental questions regarding the educational purpose are rarely raised: “Should the educated man adjust to society, should he accept the social order as it is, or should he attempt to improve the society in which he lives? (Tyler, 2013, p. 35)” Professional T&I programmes, like any other university programmes, stand within the spectrum between training and education, rather than at one terminal or the other. The difference between training and education can be explained through curricular models. A technical model aims to produce “prescribed behaviours” in its “desired finished product”. In comparison, a humanistic model aims to help students “grapple with the open-​endedness of existence in the search for meaning” (Zais, 1976, p. 317). In particular, the technical training model is “particularly suitable to vocational-​professional curriculum designs” thanks to its “clarity and efficiency” (Zais, 1976, p. 318). As will be discussed in the next chapter, it is no coincidence that most scholars who employ curriculum studies frameworks in their research of T&I training assume a technical approach as the foundation for their work on curriculum development, design and content (see Gabr, 2001; Sawyer, 2004; Kelly, 2005; Kearns, 2006). The difference between training and education can also be perceived through the relation between employment and employability (see Álvarez-​ Álvarez & Arnáiz-​Uzquiza, 2017; Cuminatto, Baines & Drugan, 2017). Universities nowadays face the pressure of facilitating students to seek employment upon graduation. It requires universities to equip graduates with the right competencies to meet current market demands. However, this short-​ term goal should be complemented by the attention to the educational principle of helping students prepare for the future. Mossop elaborates: The function of a translation school is not to train students for specific existing slots in translation industry, but to give them certain general abilities that they will be able to apply in whatever slots may exist in 5, 10, 15, 25 years from now. (Mossop, 2003, p. 20)

34  Curriculum Improvement: Setting the Stage An educational programme that produces trained vocational workers is not problem-​free, as graduates tend to only be reactive to the exterior environment and unconscious of their responsibility to shape the profession. Universities need to increase graduates’ employability, that is, to produce graduates with the competence to sustain the changing reality in the long haul. In essence, employability is “the ability to gain initial employment, to maintain employment, and to be able to move around within the labour market” (Rodríguez de Céspedes, 2017, p. 2). Finding employment means one can live up to the current market demand. However, to manage employability means universities should be able to predict and shape the future market reality. The difference between employment and employability inevitably means that universities have a choice to make regarding which stakeholders’ interests and priorities they wish to heed amid the changing reality. Naturally, tertiary education sees a higher level of specialisation, which pushes it towards the vocational end of the spectrum. Indeed, if tertiary education prioritises employment over employability, it bears more similarity with vocational training. T&I training, as an act of tertiary education, has the responsibility to help students lead meaningful and fulfilling personal and civic life. Formal T&I training improves not only individual competence, but also industrial standards as well as the social status of professional translators and interpreters (Wen, 2004, 2005; Gile, 2009). Lee-​Jahnke (2011) argues that T&I programmes should help students to acquire sustainable skills so that they can start in new fields quickly, make non-​stereotypical decisions and have the intellectual and moral grace to take on the responsibilities for themselves, for those who depend on them, and for the future development of the profession. Defining Curriculum Curriculum studies have a much shorter history compared to didactics. Instruction has a history since 1632 when Great Didactic of Comenius was published. In contrast, curriculum became an independent discipline only in 1918, when Franklin Bobbit published The Curriculum (Zhang, 2003, p. 82). Amid academic controversy, consensus has been reached on the interconnectivity between curriculum and instruction/​didactics. In simplistic terms, instruction deals with teaching and learning activities of individual students. In comparison, curriculum focuses on the planning and designing of the learning experience of the entirety of students. Instruction looks at one specific course objective, teaching method or learning strategy. Curriculum studies, however, are developed around prioritisation. The more challenging part in curriculum planning is to decide what to include and what not to include, and why, as “[pushing] certain classes and qualities of objects ‘into the foreground’ necessarily implies the relegation of other categories and qualities to the background” (Bowker & Star, 2005 p. 5, as cited in Grbić, 2011, p. 250).

Curriculum Improvement: Setting the Stage  35 Ornstein and Hunkins believe curriculum consists of “subject matter, learning, and the guiding objectives, activities, materials, and outcomes of the curriculum, as well as the role of school in American society” (2016, p. 28). They have also identified six sources of decision-​making on these issues: institutional, societal, historical and psychological factors, coupled with emergent patterns derived from globalisation and technology in the 21st century (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2016, p. 29). Taba (1962, as cited in Zais, 1976, p. 395) and Tyler (2013) believe that the central problems in curriculum design are around the scope, sequence, continuity, integration, articulation and balance of the components of the curriculum, so that one can achieve “the cohesiveness and coherence of the total curriculum” (Zais, 1976, p. 396). Didactical or pedagogical research at an instruction level is elevated to the curriculum level when specific course objectives are analysed as an organic part of the general objective of the curriculum. Another way to think about the relation between instruction and curriculum is through Tanner and Tanner’s three levels of teachers in curriculum development (1980, p. 628). They believe teachers take a central role in curriculum development. Level I teachers are imitative-​ maintenance, level II meditative and level III generative-​ creative. Curriculum development and curriculum improvement are a “continual problem-​solving process”, in which level I teachers treat teaching as “dead ends”, rely only on “ready-​made materials”, “teach only the test” and do not “go beyond maintenance of status quo” (Tanner & Tanner, 1980, pp. 628–​630). As for curriculum improvement, their attitude to any change in the curriculum is “on the adoption level, without adaptation to local needs” (Tanner & Tanner, 1980, p. 630). Level II teachers “do not blindly plug in an innovation or curriculum package to the existing situation” (ibid.). They are aware of using the resources they have to make “adaptations, accommodations, and adjustments” but cannot be elevated to the substantial level of innovation and problem-​solving (ibid.). Level III teachers are those who have curriculum-​level thinking in that they are mindful of the priorities of curriculum components as well as the “cooperative planning for vertical and horizontal articulation” (Tanner & Tanner, 1980, p. 631). Through this description, one can see the difference between level I instruction and level III curriculum. In short, what is pertinent to this book is that curriculum does not equal instruction. Kelly argues that equating curriculum with “what teaching and instruction is to be offered” is limited. Curriculum planning, in this case, “is effective only at the most simplistic levels, for teaching of a largely unsophisticated and usually unproblematic kind” (Kelly, 2004, p. 3). Studies on T&I training not taking upon a curricular perspective refer to those that do not “address more comprehensive curricular matter”, those that take upon “a strictly didactical or pedagogical focus relating to teaching methodology rather than program-​level topics and those that “concentrate on only one specific part of a program, e.g., technology” (Sawyer, Austermühl & Enríquez Raído, 2019, p. 7).

36  Curriculum Improvement: Setting the Stage However, compared to didactics, there has been a lack of curriculum contemplation. In fact, this is a universal issue, not restricted to professional T&I programmes. In curriculum studies, Zais laments the universality of the problem that “curriculum construction […] is generally conducted in a shockingly piecemeal and superficial fashion” (Zais, 1976, p. xi). Reforms are only implemented “in response to popular clamour or perceived crises” (ibid.). Indeed, a systematic overhaul of the curriculum is given attention only when a new programme is set up, a top-​down mandate of political nature is issued, or the existing programme is in crisis. This is the case with T&I training. The relatively short history of professional T&I programmes as an academic discipline leaves little temporal freedom for curriculum studies to be systematically carried out. The historical unfolding of T&I education has shown that much curriculum-​level work has been done. However, most happened at the beginning of new programmes in the form of curriculum making. Curriculum adjustment, renewal, reforms and improvement is the next stage. Hatim and Mason underscore the importance of avoiding “the randomness inherent in some approaches to curriculum design in translator training” (Hatim & Mason, 2005, p. 195, also see Lederer, 2007). However, research beyond the specific parts in T&I training is rare. Sawyer laments the isolated foci of individualistic pedagogical decisions in researching and teaching interpreting that overshadow the necessity of a systematic and integrative study of interpreter education using “curriculum theory” and “educational psychology” (Sawyer, 2004, p. 26). Wen contends that research in T&I training sees much attention on T&I instruction, but few studies have a curriculum perspective (Wen, 2005, p. 23). Calvo (2009) finds that among the few scholars that use curriculum theories in studying T&I training, they choose to adopt rather eclectic views on curriculum in order to solve ad hoc problems or questions. Currently, the overwhelming tendency is to explore more on the specific instructional level in T&I training (Sawyer, 2004; Kelly, 2005). In addition, as curriculum and instruction are intertwined with each other (He & Li, 2015), there has been confusing interchangeability between curriculum and instruction. Wen’s survey shows that front-​line translation trainers do not have the time or capacity to think and act in the framework of curriculum development and that most of them directly copy the national curricular guidelines and take them as teaching objectives (2005, pp. 22, 57). So far, there has been little research in T&I training using curriculum studies as the theoretical foundation. There have been even fewer studies on the topic of curriculum improvement. The bulk of studies is on T&I instruction. Curriculum-​level thinking in T&I education is not non-​existent, but mostly only at the stage of curriculum making when professional T&I programmes were set up from scratch. One of the major contributions of such curriculum making is to identify the purpose of the programmes and accordingly reflect it in curriculum design and syllabus arrangements. As a curriculum is implemented for some time, conflicts between different elements

Curriculum Improvement: Setting the Stage  37 in a programme will begin to emerge. Curriculum improvement deals with difficult issues such as which to choose and which to push aside among all elements in the curriculum that are all well justifiable and relevant to the educational and professional reality. Educational Philosophy Philosophy is one of the most important sources of curriculum. Following a certain educational philosophy, one has a specific understanding of the relations among the programme, the learner, knowledge and life. As Ornstein and Hunkins summarise: It helps them determine what schools are for, what subjects have value, how students learn, and what methods and materials to use. It clarifies education’s goals, suitable content, teaching and learning processes, and the experiences and activities that schools should emphasise. Philosophy also provides a basis for deciding which textbooks to use, how to use them, and how much homework to assign, how to test students and use the test results, and what courses or subject matter to emphasise. (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2016, p. 47) More specifically, perennialism, rooted in realism, believes human nature is constant, knowledge is permanent, and students should learn the knowledge and values that stand the test of time. A perennialist curriculum is constructed around key subjects that are considered to be the cornerstone of human’s intellectual heritage. Teachers are considered the sole experts in the subject fields. They impart knowledge through lectures in a predominantly one-​way direction to all the students who are only at the receiving end of the teacher-​learner relationship (see Ornstein & Hunkins, 2016, p. 52). A perennialist curriculum emphasises durability and standardisation. Such a curriculum invariably adopts a theory-​based curricular approach. An interpreter training curriculum based on a pre-​determined progression of strategy/​technique acquisition is an example of the theory-​based approach. On the other extreme is the more radical view of the reconstructionist or post-​modernist educational philosophy. According to the historical account of Ornstein and Hunkins (2016, pp. 62–​65), reconstructionist educators derive their thinking from the progressive educational philosophy against urgent social crises. Counts explains that in the reconstructionist spirit, progressive education can only live up to its name by facing “squarely and courageously every social issue” and by coming to grips “with life in all its stark reality” (Counts, 1932, as cited in Ornstein & Hunkins, 2016, pp. 63–​64). The very existence of a reconstructionist curriculum is to spark reform. “Students and teachers must effect change”. Students are encouraged to “question textbooks, teachers, and political pundits” (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2016, pp. 63–​64). In a reconstructionist educational philosophy, the assumption is that society in the

38  Curriculum Improvement: Setting the Stage 21st century is so restrictive that the very purpose of education is to break the existing restrictions through “painful changes” (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2016, p. 65). Students’ “personal self-​knowledge, particularly mystical, spiritual, and moral introspection” are central to the making of a reconstructionist curriculum (ibid.). Reconstructionist educators see the technical curriculum model of Tyler “overly narrow” (ibid.). There are other educational philosophies that sit on the spectrum in-​ between perennialism and reconstructionism. They are different combinations of conservatism and radical thinking. An either-​ or choice between perennialism and reconstructionism is more relevant in primary and secondary education as they face important decisions such as which subjects to be taught in school. In the case of university programmes, however, as curriculum content is more focused on a particular discipline, the choice of educational philosophy is dependent on the role of universities in society and the nature of the discipline. Defining curriculum is difficult precisely because it is dependent on which educational philosophy and educational purposes one is subscribed to. Fundamentally speaking, curriculum studies deal with the relation between school curriculum and learner’s development (Liao & Tian, 2003, p. 2). Ellis (2014) categorises curricula into prescriptive, descriptive or a combination of prescriptive and descriptive curricula. A prescriptive curriculum is top-​down, in which the school dictates what the learner is exposed to in an educational environment. A descriptive curriculum places the learner at the centre and prioritises the learner’s experience. In this case, the learner has the power over the school to decide what learning experience should happen. In reality, as Ellis argues, it is seldom a binary choice between a prescriptive curriculum and a descriptive one, but rather a combination of both, which “tend to imply authority (the school) and hence some kind of plan while also taking into account what happens when the plan is implemented” (Ellis, 2014, p. 23). Likewise, Ronald Doll’s definition of a curriculum is “[t]‌he formal and informal content and process by which learners gain knowledge and understanding, develop skills, and alter attitudes, appreciations, and values under the auspices of that school” (cited in Ellis, 2014, p. 23). In other words, to some extent, curriculum means the learning experiences that the educational institution intends to provide for its learners. This understanding reflects an educational philosophy that stands in between the prescriptive and descriptive extremes. As discussed previously, professional T&I stands between the essentialist and deconstructive philosophy. It is a purposeful action in compliance with sociological norms. Meaning is not constant; it cannot dismiss temporal-​spatial changes (Arrojo, 2010). It is not up for artistic creation either. Accordingly, the educational philosophy of professional T&I programmes can be narrowed down between essentialism and progressivism. The two extremes in educational philosophy, perennialism and reconstructionism correspond respectively with a realist/​essentialist understanding and a post-​modernist understanding

Curriculum Improvement: Setting the Stage  39 of meaning, which are the backbone of religious translation and literary translation on the cline of equivalence. Essentialism focuses more on what to teach or learn, while progressivism focuses on how to teach or learn. Therefore, it is sensible to place professional T&I programmes between the essentialist and progressivist educational philosophies. This moderate standing finds support from Dewey’s experience and education in which he analyses the relation between traditional education and progressive education. Dewey, like Grbić, points to the human inclination to make either-​or choices. Yet the progressive schools are not in opposition to the traditional schools. Rather, they are rooted in the traditional way of education. They are “discontent with traditional education” (Dewey, 1986/​2008, p. 18), but are not in total rejection of the existing education system. In fact, those who “devalue knowledge” and categorically “reject authority” are dismissed by Dewey as “progressive extremists” (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2016, p. 58). Given the nature of continuity between different educational philosophies, professional T&I should adopt a combined education philosophy of essentialism and progressivism, instead of a pure essentialist or progressivist stand. Essentialist philosophy is relevant in the improvement of professional T&I curricula. Following an essentialist philosophy, a body of core knowledge and cognitive skills need to be recognised. It also places great emphasis on setting the standards of academic excellence. On the other hand, it is helpful to supplement the top-​down essentialist philosophy with the bottom-​up progressive philosophy where “the personal and social dimension in teaching and learning” is highlighted “as opposed to the behavioural, scientific, or technological aspects” (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2016, p. 60). However, a categorical adherence to a humanistic approach, or progressive philosophy more broadly, in T&I curriculum is problematic, due to “its lack of attention to intellectual development” and over-​reliance on “testimonials and subjective assessments by students and teachers” (ibid.). Educational philosophy applied to professional T&I training can be visualised as shown in Figure 2.1. Towards the curriculum-​level thinking of T&I training, educational philosophy leans towards the end of essentialism and more towards progressivism as one moves to the instruction-​level thinking. It should be noted that even at the level of curriculum development, educational philosophy is not categorically essentialist. Likewise, professional T&I instruction is seldom purely progressivist. This conclusion is in line with the definition of professional T&I. The top-​down essentialist and bottom-​up progressivist philosophies are believed to be supplementary. The prevailing consensus in T&I training is to use a student-​centred humanistic approach. This is because progressivist instruction focuses on the learner’s affective development and intends to help fulfil the personal goals of each student. However, from a curriculum-​ level perspective, a tertiary educational programme can hardly be perceived and evaluated in a purely progressivist fashion. The outcome of a professional T&I programme is more definitive, if compared with that of primary

40  Curriculum Improvement: Setting the Stage

Figure 2.1 Positioning Professional T&I Programmes on the Spectrum of Educational Philosophies.

and secondary educational programmes. University programmes, especially graduate programmes, help fulfil a relatively specific societal need. In addition, an institutional curriculum needs to be consistent with the national ideological curriculum, which to some extent prescribes educational outcomes. Likewise, with regard to T&I instruction, the educational philosophy is not categorically progressivist. It is true that students’ learning experience, in addition to the skills they acquire, is given a central place in the programmes. Though learner-​centred instructional approaches are prioritised in class, prescriptive instruction methods such as fact memorisation and constant drilling do not have no place in the learning process, though they do not necessarily take place in class. Professional interpreters are only capable of conveying meaning when they master solid language abilities and professional skills. In addition, when interpreters implement a client’s brief, they follow sociological norms and can make strategic choices from a limited number of translation options. In this process, they need to mobilise competence acquired from prescriptive and descriptive learning. Furthermore, trainers, while being mindful of students’ experiences, also have the responsibility of guiding them to respond properly to the affective development in the course of learning. The much-​used novice-​expert comparison also follows the implied logic that there is a normative boundary around the individualist development of T&I students. In professional T&I instruction, both prescriptive knowledge and descriptive experience are emphasised. Therefore, an educational philosophy that suits the nature of professional T&I programmes sits between essentialism and progressivism. It sees the gradation towards essentialism at the level of curriculum development and more progressivism for T&I instruction. This is in line with the emphasis on both clear goals and student-​centred training approaches. The identification of educational philosophy is important to the conceptualisation of the curricular model and the curriculum improvement model.

Curriculum Improvement: Setting the Stage  41 Arena of Curriculum Engineering The arena of curriculum refers to “the geographic-​social environment in which curriculum planning, curriculum implementation, and/​or curriculum evaluation is undertaken” (Beauchamp, 1975, p. 204). This helps narrow the scope of discussion (Zais, 1976, p. 451). The arena of curriculum engineering is one of the first questions to answer in curriculum studies. An overlook of it results in confusing interchangeability of curricula at different academic and administrative levels without differentiation. In the case of professional T&I training, the discussion in this book is limited to the work of curriculum improvement by individual graduate programmes. Institutional Curriculum

Curriculum work can take place either at a national, provincial, municipal, university, department, programme or classroom level. Another way to look at the issue is through the concepts of ideological, institutional and operational ­curriculum (Goodlad, 1979, quoted in Jiang, 2014, p. 40). An ideological curriculum usually takes the form of national or supranational guidelines. They serve as mandates given by national authorities to university programmes for them to plan, design and implement their own institutional curriculum. The institutional curriculum is designed and implemented, which results in the operational curriculum. This book deals with the institutional curriculum of professional interpreter training programmes, placed in between the ideological curriculum and the operational practice. Hidden Curriculum

Given that most curricula are a combination of prescriptive plans and descriptive experiences, the institutional curriculum and the operational curriculum are aligned through the hidden curriculum. As explained by Ornstein and Hunkins, the hidden curriculum is the result of “the interactions among students and between students and teachers” and “presents content and understandings that are implicit in the operational curriculum” (2016, p. 202). Sources of the hidden curriculum may include “the school climate, social relationships among individuals and groups, values and attitudes held by both students and faculty, rules on student conduct, unspoken expectations, and unwritten codes of conduct” (Oliva & Gordon II, 2012, p. 402), as well as “the sequence and emphases of the operational curriculum, and teachers’ instructional strategies” (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2016, p. 202). Hidden curriculum is student-​centred by definition. It derives from instruction and has an impact on the top-​down official curriculum. The hidden curriculum can have a lubricating effect that converges the institutional ­ ­curriculum and the operational curriculum. It should also be noted that the hidden curriculum can also derail learning and teaching experiences from the

42  Curriculum Improvement: Setting the Stage official curriculum. Tanner and Tanner argue that the hidden curriculum can have implicit “unintended and negative outcomes” as well as “intended and positive outcomes” of a programme (Tanner & Tanner, 1980, p. 184). The hidden curriculum, if left to develop on its own, cannot automatically bridge the prescriptive curriculum and the descriptive curriculum. McCutcheon believes that teachers need to observe and reflect on the nature of the hidden curriculum in order to improve upon it, to “render more of it overt” and to “move into the intended realm” (1998, p. 193). This process should be incorporated as part of the curriculum improvement efforts. Curriculum Scope: Graduate Programmes

Ornstein and Hunkins note that the central problems in curriculum design are around the scope, sequence, continuity, integration, articulation and balance of the components of the curriculum (2016, p. 183), so that one can achieve “the cohesiveness and coherence of the total curriculum” (Zais, 1976, p. 396). One of the first issues in curriculum work is to define the scope of a curriculum. However, this has been absent in most of the work concerning professional T&I training. The academic level of T&I programmes has been identified as a neglected area of research by Wen (2005) and Sawyer, Austermühl and Enríquez Raído (2019). In China, formal training of translators and interpreters happen both at an undergraduate level (BTI) and graduate level (MTI). The ideological curriculum of BTI programmes in China set the educational outcome as professional/​practising translators and interpreters of a generalist nature that have acquired “moral quality, intellectual rigour and international horizon” (Zhong & Zhao, 2015, p. 292, my translation). Furthermore, curriculum goals include “language competence, logical reasoning, subject matter knowledge, cross-​ cultural abilities, professional ethics, translation theories, T&I skills, technical competence of using translation tools, professional knowledge of the business reality, critical thinking, communication and coordination” (ibid.). Graduates should be competent to do T&I assignments of “medium difficulty level in subject matter areas such as diplomacy, business and trade, education, culture, technology and military” (Zhong & Zhao, 2015, p. 293, my translation). This overly crowded educational outcome is partly due to the problem that the wording professional has a number of different definitions. A more relevant point in this context is that professional degrees are usually at the postgraduate level (Huang, 2007). This is also echoed by Mackenzie (2004) and Su (2011) whose research focus is T&I training at the undergraduate level but also argue that professional training should not happen in undergraduate classrooms. As Chau puts it, professional T&I training takes places at an “astonishingly low level” (1984, p. 44). Therefore, the professional nature contained in the BTI ideological curriculum may spell trouble in its implementation at the institutional level. It also has implications for the continuity between BTI programmes and MTI programmes.

Curriculum Improvement: Setting the Stage  43 Given the historical evolution and the definition of professional T&I, professional interpreter training should be at the postgraduate level. The scope of the curriculum is necessary when answering some of the key questions, such as educational outcome, curricular approach, curriculum development model and curriculum improvement model, as well as the relationship among professional T&I programmes, undergraduate programmes and continuous learning opportunities. Curriculum Sequence: T&I

The other issue is the sequence of a curriculum. In the case of professional T&I, this boils down to the relationship between translation and interpreting. Bowker and Star set the caveat that “to classify is human” (Bowker & Star, 2000, as cited in Grbić, 2011, p. 248). However, to a great extent, the difference between translation and interpreting is blurring. In Holmes’ overview of translation studies, interpreting is regarded as a distinct form of translation carried out through an oral medium (Munday, 2016, p. 35). Translation and interpreting entail some differences. The most obvious ones are in “practical modalities and constraints” (Lederer, 2007, p. 15). More specifically, Gile (2004) elaborates on the immediacy of interpreting, including that of producing interpreting and receiving interpreting. Interpreters “only have seconds or minutes” to deal with problems arising in the process of their work (Gile, 2004, p. 12). They need to constantly battle for a balance between listening, comprehending and reformulating. In addition, Gile (2004) points out that the product of interpreting is received with a high level of immediacy too. This means that the acceptability of the product is dependent on content, but also speed, voice and other more transient and arbitrary factors related to the audience and the environment. In addition, for a long time, interpreting enjoys a higher profile than translation activities. Since conference interpreters made their debut in international organisations, their work has been equated to “performing on stage” (Pöchhacker, 2015, p. 63). Naturally, visible elements of interpreters such as their personality, cognitive ability, note-​taking skills and sociological topics, such as income, status, sense of achievement and recognition, move to the centre of interpreting studies. However, the most observable features of interpreting do not constitute the entirety of the research areas. Lederer (2007) points out that successful professional interpreting, is just like translation. She quotes Nord and argues that a good performance is premised on interpreters’ linguistic competence and cultural competence on both the source side and the target side (Nord, 1992, p. 47, as cited in Lederer, 2007, p. 16). The trajectory towards convergence between translation and interpreting is noticeable under the influence of globalisation, technological innovation, the information economy and corporate project management. Translation practice nowadays features a high level of immediacy and is vastly different from what it looked like in the past.

44  Curriculum Improvement: Setting the Stage Therefore, though translation and interpreting see different research areas –​ and they are designed separately once proceeding onto the instructional level –​ translator training and interpreter training are often planned together at the curriculum level. It is true that most scholars in T&I training narrow onto either translator training or interpreter training. This is the case with those either with or without curriculum studies focus. For example, Kelly (2005), Kearns (2006) and Nord (2005) look into translator training only. In comparison, some scholars focus on interpreter training only, such as Sawyer (2004), Pöchhacker (2016), Wang (2007), Calvo (2009), Gile (2009) and Liu (2011). In these cases, their research areas are curriculum implementation, instruction and evaluation. Before they zoom into either translator training or interpreter training, most scholars acknowledge a common ground between translation and interpreting before choosing one direction. In terms of curriculum development and improvement, interpreter training programmes and translator training programmes are usually planned together (see Snell-​Hornby, 1992). Arjona-​Tseng acknowledges this common ground: The two specialisations shar[e]‌a common communications-​ based parentage. Any study of the two off-​springs must, in my view, comprise a discussion of the common lineage … I have chosen, therefore, to discuss the writings about both translator and interpreter training in the broad range of topics addressed because I believe they are the basis for the ultimate development of a common training paradigm. (Arjona-​Tseng, 1991, p. 50) Therefore, the discussion of curriculum improvement in this book primarily concerns professional interpreter training. In addition, given its relevance, the studies of translator training are also referred to. Curriculum Development and Improvement The fact that curriculum experts use the same vocabulary but with different meanings makes it difficult to use terms directly as short-​hand expressions. Curriculum development, for example, means the entire process of curriculum making. For the sake of this book, the various definitions will not cause confusion, as it does not cover the instructional implementation of the improved curriculum. More specifically, the book zooms into a curriculum improvement model on curriculum goals. Curriculum improvement should not be random. As Dewey argues, “[t]‌here is always the danger in a new movement that in rejecting the aims and methods of that which it would supplant, it may develop its principles negatively rather than positively and constructively” (Dewey, 1986/​2008, p. 20).

Curriculum Improvement: Setting the Stage  45 Curricular Models

Curriculum development can cover activities ranging from setting educational goals all the way to the implementation and evaluation of instruction results (Oliva & Gordon II, 2012), that is, curriculum planning, curriculum design, curriculum implementation and curriculum evaluation. But in many cases, more attention is placed on the steps of work before curriculum implementation. According to Ornstein and Hunkins: We maintain that, of all domains of curriculum knowledge, curriculum development and design (its theoretical or technical aspects) are most crucial in any curriculum text. The idea is to show how the curriculum is planned, implemented, and evaluated as well as what people, processes, and procedures are involved in constructing the curriculum. (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2016 p. 30) Posner (1988, p. 78) sets his point of departure at Tyler Rationale, the dominant technical model in curriculum planning, and discusses different curricular models such as the less technical models by Taba and the “emancipatory” model of Freire (1970, as cited in Posner, 1988, p. 90). The models that Posner refers to as curriculum planning models are often called curriculum development models by other scholars. For example, in the classic technical model by Tyler, curriculum development is carried out in a linear, step-​by-​step manner of deciding educational purpose, educational experience, experience organisation and evaluation of the attainment of the educational purpose (Posner, 1988, p. 79). Though harbouring different understanding of education, Johnson (Posner, 1988, p. 88) devises his 1977 P-​I-​E model of planning, implementation and evaluation, which breaks down curriculum development in similar ways as Tyler’s model. Therefore, the use of the word planning by Posner points to the theoretical nature of the exercise and places more emphasis on the beginning stages of the curriculum development work and not so much on curriculum implementation and evaluation. Curriculum design is the operationalisation and implementation of the planned curriculum. Ornstein and Hunkins’ definition is as follows: “[c]‌urriculum design refers to the way we conceptualise the curriculum and arrange its major components (subject matter or content, instructional methods and materials, learner experiences or activities) to provide direction and guidance as we develop the curriculum” (2016, p. 31). Curriculum planning and curriculum design usually happen concurrently. It is almost impossible to separate the two. This is the case with interpreter training, too. Most academic pursuits under a curriculum studies’ framework in T&I training start with a critical analysis of the curricular approach or curriculum model in the sphere of curriculum planning or curriculum development, and then proceed to a detailed

46  Curriculum Improvement: Setting the Stage discussion of curriculum design. Curriculum design is no less a confusing picture. Zais summarises the cause of the problem quite effectively: In the organisation and design of curricula…fashion exerts a disproportionate influence on curriculum offerings. New courses are added to “make the curriculum more relevant”. New sequences are effected but on a piecemeal basis to reverse permissive, anti-​intellectual trends. Mini-​courses proliferate at a breath-​taking rate to meet the specific individual needs and interests of students. The result is a kind of disjointed clutter of specialised subjects which often operates to impede, rather than to foster, education. (Zais, 1976, p. 396) Therefore, it should be emphasised that curriculum development of T&I training should precede the specific design of courses. Key decisions on educational philosophy, educational purpose and curricular approach need to be made before one can start operationalising them into courses. Curriculum design cannot be completed in a vacuum. As mentioned above, curriculum design is dependent on curriculum planning of the educational purpose, as well as an understanding of resources and constraints that come along. In addition, curriculum design at the institutional level cannot be properly done without grasping the historical, cultural, social background reflected in the ideological curriculum of the nation. At the same time, curriculum design is also affected by curriculum implementation and the result of the operationalisation of the institutional curriculum including the hidden curriculum. Curriculum Improvement Models

In the case where a curriculum is already existent, any systematic change to the curriculum is called curriculum improvement, revision, renewal or change. Curriculum improvement is relevant to all the steps in the whole process of curriculum development. Curriculum development and/​ or improvement models vary widely. Depending on different educational philosophies, curriculum development either centres on goals and objectives, or emphasises learners’ individualistic needs and experiences. The two main models relevant to T&I training and its educational philosophy are a technical model featuring gap analysis and a non-​ technical model of deliberation. Gap analysis is a combination of subject matter analysis and learning analysis (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2016, p. 216). In the case of educating students for a specific profession, the aim of a gap analysis is to find out what tasks students are expected to perform in the profession and what learning processes are required for students to learn the identified tasks (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2016, pp. 214–​215). The gap analysis falls into the category of the traditional technical model in which a step-​by-​step procedure is followed. The result of the technical curriculum development is a list of goals, objectives and aligned

Curriculum Improvement: Setting the Stage  47 content. Though following a technical model, the gap analysis, when in operation, also uses the student-​centred humanistic philosophy. Gap analysis, or task analysis in general, encourages the spirit of sharing and exchange between different stakeholders on the educational issues they find in common (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2016, p. 217). The deliberation model is a more moderate. It is not categorically technical, nor is it control-​oriented. McCutcheon argues that curriculum improvement through deliberation happens when “concrete and specific situations” emerge (1998, p. 199). The deliberation model values sharing and exchanging different ideas of participants in the curriculum. Through careful analysis of on-​the-​ground data and reflection, “new action is taken if warranted, and further reflection ensues” (ibid.). The curriculum is negotiated in an “intricate, skilled intellectual manner” (ibid.). Noye summarises the six stages in curriculum deliberation: (1) public sharing; (2) highlighting agreement and disagreement; (3) explaining positions; (4) highlighting changes in position; (5) negotiating points of agreement; and (6) adopting a decision (Noye, as cited in Ornstein & Hunkins, 2016, p. 218). In essence, to combine the above-mentioned two models, an appropriate curriculum improvement model for T&I training is of a deliberation nature among a number of identified stakeholders. It is a process of problem identification, solution proposal and the adoption of selected proposals, guided by curriculum goals. Though being a non-​technical model, the curriculum deliberation model has a clear format and prioritises key stakeholders. It is distinguished from post-​modernist models which, in comparison, categorically dismisses the idea of setting goals and objectives. Outcome, Goals and Objectives Curriculum improvement can hardly be done without clarified goals. However, the very notion of setting goals and objectives causes major controversy among curriculum experts. The idea that a curriculum is outcome-​based and thus needs to start with clear objectives is taken for granted by many teachers and scholars. However, some educators point out that an emphasis on objectives reveals the underlying problematic assumption of pre-​determined targets and standard behaviour outcome (McKernan, 2007, p. 93). McKernan believes that objectives are only permissible if a programme is “dealing with rudimentary training” (McKernan, 2007, p. 91). Rather than setting objectives, educators should strive for a value consensus between teachers and students. Following McKernan’s argument, one may contend that since professional T&I programmes are to educate, they should not have objectives as “rudimentary training” does. However, it should be noted that there is a difference between goals and objectives. While some educators dismiss outcome-​based curriculum development, they admit that a curriculum should be “purposive and rational” (McKernan, 2007, p. 70). Therefore, McKernan’s objection to objectives is based on the understanding that objectives are “engineering

48  Curriculum Improvement: Setting the Stage and managerial” (ibid.). Following this logic, education with pre-​determined objectives is simplified into a mechanical flowchart. This concern is shared by many scholars who are against the instrumentalisation of education (Zhuang & Chen, 2018). Fundamentally speaking, this is an issue around the concept of objectives. If a curriculum is to acquire a behaviourist outcome, then it needs objectives that are engineering, managerial and heavily prescriptive. A school that categorically subscribes to such prescriptive objectives from classroom activities all the way up to the school-​level planning is typical of dictating what will happen in the greatest detail (Ellis, 2014, p. 21). On the other hand, a curriculum that emphasises the experience of students as it unfolds in the classroom sees its objectives being subject to students’ own selection, acceptance and incorporation (Hopkins, 1941, as cited in Ellis, 2014, p. 5). In tertiary education, it would be unwise to copy such a style of classroom arrangement and paste it all the way upwards to the objectives of the institutional curriculum, or even ideological curriculum. Just as a curriculum is both prescriptive and descriptive, a curriculum that is not of engineering and managerial nature can also be a planned curriculum with guiding principles. Oliva and Gordon II (2012) point to the confusing use of wordings such as outcome, aims, goals and objectives in curriculum studies. Their relations can be untangled through differentiating educational philosophies. In a perennialist and an essentialist curriculum, objectives and aims at all levels are naturally interchangeable wordings as the curriculum development process is mechanical and behavioural. On the other hand, a reconstructionist will deny objectives and goals altogether. It is only among those who adopt the moderate essentialist-​progressivist educational philosophy that the difference between aims, goals and objectives at different levels becomes relevant. In addition, the issue is compounded by the fact that the concepts are applied at different levels of educational administration. For example, the aims of education can be set at a national level. At the same time, a university also has its aims of education, usually in alignment with the national aims, but with some degree of specificities. Curriculum goals are set at a university level, but each department or school has its own curriculum goals, with some kinds of variations that will not necessarily be applied to other departments in the university. Oliva and Gordon II differentiate between curriculum and instruction, as the former looks at the entirety of the students, whereas the latter focuses on the individual student (2012, p. 249). They also differentiate a goal from an objective (2012, p. 175). They believe that the latter requires the presence of measurable criteria. In addition, they look at the relation between aims of education and curriculum goals on the spectrum of generality and specificity, though neither of the two is on measurable terms (Oliva & Gordon II, 2012, p. 176). In summary, in a hierarchical order from top to bottom, or from curriculum to instruction, there are: aims of education, curriculum goals, curriculum objectives, instructional goals and instructional objectives (Oliva & Gordon II, 2012, p. 173).

Curriculum Improvement: Setting the Stage  49 Against this background understanding, professional interpreter training programmes at the institutional level are justified to have overall educational aims, which then will be specified into goals and objectives. This is not to be confused with using an engineering approach in curriculum development. Rather, it shows that professional T&I education is regulated by purposes and norms. The remaining part of this section is an attempt to define the educational outcome of professional interpreter training programmes, which will direct further conceptualisation of curriculum goals. The aims of education for a professional T&I programme have received broad academic discussion in translator and interpreter training. A consensus among T&I trainers and scholars is that the overall outcome is that students are to achieve approximation to the professional reality of the present and of the future (Mossop, 2003; Malmkjær, 2004; Kelly, 2005; Nord, 2005). Kelly argues that the overall outcome of translator training is that “[s]‌tudents will have acquired the necessary set of competences (knowledge, skills and attitudes) to be able to join the translation profession in any of its specialised areas in this country or abroad at a junior level” (2005, p. 48). The composing elements of competences in her version of the educational outcome have its roots in the professional reality. As is argued by Malmkjær, the legitimacy of having a practice-​based profession as an academic discipline in a university setting depends on whether the programme can ensure that “teaching [such] programmes have face validity for members of those professions in which students might seek employment” (2004, p. 2). In other words, a T&I programme must track what is happening in the profession, reflect it in the curriculum and prepare the students to fit the profession upon graduation. In the process-​oriented T&I training, the emphasis on approximating what is happening on the ground has a long tradition. Many scholars choose to look up to a posteriori decision in translation. Borrowed from contrastive linguistics, they directly use what a professional translator or interpreter will choose to do as the best possible proxy equivalence and check students’ performance against it. Therefore, part of the educational outcome of a professional T&I programme is to prepare graduates to have a better chance to be accepted by the target audience or readership in the market. Yet programmes should not narrow down on the known possibilities, but also prepare students for future employment. An overemphasis on the training side is disconcerting. If a programme follows the reasoning that the sole educational outcome is to approximate the professional reality at hand, market demands will be taken as the major source of the curriculum content. This will lead to two problems. First, it will cause unstable and haphazard curriculum design, leaving it at the mercy of market forces. Second, it means T&I curriculum design will always lag behind the changes in professional reality. Therefore, the educational outcomes of a T&I programme should encompass both the present demand and future considerations. In the light of short-​term employment and long-​term employability, the choice between generalist and specialist approaches has been discussed extensively in

50  Curriculum Improvement: Setting the Stage T&I training. Mossop (2003) and Nord (2005) have argued for a generalist approach in T&I curriculum design and have been echoed by a number of programme leaders. As Nord recounts, “university training programmes must be general enough to enable their graduates to take up a broad range of activities, and specific enough to lay the foundations for a fast acquisition of any kind of special skills after graduation” (2005, p. 211). A number of scholars share the idea of developing flexibility in T&I students. Mossop elaborates: The function of a translation school is not to train students for specific existing slots in translation industry, but to give them certain general abilities that they will be able to apply in whatever slots may exist in 5, 10, 15, 25 years from now. (Mossop, 2003, p. 20) Pöchhacker (2013) notes that a generalist approach is identified in EMCI. Endorsed by DG Translation and DG SCIC of the European Commission, EMCI is to help ensure that graduates from recognised programmes can live up to the professional standards of the commission. More specifically, it means graduates will be equipped with the world knowledge used in the work of the commission. Even with the high level of specialisation, “the curriculum for conference interpreter training usually aims for generalist qualifications, albeit with an emphasis on economic and political topics as well as science and technology” (Pöchhacker, 2013, p. 176). When analysing the POSI memorandum, Anderman and Rogers (2000) look at the subject field knowledge and identify a centripetal and a centrifugal approach to addressing specialised field knowledge. They find that both translator training and interpreter training opt for the centrifugal approach of producing generalists in university programmes. Malmkjær quotes Toury and believes that translators do not need to rush for specialisation because: the greater the variety of situations that a translator is put into, the greater the range and flexibility of his ability to perform, or adapt himself to changing norms is going to be […] On the other hand, specialisation […] will probably tend to […] reduce the adaptability of the translator. (1984, pp. 191–​192, as cited in Malmkjær, 2008, p. 305) Therefore, the educational outcome of professional T&I programmes should be to produce generalist translators and interpreters who are equipped with the ability to zoom into specialised areas as they adapt themselves to future employment requirements. Predicting the future requires a value proposition. Educational values beyond material and immediate functionality derive from national, regional and international mandates. For example, the EHEA reform places emphasis on European competitiveness, graduate employability as well as social justice.

Curriculum Improvement: Setting the Stage  51 In China, the development of translation studies synchronises the country’s need for developing vibrant international relations. Therefore, the awareness of national strategies has always been embedded in T&I education. More recently, T&I education in China is tasked to help the country promote cross-​ cultural understanding (Huang, 2011, 2019). In summary, though professional T&I training is not of a vocational and technical nature, it is still necessary to set clear educational outcomes. They will then be specified into goals and objectives. The educational outcome of a professional T&I programme in the setting of tertiary education can be summarised as: to produce generalist translators and interpreters who can: (1) meet the demand of society upon graduation, (2) adapt to future changes, and (3) shape the profession. An identified educational outcome of T&I education is helpful in facing the sea of different options in curriculum development and improvement. For example, if short-​term market demand constitutes the entire educational outcome, T&I programmes should aim at producing specialised translators and interpreters who can excel only in isolated topical areas or T&I modes. Yet graduates should have the ability to sustain employment in a longer timeframe. This will require a different combination of skills and knowledge, which require a generalist professional education. The educational outcome also means that graduates are not only at the receiving end of market demands. Humanistic values and civic responsibilities play a role when graduates participate in the profession with an aim to seek improvement for the profession and society. This is also related to the sociological issue of the status of professional translators and interpreters. An educational outcome without any mention of shaping the profession would envisage a curriculum design featuring only skills and knowledge, but putting aside other issues such as theoretical building or professionalisation. Therefore, the three components of the aforementioned educational outcome are complementary and all indispensable. This conclusion can guide a proper choice of a curriculum improvement model. Since the educational outcome requires updates of future changes, programmes must have constant curriculum-​level re-​considerations. Indeed, Oliva and Gordon II press for a continuous improvement of curriculum goals and objectives at all levels. They believe that even at the macro level, curriculum goals require annual check-​ups (Oliva & Gordon II, 2012, p. 119). A curriculum improvement model for T&I programmes can help maintain their relevance to the changing reality. Concluding Remarks Curriculum development, and, in turn, curriculum improvement, is “a deliberately planned activity through which courses of study or other educational patterns of activity and experience are designed and proffered as proposals

52  Curriculum Improvement: Setting the Stage worthy of implementation and evaluation in practice” (McKernan, 2007, p. 21). Curriculum level contemplation goes beyond instruction. It focuses on building a facilitating education environment so that graduates will have a good chance of living meaningful professional and civic life in a long run. Such systematic thinking is needed at the current juncture. For this book’s purpose, curriculum improvement takes place at the institutional level. University graduate programmes are the focus. Though interpreter training and translator training are usually planned together at a curriculum level, an emphasis is placed on interpreter training. The norm-​based interdisciplinary nature of professional T&I points to the appropriate educational philosophy as essentialist-​progressivist. The educational philosophy fits the co-​existence of both the professional and educational nature of T&I programmes. Accordingly, a curricular model for professional interpreter training is not purely technical from curriculum planning to instructional implementation, but it still features the work of goal-​setting in the curriculum work. In line with the educational philosophy and the curricular model, curriculum improvement should be carried out through deliberation among identified stakeholders. At the same time, student-​centred instruction and its results, including the hidden curriculum, also have an impact on curriculum development and improvement. In essence, a model for curriculum improvement should incorporate feedback from three areas: educational value, professional implications and instructional results (see Figure 2.2). The educational reality and professional nature are constantly changing. In the case of China, the educational outcome of professional T&I

Figure 2.2 Sources of Curriculum Improvement.

Curriculum Improvement: Setting the Stage  53 programmes has been expressed in the form of the national ideological curriculum, which requires institutional programmes to produce “advanced, high-​level and practice-​oriented” graduates (China National Committee for Translation and Interpretation Education, 2013, p. 1, my translation). More specifically, as has been argued in this chapter, the overall aim for all programmes is to produce generalist translators and interpreters who can meet the demand of society upon graduation, adapt to future changes and shape the profession. There is much room for institutional interpretation of the overall educational outcome. Institutional programmes should set up and then adjust their educational aims, curriculum goals and objectives. It is challenging to make a T&I curriculum from scratch. It is an even more daunting task to do curriculum improvement. A model for curriculum improvement can help ensure the relevance and effectiveness of institutional MTI programmes. The next chapter will start with a review of curriculum studies in T&I training, followed by the conceptualisation of a curriculum improvement model. References Álvarez-​Álvarez, S., & Arnáiz-​ Uzquiza, V. (2017). Translation and interpreting graduates under construction: do Spanish translation and interpreting studies curricula answer the challenges of employability?. The Interpreter and Translator Trainer, 11(2–​3), 139–​159. https://​doi.org/​10.1080/​17503​99X.2017.1344​812 Anderman, G., & Rogers, M. (2000). Translator training between academia and profession: A European perspective. In C. Schäffner & B. Adab (Eds.), Developing translation competence (pp. 63–​76). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​ 10.1075/​btl.38.07and Arjona-​Tseng, E. M. (1991). Curriculum policy-​making for an emerging profession: The structure, process, and outcome of creating a graduate institute for translation and interpretation studies in the Republic of China of Taiwan [Doctoral dissertation]. Harvard University Arrojo, R. (2010). Philosophy and translation. In Y. Gambier & L. van Doorslaer (Eds.), Handbook of translation studies, (Vol. 1, pp. 247–​251). https://​doi.org/​ 10.1075/​hts.1.phi1 Barnett, R., & Coate, K. (2004). Engaging the curriculum in higher education. Open University Press. Beauchamp, G. A. (1975). Curriculum theory (3rd ed.). The Kagg Press. Calvo, E. (2009). Análisis curricular de los estudios de Traducción e Interpretación en España. Perspectiva del estudiantado [Doctoral dissertation]. Universidad de Granada. Chau, S. (1984). Aspects of translation pedagogy: The grammatical, cultural and interpretive teaching models [Doctoral dissertation]. University of Edinburgh. China National Committee for Translation and Interpretation Education. (2013, December 27). Quanguo fanyi shuoshi zhuanye xuewei yanjiusheng jiaoyu zhidaoxing peiyang fangan [National curriculum guideline for master’s degree programmes in translation and interpreting]. https://​cnti.gdufs.edu.cn/​info/​1006/​1094.htm

54  Curriculum Improvement: Setting the Stage Cuminatto, C., Baines, R., & Drugan, J. (2017). Employability as an ethos in translator and interpreter training. The Interpreter and Translator Trainer, 11(2–​3), 123–​ 138. https://​doi.org/​10.1080/​17503​99X.2017.1350​899 Dewey, J. (1986/​2008). Experience and education. In The Educational Forum (Vol. 50, No. 3, pp. 241–​252). Taylor & Francis Group. https://​doi.org/​10.1080/​ 001317​2860​9335​764 Donovan, C. (2019). The contribution of institutional recruiters to interpreter training. In D. B. Sawyer, F. Austermühl & V. Enríquez Raído (Eds.), The evolving curriculum in interpreter and translator education: Stakeholder perspectives and voices (pp. 341–​ 368). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​ata.xix.16don Ellis, A. K. (2014). Exemplars of curriculum theory. Routledge. https://​doi.org/​ 10.4324/​978131​5855​318 Gabr, M. (2001). Toward a model approach to translation curriculum development. Translation Journal, 5(2), 1–​13. Gile, D. (2004). Translation research versus interpreting research: Kinship, differences and prospects for partnership. In C. Schäffner (Ed.), Translation research and interpreting research: Traditions, gaps and synergies (pp. 10–​ 34). Multilingual Matters. https://​doi.org/​10.21832/​978185​3597​350-​003 Gile, D. (2009). Basic concepts and models for interpreter and translator training (Vol. 8). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​btl.8 Grbić, N. (2011). “Boundary work” as a concept for studying professionalization processes in the interpreting field. In R. Sela-​Sheffy & M. Shlesinger (Eds.), Identity and status in the translational professions (Vol. 32, pp. 247–​262). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​tis.5.1.07grb Hatim, B., & Mason, I. (2005). The translator as communicator. Routledge. https://​ doi.org/​10.4324/​978020​3992​722 He, Y., & Li, R. L. (2015). Zhenghexing fanyi kecheng sheji jiashe moxing yanjiu [A study on a hypothesised model of curriculum design for translator training]. Chinese Translators Journal, 36(03), 53–​58. Huang, B. Y. (2007). Woguo zhuanye xuewei jiaoyu fazhan de huigu yu sikao (shang) [Summary and reflection on the development of professional degree education in China (part one)]. Academic Degrees & Graduate Education, 2007(06), 4–​8. Doi:10.3969/​j.issn.1001-​960X.2007.06.002. Huang, Y. Y. (2011). Fanyi lifa shi cuijing fanyi hangye jiankang fazhan de genbentujing [Legislation as the key approach to the healthy development of the translation and interpreting industry]. East Journal of Translation, 2011(3), 4–​6. Huang, Y. Y. (2019). Zhuahao yingyong fanyi rencai peiyang jizhi jianshe manzu shidai dui yingyongxing fanyi rencai xuqiu [Setting Up a Nurturing Mechanism for Pragmatic Translators]. Shanghai Journal of Translators, (4), 1–​2. Jiang, Q. X. (2014). Fanyi zhuanye kecheng shishi de xitong guanxi yanjiu—​ —​ Jianyi woguo fanyi zhuanye benke kecheng shishi zhong de wenti [A systematic study on the curriculum implementation of professional translator and interpreter training: And its reflections on the BTI programme in China]. Chinese Translators Journal, 35(06), 39–​43. Kearns, J. (2006). Curriculum Renewal in Translator Training: Vocational challenges in academic environments with reference to needs and situation analysis and skills transferability from the contemporary experience of Polish translator training culture [Doctoral dissertation]. Dublin City University. Kelly, A. V. (2004). The curriculum: Theory and practice (5th ed.). SAGE Publications.

Curriculum Improvement: Setting the Stage  55 Kelly, D. (2005). A handbook for translator trainers. Routledge. https://​doi.org/​ 10.4324/​978131​5760​292 Lederer, M. (2007). Can theory help translator and interpreter trainers and trainees?. The Interpreter and Translator Trainer, 1(1), 15–​35. https://​doi.org/​10.1080/​ 17503​99X.2007.10798​748 Lee-​Jahnke, H. (2011). Université et Universalité: Ya-​il un développement durable pour l’enseignement et la recherche?. Lebende Sprachen, 56(2), 179–​188. https://​ doi.org/​10.1515/​les.2011.016 Liao, Z. X., & Tian, H. S. (2003). Kecheng xinlun [New approach to curriculum theory]. Educational Science Publishing House. Liu, H. P. (2011). Fanyi nengli fazhan de jieduanxing ji qi jiaoxuefa yanjiu [A study on the developmental phases of interpreter competence and didactics]. Chinese Translators Journal, 32(1), 37–​45. Mackenzie, R. (2004). The competencies required by the translator’s roles as a professional. In K. Malmkjær (Ed.), Translation in undergraduate degree programmes (Vol. 59, pp. 31–​ 38). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​ btl.59.04mac Malmkjær, K. (Ed.). (2004). Translation in undergraduate degree programmes (Vol. 59). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​btl.59 Malmkjær, K. S. (2008). Translation competence and the aesthetic attitude. In A. Pym, M. Shlesinger & D. Simeoni (Eds.), Beyond descriptive translation studies: investigations in homage to Gideon Toury (pp. 293–​309). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​btl.75.23mal McCutcheon, G. (1988). Curriculum and the work of teachers. In L. E. Beyer & M. W. Apple (Eds.), The curriculum: Problems, politics, and possibilities (pp. 191–​203). SUNY Press. McKernan, J. (2007). Curriculum and imagination: Process theory, pedagogy and action research. Routledge. https://​doi.org/​10.4324/​978020​3946​930 Mossop, B. (2003). What Should be Taught at Translation School?. In A. Pym, C. Fallada, J. R. Biau, & J. Orenstein (Eds.), Innovation and E-​Learning in Translator Training (pp. 20–​22). Universitat Rovira i Virgili. www.interc​ultu​ral.urv.cat/​en/​ publi​cati​ons/​elearn​ing/​ Munday, J. (2016). Introducing translation studies: Theories and applications (4th ed.). Routledge. https://​doi.org/​10.4324/​978131​5691​862 Nord, C. (2005). Training functional translators. In M. Tennent (Ed.) Training for the New Millennium (pp. 209–​223). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​ 10.1075/​btl.60.17nor Oliva, P. F., & Gordon II, W. R. (2012). Developing the curriculum (8th ed.). Pearson Education. Ornstein, A. C., & Hunkins, F. P. (2016). Curriculum: Foundations, principles, and issues (7th ed.). Pearson Education. Pöchhacker, F. (2013). Teaching interpreting/​Training interpreters. In Y. Gambier & L. van Doorslaer (Eds.), Handbook of translation studies, (Vol. 4, pp. 174–​180). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​hts.4.tea2 Pöchhacker, F. (2015). Evolution of interpreting research. In H. Mikkelson & R. Jourdenais (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of interpreting (pp. 62–​74). Routledge. Pöchhacker, F. (2016). Introducing interpreting studies (2nd ed.). Routledge. https://​ doi.org/​10.4324/​978131​5649​573

56  Curriculum Improvement: Setting the Stage Posner, G. F. (1988). Models of curriculum planning. In L. E. Beyer & M. W. Apple (Eds.), The curriculum: Problems, politics, and possibilities (pp. 79–​100). SUNY Press. Pym, A. (2011). Training translators. In K. Malmkjær & K. Windle (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of translation studies (pp. 313–​321). Oxford University Press. https://​doi. org/​10.1093/​oxfor​dhb/​978019​9239​306.013.0032 Rodríguez de Céspedes, B. (2017). Addressing employability and enterprise responsibilities in the translation curriculum. The Interpreter and Translator Trainer, 11(2–​ 3), 107–​122. https://​doi.org/​10.1080/​17503​99X.2017.1344​816 Sawyer, D. B. (2004). Fundamental aspects of interpreter education: Curriculum and assessment (Vol. 47). John Benjamins Publishing. Sawyer, D. B., Austermühl, F., & Raído, V. E. (Eds.). (2019). The evolving curriculum in interpreter and translator education: Stakeholder perspectives and voices. John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​ata.xix Schäffner, C., & Adab, B. (Eds.). (2000). Developing translation competence. John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​btl.38 Snell-​Hornby, M. (1992). The professional translator of tomorrow: Language specialist or all-​round expert?. In C. Dollerup & A. Loddegaard (Eds.), Teaching translation and interpreting: training, talent, and experience (pp. 9–​22). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​z.56.04sne Su, W. (2011). Benke jieduan kouyi nengli fazhan tujing yanjiu—​—​Yixiang jiyu benke zhuanye shidian yuanxiao de shizheng yanjiu [A study on the developmental paths of interpreter competence: an empirical study on a pilot undergraduate programme in translation and interpreting] [Doctoral dissertation]. Shanghai International Studies University. Tanner, D., & Tanner, L. N. (1980). Curriculum development: Theory into practice. Macmillan Publishing Company. Tyler, R. W. (2013). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. The University of Chicago press. Ulrych, M. (2005). Training translators: Programmes, curricula, practices. In M. Tennent (Ed.) Training for the new millennium (pp. 3–​ 33). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​btl.60.06ulr Wang, B. H. (2007). “Kouyi nengli” pinggu he “yiyuan nengli” pinggu—​—​Kouyi de keguan pinggu moshi chutan [assessment of “interpreting competence” vs. assessment of “interpreter competence”: an exploratory study on an objective assessment model]. Foreign Language World, 2007(3), 44–​50. Wen, J. (2004). Lun yi fazhan fanyi nengli wei zhongxin de kecheng moshi [A study on a curriculum model with developing translator competence at its centre]. Foreign Languages and their Teaching, 2004(8), 49–​ 52. Doi:10.3969/​ j.issn.1004-​6038.2004.08.015. Wen, J. (2005). Fanyi kecheng moshi yanjiu: Yi fazhan fanyi nengli wei zhongxin de fangfa [A study on the model of translation curriculum: Translation-​ competence centered approach]. China Culture and History Press. Zais, R. S. (1976). Curriculum: Principles and foundations. Ty Crowell. Zhang, D. L. (2003). Kechenglun yu jiaoxuelun guanxi zhi tantao [A study on the relations between curriculum studies and didactics]. Higher Education of Science, 2003(S2), 81–​83. Zhong, W. H., & Zhao, J. F. (2015). Fanyi benke zhuanye jiaoxue zhiliang guojia biaozhun yaodian jiedu [An analysis of the national standards of teaching quality

Curriculum Improvement: Setting the Stage  57 for undergraduate programmes of translation and interpreting]. Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 47(2), 289–​296. Zhuang, Z. X., & Chen, G. (2018). Waiguo yuyan wenxue yiliu xueke jianshe huhuan shendu ronghe [Integrated approach in the development of foreign language and literature as China’s world-​class discipline]. Foreign Language Learning Theory and Practice, 164(4), 1.

3 A Curriculum Improvement Model

The previous chapter has concluded with an educational outcome that applies to institutional T&I programmes. Though it is by no means static, the educational outcome is relatively stable, as it is aligned with the nature of professional T&I and is reflected in the ideological curriculum. It is the starting point of the development and improvement of the institutional curricula. An institutional curriculum is under the influence of a multitude of sources. The process of deciding, updating and improving a curriculum requires careful analysis. The following discussion is an attempt to devise a curriculum improvement model for institutional interpreter training programmes in China. Development of the Ideological Curriculum in China Institutional curriculum improvement usually follows changes in the ideological curriculum. In the case of T&I training, given that the definition of professional T&I has been evolving, curriculum improvement has mostly taken the form of putting in new content that fits the definition and taking out elements deemed irrelevant to professional T&I. The previously discussed POSI project and the EMT/​EMCI reform in Europe are two examples of ideological curriculum improvement at a supranational level. The POSI project identified the insufficiency of only teaching language in translation programmes and initiated the incorporation of real-​life demand in European markets into the T&I curriculum. The EMT/​EMCI reform was a response to the EHEA’s call for competitiveness, employability and social justice. The interpretation of the ideological curriculum usually takes the form of model curricula and syllabi. This is the case in the West (Sawyer, 2019) and in China, too (Yang & Jiang, 2017). The Chinese educational system follows an outcome-​oriented, objective-​based top-​down approach. National directives and documents usually guide curriculum work at the institutional level. Like BTI programmes, MTI programmes have national guidelines for curriculum and instruction. In January 2007, at the establishment of MTI programmes, China National Committee for Translation and Interpretation DOI: 10.4324/9781003303824-4

A Curriculum Improvement Model  59 Education published the basic requirements for master’s degree programmes in professional translation and interpreting. According to the document, the educational outcome of MTI programmes is to produce “zhuanye […] and gaoji translators and interpreters”, meaning “professional/​ specialised and advanced translators and interpreters” (China National Committee for Translation and Interpretation Education, 2018, p. 1, my translation). The three key competencies identified are “language competence, T&I skills and broad subject matter knowledge” (ibid.). Graduates are expected to “be competent in gaoji T&I assignments of various zhuanye areas” (ibid.). The guideline also specifies that in T&I instruction, “much time should be given to T&I skills and real practice, so that students can improve their practical abilities, which is the priority of MTI programmes. At the same time, students should also learn translation theories and acquire the competence in cross-​cultural communications” (ibid.). This guideline, as one of the sources of the MTI ideological curriculum, is of a broad nature. In particular, the Chinese expression gaoji may be interpreted as either advanced-​level training or high-​level meetings. Similarly, zhuanye can mean professional, specialised, or subject-​matter specific. In August 2011, China National Committee for Translation and Interpretation Education issued the National Curriculum Guideline for Master’s Degree Programmes in Translation and Interpreting. In comparison to the previous document, this document has in-​depth content on the educational outcome and curriculum content. According to this Guideline, the educational outcome of institutional MTI programmes is to “produce high-​level, practice-​oriented and zhuanye translators and interpreters who have all-​round moral, intellectual and physical development. Graduates should meet societal needs emerging from globalisation and help improve China’s competitiveness” (China National Committee for Translation and Interpretation Education, 2013b, p. 1, my translation). The document also contains a syllabus based on which institutional programmes should design their own syllabuses that reflect their “curriculum goals and individual features” (China National Committee for Translation and Interpretation Education, 2013b, p. 4, my translation). A third national document is the Committee’s National Curriculum Evaluation System for Master’s Degree Programmes in Translation and Interpreting (2013). It further elaborates that the educational outcome is to “produce high-​level, practice-​oriented, zhuanye translators and interpreters to meet current demand and future development of the market and the language service industry” (China National Committee for Translation and Interpretation Education, 2013a, p. 1, my translation). Graduates are required to have “an international horizon, humanistic values and professional ethics” and be equipped with “bilingual competence, cross-​culture competence, T&I competence, critical thinking, and abilities to innovate” (ibid.). As can be seen, China’s MTI programmes have seen enriched educational outcomes in the ideological curriculum. The updates mainly come from a better understanding and interpretation of the professional and educational

60  A Curriculum Improvement Model nature of T&I programmes. In essence, what has happened so far resembles the POSI project and the EMT reform in Europe. The improved understanding reflected in national documents should usher in substantive improvement at the level of institutional curricula. Curriculum Work at the Institutional Level Curriculum improvement at the ideological level does not automatically translate into changes at the institutional level. A blind replication of the ideological curriculum to the institutional and operational curriculum does happen (Tanner & Tanner, 1980; Wen, 2005). In China, it has been pointed out that one of the major challenges for MTI programmes is the lack of differentiation among themselves (Zhong, 2019). At the institutional level, there have been several studies on curriculum design and curriculum development. The main focuses include curricular models for T&I training, hidden curriculum and needs assessment. Technical Curricular Approach and Humanistic Instruction

Several curriculum development models have been devised for professional T&I programmes. They have all adopted a step-​by-​step technical approach emphasising clear and pre-​defined goals and objectives at all levels. Not all models share the same definition of professional T&I. Most have identified the need to incorporate the curriculum improvement process in the model. However, aside from acknowledging the importance of feedback, the models provide little detail. Among scholars of T&I didactics who use curriculum studies theories at an institutional level, Gabr (2001, see also in Sawyer, 2004; Kearns, 2006; Calvo, 2009) proposes a strictly step-​by-​step curriculum development model for professional T&I programmes. He argues that creativity in classroom teaching must be moderated by systematic thinking of the curriculum. Otherwise, creativity will not contribute to the effectiveness of translator training. Though much of his attention is placed on details in instructional implementation, his work is a study of T&I curriculum, as his focus is on curriculum planning and design using a curriculum studies framework. His model uses a strong technical approach. This is proven by his emphasis on clear curriculum goals and instructional objectives, a contention widely shared by scholars in T&I curriculum studies. Gabr’s model is divided into two stages: the pre-​development stage and the development stage. In the pre-​ development stage, programmes should identify market needs and student needs –​in the development stage, one should define objectives, prepare material, select teaching methods, techniques and teachers, and then develop lesson plans. The model also indicates that training content and evaluation instruments should be selected and designed at the same time. The step-​by-​step model features clarity. It follows a one-​directional

A Curriculum Improvement Model  61 flowchart, with no mention of curriculum improvement indicated (Gabr, 2001, pp. 1–​13). Kelly (2005) has a similar but more detailed curriculum development model. Though the model is designed for translator training, the separation of translator training and interpreter training is mainly due to different instructional practices, including teaching methods, resources and materials as well as assessment and evaluation. Kelly acknowledges that “the similarities between interpreting and translating as forms of social, cultural and linguistic mediation are much greater than the differences between them” (Kelly, 2005, p. 1). The model is useful for curriculum-​making, as it contains a comprehensive repository of what educators and trainers need to consider when planning and researching T&I training. Like Gabr, Kelly argues for the systematic nature of curriculum work. She adopts a curriculum-​level perspective and emphasises the alignment between pedagogical practice and teaching objectives. According to her model, sources of a programme’s educational aims and intended outcomes should include the social and institutional context, social and market needs, requirements from society, the profession and the discipline. After identifying curriculum aims and outcomes, the following steps are: to identify student profile and needs, design overall course content and structure (including sequences), identify and acquire resources (including through trainer training), design teaching and learning activities, design course evaluation instruments, implement and evaluate courses and, finally, enhance quality (Kelly, 2005, p. 3). The model also indicates that the evaluation result should feed into all the steps starting from formulating aims and outcomes, thus facilitating curriculum improvement. In the realm of interpreter training, Sawyer contends the necessity of a systematic and integrative study of interpreter education using curriculum theory and educational psychology (2004, p. 26). His research on assessing interpreting performance is carried out in a curriculum development model. According to Sawyer, one should adopt a scientific curricular model in which goals and objectives at both the curriculum and instruction levels should be set up upfront before detailed curriculum design and implementation. His model starts with extensive coordination and dialogue with a number of external and internal stakeholders, as well as an analysis of educational philosophy. After that, one can identify the aims of instruction. It should be noted that Sawyer’s “aims of instruction” is synonymous with educational outcome in a broad term, as they “do not refer directly to events of instruction, but rather to the belief system upon which the programme is founded” (Sawyer, 2004, p. 55). Departing from the aims of instruction, or educational outcome, the next step is to identify curriculum models, programme goals, student aptitude, skills-​ based developmental milestones, curriculum sequencing, programme evaluation and individual assessment. It is then followed by detailed work at the instructional level, including course objectives, instructional methods, syllabus design, course assessment and individual assessment (Sawyer, 2004, p. 54).

62  A Curriculum Improvement Model The model is primarily one-​directional except for the first steps, as extensive consultation goes in several rounds between stakeholders. The idea of improving existing curricula is present in some of the models. Gabr refers to his model as a cycle of curriculum development (Gabr, 2001, p. 2), implying the necessity of feedback and improvement, though there is no mention of a specific mechanism through which the results of later stages of instructional implementation and evaluation can feed into the earlier stages of curriculum planning and development. This same issue can be found in Sawyer’s model. His model is not entirely a one-​directional flowchart, as it acknowledges that stakeholder consultation will not manifest itself as a linear process. However, the stakeholder consultation results in clear aims of instruction, which then determines curriculum design and implementation, with little space for curriculum improvement. Similarly, Kelly (2005) realises that curriculum-​making is seldom a one-​way linear process. Setting clear goals and objectives in a once-​for-​all fashion is hardly sufficient. Therefore, Kelly has a feedback loop in her model so that the results of classroom instruction and evaluation can serve as sources of improvement, useful for the earlier steps of curriculum development. However, there is little elaboration on how the improvements are to be made and how different sources of change should interact with each other in the process of curriculum improvement. Similarly, Wen (2005)’s curriculum development model also assumes a mechanical step-​by-​step curricular approach while highlighting humanistic learner-​centred educational values. Wen’s model is composed of five steps: needs and situational analysis, setting objectives, choosing content and materials, deciding instructional arrangements and methods and, finally, assessment, feedback and improvement (Wen, 2005, p.12). He argues that both the theory-​based curricular approach and the skills-​based curricular approach are lopsided and one-​directional. His model is different from the previous ones as it features a bi-​directional flowchart, which implies the dynamic nature of the five steps, thus bridging the essentialist-​progressivist discrepancy by using a feedback loop. Yet again, there is little depiction of how the feedback and improvement would be carried out. Calvo (2009), through her development model for interpreter training, attempts to converge the differences between the university-​based curriculum, students’ needs and the requirements of market employability. Like Swayer, Calvo bases her curricular model on the cognitive process of interpreting. She argues that in order to reconcile academic requirements with market reality, curriculum development for interpreter training should be both product-​based and process-​based, in alignment with the nature of interpreter training. If interpreted through the framework of curriculum studies, her argument is that a curriculum should be both prescriptive and descriptive, in line with the essentialist and progressivist philosophies. Like Wen, who believes that a curricular approach should not be either theory-​based or skills-​based, Calvo (2011) argues that a development model should be both theory-​based and practice-​based. Her model does not feature a step-​by-​step

A Curriculum Improvement Model  63 process, but contains the important considerations needed in devising a curriculum. However, there is little detail on how curriculum improvement will be carried out. The stock-taking exercise above shows that most of the models feature clear curriculum-​level and instruction-​level goals and objectives. The prevalent curriculum development model in T&I training is of technical or scientific nature. It is rooted in the traditional school of education, which follows perennialism and essentialism as the educational philosophy. A technical model unequivocally emphasises well-​defined goals and objectives at all levels and prioritises the impersonal acquisition of disciplinary knowledge, facts and skills. However, pre-determined goals and objectives do not reflect the changing reality or students’ individualistic response to teaching. In T&I instruction, almost all trainers and scholars uphold the progressive or humanistic educational philosophy, which centres on students’ individualist experiences and feelings (see Vienne, 1994; Kiraly, 1995, 2003; Gouadec, 2007; Gile, 2009; Albir, 2017). Technical curricular models seem to be out of sync with humanistic training paradigms. In fact, curriculum development is a combination of a prescriptive and descriptive process. At the same time, different educational philosophies are not exclusive between one and the other. The juxtaposition of a technical curricular model and a humanistic instruction approach can be well justified, as the educational philosophy of T&I training is essentialist-​progressivist. A curriculum improvement model should reflect both the essentialist and humanistic nature. Neither applying a strictly essentialist approach in instruction nor a humanistic approach in curriculum work is in line with the educational philosophy of T&I training. Identifying different, but relevant, educational philosophies for curriculum work and instructional didactics is helpful for constructing a curriculum improvement model. In this vein, one can see that Gabr’s (2001) has explicit goals and objectives in each step of curriculum development. It is technical both at the level of curriculum planning and instructional practice. In the pre-​development stage, he adopts a managerial approach. Team forming, task assignment and deadline setting are the main tasks. He also emphasises specific objectives at the instructional level. The technical nature of both the curriculum work and the instructional practice categorises his model into the traditional camp where perennialist and essentialist educational philosophies are followed. Gabr does also design a needs analysis of students at the pre-​development stage. In his study, he found that students’ needs included “general skills”, “the ability to translate problems […] and untranslatability”, “research skills” and “teamwork” (Gabr, 2001, pp. 5–​6). However, the analysis is performed on the entirety of students and the results are identified by trainers and researchers. The progressivist educational philosophy is insufficiently represented in the model. Likewise, Kelly (2005)’s model features an essentialist nature both in curriculum design and instructional practice. Unlike Gabr, Kelly points out the difference between curriculum goals and instructional objectives. In her work, there is an elaborate discussion on the educational outcome of translator

64  A Curriculum Improvement Model training. Like Gabr, Kelly emphasises clarity of goals and objectives on all levels. Consistently, she assumes a systematic curricular approach (2005, p. 21) before planning and implementing the curriculum. However, similar to Gabr’s case, the systematic approach of pre-​determining clear objectives at all levels leaves little room for a progressivist student-​centred approach in instruction. The purpose of the curriculum development model in Kelly’s work is to guide classroom instruction. As her discussion unfolds, there are clear signs of a humanistic approach, such as task-​based and project-​based classroom activities that reflect the contextual and constructive nature of training (2005, p. 116). Kelly’s model also features a feedback loop, making it possible to use the results of classroom instruction and students’ feedback to improve curriculum goals and instructional objectives. This feedback loop should be explicitly incorporated into a curriculum improvement model. In Sawyer (2004)’s work, he uses curriculum studies as his theoretical framework and opts for a strictly technical model, too, but for different reasons. He starts by defining curriculum as “a written plan of action, which is reflected in curriculum documents that contain clearly stated learning objectives […] encompassing all of the learning experiences of the student. This view of curriculum focuses on the interaction between student and instructor in the professional community of interpreters” (Sawyer, 2004, pp. 41–​42). Like Gabr and Kelly, Sawyer adopts a scientific curricular approach with clear instructional goals and objectives, following the essentialist philosophy. At the same time, he also believes that pedagogical methods should be regulated by a student-​centred progressivist educational philosophy. Unlike the previous two scholars who presume clear objectives at all levels, Sawyer has in place a critical analysis before concluding with a suitable educational philosophy and curricular approach for interpreter training. His argument is based on an understanding of the process of interpreting and the historical development of interpreter training. Interpreting studies using theoretical frameworks of cognitive sciences, information processing and expertise studies (Sawyer, 2004, p. 65) are the foundation on which Sawyer has a conclusion on his model of curriculum development. According to Sawyer, competent interpreters are believed to acquire their expertise in a step-​by-​step progression (2004, pp. 63–​ 70). In interpreting studies, the interest in studying expertise derives from the science of information processing and machine learning, where scholars look into the possibility of programming knowledge acquisition into a linear process (Chesterman, 1997; Jääskeläinen, 2011). The process of learning interpreting is assumed to be similar to step-​by-​step linear programming, which features “the breakdown of composite skills into component skills” and “the sequencing of learning events according to the difficulty and increasing complexity of tasks” (Sawyer, 2004, p. 73). Therefore, Sawyer argues for a scientific curriculum development model. On the other hand, the irreplaceability of the human mind in translation is also recognised (see Dreyfus, Dreyfus & Athanasiou, 1986). Sawyer recognises that psychological findings shed light on why it is vital to attend to the

A Curriculum Improvement Model  65 learner’s cognitive and affective development (2004, p. 76), emphasising both the cognitive and affective development of interpreter students. Following this logic, tailor-​made and situated instruction is naturally indispensable to interpreter training. Sawyer cites that the vocational tradition of apprenticeship is an established historical way of training interpreters (Sawyer, 2004, p. 87), arguing that expert knowledge and self-​reflection are helpful in the cognitive and affective improvement of individual skill acquisition. Through this critical analysis, Sawyer then concludes that interpreter training should follow a technical development model in which humanistic instructional methods are indispensable. In summary, in Sawyer’s model, curriculum goals and instructional objectives are set based on prescriptive expertise levels. The model is devised as such, consistent with Sawyer’s contention of a computational progression of interpreting skill acquisition. These models have achieved an alignment between their identified technical curricular model and their emphasis on clear curriculum goals and instructional objectives. A technical curricular model points to an essentialist educational philosophy. However, professional T&I training adopts an essentialist-​progressivist educational philosophy. The progressivist belief system is existent as scholars argue for a student-​centred approach in the classroom, as well as a feedback loop devised for potential curriculum improvement. However, the convergence between essentialism and progressivism has not been explicated in existing models. One of the reasons is that previous models are devised mainly for instruction implementation and assessment, rather than curriculum improvement. Natural Consequence: The Hidden Curriculum

Tanner and Tanner (1980) and McCutcheon (1998) argue that the hidden curriculum should be actively managed and should be incorporated into the process of curriculum improvement. The hidden curriculum begins to emerge when the operational curriculum deviates from the pre-​determined goals and objectives set in the institutional curriculum. In essence, the hidden curriculum in interpreter training is a natural consequence due to the gap between the institutional curriculum and operational curriculum, and the coexistence of a scientific curricular approach and humanistic instruction. Examples of the hidden curriculum in interpreter training are abundant. For instance, in some interpreter training programmes, retour interpreting and sight translation are not specified in the official curriculum but are practised heavily by students in after-​class practice (Sawyer, 2004, p. 157). Inter-​faculty cooperation and innovative technology-​assisted instructional methods can also count as part of the hidden curriculum (Cao & Jin, 2016). Cheung (2019) looks into the internship study trip to international organisations and finds the students’ experience during their internship would form part of the hidden curriculum. He further argues that some teaching content in the explicit curriculum should be reinforced and adjusted according to the identified hidden curriculum.

66  A Curriculum Improvement Model The hidden curriculum can serve to improve the institutional curriculum. Cao and Jin (2016) believe that the hidden curriculum is a source of innovation in curriculum design. In essence, the hidden curriculum reflects the individualistic needs of students. Such needs and interest then aggregate into common practice (such as organising practice sessions on retour interpreting) among students or popular teaching methods (such as using more technological applications in class). However, since the hidden curriculum implicitly exerts change, it needs to be steered in the curriculum development framework. Sawyer points out the importance of regulating the hidden curriculum with clear curriculum goals: “If the aims of instruction are not stated explicitly, the hidden curriculum may grow in influence” (Sawyer, 2004, p. 55). For example, during their internship study, Cheung’s students gained the feeling that practising interpreting from English into Chinese was not necessary, because the audience in international organisations people “did not care” (Cheung, 2019, p. 397). Though containing some truth, this feedback should by no means be hastily translated into a reduction of English to Chinese interpreting training in the curriculum content. Therefore, there is a boundary within which the hidden curriculum is allowed to happen, otherwise negative consequences will ensue. The hidden curriculum cannot automatically bridge the gap between an essentialist curriculum and humanistic instruction. Its existence only proves there is a gap between curriculum goals and classroom pedagogy. If left unchecked, the hidden curriculum might have a negative impact on the quality of interpreter training. A curriculum improvement model is supposed to regulate the hidden curriculum and update it into the institutional curriculum. Partial Solution: Needs Assessment

Another way to accommodate both a technical curricular approach and student-​centred humanistic values is the much-​researched solution of needs assessments. Richards (2001, see also in Kearns, 2006) emphasises the needs analysis in language teaching and argues for conducting needs assessments to fulfil the vocational requirements in programme design (2001, p. 51). The underlying logic is the same as the previously mentioned curriculum research in T&I training by Gabr (2001), Kelly (2005), Sawyer (2004), and Wen (2005). Kearns (2006) elaborates in length on the necessity of needs analysis and situation analysis, which can help ease the tension between vocational training and university education in Poland against the background of the EHEA reform. His research focus is on curriculum guidelines, following the argument of Candlin that they “lay out a program’s educational philosophy, specify purposes and course content, identify implementation constraints, and articulate assessment and education criteria” (Candlin, 1984, p. 35, as cited in Kearns, 2006, p. 102). The definition suggests that curriculum guidelines are synonymous with a curriculum development process by Oliva and Gordon II (2012) and Ornstein and Hunkins (2016).

A Curriculum Improvement Model  67 Like previously discussed scholars who find curriculum studies instrumental to the research of T&I training, Kearns’ work starts with the educational philosophy and educational outcomes and how they pose challenges to T&I training. Kearns refers to the training-​education spectrum as the tension between academic rationalism and vocational reality (Kearns, 2006, p. 274). He continues to argue that the traditional way of curriculum development does not seem to be coping with the practice-​oriented discipline of translation and interpreting. To solve the problem, Kearns proposes a combination of needs analysis and situation analysis. In explaining how they can help with curriculum improvement, or in his words, curriculum renewal, he argues that the analyses can bridge the gap between the existing curriculum system and the student-​centred approach required in practice-​oriented T&I teaching. He believes that the analyses are “empowering in terms of what they represent for the university in that they respect the strengths which the system already possesses and work to guide these strengths towards learning goals which are relevant for students’ later lives” (Kearns, 2006, p. 213). In fact, almost all curriculum experts in T&I training recognise the importance of needs assessments. Among the needs of different stakeholders, the predominant weight is put on that of students. For example, in Kelly’s curriculum development model, needs assessments of students take place in two forms. The first happens at the level of curriculum planning, immediately after setting the overall curriculum goals. Students’ needs are understood through background statistical data of the student population, and the assessment serves as an “initial diagnosis” (Kelly, 2005 p. 43) of the entirety of students. The second form of needs assessment of students is an integral part of classroom instruction. As Kelly explains: Much planning has to be done in advance and thus cannot initially take into account the individual needs of students, which has to be done through flexible application of your course design when it is actually finally implemented with a specific group of students. (ibid.) The focus here is on individual students’ needs in instructional implementation. This is in line with a more progressivist student-​centred approach at more practical levels. In the same vein, Calvo (2009) focuses on students’ perception, experience and motivation in an attempt to improve upon instruction design. Needs assessment does not confine itself to students only. Kearns’ needs analysis and situation analysis is a comprehensive needs assessment of multiple sources of change in curriculum development. The needs of stakeholders other than students should also be assessed. Li’s work on needs assessment is a relevant example (Li, 2000a, 2000b, 2002, 2007). In his studies, he identifies that needs assessment should happen at different levels of curriculum development and highlights its nature as a “systematic and ongoing

68  A Curriculum Improvement Model process” (Li, 2000a, p. 290). Li divides curriculum development into four stages: (1) understanding students’ needs before setting up a new programme; (2) deciding “programme types and course content” at the stage of curriculum making; (3) “necessary programme changes” during programme implementation; and (4) “assessing progress” and “planning future directions” at the end of the programme (Li, 2000a, p. 293). In other words, he points out that needs assessment is necessary for all four stages of curriculum planning, design, implementation and evaluation. However, there is little distinction between the purpose of needs assessment at different levels. It seems that in Li’s work, the results of the needs assessment at different stages are all taken without distinction as sources of improvement of the institutional curriculum. For example, in Li’s research on students’ needs for language learning versus translation learning, he studied the motivation, interests and perceived needs of a cohort of undergraduate students (Li, 2002). He also took into account the social needs and local specificities of the local market. Among the numerous needs of students, one much-​voiced need was more language training, even though the students were enrolled in a translation programme. The author also revealed that the primary motivation of the students to apply for the programme was to improve both Chinese and English language abilities. As a result of the needs assessment, programme improvement was carried out by increasing class hours on language enhancement. However, it should be argued that any decision of curriculum improvement should require additional discussion on whether students’ voiced needs alone can justify changing the curriculum goals of training T&I competence into improving bilingual communication competence. Listening to students’ needs is undoubtedly indispensable. It can “better reflect the local situation for which the curriculum must cater” (Kearns, 2006, p. 164). However, the contention is the divergent needs of different stakeholders, such as trainers versus trainees. Another issue is whether the assessment result should be applied to instruction improvement or curriculum improvement. Ultimately, needs assessments are conducted to help clarify curriculum-​level and instructional-​level goals and objectives. One important distinction is that needs assessments at the level of curriculum studies look at the student population as an entirety, whereas those at the instructional level are intended to understand individual students. The former is referred to as the “student population” in Kelly’s model (2005, p. 46). In comparison, students’ needs at the instructional level zoom in on individualistic reactions in learning. Without a doubt, the two kinds of needs assessments are interconnected. However, taking the assessment results at the instruction level and using them to improve curriculum goals require additional curriculum work. For example, in Li’s project, students expressed their need for more practical training and less translation theory learning, because they believed translation theory did not “reflect the market very well” and that theory courses were “the least helpful” (Li, 2002, p. 521). Such feedback is relevant to instructional improvement. However, curriculum improvement, such as potentially reducing curriculum content

A Curriculum Improvement Model  69 on translation theory, should be justified by an understanding of the market reality and disciplinary knowledge, rather than the perception of the market or the discipline by one cohort of students. In other words, even if adding language lessons and practice sessions may ultimately constitute an improvement of the curriculum, the decision should not be made solely based on a survey of a class of students’ interest or want. For another example, in an interpreter training programme, one of the major changes in student needs at the level of curriculum considerations is their need for competence in using new technology. In the 1970s, the use of word-​processing software was a unique trait of professional translators and interpreters (Fraser, 2000). Therefore, IT skills were taken as an important sub-​competence in the curriculum. Nowadays, this emphasis on basic computer skills has long been replaced by the command of CAT tools. One does not need a separate survey of the newly enrolled students to appreciate this trend. Fundamentally, needs assessments are indispensable to the revision of curricular goals and objectives (Oliva & Gordon II, 2012, p. 179). Doing needs assessments reflect the humanistic values in an otherwise mechanical curricular model. Curriculum goals should be set or adjusted based on needs assessments of the entire student population as well as those of other stakeholders, such as agents of society, the profession, the discipline and other stakeholders (Kelly, 2005, p. 22). In addition, there are different levels of needs, including human, national, regional, local, school and individual levels (Oliva & Gordon II, 2012, p. 153), which correspond with different levels of curriculum work. After curriculum goals are defined, further needs assessments are done specifically to ensure implementation and improve instruction (Oliva & Gordon II, 2012, p. 179). Simply put, the results of needs assessments at the instructional level cannot be used directly in changing curriculum goals. Reconceptualising Stakeholders and Competence Curriculum improvement is essential, as it can help update the institutional curriculum to fit the changing professional, educational and instructional reality. In practice, major ways of curriculum improvement include using a scientific curricular model, a student-​centred teaching paradigm, the hidden curriculum and needs assessments. Yet curriculum improvement needs to be carried out in a systematic way. The following section attempts to argue that needs assessments should be done on a number of stakeholders and on various sources of change. In addition, curriculum goals may not be skills-​based but competence-​based. Therefore, stakeholders and interpreter competence are believed to be the two main constructs in the curriculum improvement model. Stakeholders: Sources of Change

Kearns quotes Connelly and Clandinin (1988, p. 124)’s definition of stakeholders as “a person or group of persons with a right to comment on,

70  A Curriculum Improvement Model and have input into, the curriculum process offered in schools” (Kearns, 2006, p. 160). Depending on the educational philosophy, development models can be discipline-​based, experience-​based, theory-​based, or administration-​based, among many others (Liao & Tian, 2003). Whichever model one adopts, multiple stakeholders are in play. Tyler identifies the sources of curriculum planning as life, discipline and learners (2013); Schwab thinks learners, teachers, subject matter and milieu form a curriculum (Posner, 1988, p. 84); Ornstein and Hunkins emphasise the historical, political, institutional and social foundation of the curriculum (2016, p. 28); Oliva and Gordon II (2012) stress learner, society and subject matter. In T&I training, curriculum experts value stakeholders, too. Freihoff believes that “curriculum is shaped by many entities, including public institutions, policymakers, ministries, donors, the media, the private sector, and direct participants, i.e., instructors, students, and alumni” (1995, p. 150, as cited in Sawyer, 2004, p. 1). Sawyer contends that “internal and external discussions” should carry out among stakeholders, including “administrators, instructors, students, alumni, and employers” (Sawyer, 2004, p. 52), as well as “[m]‌inistries, accrediting bodies, policymakers, donors, media, private and public sector employers, alumni, other industry institutions and professionals” (2004, p. 54). Among the myriad stakeholders, trainers are unequivocally identified as a group of important stakeholders in curriculum development and improvement. More specifically, they are deemed knowledgeable of market demands (Gabr, 2001) or of “skills and contents needed in a translation curriculum” (Razmjou, 2001, as cited in Kearns, 2006, p. 106). Some scholars include other stakeholders who have an in-​depth understanding of market demands. For example, Donovan (2019) chooses to look at institutional interpreter recruiters. Li (2000b, 2007) places emphasis on practising translators and administrators of translation agencies. Kelly believes professional associations, academic associations and clients in the market form a better picture of the market (2005, p. 34). Forstner recognises that “[d]‌ifferences in culture, educational philosophy, and national legislation result in a wide variety of curriculum models” (1995, as cited in Sawyer, 2004, p.53). Stakeholders that cast historical, cultural, political, social and institutional influences are also important (Sawyer, 2004; Kelly, 2005). However, in many models, T&I programmes have been only at the receiving end of all the requirements and constraints imposed by the external environment. This is not consistent with a curriculum deliberation model where stakeholders negotiate and then strive to reach a consensus on further improvement. Part of the reason is that there was little need for improving curriculum goals in the previous cases, as programmes were all newly established. Sawyer starts with a literature review and concludes on the curriculum goals that “there seems to be widespread agreement in the professional community of conference interpreters that graduates need to be well-​equipped to work independently in the profession” (Sawyer, 2004, p. 58). Similarly, Kelly

A Curriculum Improvement Model  71 identifies the curriculum goals as “the necessary set of competences (knowledge, skills and attitudes) to be able to join the translation profession in any of its specialised areas in this country or abroad at a junior level” (Kelly, 2005, p. 36). After this broad definition, which is similar to an educational outcome, they directly go into instructional objectives. However, it should be emphasised that there is a distinction between educational outcomes, curriculum goals and instructional objectives, and they all need to be reviewed constantly to meet the changing reality. Moreover, updated needs occur both in curriculum and instruction. On the level of curriculum goals, Arjona-​Tseng (1991) explores the interactions among stakeholders. In her work, she places a particular emphasis on the political and institutional constraints on a newly established programme at the Graduate Institute of Translation and Interpretation (GTIS) of Fu Jen University. More specifically, she identifies the relevant educational stakeholders, or what she refers to as “external and internal bureaucracy” (Arjona-​Tseng, 1991, p. 223), composed of hierarchies within the Ministry of Education system as well as those in the Fu Jen University. Like Kearns, Arjona-​Tseng finds it immensely difficult to carry out curriculum development due to the conflict inherent in the institutionalisation of a practice-​oriented profession in the university (1991, p. 272). Problems include the troublesome relationship between the GTIS and the language departments, faculty admission, professional credentials and institutional policies. The persistent conflict between the academic requirements and the professional reality and between the short-​term nature of the degree programme and the aim of producing all-​ around professionals, are also identified. In her descriptive case study, Arjona-​Tseng takes stock of the points of conflict between the political, cultural and institutional constraints and the demand for a professional T&I programme. On the other hand, political and institutional factors can be helpful in curriculum development as T&I programmes need to have a firm grasp of national strategies and general values. One positive example is the EHEA reform, where stakeholders work on curriculum improvement at a supranational level. The European Higher Education Area (EHEA) reform is to improve the ideological curriculum of the European higher education system. It takes into account a wider stakeholder network of political, social and institutional actors. The Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications concerning Higher Education in the European Region emphasises the “cultural, social, political, philosophical, religious and economic diversity” as an “exceptional asset” of Europe (ETS No. 65, 1999, p. 1). It also values the accessibility to higher education, academic mobility, mutual recognition of qualifications among European universities and institutional autonomy (ibid.). Under the Convention, the EU aims to make itself the world’s most competitive and dynamic knowledge economy (Kearns, 2006). Universities are identified as having a central role in obtaining this goal. The EHEA is an example of top-​down curriculum improvement with stakeholder participation

72  A Curriculum Improvement Model at the supranational level. Political authorities and the educational bureaucracy are two major stakeholders in this process. Improvement in universities’ educational outcomes finds its root in the top-​down articulation of regional ambition: European competitiveness, youth employability and social justice (European Commission, 1999, p. 1). Curriculum goals and instruction objectives at the institutional level should be aligned to the outcomes accordingly. Stakeholder participation is indispensable in curriculum improvement. In essence, stakeholder deliberation is to facilitate comprehensive needs assessments. From the current literature, one can form a rather long list of relevant stakeholders in T&I training. However, an infinite addition of players may not guarantee better deliberation. As is shown in the analysis in this section, not all stakeholders are equally relevant to curriculum improvement. In addition, stakeholder composition is different in curriculum work and instructional practice. To improve curriculum goals, the stakeholders chosen should cover the professional nature, educational nature and results of classroom instruction. The relation between stakeholders are not necessarily conflicting, though stakeholders naturally have different interests and priorities. A deliberation among stakeholders that seeks convergence and cooperation will yield a good result in curriculum improvement. T&I Competence: Curriculum Goals

Professional T&I education adopts an essentialist-​progressivist educational philosophy. Therefore, it is inconceivable to have a curriculum without pre-​ determined goals and objectives at all. Its educational outcome has been defined and is believed to be relatively stable. In contrast, instructional objectives should be updated based on students’ individualistic needs and experiences. Curriculum goals stand in between; they are less stable than educational outcomes, but they do not need constant changes, either. It has been argued that programmes should conduct needs assessments in order to check the relevance of curriculum goals to the changing reality. Needs assessments are needed not only for students and trainers, but also for other relevant stakeholders. The previous section has validated the necessity of identifying key stakeholders. As the stakeholders carry out their deliberation, the effectiveness of their updates of curriculum goals is based on a sound mechanism. On this front, a number of T&I scholars, including almost all curriculum experts in T&I training, have opted for competence as the framework for curriculum goals. To take T&I competence as curriculum goals is not self-​evident; a model can also be based on theory, skills or market demands. So far, there is consensus that T&I training should follow the progression “from the general to the particular” and “from the simple to the difficult” (Bnini, 2016, p. 94). Bnini further believes that programmes should first establish competence and then look into performance (ibid.). Indeed, many scholars have contended that T&I competence should be taken as the guidelines for curriculum design.

A Curriculum Improvement Model  73 In Gabr (2001)’s and Kelly (2005)’s models, the results of the needs assessments of students, the market and the discipline take the form of a competence model. Kelly proposes that “the common denominator of what translators actually do in their daily work” is addressed by the “concept of translation or translator competence” (2005, p. 28). Gabr highlights a number of competencies deemed to be essential in a curriculum. Kelly includes in her work a more comprehensive analysis of the opinions of “leading professionals and theoreticians”, job advertisements and guidelines issued by professional bodies (Kelly, 2005, pp. 23–​27). She then concludes with a number of competencies. Kearns also chooses a competence analysis. He opts for Pym’s minimalist approach, contending that it is more helpful than the traditional componential competence model, because the minimalist approach can accommodate the fact that translator competence is under the constant influence of many factors (Kearns, 2006, p. 185). Nevertheless, the results of his need and situational analysis invariably take the form of competencies. Like Kelly (2005) and Kearns (2006), Wen uses situational and needs analyses as the first step in the development model to find out market demands, students’ expectations, resources and constraints within the educational system. When translating the results of the assessments into curriculum goals, he uses the results of several studies on translator competence as a framework. In other words, his model is also competence-​based (Wen, 2005, p. 12). Arjona-​Tseng’s work on the T&I curriculum was completed when competence studies were still in the nascent stage. Therefore, she did not explicitly mention competence. However, her studies are based on Velleman’s competence-​based curriculum work (also see Saywer, 2004, p. 87). In addition, she explores the “identity” of the “emerging profession” (Arjona-​Tseng, 1991, p. 49) and what is expected of professional translators and interpreters in the framework of T&I competencies. Likewise, programme administrators such as Chai (2010), Zhong (2003), Liu (2011) in China, and Mayoral, Gouadec, Nord, Mossop, Kiraly and Gambier in Europe (see Pym, 2000) have all analysed their work on curriculum making and development by using the concept of competence. Albir (2007) and the PACTE group as a whole are also strong proponents of competence-​based training (CBT), arguing that it is “a logical continuation of objectives-​based learning” (2007, p. 165). Albir says: In CBT, competences are the main yardstick for developing guidelines in curriculum design: learning objectives are defined according to competences, discipline-​ related contents are assigned by competences, but the competences also act as a guide for sequencing teaching units, establishing learning activities and assessment. (ibid.) In addition, the POSI project, Germersheim Declaration (Hagemann, 2005, as cited in Kearns, 2006), Bologna Process and Tuning Project as well as the

74  A Curriculum Improvement Model development of EMT and EMCI programmes all opt for a competence-​based curriculum. The Tuning Project “plac[es] learning outcomes and competences at the heart of the curricular ECTS-​driven reform” (Rico, 2010, p. 91). The Tuning Project defines competence as “a dynamic combination of knowledge, understanding, skills and abilities pertaining to a specific professional field (subject specific competences) or across different professional settings (generic competences)” (ibid.). More specifically, competence is defined not only as skills; it also includes knowledge and “the type of work or study situations it enables individuals to manage […] and the degree of autonomy with which individuals are able to manage them” (Presas & Kozlova, 2012, p. 172). Competence is acquired through reflective practice, a practice that cannot be left “to experience, to life, to a succession of trials and errors” (Perrenoud, 2005, p. 9, as cited in Presas & Kozlova, 2012, p. 173). This definition is consistent with the purpose of education, which is believed to enable students to attain knowledge, skills and attitudes (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2016, p. 223). On the other hand, in interpreter training, some have proposed that a curriculum should be skills-​based. For example, Sawyer’s curriculum sequencing is based on three developmental milestones, which are defined by different skills, such as language skills and transfer skills (Sawyer, 2004, p. 97). In Calvo’s work, she does not distinguish between skills and competence (Calvo, 2009, p. 69). In Zhong’s summary of interpreter training in different academic degrees, he uses skills to define the content of instruction (2019, p. 3). Therefore, they invite the question of whether curriculum development and improvement for interpreter training should be skills-​based or competence-​based. The answer lies in the definition of skills and competence in interpreting studies. The differentiation between curriculum planning and instructional implementation is also relevant. Sawyer’s curriculum work focuses on implementing instructional objectives, or “course objectives” (2004, p. 54). At the instructional level, interpreter training follows a skills-​based progression that will supposedly help students embark on the novice-​expert journey, at the end of which they will possess expertise in interpreting. In comparison, when setting curriculum goals, Sawyer still opts for a competence framework. He uses “(1) language skills, (2) transfer skills, (3) domain knowledge (subject matter) and (4) knowledge of the profession /​professional identity” as “basic categories” of “goals and objectives” (Sawyer, 2004, p. 60). In his research on assessment, skills are the measurable instructional objectives that would constitute a curriculum goal. When he explains the skills-​based and domain-​based progression of a curriculum, he seems to suggest that the skills-​based progression contains such skills as active listening and comprehension, analysis, notetaking, expression, memory, self-​diagnosis, problem-​solving strategies, as they are listed in the skills-​based syllabus from the first semester to the fourth semester (Sawyer, 2004, pp. 136–​138). It can be seen that in Sawyer’s terminology, skills are different from strategies or techniques. Rather, “skills” or “skill sets” (Sawyer, 2004, p. 45) is interchangeable with interpreting competence and is independent of domain knowledge.

A Curriculum Improvement Model  75 Similarly, Zhong (2019)’s instruction content is also skills-​based. He outlines a summary of “the comprehensive educational system of interpreter training in China” (Zhong, 2019, p. 3, my translation), which includes interpreter training at various academic degree levels in the tertiary education system. In China, interpreter training is provided at bachelor’s, master’s and doctorate levels, and is supplemented by “vocational training” (ibid.). Given that Zhong describes vocational training as “courses to further enhance specific skills, such as domain-​related skills and knowledge” (ibid.), it can be assumed that the vocational training is meant to be part of lifelong learning taking place after the degree programmes. Therefore, there is a clear progression of bachelor’s degree, master’s degree, PhD and lifelong learning. Like Sawyer, Zhong describes the progression on two main strands, interpreting skills and domain knowledge. In Zhong’s summary, there is progression starting from liaison interpreting, consecutive interpreting of generalist topics, consecutive interpreting of generalist topics but on high-​level occasions, consecutive interpreting of specialised areas, and ending with simultaneous interpreting of generalist topics (ibid.). Therefore, in Zhong’s case, skills mean different types and modes of interpreting. In many other cases, skills are used interchangeably with interpreting strategies and interpreting competence. Setton defines interpreting competence as “skills and strategies that support an interpreter’s comprehension and expression in consecutive and simultaneous interpreting” (Setton, 2006, as cited in Lu, Li & Han, 2019, p. 761, my translation), suggesting competence is a combination of skills and strategies. In another study, Setton explains that simultaneous interpreting skills are “a number of acquired strategies […] beyond language, listening while speaking, and general knowledge” (Setton, 1996, p. 50). Typical examples of skills include waiting, stalling, chunking and saucissonnage, among others (Setton, 1996, pp. 50–​51). In this vein, skills and strategies should be interchangeable. However, when Setton and Dawrant list interpreting skills, they give examples such as active listening, analysis, speaking, expression and presentation, transfer, retelling, dialogue consecutive interpreting, short and full consecutive interpreting, maintaining fidelity and conference interpreting (see Setton & Dawrant, 2016, pp. 89, 101, 142). Here, skills are not the same as strategies, but are more similar to what Gile refers to as “efforts” (Gile, 2009, p. 160), as Gile defines efforts as listening and analysis, production, memory and coordination (2009, p. 168). When it comes to skills, Gile argues that skills include “language skills”, skills of “rapid shifts in allocation of processing capacity” (Liu, 2001, as cited in Gile, 2009, p. 192) and “appropriate implementation of coping tactics” (Gile, 2009, p. 192). In addition, Gile contends that besides skills, interpreters should also possess linguistic and extralinguistic knowledge (ibid.). It can be concluded that skills, strategies and techniques are defined differently among scholars. Some believe skills are the compositional efforts in interpreting, while others refer to skills when they mean strategies or techniques. Whichever way of definition, it can be argued that competence is a broader term. It covers interpreting skills, strategies and techniques; it

76  A Curriculum Improvement Model also entails linguistic knowledge and extralinguistic knowledge in interpreting activities. In other words, what Sawyer, Calvo and Zhong refer to as a skills-​ based curriculum is a curriculum in which course sequencing should follow the progression from fewer and simple tasks to multiple and difficult tasks. These tasks are defined with skills, but sometimes also with strategies and techniques. Therefore, it is safe to conclude that curriculum content sequencing needs to be aligned with interpreters’ skills-​based multi-​tasking progression. In addition to interpreting skills, strategies and techniques that constitute what Setton refers to as interpreting competence, language, domain knowledge and knowledge of the profession are recognised as important, too, and they seem to be independent of interpreting skill/​competence (Setton, 1996, p. 50; Sawyer, 2004, p. 60; Zhong, 2019, p. 3), though there are other ways of categorisation (see Gile, 2009). Therefore, on the level of curriculum, taking interpreter competence as the basis of curriculum goals is deemed appropriate. Listing a multitude of componential competences and indiscriminately taking them all as curriculum goals might have a counter effect on curriculum improvement. Meanwhile, the vague relation between competence, skills, strategies and techniques mean that there is a danger of taking instructional objectives as curriculum goals. Therefore, though interpreter competence is rightly the basis for curriculum goals, further exploration of curriculum-​level competence composition is helpful and necessary. Concluding Remarks In this chapter, a curriculum improvement model for professional T&I programmes has been conceptualised within the framework of curriculum studies. For interpreter training, following an essentialist educational philosophy, the educational outcomes at the institutional level are relatively stable, as it guides long-​ term implementation. On the other hand, instructional objectives should be updated constantly, following a humanistic student-​ centred approach in didactics. In between are the curriculum goals, the improvement of which follows an essentialist-​progressivist educational philosophy. Their updates are key to the curriculum improvement work discussed in this book. It has been contended that such improvement can be made with a reconceptualisation of stakeholders and competence. Relevant stakeholders are sources of change in a curriculum. Comprehensive needs assessments should be done on them, who represent the professional reality, the educational bureaucracy, as well as instruction implementation. The most discussed stakeholders are students and trainers, whose needs are sometimes reflected in the hidden curriculum. Stakeholders also include representatives of macro-​ level demands, constraints and considerations. In order to conceptualise the model, one should identify the most relevant stakeholders. Moreover, stakeholders and their inputs differ in curriculum work and instructional practice. The simplistic way of spotting a claimed need by a single stakeholder and claiming it a source of change might be problematic.

A Curriculum Improvement Model  77 Stakeholders identify and deliberate the sources of change to the curriculum in a competence-​based framework. In other words, interpreter competence forms the agenda according to which stakeholder deliberation is carried out (see Noye, as cited in Ornstein & Hunkins, 2016, p. 218). In this book, competence is defined as a combination of “knowledge, understanding, skills and abilities” (Rico, 2010, p. 91), and it serves as the framework of curriculum goals. A competence-​based curriculum, rather than skills-​based, theory-​based, discipline-​based or market-​based one, reflects a student-​centred didactic paradigm amidst the technical goal-​setting process of curriculum improvement. In essence, the results of the stakeholder deliberation form the norms of professional interpreting, which regulate interpreter competence into expected performance (Hermans, 1999/​2009). As Toury argues, translation norms “determine the (type and extent of) equivalence manifested in actual translations” (Toury, 2012, p. 61, as cited in Munday, 2016, p. 177). Therefore, the conceptualisation of a competence-​based stakeholder deliberation model is in line with the norm-​based interdisciplinary nature of professional T&I. Stakeholders and competence are much-​researched topics, both in T&I curriculum studies and didactics. The problem is that an overly-​ crowded competence model discussed among too many stakeholders can hardly exert substantive improvement to an existing curriculum of interpreter training. A change of curriculum content needs to start from an adjustment of curriculum goals, because any additional content inevitably means a derogation of resources in existing instructional arrangements. Therefore, the model focuses on curriculum goals, the improvement of which is done through stakeholder deliberation of interpreter competence. The following chapters aim to identify the composition of the stakeholder network and interpreter competence. References Albir, A. H. (2007). Competence-​based curriculum design for training translators. The interpreter and translator trainer, 1(2), 163–​195. https://​doi.org/​10.1080/​ 17503​99X.2007.10798​757 Albir, A. H. (Ed.). (2017). Researching translation competence by PACTE group (Vol. 127). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​btl.127 Arjona-​Tseng, E. M. (1991). Curriculum policy-​making for an emerging profession: The structure, process, and outcome of creating a graduate institute for translation and interpretation studies in the Republic of China of Taiwan [Doctoral dissertation]. Harvard University Bnini, C. (2016). Didactics of translation: Text in context. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Calvo, E. (2009). Análisis curricular de los estudios de Traducción e Interpretación en España. Perspectiva del estudiantado [Doctoral dissertation]. Universidad de Granada. Calvo, E. (2011). Translation and/​or translator skills as organising principles for curriculum development practice. The Journal of Specialised Translation, 16, 5–​25. https://​jostr​ans.org/​issu​e16/​art_​ca​lvo.pdf

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80  A Curriculum Improvement Model Presas, M. (2000). Bilingual competence and translation competence. In C. Schäffner & B. Adab (Eds.), Developing translation competence (pp. 19–​32). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​btl.38.04pre Presas, M., & Kozlova, I. (2012). Instrumental competence: Lexical searches in written text production. In I. García-​Izquierdo & E. Monzó (Eds.), Iberian Studies on Translation and Interpreting (pp. 169–​190). Peter Lang. Pym, A. (2000). Innovation in translator and interpreter training: Report on an on-​ line symposium. Across Languages and Cultures, 1(2), 209–​273. https://​doi.org/​ 10.1556/​Acr.1.2000.2.5 Richards, J. C. (2001). Curriculum development in language teaching. Cambridge University Press. https://​doi.org/​10.1017/​CBO97​8051​1667​220 Rico, C. (2010). Translator training in the European Higher Education Area: Curriculum design for the Bologna Process. A case study. The interpreter and translator trainer, 4(1), 89–​114. https://​doi.org/​10.1080/​17503​99X.2010.10798​798 Sawyer, D. B. (2004). Fundamental aspects of interpreter education: Curriculum and assessment. John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​btl.47 Sawyer, D. B., Austermühl, F., & Raído, V. E. (Eds.). (2019). The evolving curriculum in interpreter and translator education: Stakeholder perspectives and voices. John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​ata.xix Setton, R. (1999). Simultaneous interpretation: A cognitive-​pragmatic analysis. John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​btl.28 Setton, R., & Dawrant, A. (2016). Conference interpreting–​A complete course. John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​btl.120 Tanner, D., & Tanner, L. N. (1980). Curriculum development: Theory into practice. Macmillan Publishing Company. Tyler, R. W. (2013). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. The University of Chicago press. Vienne, J. (1994). Toward a pedagogy of ‘translation in situation’. Perspectives, 2(1), 51–​59. https://​doi.org/​10.1080/​09076​76X.1994.9961​222 Wen, J. (2005). Fanyi kecheng moshi yanjiu: Yi fazhan fanyi nengli wei zhongxin de fangfa [A study on the model of translation curriculum: Translation-​ competence centered approach]. China Culture and History Press. Yang, Z. J., & Jiang, Q. X. (2017). Woguo fanyi kecheng yanjiu de zhishi tupu fenxi (2000–​ 2016) [A knowledge map analysis of T&I curriculum studies in China (2000–​2016)]. Foreign Language World, (06), 37–​44. Zhong, W. H. (2003). Yiyuan de zhishi jiegou yu kouyi kecheng shezhi [Knowledge structure required in interpreting and curriculum design for interpreter training]. Chinese Translators Journal, 24(4), 63–​65. Zhong, W. H. (Ed.). (2019). Kouyi jiaoxue—​—​Guangwai moshi de tansuo yu Shijian [Interpreter training—​The Guangwai approach]. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

4 Stakeholder Role in Curriculum Improvement

Following the identified essentialist-​progressivist educational philosophy of interpreter training, deliberation among the most relevant stakeholders is essential in the curriculum improvement of interpreter training. Identifying key stakeholders is not equally necessary in a post-​modernist programme, where “[i]‌deally, everyone affected by a curriculum is involved in its development” (Ornstein & Hunkin, 2016, p. 209). Meanwhile, a more theory-​based, content-​based curriculum tend to dismiss the dynamic nature of people and society. To date, much analysis has been based on stakeholders’ historical presence and involvement. Examples include those identified in literary translation and conference interpreting. However, an indiscriminate inclusion of stakeholders in T&I curriculum improvement will lead to an incomplete needs assessment, unregulated hidden curriculum and biased translation norms as well as curriculum goals that do not fit the educational nature, the professional reality and the instructional results of interpreter training. The task of this chapter is to reconceptualise which stakeholders are indispensable in the deliberation process. Legitimising Stakeholder Analysis in T&I Curriculum Despite having different research foci, curriculum experts in T&I education have all recognised the vital role of stakeholders (Arjona-​Tseng, 1991; Kelly, 2005; Calvo, 2009; Sawyer & Roy, 2015, p. 159; Sawyer, Austermühl & Enríquez Raído, 2019; Kelly & Martin, 2019). To put stakeholders in the perspective of educational science, they represent sources of change, including institutional, societal, historical and psychological factors, coupled with emergent patterns derived from globalisation and technology in the 21st century (see Ornstein & Hunkins, 2016, p. 28). The issue at hand is not to justify the importance of stakeholders –​they are indeed indispensable; instead, further conceptualisation is needed in order to define which stakeholders are the most relevant. There are several reasons why stakeholder identification is important. First, stakeholders are categorised DOI: 10.4324/9781003303824-5

82  Stakeholder Role in Curriculum Improvement differently from one study to another, resulting in difficulty in defining which sources of change to the curriculum they represent. For example, García-​ Beyaert believes that professional associations are “internal players” in the stakeholder network, together with “interpreters”, “interpreting scholars” and other “actors within the interpreting circle” (García-​Beyaert, 2015, p. 45). In this case, professional associations are in the same category as interpreters and interpreting scholars, independent of external stakeholders. However, professional associations can also be counted as players external to T&I programmes and interpreters, as the former regulates the latter by using codes of ethics and translation norms. Second, stakeholders are explored both at the micro level of the translation process as well as at the macro level of the translation industry. The different perspectives result in various stakeholder networks. Stakeholders in the Translation Process

The process of translation is deemed a process of production and innovation involving many actors (Buzelin, 2005, p. 197). According to Chesterman, the expectancy norms are determined by the source text producer and the target text user and several other stakeholders (Chesterman, 1993). These actors, or stakeholders, constitute a network that determines the norms and quality of translation. In studies on literary translation, norm authorities that determine the reception and rejection of texts are disproportionately governed by “issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation” (Lefevere 1992, p. 2, as cited in Munday, 2016, p. 218). Toury (2000) argues that translation is subject to evaluation “made by translators, editors, publishers, and other persons involved in or connected with the activity” (Toury, 2000, p. 207). Munday concludes that stakeholders include political forces, patrons, commissioners, mediators, publishers, literary critics, literary agents, text producers, translators, revisers, editors, readers, teachers (Munday, 2016, pp. 201, 240). He further distinguishes between readers and the publisher’s readers (2016, p. 240). While confirming the importance of text producers, the client, political forces and translators, Bittner adds that culture and the text form are also relevant norm authorities (2019, p. 113). Mason explores norm authorities in both translation and interpreting and argues for further categorisation of the client into different types, including addressees, auditors and overhearers (Mason, 2004). Many of the discussions of stakeholder involvement in the process of producing translation text are on literary translation, though in the realm of professional T&I, stakeholder involvement in the process of producing translation and interpreting is also an increasingly interesting topic, not least because of technological advancement. This analysis of norm authorities and the myriad stakeholders identified from the perspective of power and interaction is inspiring to the discussion of stakeholder participation in T&I education.

Stakeholder Role in Curriculum Improvement  83 Stakeholders in Interpreter Training

García-​Beyaert (2015, pp. 57–​73) summarises four types of stakeholders in the profession of interpreting: (1) grantors that are composed of decision-​ makers and resource holders; (2) receivers, or users of the interpreting services; (3) providers, including agencies, conference organisers, language companies and interpreters; (4) other stakeholders, including professional associations, researchers and trainers. Though the analysis is not specific to interpreter training, and, therefore, interpreter trainer is under the category of “others”, García-​Beyaert’s categorisation helps pinpoint frequently discussed stakeholders. Students, trainers and the university are also stakeholders. Other frequently mentioned ones outside the educational institution include professional bodies and employers. Together, they create the translation norms, or “the criteria for quality assurance in T&I education” (Sawyer & Roy, 2015, pp. 127–​129; Kelly & Martin, 2019, p. 593). For example, the UN MoU network and the EMCI consortium are, in essence, initiated by employers, namely the United Nations and the European Union institutions, respectively. They voice their norms and share resources to better prepare graduates to be specifically competent in their institutional meetings. Professional bodies and associations are important stakeholders in interpreter training, too. For example, AIIC, CIUTI and national translation and interpreting associations help form criteria for quality training. The criteria are usually inductively formed based on the proven experience of trainers, theorists, students and representatives of the interpreting market. Stakeholder analysis for the translation process, the interpreting profession and T&I education are undoubtedly inherently interconnected. However, stakeholders do not all participate in the educational efforts in the same way. An analysis of the stakeholder network is essential, because the absence of it will result in an overcrowded deliberation table. The consequence is either an inclusion of irrelevant stakeholders, a dismissal of all stakeholders, or a network disproportionately weighted by a small number of stakeholders. For example, curriculum improvement is likely to be dominated by bureaucratic requirements or market demand. Ornstein and Hunkins have observed that “[f]‌requently, in this 21st century, educators do not raise the whys at all; rather, politicians and the corporate community provide the whys” (2016, p. 224). For another example, in literary translation, publishing houses represent cultural, social and readership changes and therefore are one of the primary stakeholders to consider. As Venuti explains, “[i]t can be said that Anglo-​American publishing has been instrumental in producing readers who are aggressively monolingual and culturally parochial while reaping the economic benefits of successfully imposing Anglo-​American cultural values on a sizeable foreign readership” (Venuti, 1992, p. 6, as cited in Munday, 2016, p. 240). However, the power dynamics are not the same in professional interpreter education, where future generations of interpreters are to learn how to attain the professional autonomy of choosing strategies in order to fulfil

84  Stakeholder Role in Curriculum Improvement the client’s brief. Another example concerns the unjustified exclusive focus on market demand. To prioritise employment over employability is to take market reality as the sole stakeholder in curriculum work. Following this logic, the entirety of the curriculum content should aim to help students adapt to the market reality, including working with technology vendors, using translation software and corpus, increasing efficiency and cutting costs (see Yang & Dai, 2014). In this case, though the curriculum captures the evolving nature of the profession, it fails to shape the profession or address emerging issues, such as the de-​contextualisation of the professional work, a lack of communication between speakers, interpreters and the audience and the worsening communication effect, to name just a few. In this vein, the construction of a stakeholder network in interpreter education helps empower professional interpreters, recognise their status and achieve institutionalised social and legal protection, as well as academic recognition. Professional T&I programmes recognised by all major stakeholders will produce graduates capable of complying with translation norms, which will help ensure the credibility of the graduates, the programmes and, in turn, the social status of professional translators and interpreters (Sawyer, 2004, p. 234). The social recognition of professional interpreters is essential in interpreter training. Professional translators and interpreters differentiate themselves from other types of language service providers as they follow a distinct set of translation norms. If the stakeholder composition and, in turn, the norms, are compromised, then they will jeopardise the legitimacy of professional interpreters and educational programmes. Indeed, Pérez-​González and Susam-​Saraeva have questioned the very existence of institutionalised professional T&I programmes, as they find that in some parts of the world there are non-​professional translators who claim to be equally competent as professional translators. They argue that: Driven by their vested interest in the professionalisation of translation, over the last four decades, large sections of the community of translation scholars have thus tried to establish the importance of professional translation and interpreting expertise in the public consciousness by focusing on issues pertaining to translation pedagogy, translation quality assessment and criticism, as well as the observance of professional ethics and norms. (Pérez-​González & Susam-​Saraeva, 2012, p. 150) They base their argument on the fact that professional translators and interpreters do not enjoy higher social status or payment. Therefore, they are no better than non-​professional translators. Since non-​professional translators and interpreters are surviving in the market, they are equally competent as professional translators. However, it should be noted that the bigger problem with volunteer and non-​professional translators and interpreters is unpredictability. Antonini notes that non-​professionals taking up professional work is a

Stakeholder Role in Curriculum Improvement  85 “dangerous practice both for the professional category and the parties involved in interactions” (2011, p. 102). The reason, as Antonini cites Garber and Marzocchi (2003, p. 42), is that non-​professionals are those “who have had no training, whose competence is unknown, and who have had no exposure to the ethical issues inherent in this type of interpreting” (2011, p. 103). The “vested interests”, in the words of Pérez-​González and Susam-​Saraeva (2012, p. 150) of the professional community are precisely the indispensable educational values instilled in T&I training. However, with an incomplete stakeholder network where market popularity squeezes out educational values and professional competence, the social status of professional interpreters will be harmed. So far, there have been few studies on professional interpreters’ social status in connection with research on interpreter training. Interpreters’ social status has been studied only ex-​post T&I education, with sociological indicators reflecting how well they fare in the market reality. At the level of curriculum work of interpreter training, stakeholder analysis will help with the discussion of social status and facilitate curriculum improvement. The Framework of the Sociology of Professions

The stakeholder approach facilitates “the professionalisation of conference interpreting and its institutionalisation in academia” (Sawyer, 2015, p. 96). In other words, stakeholder involvement will help enhance the professional status of practitioners, as well as the academic status of T&I as a discipline. Using the sociology of professions as a theoretical framework in translation studies is a helpful perspective. The framework is premised on the assumption that professional interpreters are undergoing a process of professionalisation, and it explores the relation between stakeholders and their impact on interpreters’ pursuit of autonomy, monopoly, control and professionalism. Educational science and translation studies have identified a number of stakeholders. For the purpose of this book, the sociological studies of professions will be used as a filtering perspective, through which one can further extrapolate which stakeholders are essential in curriculum improvement for interpreter education. There are other potentially relevant sociological theories; however, most of them emphasise specific stakeholders in literary translation. In addition, these theories are used to describe and analyse how stakeholders influence decisions in the act of translation and interpreting. In contrast, the sociology of professions does not look into the strategic transfer from one language to another; instead, it adopts a macro-​level perspective on the T&I industry and profession. Another reason to use the sociology of professions is its relevance to T&I education. While other theories have found that stakeholder involvement helps improve norm-​building and product acceptability, they spend less time on how the T&I curriculum can be improved with the involvement of the stakeholders. The sociology of professions has already been used in T&I curriculum and instruction studies. In its framework, scholars have

86  Stakeholder Role in Curriculum Improvement discussed universities, clientele, professional bodies, accreditation bodies and their impact on teaching and learning interpreting, as well as on the social status of professional interpreters. The research findings have shed light on the educational outcome of professional T&I training, which emphasises near-​term success in employment and the development of the profession in the long run. In essence, there is more convergence between the sociology of professions and the curriculum studies of professional translation and interpreting. The following analysis uses the sociology of professions as a perspective and looks at stakeholders identified in the literature of translation studies. These stakeholders represent the sources of change in the curriculum work. The sociology of professions will help identify which ones are more relevant and how they should be categorised, making a comprehensive needs assessment possible. These stakeholders will form a balanced and effective deliberation network for curriculum improvement. The Sociology of Professions in T&I Programmes In the literature of translation studies, the sociological studies of interpreting as a profession usually start with the traits of a profession. Then some of the measurable traits are adopted as the definitional indicator of a profession. These chosen traits will then be used to describe and analyse the level of professionalisation and the social status of professional interpreters. The following exploration will start with a review of these studies, followed by a systematic application of the sociological theory. The aim is to finalise which stakeholders are essential, and how the stakeholders should be grouped in order to better represent the sources of change in curriculum improvement for interpreter training. The Sociology of Professions in Translation Studies

In translation studies, professional translators and interpreters are sometimes defined using constructs in the sociology of professions (see Chapter 1). This can be found in studies such as T&I curriculum and instruction, novice-​expert comparison of the process and product of translation and interpreting, and the social recognition of translators and interpreters. When devising a competence model, Mackenzie starts by defining professional translators as “experts” and translation as a “full-​time profession”, a “professional activity taking place in a world where specialisation and differentiation of roles is the trend” (Holz-​Mänttäri, 1984, p. 106, as cited in Mackenzie, 2004, p. 31). Similarly, Liu believes that the curriculum design of interpreter training programmes should be based on a set of “qualities and competences” specific to the profession (Liu, 2011, p. 37). When discussing the curricula and instruction of interpreter training, Niska defines professional interpreters as those with “professional qualifications”, though the scholar also believes that professional interpreters include “full-​time interpreters and

Stakeholder Role in Curriculum Improvement  87 those who only do occasional assignments” (2005, p. 35). Mu, Zhong and Wang (2013) assume that translators and interpreters strive for professionalism. A complete educational system being a trait identified in the sociological studies of professions, they further argue for improving the educational system by developing the doctoral degree programme in translation and interpreting in China. In these examples, the scholars have all established the relevance of the sociology of professions to the definition of professional translation and interpreting, and to the curriculum and instruction that produce future professional translators and interpreters. However, they tend to place emphasis on a selective number of the traits of the profession. In some studies, more traits are analysed with the aim of exploring the degree of professionalisation of translators and interpreters. For example, Pan, Sun and Wang (2009) studied the level of professionalisation of interpreters in China. In their survey, they used several traits of a profession as the definition of professional interpreters. More specifically, they chose five traits: (1) professional interpreters should be full-​time interpreters; (2) professional interpreters should have an exclusive body of knowledge and skills that govern the practice of interpreting; (3) there should be distinct patterns of demand for interpreting services in the market; (4) a qualifications system should be in place; and (5) an educational system should be in place. The researchers then conducted a questionnaire on full-​time and freelance interpreters, primarily in Shanghai and Jiangsu province, presuming that the more interpreters fit the criteria, the higher the level of professionalisation was. The study found that Shanghai and Jiangsu province enjoyed a moderately high level of professionalisation, faring well on the fourth and fifth traits. At the same time, the local interpreting communities should seek improvement on the first three traits. Based on a further study on interpreters’ professionalisation through surveying their market reality, Pan (2010) further argued that interpreter training should feature subject matters and the types of interpreting required by the market. In addition, market demands manifested in the study also seemed to suggest that the curriculum should cover content on “language skills, transfer skills, public speaking skills, business negotiation skills, social skills, cultural skills, multi-​ tasking skills, encyclopediac knowledge” in addition to interpreting skills (Pan, 2010, p. 71, my translation), as the competition was found to be fierce and “non-​ professional interpreters take up a considerable share of the market supply” (Pan, 2010, p. 70, my translation). In this example, the theory of the sociology of professions is used, but only partially, with a primary focus on stakeholders that represent the market reality, though other stakeholders, such as educational institutions, accreditation bodies and interpreters are also mentioned. Studies on translators’ and interpreters’ social status also use the sociology of professions as a conceptual framework. For example, Dam and Zethsen (2013) assumed that a greater extent of professionalisation means higher social status and they explored the self-​perceived social status of interpreters and translators in the EU. In their studies, they used two constructs in the sociology of the professions and defined professional translators as those

88  Stakeholder Role in Curriculum Improvement “with a certain set of qualifications” who “make a living” by engaging in translation (Dam & Zethsen, 2011, pp. 977–​978). They surveyed the self-​ perception of translators’ and interpreters’ social status and tried to find its relation with five traits of a profession, namely: (1) remuneration; (2) expert skills according to “their own assessment” and “their perception of how these parameters are probably assessed by outsiders” (Dam & Zethsen, 2013, p. 245); (3) visibility and fame, measured by their self-​perception, “the location of their workplace(s)” and “how well known they are to their clients” (Dam & Zethsen, 2013, pp. 246–​249); (4) power and influence measured by self-​perception and the chance of promotion to positions with power and influence (Dam & Zethsen, 2013, p. 251); and (5) self-​perceived importance or value to society (Dam & Zethsen, 2013, p. 253). The result of their work shows that those who have more traits in the sociological studies of a profession tend to have a higher self-​perceived social status, though this is not always the case, as they also find that professionals with high salaries do not necessarily believe that they enjoy high social prestige. In comparison to other studies, Dam and Zethsen have used more traits in their work. More importantly, they have included three traits that are more difficult to measure and hence less used by other scholars. A comprehensive study of the stakeholder network for interpreter training through the perspective of the sociology of professions requires an analysis of all the major traits of a profession. In the conceptualisation, the relation and interactions between stakeholders relevant to the profession should also be considered. By doing so, the identified stakeholders will contribute to the curriculum improvement of interpreter training, which will then help facilitate the professionalisation process and improve the social status of the profession. Neal and Morgan have summarised four interrelated strands of the sociological discussion of professions: the histories of particular professions, the ethnographies of professional work, the definitional controversy and the debate about the process and implications of market closure and social closure (Neal & Morgan, 2000). This classification will be used in the following analysis of stakeholders in the curriculum work of interpreter training. Historical and Ethnographical Perspectives

In the field of the history of translation, some scholars have studied the origin of translators and interpreters (Gaiba, 1998; Li, 2002; Delisl & Woodsworth, 2012) and demonstrated their role in the evolving world politics, economics and societal affairs. Other researchers take a historical perspective and narrow it down to a certain type of interpreting, for example, conference interpreting (Skuncke, 2002; Baigorri-​Jalón, 2015), community interpreting (Pöchhacker, 1999; Hale, 2007; Wadensjö, 2011), or sign-​language interpreting (Napier, McKee & Goswell, 2006). These examples take a historical perspective and factor in societal agents relevant to translators and interpreters. Through the

Stakeholder Role in Curriculum Improvement  89 historical account, scholars have depicted the professionalising process of translators and interpreters. In the ethnographic discussion of translation and interpreting as a profession, a number of papers have explored the professionalisation process in a specific country or region as an ethnographic marker, such as Turkey (Yılmaz-​ Gümüş, 2018), Korea (Choi & Lim, 2002), Belgium (Idzikowska, 2015), Denmark (Dam & Zethsen, 2008, 2011, 2013), Iran (Kafi, Khoshsaligheh & Hashemi, 2018), Chinese Taiwan (Ju, 2009), Chinese Mainland (Pan, Sun & Wang, 2009; Setton & Guo, 2009) and the specific setting of the EU institutions in Belgium (the European Commission, 2012). Under the strand of ethnography, academic interest has also been concentrated on the research of translators’ and interpreters’ social status (Choi & Lim, 2002; Dam & Zethsen, 2008, 2011, 2013; Katan, 2011; European Commission, 2012). The concept is a sociological one, dependent on the relational connections in society between translators and other agents. Ethnographic studies shed light on the specificities of different countries in terms of political, historical, institutional and cultural variables that either help or constrain the professionalisation process. The above-mentioned examples belong to the historical and ethnographical strands of the sociological studies of the profession. They show that translators and interpreters, including business translators, community interpreters and conference interpreters alike, in a variety of geographical situations, are all striving for professionalism. In addition, studies on the historical and sociological aspects of a profession inescapably start with the definition of a profession. Interpreters’ sociological relation with other stakeholders are always part of the discussion. A Sociological Definition of a Profession

According to the sociology of professions, a profession, rather than a vocation, should bear a number of traits (Carr-​Saunders & Wilson, 1933; Greenwood, 1957; Wilensky, 1964). Some of the traits have been used as the definition of professional translators and interpreters in the discussed studies. The traits theory has been used to analyse the extent of professionalisation of the emerging profession (Huang & Du, 2010; European Commission, 2012; Dong, 2016). The following is a summary of traits commonly regarded as essential in the professionalisation process across different models of sociologist studies. First of all, importance is attached to a systematic education. Professionalism is based on a set of “special competence, acquired as the result of intellectual training” (Carr-​Saunders & Wilson 1933, p. 307). More specifically, Wilensky (1964, p. 144) argues that training schools are usually institutionalised in universities and have a group of teachers and trainers working exclusively for the training programme. In addition, aside from skill training, a sound system of theoretical foundation that supports skill training is also indispensable (Carr-​ Saunders & Wilson 1933, p. 316; Greenwood, 1957, p. 47).

90  Stakeholder Role in Curriculum Improvement This emphasis on institutionalised education resonates with the historical evolvement of T&I programmes and research findings in the T&I curriculum and instruction, previously dealt with in the Introduction and Chapter 3. Professional T&I programmes have been in place in universities since 1930. In the Chinese Mainland, there have been around 300 MTI programmes institutionalised in tertiary education. Schäffner and Adab (2000), Mossop (2003), Ulrych (2005), Pym (2011) and Gile (2012) have all argued for the institutionalisation of T&I training. Zais (1976) points out the values of education in contrast to vocational training. Training activities outside of the university setting exist, mainly in the form of in-​house training in employers and commercial training centres. However, they are not interchangeable with university-​ based education, not least given the differences in the training period. In a benign scenario, they should contribute to the life-​long learning of translators and interpreters after they graduate from university programmes. Aside from a comprehensive educational system, a relevant trait confirmed both in the sociology of professions and T&I education is the development of skills exclusive to the profession. Interpreter competence, a construct which includes skills, strategies, techniques and knowledge of interpreting, is a major research area in translation studies. It is also taken as the foundation for the curricular approach in many T&I schools and institutes (see Chapter 3). Teacher profile and instruction activities are planned and designed based on the exclusive competence of translation and interpreting. Works of Seleskovitch (1989), Snell-Hornby (1992), Kiraly (1995), Nord (2005), Velleman (cited by Park, 2007), Liu (2008), Chai (2012), Gile (2012), Zhong (2014) are all examples of pedagogical and instructional models unique to professional T&I. In addition, the importance of a theoretical body of abstract knowledge of the discipline has also been explored by Pöchhacker (2010), Gile (2012) and Chesterman and Wagner (2014). Academic research in translation and interpreting can help with the professionalisation process. As Jääskeläinen, Kujamäki and Mäkisalo put it: The links between research and the reality of the translation market (or markets, cf. Pym, 2011, p. 482) may need critical scrutiny in terms of how we define our concepts, how we design and implement research, how we use research findings to bring about changes as well as how we educate future translators. (Jääskeläinen, Kujamäki & Mäkisalo, 2011, p. 145) Tertiary education is indispensable to a profession for several reasons. To start with, “[i]‌ ntuitive guesswork without the ongoing practical trial-​ and-​ error of pattern-​building or the rules, laws, and theories introduced by teachers would leave the translator a novice” (Robinson, 2012, p. 86). Trainers and researchers help students acquire essential skills and theories using systematic

Stakeholder Role in Curriculum Improvement  91 and methodologically sound pedagogy. In addition, the university’s “educational bureaucracy” is also essential because institutional programmes need the understanding and support of policymakers, decision-​makers and the academic community (see Arjona-​Tseng, 1991). Therefore, a third stakeholder within the educational system is those who make decisions on educational resources and constraints. They may either facilitate or hamper institutional programmes’ work of teaching and researching. This stakeholder can take the form of a department in a university; it can also be part of a local or national educational system (see Snell-​Hornby, 1992; Pym, 2000). Professional associations and bodies are relevant to interpreter competence and the abstract knowledge of the discipline. Professional associations, such as AIIC, have been playing a vital role in shaping pedagogical best practices for conference interpreting programmes. Academic bodies such as CIUTI, EST and IATIS have made contributions to the theory-​building of translation studies (Kelly, 2005, p. 25). In addition, curriculum theorists have highlighted instilling educational purposes in tertiary education in the form of values, ethics and attitude to life which constitute professional ethics. Indeed, in the sociology of professions, professional associations are believed to be a vital trait of a profession (Carr-​Saunders & Wilson, 1933, p. 360). Some believe that professional associations are obliged to define “professional tasks” and to solve tensions both internally among practitioners and between internal players and outsiders (Wilensky, 1964, p. 144). A related perspective is that professional associations have the responsibility of evaluating competence (ibid.). In many cases, this is done through organising accreditation exams (Greenwood, 1957, p. 49). Another argument is that professional associations are to support the professional culture and instil integrity into the profession (Greenwood, 1957, p. 51). Therefore, professional associations have interactions with a number of stakeholders. There have been many descriptive and comparative projects in translation studies on professional bodies in different markets. Most of them deal with their power to regulate the profession. Accreditation is professional associations’ major means of defining professional tasks and evaluating interpreter competence. Ren (2005) compares the accreditation set-​up between the Translators Association of China (TAC) and the National Accreditation Authority for Translators and Interpreters (NATTI). Xiao (2012) analyses the accreditation exams and testing schemes between TAC and the American Translators Association (ATA). Chen and Mu argue that professional bodies, professional education and accreditation constitute the three fundamental traits of a profession (Chen & Mu, 2016, p. 94). Through carrying out a comparative study on two accreditation exams, China’s Accreditation Test for Translators and Interpreters (CATTI) held by TAC and its counterpart organised by NATTI, they conclude that the effectiveness of accreditation exams is dependent on a variety of stakeholders, including political support, methodologically sound assessment and client recognition (Chen & Mu, 2016, pp. 97–​98).

92  Stakeholder Role in Curriculum Improvement Aside from implementing accreditation exams to regulate the profession, professional associations are also the providers of training opportunities (see Huang & Huang, 2005). Mu and Han (2014) have compared TAC with three Canadian translation associations –​The Canadian Language Industry Association (formerly AILIA), the Canadian Translators, Terminologists and Interpreters Council (CTTIC) and the Order of Translators, Terminologists and Certified Interpreters in Quebec (OTTIAQ). The result shows that Canadian associations play a stronger role in integrating and disseminating information on life-​long learning. In many cases, the vast majority of training resources organised by professional associations are to facilitate translators’ and interpreters’ further professional development. They take place in the form of dedicated courses designed for specific aspects of professional work, such as “new technologies, marketing, tax, copyright, terminology management, revision, and so on” (Kelly, 2005, p. 21). The continuous learning opportunities serve to complement university education. Chinese Mainland is different from other parts of the world, as its phenomenal development has resulted in a shortage of qualified T&I trainers in the huge number of T&I institutional programmes covering various language combinations. In addition, there has been unmet market demand in some specialised domain areas, such as legal translation. TAC has been organising workshops and lectures according to the identified gaps (Translators Association of China, 2022). In other words, professional associations need to carry out their work in collaboration with trainers, practitioners and the market as well as national and educational authorities. Professional associations also help build and uphold the ethics of the profession (see Mikkelson, 2013). In the sociology of professions, professional ethics are believed to govern professional practices (see Carr-​Saunders & Wilson, 1933) and prevent the abuse of power (Greenwood, 1957, p. 49). In addition, attaining professionalism means that those in the profession take upon their work for the public good (Dong, 2016, p. 12), the very educational values that universities seek to instil in their graduates. Professional ethics usually manifest themselves in the form of codes of ethics and codes of conduct released by professional associations. The content and the governing power are central issues. In most cases, their compliance is on a voluntary basis. Such codes are intended to build a profession-​wide sense of responsibility, commitment, professional pride and motivation. Much discussion on the codes of ethics in professional translation and interpreting is carried out around prescriptive standards, such as professional workers’ years of experience, source of income, or subject matter specialisation. However, the aspects of professional ethics that are difficult to measure or quantify are equally important. A profession is also protected by the national legal system (Wilensky, 1964, p. 145). Establishing institutional and legal protection for professional translators and interpreters requires the joint efforts of many stakeholders, especially professional associations and national authorities. Huang (2011) and Zhao and Kou (2017) propose establishing institutionalised legal protection for translators and interpreters in China. Zhao and Dong (2019) look into the

Stakeholder Role in Curriculum Improvement  93 legislation of court interpreting in China and the US and argue that the profession should have a dedicated national governmental agency, accreditation system, quality assessment mechanism and professional standards on modes of interpreting (Zhao & Dong, 2019, pp. 28–​29). The legal protection of professional translators and interpreters is closely related to their social status. As can be found from the above analysis, legal protection does not happen independently of other stakeholders. Attaining legal protection and social status requires the profession to earn the recognition of clients and the support of the government. Mu and Fu argue that the positive development of China’s T&I profession in recent years can be partially attributed to its contribution to national strategy and economic development (Mu & Fu, 2017). At the same time, institutional programmes must face the updated reality more proactively, rather than leaving all the norm-​building work to clients, associations or other stakeholders (Mu, Zhong & Wang, 2013). As Greenwood (1957, p. 48) contends, one of the indicators of professionalism is that the quality of professional performance is decided not solely by the client, an argument echoed in the definition of professional interpreters through the skopos theory and the translation brief (see Chapter 1). The above analysis has validated several stakeholders, emphasised by both the sociology of professions and T&I education. These stakeholders are interrelated with one another. For example, the quality of professional work hinges upon the professional curriculum implemented by university trainers. At the same time, quality is also assessed by the client and professional bodies. Training is provided both within the tertiary education system and beyond, which requires cooperation between university trainers, market representatives and translation associations. Associations regulate the profession through their codes of ethics. Yet their governing power is conditioned on the recognition of practitioners, clients, political power and university bureaucracy. The clientele sustains the vitality of the profession. However, their influence on the profession is not always positive. A profession should fulfil clients’ needs while defending its professional integrity. The traits theory is not problem-​free. The biggest opposition concerns its overly prescriptive and sometimes selective nature of listing traits. Professional traits also vary under different historical, national and cultural conditions. Therefore, it requires a further examination of the relationships among stakeholders to confirm their indispensability in professional T&I programmes. Stakeholder Relations: Tension or Cooperation?

In the sociology of professions, the functional approach and the theory of power enrich the traits theory. The functional approach places a profession in the social context. By doing so, the relation among various social functions become the central topic. In many cases, proponents highlight the tension between stakeholders. Their main line of argument is that stakeholders

94  Stakeholder Role in Curriculum Improvement compete to control scarce resources in the process of professionalisation. In other words, a profession is formed as it gains control and monopoly of the exclusive body of knowledge of the profession from clients (Johnson, 1972, as cited in Dong, 2016, p. 14). Freidson (1989), having explored the tension between a profession and its clients, explains that one indicator of professionalism is that a profession has the power to “defin[e]‌the needs of their clients rather than allowing the clients to set the agenda” (Freidson, 1986, as cited in Mikkelson, 1996, p. 79). Likewise, in translation studies, professional translators and interpreters are expected to have the autonomy to make strategic decisions to fulfil the communication goal intended by the client (see Chapter 1). Tseng (1992, as cited in Ju, 2009, p. 111) and Ju (2009) use the theoretical framework of the sociology of professions and depict the professionalisation process of interpreters by dividing it into different stages. Tseng identifies major stakeholders as the clientele, training institutions, professional associations, the general public, political authorities and legal authorities (1992, p. 43, as cited in Ju, 2009, p. 111). He argues that professional training and codes of ethics have the function of monopolising the profession internally. At the same time, legal protection of the profession and the profession’s relationship with clients serve the purpose of controlling the market external to the profession (Tseng, 1992, as cited in Ju, 2009, p. 110). Ju studies the local interpreting market in Taiwan and improves upon Tseng’s model. She supplements the model with more stakeholders that control scarce resources or create tension, including professional conference organisers, academic institutions and certification bodies. Ju is of the view that professional conference organisers have the function of exploring more clients, educating clients, providing equipment and integrating interpreters’ information. Therefore, they stand at the intersection with the clientele, interpreter training programmes and practitioners (Ju, 2009, pp. 117–​119). Certification bodies are established with the political authority’s support of the profession. Exams are organised with the help of university training programmes. Certification controls the admission of new interpreters in the community (Ju, 2009, p. 120). In addition, it is only with a certification system in place that the profession can make progress in the legal recognition and protection of the profession. Finally, as explained in the traits theory, academic institutions are to consolidate the abstract body of knowledge of interpreting and contribute to the curriculum and instruction of interpreter training (Ju, 2009, p. 119). Tension starts to emerge due to competition in controlling the demand side of the profession. Previous discussions can be further elaborated through the lens of tension and control. The definition of professional T&I, the historical demand-​driven development of T&I education, professional interpreters’ translation brief, the construction of translation norms, the sometimes-​ conflicting relationship between training for employment and education for employability as well as the needs assessment of the market reality all feature

Stakeholder Role in Curriculum Improvement  95 tensions over the control of the profession. The abovementioned studies are sufficient to show that within the broad type of clientele, different stakeholders are at play. The clientele, or the market demand, is an important source of curriculum improvement. The essentialist-​ progressivist educational philosophy of interpreter training allows such meaningful updates of teaching content. Institutional employers such as the UN and the EU are a distinct type of clientele in the West. They have substantive and stable demand for high-​quality interpreters; they create the initial demand for professional interpreters and help establish professional interpreter training in universities. In essence, they have been heavily involved in the curriculum-​making of interpreter training. They also have influence over working conditions and quality assessment of professional interpreters. However, they do not constitute a major type of clientele in the local Chinese market. Rather, they were important sources of reference when China started the curriculum-​making of interpreter training at the beginning of the 21st century. For example, the Directorate‑General for Interpretation at the European Commission (DG SCIC) has been collaborating with three Chinese universities in conference interpreter training. The UN is in cooperation with three recognised MoU universities in China. When Wang and Mu (2012) researched the state of T&I training in China, they evaluated training programmes against the AIIC training committee’s criteria which were set up according to working realities in international organisations. Translation agencies, or professional conference organisers (see Ju, 2009), pool the vast, but scattered, demand in the market. Holding resources between the market demand of the clientele and the supply of professional interpreters, they sometimes can be seen as clients as well. They are both facilitators and competitors of professional interpreters. Tension is hardly non-​existent between translation agencies and university T&I programmes. Translation agencies gain control based on the assumption that they are synonymous with clientele’s requirements. However, there is a real danger that agencies will forego the right to “define the needs of their clients” on behalf of interpreters (Freidson, 1986, as cited in Mikkelson, 1996), a trait essential to a profession. If so, a disproportionate weight in the norm authorities will be yielded to the clientele. The overemphasis on one stakeholder goes counter to the definition of professional interpreters, who should be the experts in deciding communication strategies (Nord, 2018). In the framework of curriculum development, agencies’ tendency to yield the decision power to the clientele is equivalent to conducting needs assessments only on the clientele, while playing down the needs of students, the discipline and societal values. As a stakeholder, translation agencies have a unique role not necessarily in shaping demand, but in influencing the profession with their technological applications, including interpreting devices and process management tools. Indeed, one of the sources of curriculum change is technological advancement (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2016; Sawyer, Austermühl & Enríquez Raído, 2019). Enríquez-​Raído argue for the “increased impact of translation

96  Stakeholder Role in Curriculum Improvement technology on translation and translators” and a result of “fragmentation of the market” (2016, p. 975). She points out that technology will restructure the profession and push for a “progressive division and professionalisation of labour”, requiring translators to have “new skill sets and competences” (ibid.). In other words, in order to gain control of the profession, interpreters and interpreting students must have the competence to master the technological changes in interpreting and understand their impact on their relation with other stakeholders. In this way, practitioners can increase efficiency and reduce repetition, while reducing the compromise of their control of the professional resources to other stakeholders, including technology providers. Therefore, the demand side can be further divided into the clientele with inter-​lingual communication needs, translation agencies that pool these needs and partially reflect the clientele’s demand as well as technology providers that exert influence through their control of technological applications. The clientele and practitioners know more about communication needs than translation agencies. Technology providers take the initiative in advancing efficiency-​ improving possibilities, but they cannot work without clientele or professional practitioners. Without professional interpreters, technological applications alone cannot meet the demand of clientele; without the clientele, translation agencies have no resources to organise or integrate. Together, they are part of the market reality and should be part of curriculum improvement to ensure institutional programmes’ relevance. Complicated relations are also the norm in the educational system in which institutional programmes are situated. As identified in the trait approach, universities constitute a key stakeholder in a profession. In the case of professional interpreter training, further categorisation can be made under it, namely students, trainers, researchers and the authorities. The authorities are composed of the educational bureaucracy within and beyond the university and political authorities that grant or restrict legal protection of the profession. Tension usually takes place between the practice and theory of interpreting (Gile, 2012; Chesterman & Wagner, 2014) and between the professional requirements and the authorities’ directives of curriculum design (see Arjona-​Tseng, 1991). In other words, the institutional curriculum needs to strike a balance between its curriculum design and the national strategies and priorities reflected in the ideological curriculum. Professional associations are situated between all these stakeholders. In the case of China, for example, TAC is in collaboration with the national government, universities, translation agencies, technology providers and practitioners to enunciate translation norms, execute accreditation exams, promote codes of ethics and conduct as well as improve the profession’s social status. The above analysis builds a stakeholder network through the concurrent perspectives of T&I curriculum studies and the sociology of professions. Much attention is placed on the tension between stakeholders as they all try to gain control of the profession. At the same time, in the sociology of professions, the argument for joint efforts of stakeholders has also been voiced.

Stakeholder Role in Curriculum Improvement  97 For example, Abbott puts more weight on stakeholder support for a profession. He concludes that some vocations “become professions because their claims are acknowledged by key sponsors in the field, including not only their clients and the state who approve the quality of their work, but also their rival occupational groups” (Abbott, 1988, as cited in Dong, 2016, p. 14). The idea of stakeholder cooperation in T&I training is a shared ground among many scholars. Holz-​Mänttäri argues that all parties included in the translation workflow must negotiate (1984, as cited in Munday, 2016, p. 146, also see Hebenstreit, 2020). Sawyer establishes that stakeholders are indispensable in interpreter training because curricula “emerge and evolve through a consensus-​building process among all stakeholders, both internal and external to the educational institution” (Sawyer, 2015, p. 96). Cooperation has also been the practice between universities and major institutional employers who involve themselves in quality assurance of interpreter training by sharing training methods and resources (see Donovan, 2019, Bordes, 2019, Leitão, 2019, Cheung, 2019). Lee-​ Jahnke summarises a model emphasising the dynamic nature of the collaboration between stakeholders against a changing landscape of society. Through stakeholder cooperation, the quality, efficiency and flexibility of the professional work can be improved (Lee-​Jahnke, 2004, p. 97). Pym (2020) argues for long-​term stakeholder cooperation out of considerations for translation and interpreting ethics. As has been pointed out in the curriculum improvement model, identifying conflicting interests is one step to be followed by stakeholders trying to find points of convergence based on which solutions can be devised (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2016, p. 218). In summary, the process of interpreters’ professionalisation sees tension and cooperation between eight stakeholders: (1) professional interpreters; (2) trainers; (3) researchers; (4) the educational bureaucracy; (5) the political authorities; (6) clientele; (7) translation agencies and technology providers; and (8) professional associations. Through their cooperation, they improve the practical curriculum and academic theory of professional interpreting, the professional performance of interpreters, quality assessment and accreditation, codes of ethics and conduct, remuneration and other working conditions, as well as the profession’s legal protection and social status. As the educational outcome of interpreter training is to prepare students for the present and future profession, its curriculum improvement needs to be carried out with the deliberation of these stakeholders. This conclusion is applicable to the work of curriculum improvement for institutional interpreter training programmes in China. The stakeholder deliberation is student-​centred, as its very purpose is to improve the quality of their education. It should be noted that not all stakeholders in the literature of translation studies are included in this stakeholder network. There is also a reformulation of the groupings of stakeholders. For example, the university as a stakeholder is expanded into three separate stakeholders: trainers, researchers and educational bureaucracies, as they have different but interconnected functions. Some stakeholders, such as translation agencies, deserve to be

98  Stakeholder Role in Curriculum Improvement the research focus in another context. However, among its multiple societal roles, in the context of curriculum work, they are relevant not because of their proximity to clientele, but because they possess technological applications which will potentially change the profession and its educational curriculum. Some other stakeholders, including publishers, critics, patrons and revisers, are more relevant in other modes of language services. In addition, although some inter-​governmental organisations can be taken as a stakeholder in some circumstances, they are not present as clientele in the China market. Instead, they have been contributing training resources to the ideological curriculum and the institutional curricula. Concluding Remarks A stakeholder network for institutional curriculum improvement is consistent with the essentialist-​progressivist educational philosophy and the sociological understanding of translation norms. Of all the stakeholders discussed in curriculum studies and translation studies, this chapter uses the perspectives of the sociology of professions to analyse which stakeholders are essential to interpreter training. Through the analysis, eight stakeholders have been identified. Comprehensive needs assessments of all of them can help close the gap between the essentialist curricular model and the progressivist instructional arrangements. Their needs assessments can identify tension and convergence of interests, based on which they can seek cooperation for better educational results. This process “from problem to proposals to solution” (Noye, as cited in Ornstein & Hunkins, 2016, p. 218) constitutes the curriculum improvement for interpreter training. When the eight stakeholders carry out their deliberation, they need to follow an agenda or a framework. Given that interpreter training has a competence-​ based curriculum, the sub-​competences can serve as the deliberation framework. The next chapter will conceptualise interpreter sub-​competences. They serve as curriculum goals, which, through stakeholder deliberation, can be sufficiently updated to help specify instruction arrangements so that interpreter training can produce graduates that fit the changing landscape of the market reality. References Antonini, R. (2011). Natural translator and interpreter. In Y. Gambier, & L. Van Doorslaer (Eds.), Handbook of translation studies (Vol. 2, pp. 102–​ 104). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​hts.2.nat1 Arjona-​Tseng, E. M. (1991). Curriculum policy-​making for an emerging profession: The structure, process, and outcome of creating a graduate institute for translation and interpretation studies in the Republic of China of Taiwan [Doctoral dissertation]. Harvard University. Baigorri-​Jalón, J. (2015). The history of the interpreting profession. In H. Mikkelson & R. Jourdenais (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of interpreting (pp. 23-​ 40).

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5 Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals

It has been contended that the curriculum work for interpreter training is competence-​ based. Interpreter competence, more specifically its sub-​ competences, can be taken as curriculum goals and the framework for stakeholder deliberation. Chesterman points out that for an interpreter, being competent and being professional are “intersubjectively defined” (1997b, p. 67). Therefore, interpreter sub-​competences hinge upon the definition of professional interpreting. In the previous chapters, professional interpreters have been discussed through the interdisciplinary nature of translation and interpreting, the skopos theory, the educational nature of professional interpreter training and the sociology of professions. Professional interpreters are recognised by stakeholders, or norm authorities. At the same time, they have the autonomy to use their competence and choose the appropriate problem-​solving strategy to best reach the communication goal set out by the clientele. Following the discussion in the previous chapters, this chapter aims to conceptualise interpreter competence composition for the purpose of curriculum improvement. Interpreter Competence and Expertise Holz-​Mänttäri describes professional translators as “experts in their fields” (1984, as cited in Nord, 2018, p. 13). The language choice of experts is to reflect professional translators’ and interpreters’ autonomy over clients and other stakeholders in deciding, for example, which strategies to use in solving communication problems. In other words, translators are more professional than other stakeholders in fulfilling a communication purpose. An inter-​connected but different concept is expertise in post-​positivist studies on interpreters’ performance. In these studies of cognitive sciences, professional translators and interpreters are taken as those with expertise, in contrast to student interpreters, novices or recent graduates (see Krings, 1986; Lörscher, 1991; Kinga, 1996; Séguinot, 2000; Jääskeläinen, 2010). DOI: 10.4324/9781003303824-6

106  Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals On another front, Chesterman, cited from Dreyfus, Dreyfus and Athanasiou (1986, p.155), sets up the five stages of skill acquisition (Chesterman, 1997b, pp. 147–​ 149) –​novice, advanced beginner, competence, proficiency and expertise –​suggesting a distinction between competence and expertise. As he explains, a competent interpreter is capable of “actively reviewing an array of situational facts and selecting from them in accordance with a conscious goal” (Chesterman, 1997b, p. 148), whereas an interpreter with expertise “gives priority to intuition” (Chesterman, 1997b, p. 149). Similarly, this differentiation is shared by a number of T&I educators who believe that T&I training is to produce professional translators and interpreters, rather than those with expertise, though professional translators and interpreters have the potential to gain expertise as their experience accumulates. One can hardly argue that T&I students are expected to acquire expertise upon completing the training programme. Rather, graduates are entry-​level generalist and competent professional workers, who are capable of following “pattern-​building and rules and theories”. Expertise might be acquired as a result of “experience”, “fresh perspectives” and “creative intuitive leaps” (Robinson, 2012, p. 86; also see Chapter 2). The difference between professional interpreters and those with expertise has also been recognised by researchers in cognitive sciences. Jääskeläinen notices that the definition of professionals is different in cognitive terms and sociological terms. She acknowledges the enriching definitions of both expertise and professionalism and finds that “[e]‌xpertise can refer to consistently superior performance or the possession of considerable amount of knowledge and skill, while professionalism can relate to occupational status, quality delivered, or professional ethics” (Jääskeläinen, 2012, p. 195). However, she further states: “For didactic purposes, translation process research has been interested in identifying professional or expert processing patterns to teach them to translation students” (ibid.), suggesting that in the studies of the cognitive processes of interpreting, professional is still used as a synonym of expertise, on the assumption that professional translators and interpreters with “occupational status”, “quality” and “professional ethics” have all acquired expertise. To take practising interpreters as professional interpreters and furthermore as interpreters with expertise is not always a problem. For example, in the PACTE research group’s empirical studies on the process of acquiring translation competence, the researchers’ assumption is that professional translators are expert translators and foreign language teachers are non-​experts (Albir, 2017, p. 85). The PACTE group have defined professional translators, or expert translators, as “translators with at least six years of experience in a variety of fields for whom translation is their main professional activity and provides at least 70% of their income” (PACTE Group, 2005, p. 611). It has also been explained that the group drew up this definition due to the absence of “external criteria or standardized tests to establish expertise in translation” (Albir, 2017, p. 85). In this case, the group equates professional translators’

Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals  107 demonstrated expertise with their professional competence, and the behaviour is taken as the independent variable. The researchers then continue to operationalise the hypothesised compositional sub-​competences as dependent variables of professional competence. It should be noted that the experimentations fit the contrastive paradigm of cognitive studies. Yet it should also be noted that there have been generalisations in the definition. Firstly, professional translators are only partially defined with three sociological indicators, namely, years of experience, source of income and fields of specialisation, leaving out subtler traits of a profession, such as systematic educational requirements, professional ethics, theoretical building or professional autonomy (see Chapter 4). Second, professional translators who manage to sustain themselves in the market for a number of years are directly taken as those with expertise. In contrast, in cognitive psychology, translators with expertise are defined as those who consistently demonstrate high levels of performance (Shreve, 2002, p. 151). In the scenarios where the chosen subjects happen to be experts despite only being checked on three indicators of professionalism, experimentation can still produce meaningful results. For example, Kinga (1996) and Séguinot (2000) find that professional translators, or translators with expertise, demonstrate a more explicit tendency of automatism. They have also identified that expert translators are more sensitive to market needs, though this is self-​evident, as subjects in their studies were selected based on years of work experience. Jääskeläinen concludes that interpreters with expertise demonstrate a high level of awareness and sensitivity to potential translation problems. She also finds that professionals with expertise are good at making a minimal effort in problem-​solving (Jääskeläinen, 2010). In other words, expert translators and interpreters quickly fall into the automatic mode in routine tasks and are only “activated” in new situations that require active processing. These findings are meaningful, as they validate that an interpreter competence model should contain some frequently mentioned sub-​competences, such as strategic problem-​ solving, subject matter knowledge and technological mastery. However, problems emerge when experiments based on such generalised definitions find that the proxy subjects of expertise fail to demonstrate what Ericsson and Charness refer to as “consistently superior performance” of experts (1997, as cited in Shreve, 2006, p. 28). For example, Jääskeläinen, Kujamäki and Mäkisalo (2011)’s research findings contradict Chesterman’s assumption that all professionals are competent (Chesterman, 1997b. p. 67). They point out that some professionals “exhibited processing patterns that appeared professional: quick and efficient, largely automated processing”. However, the resulting interpreting product is not as satisfying as expected (Jääskeläinen, Kujamäki & Mäkisalo, 2011, p. 148). This unfortunate result leads to the vital question of whether “ ‘failed’ professionals [are] worthy of the label” (Jääskeläinen, Kujamäki & Mäkisalo, 2011, p. 146). In other words, since the subjects, who are taken as expert interpreters, fail to demonstrate superior performance, it allows more people to bear the name professional

108  Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals interpreters, thus calling into question the very existence of the educational activities which apparently will nurture “failed” professional interpreters. However, it may be due to the fact that the chosen practising interpreters in the experiments are not professional interpreters, nor those with expertise. It can be argued that novice-​ expert comparison is a proven empirical method and contributes to the understanding of what constitutes better performances. However, it should be pointed out that the subjects are not always professional translators and interpreters, given the partial adoption of the definitional criteria. In addition, even if professional translators and interpreters are properly selected as subjects, their demonstrated competence is not always equal to the cognitive concept of expertise. This is echoed by Shreve, who believes that translation competence and expertise “cannot be synonymous” (2002, p. 154). Expertise is acquired through “deliberate practice in the domain after graduation” (ibid.). Though the process and composition of interpreting expertise may vary among individual experts, what those with expertise share in common is attaining the measurable outcome of consistently superior performance in any domain setting. In addition, Shreve also contends that expertise is not “a homogeneous, easily describable set of uniform cognitive resources achieved by all translators experts” (2006, p. 40). Indeed, as Hoffman (1997) points out, expertise is harder to observe if the task involves human behaviour –​and human behaviour lies at the core of professional interpreting. Therefore, in interpreting practice and training, professional competence should be differentiated from expertise. More specifically, for interpreter training, the educational outcome is to produce professional interpreters, who, upon graduation, do not necessarily possess expertise. Graduates are not necessarily more “advanced” or “superior” practitioners (see Chapter 1). Instead, they are competent enough to start their professional career. As Katan puts it, “competence and quality are considered key requisites for working professionally” (2011, p. 146). Competent interpreters cannot constantly guarantee superior performance over others, not least because expertise is elusive to define. Nor is expertise attainable for all professional practitioners. Professional interpreters should resort to deliberate practice in their life-​ long learning, a trait in the sociology of professions. It can help prepare graduates for the changing reality of society. Therefore, in addition to the previously discussed goal of specialisation (see Chapter 2), achieving expertise can also be taken as professional interpreters’ goal for life-​long learning. Interpreter Competence and Translator Competence Translation and interpreting are both under the influence of globalisation and technological advancements. In addition, Grbić and Wolf (2012, p. 9), quoting Gouadec (2007) and Gile (2009), recognise “a move towards dual competence and dual jobs where ‘the-​ translator-​ cum-​ interpreter’ has to practice both activities”. It has been argued in Chapter 2 that curriculum

Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals  109 studies on translator training are relevant in the conceptualisation of a curriculum improvement model for interpreter training, though translation and interpreting feature different modalities of communication and research methodology (see PACTE Group, 2003; Kelly, 2005; European Commission, 2017). It has also been argued that translation and interpreting share a number of sub-​competences. In addition, if one looks into the cognitive studies of interpreters’ “measurable changes in pattern learning and memory, problem recognition and representation, the organisation and composition of knowledge structures and the ability to develop strong methods for problem resolution” (Shreve, 2002, p. 150), common ground can be found between translator competence and interpreter competence. Researchers who study interpreting expertise and knowledge see learning interpreting as a developmental progression of acquiring problem-​solving abilities (Hoffman, 1997; PACTE Group, 2000). Expertise in solving interpreting problems means effective application of interpreting skills, strategies and knowledge (Riccardi, 2005; Pöchhacker, 2016). Gile’s model of interpreter training is composed of several types of knowledge, including knowledge of active and passive languages, subject-​matter knowledge, declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge of interpreting (2009, pp. 8–​10). Kohn and Kalina emphasise the importance of interpreters’ knowledge from a psycholinguistic point of view. In order to extrapolate discourse processing during interpreting, a diversified knowledge base is needed, including linguistic and discourse knowledge, world and subject matter knowledge, knowledge of the communication situation and procedural knowledge of using interpreting strategies (Kohn & Kalina, 1996). Interpreting experts are those “knowing how to translate” (Shreve, 2006, p. 40) and have linguistic knowledge, culture knowledge, knowledge of specialised subject domains, textual knowledge, knowledge of using translation strategies and procedures, and knowledge of using tools and information seeking methods (Albir, 2017, p. 29). These studies see much consensus in understanding competence. For example, Kohn and Kalina (1996)’s knowledge of the communication situation is similar to what Gile (2009) refers to as the declarative knowledge of translation. It is also called knowledge of the profession sub-​competence in the PACTE model (Albir, 2017). Gile’s (2009) procedural knowledge of interpreting is also looked into by Hoffman (1997) and Riccardi (2005) in the form of knowledge-​based strategies. For example, since expert interpreters have a better knowledge base organised “at many levels” and “integrated across them” (Hoffman, 1997, p. 202), they can anticipate both the end of sentences and the expansion of argument. In Gile’s words, anticipation can be divided into linguistic anticipation and extra-​linguistic anticipation (2009, p. 173). Riccardi argues that interpreting is the process of using skills-​based strategies and knowledge-​based strategies. More specifically, interpreters use a skills-​based strategy when they are triggered to smoothly demonstrate abilities that result in “stored patterns of automatic responses” (2005, p. 760). Such automatism in using skills and strategies can help save attentional energy and working

110  Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals memory and leave room for knowledge-​based strategies. A knowledge-​based strategy refers to the active cognitive processing of information when “no automatic response is found or because something has caused a momentary memory overload” (2005, p. 762). In such cases, interpreters need to activate their knowledge in order to plan cognitive resources among interpreting skills. In other words, skills such as listening while speaking and strategies such as anticipation can be viewed as ways of solving interpreting problems either through automatism, which in essence is pattern retrieval that minimises the consumption of attentional capacity, or through allocating energy while avoiding a complete shut-​down of mental capacity. Therefore, knowledge-​ based strategies are similar to the strategic competence in the PACTE model. Despite the difference in research paradigms, competence studies of translators and cognitive studies of interpreters have reached similar conclusions. The difference lies in the word choice of competence, skills or knowledge. Furthermore, as competence is defined as a combination of “knowledge, understanding, skills and abilities” (Rico, 2010, p. 91), it can be concluded that competence studies of professional translators are useful in studying interpreter competence, as the two modalities of communication may see more differences only on strategies and techniques. In addition, the few research projects on interpreter competence show similar results to those on translator competence, though the commonality is not that straightforward, as interpreter competence models distinctively feature skills, knowledge and strategies. Like the ones on translator competence, most interpreter competence models have been devised for curriculum and instruction purposes. Many projects use literature review and survey methods in the analysis in an attempt to synthesise researchers’, educators’ and practitioners’ opinions on the sub-​competences of expert interpreters. For example, in Wang’s interpreter competence model, he divides interpreter competence into an intellectual module and a non-​intellectual module. The intellectual module includes competence in the A language and the B language, extralinguistic knowledge and interpreting skills, and the non-​ intellectual part includes the interpreter’s psychological qualities, physiological preparedness and professional savoir-​ faire (Wang, 2012, p. 77). This conclusion is based on studies on translator competence models and expertise studies of interpreting. To compare Wang’s model with the PACTE model, while the PACTE has strategic competence, Wang instead has specified “interpreting skills” (ibid.). PACTE’s instrumental sub-​competence is incorporated in the sub-​competence of professional savoir-​faire in Wang’s model, as he explains that it includes “the ability to understand, adapt to and create translation norms that fit a communication activity, professional ethics, the ability to cooperate, negotiate and coordinate with stakeholders of the activity, the ability to use interpreting-​related equipment and technological applications for meeting preparation” (ibid., my translation). It can be seen that translator competence models are relevant to interpreter competence models.

Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals  111 One distinctive feature of interpreter competence models is that sub-​ competences are identified in correspondence with the process of interpreting (Kalina, 2000; Liu, 2011; Albl-​Mikasa, 2013; Wang & Mu, 2019). Albl-​ Mikasa’s model is based on Kalina’s conceptual framework and the interview response of professional interpreters. In her study, she uses skills instead of sub-​ competences and argues that a process-​ based interpreter competence model is composed of pre-​process skills, peri-​process skills, in-​process skills, post-​ process skills and para-​ process skills (Albl-​Mikasa, 2013, p. 19). For example, the command of language and meeting preparation are pre-​process skills; peri-​ process skills include teamwork and pressure resistance; post-​ process skills mean terminology management and quality control; in-​process skills mean comprehension, transfer and production. Albl-​Mikasa adds para-​ process skills, including “business know-​how, customer relations, professional standards, lifelong learning predilection, meta reflection” (ibid.). Wang (2019) summarises a competence model as the conceptual foundation for studies of an interpreting competence scale. She lists language sub-​competence as a prerequisite for learning interpreting, an argument shared in Liu (2011)’s model and Albl-​Mikasa (2013)’s model. She also identifies interpreting cognitive sub-​competence as the central sub-​competence, which includes: (1) identifying and extracting source information, memory and note-​taking; (2) logic comprehension, information selection and summary; and (3) reformulation, organisation and production (Wang, 2019, p. 16). In addition, other sub-​ competences include interpreting strategies (for planning, executing, assessing and remedying decisions) and interpreting knowledge such as interpreting theories, knowledge of the profession, code of conduct and ethics (ibid.). The difficulty of an interpreting assignment and the quality of an interpreting performance are also dependent on discourse types, a point also reflected in Wang’s model (2019, pp. 16–​17). The seemingly different composition of interpreter competence models from that of translator competence models is mainly due to the insistence on a process-​based understanding of interpreter competence, that is, preparation, listening and comprehension, pattern recognition, problem-​solving, production, emergency resolution and post-​meeting stocktaking. If one is to map the constructs in these stages into sub-​competences in translator competence models, similarities can be found, as they all emphasise language, knowledge, professional qualities and strategies, among others. Albl-​Mikasa’s in-​process skills and Wang’s interpreting cognitive sub-​ competence and interpreting strategies can also be referred to as interpreting competence (Setton, 1999; Kalina, 2002), efforts (Gile, 2009), interpreting competence proper (Albl-​ Mikasa, 2013) or interpreting skills (Wang, 2012; Setton & Dawrant, 2016). They are similar to the strategic sub-​competence in the PACTE model. Though most models see much consensus on the compositional sub-​ competences, the definitions of these sub-​competences vary. For example, Lu, Li and Li (2019)’s interpreter competence model is composed of five sub-​ competences: language, interpreting skills, knowledge, professional qualities

112  Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals and finally, disposition and meta-​cognitive sub-​competence (2019, p. 765). It can be inferred that: (1) language sub-​competence includes B language listening, comprehension and production, A language listening, comprehension and production; (2) professional qualities include professional ethics, the ability to solve ad-​hoc problems on the assignment, the ability to work in an interpreting booth; (3) interpreting skills include the salami technique, sense-​making, incremental processing, self-​monitoring, transfer strategies, deverbalisation, working memory; (4) disposition and meta-​cognitive sub-​competence include public speaking ability, curiosity, pleasant voice, a penchant for challenges, continuous learning and self-​improvement, concentration, stress management, knowledge of assignment settings, adaptability, confidence; and (5) knowledge includes cultural, language and encyclopaedic knowledge (Lu, Li & Li, 2019, pp. 764–​767). While other models tend to argue that the language sub-​ competence is the prerequisite for acquiring interpreter competence and interpreting skills and strategies are the central sub-​ competence, the researchers of this model conclude that professional interpreters’ feedback confirms that the language sub-​competence is more important than knowledge, interpreting skills and professional qualities as well as the disposition, and meta-​cognitive sub-​competence is the least important. In this example, aside from the aforementioned difficulty in differentiating skills and strategies (see Chapter 3), the project also incorporates the construct of meta-​cognitive competence and life-​long learning. The disposition and meta-​cognitive sub-​competence can also be found in Albl-​Mikasa (2013)’s para-​ process skills, though the latter also includes professional standards, which are categorised under professional qualities in the former’s model. On skills and strategies, Wang identifies executing, self-​assessing and remedying interpreting performance under interpreting strategies (Wang, 2019, p. 16). In comparison, Lu, Li and Li (2019) list self-​monitoring under interpreting skills. For another example, among different models, the definition of professional knowledge varies –​some include the ability to use technological devices and applications, while others have professional knowledge and technological skills as independent sub-​competences. It can be seen that translator competence models are relevant in devising interpreter competence models. Interpreter competence models tend to emphasise skills and strategies; they also explicate sub-​competences required in different stages, tasks and efforts of the interpreting process. However, it does not necessarily mean that the acquisition of such sub-​competences occurs in a linear and chronological order and should be reflected accordingly in curriculum content. Nor are they fundamentally different from the strategic sub-​competence or transfer competence identified in translator competence models. Therefore, the discrepancy between translator competence models and interpreter translator models is limited. The discussion also tends to contend that the constructs in sub-​competences have already been comprehensively identified in existing studies. According to Hurtado Albir (2007), many competence models base themselves on work

Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals  113 psychology. In a summary of the rationale behind the behavioural approach to understanding competence, Kuznik and Hurtado Albir (2015) explain McClelland and his team’s methodology in devising operational competence models for job interviews of specific job types: McClelland proposed using as a benchmark, professionals already working in these positions in companies, who perform well in the tasks they are entrusted with. The basic idea behind his method consists of studying the performance of the best professionals in these jobs and contrasting the characteristics of those who are particularly successful with those who are only average performers. (Kuznik & Hurtado Albir, 2015, p. 6) Such comparative observation is similar to the rationale of expertise studies. By doing so, one can summarise a competence model useful in evaluation settings (ibid.). Competence studies invariably start with a literature review which identifies key constructs. It is followed by empirical studies mainly utilising observations, questionnaires and interviews, usually done through novice–​expert comparison. In some cases, statistical analysis will further be carried out to determine the relation among and the development of sub-​ competences. In their studies, Qian (2011) and Lu, Li and Li (2019) defined sub-​competences through a literature review and validated them by asking researchers and practitioners which constructs they would perceive as more relevant. In the PACTE project, researchers observed translators’ process of work and used survey methods to validate what they had observed with the cognitive process of translators. The model’s sub-​competences and definitions were then concluded through a literature review, conceptual analysis and measurability requirements of each construct. Key constructs are identified through inductive methods of literature review, questionnaires and interviews. Post-​ positivist empirical studies are carried out in a contrastive paradigm to validate the relevance of identified measurable constructs. Indeed, some behaviours are evidently correlated with desired professional/​expert performance and are relatively easy to measure. For example, automation and interruption are typical observable behaviour. In a translator’s process of translating, observed automation and interruption represent a certain level of expertise in problem-​solving (PACTE Group, 2005, p. 56). For another example, knowledge of the profession can be observed and measured by looking for the number of consultations of, for example, printed materials by the translator. However, competence cannot be sufficiently defined in a behavioural approach only, as some aspects of professionalism and expertise are not readily observable or easily measurable. This is compounded by the conundrum of identifying expert interpreters, as they are not sufficiently differentiated from practising interpreters. Therefore, for the purposes of this chapter, an improved categorisation and definition of sub-​competences may not rely much on further solicitation

114  Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals of professional interpreters’ perceptions. Nor will it benefit hugely from an attempt to quantify constructs, since sub-​ competences have not been adequately defined. The central concern is the classification of readily identified but overly rich constructs under various models. The defined sub-​ competences will then be used as clarified curriculum goals, which will then facilitate the design of instructional objectives. The following sections aim to conceptualise a competence model in which constructs fit the findings of curriculum studies, the sociology of professions and previous findings in T&I competence. Componential Analysis of Interpreter Competence Since interpreter competence is central to the discussion of this chapter, it should be clarified that there are different coinages of T&I competence –​ translation, translational and translator competence. Interpreter competence is not the same as interpreting competence. The difference should be viewed as a progressive enrichment of T&I competence models through interdisciplinary inputs. When the concept of translation competence was first proposed by Wilss (1976, as cited in PACTE Group, 2020, p. 97), it was against the backdrop of product-​oriented studies on translation performance. As consensus was gradually reached that translators and interpreters were made, not born, competence became a central topic. Since the 1970s and with the advent of the cultural and social turn of translation studies, translation competence has been enriched and replaced by translational competence (Neubert, 2000; Nord, 2018) and translator competence (Kiraly, 1995, 2000). Translational competence includes not only source-​language and target-​language knowledge, but also a sufficient understanding of the client and the communication situation, as well as intercultural communication (Nord, 2005, p. 30). Translator competence, in comparison to translation competence, incorporates the “professional translator’s task and the non-​linguistic skills that are required” (Kiraly, 1995, p. 16). Likewise, interpreting competence does not take full account of the sociological aspects of interpreting (Setton, 1999; Kalina, 2000). Depending on the definition of skills, interpreting competence may include abilities in language, knowledge and interpreting skills and strategies. However, it does not emphasise the knowledge of the professional task situated among different norm authorities. Therefore, studying interpreter competence can help cover more relevant sub-​competences required of professional interpreters. Another point of divergence lies in the fact that not all researchers look at T&I competence as a combination of componential sub-​competencies. Pym (2003) departs from Wilss’ “four notions of translation competence” (Wilss, 1976, as cited in Pym, 2003, pp. 483–​484) and points out the deficiency if one dismissed the concept of competence, interchanged it with linguistic abilities, or analysed it in a componential logic. He then concludes with his own minimalist approach to translation competence. Though he focuses on textual differences in his model, his argument is applicable to discourse analysis in

Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals  115 interpreting as well. He also highlights the “inter-​personal” nature of a translation task, taking into account the socio-​cultural effect in the translational act (Pym, 2003, p. 489). Pym continues to argue that this minimalist model excludes a number of other abilities that are vital to a competent translator, such as “grammar, rhetoric, terminology, computer skills, internet savvy, world knowledge, teamwork cooperation, strategies for getting paid correctly, and the rest” (ibid.) as they are not exclusive to the act of translation, and therefore are not part of, as Pym refers to it, translational competence. The minimalist definition of translator competence is comparable to Riccardi (2005)’s and Albl-​Mikasa (2013)’s construct of interpreting skills, interpreting competence, or the “competence proper” (Albi-​Mikasa, 2013, p. 19) –​the central component in training interpreters. For the purpose of curriculum work, master’s degree programmes need to focus on interpreting skills and beyond. Other approaches to defining translator competence include constructing a super-​competence, rather than componential sub-​competences. In Hurtado Albir’s summary, proponents of a super-​competence definition include Wilss (1982), Bell (1991) and Cao (1996) (as cited in Albir, 2017, p. 18). However, the summation of a super-​competence is largely a transitional historical product. For example, Cao defines translator’s super-​competence as “the many kinds of knowledge that is essential to the translation act” (Cao, 1996, p. 326, as cited in Albir, 2017, p. 18). It can well be taken as a precursor of componential competence models that started to emerge in the 1990s. Indeed, Pym (2003) recounts that Wilss continued from his super-​competence and enriched it into “eight competence ranges” in both the source and target language, “giving a grand total of sixteen compartments for all the things that trainees should learn to do with language” (Pym, 2003, p. 482). The progression from one super-​ competence to 16 sub-​competences is inevitable as conceptualisation evolves. One drawback during that time is the over-​reliance on linguistic theories due to historical constraints in the pre-​inter-​discipline stage of translation studies. Likewise, the dismissal of competence and the preference for the explanatory power of skills and abilities is also due to a linguistic perspective on the process of translation on a micro-​level (see Lowe, 1987, and Hatim & Mason, 1997, as cited in Albir, 2017, p. 21). As has been argued, interpreting skills can also be referred to as interpreting competence, language competence, knowledge, or the three sub-​competences combined, equivalent to translational competence under the social and cultural turn of translation studies. Therefore, there does not seem to be mutual exclusiveness among different approaches to understanding interpreter competence. The difference often derives from the historical evolution of translation studies, a specific disciplinary focus, or the level of operationality. This book adopts the componential understanding of interpreter competence, not least because competence and its composition is taken as curriculum goals in professional T&I programmes. One may argue that componential analysis inevitably compartmentalises translator competence (Pym, 2003). However, compartmentalisation would only occur if one wrongly equated curriculum goals with instructional

116  Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals objectives. Interpreter sub-​competences are taken as curriculum goals and their combination constitutes the educational outcome of institutional programmes. The sub-​ competences, together with their definitional constructs, do not necessarily correspond one-​on-​one to course objectives. Sub-​competences are inter-​connected. This argument resonates with Kiraly’s argument for an emergent model of translator competence. He contends that instructional objectives should not be pre-​determined; instead, they should be “multi-​faceted and multi-​perspective” (Kiraly, 2015, p. 26). At the same time, his model still starts with “curricular sub-​ competences”, which, through student-​ centred pedagogical design, will help students know how to translate (Kiraly, 2015, p. 28). In other words, a framework of sub-​competences is still necessary, as it ensures that curriculum content is comprehensive and sufficient. Language competence, for example, cannot be severed from domain knowledge, the latter one being further relevant to the technological application of, for example, terminology management. Therefore, interpreter sub-​ competences, by definition, should hardly be compartmentalised into corresponding courses. A suite of courses bearing names such as language enhancement, technological application, or interpreting strategies without connections and progression built across them can hardly equate themselves to interpreter competence. In addition, sub-​competences will not compartmentalise interpreter competence because part of the curriculum takes the form of a hidden curriculum. Value-​embedded sub-​competences can hardly be operationalised only in the form of independent courses on the syllabus. Rather, they are distilled into the whole learning experience, in the form of activities both in and outside the classroom. For example, professional ethics is recognised as part of many interpreter competence models. Its manifestation in a curriculum can be an independent course or workshops (see Ren, 2019). However, professional ethics is also an overarching theme throughout the curriculum development efforts of interpreter training programmes. The value of integrity is often embedded not only in professional-​business decisions, but also in the choice of interpreting strategies. Therefore, serving as curriculum goals, componential sub-​competence analysis is a fitful framework for the following conceptualisation. Competence Studies for Graduate Programmes To date, given its complex nature, interpreter competence sees no consensus on its definition yet. T&I competence has been the research focus of several groups of scholars with connected but different research interests. The first group of scholars continue the logic of competence studies in foreign language acquisition and apply it in professional T&I training. In foreign language acquisition, competence assessment follows a behaviourist approach in an attempt to measure the acquisition of language abilities. In this case, competence studies are used in classroom translation with a theoretical foundation in linguistics. As professional T&I is preceded by

Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals  117 classroom translation exercises, this research paradigm has been retained in studying T&I competence. The second group are educators, programme leaders and curriculum experts. They have been contributing to the composition of T&I competence as part of their curriculum-​making and curriculum improvement efforts. Examples include national and supranational pursuits of education reform for graduates’ improved competence against the changing reality. The third group are trainers and researchers who discuss T&I training at the instructional level. They value the operationalisation of constructs in sub-​competences and design didactical methods to achieve measurable teaching and learning results. Identifying sub-​competences will “offer useful tools for improving translation didactics and translator training programmes” (Jääskeläinen, 2012, p. 195). In the pedagogical cases, competence studies lead to empirical experimentation on measurable behaviours of student interpreters. The historical development of professional T&I programmes shows that curriculum-​level planning will occur when new programmes are established or when major changes and reforms are called for, either bottom-​up or top-​ down. The same historical pattern can be found in competence studies as well. Competence analysis at the curriculum level synchronises the periods of curriculum reform of the POSI project and the EHEA reform. They have been enriched and braced by competence analysis at the pedagogical and instructional levels since the 1970s when T&I training had gained sufficient practice for theoretical summation. Competence studies in China have a slightly different development trajectory. The university-​level translation and interpreting training first took the shape of a set of courses, supplementary to the other curriculum content of the bachelor’s degree programme of English literature and linguistics. In 2006, translation and interpreting became a four-​year bachelor’s degree programme (BTI), independent of the bachelor’s degree programme in literature and linguistics. In 2007, the master’s degree programme in translation and interpreting was set up as an academic continuation of the BTI. It is independent of the master’s programmes in English literature and linguistics under which students should, in theory, major in literature, linguistics and T&I research. In other words, T&I competence studies started with a strong instructional emphasis. When curriculum-​level considerations were needed for MTI and BTI curriculum-​making, conceptualisation and empirical evidence in training and competence analysis had been readily available, first, from counterparts in other parts of the world and, second, from T&I course implementation. It can be observed that many competence studies in China invariably start with comparative analyses and re-​categorisation of sub-​competences. They then tend to focus on T&I competences at a micro-​level, in order to shed light on pedagogical and instructional design and implementation (Xiao, 2012). Instead of dealing with the development of instructional methods of one aspect of a sub-​competence, scholars tend to improve upon the competence

118  Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals model by adding more constructs. The progression from T&I courses to independent degree programmes sees an upsurge of sub-​ competences in newer models. The process is also coupled with the cultural, social and sociological turns of translation studies emphasising the professional reality. The tendency to equate instructional objectives with curriculum goals has been prevalent, resulting in various attempts of re-​categorisation among the myriad sub-​competences. For example, Wen devises his first competence model for undergraduate translation courses based on three previous conceptual findings. He reaches the conclusion that the four sub-​competences are: (1) language/​textual sub-​ competence, with the help of IT abilities; (2) strategies and skills; (3) self-​ assessment sub-​competence; and (4) academic research sub-​competence (Wen, 2005, p. 70). His course objective is: to prepare students for a translation career with changing market demands. Students are expected to master translation skills and theories, to translate all kinds of texts specific to different translation situations, and to do effective self-​assessment for continuous improvement of translation competence. Students are also required to be able to use software and the Internet. (Wen, 2005, p. 73, my translation) This result is reached during a historical time when there were no MTI programmes or BTI programmes in China. In his updated competence model for undergraduate students, in addition to the four previously identified sub-​ competences, Wen and Li further explain that translators and interpreters should be faithful to the original text, meet the requirements of the client and the reader, comply with social and cultural norms of the target language as well as exhibit professional ethics, including aligning themselves with national strategies and pursuing excellent quality in their professional work (Wen & Li, 2010, pp. 13–​15). With enriched conceptualisation, the new model features a new way of sub-​competence categorisation, dividing competence into practical competence and theoretical competence. The practical competence includes: (1) linguistic/​textual sub-​competence; (2) strategic sub-​competence; (3) self-​assessment sub-​competence; (4) IT abilities; and (5) dictionary use; while the theoretical competence consists of: (1) knowledge of the discipline; (2) domain knowledge; and (3) professional qualities (Wen & Li, 2010, p. 3). The researchers further quote a national draft document for the overall educational outcome of the BTI ideological curriculum: T&I undergraduate programmes aim to produce graduates specialising in T&I on generalist topics. Graduates are required to have solid linguistic abilities in both languages, rich encyclopaedic knowledge, a relatively strong ability of cross-​cultural communication, rigorous logical thinking and proven professional ethics. Graduates should have a firm grasp of both the Chinese culture and the culture of the foreign language; they need to be

Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals  119 familiar with translation theories and are able to do translation of different text types and consecutive interpreting. They should be proficient in using translational tools; they should understand the operational and business procedure of translation and have relevant industry knowledge. Graduates are also required to be strong at independent thinking, work proficiency, communication and coordination. They should be able to translate pragmatic and technical texts of general difficulty levels and manage consecutive interpreting and international communication. (Wen & Li 2010, p. 4, my translation, see also Zhong & Zhao, 2015) In other words, the competence model, which should represent curriculum goals, corresponds well with the ideological educational outcome. However, Wen and Li’s survey of 11 institutional curricula shows a noticeable discrepancy between the operational curricula and the competence model. While the model requires generalist translation and interpreting abilities for pragmatic purposes, many schools at the time increased the difficulty level in a rather superficial fashion: though the ideological curriculum stated consecutive interpreting, many operational curricula would venture for simultaneous interpreting; while the requirement was translation of non-​specialised commercial texts, most schools designed courses on technical and literary translation, text types that were hardly generic. Of course, pedagogical activities in the hidden curriculum were not the research focus. Therefore, not all operationalised sub-​ competences were fully manifested. However, one can safely argue that students will not necessarily better acquire translator and interpreter competence simply because more skills-​ heavy specialised courses are available on the syllabus. The gap between curriculum planning and curriculum implementation in this example shows that an apparently comprehensive competence model is unhelpful and unrealistic. Literary translation and simultaneous interpreting, which are usually designed for the advanced stage in MTI programmes, are two of the most available courses among the surveyed BTI programmes. It makes little room for the progression from BTI to MTI programmes. At the same time, it leaves important sub-​competences insufficiently designed and forces front-​line trainers to prioritise the low-​hanging fruit. The BTI ideological curriculum explicitly leaves out translation of specialised domains and simultaneous interpreting, but it is not faithfully operationalised in institutional curricula. As Gonzalez Davies (2004, pp. 41–​ 42) argues, undergraduate programmes are the “pre-​specialization” phase of T&I training. Compounded by the fact that BTI programmes cover most curriculum content of MTI programmes, master’s degree programmes in professional T&I tend to develop specialised translators and interpreters, equating professional T&I with specialised T&I. However, this goes against MTI’s educational outcome of producing professional and generalist translators and interpreters and preparing them for multi-​fold realities in the near-​term and long-​term future (see Chapter 2). In other words, in addition to the identified difference between competence and expertise, another distinction should be

120  Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals recognised between professional T&I and specialised T&I. Upon graduation, competent interpreters begin to form expertise through practice and experience; likewise, generalist interpreters are competent in a number of domain areas and then begin to specialise in specific subject matters as they accumulate experience. The acquisition of expertise and specialisation takes place in interpreters’ life-​long learning, a trait of professionalism and a value of education. These efforts are facilitated by professional associations and potentially by the doctoral degree programme in translation and interpreting (Zhang & Ding, 2019). In addition, the unfortunate duplication between BTI and MTI can be avoided if generic competence can be properly differentiated from professional competence (Snell-​Hornby,1992; Pym, 2003; Kelly, 2010; Albl-​Mikasa, 2013; Sawyer, Austermühl & Enríquez Raído, 2019). Not all constructs identified in existing models are unique to translator and interpreter training. Instead, undergraduate programmes have seen a number of transversal abilities, skills and knowledge identified in relation to translation and interpreting. They can serve as a foundation for professional training in master’s programmes. For example, the European Commission has proposed eight competences for all European citizens: “communication in the mother tongue; communication in the foreign languages; mathematical competence and basic competences in science and technology; digital competence; learning to learn; interpersonal, intercultural and social competences and civic competence; entrepreneurship; and cultural expression” (Official Journal of the European Union L394/​10, 2006). These sub-​competences are hardly unique to T&I education; yet they are highly related. Krajcso (2011) argues that social competence, which includes team effort, social dynamics, communication skills and the ability to deal with conflicts, is almost absent in T&I education. There is value in and necessity of incorporating these sub-​competences into BTI programmes. Much of the discussion has already taken place under the concept of transferable skills. González and Wagenaar (2003) argue that graduates from translator training programmes appear almost uniquely qualified as flexible, adaptable and highly employable citizens. T&I graduates should possess transferable skills such as “team working, communications, problem-​solving, planning, and time management” (Kearns, 2006, p. 209). These constructs have been identified in T&I competence models, indicating that a progression can be established from generic sub-​competences to professional sub-​competences. Tertiary education also has the responsibility of distilling social values in intellectual civic citizens. In addition, national legislative authorities and educational bureaucracy are indispensable stakeholders that participate in curriculum development; they also protect and promote translators’ and interpreters’ social status. Therefore, social values and national strategies should not be overlooked in the competence analysis (see Chapter 4). An emphasis on universal values as well as regional and national interests has been prevalent in the history of translators and interpreters training (see Huang, 2019). For

Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals  121 example, interpreting promotes democratisation “by giving voice at that international organisation to trade union representatives in their own languages” (Baigorri-​Jalón, 2015, p. 20). For another example, in the POSI project, the awareness of lesser-​ used languages is identified as a sub-​ competence (Anderman & Rogers, 2000). Later on, the EHEA specifies the importance of European competitiveness, multilingualism and social justice as fundamental principles of higher education, regardless of specific disciplines (see Kearns, 2006). These social values are operationalised in the T&I curriculum. The legitimacy of a bachelor’s degree, master’s degree, doctoral degree and life-​long learning on interpreting is premised on a progression or differentiation of sub-​competences. However, this is seldom reflected in competence studies for T&I education (see Sawyer, Austermühl & Enríquez Raído, 2019). It might be helpful to divide interpreter competence into generic competence, professional competence and specialised competence, which dovetail educational levels of undergraduate programmes, graduate programmes and DTI/​ life-​long learning. Albl-​Mikasa (2013) identifies three educational stages: (1) the general education phase, (2) interpreter training phase and (3) professional on-​the-​job phase. She not only argues that language, culture and communication sub-​competences are of a generic nature (also see Snell-​Hornby, 1992; Pym, 2003) but also points out that language(s) competence should be trained in all three phases, while interpreting competence should be the focus on the latter two stages. Additionally, life-​long learning is to help interpreters improve their business competence, which is not the focus of the first two stages of education (Albl-​Mikasa, 2013, p. 22). While identifying different educational stages, the study does not fully reflect the more complex sub-​ competences composition other than language, interpreting and business sub-​ competences. In the following sections, interpreter sub-​competences will be identified and the relation of definitional constructs will be mapped onto the three educational stages. Revisiting Sub-​Competence Composition The following discussion is based on the findings of the PACTE model and the EMT model, the former being conceptualised with empirically validated variables and the latter being set up as the ideological curriculum guideline for European Master’s in Translation. In addition, other research projects on competence, mainly at the curriculum level, are also taken into consideration. The constructs are then analysed through the concurrent lens of curriculum studies and the sociology of professions. The PACTE Project and the EMT Framework

The PACTE model is one of the most cited competence models in translation studies. The model was first devised in 1988 (Albir, 2017, p. 36). It was conceptualised in a published paper as a “holistic and dynamic model” in 2000

122  Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals (PACTE Group, 2000, p. 2) and was further revised in an exploratory project (PACTE Group, 2005). In most cases, the model is a point of departure for further studies, such as translating and interpreting process investigation (see Göpferich & Jääskeläinen, 2009), testing and assessment (Mu, 2006, Galán-​ Mañas & Hurtado Albir, 2015), course design (Wen & Li, 2010), pedagogy and didactics (Kelly, 2005) and curriculum design (Calvo, 2011), to name just a few. Although the PACTE Group specifies that the model is developed, modified and tested by translator trainers and practitioners (PACTE Group, 2003), it has applicability in both translation and interpreting. For example, the model identifies knowledge of the profession and psycho-​physiological readiness, among other things, which are equally relevant to both translators and interpreters. In addition, the PACTE researchers point out the inter-​ connectedness between different elements of the model to avoid compartmentalization, a potential problem arising from a componential model. The model also reflects stakeholder participation, as well as the sociological aspects of translation and interpreting as a profession. However, the sub-​competences and their definitions in the PACTE model will not be taken directly as curriculum goals for a curriculum improvement model. The main reason is that the sub-​competences are defined for further studies of competence acquisition. It means that the operationality and measurability of learning outcomes are prioritised in the conceptualisation. The PACTE model will be analysed together with the EMT framework. EMT is initiated by the EU Commission’s Directorate-​General for Translation (DGT) (Schmitt, 2012) and is set out as minimum standards for course content and quality control. For the Bologna Process, the EMT working group has in place their own competence model. It is also stated that the model applies “generally but not exclusively in a written medium” (European Commission, 2017, p. 4). In parallel to the EMT, the EMCI was launched in 1997 by DG SCIC, together with a consortium of major European universities (Stern, 2011). The EMCI network did not reinvent a competence model for interpreter training, but put forward a “core curriculum […] adhering to clearly defined standards of quality” (Diriker, 2015). The EMCI core curriculum is aligned with the EMT competence model. In addition, it highlights key pedagogical focus such as language proficiency, interpreting techniques and a range of general, specialized and professional knowledge (Pöchhacker, 2013). Therefore, the EMT framework is relevant to interpreting training. The EMT model was first devised in 2009 and then revised in 2017. The updated conceptualisation is necessary so that it can better respond to sociological considerations of “individual, societal or institutional need” (European Commission, 2017, p. 4) and “enhance employability of graduates” (European Commission, 2017, p. 3). While the POSI project facilitates the transition from classroom translation to professional translation by emphasising industrial demands in the 1990s, the 21st century has been witnessing accelerating

Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals  123 changes because of technological development (European Commission, 2017, p. 2). Aligned with the POSI project (Calvo, 2011), the EMT model is also designed with the consideration to “enhance the status of the translation profession in the European Union” (Katan, 2011). For example, under translation service competence, one of the components is “knowing how to justify one’s translation choices and decisions” (EMT Expert Group, 2009, p. 5) –​an ability closely related to the professional autonomy of translators and interpreters. The updated framework has incorporated the latest results into the academic research. It bears a systematic overview of learning outcomes at a curriculum level and is mandated to be used by master’s programmes in translation between 2018 and 2024 (European Commission, 2017, p. 2). It is also specified that the model is designed for mater’s programmes in translation (European Commission, 2017, p. 3). At the same time, the EMT working group sets apart general competences and discipline-​specific competences. Therefore, in addition to the PACTE model, the EMT framework is also given high priority in sub-​competence conceptualisation. They have both been implemented and updated. In addition, the two models have both attended to the sociological perspective and professionalisation considerations of interpreters. The EMT model, more specifically, uses sub-​competences as curriculum goals, whereas in other cases, competence models are devised for T&I training too, but with an emphasis on T&I pedagogy at the instructional level. Language Sub-​Competence

Language abilities have been identified in almost all competence models. This sub-​competence has been enriched through the interdisciplinary evolution of translation studies. It has been widely recognised that “knowledge of languages is only a prerequisite, not an automatic qualification for translation” (Anderman & Rogers, 2000, p. 66). This conclusion has been made against the previous belief that translators and interpreters were born, not made, which promoted research interests in bilingualism. The limitation of focusing on bilingualism comes not least from the fact that background profiles of the earlier natural translators and interpreters were not taken into account. Observing only their linguistic behaviours would obscure the subtler factors, such as the impact of educational background, and life and work experiences on their translation abilities. In this sense, competence analysis beyond linguistic prowess is imperative, even under the hypothesis that translators and interpreters are born. As linguistics is one of the founding disciplines in translation studies, earlier research projects on competence were solely on linguistic competence. The research approach was later enriched by psycho-​linguistics, communicative studies, pragmatic linguistics, cultural and social studies, coherent with the cultural turn, social turn and functional turn of translation studies. Furthermore, the communicative competence has been enriched by cultural, social and

124  Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals sociological studies since the 1990s. Researchers “try to account not only for the large number of elements constituting, and operating on, the translation situation in its most inclusive sense, but also for the fact that these elements, rather than being static, are intrinsically dynamic” (Bittner, 2019, p. 97). At this stage, though translation was still perceived within linguistics, as Pym describes Bell’s competence model, “virtually everything that any kind of linguistics wanted to talk about was tossed into the soup” (Pym, 2003, p. 485). This helps explain various constructs relevant to the language sub-​ competence. For example, Forstner’s competence model, which is used in CIUTI’s evaluation of T&I programmes, contains competence in the mother tongue and foreign languages as well as cultural competence, among others (Forstner, 1995, as cited in Sawyer, 2004, p. 57). In Neubert’s model, the language aspect of translation is detailed into language competence, textual competence and cultural competence (Neubert, 2000). In Beeby’s model, one can find contrastive linguistic competence and contrastive discourse competence (Beeby, 2000, p. 186). Nord includes meta-​ communicative competence, intercultural competence and writing abilities in her model (Nord, 2010, pp. 120–​121). In Schäffner (2000)’s model, the language aspect of translation is defined as linguistic competence, cultural competence and textual competence. In the model by Göpferich (2013, p. 65), the wording “communicative competence” is used. In some competence models, linguistic knowledge is used instead of linguistic abilities. It should be noted that linguistic knowledge refers to the same constructs of the combination of linguistic, cultural, textual and communicative competence, as it is defined as “the availability of lexical units, including idioms and specialised terms on one hand and grammatical, stylistic, pragmatic and other language rules on the other” (Gile, 2009, p. 223), which is also called language skills (Sawyer, 2004; Gile, 2009; Pöchhacker, 2016), referring to the procedural knowledge of using languages. The interdisciplinary addition of cultural, communicative and textual competence to the linguistic competence is also evident in the PACTE models and the EMT models. The first PACTE model refers to the language aspect of translation as the “communicative competence in the two languages” (Albir, 2017, p. 37), deriving from communicative competence in applied linguistics. It entails “linguistic, discourse, and socio-​linguistic components necessary for source text/​language comprehension and target text/​language production” (Albir, 2017, p. 36). In the updated model, the communicative competence is replaced by “bilingual sub-​competence” (Albir, 2017, p. 41), with no juxtaposition of cultural, communicative or textual sub-​competences in the model, as the bilingual sub-​competence covers all of them, defined as the skill to use pragmatic, socio-​linguistic, textual and grammatical-​lexical knowledge to switch between one and the other (Albir, 2017, p. 39). Judging from the definition, the bilingual sub-​competence of the PACTE model is similar to the language competence and intercultural competence combined in the first EMT framework, covering the grammatical, lexical, idiomatic, socio-​ linguistic and textual dimensions of languages (EMT Expert Group, 2009,

Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals  125 pp. 4–​5). In the updated framework, the two competences are combined into the “language and culture competence”, defined as the “transcultural and sociolinguistic awareness and communication skills” (European Commission, 2017, p. 6). Therefore, the umbrella term of language sub-​competence is justified. It means professional interpreters’ declarative and procedural knowledge of the languages concerned, including linguistic abilities, cultural sensitivity, communication skills and discourse skills. Strategic Sub-​Competence

In the PACTE model, strategic competence is the central sub-​competence that connects other sub-​competences. In this vein, the strategic sub-​competence is what other scholars refer to as “translation proper” or “interpreting proper” (Fraser, 2000, p. 52; Pym, 2003; Albl-​Mikasa, 2013). In the EMT model, it is referred to as “translation competence” (European Commission, 2017, p. 7); when some scholars elaborate on interpreting competence (Setton, 1999; Kalina, 2002), efforts (Gile, 2009), or interpreting skills (Wang, 2012; Setton & Dawrant, 2016), they are also talking about the competence unique to translation and interpreting, or the strategic sub-​competence. In many earlier models, transfer competence is an important sub-​ competence (Neubert, 2000; Schäffner, 2000; Beeby, 2004; Albir, 2017). Neubert (2000) argues that transfer competence is where professional translators distinguish themselves from bilingual communicators. Transfer competence is a concept from linguistics, meaning the ability to produce target texts that satisfy the demands of the translation task (Schäffner, 2000, p. 146). Maria Gonzalez Davies’s competence model is composed of “language work, subject matter, transfer skills, resourcing skills, computer skills and professional skills” (2004, pp. 41–​42). She further defines transfer skills as “problem-​spotting and problem-​solving, encouragement of creativity and self-​confidence as translators, improvement of mental agility and thinking skills, self-​monitoring, awareness and use of strategies, ability to decide on degrees of fidelity according to translation assignment and text function” (ibid.). In other words, transfer competence can be understood as the skill to form textual solutions suitable to specific communication situations. In Hatim and Mason’s model, translators’ transfer skills mean their ability of “strategic renegotiation” between the source and target texts, intentions and situations so that they can fulfil the translation brief and rhetorical purpose (2005, p. 171). In essence, it is the functional definition of professional translation and interpreting. In order to complete the transfer, interpreters need to activate all the sub-​competences. That is why the PACTE Group believes that transfer competence is integral to all sub-​competences. In their updated model, the strategic sub-​ competence, a concept from cognitive sciences, is used to describe the problem-​solving ability in the translating and interpreting process. The relationships between strategic competence and

126  Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals transfer competence can be perceived through Massey’s definition of strategic competence as “all procedures used to solve problems during the translation process”, and thus it can be seen as “the ability to control the interaction between all the other sub-​competences to effect transfer” (Massey, 2005, p. 627). Both transfer competence and strategic competence mean the process of “renegotiation and adjustment” (Hatim & Mason, 2005, p. 172) between the source text/​discourse and target text/​discourse. They are also both believed to activate all the other sub-​competences that jointly can ensure the completion of the translation or interpreting act. Since psycho-​linguistics and cognitive studies started to shed light on the process of translating and interpreting, competence models have been further enriched (see Campbell, 1991; Lörscher, 1991). Main research areas include expertise, knowledge, problem-​ solving and automatism, all of which are established research topics in psycho-​linguistics and cognitive studies. In these studies, the mental processes of using translation skills have been the research focus. In the PACTE model, the strategic sub-​competence is defined as using procedural knowledge to solve problems encountered. Problem-​ solving includes evaluating the communication situation, coming up with initial decisions, using other sub-​competences to fulfil the communication intention, and identifying and solving problems (Albir, 2017, p. 40). In the EMT model, translation competence is defined as “all the strategic, methodological and thematic competences that come into play before, during and following the transfer phase per se –​from document analysis to final quality control procedures” (Albir, 2017, p. 7). Göpferich (2013)’s model, like the PACTE project, places strategic competence as the centre. The TransComp project also includes the competence of “translation routine activation competence” in the model (Göpferich, 2013, p. 65). Its definition is the “knowledge and abilities to recall and apply […] (standard) transfer options (or shifts) which frequently lead to acceptable target-​language equivalents” (Göpferich & Jääskeläinen, 2009, p. 185). This competence is also referred to as “micro-​strategies” by Hönig (1995, as cited in Göpferich & Jääskeläinen, 2009, p. 185). In Gile’s research, this “micro-​strategy” is called “automatic operations” (Gile, 2009, p. 159). Based on these definitions, the strategic sub-​competence is equivalent to the procedural knowledge of using interpreting skills, strategies and techniques to solve communication problems. It can be found in various efforts and tasks in different modes of interpreting, and includes the automatic application of strategies such as anticipation, reformulation, intonational stress (see Riccardi, 2005, p. 765) and non-​automatic operations of problem-​solving that require other sub-​ competences. At the same time, interpreters should maintain a balance between cognitive attention and stamina. In addition to the strategic sub-​competence, the PACTE, EMT and TransComp models all mention the psycho-​ physiological aspect of interpreters. The PACTE model distinguishes between sub-​competences

Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals  127 and components. A concept deriving from expertise studies, psycho-​ physiological components are believed as a trait of interpreting experts and nurture the activation of all the sub-​competences. The psycho-​physiological components are composed of several constructs. Interpreters must possess sufficient cognitive qualities such as memory, perception, attention and emotion (PACTE Group, 2005, p. 59). In order to come up with solutions to interpreting problems, interpreters need to acquire a professional perception of task difficulty as well as of one’s own performance. This cognitive understanding has to do with personality traits such as self-​assertion (Nord, 2010, p. 120–​121), or self-​concept, self-​esteem, self-​confidence, self-​criticism and initiative (Fraser, 2000; Gonzalez Davies, 2004, pp. 41– 42; Albir, 2017, pp. 27, 188). In other words, professional interpreters should have the attitude of “intellectual curiosity, perseverance, rigor, critical spirit, knowledge of and confidence in one’s own abilities, the ability to measure one’s own abilities, motivation, etc.” (PACTE GROUP, 2005, p. 59; Albir, 2017, pp. 36–​37). Likewise, attitudinal qualities such as motivation are often believed to be an important “personal trait or soft skill” of interpreters (Lin, 2014, p. 96). In the EMT model, managing time, stress and workload, continuous self-​ evaluation and self-​ improvement, descriptive definitions of perseverance, rigor, intellectual curiosity and self-​awareness are listed under “personal and inter-​personal competence” (European Commission, 2017, p. 10). In addition, psycho-​motor abilities have been highlighted as yet another quality of interpreters (Göpferich & Jääskeläinen, 2009; Albir, 2017, p. 30), referring to the ability required for reading and writing with “text coherence, style, word play”(Albir, 2017, pp. 30, 67). In addition to psycho-​motor abilities, another cognitive pre-​ requisite is “creativity, logical reasoning, analysis and synthesis” (PACTE GROUP, 2005, p. 59). In other words, interpreters should have the ability to think or reason logically (Albir, 2017, p. 67). A lot of the constructs listed under psycho-​ motor skills and psycho-​ physiological competences serve as the foundation of interpreting skills and strategies. These personality traits, verbal intelligence and fluency constitute a major part of interpreting programmes’ aptitude testing (Pöchhacker, 2016, p. 181). Attitudes and qualities such as creativity, analysis and logical reasoning are believed as the overall pursuit of tertiary education (González & Wagenaar 2003; Lee-​Jahnke, 2011). It is on this foundation that one is able to learn specific interpreting skills and strategies and try to acquire expertise. Therefore, they are believed to be the precursory physical and psychological abilities that brace for the development of strategic competences at the professional stage. This would include: psycho-​motor skills of reading and writing with logic, coherence and style, attitudinal qualities and intellectual rigor, such as motivation, stress management and basic stamina, and the critical spirit that helps with perception. They prepare interpreters for the ability to acquire and activate interpreting skills and strategies.

128  Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals Relevant to interpreters’ self-​ perception is the ability of self-​ assessment mentioned in a number of competence models (Fraser, 2000; Lee-Jahnke, 2001; Sawyer, 2004; Kelly, 2005; Wen, 2005). Researchers in the field of translation assessment have found self-​evaluation and peer evaluation important as well. Kussmaul believes that the ability to discuss translation performance is central to a translator’s competence. The self-​assessment ability is proposed in a pedagogical context, where Kussmaul defines “the ability to rationalise one’s decision-​making processes in an objective way” as expert behaviour (Kussmaul, 1995, p. 33). In the EMT model, one of the constructs under personal and inter-​ personal competence is the soft skill to “continuously self-​evaluate, update and develop competences and skills through personal strategies and collaborative learning” (European Commission, 2017, p. 10). The self-​concept and self-​perception of discussing and evaluating one’s own interpreting performance are also connected with the trait of professional autonomy in the lens of sociological studies, in line with the argument that professional interpreters should be able to make the independent choice of a strategy they deem fit in order to fulfil a communication goal. The competence of self-​evaluation and peer evaluation among professional interpreters also finds its supporting argument from a meta-​cognitive point of view (Wang, Hu & Shen, 2016). The acquisition of meta-​cognitive awareness means that interpreters should be able to assess the T&I task, plan the strategies accordingly, monitor the application and efficacy of the strategies, make adjustments and ensure the strategies can solve the T&I problems in order to achieve the expected quality. In other words, meta-​cognitive control is premised on the acquisition of interpreting skills and strategies. It helps interpreters to be conscious of the decision-​making and problem-​solving process, which, in turn, will help interpreters better “justify one’s translation choices and decisions” (EMT, 2009, p. 5). Therefore, the physical and psychological abilities defined in the previous paragraph are the prerequisite for acquiring the strategic subcompetence. As interpreters improve their abilities to use skills and strategies, they start to develop meta-cognitive awareness which helps with their selfassessment and self-justification and contributes to their ability to defend their strategic decision and professional autonomy. Subject Matter Knowledge

Subject matter knowledge is almost always present in all competence models (Kiraly, 1995; Anderman & Rogers 2000; Neubert, 2000; Schäffner, 2000; Kelly, 2005; EMT, 2009; Gile, 2009; Göpferich, 2013; Albir, 2017). It is referred to as “domain/​ subject specific competence” (Schäffner, 2000, p. 146), “real-​world knowledge” (Kiraly, 1995, p. 6), “extra-​linguistic” knowledge (PACTE GROUP, 2005, p. 58; Gile, 2009), or “general and domain-​ specific” “thematic competence” in the EMT model (European Commission, 2017, p. 8, 7). Some models highlight cultural knowledge related to the languages concerned (Kiraly, 1995; Schäffner, 2000; Nord, 2010; Albir, 2017). However, as cultural sensitivity is critical to the skill of using language

Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals  129 knowledge, cultural knowledge is now listed under language sub-​competence and rather under thematic knowledge here, in order to avoid duplication. The POSI project illustrates the importance of subject matter knowledge in the competence model. All sub-​competences in the POSI model are conceived and analysed against the backdrop of lessening the gap between academic training and the demand of the industry. The academic status of the discipline and the professional status of translators are also taken into consideration (Anderman & Rogers, 2000, p. 66). The sub-​competences include: (1) generalist subject matter knowledge; (2) bilingual competence; (3) translation theory; (4) terminology and relevant technology; and (5) awareness of lesser-​used languages (ibid.). Subject matter knowledge is essential as it is urgently identified by the industry demand. However, subject matter knowledge is not interchangeable with specialised domain knowledge. This is in line with the previous discussion of the educational outcome of professional T&I programmes, which is to produce generalist language professionals. It has been argued that specialisation and expertise are essential to interpreters’ professionalisation. Specialised domain knowledge should be acquired through continuous learning workshops organised by employers or professional associations (Anderman & Rogers, 2000, p. 68). There have also been attempts to devise competence models for specialised translation. For example, in medical translation, sub-​competences include the compliance of ethical codes, accuracy and reliability of information, confidentiality and sensitivity towards patients, familiarity with “conceptual networks, terminological repertories, text genres, social contexts and resources” specific to medical and health care settings, as well as a good command of English, which is the dominant language in medicine (Montalt, 2011, p. 79). For another example, court interpreters are believed to need “manipulate dialect and geographic variation in his/​her working languages, possess wide general knowledge, understand both the legal process and the related terminology, and also understand the various discourse styles used in the courtroom” (Benmaman, 2007, p. 109). Interpreting in a specialised domain requires different abilities, awareness and skills. In addition to declarative knowledge such as terminology, specialised domain interpreting usually operates with specific codes of conduct and ethics. Tertiary educational programmes should also take into account bureaucratic constraints, didactic methods, cost management and market demands when deciding which subject matters to cover in the institutional curriculum. In line with the contrast between classroom translation, literary translation and professional translation, clear emphasis should be placed on subject matters that have stable market demand. That is why many programmes choose to focus on cross-cutting subject matters, such as international relations, economics and finance (Sawyer, 2004). These are also generalist subject matters, though specialised knowledge is certainly needed in some assignments. Therefore, subject matter knowledge can be divided into world knowledge, generalist domain knowledge and specialised domain knowledge. Same as the language sub-​competence and strategic sub-​competence, in subject matter knowledge, the latter stage must be built upon the previous one. As cultural knowledge

130  Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals is already included in the language sub-​competence, world knowledge refers to the common-​sense knowledge that a university graduate is expected to master. Generalist domain knowledge is the subject matter knowledge most required by market demand. It is of a cross-​cutting nature to ensure that graduates are able to acquire new knowledge quickly enough to adapt to the changing reality. Specialised domain knowledge is usually acquired as professional interpreters accumulate their work experience and start to form expertise in specialised domains. It is more complicated especially due to ethical considerations. This discussion will continue under the interpreting ethics sub-​competence section. Technological Know-​How

Technology has long been incorporated into competence models, with different emphases. A number of models highlight the technological applications in connection with terminology building and domain knowledge acquisition (Anderman & Rogers, 2000; Nord, 2010; Wen & Li, 2010; Liu, 2011; Albl-​Mikasa, 2013; Göpferich, 2013). Technological sub-​competence is sometimes referred to as “methodological competence” (Ulrych, 2005, p. 18), “research competence” (Nord, 2010, pp. 210–​211) or “instrumental sub-​competence” (Albir, 2017, p. 40). Some models deal with the technological application of translation tools (Hönig, 1995, as cited in Sawyer, 2004, p. 88; Kelly, 2005; Mu & Wang, 2011; European Commission, 2017). Another aspect of technology is interpreters’ ability to use dictionaries and computer software (Fraser, 2000; Kelly, 2005; PACTE GROUP, 2005, p. 59; Zhang & Wang, 2020). In the updated PACTE model, interpreters’ technical know-​how is defined broadly as “procedural knowledge related to the use of documentation resources and information and communication technologies applied to translation” under instrumental sub-​competence (Albir, 2017, p. 40). In the EMT model, technology competence means the knowledge and skills of using tools and applications “to implement present and future translation technologies within the translation process” (European Commission, 2017, p. 9), which entails all of the three abovementioned aspects of technological know-​how. It has been argued in previous chapters that technological advancement is a major trend that will change education in profound ways (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2016; Sawyer, Austermühl & Enríquez Raído, 2019). In the sociology of professions, technological solution providers constitute a major stakeholder that facilitates the work of professional interpreters, but at the same time, potentially places a dent in their social status. Given the consensus on the importance of technology and its evolving forms in interpreters’ work, technological know-​how should be included as a sub-​competence in the competence model. In addition, the three fronts of technological knowledge and skills correspond with the three academic levels. The ability to use computer software for file processing, information search and work streamlining and management

Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals  131 might have once been a distinct advantage of the few; however, it should be taken as a “basic competences in science and technology” for all university graduates (Official Journal of the European Union L394/​10, 2006). In terms of machine translation and translation tools, it has been pointed out in the EMT framework that professional translators should “master the basics of MT and its impact on the translation process”, “assess the relevance of MT systems” and “apply other tools […] such as workflow management software” (European Commission, 2017, p. 9). As technology advances at an unpredictable speed, interpreters are expected to be conscious of its implications in their life-​long learning. Advanced use of CAT tools, MT systems, terminology management systems and workflow management applications is relevant to the specialisation of professional interpreters as they gradually acquire expertise. Theoretical Sub-​Competence

Translation theory is also highlighted as an important sub-​competence despite “its disputed role” (Anderman & Rogers, 2000, p. 68, see also Chau, 1984; Chesterman & Wagner, 2014). It is not listed as a sub-​competence in the PACTE model, the EMT framework, or Göpferich’s TransComp model. However, it is implicitly recognised as essential. In the PACTE model, translators are expected to have “knowledge about how translation functions: translation units, processes required, methods and procedures used (strategies and techniques) as well as types of problems” (Albir, 2017, p. 40). The EMT framework specifically notes that “theoretical knowledge or the generic research skills” are “an integral and important part of many advanced translation programmes” (European Commission, 2017, p. 4). Under its “translation competence”, it also states that translators should be able to “analyse and justify their translation solutions and choices, using the appropriate metalanguage and applying appropriate theoretical approaches” (European Commission, 2017, p. 8). It should be noted that these descriptions correspond with what scholars refer to as the theoretical competence in their competence models (Wen, 2005; Mu, 2006; Zhou & Ding, 2017), meaning having an abstract body of knowledge of translation and interpreting. The theoretical sub-​competence is important to professional interpreters. Firstly, graduates “are likely to form the pool from which future teachers of translation will be drawn” (Anderman & Rogers, 2000, p. 68). This view is also shared by Mu and Wang (2011) when they look at the academic and disciplinary system of translation and interpreting in China. When some graduates become university teachers, theoretical knowledge and research skills become indispensable. More importantly, translation and interpreting theories can help generalise the knowledge that practitioners have about the practice of translation and interpreting and organise the knowledge into a system (Gile, 2005; Lederer, 2007; Liao, 2011). In other words, while T&I theories alone cannot help students acquire interpreting skills and strategies, they can help explain and

132  Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals describe the strategic sub-​competence. Theories do not necessarily go against practice. In class instruction of T&I practice, theories can help when “practical problems arise or whenever questions put by the student warrant a more thorough explanation” (Chau, 1984, p. 61). Interpreters can better justify the process and product of their work if they have a better understanding of the different views on and actors in translation (Anderman & Rogers, 2000). In Mossop’s curriculum design of translation theories, he concludes with three types of theory classes. The first is research methods and an interdisciplinary understanding of translation studies; The second is understanding translation on a micro level. In this case, translation theories can help explain why a translation product is selected as the “best translation” among a range of solutions. They can also help synthesise the steps and principles in the translation process (Mossop, 1994, p. 402). The third type of theory class is understanding the role of translators from a sociological perspective that helps form translators’ “self-​concept” (ibid.). In other words, after students learn translation theories, they can use meta-​language to describe professional interpreters’ meta-​ cognitive abilities and the problem-​solving and decision-​making processes. The macro-​level theories depict the translation norms formed by different stakeholders. They can expose students to the sociological realities of the profession that “finetune or even revise our definitions of competence in translation” (Buzelin, 2011, p. 9). Therefore, the theoretical sub-​competence is essential to the self-​assessment and peer-​assessment of interpreters and, in turn, to their ability to justify their professional decisions, which is key to the autonomy, social status and professionalisation of interpreters. Given the importance of translation theories in competence models, in educational settings and in the sociological development of professional interpreters, the theoretical sub-​competence is taken as one of the six primary sub-​competences. For undergraduate programmes whose educational outcome is not to produce professional interpreters, the focus is placed on a theoretical familiarisation of the interdisciplinary nature of interpreting. A theoretical summary of the process and product of translation is also helpful, as it can help explain translation norms. In master’s degree programmes, the theoretical sub-​competence can help interpreters improve their self-​ knowledge and self-​ regulation and, in turn, acquire better self-​ assessment abilities and meta-​cognitive awareness. Micro-​level theories help students justify and assess the quality of their work, while macro-​level theories can clarify the role of interpreters in the professional reality constituted by relationships among different stakeholders. Professional Ethics

The last sub-​competence is what is referred to as the service provision sub-​ competence (European Commission, 2017), the professional sub-​competence (PACTE Group, 2000; Zhang & Wang, 2020), knowledge of translation (Kelly, 2005; PACTE Group, 2005; Dong, 2016), or Kiraly’s (1995)

Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals  133 workplace intuition and strategy, Albl-​Mikasa’s (2013) business savoir-​faire, or the professional qualities mentioned by Kelly (2005), Wang (2007), Wen and Li (2010), Mu and Wang (2011) and Zhou and Ding (2017), among others. In some cases, the construct “professional competence” can be an umbrella term for all the sub-​competences that interpreting students are supposed to acquire upon their graduation (Robinson, 2012, p. 86). However, professional competence sometimes means one sub-​competence under a competence model. For example, professional competence can refer to the specific knowledge of a specialised domain of interpreting. Zhou and Ding cite Cao’s competence model for legal translation and identify four sub-​competences. One of the sub-competences is “professional and technological competence”, defined as “the appropriate understanding and application of ethical rules, ethical and legal obligations of a translator working in a legal environment and competence in using electronic tools for translation purposes” (Zhou & Ding, 2017, p. 54, my translation). As has been analysed previously, in such cases, the adoption of the wording “professional” usually implies that translators and interpreters have additional norms to follow in a specialised domain, and therefore are expected to operate according to specific codes of conduct and ethics. This definition does not apply to all generalist interpreting scenarios. In other cases, professional competence is more similar to business competence or knowledge of the profession. As has been previously mentioned, in work psychology, professional competence means “a set of conceptual knowledge, procedures and attitudes, which allows one to resolve problems autonomously and flexibly, when realising a task individually as well as when coordinating work within an organisation” (Dirube 2004, p. 70, as cited in Kuznik & Hurtado Albir, 2015, p. 4). More specifically, professional competence entails the ability to “deal with numerous interruptions while working on an urgency basis, and with unexpected changes to tasks”, “be proactive and very versatile as well as totally polyvalent” and have “computing skills, constant learning on the job and adapting to a polyvalent and flexible workplace” (Kuznik & Hurtado Albir, 2015, p. 19). For example, in the first version of the PACTE model, the instrumental-​professional competence is defined as “knowledge and skills related both to the tools of the trade and the profession”, such as “knowledge of the work market (e.g., translation briefs, etc.) and how to behave as a professional translator, especially in relation to professional ethics” (PACTE Group, 2000, p. 4). In the revised PACTE model, the sub-​competence is redefined as “knowledge about translation” that is “predominantly declarative” (PACTE Group, 2005, p. 59). In its definition, aside from the theoretical analysis regarding the process and product of translation, the sub-​competence also entails “knowledge related to professional translation practice: knowledge of the work market (different types of briefs, clients and audiences, etc.)” and “knowledge of translation associations, tariffs, taxes, etc.” (PACTE Group, 2005, p. 59). Similarly, knowledge of the market context is also highlighted in the POSI model and the EMT framework. Under

134  Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals EMT’s “service provision” competence, professional translators should be able to deal with clients, organise translation projects, conduct quality assurance, analyse industry demand and language policies, and “comply with professional ethical codes and standards” (European Commission, 2017, p. 11). Similarly, Albl-​Mikasa identifies “business-​related know-​how” or “business savoir-​faire” among professional interpreters. The sub-​competence is defined as “the whole range of skills involved in setting up a business, managing a small-​scale enterprise, and establishing and maintaining good customer contact and relations” (Albl-​Mikasa, 2013, p. 2). She further states that this competence can only be acquired through experience in the profession, rather than through practice in class. Therefore, business competence is believed to be acquired after graduation. It should be noted that some of the definitions of professional competence are comparable to those in generic competence, while others belong to competence in specialised interpreting. For example, adapting to a new environment, having basic computer skills, managing multiple tasks (Kuznik & Hurtado Albir, 2015, p. 19), negotiating deadlines and rates, working with peer translators (European Commission, 2017, p. 11) are qualities that university graduates should generally possess to ensure better employability. Some definitions, however, belong to the life-​long learning stage, for the reason that they, like expertise, require experience and accumulation. In addition, some definitions are only applicable in specialised domains. Therefore, professional competence is more suitable to be taken as an umbrella term. It refers to the combination of sub-​competences that graduates of professional T&I programmes should have. Professional competence is the next step in the progression from generic competence. With experience and deliberate practice, professional interpreters will have competence in specialised domains. The sub-​competence of “knowledge of translation” in PACTE or “service provision” in the EMT needs further conceptualisation from the perspective of professional ethics. To some extent, the above-​mentioned constructs can all be grouped as ethical requirements. Professional interpreters are by definition competent, as they “are the people who are largely responsible for the original establishment of the expectancy norms, in fact, for the products of their work naturally become the yardsticks by which subsequent translations are assessed by the receiving society” (Chesterman, 1997b, p. 74). Pöchhacker (2008) also argues that professional translators, by definition, abide by professional ethics. Munday defines the ethics of translation as “linguistic compliance, awareness of context as well as professional behaviour” (2016, p. 252). In other words, the acquisition and activation of professional competence is an ethical issue for professional interpreters. More recently, a number of researchers have devised explicit content of translation ethics in the T&I curriculum (Drugan & Megone, 2011; Gill & Constanza Guzmán, 2011; Baker, 2013; Ren, 2019). Previously, ethics were of an implicit nature in professional translator and interpreter training. For example, though the AIIC code of conduct serves as an important reference

Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals  135 in the design of conference interpreting programmes, it was long instilled in the operational curriculum in the form of hidden curriculum, with “no explicit reference” in course design (Donovan, 2011, p. 112). Incorporating ethics in the interpreter training curriculum is premised on the clarification of its definitions, as there are multiple ethical values in interpreting (Godard, 2001, p. 56, as cited in Song & Cao, 2019, p. 114; also see Chesterman, 1997b; Gouanvic, 2001; Pym, 2012). Similarly to the case of other sub-​competences, it is helpful to divide ethics into generic ethics, professional ethics and ethics in specialised domains. Generic ethics include the civic responsibilities, moralities and qualities that all graduates of tertiary education should acquire. Previously discussed under generic competence, examples of such ethics are implementing national and supranational interests and strategies, complying with national laws and social values (Official Journal of the European Union L394/​10, 2006; Wen, 2010; Krajcso, 2011; Huang, 2019; Ren, 2019). Qualities such as respecting deadlines, teamwork, stress management and adaptability –​that have been previously touched upon –​all bear a generic nature. It has been argued that university graduates should acquire these dispositional and attitudinal qualities in order to sustain employability in the new era. In addition, some personality traits, such as curiosity, perseverance, rigor and motivation, are also regarded as forms of ethics and values (Chesterman, 1997b). The following discussion will emphasise the ethics of the other two stages. Professional ethics are exclusive to professional interpreters. Examples of ethics of specialised interpreting include court interpreting and medical interpreting, where the code of ethics and code of conduct of these domain areas may override those of professional interpreting. Regarding professional ethics, interpreters abide by ethics at a macro-​level and at a micro-​level (Chesterman, 1997b, p. 170), which might contradict one from the other in some cases. Ethics at a macro-​level deal with questions such as what texts or discourses translators and interpreters choose to work on and how the translation is received by its audience. Chesterman also refers to it as personal ethics (1997a, p. 147). The micro-​level ethics deal with the translation process and the relationship between the translator and the text (or the discourse) (Chesterman, 1997b). It does not include the consideration of what to translate, what not to translate, or the broader power and ideological struggle between interpreters and other stakeholders. The distinction between macro-​level and micro-​level ethics is meaningful, as it helps address ethical difficulties resulting from conflicting values. As ethics are governed by multiple values, the choices that interpreters make are dependent upon how one prioritises different, and, in some cases, conflicting, values between generic ethics, professional ethics and ethics in specialised domains. In this vein, a categorical verdict of a translator’s decision to be ethical or unethical is a rather simplistic interpretation of specific scenarios. The discussion on translation ethics in literary translation, for example, deals heavily with macro-​level ethics, or personal ethics. Yet, as has been discussed previously, literary translation does not share the same philosophical

136  Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals understanding as professional T&I, as the former advocates to “blur all boundaries” and “promote the translator’s subjectivity” (Pym, 2012, p. 61). Literary translators tend to argue that instead of translating narratives, translators should create narratives for the sake of an ideology, usually in the protection of a side-​lined minority group forced to be silent in the power struggle (see Tymoczko, 2014; Wang, 2016). Such interventions of deciding which text or discourse to translate are governed by personal ethics, macro-​level ethics or generic ethics. In other words, the interpreter decides to prioritise personal ideology over the professional code of ethics. The decision will be acceptable for the individual, but not so for a professional interpreter who operates under professional ethics and values. When a commitment is made in the professional context, professional ethics should play an overriding role, as the interpreter agrees to enter into the social and professional contract under which he or she is deemed by the other parties as an interpreter. Assuming the role of an interpreter and then altering the intended message is, therefore, a violation of the professional ethics, even though the deviation may be regarded as heroic for ideological reasons. Therefore, conflicts of values are not non-​existent, yet they can be resolved through a distinction between personal ethics and professional ethics. As Chesterman argues: “political engagement of the translator, which may affect the choice of texts to be translated and also ways of translating them […] lies outside the realm of professional ethics” (Chesterman 2001, p. 147). Another point important to the understanding of ethical issues in professional interpreting is the relation between teleological ethics and deontic ethics. The outcome –​or consequence-​based teleological perspective takes into account the “complex situational dynamics” and is, therefore, more “flexible” and “effective” (Dean & Pollard Jr., 2011, p. 157). On the other hand, translation ethics often come in the form of deontic ethics, which, in essence, is to ensure the “adherence to pre-​ordained rules” (ibid.). Similarly, Baker (2006) has expressed the same concern, as prescriptive ethics can hardly live up to the changing context of translation. Dean and Pollard Jr. conclude: [W]‌e view the prevailing, deontological approach in the interpreting profession as both unwise and impractical because of its failure to promote a dynamic, context-​based ethical reasoning process and its limited ability to foster interpreters’ consideration of a range of preferred or less-​preferred, consumer-​focused outcomes. (2011, p. 158) In an attempt to incorporate ethics into the curriculum, it is necessary to define teleological ethics for professional interpreting. However, while Dean and Pollard Jr. advocate for a context-​based discussion of ethical issues, they did not specify what would constitute the teleological outcome of translation and interpreting. Chesterman points out the difficulty faced by translation ethics:

Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals  137 [I]‌t does not seem to have a monopoly on a value goal that is not shared by other groups (compare medicine, with the value goal of health; law, for justice; teaching, for human growth; and the police, for security) (Airaksinen, 1991/​1993). (Chesterman, 2001, p. 145) Not being able to define the teleological outcome of professional interpreting, one ends up with a prescriptive list of dos and don’ts that has been criticised as static by many scholars. The AIIC’s code of conduct is a typical example (see Boéri & de Manuel Jerez, 2011). Of course, deontic ethics are not baseless, as “deontic actions (those the agent feels “ought” to be done) are governed by norms –​and norms themselves are governed by values. A norm, after all, is accepted as a norm because it embodies or manifests or tends towards some value. Values are thus examples of regulative ideas” (Chesterman, 1997a, p. 148). However, values have “limitations of application” (Chesterman, 2001, p. 142). Therefore, deontic ethics are needed in order to define the excellence of, and commitment to, professional work with a set of measurable constructs. They come in the form of a code of conduct or standards of practice (Wang, 2017, p. 46) and they typically emphasise the language, strategic and knowledge sub-​competences that professional interpreters should acquire. The AIIC code of conduct also values working conditions and the principles of impartiality and excellence (Boéri, 2015), the former usually discussed under the knowledge of the profession or service provision in competence models. On the front of the teleological ethics of professional interpreting, Chesterman proposes minimising “communicative suffering” (2001, p. 151). Pym argues that professional ethics regulate translators’ responsibility and action and that professional translators should be loyal to the action of communication (Pym, 2001, 2009). Similarly, Robinson defines translation competence as the ability to communicate and mediate between cultures (2012, p. 197). More specifically, translators and interpreters have “mixed loyalties” between “the pushes and pulls of the source and target cultures”; they should be able to “explain one to another” between cultures (Robinson, 2012, p. 184). In other words, translators and interpreters are there to facilitate cooperation (Pym, 2020). In essence, this teleological value emphasises the functional approach of professional translators and interpreters. As the skopos theory states, translators “design texts for others to cooperate”; they do not “pursue his or her own communicative aim”, but rather their communication aim is “in line with the commission and clients’ needs” (Holz-​Mänttäri, 1993, p. 304, as cited in Schäffner, 2011, p. 159). It is this loyalty to communication that professional translators and interpreters earn their professional status and autonomy. Sometimes, the teleological value of cooperation and communication is often defined through the deontic concept of client brief and client relations (Fraser, 2000; Orozco, 2000; Nord, 2005; Gouadec, 2007; Albir, 2017). It should be noted that for the sake of communication, cooperation does not necessarily mean intervening the message and promoting an

138  Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals agreement. Pym (2020) argues that communication facilitated by translators and interpreters will make it possible to have long-​term cooperation between cultures. Thus, it can be argued that the teleological ethics of professional interpreters is to help secure people’s right to multilingual communication so that people from different cultural backgrounds can have long-​term communication in languages of their own choice. In many cases, the teleological value of multilingual communication and intercultural cooperation does not contradict deontic codes of conduct or standards of practice. Nor is there much inconsistency between generic ethics and ethics in specialised domain areas. For example, promoting multilingualism is a fundamental principle in the EU. Therefore, its implementation is also part of the generic ethics. At the same time, language competence in multiple languages is part of the professional ethics expected of professional translators and interpreters who can help improve European competitiveness and alleviate language barriers between countries in the EU. For another example, promoting multilingual communication is a manifestation of professional ethics. The presence of professional interpreters makes it possible for interlocuters to speak reassuringly across different cultures. It also fits the ethics in specialised domains such as communication in legal proceedings and medical diagnosis. Where there is a conflict of values between professional ethics and ethics in specialised domains, it can be addressed through the perspective of the teleological value of professional interpreting. The prescriptive code of conduct of non-​interference and invisibility becomes insufficient in situations where, for example, a guarded patient with little progress in her previous sessions of therapy asked the interpreter to join her in the interactive treatment (Dean & Pollard Jr., 2011, pp. 157–​158). Baker and Pérez-​González have made similar observations: [T]‌he legal profession has attempted to regulate the interpreters’ role by means of codes of practice that require them to refrain from explicating or clarifying those elements which are deliberately left ambiguous, implicit or unclear in the counsel’s original formulation. Similarly, interpreters involved in doctor-​patient interaction and interviews of asylum seekers and political refugees are expected to align themselves with the interactional goals of their respective institutions, rather than with the individuals requiring institutional assistance. (Baker & Pérez-​González, 2011, p. 42) The teleological ethics of professional interpreting is to facilitate multilingual communication. In other words, to fulfil this ethical obligation, one needs to be competent in formulating strategies aligned with the translation brief so that communication can be facilitated through interpreting. In practical terms, it points to the ability to clarify the translation brief, including the intended

Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals  139 message, working conditions and client education, which constitute the professional code of conduct. This discussion of translation ethics also helps explain why interpreting for specialised domain areas requires life-​long learning, as it operates not only with specialised knowledge and language competence, but also with ethical considerations. The intention of the act of communication is less accessible in specialised domains. In the case of court interpreting for lawyers, for example, straightening out an intentionally ambiguous question is not an act to pursue clarity, but rather a wrong interpretation of the intended message of the speaker. It requires both linguistic knowledge and extra-​linguistic knowledge of legal proceedings in order to comprehend the message. Similarly, in doctor-​patience interactions, if an interpreter manages to have sufficient communication with the doctor before and during the therapy, the additional information acquired can help with strategic decisions about whether to intervene or not. In the case of interpreting for refugees, the interpreter’s responsibility is to facilitate communication between asylum seekers and relevant authorities, rather than deciding who can get institutional help based on the interpreter’s own values. To prioritise the latter over the former may be justified as a personal ethical choice, at the risk of violating professional ethics. In summary, the sixth sub-​competence in the professional competence model is interpreters’ ethics. The teleological value of professional ethics is protecting and promoting the right to multilingual communication for long-​ term cooperation and communication between cultures. Deontic codes of conduct and standards of practice are governed by values such as excellence and commitment and are operationalised into the knowledge of the profession and competence in service provision. When a conflict of different values occurs, one needs to distinguish between generic ethics, professional ethics and ethics in specialised domain areas. The separation between the three does not presuppose opposition between them. In most cases, there is a high degree of convergence. General ethics such as a sense of responsibility, compliance with national interests and team spirit well fit professional ethics. Ethics in specialised areas, such as safeguarding legal rights or promoting health, rarely contradict the professional ethics of translators and interpreters. If a conflict arises, the interpreter has a decision to make between subscribing to personal ethics or professional ethics, as one has the right to refuse the role of an interpreter and insist upon one’s values and ideology. Ethics in a specialised area requires the interpreter to have sufficient knowledge, including the content, forms and skopos of the act of communication beyond face value, in order to facilitate the communication. Interpreters can gradually acquire competence in specialised areas through life-​long learning. The discussion of ethics also helps point out that the effectiveness of communication cannot be secured without a sufficient understanding between the interpreter and other parties in the communication.

140  Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals Concluding Remarks Competence models vary due to four main reasons. First, models are devised through different disciplinary paradigms. Second, there have been silos between translator competence models and interpreter competence models. Third, undergraduate degree, master’s degree and doctoral degree programmes as well as life-​ long learning efforts should be governed by different competence models. Fourth, competence models devised for curriculum development purposes and for instructional implementation purposes place different emphases. Competence analysis for the sake of improving curriculum rests at a macro level. The model by itself cannot automatically produce a complete syllabus of all individual classes. What it can do is justify the juxtaposition of the six primary sub-​competences as proxies for curriculum goals. The interpretation of the six primary sub-​competences into instruction-​level courses and pedagogical design needs separate discussions. A simplistic equation between these sub-​competences and courses may invite potential issues, as sub-​competences can be operationalised not only through individual courses, but also through the hidden curriculum or across a combination of courses. The curriculum-​ level competence model can be summarised in the chart in Figure 5.1. This book deals with professional interpreter training in master’s programmes. The educational outcomes can be translated into the umbrella term of professional competence, which further breaks down into six dimensions. They serve as curriculum goals and they are the framework for stakeholder deliberation. By sorting out conflicts and reaching cooperation, stakeholders can improve the curriculum design and instructional implementation.

Figure 5.1 Competence-​Based Curriculum Goals for Professional T&I Programmes.

Interpreter Competence as Curriculum Goals  141 In the figure, a distinction is made between the three academic degree levels: the undergraduate degree, the master’s degree and the doctoral degree or life-​long learning. They correspond with three types of interpreter competence: generic competence, professional competence and specialised competence. They can all be divided into the same six dimensions: language sub-​competence, strategic sub-​competence, subject matter knowledge, technological know-​how, theoretical sub-​competence and ethical considerations. The definitions of the six sub-​competences vary at different academic degree levels. At the undergraduate level, the educational outcome is to help students acquire generic competence; master’s degree programmes are specifically planned for the acquisition of professional competence. As professional interpreters gain experience in the market reality, they can take up additional skills, abilities and knowledge under the sub-​competences needed in specialised domain areas. It should be noted that the three stages form a progression in which the previous stage is the foundation of the subsequent stage. The progression emphasises that expertise may only be acquired after one gains competence. Similarly, acquiring generic competence is the prerequisite for having professional competence, while having competence in specialised domain areas is only possible for those who have acquired professional competence. In other words, professional interpreters have both generic competence and professional competence, but not necessarily competence in specialised domains. At the stage of life-​long learning, further improvement in generic competence and professional competence as well as the addition of specialised competence constitute the content of continuous learning. The conclusion of this chapter is consistent with the definition of professional interpreters, the educational values in curriculum studies and the research results in the sociology of professions. References Albir, A. H. (2007). Competence-​based curriculum design for training translators. The interpreter and translator trainer, 1(2), 163–​195. https://​doi.org/​10.1080/​ 17503​99X.2007.10798​757 Albir, A. H. (Ed.). (2017). Researching translation competence by PACTE group (Vol. 127). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​btl.127 Albl-​Mikasa, M. (2013). Developing and cultivating expert interpreter competence. The Interpreters’ Newsletter, 2013(18), 17–​34. https://​core.ac.uk/​downl​oad/​pdf/​ 149227​171.pdf Anderman, G., & Rogers, M. (2000). Translator training between academia and profession: A European perspective. In C. Schäffner B. Adab (Eds.), Developing translation competence (pp. 63–​76). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​ 10.1075/​btl.38.07and Baigorri-​Jalón, J. (2015). The history of the interpreting profession. In H. Mikkelson & R. Jourdenais (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of interpreting (pp. 23–​ 40). Routledge. www.taylor​fran​cis.com/​chapt​ers/​edit/​10.4324/​978131​5745​381-​3/​ hist​ory-​inter​pret​ing-​pro​fess​ion-​jes%C3%BAs-​baigo​rri-​jal%C3%B3n

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6 A Case Study on Retour

Currently, more universities are making their institutional curricula and registering new MTI programmes, while the earlier ones have already accumulated much experience in pedagogical practice. Naturally, curriculum improvement is imperative to ensure quality and relevance. As has been conceptualised in the previous chapters, curriculum improvement can hardly be effective through intuitive revision of the existing content or disproportionate attention on one aspect of the teaching and learning experience. This chapter discusses a case study of curriculum improvement with a particular focus on retour training. A competence-​based stakeholder analysis will be done for the two stages of conference interpreter training in Chinese Mainland. After that, an exploratory study is carried out with curriculum-​level considerations for retour interpreting from Chinese into English. Conference Interpreting Programmes in China In 1971, the People’s Republic of China restored its legal status and became the only legitimate representative of China to the United Nations (A/​RES/​ 2758(XXVI), 1972). After that, the demand for Chinese-​English interpreters in the UN picked up. In 1979, with the support of the UN and China’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Beijing Foreign Studies University (BFSU) was officially assigned as the tertiary educational institution responsible for the qualification of UN translators and interpreters, under the mechanism of the UN Training Programme for Interpreters and Translators (Dawrant & Jiang, 2001; Xu, 2005). Between 1979 and 1993, about 200 students were recruited from across the country through competitive examinations, evaluated on graduation by a jury made up of representatives of the UN, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and BFSU, and placed on the UN roster list (Zhang, 2016). The cooperation between the UN and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of China ceased in 1993 as the UN had plenty of Chinese interpreters in the pool. In 2003, Shanghai International Studies University (SISU) initiated its

DOI: 10.4324/9781003303824-7

A Case Study on Retour  151 pedagogical cooperation with the UN (GIIT, n.d.), which was later expanded into the MoU network between the international organisation and 22 universities (MoU network, n.d.). Meanwhile, based on the agreement on trade and economic cooperation between the European Economic Community and the People’s Republic of China (Official Journal of the European Communities L 250, 1985), the EUCITP (EU-​ China Interpreter Training Programme) was officially set up as part of the technical exchanges to facilitate the commercial and economic relations between the two sides. Since 1986, The Department of Interpretation of the European Commission (DG SCIC), with the coordination of the Chinese Ministry of Foreign Trade (and later the Ministry of Commerce), trained over 500 Chinese officials who would spend up to five months in Belgium learning the skills of the interpreting profession (EU-​ China Interpreter Training Programme, n.d.). At the turn of the century, DG SCIC started to provide pedagogical assistance to a selective number of universities in China (GIIT, n.d.). Over the years, pedagogical assistance from international partners to Chinese universities has taken different forms. They have a meaningful impact on how retour interpreting is trained in the monolingual environment in China. Training Conference Interpreters for the UN

In the United Nations, the Chinese interpreting service did not become highly relevant until 1972 (Wang, 1988). Before that, though Chinese had been an official language for some time (Xu, 2005), the Chinese Section/​ Service was under-​used (Guo, 2004). After 1972, there was an increasing demand for Chinese interpreters, which ushered in the birth of the first professional interpreting programme in China (Wang, 1988). The UN Training Programme for Interpreters and Translators under BFSU (the Programme) was unique in the history of interpreter training in the country, because its only mandate between 1979 and 1993 was to train the best language students into qualified UN translators and interpreters and facilitate the language services in the organisation. Students

Among those that applied for the entrance examination of the Programme were some undergraduates from the best universities in China; others were employees of universities, ministries, government departments or agencies (H. Dai, personal communication, August, 2019). They sat for the entrance examination, followed by a round of face-​to-​face interviews (Wang, 1988). In other words, the Programme managed to attract the best-​possible candidates potentially most suited to work in the multilateral inter-​ governmental organisation.

152  A Case Study on Retour Clientele

In theory, the clientele was composed of the Chinese Permanent Mission to the UN, as well as interpreter colleagues in the French, Spanish, Russian and Arabic booths who would pick up the Chinese booth’s retour into English and interpret it into their mother tongues. If the Chinese delegation found the quality of the interpreting service unacceptable, a complaint would be issued to the head of the booth, or through the UN Secretariat to the head of the interpretation section or division, or the Under-Secretary-General in charge of DGACM (Z. R. Li, personal communication, September, 2019). In most cases, the Chinese Mission had the final say regarding the quality of the interpreting services (ibid.). Trainers

The Programme was equipped with the best faculty members of the BFSU English Department. Starting from 1971, in preparation for the curriculum-​ making of the Programme, BFSU sent a group of faculty members to the UN and other international organisations where Chinese language services were provided (Wang, 1988). In addition to the field visits, training resources, such as speech materials, were sent to BFSU by the UN. The UN also despatched experts to assist with the training. Curriculum design will be discussed further in the section on competence analysis below. Political Authorities and Educational Bureaucracy

There was a high degree of convergence of interests between the political authorities and the educational bureaucracy. The Programme was enthusiastically supported by the UN and the Chinese government, who then tasked the Ministry of Education and BFSU to guarantee pedagogical success. The training was carried out at the UN’s financial expense, in the form of USD 6,000 per passed student. In addition, the UN covered the expenses for experts who worked at BFSU as trainers or as jury members at the graduation examination. On the Chinese side, BFSU allocated and financed the senior faculty members for the Programme. The Chinese government provided assistance, too, such as logistical and accommodation arrangements (Z. R. Li, personal communication, September, 2019). Technology

Technology is indispensable in the training and practice of simultaneous interpreting. In the case of the Programme, daily training relied on UN cassette tapes of live speeches. Each student was given a cassette player which had the function of recording both the original speech and one’s own interpreting simultaneously in two different channels on the tape

A Case Study on Retour  153 (Z. R. Li, personal communication, September, 2019). Aside from interpreting booths and double-​channel tape recorders, another technological solution specifically designed for UN translators was to use tape recorders for their oral rendering of a text translation. The recording would then be transcribed with the help of UN typists (Wang, 1986). This method was intended to improve efficiency. At the same time, it required translators to memorise a complicated operational procedure; it also meant that UN translators needed to verbalise fluent translation with punctuational marks to facilitate the work of typists. Therefore, technological applications partly shaped translators’ and interpreters’ competence. Researchers

Given the specific mandate of the Programme, researchers were not heavily involved at this stage. However, even before the Graduate School of Translation and Interpretation (GSTI) was founded under BFSU, students had been encouraged to write graduation theses. Those who did so had a master’s degree in addition to the programme diploma. BFSU faculty members also started to compile textbooks and publish papers (Wang, 1988). Academic interest relevant to the Programme was on a summary description of interpreting pedagogy and the historical account of the Programme. Professional Associations

In the context of the Programme, there was no specific association dedicated to the development of UN interpreters. However, the function of professional associations was fulfilled by a number of bodies and mechanisms. Accreditation was carried out by a jury composed of representatives of the stakeholders. Those who passed the graduation examination would be added to the UN roster and wait for onboarding. The jury was composed of programme faculty members, UN senior translators and interpreters, persons in charge of the UN Interpreting Service or Division, alongside the representatives of UN HR and China’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Similar to the recruitment stage, the interpreting exam would be followed by a face-​to-​face interview. The code of conduct and the professional culture were governed by the UN staff rules and regulations. As the first cohorts of translators and interpreters were sent to the UN as government secondments of China, they also complied with the rules and regulations of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Z. R. Li, personal communication, September, 2019). In addition, AIIC has been negotiating with the UN on the working conditions of freelance interpreters since 1969. Their agreements had an impact on the working conditions for in-​house UN interpreters as well (The AIIC-​ UNCEB Agreement, n.d.).

154  A Case Study on Retour Competence for UN Interpreters

During the trips to international organisations where Chinese language services were required, BFSU faculty members had access to UN documents and live interpretations of UN meetings. The curriculum design of the Programme was based on their field observations. More specifically, consecutive interpreting, simultaneous interpreting and sight translation were the three primary parts of the curriculum, supplemented by UN knowledge and terminology (Wang, 1988). All courses were tailor-​made to the specificities of the UN working environment. For example, much emphasis was put on sight translation and UN terminology, as the BFSU delegation found that interpreting at the UN was heavily reliant on the knowledge of UN terminology and documents (ibid.). The pedagogical arrangements were supported by teaching materials provided by the UN. The organisation sent to the Programme on a regular basis tape recordings of UN meetings, texts of the speeches, UN documents and terminology experts. Aside from translation and interpreting courses, BFSU also set up courses on economics, politics and international law to help students acquire background knowledge relevant to UN topics (H. Dai, personal communication, August, 2019). Students needed to learn how to use the interpreting devices and recording devices. The recording devices helped the students do self-​evaluation in after-​class practice and has been retained as an important training and practice method. Digital terminology management was rather limited at that time. In their work at the UN, interpreters needed to rush from the booth to the office to look for an unfamiliar word in a paper dictionary. This historical period of limited digital access also allowed interpreters to acquire unique long-​term memory. A typical example would be the Chinese translation of Japanese names (H. Dai, personal communication, August, 2019). In other words, interpreters remembered much domain knowledge and corresponding translation by heart to facilitate quick and precise automation during interpreting. The promotion system for UN interpreters was based on seniority and performance. A competence-​based interview (CBI) would be held before a promotion materialised. The CBI jury was composed of the head of the Service of Division, representatives of the UN HR and senior Chinese interpreters and translators (Z. R. Li, personal communication, September, 2019). In terms of performance evaluation, in addition to the CBI, all interpreters needed to submit an annual self-​evaluation report followed by a discussion session on their performance with the head of the Chinese booth (Wei, 1997). The participation of the UN HR during the final examinations and interviews at the Programme could be interpreted as a procedure of screening graduates with the organisation’s values. There was no evidence of other curriculum content related to the code of conduct or code of ethics, though they might be present in the recruitment process or the hidden curriculum.

A Case Study on Retour  155 Implications of Retour Training

The analysis has shown that curriculum-​making is straightforward when political authorities, educational bureaucracy and market demand dovetail. In the case of the UN Training Programme for Interpreters and Translators, the needs of the three stakeholders are highly convergent. The curriculum goals of the Programme, in the form of competence, are set up by trainers through field visits that reflect the demand of the clientele. More specifically, in terms of retour, there is no sign of a fundamental difference in training methodology between the two directions. The training, including, retour interpreting training, emphasises the background knowledge of the UN and the ability to produce quick, correct and precise interpreting of the original discourse. In other words, the educational philosophy that the Programme adopted leans towards essentialism, which is suitable for training interpreters for a single clientele with specialised domain knowledge. International Cooperation on Retour Training

In 1994, after the cooperation between the UN and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of China ceased in the previous year, the Graduate School of Translation and Interpretation (GSTI) was set up. Graduates from the School were no longer added to the UN roster. Since then, courses and materials on the UN as a proportion of the curriculum have naturally been reduced, because graduates would no longer work for the single clientele in the international organisation. Other parts of the curriculum have been retained, such as sight translation of UN speeches, as it is believed to be the building block of interpreting training across a wide range of thematic fields (C. S. Li, personal communication, August, 2019). Since then, China’s conference interpreting programmes have faced a different stakeholder network. Most students start their master’s degree studies immediately after obtaining their bachelor’s degree. Few of them have prior work experience in governmental agencies. The clientele has diversified dramatically. Some graduates are still employed by China’s ministries, governmental departments and agencies, but many others work for companies with international businesses, including state-​owned enterprises and private companies. Some graduates teach T&I and research translation studies in universities. Political support for T&I training has morphed from dedicated support to one programme to an overall endorsement of MTI programmes nationwide. On the front of didactics, more trainers have realised that students need to acquire a range of competences beyond linguistic abilities. More interpreter training programmes have adopted pedagogical methods specifically designed for professional interpreter training. Adapting to these changes and fulfilling the educational outcome of professional T&I training requires additional resources. Evolving needs will not be automatically met without revision in the institutional curricula. In the 21st century, one of the biggest sources of inspiration for curriculum

156  A Case Study on Retour improvement is the pedagogical assistance from international partners, notably the UN and DG SCIC. International cooperation has created additional and valuable pedagogical resources for T&I programmes in China. Pedagogical innovation has also been possible because of technological improvements. The UN MoU Network

In 2003, the Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation (GIIT) was founded at Shanghai International Studies University (SISU). In the process of drawing up the curriculum for of the Professional Diploma Programme in Conference Interpreting (the CI Programme), an agreement on pedagogical cooperation was signed between SISU and the UN Office at Geneva (UNOG). According to the agreement, UNOG would share teaching materials with GIIT; it would also arrange a one-​week dummy booth internship for CI students. The head of the Interpretation Service of the Chinese booth was an external jury member for the graduation examination. In addition, ad hoc lectures by UN staff interpreters would be arranged at GIIT when logistically possible. On the part of GIIT, it should incorporate UN-​related topics and competence into the curriculum. In other words, though the CI Programme was mandated to produce conference interpreters for various employers, the pedagogical cooperation with UNOG would ensure that CI graduates would be competent for UN assignments if they are needed. In 2007, the UN’s long-​term need for qualified interpreters across interpretation booths led to the establishment of the UN MoU network. Currently, the UN has Memoranda of Understanding with 22 universities worldwide (MoU network, n.d.). All of the universities have proven pedagogical credentials and, together, they cover the six official UN languages. With their credentials and reputation, the UN partner universities are supposedly able to attract the most qualified students in their geographic regions. According to the MoU framework agreement, the universities should add UN topics into their curriculum to better prepare their students for UN assignments if the demand emerges. In addition, the universities are responsible for disseminating information and increasing the publicity of UN language posts to help the organisation attract candidates. Under the MoU, the pedagogical assistance is similar to the SISU-​UNOG cooperation since 2003, but technological advancements have brought about more possibilities. For example, UN speeches and documents, which relied on international couriers in the previous century, are nowadays readily available in the public domain on the UN Web TV and the UN Official Document System. The dummy booth internship provides students with an opportunity to be immersed in the UN. Students serving translation internship have a chance to work on UN documents with in-​house translators revising their work. The development of remote communication applications has allowed students to complete remote internships at the UN.

A Case Study on Retour  157 The SCIC-​Universities Cooperation

DG SCIC has a complete pedagogical system for conference interpreter training (SCICtrain: Training modules for interpreting students, n.d.). Its institutional training capabilities have been vital to the EUCITP and the SCIC-​Universities Cooperation with China. In 2005, SISU started its cooperation with DG SCIC (GIIT, n.d.). Under the cooperation agreement, GIIT would comply with the SCIC training methodology, including requirements of the progressive development of interpreting skills, trainers’ profile, aptitude-​based recruitment, eliminatory final examinations and infrastructure readiness, among others. SCIC would provide on-​ site training to GIIT students, as well as training-​ of-​ trainers workshops. Also, as part of the cooperation, GIIT faculty members could work on the China Scholar’s Programme as trainers for the EUCITP in Brussels. The work experience would help improve their pedagogical skills. In addition, GIIT trainers and students could benefit from the EU Speech Repository, with hundreds of pedagogical speeches designed for interpreting training and practice. SCIC senior experts would be on the jury as external members of the final examination of the CI programme to ensure that the evaluation methodology and results meet SCIC’s standards. The SCIC trainers involved in the pedagogical cooperation with GIIT are in-​house English A interpreters or English B interpreters who regularly do retour translation into English. As EUCITP was established almost two decades prior to the SCIC-​SISU Cooperation, SCIC in-​house trainers, though not having Chinese in their language abilities, already had had rich pedagogical experience in working with Chinese A students at the time the SCIC-SISU cooperation began, including designing in-​class activities, arranging co-​teaching between trainers with supplementary language combinations and understanding the unique challenges in interpreting between Chinese and English, among others. Implications of Retour Training

Since 1994, and especially in the 21st century, conference interpreter training has seen changes in almost all aspects of the stakeholder network and competence composition. There have been many new developments in training Chinese-​ English simultaneous retour interpreters. Domain knowledge and rigorous faithfulness to the original speakers remain vital. Meanwhile, the involvement of English A trainers has ushered in a new audience-​oriented training approach. Additional training resources have been made available. English A trainers can organise innovative pedagogical activities with Chinese A trainers. The speech repository is one of the major additions to teaching materials. Technological developments have helped pool resources from different parts of the world on a virtual platform and can set up various training scenarios. The additional resources, methods, practice and experiences help create new possibilities in training Chinese A retouristes.

158  A Case Study on Retour The Question of Retour Interpreting The importance of translation and interpreting from Chinese into other languages has been recognised in recent years because it can contribute to the national strategy of improving effective global communication (General Office of the State Council of People’s Republic of China 2020/​30, 2020). Though much emphasis has been placed on written translation, retour interpreting, particularly in the context of multilateralism, is also relevant. To improve Chinese interpreters’ ability to convey the country’s culture, history and message in English and other languages, institutional programmes need to reflect the increased weight of retour interpreting in their curriculum. However, curriculum improvement cannot yield success without a convergence of interests among all stakeholders and their alignment on the six curriculum goals. For example, does the clientele find the market demand of retour interpreting from Chinese into other languages real or perceived? Do trainers and researchers believe retour interpreting can be effectively taught with the available educational resources and technological applications? If more time is to be spent on retour training, which sub-​competence should be allocated with less time? Or should all institutional curricula expect an increase in teaching hours and investment? Will the educational bureaucracy approve of the additional cost and efforts? Therefore, an emphasis on retour training constitutes a change to the curriculum and it needs well-​structured deliberations to ensure the success of operationalisation and, in turn, improved quality of retour interpreting. The following case study is an attempt to answer two questions: (1) Is putting more emphasis on retour interpreting a justified move that constitutes curriculum improvement? (2) Without prejudice to the overall educational outcome, how should retour training be designed in the current context of Chinese Mainland? Based on the conceptualisation in previous chapters, the following steps will be taken in order to answer the research questions: Step One: Identify the source of change to the institutional curriculum from one stakeholder. Step Two: Deliberate to seek convergence of interests among all stakeholders on the source of change. Step Three: Explore its implications to the institutional curriculum through a competence-​based analysis of curriculum goals. Step Four: Collect instructional evidence to further inform any substantive changes to curriculum design. Step Five: Propose an action plan of improvement to the institutional curriculum. The steps taken in this case study are illustrated in Figure 6.1:

A Case Study on Retour  159

Figure 6.1 The Process of Improving Retour Training in the Institutional Curriculum.

160  A Case Study on Retour Retour Training In the Context of Curriculum Improvement The case study starts with an analysis to see if there is a potential convergence of interests in teaching retour interpreting in China. It then proceeds to explore how retour training should be planned in order to ensure the attainment of the educational outcome. Political Support

Historically, directionality is an indication of power dynamics in international politics (Viaggio, 2002, as cited in Ferndndez, 2005, p. 106). The use of one language over all others is not conducive to the mutual understanding of different countries in the multilateral world (see Li, 2018). In recent years, China has been striving to effectively communicate its narrative to the international community. The national strategy requires strengthened exchanges between the Chinese civilisation and other civilisations, and improved mutual understanding between the Chinese people and the rest of the world, so that China’s stories can be well told and views can be received in a true and unbiased way (Xinhuanet, 2021). Translation and interpreting play a vital role in global communication. China’s President Xi Jinping recently has commended translators of foreign nationalities for their contribution to China’s global communication (Xinhuanet, 2022). Folaron argues that “[t]‌ranslation can give global visibility and voice to texts written in restricted, local contexts, and in so doing allow both knowledge to circulate and the values of diverse cultures to engage substantively with more hegemonic ones” (Folaron, 2015, as cited in Whyatt & Pavlović, 2021, p. 142). China’s official language remains a language with less diffusion. In written translation of literary and academic works, there has been disproportionate translation work from English into Chinese. Reverse translation and retour interpreting, the major means to facilitate Chinese communication with other languages, started only in the 1950s and saw further growth in the 1990s as the country became further involved in economic and political globalisation (Wang, 2011). Retour interpreting has been widely adopted in international organisations and government institutions for political and ideological considerations. In addition, multilingualism is an upheld value in the UN (A/​RES/​76/​268, 2022) and the EU (Official Journal C326, 2012). Since the beginning of the 21st century, the importance of retour interpreting has been elevated in Chinese Mainland (Huang, 2018). Educational Bureaucracy and Professional Associations

Specific to Chinese Mainland, the ideological curriculum has stipulated that institutional programmes are expected to “produce high-​ level, practice-​ oriented and professional/​specialised translators and interpreters who have

A Case Study on Retour  161 all-​round moral, intellectual and physical development. Graduates can meet the need emerging from globalisation and help improve China’s competitiveness” (China National Committee for Translation and Interpretation Education, 2013, p. 1, my translation). In the current context, enhancing China’s participation in world affairs through retour interpreting is an act of implementation of “improving China’s competitiveness” (ibid.). It is also in line with the professional ethics of implementing national strategies and facilitating inter-​lingual communication for long-​term cooperation. The Ministry of Education has made efforts to include reverse translation in the evaluation system of university faculties. For example, it has set up a National Fund for projects translating Chinese literary works and academic publications into foreign languages (National Office for Philosophy and Social Sciences, 2022). The grant is equivalent to national-​level academic research grants, essential to university faculties in their application for professorship. On the front of TAC, its CATTI accreditation exam includes both translation directions. In addition, the professional association organises lectures and workshops on reverse translation and retour interpreting. In 2022, TAC established a national annual award-​giving mechanism recognising the contribution of translators of foreign nationalities in China’s global communication (Wu, 2022). In terms of training materials, governmental policies, reports and speeches have been translated into foreign languages and can be used as training materials. However, most of the materials are only suitable for advanced-​level simultaneous interpreting with text. Market Reality

Retour interpreting was believed to be sub-​ optimal when conference interpreting was first practised in the 1930s. To date, the English, French, Spanish and Russian booths of the UN, for example, still interpret only from other languages into their mother tongues. However, this one-​directional approach became unsustainable in the 1990s when the demand side started to experience major changes. To start with, even in international organisations where only interpreting into A language had been an established practice, the matrix became hardly reasonable in the EU after the enlargement. Waliczek (2002) analyses the relay interpreting set-​ up in the European Commission and the European Parliament and finds that in addition to the Central and Eastern European languages, Finnish has seen a long tradition of retour interpreting in the EU institutions. Likewise, in the UN, the Chinese booth and the Arabic booth differ from the remaining four booths; interpreters do retour interpreting from their mother tongues into English or French, which other booths pick up and relay into their A languages (Wang & Fu, 2020). The reason for such exceptions is mostly demand-​based. Finnish, Arabic, Chinese and others see the need for retour interpreting due to a lack of qualified interpreters who

162  A Case Study on Retour have these languages as B or C languages and interpret them into their mother tongues. Therefore, in international organisations, retour interpreting has been an established practice. Market needs beyond the two major institutional employers also indicate that retour interpreting is necessary. Sometimes referred to as increased demand in the private market (see Gile, 1989, as cited in Ferndndez, 2005, p. 107), this trend is marked by demand outside international organisations or beyond national diplomatic institutions. Harris observes that interpreter training for the purposes of international meetings in “the Europeans and American schools” is vastly different from that catering to the Canadian domestic market (Harris, 1992, p. 261). According to Harris, the majority of assignments in the private market require only two languages, their official languages English and French. The market demand is supplemented by the fact that very few students command a solid base for a third language that enables them to embark on the journey of interpreting, since “foreign languages are rarely taught in the secondary schools” (ibid.). The reality has called for very different curriculum goals of interpreting programmes in Canada from those set up for the post-​war international organisations. One specific addition to the curriculum is bidirectional interpreting between English and French. Students are expected to do both A language interpreting and B language interpreting upon graduation. The situation is similar in a variety of countries, including Poland, Spain and Croatia (Pavlović, 2007). Kwieciński and Feder (2005, p. 60) believe “abandoning retour […] seems undesirable and unrealistic” for the main reason that bilingual and bidirectional interpreting have the biggest market share in the Polish domestic market. Öztürk (2020) argues that a similar situation can be found in Slovenia, Hungary, Finland, Denmark and Turkey. Studies by Ferndndez (2005)’s and Horcas-​Rufián and Kelly (2020) also confirm a market need for retour interpreting in the Spanish market. Similarly, in China, bilingual and bidirectional interpreting is the norm. The national industry report shows that interpreting into Chinese and into other languages take up 42% and 38% of the total market demand, respectively (Translators Association of China, 2020). A major part of the market demand in China is government-​driven. International meetings initiated by the Chinese government, such as the Belt and Road Summit, the Forum on China-​Africa Cooperation, as well as other summits when China is the host country, such as the BRICS and the G20 summits, use Chinese as a pivot language in the relay matrix. Interpreting into other languages is done by Chinese A retouristes only. Despite recent national curriculum changes in China, English continues to be deemed vitally important and remains a major subject in school and extra-​curricular activities. So far, no other language enjoys similar awareness in the Chinese society. On the other hand, Chinese has not yet become a major foreign language in other parts of the world. In other words, despite recent enthusiasm for learning Chinese, interpreting programmes still cannot recruit

A Case Study on Retour  163 enough eligible Chinese B students. As a result, interpreting from Chinese into other languages is predominantly done by Chinese A interpreters. In terms of domain specialisation, while some countries see market demands concentrated in a small number of domain areas, the situation in China is different. The same 2020 report has shown that interpreted content in the Chinese market mainly deals with technology, government affairs and international business (ibid.). In other words, the local market sees demand across various industries. In addition, demand for simultaneous interpreting predominantly comes from international conferences, and there is little need for community interpreting happening in the intra-​ social environment with clear socio-​cultural specificities (see Pöchhacker, 2002, p. 96). Therefore, there is a real demand for Chinese A retouristes in Chinese Mainland. Many assignments require Chinese-​English interpreting, though there is also an unmet need for Chinese A non-​ English B interpreters. Interpreters are also expected to work on a range of subject matters. Didactic Status Quo and Technological Improvement

In markets where retour interpreting is a fait accompli, training endeavours have been carried out and there have been some reflections on the pedagogical design (see Donovan, 2004). Some challenges in simultaneous interpreting are present in both directions; domain knowledge and information density are two examples. However, some challenges are retour-​specific. Challenges related to retour interpreting are first identified by those who were opposed to this practice. Seleskovitch (1999, p. 62, as cited in Iglesia & Opdenhoff, 2014, p. 8) points out that the inferiority of B language command to A language command means that it requires the interpreter to allocate more cognitive resources while the quality of production will still be poorer. Chang and Schallert echo this argument by saying: In particular, an interpreter is less fluent, flexible and intuitive in the B language and will be more prone to first-​language interference, while the process of searching for the “right words” may negatively affect the analysis process. In addition, when interpreting into B, an interpreter needs to invest more effort in monitoring for prosody, pronunciation, coherence and signs of interference. (2007, p. 140) In contrast, Denissenko and Chernov hold the view that quality assessment entails not only target-​language production but also source-​language comprehension. In this regard, native speakers of the source language have a better comprehension and thus can guarantee a higher degree of faithfulness to the original message. Therefore, they believe that retour interpreting is indispensable (Ferndndez, 2005, p. 103).

164  A Case Study on Retour The contention can be dealt with through Gile’s effort model and tightrope theory. Gile (2005) believes that simultaneous interpreting requires sufficient processing capacity for listening and analysis, short-​term memory, production and coordination. In other words, both listening and analysing the source speech and the production of it in another language are important, and they both require cognitive resources. Despite much improvement in quality assessment (see Han, 2022), little additional insight has been gained regarding how comprehension and production are relatively important to one another. Therefore, there is no consensus among practitioners and trainers on the viability of retour interpreting. More specific to Chinese-​English interpreting, when Chinese As attempt to do simultaneous interpreting into English, interpreter trainers have observed a number of challenges. First, in essence, China is a monolingual society. This poses a great challenge to the acquisition of English abilities. Even in the bigger cities where globalisation, economic growth and, in turn, interpreting demand concentrate, Mandarin is the only language spoken in the population’s everyday life. English is rarely used in people’s daily life. English A speakers, “due to social and geographical problems (world distribution and location of speakers, limited socio-​economic inter-​penetration, travel restrictions, media bias)”, are rare in Chinese As’ daily encounters (Setton, 1993, p. 242). The situation has improved thanks to globalisation and technological advancements, with which the younger generations have more exposure to English. However, the fact that English is of little use in people’s daily life stays unchanged. It means Chinese A students have little real experience in communicating in English, yet they are expected to do retour interpreting upon graduation. In other words, learning English and learning retour interpreting from Chinese into English mostly happen in a virtual environment. Furthermore, no other foreign language is considered of similar importance to English. This means teaching retour interpreting into non-​English foreign languages is even more challenging. Second, the interpreting production in retour is usually busier and takes longer than in the other direction. This is mainly due to the difference between Chinese and English. Chinese, in comparison to English, is concise and high-​context (Wu, 2001, p. 84), which means that when interpreting from Chinese into English, one needs to produce “more words” and use a “longer delivery time” (ibid.). Chinese is more compact, with “shorter lexical units with little internal redundancy”(Gile, 2005, p. 15). Chinese speakers use more abbreviations, four-​character words and policies (Setton, 1993). In addition, it has also been pointed out that the two languages are phonologically so different that the retrieval of equivalences in the target language becomes very difficult (Gile, 2005). Third, keeping the English production grammatically correct is not easy, because many of the English grammatical devices are non-​existent in Chinese. Trainers have identified that tenses, the use of articles, collocation and the

A Case Study on Retour  165 use of intonation and stress are notoriously difficult for Chinese interpreting students (Setton, 1993, p. 6; Wu, 2001; Zhang & Bailey, 2015). While occasional lapses may be auto-​corrected by the audience, the cumulative effect of these mistakes harms the effectiveness of retour into English. Fourth, when Chinese As do retour interpreting into English, the approach of linear translation usually speaks trouble. There are several reasons for this. One is that the Chinese and English cultures enjoy “a degree of complexity” but “along different paths”, meaning word-​for-​word equivalence is an unwise strategy to use (Setton, 1993, p. 243). Chinese speakers tend to use idioms, proverbs and cultural quotations which do not necessarily have ready equivalences in other languages. Wu observes that students tend to trip over words that are culture-​specific (Wu, 2001). Likewise, Chang (2005) reports that Chinese A students prefer a meaning-​based approach when interpreting into English, whereas English A students would attempt to find an English equivalence of the Chinese expression, suggesting a lack of language resources among Chinese A students. In addition, Chinese syntax features multiple embedding and complex sentences, making linear interpreting very difficult. Students going along with this approach have been observed to prefer using “noun chains” in their retour into English. The noun chains usually mirror the word order in Chinese, yet they make little sense to English A listeners (Zhang & Bailey, 2015, p. 2971). Some other students choose to stall a bit, resulting in lagging behind the original discourse because of the syntactic differences (Wu, 2001). Due to these reasons, effective chunking is usually taken as an indispensable strategy in Chinese to English retour (Wu & Liao, 2018). Fifth, the Chinese language contains much implicit logic and missing links, some intentionally left unspecified. In contrast, English features an interconnected structure (Setton, 1993; Gile, 2005). Pan and Wong (2019) did a study and compared pragmatic markers in native English political speeches and interpreted political speeches from Chinese into English. Their findings show that interpreted English speeches contain fewer syntactic markers and lexical markers typically used to express attitude. The result suggests either an absence of a clear attitude in the original Chinese speech, or the hesitation to reflect one in interpreting due to the nature of political speeches. Either way, it shows that the unique pattern of Chinese speeches poses an extra challenge in comprehending the original speech. Sixth, direction-​specific strategies have been studied. Chinese retouristes tend to use chunking or stalling to overcome syntactic differences between the two languages. Bartlomiejczyk (2006, as cited in Wu & Liao, 2018, pp. 2–​3) finds that English-​Polish retour interpreters use more paraphrasing, approximation, syntactic transformation and compression as interpreting strategies. Chang and Schallert (2007) come to similar conclusions that in Chinese-​English retour, omission of less important information, transformation, generalisation and condensation are employed by interpreters. Failing to use strategies will cause issues in presentation and style, such as showing too much pause, hesitation or self-​correction as well as incomplete sentences (Chang, 2005, p. 122). In retour interpreting, due to constraints of linguistic

166  A Case Study on Retour resources on the production side, strategies to handle such scarcity and to maximise the effect of limited resources become very useful. However, it does not necessarily mean that using certain strategies can ensure better retour performance. As strategies are applied for problem-​solving, problem prevention and task facilitating, not using strategies may mean an absence of problems, rather than a lack of abilities. In addition, interpreters’ self-​perceived abilities also have an impact on the strategies they adopt. According to Chang (2005) and Chang and Schallert (2007), a contrast between student interpreters and professional interpreters indicates that professional interpreters are more aware of their B language abilities, or rather deficit, when doing retour and they make strategic decisions to reduce mistakes in B language production. Student interpreters, in contrast, are oblivious to their own problems and are under the impression of having “a slight advantage” when doing retour (Chang, 2005, p. 121). If an interpreter deems oneself as not having enough B language resources, it will lead to strategies such as omission, generalisation, inference and other meaning-​based tactics (Chang, 2005, p. 124). Likewise, it is difficult to choose between a word-​based and a meaning-​based approach in retour interpreting into English, as the decision not to use a word-​based approach can either derive from strong analytical ability and comprehension, or the lack of sufficient vocabulary and equivalences (see Dam, 2001; Chang, 2005; Gile, 2005). Therefore, the particular challenges associated with Chinese to English retour are more relevant than the specific strategies these challenges induce. In addition to the pedagogical findings, there have been some technological updates that potentially can help expand training opportunities. Remote teaching helps pool trainers and students across different geographic locations onto the same virtual platform. More specifically, synchronised remote teaching facilitates comparative analysis of multiple interpreting versions of the same original speech, whereas asynchronised teaching helps overcome time zone differences and allows trainers to work with students in more flexible arrangements. In addition to creating a communication platform, technology also contributes to the compilation of teaching materials. Despite the excessive supply of visual and audio online content, much of which could potentially be used as training materials, there is still an insufficient supply of Chinese speeches suitable for interpreter training. In addition, the conundrum of evaluating speech difficulty levels holds back training quality. There have been attempts to measure speech difficulty. Main constructs include vocabulary, sentence length, discourse length, intertextuality, syntactic complexity, number of proposition, accent, speed and intonation (see Alexieva, 1994; Chang, 2005; Braun & Kohn, 2012; Xu & Deng, 2013; Liu & Chiu 2009, Huang & Bao, 2016; Setton & Dawrant 2016; Wang & Mu, 2019). However, there is little possibility of determining the relative weight of the myriads of variables in their contribution to the overall difficulty of the source speech. Furthermore, the quantitative values of many of these constructs are still subject to the judgment by expert evaluators. In other words, teaching

A Case Study on Retour  167 materials with progressive difficulty levels remain to be designed based on experts’ interpreting and pedagogical experience. In this context, speech repositories become indispensable in retour training. Repositories have the function of collecting pedagogical speeches that have proved to be meaningful and valuable in training. They can also feature additional information such as difficulty levels, training focus and descriptive comments. Research Findings

The above summary of pedagogical and technological developments constitutes some of the research findings in directionality. In addition, testing and assessment is also a relevant research area. More specifically, the sociological discussion of users’ perspectives is relevant. The analysis starts by questioning whether interpreter trainers are the only agencies to judge the quality of retour interpreting. For example, Pöchhacker argues: The more one focuses on interpreting as a service to enable communication in a particular constellation of interaction, the more easily one will accept that the degree of ‘success’ –​or indeed any other criterion of quality –​is necessarily judged from a particular (subjective) perspective in and on the communicative event.” (Pöchhacker, 2002, p. 97) There are quite a number of such subjective perspectives in interpreting. Pöchhacker further quotes Viezzi and distinguishes these perspectives into three categories: those that are directly involved in the interpreting-​facilitated communication, those that are indirectly involved and external observers who are “interested in measuring ‘objective’ features” (Vieazzi, 1996, p. 12, as cited in Pöchhacker, 2002, p. 98). Seleskovitch (1986) lists a number of users that can potentially be quality assessors, including end users, chief interpreters, employers and precis writers. In addition to chief interpreters, peer interpreters are also a relevant group (Bühler, 1986; Kurz, 1993; Pöchhacker, 2002, p. 97). When it comes to meetings in international organisations, Seleskovitch argues that precis writers are best positioned to give quality evaluations because they “have to rely on interpretation to understand the proceedings of a meeting for which he or she has to draft the minutes” (1986, p. 236). In other words, when the quality of one’s work is positively correlated with the quality of the interpreting performance, one is more reliable in evaluating interpreters’ performance. In this vein, end users’ feedback on quality seems more relevant. However, their evaluation should also be contextualised in specific domain areas and this partially contributes to the lack of comparability between different studies on this topic. For example, it has been found that end users in medical conferences do not necessarily value accent, voice or grammar as much as terminology (Meak, 1990 and Kurz, 1993, as cited in Kurz, 2001; Gile,

168  A Case Study on Retour 1991). Similarly, in technical meetings, fidelity is more important than other quality criteria (Zhang, 2010). While domain-​ related considerations are indispensable in markets where demands concentrate on a small number of subject matters, such domain-​based prioritisation is less relevant to the heterogeneous Chinese market. The educational outcome of professional interpreter training is to produce generalist interpreters at an entry-​level, and the Chinese market features a wide variety of domain areas. Therefore, end users are considered as a whole. In addition, some end users have a limited perspective on interpreting quality, because they tend to form an overgeneralised impression of fidelity, as they will not constantly check between the source information and the interpreting production (Selescovitch,1986; Gile, 1991; Kurz, 2001; Christensen, 2011). The difference between end users and employers is that although the latter assign interpreters to meetings, they themselves are not part of the communication situation. Therefore, these important decision-​makers are intermediaries in inter-​lingual communication and are not likely to have an objective assessment of quality (Selescovitch, 1986; Moser-​Mercer, 1996). English teachers with expertise in linguistics and second-​ language acquisition are not ideal assessors either, because they tend to be overly attentive to English grammar, accent and voice (Kurz, 1993). In summary, retour training should involve A language practitioner-​trainers, as has been put forward in the AIIC best practice guidelines for conference interpreting training programmes (Best practice guidelines for conference interpreting training programmes, n.d.) and the EMCI Core Curriculum (EMCI core curriculum, n.d.). The co-​teaching between English A trainers and Chinese A trainers can cover a wider range of users’ perspectives and bring about a comprehensive evaluation of fidelity, language and delivery, and whose operationalisation in training is heavily dependent on the real-​life experience of communication situations. In the absence of sufficient trainers, innovative resource allocation may be invaluable. An Exploration of Chinese-​English Retour Training The above analysis has covered the eight stakeholders. The result has shown a convergence of views on retour interpreting. At the same time, several challenges in teaching retour interpreting have been identified. Addressing the difficulties is not impossible, as new opportunities have emerged, such as additional training resources, technological improvements and innovative didactic methods. These allow the involvement of English A trainers in addition to Chinese A, English B trainers. Given that the technological know-​how, theoretical sub-​competence and professional ethics pertaining to retour interpreting have been discussed under the stakeholder analysis, the following competence analysis will focus on the remaining three sub-​competences –​namely, language sub-​competence, strategic sub-​competence and domain knowledge.

A Case Study on Retour  169 Empirical Design

The following exploratory study is a content analysis of the feedback to students on their simultaneous retour interpreting given by in-​ house interpreting practitioners with rich pedagogical experience. None of the evaluators have Chinese in their language combinations. Some are English A interpreters; the others are interpreters who do retour into English. English Bs’ comments are equally relevant because they are immersed in communication situations where retour is practised. In other words, they are the experts in overcoming difficulties specific to retour. All the non-​Chinese trainers will be referred to as English A trainers as a shorthand expression in the remaining part of the case study. In addition, a Chinese A English B trainer is involved. The English A trainers are all domiciled in Europe and the Chinese A trainer is based in China. All trainers received formal professional interpreter training in interpreting programmes recognised by CIUTI and they all have years of experience in interpreting and interpreter training. The trainers form a mentorship project dedicated to training Chinese A students for their retour interpreting into English. The project was designed for second-​year conference interpreting students. When the project started, the students had already passed the mid-​point competitive examination of consecutive interpreting in both directions. The jury of the examination was composed of interpreter trainers, senior interpreters with recruiting responsibilities in international organisations and local practitioners. Therefore, it was assumed that the students had adequate language sub-​competence, strategic sub-​competence and domain knowledge to proceed with the second-​year study of simultaneous interpreting. The project was launched six weeks after the students had started to learn simultaneous interpreting from English into Chinese. The project design was to ensure that the students had acquired the basic skill of listening and speaking at the same time, so that they could produce meaningful retour interpreting for trainers to give feedback on. Pedagogical speech materials used in the project were jointly prepared by one of the English A trainers and the Chinese A trainer. For each round of the exercise, the English A trainer would provide a pedagogical speech of about 10 minutes in length in his mother tongue. All speeches in this project were argumentative, containing opposing or relevant arguments, new concepts and their explanation, figures, nuanced meaning and other triggers of difficulty. The Chinese A trainer would develop a Chinese version after receiving the English speech. The Chinese speeches were faithful to the content, including all argument and details, of the original English ones, with exceptions only in expressions that required cross-​cultural interpretation. The Chinese speeches were delivered in class by the Chinese A trainer in a simulated real-​life setting of interpreting assignments. More specifically, the students could see the speaker; they were given the topic of the speech and sometimes some of the overly specific words beforehand; they had the time

170  A Case Study on Retour to adjust interpreting devices. The students recorded themselves while they interpreted the Chinese speeches. Each student was paired up with an English A trainer. After the students did retour interpreting in class, they would immediately send their rendition to their trainer, while the trainers already had the original English version of the speech. The trainers would listen to the interpretation and then formulate their feedback. Some trainers used the original English speeches as a reference if they were not sure about the retour version. When the trainers gave feedback, they adopted different ways. Some trainers used written feedback; some preferred recording their verbal feedback and sending it to the students; a few exceptions existed where the trainers would set up a video meeting with their students. The mentorship project started in 2019. Each stage lasted one year until the second-​ year students completed their professional diploma examination. Currently, the project is in its fourth stage. On average, each cohort of students would do eight rounds of interpreting and receive feedback from their respective trainers throughout the timespan of two semesters. Data Collection

This case study is based on one cohort out of the four. After each round of the exercise, the Chinese A trainer would collect students’ performance and their trainers’ feedback. In the case where the feedback was given in an audio format, voice recognition applications were used to obtain written files which were then manually revised by the trainer. Students’ interpretations were also transcribed and all the mistakes, redundancy or hesitation were retained in the written documents. Among the students in this cohort, complete data were collected from eight students. During their one-​year study in the second year of the CI Programme, the students did nine rounds of retour practicing in the mentorship project. In other words, the following sections are based on data from eight students, eight non-​Chinese trainers who gave one-​on-​one feedback, an additional English A trainer for speech-​making and one Chinese A trainer. The eight trainers had different styles in their feedback. Some would go through their notes in a chronological logic and list all the points they felt were problematic; others would organise their feedback into different topics and supplement each point with several examples that they noted from the students’ interpreting performance. In this study, an entry of comment contains at least two elements. The first is a citation of the student’s performance. The second is a trainer’s description of a potential issue, supplemented by an explanation of why the highlighted part of the student’s interpretation was unacceptable. Sometimes, a comment also contains an additional third part, that is a revised version of the student’s performance. For example, an entry can be: Trainer’s comment: Then you said “and they will stop being existent”. I might be getting what you want to say […] But just simply say they will not exist

A Case Study on Retour  171 anymore. Okay? When they collide, when they crash into something, they will burst into flames and they will not exist any longer. (#3, T4). This is an example of retour challenges concerning A language interference. The trainer identified that the sentence was mechanical and unnatural, described his or her feeling that it was unacceptable and proposed a better expression. In comparison, the following comment contains positive feedback on a student’s B language adequacy. It only counts as one entry, instead of six: Trainer’s comment: Your vocabulary is rich and quite idiomatic, and you had some really nice expressions: to have a say; to enjoy the rights; to engage in deciding about; gender pay gap; room for improvement; to embark upon. (#2, T7) The main rationale is that when a trainer elaborated on an issue, it means that the trainer found that particular part of the interpretation was not entirely acceptable. However, if there was a list of examples, not all were necessarily equally problematic; the trainers probably put in more examples because the new examples reminded them of their previous comments. In addition, positive feedback is deemed as relevant as negative comments. An entry of positive feedback is a comment made by a trainer recognising a good point of performance or an improvement on a previously identified issue, whereas an entry of negative feedback is on a specific aspect of the interpreting product that the trainer felt was not entirely acceptable or natural. Assessing interpreting performance is not equivalent to a process of error detection. The quality of an interpretation is not entirely based on a numerical count of who makes more or fewer mistakes. Positive feedback contributes to the overall performance assessment as much as negative feedback does. Together, the two types of comments can better reflect what English A trainers value in Chinese interpreters’ retour into English. In this study, content analysis was done on the students’ interpreting performance and trainers’ feedback of the first, mid-​point and final ­exercises –​i.e., the first, fifth and ninth exercises. The feedback of the eight trainers resulted in a total of 25,342 English words, coded into 498 entries. Results and Discussion In the following analysis, English As’ feedback has been categorised into 12 types. Examples are presented under each type. The notation of #1, #2 and #3 indicates the round of exercise; T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, T7 and T8 stand for the eight pairs of trainees and trainers. For example: Trainer’s comment: Very often you say I want to talk more about something. Try to come up with some variation here, like: I want to elaborate on/​focus on/​look into/​1 would like to talk to you about. (#3, T2)

172  A Case Study on Retour The notation (#3, T2) means the entry was a comment by trainer No. 2 to trainee No. 2 for his or her interpretation in the third round of exercise under study, which was the ninth and final speech the students did in that year’s project. So far, quality assessment for interpreting has been carried out following the broad criteria of content, language and delivery (Han, 2022). Juries of institutional employers and training programmes adopt more detailed and similar criteria. For example, the EU interpretation accreditation exam uses coherence, accuracy, knowledge of the passive language, quality of the target language, communication skills and interpretation strategies (Pearson, 2022). While these dimensions are sufficient for deliberation-​based accreditation exams designed for conference interpreters working in more defined settings, classroom instruction or standardised examinations facing a massive number of students can benefit from further operationalisation of criteria and indicators. In essence, the result of the case study constitutes a more detailed definition of quality assessment criteria for Chinese English retour interpreting from an English A perspective. Voice

In the trainers’ feedback, there was a pattern of noticing the students’ voice. Among the 498 entries of feedback, 13 were comments on this dimension. Nine of them were positive comments, while the remaining four were about room for improvement. Only one comment was specifically on the pleasantness of the interpreter’s voice: 【Example 1】

Trainer’s comment: First of all, I’d like to say that I truly enjoyed listening to your delivery. You have a very nice and pleasant voice timbre, which is calm and confident. (#1, T6) Even in this example, the trainer emphasised that a pleasant voice would be a positive trait because it could induce the audience’s confidence in the interpreter. In the remaining 12 comments, trainers all mentioned that a good interpreter’s voice should be calm, confident, communicative and in control so that the audience would have faith in the interpretation they received: 【Example 2】

Trainer’s comment: You also sound stressed and a little bit almost strangled. Your voice is not coming through naturally […] So I would definitely advise you to some voice exercises, some voice coaching. (#1, T8) Clarity

12 comments could be attributed to the criterion of clarity, among which four were positive feedback and eight were negative. The construct clarity carries

A Case Study on Retour  173 rich meaning. Some scholars use clarity to mean enunciation; sometimes, language proficiency is assessed under clarity (Pöchhacker, 2002, p. 96). The content analysis concluded with two definitions. First, interpreting products were found to be unclear when students had unnecessary repetition and self-​correction. The trainers pointed out in multiple comments that unnecessary and excessive repetition and self-​ correction were problematic because they stood in the way of understanding the speaker’s message. The following is an example of backtracking and repetition: 【Example 3】

Trainer’s comment: And when it comes to figures, I know the figures are always difficult. And I would say, wait, which you probably do already, and write it down if that does not take up too much brain space. But my tip would be to try not to say anything until you are sure. Because if you correct yourself three times, if you say “five and, no hundred million”, it could create confusion for the listener, and they will be uncertain that maybe unconfident and what they have heard. (#3, T5) Original Chinese: (其实，抓取太空垃圾操作起来非常困难)，因为这些碎片 在轨道中运行有一定的运行速度，大约是每小时17500公里。 Trainee’s rendition: […] Because the debris is eh…is…eh…ruling around the earth at about 75 thousand, 75 hundred, eh… 75 million kilometre per hour around the earth. The example shows that self-​correction and repetition would inevitably cause interpreters to add words to the already compromised rendition, causing more mistakes rather than correcting mistakes. 【Example 4】

Trainer’s comment: There were some bits where I got a little bit lost. The first one was when you started listing the countries that were the first, I think, where the first wave started, like Austria, Switzerland, et cetera. But it was not quite clear. You also corrected yourself at some point, and I would not really have got the message 100%. So please maybe review that bit. (#2, T8) Original Chinese: (世界上第一次庆祝国际妇女节是在欧洲，发生 于1911年)，当时呢，在为数不多的、少数几个欧洲国家，包括奥地利、德 国、瑞士、意大利、丹麦等等，进行了一系列的庆典活动。 Trainee’s rendition: At that time, only several countries celebrated the festival, i.e. Austria, Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Denmark. These were the only countries that celebrated International Women’s Day, sorry, that celebrated women at that time.

174  A Case Study on Retour The decision of self-​correction led the student to repeat the sentence structure from the beginning, causing reduced self-​monitoring and, in turn, a bigger mistake towards the end of the sentence. Clarity was also impacted when students demonstrated verbal redundancy. Typical examples included “ahh”, “and”, “and so”, “and other things”. 【Example 5】

Trainer’s comment: You used the link word or two link words, I quote, “and also”, too often. You linked several sentences using “and also” […] You just had to finish the sentence, put a clear comma, make a clear pause and start another sentence. Because when you link your sentences with “and also”, then it becomes a very, very long stretch of sentence. That is not right. We want to have clear pauses because that has an impact on how we understand what you told us, whether we can follow as listeners. (#2, T4) Original Chinese: 第三波浪潮呢，起止时间一般是定于1980年开始， 到21世纪初。在这段时间，主要是促进女性在社会中的地位，也是在这个 时期，涌现出了一批女性卓越的领导人，比如说像政党领袖，比如说像国 家的政府首脑，还有在商业、经济、金融等等，对全球有很大影响力的杰 出女性。第四波浪潮也是我们现在当下，从2010年开始。在这段时间，我 们所强调的是女性的身份，女性要实现自我价值，要学会自尊自爱，同时 希望解决针对女性的、仍然没有被解决的歧视，比如由#metoo运动所引领 的解决针对女性的性骚扰等等。 Trainee’s rendition: The third stage is generally considered to start in the 1980s and lasted until the first, the beginning of the 21st century. This was to give women more rights, and during this period of time, there were a lot of women leaders and politics and economics, among other things. The fourth stage is what we are experiencing now, starting from 2010. During this period of time, the focus has been on awareness, having more awareness over women’s, on aspects of women’s life, and also solve some, the inequalities that haven’t been solved, and also there has been a focus on gender, sexual harassment. While it is meaningful to devise an exhaustive list covering all types of redundancy, in the judgment of English A trainers, it is these two that stood out. In the case study, a compromise on clarity sometimes happened when the original speech featured dense and decontextualised information, which required automation in interpreting. In some other scenarios, the Chinese speeches were organised in a way that made it difficult for the students to utter anything meaningful, in which case they then chose to put in meaningless fillers for the awkward silence. It should be pointed out that while repetition, backtracking, self-​correction and verbal redundancy are the definitions of a lack of clarity, the solution is hardly to wait, stall or speak less in retour, or it will harm content fidelity. Therefore, definitions of criteria are different from solutions to the identified problems.

A Case Study on Retour  175 Intonation

Intonation is another well-​established criterion for interpreting quality evaluation. Sometimes, it is a construct under the broad category of interpreting style. In other cases, scholars take intonation as part of linguistic proficiency (see Setton, 1993). In this study, the content analysis resulted in 17 entries of feedback, among which eight were positive comments and nine were negative. They can be further divided into three types of problems. First, the insufficient or improper use of intonation could cause a collision between the end of one sentence and the beginning of the following sentence. It would result in unclear signposting of different sentences, which would compromise the understanding of the meaning. 【Example 6】

Trainer’s comment: You said, “our children are different from our parents when our parents were young. After the second world war, the technology advanced”…I have an impression that I didn’t get a clear pause after “when our parents were young”. You see, when you do retour, you need to have clear pauses between sentences. (#1, T4) Original Chinese: 我们都知道，现在的孩子比起上一代、上两代的孩子来说， 所身处的世界已经完全不同了。在二战之后，随着技术的发展，全球化的进 步，以及人们生活水平的普遍提高，世界已经大有不同。 Trainee’s rendition: Our children are different from older generations, such as our parents, when our parents and grandparents were young. After the second world war, as technology advanced and globalisation spread and people have richer life, the world has become totally different place. Second, intonation would be problematic if the audience deemed it as mechanical and monotonous. The use of intonation should help highlight the structure of the speech. 【Example 7】

Trainer’s comment: […] you mentioned Saudi Arabia […] only gave the right to vote to women in 2011. And then you quite seamlessly moved on to say “so this was the first wave”. I understand what you were referring to […] but it would have been much clearer if you had paused a second after 2011, then said “so”, then another pause, and then “this was the first wave”, while slightly stressing the first. (#2, T7) Original Chinese: 最晚一个赋予女性投票权的国家是沙特阿拉伯，时间到 了2011年，沙特阿拉伯的女性才有投票权。这是我们刚才说的第一波浪 潮，第一波浪潮之后呢就是第二波浪潮了，专家一般认为它的起始时间是 在1960年，到1975年到1980年之间。

176  A Case Study on Retour Trainee’s rendition: The last country that granted women’s right to vote is Saudi Arabia, which took place in 2011. This is the first wave of feminism. The second wave, experts think it started in 1950 and till 1980s. Third, intonation should help explicate logical relations between sentences; it is also used to express emphatic, rhetorical and other meanings without additional words in the rendition. The student interpreters tended to be ignorant of the importance of intonation. In some other cases, students might go to the other extreme and place emphasis on too many parts of the sentences, thus watering down the logical information that should have been embedded in intonation. 【Example 8】

Trainer’s comment: In your rendition, you kind of set everything in the same tone of voice […] This thing that some climbers leave garbage along the way, and they even leave themselves there, that’s irony…I got it, but it came as a surprise. (#3, T8) Original Chinese: 每年都约有600多人向山顶进发，希望可以成功登顶。他 们这去的一路上就会乱丢各种垃圾。据统计，每年会产生约5吨左右的垃圾 […] 还有些人呢，会把自己乱丢在登山的路上。（什么意思呢，据统计， 珠峰沿路有100多具登山者尸体。） Trainee’s Rendition: Every year, six hundred or so of climbers try to conquer the mountain but they leave a trail of trash behind. It is calculated that every year five tons of trash is left on the mountain […] some even leave themselves there. In short, intonation will harm the quality of interpretation when it fails to guide the audience to identify different sentences, the structure of the original discourse, or the information related to logic or attitude. Pronunciation

The fourth category of potential problems is pronunciation. Among the 36 entries on this issue, four comments were positive, while the remaining 32 were negative. There are four types of problems with pronunciation. First, among all the problems, mistakes with pronouncing vowels were the most common. It was identified by many trainers that students had incorrect or incomplete pronunciations of vowels. More specifically, students could not distinguish between relevant long vowels and short vowels, the misuse of which would confuse the audience. Examples included: detail (#1, T2), drown (#1, T3), means (#2, T4), rich vs reach (#1, T4), live vs leave (#2, T7), working vs walking (#3, T7). Second, some mistakes occurred because the pronunciation of some isolated cases of words would deviate from the general grammatical rules, such as debris (#3, T2) and fasten (#1, T4).

A Case Study on Retour  177 Third, there were a small number of cases in which pronunciation was distorted due to a lack of cognitive resources assigned to self-​monitoring in the simultaneous mode, such as tired vs fired (#1, T8). However, this issue was only spotted in the first round of the exercise, indicating that it should be fairly easy to be ironed out once students acquire the ability to listen and speak at the same time. Fourth, some words are notoriously difficult for Chinese students due to the impact of the Chinese mother tongue or local dialects. Examples included the pronunciation of “th” (#3, T4) and poor vs pull (#3, T7). Pronunciation is part of the basic linguistic abilities under language competence. Among the four identified sub-​groups of pronunciation problems, some are more persistent than others. Vowel-​related mistakes may be harder to correct, as the problem was prevalent across different rounds of exercises. In addition to pointing out the mistakes and demonstrating the correct versions, the trainers explained that correcting one’s pronunciation was more than a linguistic exercise. They emphasised that mispronunciation or incomplete pronunciation would jeopardise the understanding of the entire message. 【Example 9】

Trainer’s comment: […] the part about Trump, I did not get phonetically. Some trouble with the pronunciation here. (#2, T2) Original Chinese: 比如说，2016年的美国大选，选出来的是特朗普。我个人 觉得，特朗普可能是男性劣根性的集大成者。 Trainee’s rendition: For example, Donald Trump ever won the Presidential Election in 2016. I think President Trump has off laws. In this example, the student probably wanted to say President Trump “has all flaws”. The incorrect pronunciation of “all”, which involves challenges referred to both in the first and fourth sub-​groups, and the unnatural expression left the audience confused about the message. Grammar

As has been reflected in the literature, grammatical mistakes are prevalent in the English retour performance of Chinese A students. Out of the 498 entries of comments, 127 were about grammar, among which two were positive feedback, while the remaining highlighted grammatical problems. While grammar has been widely known to be difficult for Chinese A interpreting students, the content analysis revealed that not all grammatical mistakes stood out to be equally intolerable by English A trainers. For example, mistakes related to collocations can take place between nouns, adjectives and adverbs, nouns and verbs, among others. However, trainers only spotted mistakes in preposition

178  A Case Study on Retour collocation. In addition, within each identified sub-​category of grammatical issues, trainers did not give an exhaustive list of all the mistakes. In other words, they pointed out fewer mistakes than the trainees made. Therefore, the analysis can reflect the most severe grammatical problems standing in the way of communicating and understanding among the English A audience. First, inconsistent use of tenses received the greatest number of entries. The typical frowned-​upon issues were using two inconsistent tenses in consecutive sentences or tenses in discrepancy with adverbial phrases of time. These break up the timeline of events and, in turn, cause confusion. 【Example 10】

Trainer’s comment: [You said that] in the 19th century, no matter where you are and what social class you are in […]–​we are talking about the past, so past tense should be used. (#2, T6) Original Chinese: 在19世纪，女性无论身处哪一个国家，无论身处哪一个 社会阶层，她们对于自己的人生，都没有任何的控制权，没有任何的话语 权。 Trainee’s rendition: In the 19th century, no matter where you are and what social class you are in, women didn’t have any control on their social status. In many cases, the trainers elaborated on the reason why the students’ tense choices were unacceptable. Instead of pressing on the grammatical rules, the trainers would explain how and why the improper use of tenses created confusion. 【Example 11】

Trainer’s comment: You said that the death toll is 150. The use of the present tense suggests to me that 150 people die every year, and I was waiting for you to say it. But what you meant is that the death toll has been 150, (and perhaps adding “so far” at the end to emphasise the time span). (#3, T7) Original Chinese: 还有些人呢，会把自己乱丢在登山的路上。什么意思呢， 据统计，珠峰沿路有100多具登山者尸体，也没有专门的人员进行清理，把 尸体运回山脚。甚至有些尸体还被后来的登山者拿来作为指路的标记。 Trainee’s rendition: Or maybe some people died eh…in the journey and the death toll is about 100 and the dead bodies are not transported back and some dead bodies are being used as a reference to allow people to know the direction. Second, the use of definite and indefinite articles proved to be challenging among Chinese A students. Similar to the cases of tenses, Chinese A students

A Case Study on Retour  179 had textbook knowledge of the definitional differences between different tenses and articles. However, they were not sufficiently aware of how grammatical components of the English language would have an impact on the meaning of the message. Examples included: the UN (#2, T6), the internet (#1, T5), New Zealand (#2, T7), the earth vs earth (#3, T3), space vs the space (#3, T2, T3, T5, T8), among others. One particular problem is the incorrect use of the definite article. Students tended to overuse it in places with no reference to any previously mentioned information. The consequence was that the audience would have a hard time mentally going back to what had been said in an attempt to find out what the interpreter referred to. As a result, it would cause confusion and misunderstanding. 【Example 12】

Trainer’s comment: [You said that the children are living in a different world] … the speaker, I imagine, was referring to an unspecified group of children or children in general. Especially when there is a general statement, you should watch out for using the definite article too much. (#1, T3) Original Chinese: 我们都知道，现在的孩子比起上一代、上两代的孩子来 说，所身处的世界已经完全不同了。 Trainee’s rendition: Today, the kids are, compared to the last generation, are living in a very different world. Third, issues pertaining to agreement between subject, verb and pronoun outnumbered many other types of grammatical mistakes. Mistakes tended to occur when students did not have the cognitive resources to monitor the grammatical coherence of their output as they needed to rush to keep up with the new information they heard. In addition, students would fail to empathise with the English A audience as to how distractive mistakes in the subject-​verb-​ pronoun agreement could be. There were several examples: Microsoft have (#1, T7), Saudi Arabia give women rights (#2, T3), places which is poor (#2, T2), in these country (#2, T7), a woman … their main task was … (#2, T6), Hilary Clinton … he was a woman (#2, T4). Fourth, students preferred the plural form of nouns, including that of uncountable nouns in their interpreting, presumably with an intention to save cognitive attention that otherwise needed to be allocated to choosing the right article in front of the nouns. Examples include the wrong use of the plural forms of debris (#3, T6), garbage (#3, T2, T6), information (#3, T2, T4) and friction (#3, T3). The creative use of plural forms was not acceptable to English As. Even when a noun could be both countable and uncountable, English A trainers would explain why an indiscriminate use of plural forms was problematic.

180  A Case Study on Retour 【Example 13】

Trainer’s comment: […] Even though you can say them in the plural, they are just more often than not used in the singular English. For example, we talk about “take action” and “use technology” rather than “actions” and “technologies” unless you are talking about specific multiple technologies or specific multiple actions. (#3, T5) Chinese original: 针对这些太空碎片，已经有许多企业家展开了行动。比 如在欧洲就有一家公司，每年受政府数百万欧元的资助，发明了一种带有 机械臂的航天飞船，抓取这些太空碎片，并助推它们受到地球大气层的捕 捉，并以此把这些碎片燃尽。 Trainee’s rendition: Many entrepreneurs are taking actions. One enterprise in Europe supported by billions of eh…government…euros of government subsidies are now using technologies to pull these debris…catch and pull these debris back into the earth, so that they can be burnt out. Fifth, preposition collocation proved to be harder to master for Chinese A students. They usually found it difficult to come up with the right prepositions in automation. For example: fall into the water (#1, T6; #3, T3), resort to different ways (#1, T2), no matter in which country (#2, T4), endow women with rights (#2, T2), dispose of the waste (#2, T2) and the atmosphere thins out (#3, T8). The remaining three types of grammatical mistakes pointed out by English A trainers were: wrong word order in subordinate clauses, the misuse of words as part of speech and mistakes in transitive and intransitive verbs. However, all of the mistakes were mentioned by only one trainer on the performance of one student. They did not constitute a major type of grammatical problem in this study. Language A Interference

In the cases where the students painstakingly followed the grammatical rules in their interpreting, the products were still lacking, as they were believed to be redundant, messy, overly complicated and hamper understanding and communication. The reason behind this, as has been indicated in the literature, was the interference of the A language to the production of retour. In other words, in the mode of simultaneous interpreting, students tended to adopt a linear approach of correspondence between the original discourse and the interpreting. While the identified problems could be analysed against grammatical rules, the relation between the original Chinese and the English rendition were believed to be more prominent. Among the 498 entries of comments, 63 negative comments were on the interference of A language to the English output. They can be further divided into two types. First, a linear production of the syntax from Chinese into English would cause redundant, complicated and invalid English output. English A trainers

A Case Study on Retour  181 would describe such interpreting as messy, unnecessary, clumsy and inconsistent. They contended that though the sentences were grammatically correct, they were still unacceptable. In many cases, the English A trainers would propose a revised version. By doing so, they helped students build upon their existing language resources and make incremental improvements, rather than fundamentally changing their approach. 【Example 14】

Trainer’s comment: I would like to draw your attention to two places where the idea, unfortunately, did not come across fully clearly. So if you have time, I think it would be useful to listen to the original in these places again and look for alternative ways to express the idea. Perhaps apply the “salami technique” here, use shorter sentences to make it easier for you to control your output […] Focus on how you start this idea. Maybe making a little pause till you are sure where the speaker is going would help? (#1, T6) Original Chinese: 孩子长大了，我们会很担心。如果他们说，要借我们的 车，想要和朋友们一起开车出去玩，这就是我们很担心的情况，怕他们在 外面不安全，担心到晚上都睡不着觉。 Trainee’s rendition: Parent also worry about teenager. Parents think it’s very important to… ah… care about one situation that their teenage kids ask to borrow their cars and they worry all night long where their kids are. 【Example 15】

Trainer’s comment: […] That is still towards the beginning. It was a bit clumsy, but also borderline in terms of comprehensibility. The better way… you say “if you knew what happened at that time, you would understand why this first wave is most important”. That’s really not the right way. I don’t know what you heard in Chinese, but maybe review that bit again and try to express it or find a way of expressing that idea in a better way. Basically, what you want to say is that this first wave is considered the most important, and it is for a reason. The reason is, and actually, later on, the speaker will explain a little bit what the first wave was about. (#2, T8) Original Chinese: 如果大家熟悉当时的社会背景的话，一定不难理解，为什 么专家都说第一波浪潮是最为重要的浪潮。 English rendition: If you knew what happened at that time, you would know why experts claim the first wave to be of utmost importance. 【Example 16】

Trainer’s comment: Then just one final thing I noticed towards the end. And when you were talking about the situation in the US and how they have failed to elect a female president to date. And you were talking about the 2016 election, Trump versus Hillary. That was fine. And it’s just, be careful of the

182  A Case Study on Retour words you are choosing and how you run your sentences together. Because when you say something like Trump is a bad example of an arrogant male, I think it is what you said. I suppose you could argue that Trump is a good example of an arrogant male, because that is exactly what he is. So you could say he is a bad example or a bad choice and an arrogant male or something like that. And just be a little bit careful of, I suppose, how you structure your sentences and what sentences you join together, just to make sure that it all makes sense. (#2, T5) Original Chinese: 比如说，2016年的美国大选，选出来的是特朗普。我个人 觉得，特朗普可能是男性劣根性的集大成者。 Trainee’s rendition: In the 2016 Presidential election, Trump was elected. But he was a bad example of arrogant male. While the conventional conclusion one may draw is to use specific strategies, such as the salami technique, the problem can also be defined as a lack of sensitivity to language differences, the inability to effectively start a sentence in retour, or difficulty to paraphrase between the two languages. In other words, strategies are usually activated to minimise the consequences caused by scarce syntactic resources. Second, students’ choice of words was usually influenced by their mother tongue or their English learning experience, which emphasised a limited pool of vocabulary and fixed phrases. Similar to the case above, the English A trainers would come up with a revised and acceptable version to help students improve their expression, rather than asking them to discard all the stock phrases they had accumulated. 【Example 17】

Trainer’s comment: I get the impression that when you are under pressure, you rely a little too much on stock phrases that you know already. And unfortunately, they are not always the most suited to the context. You mentioned self-​realisation, which is quite a specific concept. But the speaker really talked about self-​worth or self-​esteem that women have. (#2, T3) Original Chinese: 第四波浪潮也是我们现在当下，从2010年开始，在这段 时间，我们所强调的是女性的身份，女性要实现自我价值，要学会自尊自 爱。 Trainee’s rendition: The fourth wave started from 2010, self-​realisation, self-​ respect are emphasised. 【Example 18】

Trainer’s comment: For your English, my main message would be to keep it simple. The simpler, the better. From my past experience with other Chinese students, I understood the problem. I know that in Chinese, things

A Case Study on Retour  183 are expressed in a slightly more complicated way. So actually, simplifying is paradoxically difficult for you, which I can understand. But it’s really important, for two reasons. Firstly, if you overcomplicate things in English, very often it is at the expense of accuracy […] I can give you examples. “Something that serves timekeeping”, no, it keeps time in English. “To be timely informed of the location of their children” is really, very formal that almost sounds like something you would put in a questionnaire in writing in English. You wouldn’t really say that. You would say to know where the children are, simply. That’s too much. Things like that. Okay? So simplify. (#1, T8) Original Chinese: 首先，是一款儿童手表，是一家英国的公司发明的。手 表，它当然具有报时的功能，但是不仅如此，它还有一个GPS定位的功 能，也就是说，我的孩子戴上了手表之后，我呢就可以通过登录电脑，无 论白天黑夜，任何时间，都可以知道我的孩子的准确的地理定位。 Trainee’s rendition: A company in the UK came up with a child, watch for children. Of course, the watch serves timekeeping. And the same time, it is equipped with a GPS, that’s location, locating services. Parents can be timely informed of the location of their children as long as they turn on the programme on computer. While English A trainers would respond by suggesting doing more with less, the coping tactic itself is not sufficient for students to solve the interpreting problems. In the examples above, students produced overly complicated expressions precisely because they did not form automatic, simpler, natural solutions and had to resort to a word-​for-​word, make-​shift solution heavily influenced by the original Chinese expressions. Language B Adequacy

This category differs from the previous one in that the problems occurred because students did not have adequate language resources to express what they meant. In comparison, students stumbled upon the Chinese language in the previous category. There were 139 comments on English expressions, among which 16 were positive. The comments were divided into three sub-​categories. First, Chinese A students were not rigorous with logical links or modal verbs in interpreting into English. As has been pointed out in the literature, Chinese speeches are organised in such a way that retour interpreters need to fill in the logical links and speakers’ attitudes into the English rendition if they want their products to be perceived as familiar in the ears of the English A audience. This content analysis showed that sometimes the problem was not only about not explicating the logical links and attitudes, but rather a casual and superficial understanding and interpretation of such information, causing the English rendition to be internally incoherent.

184  A Case Study on Retour 【Example 19】

Trainer’s comment: The conjunction “if” calls for the continuation of the idea –​“if this, then that”. To make this bit of the speech more elegant, we could start with “let’s say my son told me that he would go to a park…” (#1, T6) Original Chinese: 比如说我儿子，今年八岁，之前他有一次跟我说，他说他 下课了之后想和朋友们一起去公园里踢足球，这当然是好的。我呢就可以 到点了之后，登录电脑，然后去查，他是不是真的在公园里踢球，还是他 在其他的地方。 English rendition: For example, if my son told me that he would go to a park to play football with his friends, this is good, of course, but I can turn on the computer and see if he, like he said, is in a park, or somewhere else. 【Example 20】

Trainer’s comment: I have certain questions. Almost at the very end of your exercise, you talked about Donald Trump, and you compared Donald Trump to Hillary Clinton. And then you used, I think, a wrong link word, because you said, “but” he was elected president. I think it is not about … but okay, I think what you meant, obviously, I don’t know the Chinese original, but I think what you wanted to say is that he was elected president, “even though” he has or he had these vices, or he was elected US president “despite” these vices, but definitely it’s not “but”. It’s a bad link word. (#2, T4) Original Chinese: 比如说，2016年的美国大选，选出来的是特朗普。我个 人觉得，特朗普可能是男性劣根性的集大成者，但是呢，他却可以赢得大 选。 Trainee’s rendition: For example, in 2016, Donald Trump was elected as the President of the United States. I think he is a representative of all the vices of man, but he was elected as the President of United States. In the cases under this sub-​category, one could argue that the students did not fare well in content fidelity, as the interpretation deviated from what the original speaker meant. However, the English A trainers voiced that they felt the choices of logical links were particularly troublesome. Indeed, wrong uses of logical links were more likely to occur when such information was absent in the original Chinese, and the students chose to add them to their English product. It reflected a weak grasp of logical relation in retour. Second, when students started to have some interpreting experience of coping with the cognitive overload in retour interpreting, they would soon find out that using pronouns could help save time and utterance in their delivery. However, according to the feedback of English A trainers, in many cases, the use of pronouns caused unclear references.

A Case Study on Retour  185 【Example 21】

Trainer’s comment: You started one sentence by saying, and this habit. For a moment, I did not know what you meant, because just before that, you were talking about archaeologists, so I didn’t know if you meant the habit of archaeologists analysing whatever they find, or if it’s the habit of littering. (#3, T8) Original Chinese: 长久以来，人类制造垃圾、污染环境这样的习惯似乎从来 没有怎么改变过。而对于考古学家来说，古代的垃圾堆是非常宝贵的，尤 其是在缺乏文字记录考古的情况下，古代的垃圾堆尤其显得重要 […] 这些 信息全可以，或者说全有可能可以从古代垃圾堆中发现。人类制造垃圾的 习惯时至今日也没有发生多大的变化。 Trainee’s rendition: Humans have already been polluting the environment and creating trash. For archaeologists, trash can be valuable, especially when no written record is available […] All aspects of ancient human life can be discovered from ancient trash. This habit has prevailed until today. Humans keep on producing trash. 【Example 22】

Trainer’s comment: What does “it” in the second sentence refer to? (#1, T6) Original Chinese: 这些插件的效果并不是很理想。面对这样的情况，很多社 会学家说，我们现在可能得从长计议，到底应该怎么做才能保护好我们的 孩子，帮助他们健康安全地长大，并且为他们做好准备，让他们能够更好 地融入社会呢？ Trainee’s rendition: Does these plug-​ins really work? Do we need to change the way we understand it? About what kind of danger is lurking in the virtual world? Third, the inadequacy of English resources manifested itself when the students produced some expressions that were only partially correct, or they only had one single solution to an interpreting problem, depriving them of flexibility and choices. English A trainers pointed out that a half correct expression was still a failed attempt to convey the message. They would provide a correct and natural expression, and accompany it with alternatives that might be useful to have in stock. 【Example 23】

Trainer’s comment: You used an expression “to roll out” twice. I think that while it is a nice idiomatic expression, it should be used in the right context. You could have gone for something simpler here, which would have found it more natural. (#1, T3)

186  A Case Study on Retour Original Chinese: 首先，是一款儿童手表，是一家英国的公司发明的。手 表，它当然具有报时的功能，但是，不仅如此，它还有一个GPS定位的功 能 […] 碰到这样的情况，一家美国的企业说它们有解，它们有一个车载的 软件系统装在车上。 Trainee’s rendition: There is a company in English which rolls out a watch which can tell the time. And there is also a GPS system installed […] A company in America rolls out a software which can be embedded in the car. 【Example 24】

Trainer’s comment: A clash is implying a battle between active things. Here waste is inert, so say “collision” /​“collides”, etc., and then to stay simple, “they break up (no need to specify in pieces) or just save time, “they disintegrate/​they shatter”. (#3, T1) Original Chinese: 太空中物体相撞其实非常常见，截至目前，已经发生 了560起相撞事件。一旦发生相撞之后，这些卫星就会散裂成为许多碎片， 体积变得更小，然后继续绕地球旋转。 Trainee’s rendition: Clash in space is very common. There has been 560 clashes recorded. After satellites clash into one and another, they break up into pieces but still they orbit round the earth. Though much more can be discussed under B language proficiency, the content analysis highlighted the fact that in Chinese-​English retour, the most prominent issues were the abovementioned three sub-​categories of problems. This helps distinguish retour practice from language enhancement and guide instructional resources accordingly. Internal Coherence Coherence is about the content of the speeches. The English A trainers would name the issue of internal incoherence when they sensed a potential problem with content fidelity without the need to revert to the original Chinese. There were 26 entries of comments on this point, among which 18 were positive and eight were negative. 【Example 25】

Trainer’s comment: One final comment concerning content. You talked about the beginning of the feminist movements. You said that something started in the 20th century, but then you said it started in the 19th century. So actually, maybe I did not get it, but it wasn’t clear for me as a listener. So when was the beginning of the feminist movements? in the 19th or in the 20th century? Can I kindly ask you to analyse the original from that point of view and to think about your performance next time, also thinking about this issue. (#2, T4)

A Case Study on Retour  187 Original Chinese: （第一波浪潮具体的起止日期仍有争议），但是普遍认 为，大约是发生在19世纪中期到20世纪的头几十年。如果大家熟悉当时的 社会背景的话，一定不难理解，为什么专家都说第一波浪潮是最为重要的 浪潮。在19世纪，女性无论身处哪一个国家，无论身处哪一个社会阶层， 她们对于自己的人生，都没有任何的控制权，没有任何的话语权。 Trainee’s rendition: But it is usually considered, the, and, the beginning of the 20th century. If you are familiar with that historical time, you will find it no surprise that the first stage is very important, because in the 19th century, if you were a woman, no matter which country or which social economic status you had, you didn’t have any control over your life. 【Example 26】

Trainer’s comment: You said that women raising children and that was their only job, which isn’t true because then you listed …the various other jobs that women have to do. So listen to yourself, keep analysing, keep checking […] So do listen to yourself, do keep thinking, what am I saying? Check it for “does it make logical sense”. (#2, T3) Original Chinese: 比如说当时在欧洲，一个女性一般一生要养育七个孩子， 他们最主要的工作就是呆在家里，把孩子抚养成人，并且呢，所有的家务 劳动都是由女性承担的。 Trainee’s rendition: In Europe, women need to, a woman needed to bring up seven child on average. Their only job was to bring up children and they needed to handle all the household chores. 【Example 27】

Trainer’s comment: The second time was the number of orbiting objects larger than 10cm. You said there were 3000 of them. And that was confusing, because you first said that there were 3000 retired satellites still in the Earth’s orbit. How can those two figures be identical? What got you again was the order of magnitude –​the right figure was 34 thousand. (#3, T7) Original Chinese: 还有3000颗我们所说的“死卫星”，或者“闲置卫星”，它 们也绕地球旋转，但漫无目的，并没有在工作 […] 直径大于10厘米的这类 太空碎片，或者说太空垃圾，共有34000块。 Trainee’s rendition: There are 3000 dead or retired satellites. They are travelling around earth, but they are not working […] Objects with diameters higher than 10 centimetres, the total number of that is about 3000. As can be seen from these examples, internal incoherence started when the students omitted some information; as they went on, the omission caused a discrepancy in the context. In other scenarios, though the students might have heard the incoherence in their own utterances, they did not have the mental capacity to mend the gap.

188  A Case Study on Retour Background Knowledge

The knowledge referred to under this category is restricted to domain knowledge, which is essential for the comprehension of original speeches. A total of 16 entries were documented where trainers pointed out a lack of background knowledge. Main examples included the right to vote and elections, female genital mutilation, as well as background knowledge concerning atmospheric physics. In these cases, the information in the original Chinese could only be properly interpreted when students had prior knowledge of the subject matter. 【Example 28】

Trainer’s comment: Then the one that was maybe a little bit confusing was “when they retired”. So you were talking about the space junk when it’s no longer functional. I think he said when they retire, they will go into the atmosphere because of resistance of the wind. They will burn in the atmosphere. I would have a look at that little section again, because that was the one part where I was finding it difficult to connect the dots and follow the logical sequence of events. So I don’t really know what the original version was there. It might have been not. But in my mind, I was like, how can wind cause fire unless there was something else involved as well. Maybe have a look at that section again and see if you can kind of explain that in a more clear way, I would say. (#3, T5) Original Chinese: 人类向大气排放二氧化碳的一大副作用就是会导致高 层 大气层，upper atmosphere，稀薄，其中具体的科学道理我们这里就不 展 开了，只说结果。结果就是高层大气层的密度从2000年以前到现在，已 经下降了17%。这也就是说，太空垃圾受地球重力牵引、被拉近地球变得 更难，而即使这之间的距离变近了，产生的阻力和摩擦力生热也不比理想 状态。 Trainee’s rendition: One of the consequence of, consequences of climate change is that the high atmosphere, the outer atmosphere is getting thinner. And it’s getting thinner by about 17% in the last decade. That means it’s getting harder for space debris to be pulled back into the earth. Even if they get pulled back, the resistance, the wind resistance will be less, so they are less likely to be burnt out. Due to the pedagogical design of this study, there were few cases in which background knowledge constituted a significant challenge to the English rendition. The rationale is that background knowledge is not uniquely important to retour interpreting. If background knowledge was prohibitively difficult, it would prevent the students from producing enough interpretations and trainers would not be able to help with their retour.

A Case Study on Retour  189 Content Fidelity

The project put the burden of content checking on the students, as the Chinese and English parallel versions of the speeches would be provided to them after they received feedback from the trainers. Some trainers made the extra effort to compare the students’ interpreting and the original English version of the speeches, which resulted in ten entries of negative comments on content fidelity. Therefore, the comments collected in the study might severely under-​represent the problem with incorrect or incomplete content. 【Example 29】

Trainer’s comment: […] Please check with the speaker. Compared to the original speech, there is a factual mistake here. (#3, T6) Original Chinese: 直径在1毫米到1厘米的碎片，数量大约为1.28亿个。 Trainee’s rendition: Those debris, smaller debris, for those between 1 millimetre or 20 millimetres numbers more than 10 thousand. 【Example 30】

Trainer’s comment: And then the same goes for this filtering software that I think was Microsoft had made available. So you said, rightly, that you have to pay each year in order to be able to continue to use this. But, it’s not that it expired. I think you said that the software expires. You have to pay each year in order to keep it active. I think it’s not … What the speaker meant was that technology moves so quickly. Thus after a year, the software is out of date, and so you need to pay each year for the new updates. Again, just maybe have a listen again and see if you can pick out some of those more minor details. (#1, T5) Original Chinese: 拦截的效果一般都不尽如人意，要么就是拦多了，要么就 是拦少了，而且技术的发展太快，它拦截的参考指标可能不到一年就不好 使，你必须要出钱、续费、更新，它才可以继续发挥它的作用。 Trainee’s rendition: The screening software is not very effective and the eh … the software will expire in less than one year. You have to pay money year after year to keep it active. Encouragement and Sharing Experience

Another standalone category of feedback that emerged from the content analysis is that the trainers would share their experience as a practitioner and previously as a trainee. By doing so, they extended empathy towards the students. They would also give the students the courage and motivation to keep up with the training, especially when they suffered from periodic

190  A Case Study on Retour setbacks and lack of improvement. Among the 498 entries, 21 comments were under this category. 【Example 31】

Trainer’s comment: Were you a bit tired at the end? Anyway, it wasn’t that bad, just needs work, as we all do. I have been working for 34 years, and I rarely leave a meeting without feeling there were a few things I could/​should have done better. (#1, T1) 【Example 32】

Trainer’s comment: I wouldn’t want you to start questioning too much. I know when I hit a certain point in my training where I just doubted everything I was saying in text, correcting myself. At a certain point, you have to move past that and suppress the urge to correct yourself and just cut your losses and carry on. And then, most of the time, in fact, your listener will get a very positive impression and a lot of the content and points being made. Whereas, as you said, if you slip into self-​correcting too much, you risk hypercorrecting. You might correct something that isn’t actually that wrong. And inevitably, you end up sounding less confident. And that’s not what you want. Most of the time you sound clear, you sound confident. I think that you should try and keep up that style of delivery that I know you can do. (#3, T3) Strategies and Techniques

Another 18 entries touched on useful strategies in simultaneous interpreting. The most mentioned strategies included the salami technique, reformulation, verbalisation, adjusting decalage and generalisation. Indeed, studies on retour interpreting have summarised a list of useful strategies. Other examples include explanation, compression and summarising (Bartlomiejczyk, 2006; Chang & Schallert, 2007; Wu & Liao, 2018). However, as has been dealt with in previous sections, strategies are usually used to circumvent the abovementioned ten categories of problems. In other words, better interpreting may not demonstrate more use of certain strategies, and a performance that incorporates the use of the strategies cannot guarantee higher quality. Therefore, the discussion of strategies and tactics should come after the analysis of the first ten categories of quality criteria. 【Example 33】

Trainer’s comment: Carbon dioxide, just say, CO2. It’s easier. It’s faster. Instead of, obviously, carbon dioxide. That’s the proper name, but to speed everything up, you remember, we don’t want to get tired as interpreters. We want to save time. Say CO2. (#3, T4) Original Chinese: 人类向大气排放二氧化碳的一大副作用就是会导致高层大 气层稀薄。

A Case Study on Retour  191 Trainee’s rendition: Human beings have been emitting carbon dioxide to the atmosphere for a long time. One of the consequence is the thinning of the atmosphere. 【Example 34】

Trainer’s comment: “Women’s Day appeared in modern history. But it’s not. Actually, it lasted for very long history.” […] Try not to rush into speaking. Most of the false starts, like in this case, can be avoided by simply waiting a fraction of a second longer before you start speaking in order to clearly know what you want to say. (#2, T6) Original Chinese: 我以前一直以为，国际妇女节是现当代才有的一个节日， 但其实并不是如此。国际妇女节的历史已经相当悠久了。 Trainee’s rendition: I used to think that Women’s Day appeared in modern history. But it’s not. Actually it lasted for very long history. 【Example 35】

Trainer’s comment: There are quite a few incorrect sentences: “even New Zealand has long way there” […] Self monitor more, remember to chop sentences, reformulate, etc. (#2, T1) Original Chinese: …女权运动的进步其实非常缓慢。我们可以以新西兰为 例。新西兰是女权运动发展上全球最为进步的一个国家，但即使是在新西 兰，女性获得权力仍然用了很长的时间。 Trainee’s rendition: Feminism actually gained very low momentum. Take New Zealand. We know, feminism is, New Zealand is at the forefront of feminism. But even in New Zealand, feminism has taken a long way there. Conclusion of Content Analysis

In summary, English A trainers’ feedback can be divided into 12 categories. Except for experience sharing, encouragement and advice on strategies and techniques, their assessment criteria can be broken down into 10 categories, as shown in Table 6.1. The table represents a more operationalised definition of the assessment criteria for interpreting anchoring content, language and delivery. Naturally, an English A perspective carries a different way of categorisation. For instance, in ­example 19, the student’s interpreting could be viewed as a failed attempt at reformulation with improper use of logical links, but it could equally be taken as an issue of content fidelity. However, this case study found the absence of word-​for-​word correspondence between the English retour and the original Chinese was not the reason behind content infidelity. If the trainee could appreciate the different approaches of logical devices between English and Chinese, the version might have been acceptable.

192  A Case Study on Retour Table 6.1 Assessment Criteria for Retour Interpreting from Chinese into English No.

Criteria

Entries

Description of Problems/​Definition

1

Voice

13

2

Clarity

12

3

Intonation

17

4

Pronunciation

36

5

Grammar

127

6

Language A interference Language B adequacy

63

Internal coherence Background knowledge Content fidelity

26 16

The interpreter does not sound calm, confident, communicative and in control, and does not induce faith in the audience. 2.1  repetition, backtracking, self-​correction 2.2 redundancy, such as “ahhh”, “and so”, “and other things” 3.1 no clear signposting of consecutive sentences 3.2 monotonous, mechanical, no overview of the structure of the speech 3.3 The intonation fails to reflect logical links, or emphatic, rhetorical and other meanings. 4.1 long and short vowels 4.2 exceptions to pronunciation rules 4.3 lapses due to a lack of self-​monitoring (only at the beginning stage of training) 4.4 pronunciation impacted by the mother tongue and local dialects 5.1 incoherent tense use 5.2 misuse of definitive and indefinite articles, excessive use of the definitive article 5.3 incorrect subject, verb and pronoun agreement 5.4 overuse of plural forms of nouns 5.5 wrong preposition collocations 5.6 isolated cases of the order of speech, parts of speech, transitive and intransitive verbs 6.1  a reproduction of the Chinese syntax 6.2  choice of words affected by Chinese 7.1  wrong use of logical links 7.2  confusing use of pronouns in the context 7.3  insufficient English expressions contradictory or illogical information a lack of domain knowledge that inhibits comprehension and production incorrect and/​or incomplete rendering of the original speech

7 8 9 10

139

10

It should be noted that the analysis was not an exercise of error detection with an attempt to come up with an exhaustive list of mistakes. While most of the feedback was indeed a description or explanation of what went wrong in the interpreting performances, the assessment criteria were produced in reflection of the translation norms that the English A trainers subscribed to,

A Case Study on Retour  193 rather than scientific and linguistic standards. In addition, not all mistakes were spotted, noted down or verbalised by the trainers. As can be detected in the cited examples, under the identified categories, there were plenty of cases where mistakes were made, but the trainers did not mention them in their comments. Furthermore, as has been argued in the analysis, there were plenty of types of issues that were not highlighted by the trainers altogether. Through the operationalisation of the improved curriculum in classroom instruction described in the case study, it is advisable to start retour training after students have acquired the basic skill of listening and speaking at the same time. Otherwise, students will make an excessive number of mistakes in the fundamental aspects of interpreting, making class content less meaningful. The analysis has also manifested that trainers’ empathy for students’ challenges and anxiety is meaningful. In the case study, trainers identified issues in the interpreting, verbalised their feeling as listeners and provided revised and improved solutions. They also offered consolation and encouragement. They shared the students’ anxious feelings, recognised the difficulties that students encountered and reassured them that the problems and challenges could be overcome with proper and persistent training and practice. Therefore, trainers’ own experience as students and practitioners can make a difference both in the reception and credibility of their feedback among the students. Another observation is a confirmation of the relation between strategies and skills. While strategies are sometimes the verbalised solutions to problems in interpreting renditions, not using strategies is seldom the cause of unsatisfactory interpretations. Therefore, curriculum design regarding retour training should concentrate on the first 11 categories of issues. In Chinese Mainland, retour production is used by both Chinese A and English A audiences. Therefore, in the ideal instructional scenarios, retour interpreting should be taught through co-​teaching between English A trainers and Chinese A trainers. However, with limited trainer resources, many training efforts will need to be carried out by Chinese A trainers, supplemented by the indispensable involvement of English A trainers. Among the identified categories, some depend more on English As’ feedback than others. For example, Chinese A trainers may be more helpful in detecting redundancy, intonational issues, grammatical mistakes and content-​related problems, while incorrect links in logic, Chinese interference and English flexibility cannot be sufficiently addressed without the participation of English A trainers. Trainer resource allocation and pedagogical speeches should be designed accordingly. Last but not least, as were shown in the examples, content fidelity was an under-​addressed problem. In the instructional design of the mentorship project, the safeguard measure was to send the original Chinese and English speeches to the students after receiving the trainers’ feedback. The students were told to heed the problem of omitting information, since Chinese A students had been well observed to do so in response to English A trainers’ comments on

194  A Case Study on Retour their overly complicated, messy and redundant English expressions. The result should be factored into curriculum design efforts that the safeguard could not automatically solve the problem of content fidelity. Concluding Remarks The case study discussed in this chapter focuses on improving simultaneous retour interpreting training for Chinese A students into English in the context of Chinese Mainland. A historical account of the conference interpreting programme shows that the current historical era and the national strategy require better retour training. At the same time, the stakeholder network for conference interpreting programmes has changed dramatically. Improving retour training without any adjustment to the remaining part of the curriculum is not a viable option. Meanwhile, retour training can be facilitated by pedagogical innovation, additional resources and technological advancement. In this context, to ensure a successful update of the institutional curriculum, a stakeholder analysis was carried out, followed by an examination of changes concerning the six curriculum goals on the premise of the educational outcome outlined in the ideological curriculum. The improved curriculum was also put to the test through instructional operationalisation, the result of which was vitally pertinent to the new curriculum. The case study has indicated that curriculum improvement concerning retour interpreting should be carried out. Curriculum-​level considerations mainly concern detailed quality assessment criteria with a particular focus on language sub-​competence, strategic sub-​ competence and domain knowledge, the continuity of the curriculum, proper design, allocation and innovative use of training resources, among others. References A/​RES/​2758(XXVI), Restoration of the lawful rights of the People’s Republic of China in the United Nations. (1972). https://​dig​ital​libr​ary.un.org/​rec​ord/​192​054 A/​RES/​76/​268, Multilingualism: resolution /​adopted by the General Assembly. (2022). https://​dig​ital​libr​ary.un.org/​rec​ord/​3978​263?ln=​en Alexieva, B. (1994). Types of texts and intertextuality in simultaneous interpreting. In M. Snell-​Hornby, F. Pöchhacker & K. Kaindl (Eds.), Translation studies: An Interdiscipline: Selected papers from the translation studies congress, Vienna, 1992 (Vol. 2, pp. 179–​ 187). John Benjamins Publishing. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​ btl.2.23ale Bartłomiejczyk, M. (2006). Strategies of simultaneous interpreting and directionality. Interpreting, 8(2), 149-​174. https://​doi.org/​10.1075/​intp.8.2.03bar Best practice guidelines for conference interpreting training programmes. (n.d.). Best practice guidelines, AIIC. Retrieved November 24, 2022, from https://​aiic.org/​ site/​world/​con​fere​nce/​bec​omin​gci/​bestp​ract​ice Braun, S., & Kohn, K. (2012). Towards a pedagogic corpus approach to business and community interpreter training. In B. Ahrens, M. Albl-​Mikasa & C. Sasse, Dolmetschqualität in Praxis, Lehre und Forschung. Festschrift für Sylvia Kalina (pp. 185–​204). Gunter Narr Verlag.

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7 Conclusion

The aim of this book is to produce a curriculum improvement model for professional interpreter training at the institutional level. A competence-​based stakeholder network is constructed to deliberate how to prioritise and revise curriculum goals and objectives in line with the changing reality. The book starts with an assumption that translation studies is an independent discipline and that interpreters as a community are undergoing the process of professionalisation. The conceptual analysis of interpreter training has been carried out under the frameworks of curriculum studies and the sociology of professions. The following results reflect the educational values and sociological understanding of professional interpreter training. Key Concepts Many concepts in interpreter training have multiple layers of meaning, mainly because they are used both in academic research and everyday life, or they are concepts used in various disciplines, or because their meaning has been enriched through the various turns of translation studies. Effective curriculum improvement cannot be made without clarification of these key concepts. Professional Interpreting

Professional interpreting can mean specialised interpreting, interpreting as a vocation, interpreting for high-​level meetings, interpreting for advanced-​ level domain areas, interpreting with superior quality (and, by extension, interpreters with higher social status), non-​literary interpreting, business and technical interpreting, and commercial interpreting, among others. These definitions are usually set out to reflect the market demand at hand and to distinguish themselves from previous types of interpreting. However, the definition of professional interpreting can be better perceived through the interdisciplinary nature of translation studies, the philosophical understanding of translation norms, the skopos theory and the sociological studies of interpreting as a profession. More specifically, professional DOI: 10.4324/9781003303824-8

Conclusion  201 interpreting does not subscribe to the understanding of meaning in linguistics, where one-​on-​one correspondence is the rule –​it does not share the understanding of meaning in literary translation, where translation is a process of artistic creation. Instead, professional interpreting stands between the two extremes. It follows a functional approach in the form of a translation brief. In other words, professional interpreters are experts in interlingual communication; they have the autonomy to make strategic decisions and are responsible for fulfilling the function of discourse aligned with the client’s intention. In addition to professional autonomy, professional interpreters demonstrate other sociological traits and functions of a profession. Interpreter Competence

Competence, skills and expertise are intricately related, but different, concepts. Their definitions are instrumental to the curriculum work of training programmes. For example, their differences are important when one needs to determine whether the curricular model for professional interpreter training should be skills-​based or competence-​based. Ostensibly, one may reach the conclusion that most models for translation are competence-​based, while those for interpreting are skills-​based. However, in addition to the fact that models for translator competence and interpreter competence share many constructs, the more pertinent issue is the definition of interpreting skills. A literature review has shown that skills may either mean the different tasks in interpreting, interpreting strategies or interpreter competence. Despite the confusion, it is clear that when skills-​based interpreter training is proposed, scholars want to highlight the skills-based continuity in curriculum content. In other words, there has been a consensus that training should be designed following a progression from fewer and simpler tasks to multiple complex tasks. In addition to skill progression, interpreter competence also entails linguistic knowledge and extralinguistic knowledge in interpreting activities, among others. Therefore, it is believed that interpreter competence is a broader term that covers interpreting skills and that interpreter training should be competence-​based. Professional interpreters are experts in interlingual communication. In other words, in the communication setting, it is the professional interpreters, rather than the audience or the speakers, that make the decision on communication strategies. It should be noted that while competent interpreters are experts in communication, not all have expertise in interpreting, as expertise requires interpreters to demonstrate consistently superior performance. This distinction of concepts is relevant to the previous section on the definition of professional interpreters and the following section on professional competence. The educational outcome of professional interpreter training is to produce competent interpreters who, upon graduation, do not necessarily possess expertise. With deliberate practice, experience and life-​long learning, professional interpreters can improve their skill and may be able to become experts in the field.

202  Conclusion Professional Competence

In some competence models, professional competence is one of the componential sub-​competences. It can mean business competence or knowledge of the profession. However, in these models, some constructs under this sub-​ competence may fall under generic competence, such as the ability to adapt to a new environment, basic ICT skills and multi-​tasking abilities, while other constructs, such as expertise, should be put in the stage of life-​long learning. In this book, interpreter competence is divided into three stages: (1) generic competence, (2) professional competence and (3) competence for specialised interpreting. Professional competence is defined as the umbrella term for all the sub-​competences that professional interpreters should have. In other words, the term is interchangeable with the educational outcome of interpreter training. Curriculum Improvement

The discussion of curriculum improvement must start with the definition of curriculum. The pertinent issue is the distinction between curriculum and instruction. Curriculum work means a more comprehensive perspective beyond a specific focus on pedagogical means or a single course. In contrast, the integration, progression, continuity and prioritisation of teaching and learning activities are also taken into consideration. Historically speaking, professional T&I education has spent much effort distinguishing itself from the closely-​related areas of foreign language acquisition, literary translation and religious translation. This has resulted in great improvements at the micro-​level instruction in the form of new teaching materials and pedagogical methods. As micro-​level instructional experiences accumulate thanks to interdisciplinary contributions, macro-​level curriculum reform ensues. A focus on curriculum also means the primary focus is on the macro-​level sociological aspects of interpreting, rather than the micro-​level interpreting decisions –​a particularly relevant point in the definitions of competence and stakeholders. Macro-​ level considerations are highlighted in the discussion of needs assessments. A distinction has been made between individual students’ needs important to instructional implementation and the needs of the entire student population essential to curriculum development and improvement. In other words, one can hardly take the results of needs assessments at the instructional level and use them to improve curriculum goals. There is a distinction between educational outcomes, curriculum goals and instructional objectives. At the same time, the gaps between macro-​level curriculum and micro-​level instruction will generate a hidden curriculum, which can have positive and negative implications. The hidden curriculum lacks predictability and risks overriding the written curriculum. Therefore, curriculum improvement is indispensable. Tertiary education sees a higher level of specialisation in comparison to primary and secondary education. It should also be emphasised that interpreter

Conclusion  203 training is an educational act, rather than vocational training. It means professional interpreter training should have in mind both employment and employability. This value proposition has implications for curriculum design. Curriculum studies also require a clear distinction of academic degree levels before delving into detailed curriculum design and improvement. Therefore, interpreter training should have different educational outcomes among undergraduate, master’s and doctoral degree programmes and life-​long learning activities. Indiscriminate treatment of programmes and competence at different academic degree levels will lead to an overly crowded curriculum, obscure educational outcomes and invalidate curriculum goals. Devising a curriculum improvement model depends on the educational philosophy. Different educational philosophies should form a continuity, rather than opposing one another. Consistent with the philosophical understanding of translation norms that regulate professional interpreters, interpreter programmes should adopt an essentialist-​progressivist educational philosophy. This means that curriculum development should rightly follow a technical model. Educational outcomes derive from the ideological curriculum and are relatively stable. Regarding institutional curriculum improvement, updates of curriculum goals should be carried out using a deliberation model. The Model The above-​mentioned definitions are the foundation for the competence-​ based stakeholder deliberation model for curriculum improvement. The model applies to institutional curricula, which follow the educational outcomes set out in the national ideological curriculum and guide operational curricula. The appropriate educational philosophy for master’s programmes in professional interpreting is essentialism-​ progressivism, rather than perennialism or post-​ modernism. The more suitable curricular model is competence-​based, rather than theory-​based, skills-​based or market-​based. A competence-​based stakeholder deliberation model is in line with the technical approach prevalent in tertiary education. The step-​ by-​step model is supplemented by progressivist values. Humanistic considerations are student-​centred. In curriculum work, students’ individualistic learning experience remains highly relevant. The educational outcomes of master’s degree programmes in professional interpreting are to produce entry-​level generalist professional interpreters who can: (1) meet the demands of society upon graduation; (2) predict, manage and adapt to future changes; and (3) help shape the long-​term development of the profession. The educational outcomes are also a broad description of professional competence. A detailed interpretation of the educational outcomes takes the form of a number of curriculum goals. Professional competence, or curriculum

204  Conclusion goals for master’s degree programmes, is composed of six dimensions: language sub-​competence, strategic sub-​competence, subject matter knowledge, technological know-​how, theoretical sub-​competence and ethics. At the same time, generic competence and specialised competence, corresponding to the bachelor’s degree programmes and doctoral degree programmes/​ lifelong learning, are composed of the same six sub-​competences, but with different definitions. In the context of Chinese Mainland, their definitions for master’s degree studies are as follows: (1) Language sub-​competence Building upon a solid grasp of linguistic abilities of both the A language and the B language, students are expected to be effective in transcultural and sociolinguistic communication between the two languages. (2) Strategic sub-​competence Students are supposed to have the baseline psycho-​ physiological competence that sustains them for professional training. Upon graduating with a master’s degree, they will have the interpreting skills and strategies that help them solve interpreting problems. They will also be able to carry out effective self-​assessments using their meta-​cognitive abilities that help regulate and justify the problem-​ solving process. (3) Subject matter knowledge Aside from the basic world knowledge that all tertiary graduates should have, interpreting students should gain some basic knowledge of the domain areas that require the most interpreting services in the market. This body of knowledge is of a generalist nature and should cover interpreting assignments at a market-​entry level. (4) Technological know-​how Interpreting students should be able to stay up to date with the trend of technological developments. Aside from basic technological applications, they should also be able to understand and use translation tools whose primary purpose is to reduce repetition, increase efficiency and facilitate communication before, during and after interpreting assignments. (5) Theoretical sub-​competence A theoretical understanding of the process and product of interpreting on a micro-​level can help students understand how to evaluate interpreting quality. Macro-​level theories from a sociological perspective are also needed in professional interpreting programmes so that students can better understand their relationship with other stakeholders in the profession. (6) Professional ethics Responsible citizens all live by their personal ethics, which, through tertiary education, should be aligned with universal values, laws and

Conclusion  205 regulations and civic duties. As part of professional competence, more specifically, professional ethics entail a prescriptive code of conduct and a descriptive code of ethics. The former emphasises the knowledge of how professional interpreting should be provided in order to fulfil the translation brief, whereas the latter refers to the teleological value of facilitating multilingual communication and intercultural cooperation. The three stages of generic competence, professional competence and specialised competence form a progression in which the previous stage is the foundation for the subsequent stage. In other words, a firm grasp of generic competence is the prerequisite for professional competence. Similarly, developing specialised competence is only possible for those who have acquired professional competence. In other words, professional interpreters have both generic competence and professional competence, but not necessarily competence in specialised domains. At the stage of professional doctoral studies or life-​long learning, interpreters need to seek further improvement in generic competence and professional competence, and develop their competence in specialised domain areas and expertise in interpreting. In the model, the sub-​competences serve as the framework for stakeholder deliberation. In the case of master’s degree programmes, the stakeholder network represents the norm authorities in professional interpreting. Their deliberation will result in a comprehensive needs assessment. Stakeholder participation has long been the research focus in translation studies. Furthermore, it has been argued both in curriculum studies and the sociology of professions that stakeholders all benefit from constructive cooperation and their relations are not necessarily defined by differences or conflicts. With effective problem-​ solving, prioritisation and cooperation, stakeholder deliberation can help training programmes attain their curriculum goals. Identified stakeholders include: (1) Interpreter trainers They are on the frontline, providing a systematic education through which students will acquire the competence unique to professional interpreting. (2) Researchers They build upon the theoretical foundation of interpreting. They also teach the abstract body of knowledge. (3) Educational bureaucracy In the context of MTI education in China, the educational bureaucracy includes the Ministry of Education, the China National Committee for Graduate Education of Translation and Interpreting (formerly the China National Committee for Translation and Interpretation Education) and the bureaucratic requirements of

206  Conclusion individual programmes. Together, they determine the ideological curriculum, educational priorities and resource allocation. (4) Political authorities They represent national strategies, interests and priorities that are vital to any curriculum within their jurisdiction. Political support is also linked to the legal recognition and protection of a profession. (5) Clientele This stakeholder should reflect the reality of the demand for the profession. In other words, a number of entities can validate the content of the translation brief in the market, including interpreting service users, event initiators, agencies and professional interpreters. (6) Agencies and technology providers They capture the importance of technology to the profession. They have management capabilities that streamline the process of service provision, ICT applications that facilitate communication, as well as technological applications that increase efficiency and, thus, partially or entirely replace human interpreters. (7) Professional associations These are indispensable as professional associations have the responsibility of arranging accreditation exams, organising life-​long learning on expertise and specialisation, and developing codes of ethics and conduct. (8) Professional interpreters Fundamentally, the stakeholder network is set up to produce eligible professional interpreters, who then receive and shape the market reality. With the deliberation and cooperation of the stakeholders, graduates will become professional interpreters and be better prepared for the journey of professionalisation. Stakeholders and competence are major areas of research in translation studies. The macro-​level sociological analysis of stakeholder participation and micro-​ level perspective on stakeholder involvement in the process of translation and interpreting have resulted in a long list of definitions. Similarly, competence composition has been studied under translator competence, interpreter competence, competence analysis for instructional design and curriculum planning. They have also been discussed under different types of translation and interpreting, including not only professional T&I, but also literary translation and specialised interpreting, among others. In this book, the conceptual analysis takes the dual perspectives of curriculum studies and the sociology of professions. The result is consistent with the macro-​level considerations for the purpose of curriculum work. The model has the potential to help identify convergence and conflicts of interest among stakeholders. It can also generate opportunities for common ground and cooperation. The process of solving conflicts and reaching a consensus will lead to the improvement of the institutional curriculum.

Conclusion  207 The book contains a case study of curriculum improvement at the institutional level. An emphasis on retour training is to implement the national strategy of enhancing effective communication between China and the rest of the world. An analysis of the conference interpreter training at the UN Training Programme for Interpreters and Translators between 1979 and 1993, and conference interpreting programmes in the 21st century through the model has shown that retour training has undergone many changes. While precision, rigorous faithfulness and domain knowledge remain vital, the involvement of English A trainers has ushered in a new audience-​oriented training approach. At the same time, with the help of technological advancements, additional pedagogical resources have been made available, mainly in the form of innovative pedagogical activities, allocation of trainer resources and new teaching materials. A competence-based stakeholder analysis has concluded that retour training is a justified addition to institutional curricula. In an attempt to reform the institutional curriculum, a content analysis on English As’ feedback on a class of students’ retour performance has been carried out. The result has highlighted 12 aspects of the more conventional quality assessment on the content, language and delivery of interpreting performance, including voice, clarity, intonation, pronunciation, grammar, A language interference, B language adequacy, internal coherence, background knowledge, content fidelity, encouragement and empathy, as well as interpreting strategies. The case study also contains a more operationalised definition of the 10 categories of quality criteria. It has been argued that they should be prioritised in the curriculum design of retour training. Chapter 6 also contains additional information on curriculum continuity and progression, trainer composition and allocation, and other aspects of curriculum design. The case study shows that when one stakeholder proposes a potential change, all stakeholders should be involved to make a decision regarding if there are conditions to proceed with the reform. If a positive change can be made, they should go through the six curriculum goals and adjust them accordingly. For example, more policies and resources should be in place; retour training should be properly designed in the curriculum to ensure integration and continuity across various skills; Chinese A trainers should spend more time on certain aspects of retour interpreting, while some other aspects require the vital contribution of English A trainers. The emphasis on retour training is an example of top-​down curriculum improvement. It should be noted that the model should be applicable to reforms initiated by other stakeholders. At the same time, the model should also be useful to bachelor’s degree programmes with an element of interpreter training. Doctoral degree programmes and life-​long learning for professional interpreters should find the model helpful, too. Prospects The current stage requires curriculum-​level considerations of T&I training. In Chinese Mainland, master’s degree programmes in translation and interpreting

208  Conclusion started the first round of curriculum-​making efforts in 2007. After around 15 years, the need for curriculum improvement has been perceived, as institutional programmes seek to better respond to market demands, adapt to technological advances, improve their curriculum content and develop differentiation among themselves, especially across geographic localities. The curriculum improvement model in this book might be useful to institutional programmes when they try to spot their unique advantages, win political support, mobilise educational resources and identify priorities among sub-​competences. It is also imperative to form a sound progression between the bachelor’s degree programme in translation and interpreting (BTI), the master’s degree programme in translation and interpreting (MTI) and the professional doctoral degree programme in translation and interpreting (DTI). The progression naturally features an increase of skill complexity, such as dialogue interpreting, consecutive interpreting versus simultaneous interpreting, or a move towards specialisation, such as conversational topics, generalist domains and specialised subject matter. The model in this book provides a more comprehensive analysis of how the progression can be designed and improved to achieve synergy and reduce repetition. The model tends to argue that certain constructs under the sub-​competences can only be materialised in the stage of doctoral degree programmes or life-​long learning, rather than in the previous two stages. They include the acquisition of expertise for professional interpreters, interpreting for specialised domain areas, using machine translation technologies to facilitate interpreting assignments and developing professional ethics in specialised interpreting. Meanwhile, undergraduate programmes should sufficiently reflect linguistic abilities, psycho-​physiological preparedness, cross-​cutting topics in world knowledge, generic ICT applications, micro-​level analysis of translation decisions, civic values and national strategies in their curricula, leaving other constructs under the six curriculum goals for MTI and DTI studies and lifelong learning. The model also contends that although curriculum improvement might be initiated by one stakeholder, its successful implementation needs the deliberation and cooperation of all stakeholders. Curriculum work is not in separation from instructional practice. On the contrary, curriculum and instruction improve each other. The case study in this book shows that curriculum-​level considerations shed light on instructional design, the result of which feeds back into the curriculum as a relevant source of change. For example, the instructional practice in the case study has improved upon the operationalisation of quality assessment. It should be helpful in the later stages of setting instructional objectives, quantifying pedagogical results and corpus-​based studies.

Index

Note: Page numbers in italic refers to Tables. academic excellence, standards of 39 academic institutionalisation 4 academic mobility 71 academic rationalism and vocational reality 67 American Translators Association (ATA) 91 Anglo-​American publishing 83 apprenticeship, vocational tradition of 65 Arjona-​Tseng, E. M. 3, 17, 27, 44, 71; work on the T&I curriculum 73 audience-​oriented training 157, 207 bachelor’s programmes in T&I (BTI) 9, 204; in China 118; curriculum of 42, 119; educational outcome of 118; of English literature and linguistics 117 Beijing Foreign Studies University (BFSU) 9, 150 bidirectional interpreting, between English and French 162 bilingualism 123 bilingual sub-​competence 124 Bobbit, Franklin 34 Bologna Declaration 7, 73, 122 BRICS countries 162 British Council for Cultural Relations and Educational Opportunities 9 business: competence 121, 133–​4, 202; know-​how 111, 134; management 24, 134; savoirfaire 134; translation 23, 89 Canadian Language Industry Association 92 Canadian Translators, Terminologists and Interpreters Council (CTTIC) 92 career opportunities 27

CAT tools 69, 131 China: Accreditation Test for Translators and Interpreters (CATTI) 91; Belt and Road Summit 162; global communication 160; Ministry of Foreign Affairs 153; monolingual society 164; official language 160; participation in world affairs through retour interpreting 161 China National Committee for Graduate Education of Translation and Interpreting 9 China National Committee for Translation and Interpretation Education 9, 11, 58–​9 Chinese A trainer 157, 168–​70, 193, 207 Chinese-​English interpreting 163–​4; challenges in teaching 168; convergence of opinion on 168 Chinese-​English retour training: background knowledge 188; clarity 172–​4; content analysis 191–​4; content fidelity 189; data collection 170–​1; empirical design 169–​70; encouragement and sharing experience 189–​90; exploration of 168–​71; grammar 177–​80; internal coherence 186–​7; intonation 175–​6; language A interference 180–​6; language B adequacy 183–​6; pedagogical speech materials 169; pronunciation 176–​7; strategies and techniques 190–​1; voice 172 Chinese language services 152, 154 Chinese Permanent Mission to the UN 152 Chinese syntax 165

210 Index Chomsky’s universal grammar 20 civic competence 120 classroom instructions 62, 64, 67, 72, 172, 193 classroom linguistic practice 22 classroom teaching, creativity in 60 classroom translation exercises 116–17 codes of conduct 26–​7, 96, 137, 154, 205 codes of ethics 94, 96, 154, 205 cognitive processing of information 110 cognitive sciences 17–​18, 26, 64, 105–​6, 125 collaborative translation 24 common training paradigm, development of 44 communication problems, solving of 105 communicative competence 123–​4 community interpreting 88, 163 competence-​based curriculum 73–​4, 77 competence-​based interview (CBI) 105, 154 competence-​based training (CBT) 5, 73; in China 117; defined 75; for developing guidelines in curriculum design 73; ECTS-​driven reform in 74; instructional objectives of 76; interpreting of 76; for practical competence 118; for theoretical competence 118; Tuning Project 74 competence, concept of 114 conceptual networks 129 conciliation of viewpoints 19 Conférence Internationale Permanente d’Instituts Universitaires de Traducteurs et Interprètes (CIUTI) 4–​5 conference interpreter training 50, 95, 150, 157, 207 Conference Interpreting Programmes, in China 81, 85, 88–​9, 150–​7; clientele 152; competence for UN interpreters 154; implications of retour training 155, 157; international cooperation on retour training 155–​6; political authorities and educational bureaucracy 152; professional associations 153; researchers 153; SCIC-​universities cooperation 157; students 151; technology 152–​3; trainers 152; training conference interpreters for the UN 151; UN MoU network 156

constructs in sub-​competences, operationalisation of 117 Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications concerning Higher Education in the European Region 71 corporate community 83 corporate project management 43 co-​teaching, between English A trainers and Chinese A trainers 168 cross-​cultural abilities 42 cross-​cultural communications 18, 118; competence in 59 crowdsourcing translation 24 culture knowledge 109 curricular sub-​competences 116 curriculum: competence-​based 77; components of 42; construction of 36; defined 64; definition of 34–​7, 38; descriptive 42; design and syllabus arrangements 36; development and improvement 44–​7; efforts to improve 42; hidden 41–​2; improvement models 46–​7; institutional 41; interpreter training curriculum 37; knowledge of 45; models of 45–​6; operational 41; prescriptive 42; of professional interpreter training programmes 41; scope of 42–​3; sequencing 61; theory-​based curricular approach 37 curriculum design 203; guidelines for 72–​3; innovation in 66; of interpreter training programmes 86 curriculum development 35; Arjona-​ Tseng’s work on 73; cycle of 62; Gabr’s case 64; goals and objectives of 63; guidelines for 66; Kearns’ work on 67; Kelly’s model of 63–​4, 67; Li’ work on 68; needs assessment of multiple sources of change in 67; Sawyer’s work on 64; stages of 62; stakeholders in 70; theory-​based curricular approach 62; Velleman’s competence-​based 73; Wen’s model of 62 curriculum engineering, arena of: curriculum scope 42–​3; curriculum sequence 43–​4; hidden curriculum 41–​2; institutional curriculum 41 curriculum goals 72–​6; instructional objectives as 76 curriculum improvement 35, 202–​3; convergence and cooperation in 72; inclusion of stakeholders in 81; model

Index  211 for professional T&I programmes 76; necessity of needs analysis and situation analysis 66; needs analysis for 67; outcome, goals and objectives 47–​51; process of 62, 65; school-​level planning for 48; situation analysis for 67; social status and 85; sources of 52; stakeholder deliberation model for 203; stakeholders in 70 curriculum-​making 61; of interpreter training 95; stages of 68 curriculum planning 34, 67; in China 95; differentiation with instructional implementation 74; sources of 70; stages of 68 curriculum reform: in the 21st Century 7–​8; EHEA reform 117; first round of 5–​7; imperative for 10–​12; of POSI project 117 curriculum theory 8, 36, 61, 91 curriculum work, at the institutional level 60–​9; natural consequences 65–​6; partial solution 66–​9; technical curricular approach and humanistic instruction 60–​5 Davies, Maria Gonzalez 125 decision-​making 35, 128 Department of Interpretation of the European Commission (DG SCIC) 50, 95, 151 DG Translation 50 digital competence 120 digital terminology management 154 doctoral degree programmes 204; in translation and interpreting 87 Doll, Ronald 38 Ecole d’Interprètes de Genève, Switzerland 4 École Supérieure d’Interprètes et de Traducteurs (ESIT) 3 economic development 93 educational bureaucracy 72, 96, 97, 152, 155; of university 91 educational institution 3–​4, 7, 38, 83, 87, 97, 150 educational outcome, of T&I education 51 educational philosophy 32, 37–​40, 38, 46, 48, 52, 61, 63–​6, 67, 70, 72, 76, 95, 203 educational psychology 36, 61

educational science 81, 85 educational values, humanistic learner-​ centred 62 EMCI Core Curriculum 168 EMCI programme 74, 83, 122 EMT model: competence model 122; development of 74; PACTE model 121–​3; “service provision” competence 134; working group 122 encyclopediac knowledge 87 English abilities, acquisition of 164 English A trainers 179–​80; for speech-​ making 170 English grammatical devices 164 English literature and linguistics, bachelor’s degree programme of 117 English-​Polish retour interpreters 165 equivalence, concept of 21 essentialist philosophy, for improvement of professional T&I curricula 39 essentialist-​progressivist educational philosophy 203 EU-​China Interpreter Training Programme (EUCITP) 151 European Commission 120, 161 European competitiveness 50, 72, 121, 138 European Economic Community 151 European educational system 4; ideological curriculum of 71 European Higher Education Area (EHEA) 7, 71, 121; curriculum reform of 117 European Parliament 161 European tertiary educational system 6 European T&I Schools 9 European Union (EU) 18; Commission’s Directorate-​General for Translation (DGT) 122; status of the translation profession in 123 EU Speech Repository 157 experience sharing 191 expertise, cognitive concept of 108 extralinguistic knowledge 75–​6, 110, 128, 201 Faculté de traduction et d’interprétation (FTI) 4 feedback loop 62, 64–​5 flowchart 48, 61, 62 foreign language acquisition 202; T&I competence in 116; translation as a pedagogical exercise of 22

212 Index foreign languages, communication in 120 Forstner’s competence model 124 Forum on China-​Africa Cooperation 162 gaoji translators and interpreters 59 García-​Beyaert, S. 82–​3 gender pay gap 171 generic competence 74, 120–​1, 134–​5, 141, 202, 204–​5 German Institute for Standardisation Registered Association (DIN) 5–​7 Germersheim Declaration 73 Gile’s effort model and tight-​rope theory 164 Göpferich, S.:model of competence 124; TransComp model 131 Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation (GIIT) 9, 156, 157 Graduate Institute of Translation and Interpretation (GTIS), Fu Jen University 71 graduate programmes, competence studies for 116–​21 Graduate School of Translation and Interpretation (GSTI), China 9, 155 grantors 83 Great Didactic of Comenius (1632) 34 Guangdong University of Foreign Studies (GDUFS) 9 hidden curriculum 41–​2, 65–​6, 69, 116, 135, 154, 202; importance of regulating 66; to improve the institutional curriculum 66; in interpreter training 65; student-​ centred 41; unregulated 81 higher education 1, 32, 71; in Europe 8 humanistic educational philosophy 63 humanistic training paradigms 63 humanistic values and civic responsibilities 51 human’s intellectual heritage 37 ideological curriculum, in China: development of 58–​60; interpretation of 58 impersonal acquisition, of disciplinary knowledge, facts and skills 63 individual skill acquisition 65 information economy 43 information processing 64

in-​house training: in employers and commercial training centres 90; of interpreters 2 innovative technology-​assisted instructional methods 65 Institute for Interpreting at the Mannheim School of Commerce 4 institutional autonomy 71 institutional curricula, Wen and Li’s survey of 119 institutional curriculum 10–​11, 40–​1, 46, 58, 65, 66, 68–​9, 96, 98, 119, 129, 158, 194, 206 institutionalisation of T&I training 3, 90 institutionalised education 1, 90 institutional programmes, educational outcome of 116 Institut Supérieur d’Interprétation et de Traduction (ISIT) 3 instructional didactics 63 instructional implementation, differentiation with curriculum planning 74 instruction improvement 68, 208 instrumentalisation of education 48 instrumental sub-​competence 110, 130 intercultural communication 25, 114 intercultural cooperation, teleological value of 138 inter-​discipline translation studies 17 inter-​faculty cooperation 65 inter-​lingual communication 161, 168, 201 inter-​linguistic communication 27 International Association of Conference Interpreters (AIIC) 4; best practice guidelines for conference interpreting training programmes 168; code of conduct 134, 137 International Labour Organisation (ILO) 3 internship, students’ experience during 65 interpersonal, intercultural and social competences 120 interpreter: professionalisation 129; sub-​competences 98, 105, 116, 121; training curriculum 37 interpreter competence 90, 201, 206; approaches to understanding 115; componential analysis of 114–​16; curriculum goals 105; developmental progression of acquiring problem-​ solving abilities 109; and expertise

Index  213 105–​8; and interpreting skills and strategies 112; Kalina’s conceptual framework 111; Albl-​Mikasa’s model 111; process-​based model 111; research projects on 110; sub-​ competences 110; versus translator competence 108–​14; use of interpreting skills 109; Wang’s model 110 interpreters’ knowledge, importance of 109 interpreter students, cognitive and affective development of 65 interpreter training 1, 50, 61, 74; beginning of 2–​5; Calvo’s development model for 62; in China 75; Chinese speeches suitable for 166; competence-​based 201; curriculum considerations for 69; curriculum design in 86; curriculum-​making of 95; development of 64; educational outcome of 97, 201; Gile’s model of 109; hidden curriculum in 65; in-​house 2; master’s degree programmes 203; quality assurance of 97; skills-​based 201; stakeholders in 83–​5, 88; university-​level translation and 117; Zhong’s summary of 74 interpreting: cognitive process of 62; competence 76; discourse analysis in 114; macro-​level sociological aspects of 202; process of learning 64; professional 200–​1; retour 65; sociological aspects of 114 interpreting competence, Riccardi’s and Albl-​Mikasa’s construct of 115 interpreting scholars 82 interpreting skills: Riccardi’s and Albl-​Mikasa’s construct of 115; and strategies 128 intonation, use of 175–​6 Japanese names, Chinese translation of 154 job advertisements 73 job efficiency 24 knowledge-​based strategies 109–​10 knowledge-​based strategy 109–​10 knowledge economy 71 labour market 34 language competence 42, 59, 116

language enhancement, classes on 68 language interference 163, 171, 207 language proficiency 122, 173, 186 language service providers 84 language sub-​competence 123–​5, 204 learner’s development, relation with school curriculum 38 learning events, sequencing of 64 learning to learn 120 Li, D.: model of curriculum development 68; research on students’ needs for language learning versus translation learning 68 lifelong learning 2, 75, 92, 111–​12, 121, 139, 202, 204 linear programming 64 linguistic anticipation 109 linguistic knowledge 109, 124, 201; and extralinguistic knowledge 75–​6 literary translation 20–​3, 25, 27, 39, 81–​2, 85, 119, 135, 202 literary translators 20, 22, 25, 136 literature and linguistics, in translation studies 19–​23 logical reasoning 42, 127 machine learning 64 machine translation, trends of 24, 131, 208 management tools, in human resources 24, 95 master’s degree programmes 115, 203–​4 master’s programmes in professional T&I (MTI) 9; in China 118; endorsement of 155; in translation and interpreting 117 mathematical competence 120 meta-​cognitive awareness, acquisition of 128 meta-​cognitive competence 112 methodological competence 130 micro-​level interpreting decisions 202 Monterey Institute of International Studies 17 Mossop’s curriculum design, of translation theories 132 mother tongue, communication in 120 MoU network 83, 151, 156 MTI programmes, in China 11, 205; challenges for 60; Committee’s National curriculum evaluation system for 59; curriculum guidelines of 17; curriculum improvement

214 Index of 11; curriculum work at the institutional level 60–​9; educational outcome of 59; establishment of 58–​9; National curriculum guideline for 59; priority of 59; for producing advanced professional translators and interpreters 17 multilingual communication: right to 139; teleological value of 138 mutual recognition of qualifications, among European universities 71 National Accreditation Authority for Translators and Interpreters (NATTI) 91 national educational system 91; in China 8 national translation 83 needs assessments 76, 94; importance of 67–​9, 72; results of 73 non-​English foreign languages 164 non-​specialised commercial texts, translation of 119 objectives-​based learning 73 official curriculum 41–​2, 65 official languages 151, 160, 162 operational curriculum 41, 60, 65, 119, 135, 203 Order of Translators, Terminologists and Certified Interpreters in Quebec (OTTIAQ) 92 PACTE group 73, 106, 109, 114, 122; instrumental sub-​competence 110; transfer competence 125 PACTE project 113, 126, 131; bilingual sub-​competence of 124; and the EMT framework 121–​3 Paris Communiqué 7 peer evaluation, competence of 128 P-​I-​E model of planning, implementation and evaluation 45 planned curriculum, operationalisation and implementation of 45 political polarisation, rise of 7 poly-​systems theory 20 POSI project 5–​7, 10, 23, 58, 73, 121; curriculum reform of 117; importance of subject matter knowledge 129 post-​Apartheid South Africa 3 post-​modernist educational philosophy 37

practice-​based profession 49 primary education 202–​3 problem identification, process of 47 problem-​solving 35, 67, 74, 105, 113, 125, 166 problem-​spotting 125 procedural knowledge 130 process-​oriented T&I training 49 professional and professionalism, in T&I programme 26–​7 professional associations 92 professional-​business decisions 116 professional competence 134, 202, 205 professional development 16, 92 Professional Diploma Programme in Conference Interpreting (the CI Programme) 156 professional ethical codes and standards 134 professional ethics 42, 92, 110, 116, 118, 132–​9, 161, 204–​5; teleological value of 139 professional interpreter training, curricular model for 201 professional interpreting 200–​1; definition of 200 professionalisation of translators and interpreters, degree of 87 professional qualifications 86 professional T&I training: definition of 58; educational philosophy applied to 39; “pre-​specialization” phase of 119 professional translation, definition of 25 professional translators and interpreters: autonomy of 123; in China 16–​17, 75; definition of 17, 27, 32; educational system of 75; failed 108; inter-​ discipline 17–​19; legal protection for 92–​3; legitimacy of 84; linguistic and extralinguistic knowledge 75–​6; non-​professional 87; professional ethics 106; social recognition of 84; social status of 34, 85; T&I curriculum 16 programme evaluation and individual assessment 61 providers 83 psycho-​linguistics and cognitive studies 126 psycho-​motor abilities 127 psycho-​motor skills, of reading and writing 127 Pym, A. 115, 138

Index  215 quality assessment 163; of professional interpreters 93, 95, 97, 168 quality assessors 167 quality assurance 7, 83, 97, 134 quality control 111, 122, 126 real-​world knowledge 128 receivers 83 reconstructionist educators 38 religious translation 27, 39, 202 research competence 130 retour interpreting 65, 160, 163, 207; China’s participation in world affairs through 161; of Chinese into English 165; cognitive overload in 184; effectiveness of 165; English-​Polish retour interpreters 165; in the EU institutions 161; need for 161; quality of 167; question of 158–​9; in the Spanish market 162; viability of 164 retour training 150, 194, 207; Chinese-​ English 168–​71; in the context of curriculum improvement 160–​7; didactic status quo and technological improvement 163–​7; educational bureaucracy and professional associations 160–​1; implications of 155, 157; international cooperation on 155–​6; A language practitioner-​ trainers 168; market reality 161–​3; political support 160; research findings in 167–​8; speech repositories in 167 reverse translation 160–​1 rudimentary training 47 salami technique 112, 181–​2, 190 Sawyer’s curriculum sequencing 74 school curriculum, relation with learner’s development 38 school-​leaving certificate 6 science and technology, competences in 120 secondary education 38, 40, 202 secondary educational programmes 40 second-​language acquisition 5, 168 self-​evaluation, competence of 128 Shanghai International Studies University (SISU) 9, 150, 156 sight translation 65, 154–​5 sign-​language interpreting 88 SISU-​UNOG cooperation 156 skill acquisition, stages of 106 skills-​based curriculum 76

skills-​based progression 74 Skopostheorie (skopos theory) 4, 24–​6, 93, 105 social inequality, to migration-​related issues 7 social justice 50–1, 58, 72, 121 social recognition, of professional interpreters 84 social status, of professional interpreters 85 socio-​economic inter-​penetration 164 sociology of professions, in T&I programmes 105; codes of conduct 92; codes of ethics 92; definition of 89–​93; in European Union 87; as full-​time profession 86; historical and ethnographical perspectives in 88–​9; qualities and competences 86; self-​ perceived 88; stakeholder relations 93–​8; theory of 87; traits of 88; in translation studies 86–​8; Tseng’s model of 94 source-​language knowledge 114 specialised competence 121, 141, 204, 205 specialised translation 7, 18, 23, 24, 129 stakeholders: agencies and technology providers 206; analysis for the translation process 83; analysis in T&I curriculum 81–​6; clientele 206; competence-​based 77, 150; composition of network 77; conflicts of interest among 206; construction of network in interpreter education 84; cooperation in T&I training 97; curriculum deliberation model 70; in curriculum development and improvement 70; definition of 69; deliberation model for curriculum improvement 203; educational bureaucracy 205; framework of the sociology of professions 85–​6; importance of 81; interpreter trainers 205; in interpreter training 83–​5, 88; legitimising of 81–​6; level of curriculum goals 71; needs assessments 72; participation in T&I education 82; political authorities 206; professional associations 206; professional interpreters 206; researchers 205; sources of change 69–​72; in T&I curriculum improvement 81; in T&I

216 Index training 72; in the translation process 82; types of 83 strategic competence: development of 127; Massey’s definition of 126 strategic sub-​competence 111–​12, 118, 125–​8, 132, 141, 168–​9, 204 stress management 112, 127, 135 student-​centred teaching paradigm 6, 69 student-​centred training approaches 40 students’ feedback, use in improvement of curriculum goals and instructional objectives 64 sub-​competences: bilingual 124; composition of 121–​39; development of 113; of knowledge of translation 134; in language abilities 123–​5; PACTE Project and the EMT framework 121–​3; professional ethics 132–​9; strategic 125–​8; subject matter knowledge 128–​30; technological 130; theoretical 131–​2 subject matter knowledge 42, 59, 107, 109, 128–​30, 141, 204 super-​competence, summation of 115 supranational curriculum 10 systematic training and research 2 target-​language knowledge 114 target language, retrieval of equivalences in 164 teacher-​learner relationship 37 teaching translation and interpreting, development of 6, 8 team forming 63 technical development model 65 technical translation 23 technological development 123, 157, 167, 204 technological innovation 43 technological know-​how 130–​1, 141, 168, 204 technological sub-​competence 130 teleological ethics, of professional interpreting 138 tertiary education 5, 34, 48, 51, 120, 202, 203; in Europe 8 tertiary educational institution 150 tertiary educational programmes 39, 129 thematic competence 126, 128 theoretical sub-​competence 131–​2, 141, 204 top-​down education reform 7 training, in academic institutions 5

trait approach 96 TransComp project 126, 131 translation: agencies 70, 95–​7; brief 25, 27, 93, 94, 125, 133, 138, 201, 205–​6; concept of 73; norms of 19, 21, 22, 24, 27, 77, 81–​4, 87, 94, 96, 98, 110, 132, 192, 200, 203; process of 82; quality assessment and criticism 84; theories of 42 translational action, notion of 25 translational competence 114–​15 translation and interpreting (T&I) competence 72–​6; composition of 117; in foreign language acquisition 116; Pym’s minimalist approach to 73 translation and interpreting (T&I) education: curriculum-​level 36; curriculum sequence in 43–​4; demand-​driven development of 94; practical modalities and constraints in 43 translation and interpreting, practice-​ oriented discipline of 67 translation and interpreting (T&I) programme 1; academic level of 42; as an educational act 32–​4; in China 8–​10; CIUTI’s evaluation of 124; curriculum development model for 60; curriculum planning for 9, 27, 117; curriculum studies’ framework in 45; demand-​oriented 2; development of 8, 117; educational outcome of 50; educational philosophy of 38; in Europe 4; future development of 34; groups of 3; institutionalisation of 3; outcome of 39; technical model of 33; university-​based 5 translation and interpreting (T&I) teaching 67 translation competence 6, 125; defined 137; PACTE group on 18; versus translator competence 114; using neurocognitive methods 18; Wilss’ four notions of 114 translation ethics 134–​6, 139 translation performance, normative evaluation of 22 translation school 50 translation studies: development of 50; interdisciplinary nature of 200 translation studies, equivalence and norms in: Holmes’ overview of 43; literature and linguistics 19–​23;

Index  217 market demand 23–​4; Nord’s didactic approach to 22, 43; skopos theory 24–​6 translator competence 114, 206; acquisition of 6; compartmentalisation of 115; concept of 73; defined 115; versus interpreter competence 108–​14; Kiraly’s model of 116; need and situational analysis of 73 Translators Association of China (TAC) 10, 91, 92 translator’s super-​competence, definition of 115 translator training 50; curriculum studies on 109; effectiveness of 60 transnational managerial process 8 Tseng’s model, of sociology of professions 94 Tuning Project 73; definition of competence 74 Tyler Rationale 45 Übersetzungsauftrag, German concept of 25 undergraduate translation courses, competence model for 118 United Nations (UN): language posts, publicity of 156; long-​term need for qualified interpreters 156; Memoranda of Understanding 156; MoU network

83, 156; Office at Geneva (UNOG) 156; Official Document System 156; remote internships with 156; Training Programme for Interpreters and Translators 150–​1, 155, 207; Web TV 156 university-​based T&I training 2–​3 university education: EHEA reform 66; in Poland 66 university faculties, evaluation system of 161 university-​level translation 117 University of Heidelberg, Germany 4 university training programmes 2, 24, 50, 94 value-​embedded sub-​competences 116 verbal intelligence and fluency 127 vocational training 5, 34, 66, 75, 90, 203 word-​processing software, use of 69 Xiamen University, China 9 Xi Jinping 160 youth employability 72 zhuanye translators and interpreters 16, 59